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Educaiion  commences  at  ihe  mothers  knee, 
and  every  word  spoken  wHhin  the  hear- 
ing of  Utile  children  tends  todoards  the 
formation  of  character  — Ballou 


L?t:#^:i-wi?«»^^;;»?.»;;?«#<«i»:v^?i?i«»: 


nwjvttitH.aAsu^>wotH>s^^^ 


WfSi%^\f:;v^myxy»v^ymVM'^!:m^ 


1,      :       .VT^i^^J.  .0.  J! 


-T^ff/.f^l  Ovo  ^v?  e^  aV*  oV*  «V*  «U*  <J»o  0^*  0*0 

!i''^-^      T      T      T      T      T     T     T     *0'     T     T 
TT^-^^if     ^i^     tic'     'ii,"     '^i,-'     tir'     Vf     *t^     t-ir 


Knox£)ledge  is  of  /&X)  kinds.  (s)e  know  a 
subject  ourselves,  or  i£ie  know  where 
we  can  find  information  upon  it. 

—  Samuel  Johnson 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2010 


http://www.archive.org/details/americaneducator08fost 


COMPLETELY  REMODELLED  JINDJR^WRJJTENFRQM  OI^l&IN/fL 

TEXT  OF  THE  NEC^  PRACTICAL  l^FER^NCE  LIBK^l^,     WITH 

NEZsJ.PL^NS^im  ADDITIONAL  MATEH^ls 


ELLSWOB^H  RFOSTEI{J.LB.. 

EDITOP^  IN '  QHIEF 

EDITOJ^  THE  WOF(LD  BOOK^;  AUTHOB^CYCLOPEDM  OF  CW/L 

^eOVEH^MENT 


JAMES  LTIUGHLIN  HUGHES 

EDITOI{JO\CANArA 
MITHOI{^ANP FOP^E\CHIEF INSPECTOP^F  SCHOOLS, TOFQNTO 


^^^^i^^^^^T" 


PEACE  EDITION 


IN  EIGHT  VOLUMES 


Copyright.  1919 
KAN'SON-BELLOWS  PUBLISHING  COMPAN? 


VOLUME   EIGHT 


riURKEY,  the  name  of  a 
decadent  empire,  which 
went  down  to  defeat  with 
Gennany  in  the  World 
War,  and  suffered  the 
well-deserved  fate  of  dis- 
memberment. No  voices 
were  raised  to  plead  the 
i-ause  of  Turkey  when  it 
sent  its  envoys  to  the 
peace  conference.  Crimes 
against  its  subject  peo- 
ples which  no  other  na- 
tion in  history  has  dupli- 
cated turned  humanity 
against  the  dying  monar- 
chy, whose  history  has 
been  a  series  of  adven- 
tures in  oppression,  cor- 
ruption and  misrule. 
A  Disappearing  Empire.  The  Turkey  with 
which  the  present  generation  is  familiar  was 
known  as  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  was  so 
called  from  Othman,  or  Osman,  its  founder, 
who,  about  the  year  1300,  reared  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  in  Asia  Minor  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  Seljuk  Turkish  Power.  His 
followers  were  a  tribe  that  had  swarmed  out 
of  Central  Asia  about  fifty  years  before. 

The  spirit  of  conquest  was  strong  in  these 
early  Ottoman  Turks,  and  gradually  they 
subjugated  the  Armenian  peoples,  absorbed 
the  dependencies  of  the  Eastern  Roman,  or 
Byzantine  Empire,  and  fought  their  way  into 
South  Central  Europe,  and  Africa.  In  the 
sixteenth  centurj',  when  the  power  of  the 
Ottoman  Turk  was  at  its  height,  the  empire 
included  Arabia  and  the  Asiatic  posessions 
of  the  fallen  Byzantine  Empire,  including 
Constantinople;  Macedonia,  Greece,  Albania, 
Serbia,  the  provinces  that  became  modem 
Rumania,  Bulgaria,  the  Greek  Mediten-anean 
islands,  Syria,  Tripoli  and  Egypt.  The  Ot- 
tomans even  gained  a  foothold  in  Hungary 
and  in  Italy,  but  in  the  seventeenth  eentui-y 
the  tide  began  to  turn  against  them,  and  after 
1683,  when  John  Sobieski  of  Poland  raised 
the  siege  of  Vienna,  they  were  gradually 
pushed  out  of  Europe.  One  by  one  the 
European  provinces  of  Turkey  gained  their 


229 


independence  and  became  free  nations  or 
were  absorbed  by  other  European  powers.  In 
1912  Italy  by  a  successful  war  wrested  Trip- 
oli from  Turkey,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
Balkan  Wars,  in  1913,  the  empire  was  shorn 
of  all  its  European  holdings  except  Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople,  a  small  section  ad- 
joining these  cities  and  a  few  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

Then  came  the  World  War.  Even  with 
the  losses  it  had  suffered  in  1914  the  Turkish 
Empire  at  that  time  covered  mors  than  710,- 
000  square  miles  of  territory,  exclusive  of 
Egypt,  where  the  sultan  still  exercised  nomi- 
nal authority. 

Changes  During  the  World  War.  Early 
in  the  World  War  the  British  annexed  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  and  in  1915  declared 
Egypt  a  British  protectorate.  In  1916  the 
people  of  Hedjaz,  a  narrow  strip  of  ten-i- 
tory  in  Arabia,  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea, 
revolted  and  set  up  an  independent  kingdom ; 
this  state  has  an  area  of  96,500  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  300,000.  In  1917  Pales- 
tine was  captured  by  the  British,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  war  all  of  Syria  was  under  allied 
control,  Mesopotamia  fell  into  British  hands 
in  1917,  and  when  Turkey  surrendered  in 
the  fall  of  1918  the  allies  gained  control  of 
the  remainder  of  the  Ottoman  domain. 

Turkey  Dismembered.  The  only  section 
of  the  old  empire  which  is  dominantly  Turk- 
ish is  the  peninsula  at  the  western  extremity 
of  Asia,  known  as  Asia  Minor,  or  Anatolia. 
This  territory  is  between  193,000  and  200,- 
000  square  miles  in  extent,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  10,000,000.  It  is  composed  of 
the  vilaj-ets  (provinces)  of  Brussa,  Smyi-na, 
Konia,  Angora,  Adana,  Sivas,  Trebizond  and 
Rastamuni.  There  are  also  two  small  sub- 
divisions, Ismid  and  Bigha.  According  to 
the  principle  of  self-determination  of  peoples, 
it  was  genei-ally  agreed  by  the  allies  that  most 
of  this  nucleus  of  the  old  empire  should  re- 
main under  Turkish  control,  but  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  other  parts  of  the  domain  oc- 
casioned much  discussion. 

The  following  program  may  be  regarded 
as  typical  of  the  plans  proposed:  That 
Turkey  in  Europe,  excepting  Constantinople, 


3649 


TURKEY 


3650 


TURKEY 


be  divided  between  Greece  and  Bulgaria; 
that  Constantinople  be  left  under  the  nomi- 
nal suzerainty  of  the  sultan  (in  recognition 
of  the  religious  feelings  of  the  Mohammedans 
throughout  the  world),  but  that  it  be  con- 
trolled directly  by  an  international  commis- 
sion; that  various  sections  of  Arabia  be 
united  into  an  Arab  state  under  the  rule  of 
the  king  of  Hedjaz,  whose  alliance  with  the 
allies  foiled  the  kaiser's  plan  of  starting  a 
holy  war  of  the  Mohammedans;  that  the  is- 
lands off  the  west  coast  of  Anatolia  be  ceded 
to  Greece;  that  Armenia  be  an  independent 


would  be  settled  by  the  League  of  Nations 
when  it  began  functioning. 

Turkey  and  Its  People.  The  discussion 
which  follows  is  restricted  to  the  genuinely 
Turkish  portion  of  the  old  empire,  namely, 
Anatolia,  or  Asia  Minor.  (For  descriptive 
matter  on  the  various  parts  of  the  former 
domain,  see  Armenia^  Arabia,  Palestine^ 
Stria,  Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  etc.)  A7ia- 
tolia  is  derived  from  Greek  words  meaning 
to  rise,  a  word  chosen  with  reference  to  the 
elevated  surface,  and  is  the  modern  name 
for  Asia  Minor.     The  country  includes  the 


AFRICA 


TURKEY  OF  THE  FUTURE 
The  black  area  in  Asia  represents  the  only  territory  left   under  the   undisputed   sway   of 
the  sultan;  the  black  area  in  Europe  may  be  separated  entirely  from  the  realm  of  Turkey; 
that    question    is    to    be    determined    by    the  league  of  nations.     The  heavy  boundary  line 
marks  the  limits  of  the  empire  in  1914. 


state  under  the  guardianship  of  one  of  the 
allies,  preferably  America ;  that  Palestine  be 
a  separate  state  under  British  or  internation- 
al protection;  that  Syria  be  made  a  French 
protectorate,  and  that  Mesopotamia  be  inde- 
pendent, but  under  British,  protection. 

Certain  sections  of  Anatolia  along  the  coast 
were  claimed  by  Greece,  Italy  and  France. 
The  final  decision  on  these  points  and  on 
the  exact  boundaries  of  the  various  states 
to  be  erected  had  not  been  reached  when 
the  peace  treaty  with  Germany  was  signed; 
it  seemed  probable  that  many  of  the  points 


peninsula  boimded  by  the  Armenian  high- 
lands on  the  east,  Syria  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  south,  the  Aegaen  Sea  on  the 
west,  and  the  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora on  the  north.  In  the  interior  the  land 
is  a  series  of  plateaus,  having  an  average 
elevation  of  3,000  feet.  Near  the  Mediter- 
ranean seacoast  these  uplands  suddenly  sink 
to  the  narrow  belt  of  level  land  called  the 
Levant.  The  plateaus  are  nearly  bare  of 
trees  and  are  interspersed  with  salt  plains, 
marshes  and  salty  lakes.  The  land  is  here 
best    adapted   for   grazing.     Under  irriga- 


TURKEY 


3651 


TURKEY 


tion,  however,  the  soil  is  productive.  The 
strips  of  seaeoast  on  the  west,  north  and 
south  are  fertile  and  bear  a  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, including  such  fruits  as  prunes, 
olives  and  figs.  Farming  is  practiced  in  the 
interior  with  considerable  toil,  and  grains, 
cotton  and  tobacco  are  raised.  Silk  culture 
also  receives  attention. 

The  plateau  is  bordered  on  the  north  by  a 
series  of  parallel  mountains  which  run  the 
whole  length  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  great- 
est elevation,  in  the  extreme  east,  is  12,000 
feet.  On  the  south  is  the  Taurus  range,  fol- 
lowing the  Mediten'anean  coast,  and  having 
many  peaks  over  10,000  feet  in  height.  These 
mountains  are  rich  in  minerals,  but  the  mines 
have  as  yet  been  little  developed.  The 
mineral  deposits  of  Anatolia  include  coal, 
lead,  manganese,  iron,  gold,  salt  and  petro- 
leum, and  they  offer  a  promising  field  for 
capitalists  when  normal  conditions  return. 

In  Anatolia,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  old 
Turkish  domain,  industry  has  long  been  in 
a  backward  state.  The  rural  population 
which  lives  chiefly  by  farming  and  sheep 
raising,  has  suffered  from  misgovemment, 
lack  of  transportation  facilities  ignorance 
and  extortion  of  tax  officials.  Manufactur- 
ing in  the  modern  sense  is  almost  unknown, 
but  Turkish  artisans  show  great  skill  in  pro- 
ducing copper  and  brass  utensils,  and,  espe- 
cially, hand-woven  rugs.  Cloth,  olive  oil 
and  soap  are  made  in  limited  quantities. 

The  Turkish  peasants  are  naturally  pa- 
tient, hospitable  and  kind-hearted;  it  is  the 
i;nscrupulous  deeds  of  the  ruling  classes  that 
have  given  rise  to  the  feeling  in  Western  na- 
tions expressed  in  the  term,  the  "Unspeak- 
able Turk."  The  Turkish  people  are  all 
Mohammedans  in  religion,  and  are  devoted 
followers  of  the  Prophet.  They  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  old  empire,  both  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  are  nowhere  numerically 
dominant  except  in  Asia  Minor.  In  the  cities 
Greeks,  Jews  and  Armenians  are  impor- 
tant in  commercial  life,  but  Turks  have  po- 
litical control.  Nomadic  Turkomans,  who 
are  racially  akin  to  the  Turks,  are  found  in 
the  rural  districts  in  large  numbers.  The 
chief  cities  include  Smyrna,  Scutari,  Brussa, 
Adana,  Trebizond  and  Adalia. 

History  of  the  Empire.  The  Ottoman 
Turks  came  originally  from  the  region  of 
the  Altai  Mountains,  in  central  Asia,  and  in 
the  sixth  century  A.  d.  they  pushed  onward 
to  the  west,  in  connection  with  other  Turkish 


tribes.  Early  in  the  eighth  century  they 
came  in  contact  with  the  Saracens,  from 
whom  they  took  their  religion,  and  of  whom 
they  were  at  first  the  slaves  and  mercenaries. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  they  appeared  as 
allies  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  against  the 
Mongols,  and  for  their  aid  they  received  a 
grant  of  lands  in  Asia  Minor.  Othman  or 
Osman,  the  son  of  their  leader,  Ertogrul,  be- 
came the  most  powerful  emir  of  Western 
Asia,  and  after  the  death  of  the  Seljuk  sul- 
tan of  Iconium  in  the  year  1300,  he  pro- 
claimed himself  sultan.  Thus  was  founded, 
upon  the  ruins  of  the  Saracen,  Seljuk  and 
Mongol  power,  the  Empire  of  the  Osman,  or 
Ottoman  Turks,  in  Asia.  After  Osman,  the 
corn-age,  policy  and  enterjDrise  of  eight  great 
princes,  whom  the  dignity  of  caliph  placed 
in  possession  of  the  standard  of  the  prophet, 
and  who  were  animated  by  religious  fa- 
naticism and  a  passion  for  military  glory, 
raised  the  Empire  to-  the  rank  of  the  first 
military  power,  in  both  Europe  and  Asia 
(1300-1566). 

Period  of  Expansion.  The  first  of  these 
princes  was  Orkhan,  son  of  Osman.  He 
subdued  all  Asia  Minor  to  the  Hellespont  and 
was  the  first  to  organize  the  Turkish  power. 
Orkhan's  son,  Soliman,  first  invaded  Europe 
in  1355.  In  1361  Orklian's  second  son  and 
successor,  Amurath  I,  took  Adrianople,  which 
became  the  seat  of  the  empire  in  Europe,  and 
he  later  conquered  Macedonia,  Albania  and 
Serbia  and  defeated  a  great  Slav  confedera- 
tion, under  the  Bosnian  king  Stephen,  at 
Kossovo.  Bajazet  (ruler  from  1389  to  1402) 
invaded  Thessaly  and  advanced  toward  Con- 
stantinople. In  1396  he  defeated  the  West- 
em  Christians  under  Sigismund,  king  of 
Hungary,  at  Nicopolis,  in  Bulgaria;  but  at 
Angora,  in  1402,  he  was  himself  conquered 
and  taken  prisoner  by  Timur,  who  divided 
the  provinces  between  the  sons  of  Bajazet. 
Finally,  in  1413,  the  fourth  son  of  Bajazet, 
Mohammed  I,  seated  himself  upon  the  throne 
of  Osman.  Mohammed  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Amurath  II  (1421-1451),  who  defeated 
Ladislas,  king  of  Hungary  and  Poland,  at 
Varna  in  1444.  Mohammed  II,  the  son  of 
Amurath,  completed  the  work  of  conquest 
(1451-1481).  He  attacked  Constantinople, 
which  was  taken  on  May  29,  1453,  and  the 
Byzantine  Empire  came  to  an  end.  After 
that  time  Constantinople  was  the  seat  of  the 
Sublime  Porte,  or  Turkish  government. 
Mohammed  added   Serbia,   Bosnia,  Albania 


TURKEY 


3652 


TURKEY 


and  Greece  to  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and 
threatened  Italy,  which  was  freed  from  dan- 
ger by  his  death.  His  grandson,  Selim  I 
(Sultan  from  1512  to  1520),  conquered 
Egypt  and  Syria.  Under  Solyman  II  (1520- 
1566),  the  Ottoman  Empire  reached  the 
highest  pitch  of  power  and  splendor,  but 
after  his  time,  the  race  of  Osman  degenerated, 
and  the  power  of  the  Porte  declined. 

Period  of  Decline.  During  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century  and  most  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  chief  wars  which 
Turkey  waged  were  with  Venice  and  with 
Austria.  The  Battle  of  Lepanto  in  1571,  in 
which  the  Ottoman  fleet  was  overthrown  by 
the  combined  fleets'  of  Venice  and  Spain,  was 
the  first  great  Ottoman  reverse  at  sea;  and 
the  Battle  of  Saint  Gotthard,  in  1664,  in 
which  Montecuccoli  defeated  the  Vizier  Kiup- 
rili,  the  first  great  Ottoman  reverse  on  land. 
In  1683  Vienna  was  besieged  by  the  Turks, 
but  it  was  relieved  by  John  Sobieski,  and  in 
1697  the  Turks  were  defeated  at  Zenta  by  the 
Austrians  under  Prince  Eugene.  Two  years 
after  this  defeat,  the  Peace  of  Karlowitz  was 
signed,  by  which  Turkey  agreed  to  renounce 
its  claims  upon  Transylvania  and  a  large  part 
of  Hungary,  to  give  up  the  Morea  to  the 
Venetians,  to  restore  the  Ukraine  to  Poland 
and  to  leave  Azov  to  the  Russians.  Eugene's 
subsequent  victories  at  Peterwardein  and  Bel- 
grade obliged  the  Porte,  by  the  Treaty  of  Pas- 
sarowitz,  in  1718,  to  give  up  Belgrade,  with 
a  part  of  Serbia  and  Wallachia;  but  the 
Turks,  on  the  other  hand,  took  the  Morea 
from  Venice,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade, 
in  1739,  they  regained  Belgrade,  Serbia  and 
Little  Wallachia,  while  for  a  time  they  also 
regained  Azov. 

Russia,  which  had  been  making  steady 
advances  under  Peter  the  Great  and  subse- 
quently, now  became  the  great  opponent  of 
Turkey.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  Ottoman  Empire  still  embraced 
a  large  part  of  southern  Russia.  The  vic- 
tories of  the  Russians  in  the  war  between 
1736  and  1744  determined  the  political  supe- 
riority of  Russia,  and  compelled  Turkey  to 
renounce  all  sovereignty  over  the  Crimea, 
to  yield  to  Russia  the  country  between  the 
Bog  and  the  Dnieper  and  to  open  its  seas  to 
the  Russian  merchant  ships.  By  the  Peace 
of  Jassy,  1792,  which  closed  the  war  of  1787- 
1791,  Russia  retained  Tauride  and  the  coun- 
try between  the  Bug  and  the  Dniester  and 
gained  some  accessions  in  the  Caucasus. 


In  the  long  series  of  wars  which  followed 
the  French  Revolution,  the  Ottoman  Empire 
was  first  opposed  to  France,  in  consequence 
of  Bonaparte's  campaign  in  Egypt,  and  later 
to  Russia,  which  demanded  a  more  distinct 
recognition  of  its  protectorate  over  the 
Christians.  By  the  Peace  of  Bucharest  in 
1812,  Turkey  ceded  to  Russia  the  country  be- 
tween the  Dniester  and  the  Pruth.  Further 
disputes  ended  in  the  Porte  making  addi- 
tional concessions,  which  tended  toward 
loosening  the  connection  of  Serbia,  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  with  Turkey.  In  1821  the 
war  of  Greek  independence  broke  out.  In 
1826  the  massacre  of  the  Janizaries  took 
place  at .  Constantinople,  after  a  revolt.  In 
1828  the  Russians  crossed  the  Balkans  and 
took  Adrianople,  the  war  being  terminated 
by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople  in  1829.  In  1831 
Mehemet  Ali,  nominally  pasha  of  Egypt,  but 
real  ruler  both  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  levied 
war  against  his  sovereign  and  threatened 
Constantinople;  but  the  Russians,  who  had 
been  called  on  for  aid  by  the  sultan,  forced 
the  invaders  to  desist.  In  1839  Mehemet  Ali 
again  rose  against  his  sovereign ;  but  through 
the  active  intervention  of  Austria,  Great 
Britain  and  Russia,  he  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  Syria,  though  he  was  recognized  as 
hereditary  viceroy  of  Egypt. 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  was  the  Crimean  War. 
In  1875  the  people  of  Herzegovina,  unable  to 
endure  longer  the  misgovemment  of  the 
Turks,  broke  into  rebellion.  A  year  later  the 
Serbians  and  Montenegrins  likewise  took  up 
arms,  and  though  the  former  were  unsuccess- 
ful and  obliged  to  abandon  the  war,  the 
Montenegrins  still  held  out.  Meantime,  the 
great  powers  of  Europe  were  pressing  re- 
forms on  Turkey,  and  at  the  end  of  1876  a 
conference  met  at  Constantinople,  with  the 
view  of  making  a  fresh  settlement  of  the 
relations  between  Turkey  and  the  Christian 
provinces.  All  the  recommendations  of  the 
conference  were,  however,  rejected  by  Tur- 
key; and  in  April  following,  Russia,  which 
had  been  coming  more  and  more  prominently 
forward  as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed 
provinces  and  had  for  months  been  massing 
troops  on  both  the  Asiatic  and  the  European 
frontier  of  Turkey,  issued  a  warlike  mani- 
festo and  commenced  hostile  operations  in 
both  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  The 
final  settlement  of  this  war  was  effected  by 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin. 


TURKEY 


3653 


TURKEY 


The  main  events  in  the  history  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  from  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  to  the 
year  1890  were  the  treaty  with  Greece,  ex- 
ecuted under  pressure  of  the  great  powers  in 
1881,  by  which  Turkey  ceded  to  Greece  al- 
most the  whole  of  Thessaly  and  a  strip  of 
Epirus;  the  occupation  of  Egypt  by  Great 
Britain  in  1882,  and  the  revolution  at  Philip- 
popolis  in  1885,  when  the  government  of 
Eastern  Rumelia  was  overthrown,  and  the 
union  of  that  province  with  Bulgaria  was 
proclaimed.  In  July,  1894,  Constantinople 
was  visited  by  a  series  of  earthquakes,  which 
lasted  eight  days,  two  or  more  occuring  each 
day.  Great  damage  was  done  to  the  city  and 
surrounding  country,  and  hundreds  of  peo- 
ple were  killed. 

For  a  number  of  decades  the  Turkish 
government  had  frequent  revolts  to  deal  with. 
The  massacres  occasioned  by  these  uprisings 
aroused  the  sympathy  of  America  and 
Europe,  but  the  European  powers  would  not 
interfere  because  it  was  believed  that  such 
interference  might  cause  a  general  upheaval 
in  Europe.  In  July,  1908,  the  Young  Turks 
succeeded  in  a  revolution  which  compelled 
the  sultan  to  grant  a  constitution.  The  first 
Parliament  under  this  constitution  met  in 
1909.  In  April  the  troops  in  Constantinople 
revolted  against  the  Young  Turks,  but  troops 
from  the  countiy  near  by  rushed  to  the 
capital,  and  gained  control  of  the  city.  Abdul 
Hamid  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  his 
younger  brother,  Mohammed  Rechad  Effendi, 
ascended  the  throne  with  the  title  of  Mehmed, 
or  Mohammed,  V.  In  1912  Turkey  lost 
Tripoli  to  Italy,  resulting  from  a  war  of 
aggression  on  the  part  of  the  latter.  Hardly 
had  peace  been  arranged  between  Italy  and 
Turkey,  when  war  against  Turkey  was  de- 
clared by  the  allied  Balkan  states.  After 
several  months  of  warfare  the  European 
powers  interfered  to  end  the  struggle,  and 
on  May  30,  1913,  Turkey  accepted  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  London.  In  October,  1914, 
Turkish  warships  bombarded  the  Russian 
port  of  Odessa,  probably  as  the  result  of  an 
agreement  with  Germany.  This  act,  after 
reparation  was  refused,  was  accepted  by 
Russia  and  its  allies  as  a  cause  for  war. 

The  World  War  and  Its  Effects.  The 
military  operations  of  Turkey  are  related 
in  detail  in  the  article  World  War.  The 
chief  blot  on  Turkey's  conduct  in  the 
struggle  was  the  mistreatment  of  the  Ar- 
menians, nearly  two  million  of  whom  were 


massacred  or  were  deported,  as  a  result  of 
which  large  numbers  perished  of  starvation 
and  exhaustion  (see  Armenia,  for  report  of 
American  Relief  Committee).  Germany's  tacit 
acquiescence  in  this  deplorable  policy  was 
widely  condemned,  and  had  much  to  do  with 
turning  American  sympathy  toward  the  al- 
lied cause.  The  chief  instigator  of  the  mas- 
sacres, Talaat  Paslia,  resigned  his  office  of 
Grand  Vizier  in  October,  1918,  when  Turkey 
surrendered  to  the  allies,  and  the  Ottoman 
Empire  came  to  an  end.  Later  an  attempt 
was  made  to  bring  Talaat  Pasha  and  his 
accomplices  to  justice,  but  it  was  reported 
that  they  had  escaped  and  that  their  where- 
abouts were  unknown.  Late  in  1918  Mo- 
hammed V  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Mohammed  VI,  who  was  reported  to  be 
friendly  to  the  allies.  Conditions  through- 
out the  old  Turkish  domain  were  very  un- 
settled for  a  long  period  after  the  armistice. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles    for    additional    information : 

CITIES 

Adrianople  Smyrna 

Constantinople  Trebizond 

FORMER  DEPENDECIES 

Arabia  Mesopotamia 

Armenia  Palestine 

Eg-ypt  Syria 

Kurdistan  Yemen 

HISTORY 

Abd-ul-Hamid  Gallipoli 

Balance  of  Power  Mohammed   V 

Balkan   Wars  Russia 

Berlin,  Congress  of  Russo-Turkish  War 

Bosporus  Seljuks 

Byzantine  Empire  Solyman  II 

Crimean    War  World  War 
Dardanelles 

TURKEY,  a  large  game  bird  of  the 
pheasant  family,  native  to  North  America. 
There  are  only  two  species;  one  is  found  in 
Yucatan  and  Central  America,  and  the  other 
is  the  common  wild  turkey  of  Mexico  and  the 
United  States.  The  wild  turkey  is  a  tall, 
handsome  bird,  the  full-grown  male  weigh- 
ing from  ten  to  twenty-five  poimds.  The 
brilliant  plumage  has  copper,  bronze  and 
green  reflections.  The  head  and  neck  are 
bare  of  feathers.  The  male,  which  is  larger 
than  the  female,  has  a  tuft  of  bristly  feathers 
hanging  from  its  breast.  These  birds  feed 
on  insects,  seeds,  berries  and  other  small 
fruits.  The  nests  are  placed  on  the  ground, 
and  the  eggs,  twice  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 
are  creamy  white.  One  brood,  usually  con- 
sisting of  about  twelve,  is  reared  a  season. 
A  second  brood  is  raised  only  in  case  the 
first  comes  to  grief.  The  birds  are  becom- 
ing   rapidly    exterminated.      The    domestic 


TURKEY  BUZZARD 


3654 


TURNVEREIN 


turkey,  which  is  derived  from  the  Mexican 
wild  turkey,  is  less  brilliantly  colored.  Tur- 
keys require  about  the  same  care  as  chickens. 
See  Game,  color  plate. 

TURKEY  BUZ'ZARD,  or  TURKEY 
VULTURE,  the  commonest  of  American 
vultures,  so  named  because  at  a  distance  it 
resembles  a  turkey  in  appearance.  The 
turkey  buzzard  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet 
long,  and  its  wings  extend  to  about  six  feet 
in  breadth.  It  lives  in  most  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  United  States  and  extends  its 
habitat  through  Mexico  and  South  America. 
See  Vulture. 

TURKS,  a  race  of  Mongolo-Talei  origin, 
widely  disseminated  throughout  Western  and 
Northwestern  Asia  and  Southeastern  Eu- 
rope. They  are  divided  into  the  Ottoman 
Turks,  Turkomans,  Kirghizes,  Usbecks,  Ya- 
kuts and  other  tribes.  The  Ottoman  Turks 
developed  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  commanding 
militai-y  and  political  power,  but  have  since 
greatly  declined. 

TUR'MERIC,  an  aromatic  plant,  native  to 
Southern  Asia;  also  a  yellow  dye  prepared 
from  its  roots.  Turmeric  is  used  as  a  condi- 
ment in  the  Orient,  being  an  important  in- 
gredient in  curry  powder.  It  is  also  useful 
in  chemistry,  in  making  test  papers. 

TURN'ER,  Joseph  Mallard  "William 
(1775-1851),  an  English  landsca,pe  painter, 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy,  first  cele- 
brated as  a  landscape  painter  in  water 
colors  and  later  in  oils.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  he  exhibited  at 
the  Academy  more  than  two  hundred  pic- 
tures, easily  becoming  the  most  popular 
landscape  painter  of  the  English  school. 
His  works  claim  special  merit  because  of 
their  fine  coloring  effects.  Details  are  often 
wanting,  and  drawing  is  imperfect,  but  the 
idealistic  effect  is  unsurpassed.  During  the 
latter  period  of  his  work,  however,  he  fell 
into  a  vague  trifling  with  effects  of  light  and 
shade  and  color,  which  somewhat  lessened 
his  great  reputation.  He  bequeathed  most  of 
his  pictures  and  sketches  to  the  nation,  on 
condition  that  a  suitable  building  be  erected 
for  their  reception.  They  have  been  placed 
in  the  Turner  Gallery,  occupying  two  rooms 
in  the  National  Gallery  in  London.  Some 
of  his  most  noted  paintings  are  Slave  Ship; 
The  Fighting  Temeraire;  Rain,  Steam  and 
Speed  on  the  Great  Western  Railway;  Han- 
nibal and  His  Army  Crossing  the  Alps,  and 
The  Garden  of  the  Hesperides. 


TURNER,  Nat  (about  1800-1831),  an 
American  negro  slave,  born  in  Southampton 
County,  Va.,  who  from  earliest  childhood 
claimed  to  be  chosen  and  inspired  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  a  great  purpose.  In  1828, 
he  declared  that  at  a  certain  sign  he  would 
lead  an  insurrection  against  his  enemies.  In 
1831,  at  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  he  began  carry- 
ing out  this  plan  by  killing  five  members  of 
his  master's  family.  Joined  by  other  slave 
recruits,  he  continued  the  massacre  until 
every  person  in  the  neighborhood  had  been 
murdered.  On  the  following  day  the  insur- 
rection was  broken  up  by  a  band  of  white 
men  and  by  the  arrival  of  Federal  troops. 
Turner  was  captured  October  30  and  exe- 
cuted within  a  few  days.  The  insurrection, 
known  as  the  Nat  Turner  Insurrection,  re- 
sulted in  the  passage  of  stringent  laws  for 
the  management  and  punishment  of  slaves 
in  most  of  the  Southern  states. 

TUR'NIP,  a  biennial  plant  of  the  mustard 
family,  much  cultivated  on  account  of  its 
fleshy  root.  It  was  well  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  has  been  used  as  a  vegetable 
in  all  temperate  climates,  being  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale  in  same  countries  as  food  for 
stock.  Turnips  may  be  planted  succeeding 
the  harvest  of  a  crop  of  wheat  or  oats. 

TURN'STONE,  a  shore  bird  of  the  plover 
family,  with  pied  black  and  white  plumage. 


TURNSTONE 
varied  with  rufous  and  ash,  taking  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  turning  up  small  stones  in 
search  for  marine  worms,  minute  crustaceans, 
etc.,  for  food.  It  is  found  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  globe  during  migrations,  and 
breeds  on  rocky  coasts  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
cunningly  concealing  its  eggs,  four  in  num- 
ber, among  the  sparse  Arctic  vegetation. 

TURNVEREIN,  toorn'  fer  ine,  German 
athletic  organizations  first  established  by 
Friedrich  Ludwig  Jahn  about  the  beginning 
of  the  ninteenth  century,  and  exerting  an 


TURPENTINE 


3655 


TUSCALOOSA 


enormous  influence  in  building  up  a  vigorous 
and  hardy  German  population  after  the 
Napoleonic  wars.  In  America  tumvereins 
were  first  organized  by  German  refugees  in 
Philadelphia  and  Cincinnati,  in  1848.  They 
were  subsequently  extended  to  other  cities 
with  large  German  populations,  the  total 
membership  attaining  to  about  40,000. 

TUR'PENTINE,  the  distilled  gum  of  the 
pine  tree.  Turpentine  is  manufactured  by 
collecting  the  gum,  or  crude  turpentine,  from 
the  trees  and  distilling  it  in  copper  vessels. 
The  season  begins  when  the  first  spring  sap 
rises,  and  it  ends  when  winter  checks  the  flow 
of  the  sap.  In  Januai-y  or  February  the  trees 
are  hacked.  The  hacks  are  about  six  inches 
deep ;  they  are  cut  near  the  roots  of  the  tree, 
and  as  close  together,  to  the  height  of  a  man's 
head,  as  can  be  done  without  killing  the  pine. 
The  hacker  leaves  a  width  of  bark  between 
each  cut,  so  as  to  preserve  the  vitality  of  the 
tree.  The  sap  or  gum,  fills  the  cuts  with  a 
clear,  sticky,  thick  fluid,  and  this  is  removed 
with  a  dipper.  The  sap  is  deposited  in 
barrels,  which  are  scattered  through  the 
woods.  The  first  sap  which  flows  in  the 
spring  makes  the  best  resin,  and  the  poorest 
is  the  product  of  the  hardened  gum  which  is 
left  on  the  sides  of  the  cuts.  This  is  removed 
by  the  scraper,  who  moves  through  the  woods 
gathering  the  leavings. 

The  still  is  a  copper  vat,  hooded  with  a 
close-fitting,  air-tight  cover,  in  which  is  a 
funnel,  which,  in  turn,  is  connected  with  the 
worm  of  the  still  (see  Distillatiox).  This 
worm  runs  down  into  another  vat,  near  at 
hand,  and  in  this  vat  the  fumes,  or  vapor,  of 
the  heated  gum  are  distilled  into  turpentine. 
Fire  under  the  copper  vat  heats  the  gum,  and 
the  volatile  parts  rise  to  the  funnel,  pass 
into  the  still  and  are  condensed  by  the  water 
in  the  second  vat  into  spirits  of  turpentine. 
The  residuum  left  in  the  vat  is  the  rosin  of 
commerce,  which  is  passed  through  a  series 
of  strainers  and  sieves  to  the  barrels,  which 
are  made  on  the  sjiot.  The  turpentine  can- 
not be  barreled  so  easily,  for  it  will  work 
through  an  ordinary  barrel.  It  is  placed 
in  white  pine  barrels,  which  have  been  coated 
inside  with  several  coats  of  strong,  hot  glue, 
which  keeps  the  turpentine  from  soaking 
into  the  wood.  The  trees  are  worked  for  five 
or  six  seasons.  All  the  turpentines  dissolve 
in  pure  alcohol,  and  by  distillation  they  yield 
oils,  which  are  termed  spirits  of  turpentine. 
Oil,  or  spirits,  of  turpentine  is  used  to  a 


limited  extent  in  medicine.  It  is  also  much 
used  in  the  arts,  for  dissolving  resins  and  oils 
in  making  varnishes.    See  Resins;  Rosin. 

TURQUOISE,  tu/koiz,  a  precious  stone, 
of  beautiful  blue  or  green  color  due  to  the 
presence  of  copper.  It  is  capable  of  taking 
a  high  polish,  and  has  long  been  a  favorite 
gem  in  the  East,  especially  in  Persia,  where 
the  finest  specimens  are  found.  When  ex- 
posed to  fatty  acids,  the  tiu-quoise  loses  its 
color  and  turns  greenish,  thus  leading  to 
the  Oriental  superstition  that  its  dullness 
foretells  misfortune.  Bone  turquoise  is  an 
imitation  turquoise,  composed  of  fossil  bone 
colored  bj'  iron  phosphate. 

TUR'TLE,  a  name  given  to  reptiles  which 
differ  but  little  from  tortoises ;  in  fact,  turtle 
is  the  name  commonlj'^  given  to  both  genera. 
Turtles  are  found  in  all  the  seas  of  warm  cli- 
mates, and  the}'  feed  mostly  on  marine  plants. 
The  most  important  species  is  the  green  turtle, 
which  is  from  six  to  seven  feet  long  and 
weighs  from  700  to  800  pounds.  Its  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed  as  a  table  luxurj'. 

Mud  Turtle,  the  name  commonly  applied  to 
small  turtles  of  aquatic  habits  which  prowl 
about  the  mudd,v  bottoms  of  rivers  and  ponds 
in  search  of  food.  The  common  mud  turtle 
is  about  four  inches  long,  dull  olive  or  brown 
above  and  yellow  or  pale  brown  below.  Other 
species  include  the  Louisiana,  the  yellow- 
necked  and  the  Mexican. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following' 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Leatherback  Terrapin  Tortoise 

TURTLE  DOVE,  duv,  a  small  European 
pigeon,  pale  grayish-brown  in  color,  marked 
with  a  darker  hue  above  and  with  a  purple 
tinge  on  the  feathers  of  its  breast,  Its  cooing 
note  is  plaintive  and  tender.  Its  nest  is 
loosely  built  in  the  crotch  of  a  low  tree  or 
bush.  The  eggs  are  creamy-white,  and  are 
two  in  number.  The  similar  North  American 
species  is  known  as  the  mourning  dove. 

TUSCALOOSA,  tits  ka  loo' sah,  Ala.,  the 
county  seat  of  Tuscaloosa  County,  fifty-six 
miles  southwest  of  Birmingham,  on  the  Black 
"Warrior  River  and  on  the  Alabama  Great 
Southern,  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  and  the 
Mobile  &  Ohio  railroads.  The  city  is  in 
a  rich  cotton-growing  and  coal-mining 
region.  The  chief  industrial  establishments 
are  cotton  gins  and  compresses,  iron 
works,  lumber  and  flour  mills,  machine 
shops  and  creameries.  Extensive  improve- 
ments on   the  Black   Warrior  River   have 


TUSCANY 


3656 


TWEED 


opened  that  stream  to  navigation  and 
added  to  the  commercial  advantages  of  the 
city.  The  University  of  Alabama  is  just  a 
mile  north  of  the  city,  and  Tuscaloosa  Female 
College,  Alabama  Central  Female  College 
and  Verner  IVIilitary  Institute,  Stillman  In- 
stitute, Oak  City  Academy,  University  High 
School  and  the  state  insane  asylum  are  all 
located  here.  The  city  was  the  capital  of  the 
state  from  1826  to  1846,  and  the  old  capitol 
building  is  still  a  feature  of  interest.  The 
place  was  settled  in  1812  and  was  incor- 
porated four  3'ears  later.  The  commission 
form  of  government  was  adopted  in  1912. 
Population,  1910,  8,407;  in  1917,  10,824 
(Federal  estimate). 

TUSCANY,  tus'  ka  ni,  a  small  department 
or  province  of  Northern  Italy.  It  comprised 
ancient  Etruria,  and  the  Etrurians  (Etrus- 
cans) were  the  earliest  known  inhabitants  of 
the  peninsula.  They  became  subject  to  Rome 
in  the  fourth  century  B.  c.  During  the  period 
of  barbarian  migrations  they  were  overcome 
in  turn  by  the  Ostrogoths,  the  emperors  of 
Constantinople  and  the  Lombards.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  several  of  the  cities  of  Etruria, 
notably  Florence,  Pisa  and  Genoa,  became 
independent  and  prosperous,  and  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Florentine 
possessions  were  formed  into  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Tuscany.  From  1745  to  1859  Tus- 
cany was  under  the  rule  of  Germany;  in 
1861  it  became  by  vote  of  its  population  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Among  the  noted  names  of  natives  of  Tus- 
cany are  the  Medici,  Giotto,  Boccaccio,  Dante 
and  Petrarch.  The  dialect  of  Tuscany  be- 
came the  classical  language  of  Italy. 

TUSCARORA,  tus  ka  ro'  rah,  a  migrating 
Iroquoian  tribe,  which  finally  settled  in  New 
York  and  received  as  a  sixth  member  in 
the  confederacy.    See  Five  Nations,  The. 

TUSKEGEE,  tus  ke'ge,  NORMAL  AND 
INDUSTRIAL  INSTITUTE,  an  industrial 
school  for  negroes,  established  in  1881  by  the 
state  legislature  at  Tuskegee,  Ala.  It  began 
its  sessions  in  a  small  church,  and  the  thirty 
pupUs  were  all  taught  by  Booker  T.  Washing- 
ton. The  institution  has  enjoyed  wonderful 
prosperity,  and  now  owns  2,300  acres  of  land, 
scores  of  buildings  and  much  valuable  equip- 
ment. In  1918  a  fund  of  $7,000,000  was 
awarded  it  from  the  Russell  Sage  estate. 
There  are  about  1,600  students  and  a  faculty 
numbering  about  200.  Until  his  death  in 
1915,  Booker  T.  Washington  continued  as 


head  of  the  school,  and  to  him  is  due  much  of 
the  credit  for  its  marvelous  growth. 

The  object  of  the  institute  is  to  furnish 
its  students  with  an  education  fitting  them  to 
become  proper  leaders  of  the  people  of  their 
own  race,  and  thus  to  bring  about  better 
moral  and  material  conditions.  The  studies 
of  the  academic  department  are  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  practical  work  in  the  shops 
and  fields.  Instruction  and  practice  are  given 
in  mechanical  drawing,  engineering,  black- 
smithing,  brickmaking,  carpentry,  canning, 
founding,  harness  making,  carriage  trimming, 
mechanics,  painting,  printing,  milling,  shoe- 
making,  tinsmithing,  tailoring,  cari'iage  mak- 
ing, farming,  sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery, 
cooking,  laundering,  domestic  service,  mat- 
tress making,  basketry,  nursing  and  religious 
work.  Students  from  all  over  the  Union  and 
from  a  score  of  foreign  countries  are  in 
attendance.     See  Washington,  Booker  T. 

TUS'SOCK  MOTH,  a  family  of  moths 
named  from  the  tufts  of  hairs,  often  bright- 
colored,  appearing  in  the  caterpillars.  The 
moths  are  dull-colored,  and  the  females  of 
some  species  are  wingless.  Several  varieties 
of  this  moth  are  very  destructive  to  fruit, 
and  shade  trees,  and  forest  trees,  nota- 
ble among  these  being  the  gypsy  moth,  the 
hroiontail  moth  and  the  white-marked  tussock 
moth.  Of  the  latter  there  are  two  or  three 
generations  each  summer,  and  the  young 
cateriDillars  are  extremely  voracious.  Trees 
are  protected  against  these  moths  by  winter 
pruning  and  burning  of  the  cocoons,  and  by 
summer  spraying  and  banding  of  trees.  See 
Gypsy  Moth. 

TWAIN,  Mark.  See  Clemens,  Samuel 
Langhorne. 

TWEED,  a  twilled  wool  or  wool-and-cotton 
fabric  for  men's  wear,  with  an  unfinished  sur- 
face and  of  two  colors,  usually  combined  in 
the  yarn.  It  is  largely  manufactured  in 
Southern  Scotland  and  takes  its  name  from 
the  Tweed  River,  along  which  it  was  first 
made. 

TWEED,  a  river  of  Great  Britain,  ninety- 
five  miles  in  length,  rising  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Scotland  and  flowing  easterly  and 
northeasterly  into  the  North  Sea.  The  lower 
part  of  its  coui-se  forms  a  part  of  the  boun- 
dary between  Scotland  and  England. 

TWEED,  William  Maecy  (1823-1878), 
an  American  politician,  notorious  as  the 
leader  of  the  famous  "Tweed  Ring"  in  New 
York  City.     As  a  member  of  the  famous 


TWELVE  TABLES 


3657 


TYLER 


Tammany  Hall,  he  gained  immense  influence 
and  with  the  help  of  several  unscrupulous 
ijupporters  formed  a  combination  for  the  po- 
litical control  of  New  York  City.  By  the 
bribery  of  legislators  and  judges,  bills  were 
passed  and  decisions  rendered  which  allowed 
the  ring  to  carry  out  vast  schemes  of  im- 
provement, through  which,  by  the  padding  of 
pay  rolls  and  the  auditing  of  fraudulent  bills, 
they  gained  immense  wealth.  The  regime 
lasted  for  more  than  six  years,  during  which 
time  the  debt  of  the  city  was  increased  from 
$20,000,000  to  $101,000,000.  Finally,  in 
1871,  through  an  exposure  by  the  New  York 
Times  and  a  vigorous  prosecution  under  a 
committee  led  by  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  the  ring 
was  broken  up.  Tweed  was  twice  tried, 
finally  convicted  and  sentenced  to  twelve 
years'  confinement  in  the  penitentiary  and 
a  fine  of  more  than  $12,000.  He  was  released 
two  years  later  on  a  legal  technicality,  but 
was  immediately  rearrested  on  a  suit  for 
damages  to  the  amount  of  more  than  $6,000,- 
000.  While  confined  in  jail  awaiting  trial, 
he  escaped  and  fled  to  Spain.  Finally,  be- 
ing captured,  he  returned  to  America,  where 
he  died  in  jail. 

TWELVE  TABLES,  Law  op  the,  the 
earliest  written  code  of  law  among  the  Ro- 
mans. According  to  tradition  it  was  drawn 
up  to  appease  the  plebeians,  who  had  com- 
plained that  they  were  not  getting  justice 
from  the  patrician  judges.  In  451  B.  C,  ten 
magistrates,  called  decemvirs,  were  elected 
to  draft  the  laws,  and  the  following  year 
they  submitted  these  to  the  people.  The 
laws  were  afterwards  written  on  brass  tablets 
and  placed  in  the  Fomm,  over  the  orator's 
platform,  where  everyone  might  read  them. 
These  laws  formed  the  basis  of  Roman  legis- 
lation for  centuries. 

TWILIGHT,  twi'lite,  the  glow  in  the  sky 
before  sunrise  and  after  sunset.  Twilight  is 
caused  by  the  refraction  of  the  sun's  rays  as 
they  pass  through  the  atmosphere.  The  even- 
ing twilight  is  brightest  immediately  after 
sunset  and  continues  to  fade  until  the  sun 
reaches  18°  below  the  horizon,  when  twilight 
ceases.  The  time  required  for  the  sun  to 
reach  this  point  varies  in  different  latitudes. 
In  the  torrid  zone,  where  the  sun's  path 
throughout  the  year  takes  nearly  the  same  di- 
rection as  the  parallels,  twilight  is  of  short 
duration,  but  in  summer  its  duration  in- 
creases toward  the  Poles,  and  near  the  Arctic 
Circle  it  lasts  all  night 


TWILIGHT  SLEEP,  the  name  commonly 
applied  to  a  method  of  applying  anesthetics 
during  childbirth.  It  originated  at  the  hos- 
pital at  Freiburg,  Germany,  and  has  been 
attempted,  with  var^ang  success,  in  other 
countries.  The  Freiburg  method  consists  in 
the  administration  of  measured  doses  of 
morphine  and  scopolamine,  these  being  given 
at  s]Decified  intervals.  Under  ideal  condi- 
tions, and  when  the  method  operates  success- 
fully, the  patient  comes  out  of  the  ordeal 
with  no  recollection  of  pain.  Undoubtedly 
in  successful  cases  the  mother  is  greatly  bene- 
fited by  the  method,  as  the  elements  of  shock 
and  exhaustion  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Twilight  sleep  has  been  tried  in  the  best 
hospitals  in  America,  but  the  results  have  not 
always  been  satisfactory.  It  is  practicable 
in  certain  selected  cases,  but  the  proper  con- 
ditions of  light,  quiet  and  attendance  cannot 
be  produced  in  the  ordinary  household,  and 
it  is  declared  that  promiscuous  adoj^tion  of 
the  method  would  result  in  great  harm. 

TYCHO  BRAHE,  te'ko  hrah'eh,  or  hrah. 
See  Brake,  Tycho. 

^YLER,  John,  (1790- 
1862),  the  tenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States, 
and  the  first  "accidental" 
President,  so-called  be- 
cause as  Vice-President 
he  succeeded  automati- 
cally to  the  higher  office 
through  the  death  of  the 
duly-elected  executive. 

Early  Career.  Tyler 
was  a  Virginian,  born  at 
Greenway,  March  20, 
1790,  the  son  of  John 
Tyler,  Sr.,  who  was  at 
various  times  judge  of  state  and  Federal 
courts,  speaker  of  the  Virginia  house  of  dele- 
gates and  governor  of  the  state.  The  future 
President  was  fortunate  in  his  ancestry.  By 
the  time  young  Tyler  was  nineteen  years  of 
age  he  was  a  practicing  attorney,  and  when 
twenty-one  was  a;  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature, where  he  served  for  five  consecutive 
tei-ms,  leaving  that  post  only  to  go  to  Con- 
gress, to  which  he  was  elected  in  1816,  as  a 
Democrat, 

After  two  tenns  in  Congress,  he  was  re- 
turned to  the  state  legislature  in  1823,  and 
two  years  later  became  governor  of  Virginia, 
the  state  promoting  the  son  to  the  post  with 
which  it  had  once  honored  his  father.    After 


TYLER 


3658 


TYLER 


two  terms  as  governor,  Tyler  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  body  he 
took  his  seat  in  1828. 

IndeiDendence  had  been  his  chief  character- 
istic in  political  life ;  though  he  was  a  Demo- 
crat, not  always  did  he  support  the  Demo- 
cratic program.  In  the  Senate  the  nation 
found  him  to  be  a  stubborn  man,  who  could 
not  be  moved  from  a  position  once  deliber- 
ately taken.  He  came  prominently  into 
notice  by  opposing  the  tariff  measurers  of 
1832  and  1833,  and  was  the  only  Senator  to 
oppose  the  Force  Bill  of  1832.  He  had  sup- 
ported Jackson  for  the  Presidency,  but  in 
]834  made  a  report  censuring  the  President 
for  removing  deposits  from  United  States 
banks.  The  Virginia  legislature  ordered  him 
to  vote  to  expunge  the  vote  of  censure,  but 
this  Tyler  refused  to  do,  and  soon  he  resigned 
from  the  Senate  and  retired  to  private  life. 

He  became  a  leading  member  of  the  new 
Whig  party,  and  sought  to  have  the  party 
name  him  for  the  Vice-Presidency  in  1836. 
This  effort  failed,  but  in  1840  a  chain  of 
circumstances  gave  this  former  Democrat  the 
coveted  office.  He  was  nominated  on  the 
Whig  ticket  with  William  Henry  Harrison, 
the  choice  of  Tyler  being  largely  attributed  to 
the  Whig  desire  to  secure  the  votes  of  Demo- 
crats who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  two  pre- 
ceding administrations,  which  had  brought 
upon  the  country  the  panic  of  1837.  Harri- 
son and  Tyler  received  234  electoral  votes; 
the  opposition,  60.  On  March  4,  1841,  the 
new  administration  assumed  control  of  the 
government,  and  on  April  4  President  Harri- 
son died. 

Tyler  as  President.  There  was  a  stronger 
man  than  Tyler  in  official  Washington;  this 
was  Henry  Clay,  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  Whigs.  Clay  looked  upon  the  Presidental 
election  as  a  vindication  of  his  course  in 
politics;  Tyler  considered  the  result  to  be 
merely  a  rebuke  of  the  preceding  adminis- 
tration. There  was  soon  a  clash  of  factions, 
and  Tyler,  the  President  and  nominal  leader, 
broke  with  the  party. 

The  incident  which  caused  the  breach  was 
legislation  respecting  a  second  United  States 
Bank.  Tyler  approved  the  abolition  of  the 
sub-treasury  system,  but  would  not  consent 
to  another  United  States  bank,  which  Con- 
gress favored.  Twice  he  vetoed  a  bank  bill ; 
after  this  second  refusal  to  carry  out  the 
wishes  of  the  party  all  the  Cabinet  resigned, 
with  the  exception  of  Daniel  Webster,  who 


Administration   of  John  Tyler, 
1841-1845. 

I.  John  Tyler 

(1)  Birth 

(2)  Parentage 

(3)  Education 

(4)  Early  career 

(5)  Public  life  after  breach  with 

Jackson 

(6)  Career  after  end  of  his  term 

(7)  Character 

(8)  Death 

II.  Governmental  Affairs 

(1)  Domestic 

(a)   President's  quarrel  with 
Whigs 

(2)  Results 

(a)  Resignation  of  Cabinet 

(b)  Tyler   read    out   of    his 

party 

(3)  Foreign 

(a)  Webster-  Ashburton 
Treaty 

(1)  Negotiators 

(2)  Settled  Maine  boun- 

dai-y  dispute 

(3)  Other  settlements 
III.  Internal  Affairs. 

(1)  Dorr's  Rebellion 

(2)  Patroon  War 

(3)  The  Mormons 

(a)  At  Nauvoo 

(b)  In  Utah 

(4)  Dedication    of   Bunker    Hill 

Monument 

(5)  Construction    of    first    tele- 

graph line 

(6)  Discovery  of  copper - 
Questions  on  Tyler 

When  and  where  was  John  Tyler 
born  ? 

What  public  offices  did  he  hold  be- 
fore his  inauguration  as  President  ? 

What  were  Tyler's  views  on  internal 
improvements  ? 

Why  did  the  Whigs  resign  from  the 
Cabinet? 

Why  was  the  South  anxious  to  an- 
nex Texas? 

Who  was  Lord  Ashburton? 

What  disputes  did  the  Webster- 
Ashburton  Treaty  settle? 

Explain  Dorr's  Rebellion. 


TYLER 


3660 


TYNDALL 


wished  to  conclude  the  Webster-Ashburton 
Treaty,  then  the  subject  of  negotiation. 

Most  of  the  Whigs  thereafter  refused  to 
recognize  Tyler  as  a  party  leader.  The 
Democrats  rallied  to  his  support,  however, 
and  in  the  Congressional  elections  of  1842 
they  overthrew  the  Whig  majority  and  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  House  by  a  majority 
of  sixty-one — a  change  of  eighty-six  votes. 

Legislation  for  the  remainder  of  the  Presi- 
dential term  was  in  part  a  matter  of  compro- 
mises ;  the  Whigs  did  not  again  press  the  bank 
act,  and  on  some  measures  they  acted  with  the 
President.  A  protective  tariff  bill  was  passed. 
Two  river  and  harbor  bills  were  presented, 
one  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  and 
another  for  the  western  section,  the  former 
being  vetoed  and  the  other  signed  by  Tyler, 
because  it  contained  appropriations  for  the 
Mississippi  River,  which  he  believed  would 
be  a  national,  not  a  sectional,  benefit.  The 
Webster  -  Ashburton 
Treaty  was  one  of  the 
outstanding  features 
of  the  administra- 
tion. Texas  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Union 
on  March  3,  1845, 
the  day  before 
Tyler's  term  ended. 
Other  and  minor 
events  are  listed  in 
the  accompanying 
outline. 

As  Ex-President. 
After  his  retirement  from  office  Tyler  spent 
several  quiet  years  on  his  estate,  three  miles 
from  his  birthplace.  The  threat  of  civil  war 
called  him  again  into  public  life,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1861,  he  presided  over  a  convention 
of  the  border  states,  held  in  Washington,  D. 
C,  and  called  to  consider  the  situation  pre- 
sented by  the  secession  of  South  Carolina. 
When  Congress  refused  to  accept  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  convention  Tyler  urged 
his  own  state  to  secede,  and  in  the  fall  of  1861 
he  was  elected  to  the  Confederate  Congress. 
In  January,  1862,  he  died,  and  was  buried  in 
Hollywood  Cemetery,  Richmond.  In  1914 
Congress  appropriated  $10,000  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  monument  in  his  memory. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Force  Bills  Webster-Ashburton 

Harrison,  William  H.         Treaty 

TYLER,  Tex.,  the  county  seat  of  Smith 

County,  about  100  miles  southeast  of  Dallas, 


JOHN    TYLER 


on  the  International  &  Great  Northern  and 
the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern  railroads.  The 
city  is  the  center  of  the  fruit-growing  region 
of  Eastern  Texas.  It  ships  large  quantities 
of  cotton,  fruit  and  garden  products.  Indus- 
trial establishments  include  railway  shops, 
canneries,  box  and  crate  factories,  ice  works, 
an  oil  mill,  mattress  and  overall  factories  and 
potteries.  Tyler  and  East  Texas  colleges  are 
located  here.  Noteworthy  structures  are  a 
city  hall,  a  Federal  building,  a  Carnegie  Li- 
brary and  a  railroad  hospital.  The  place 
was  settled  in  1846,  and  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1875.  It  adopted  the  commission  form 
of  government  in  1914.  Population,  1910, 
10,400;  in  1917, 12,101  (Federal  estimate). 

TYLER,  Wat,  an  English  soldier,  in  1381 
a  leader  of  what  is  known  as  Wat  Tyler's 
Bebellion.  When  a  poll  tax  was  levied  on 
the  already  overburdened  English  people, 
riots  broke  out,  and  a  mob,  led  by  Tyler, 
marched  on  London,  pillaging  as  it  went. 
The  young  king,  Richard  II,  rode  out  to 
meet  the  rebels.  He  promised  to  grant  them 
charters  of  freedom  and  amnesty  and  many 
of  them,  satisfied,  dispersed.  But  Tyler, 
growing  bold  and  insolent,  made  further  de- 
mands, and  William  Walworth,  mayor  of 
London,  stabbed  him.  The  liberties  granted 
were  soon  revoked,  but  the  movement  had 
the  effect  of  hastening  the  general  tendency 
toward  the  abolition  of  villenage. 

TYNDALE,  tin'dal,  William  ( M536),  an 
English  reformer  and  translator  of  the  Bible. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  and 
was  ordained  priest  about  1521.  Having 
made  himself  unpopular  by  the  expression  of 
certain  heretical  sentiments,  he  left  England 
for  the  continent  in  1524.  After  a  visit  to 
Luther  at  Wittenberg,  he  settled  at  Cologne, 
where  he  completed  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  on  his  expulsion  from  Col- 
ogne, he  took  refuge  in  Worms,  where,  in 
1525,  his  translation  was  published.  He  trans- 
lated the  Pentateuch  and  the  book  of  Jonah. 
When  he  openly  opposed  the  divorce  of 
Henry  VTII  from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  he 
was  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Vilvorde, 
near  Brussels,  and  after  a  trial  for  heresy, 
he  was  strangled  and  his  body  was 
burned.  In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned, 
he  wrote  The  Obedience  of  a  Christian  Man 
and  How  Christian  Rulers  Ought  to  Govern. 

TYK'DALL,  John  (1820-1893),  an  Eng- 
lishman and  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
physicists,  was  born  at  Leighlin  Bridge.    He 


TYPE 


3661 


TYPE 


JOHN  TYNDALL 


was  largely  self-taught,  gaining  his  first 
scientific  training  as  an  ordnance  surveyor 
and  railway  engineer. 
After  teaching 
mathematics  at 
Queenwood  College, 
he  went  to  Germany 
for  study  and  re- 
ceived a  doctor's  de- 
gree from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Marburg. 
He  became  a  profes- 
sor of  natural  phi- 
losophy at  the  Royal 
Institution  in  1853, 
and  on  the  death  of 
Faraday  was  ap- 
pointed director.  While  he  gave  his  chief 
attention  to  a  study  of  radiant  heat,  he  also 
made  important  experiments  with  light.  In 
1872  and  1873  he  lectured  in  America. 

Especiall}''  noteworthy  was  his  effort  to 
popularize  science — to  bring  it  within  the 
reach  of  ordinary  men.  Fragments  of 
Science  for  Unscientific  People,  The  Glaciers 
of  the  Alps  and  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the 
Alps  are  among  his  "popular"  writings. 
Other  noteworthy  books  are  Heat  as  a  Mode 
of  Motion,  Lectures  on  Light,  On  Sound  and 
Contributions  to  Molecidar  Physics  in  the 
Domain  of  Radiant  Heat. 

TYPE,  a  piece  of  metal,  wood  or  other 
material,  on  one  end  of  which  is  cast  or  en- 
graved a  letter,  figure  or  other  character.  The 
earliest  types  were  made  of  wood,  and  in 
style  they  resembled  the  script  letters  used 
in  copying  books  before  the  invention  of  the 
art  of  printing.  The  parts  of  a  type  are 
(1)  the  body,  (2)  the  face,  (3)  the  shoulder, 
(4)  the  nick  and  (5)  the 
groove.  The  face  is  that 
part  that  does  the  printing; 
the  nick  is  to  show  the 
right  side  of  the  type  when 
set,  and  the  groove  is  to 
make  it  stand  firmly  on  its 
base.  In  the  early  days  of 
printing,  each  printer  made 
his  own  type,  but  with  the 
extension  of  the  industry, 
type  casting,  or  founding, 
became  a  business  by  itself. 
A  few  of  the  large  types 
used  in  printing  are  still 
made  of  wood,  but  all  others  are  of  type 
metal,  which  is  an  alloy,  consisting  of  three 


A   TYPE 


parts  of  lead  to  one  part  of  antimony,  with  a 

small  quantity  of  tin  and  copper  added. 

Type  are  cast  by  machinery.  A  steel  die, 
which  is  an  exact  pattern  of  the  letter,  is  first 
made.  This  is  driven  into  a  piece  of  soft 
copper,  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  impression  of 
the  letter.  This  is  called  the  matrix.  The 
matrix  is  then  placed  in  a  metallic  box,  called 
the  mold.  This  is  placed  in  the  type-casting 
machine,  which  opens  and  closes  the  mold 
and  fills  it  with  type  metal.  The  metal 
hardens  instantly,  and  when  the  mold  opens 
the  type  drops  out.  The  face  is  then  smoothed 
on  a  stone,  and  the  body  is  nicked  and 
grooved.  The  type  are  then  tied  up  in  pack- 
ages, each  of  which  contains  only  one  kind  of 
letter,  and  are  ready  for  use.  All  types  are 
ninety-two  hundredths  of  an  inch  high. 

A  complete  assortment  of  type  is  called 
a  font  and  contains  large  and  small  capitals, 
small  letters  and  italics,  marks  of  punctuation 
and  figures ;  in  all,  there  are  about  225  char- 
acters for  English  printing.  The  size  of  a 
font  varies  according  to  the  work  to  be  done 
with  it.  Small  fonts  contain  from  500  to 
800  pounds,  and  large  ones  have  from 
20,000  to  50,000  pounds.  Type  founders 
have  a  rule  for  determining  the  number  of 
different  letters  necessary  to  make  each  font 
complete.  Z  requires  the  smallest  number. 
For  every  z  there  will  be  46  a's,  60  e's,  32  h's, 
]5  w's,  and  so  on. 

There  are  thirteen  sizes  of  type  in  ordinary 
use  in  printing  books  and  newspapers.  These 
are  designated  by  special  names  and  by  the 
number  of  points  they  measure,  a  point  being 
^2  of  an  inch.  Both  methods  of  naming 
are  given  in  the  illustration. 

Nonpareil ' 6-point 

Minion 7-point 

Brevier 8-point 

Bourgeois 9-point 

Long  Primer 10-point 

Small  Pica 11-point 

Pica ; .  .  .  12-point 

English 14-point 

The  smaller  sizes  are  not  used  in  general 
printing,  although  sometimes  small  Bibles 
are  printed  from  5i  point,  or  agate,  and  still 
smaller  sizes  are  used  for  marginal  references 
in  Bibles  and  other  works.  The  type  used 
in  job  printing  is  of  various  sizes,  to  suit 
the  taste  and  conditions  of  the  advertiser. 
See  Printing. 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES 


3662 


TYPHOID  FEVER 


TYPE'  SETTING      MACHINES.        See 

Graphotype;  Linotype;  Monotype, 

TYPEWRITER,  a  machine  for  the  rapid 
transcribing  of  letters,  manuscripts,  etc.,  as 
a  substitute  for  hand\vi-iting.  It  was  first 
successfully  put  into  operation  in  1875,  and 
since  that  date  has  made  its  way  into  every 
kind  of  business  house,  court  of  law  and  gov- 
ernmental department  where  speed,  accuracy 
and  system  in  coiTespondence,  the  making 
of  reports  and  tabulating  of  statistics  are 
required.  An  average  typewriter  operator 
writes  sixty  words  a  minute,  a  rate  three 
times  that  of  a  good  penman,  and  the  char- 
acters are  much  more  legible.  As  women 
are  the  best  operators  of  typewriters,  the  ef- 
fect has  been  to  bring  thousands  of  them 
into  the  business  world,  where  they  have 
found  opportunity  to  advance  to  responsible 
secretarial  and  executive  positions. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  typewriter  mech- 
anism are  a  set  of  types;  an  arrangement 
of  keys,  for  bringing  the  types  in  contact 
.with  the  paper;  a  paper  carrier,  or  carriage; 
a  platen,  or  roller,  against  which  the  types 
strike,  and  an  inking  device.  While  there 
are  many  patterns  of  typewriters;  from  the 
earliest  "Remington"  to  the  latest  make,  full 
of  new  devices,  all  belong  to  two  classes,  those 
known  as  the  basket  machines  and  those 
known  as  cylinder  machines.  In  the  basket 
machines,  each  type  is  on  the  end  of  a  bar, 
hung  on  a  pivot  and  joined  to  its  respective 
key  by  a  lever  attachment.  These  type  bars 
are  attached  to  a  frame  which  was  formerly 
circular,  forming  the  basket  from  which  the 
machine  takes  its  name.  In  modern  machines 
the  frame  is  an  are  of  a  circle.  The  bars  are 
of  such  length  that  the  type  on  each  strikes 
the  platen  at  the  same  point.  When  a  key 
is  depressed,  the  bar  strikes  the  inking  ribbon 
against  the  paper,  making  the  impression  of 
the  character.  As  the  bar  drops  back  to  its 
position,  the  carriage  moves  forward  one 
space,  thus  putting  the  paper  in  position  for 
the  next  letter. 

The  cylinder  machines  have  the  type  ar- 
ranged on  a  cylinder,  and  the  depression 
of  the  key  causes  the  cylinder  to  revolve  to 
a  point  which  allows  the  character  desired  to 
be  pressed  upon  the  paper  by  a  little  hammer. 
The  arrangement  of  keys  on  all  makes  of 
typewriters  is  practically  the  same;  the  so- 
called  universal  keyboard  is  in  use  with  but 
slight  modifications  on  over  ninety  per  cent 
of  all  models. 


TYPHOID,  tifoid',  FEVER,  a  germ  dis- 
ease caused  by  the  presence  of  a  bacillus 
which  lodges  in  the  intestines,  spleen  and 
mesenteric  l3anph  nodes.  The  multiplication 
of  the  bacilli  causes  ulceration  of  the  intes- 
tines, and  when  the  ulcers  perforate  the  in- 
testinal membranes  the  disease  is  fatal.  Ty- 
phoid genus  enter  the  system  through  the 
moiith,  from  whence  they  find  their  way  to 
the  intestinal  tract.  Food  and  drink  are  the 
most  common  vehicles  which  serve  as  convey- 
ors of  the  bacillus,  and  polluted  water  and 
milk  are  the  most  common  sources  of  infec- 
tion. Water  containing  sewage  is  a  particu- 
larly dangerous  carrier  of  bacilli. 

Symptoms  and  Treatment.  It  requires 
from  eight  to  fourteen  days  for  the  disease 
to  develop  after  the  germs  have  entered  the 
system.  The  attack  usually  comes  on  slowly, 
and  the  patient  may  continue  his  regular 
work  for  a  few  days,  but  ultimately  he  will 
have  to  go  to  bed.  The  first  symptoms  are 
nausea,  headache,  pains  in  the  back  and 
limbs  and  sometimes  nosebleed  and  chills. 
During  the  first  week  the  fever  rises  about 
one  degree  a  day,  until  the  temperature 
reaches  103°  or  104°,  The  fever  remains 
stationary  the  second  week ;  during  the  third 
week  it  should  begin  to  subside,  and  conva- 
lescence should  begin  the  fourth  week,  un- 
less the  case  is  one  of  unusual  severity.  Some- 
times the  ulcers  penetrate  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  intestines  and  cause  hemorrhages,  which 
may  prove  fatal.  When  the  fever  begins  to 
decline  the  patient  is  in  grave  danger;  he 
suffers  from  weakness,  tremors  of  the  mus- 
cles and  possibly  delirium,  and  he  may  die 
from  weakness. 

The  treatment  for  typhoid  fever  is  largely 
hygienic.  The  fever  is  kept  down  by  sponging, 
and  by  cold  packs  and  baths.  Liquid  nour- 
ishment, consisting  of  milk  and  broths,  is 
given  at  intervals  of  about  three  hours  to  keep 
up  the  patient's  strength,  and  medicines  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  the  germs  are  ad- 
ministered. Proper  nursing  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  treatment. 

Prevention.  Excretions  from  the  bowels 
and  the  urine  of  one  affected  with  typhoid 
fever  contain  millions  of  germs,  and  all  bodily 
discharges  should  be  disinfected  by  strong 
solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  carbolic  acid 
or  chloride  of  lime.  The  bedding  and  cloth- 
ing should  be  immersed  in  boiling  water.  All 
dishes,  thermometers  or  other  appliances  used 
about  the  patient  should  be  thoroughly  dis- 


TYPHOON 


3663 


TYROL 


infected  every  time  they  are  used.  Flies, 
when  they  have  access  to  infected  substances, 
gather  the  germs  on  their  feet  and  cai-ry 
them  to  other  households.  They  are  one  of 
the  prolific  causes  of  the  spread  of  the  disease. 
Typhoid  is  not  contagious  by  the  breath 
or  by  touch ;  it  is  conveyed  only  by  carrying 
the  germs.  Vaccination  with  three  hypo- 
dermic injections  of  a  special  vaccine  is  con- 
sidered to  render  one  immune  for  three  years ; 
army  surgeons  attribute  the  protection  of  the 
allied  forces  during  the  World  War  to  this 
method  of  prevention.  There  have  been  wide- 
spread educational  campaigns  to  teach  people 
hbw  to  prevent  tj^ihoid  fever,  and  as  a  result 
of  this  work  there  has  been  a  marked  decline 
in  the  number  of  eases  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  The  following  directions 
issued  by  the  New  York  City  Department  of 
Health  should  be  observed  by  every  family 
and  community: 

Keep  yourself  in  good  health.  Do  not  use 
alcoholic  drinks.  Keep  your  home  and  your 
body  clean.  Always  wash  your  hands  before 
eating.  Drink  only  the  best  milk;  if  in  doubt, 
boil  it.  Drink  only  pure  water;  if  in  doubt, 
boil  it.  Eat  only  pure,  good  food.  Fresh- 
cooked  food  is  safest;  heat  kills  the  germs. 
Avoid  salads,  raw  vegetables  and  raw  oysters, 
unless  you  know  they  come  from  a  clean  place. 
Wash  ice  when  it  comes  and  keep  the  ice- 
box clean.  Do  not  put  ice  in  drinking  water 
or  on  food.  Deal  only  with  good,  clean  food 
stores.  Don't  eat  at  dirty  restaurants.  Keep 
flies  out  of  your  rooms  and  away  from  your 
food.  Be  careful  when  you  go  to  the  country; 
be  sure  of  what  you  eat  and  do  not  drink 
from  a  strange  spring  or  stream.  Never  visit 
where  there  is  a  case  of  typhoid  fever.  Be 
careful  about  friends  who  have  had  typhoid 
fever;  they  may  be  carriers.  Where  there  is 
an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever  use  only  boiled 
water  for  drinking,  and  also  boil  milk  just 
before  it  is  used.  If  typhoid  fever  is  in  your 
house  or  neighborhood,  or  you  are  exposed  to 
the  disease  in  any  way,  or  are  likely  to  be, 
have  yourself  immunized. 

TYPHOON,  ti  foon',  the  name  applied  to 
the  hurricanes  that  sweep  over  the  coast  of 
China,  and  Japan  and  the  neighboring  archi- 
pelagoes from  ISlaj  to  November.  The  storms 
are  most  frequent  and  disastrous  in  July, 
August  and  September.  The  typhoons  are 
cyclonic  storms,  which  originate  somewhat 
farther  south  than  Manila  and  move  towards 
Indies.  See  Hurricane. 

TYPHUS,  W  fus,  FEVER,  known,  also, 
from  the  place  where  it  occurs,  as  hospital 
fever,  jail  fever  and  by  other  names,  is  essen- 
tially a  fever  of  the  poor,  ill-fed  and  badly- 
housed  inhabitants  of  large   cities.     It   is 


infectious,  and  is  carried  by  both  body  lice 
and  head  lice.  A  period  of  from  five  to 
twelve  days  passes  after  infection,  before 
the  first  symptoms  show  themselves.  Then 
the  disease  comes  on  suddenly,  with  a  chill, 
followed  by  a  high  fever,  sharp  rheumatic 
pains  and  headache.  Generally  about  the 
seventh  daj',  a  rash,  of  irregular  spots  of 
dusky  hue,  appears  over  the  chest  and  back, 
and  this  has  given  to  the  disease  the  common 
name  of  spotted  fever.  Delirium  is  almost 
always  present  during  the  second  week,  and 
after  a  marked  crisis,  followed  by  a  sound 
sleep,  the  person  awakes  with  the  fever  gone. 
Thereafter  recovery  is  rapid.  The  disease  is 
often  fatal,  especially  where  the  best  of 
care  is  not  given  the  patient. 

The    treatment    consists    in    keeping    the 
sufferer  in   a  well-ventilated  room,   and  in 
preventing   exhaustion  by  light,  wholesome 
diet.     One  of  the  worst  epidemics  of  typhus 
fever  known    in  recent   times   occurred   in 
Serbia   in    1914-1915.      Several   cases  were 
carried  to  New  York  by  passenger  steamers, 
and  during  the  study  of  these  cases  Dr.  Plotz 
discovered  the  genn  which  causes  the  disease. 
TYRE,  tire,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
cities  of  ancient  Phoenicia,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  fifty  miles  south  of  Beirut  and 
twenty-four  miles  southwest  of  Sidon.    From 
1200  to  850  B.  C,  it  was  a  wealthy  and  mag- 
nificent   city,    the   chief   commercial    center 
of  the  world,  famous  for  its  dyes  and  glass- 
ware.    The  original  city  occupied  an  island 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  the  mainland. 
In  332  B.  c,  when  Alexander  the  Great  be- 
sieged the  city,  he  built  a  causeway  out  .to 
the  island,  and  the  sands  deposited  by  the 
sea  upon  this  structure  transformed  the  is- 
land into  a  peninsula.     The  modem  town, 
called  Sur,  has  a  population  of  about  6,000. 
TYROL,  or  TIROL,  ti/ol,  before  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy 
in  1918,  a  crownland  of  Austria,  compris- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  political  district 
of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg.    It  lies  in  the  heart 
of  the  Alpine  region,  and  is  noted  for  the 
chai-m  and  variety  of  its  scenery,  which  is 
much  like  that  of  Switzerland.    Tyrol  has  an 
area  of  10,302  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  about  947,000.     The  capital  is  Innsbruck. 
As  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  Italians, 
Italy  laid  claim  to  a  part  of  the  crownland 
at  the  close  of  the  World  War.     The  boun- 
dary question  was  to  be  settled  by  the  League 
of  Nations  as  soon  as  it  began  to  function. 


U,  the  twenty-first  letter  and  the  fifth  vowel 
in  the  English  alphabet.  It  comes  from  the 
Greek  alphabet,  as  the  Phoenician  had  no 
such  character,  and  it  was,  until  compara- 
tively recent  times,  used  interchangeably 
with  V.  In  time,  v  came  to  be  used  for  the 
consonant  sound  and  u  for  the  vowel  sound, 
as  in  the  case  of  j  and  i.  The  true  primary 
sound  of  u  was  that  which  it  still  retains 
in  most  of  the  languages  in  Europe,  that  of 
00  in  cool,  the  sound  being  sometimes  short, 
sometimes  long.  The  so-called  "long  u"  in 
English,  however,  has  a  distinct  y  sound 
prefixed  to  the  oo'  sound,  as  in  use,  abuse. 

U'DALL,  Nicholas  (1506-1556),  the  au- 
thor of  Ralph  Bolster  Bolster,  the  earliest 
English  comedy.  He  was  master  of  Eton 
School  from  1534  to  1541,  and  the  play  was 
originally  written  for  performance  by  the 
scholars.  Udall  was  in  favor  at  court  as  a 
writer  of  pageants  and  interludes. 

UFFIZI,  oof  feef  se,  a  famous  palace  in 
Florence,  containing  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sive and  valuable  art  collections  in  the  world. 
This  gallery  was  founded  by  the  Medici 
family  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  valuable 
additions  have  been  made  from  time  to  time. 
In  the  collection  are  the  statues  Venus  de' 
Medici,  The  Dancing  Faun  and  The  Wrest- 
lers, and  the  works  of  great  masters,  such 
as  Raphael,  Michelangelo,  Titian,  Correggio, 
Holbein  and  Rembrandt.  The  UfSzi  also  con- 
tains the  Biblioteea  Nazionale,  a  collection 
of  300,000  volumes  and  14,000  manuscripts. 
It  is  connected  by  covered  passageway  with 
the  Pitti  Palace  (which,  see). 

UGANDA,  00  gahn'da,  the  administrative 
division  of  British  East  Africa  that  forms  the 
■western  part  of  the  colony.  It  consists  of  the 
former  native  kingdom  of  Uganda  and  a 
number  of  adjacent  states.  Its  area  is  109,- 
119  square  miles,  practically  that  of  the 
state  of  Nevada.    Of  this  area,  16,377  square 


miles  are  water,  for  within  the  boundaries  lie 
portions  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  Lake  Edward, 
Lake  Albert  and  Lake  Rudolph;  and  all  of 
lakes  George,  Kioga  and  Salisbury.  The  re- 
gion around  Lake  Rudolph  is  low  and  gener- 
ally unproductive.  The  western  and  south- 
western parts  of  the  protectorate  consist  of 
rolling  country  and  plateaus,  varying  in  al- 
titude from  2,000  to  4,000  feet,  upon  which 
mountain  peaks  rise  to  the  height  of  12,000 
to  16,000  feet.  Here  are  some  of  the  most 
prominent  mountains  of  Africa  including  the 
Ruwenzori,  whose  highest  summit,  Alexandra, 
has  an  altitude  of  16,794  feet. 

Gold  is  mined,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of 
iron  throughout  the  country.  Although  the 
natives  are  quite  skilful  in  working  the  ore, 
there  is  but  little  mining.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Lake  Rudolph  region,  the  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  The  climate  in  the  high- 
land region  of  the  southwest  is  pleasant  and 
inviting,  and  this  part  of  the  protectorate 
holds  great  possibilities.  Commercially, 
cotton  is  the  most  important  crop,  and  its 
cultivation  is  being  rapidly  extended.  Coffee, 
peanuts  and  cacao  are  among ,  the  other 
leading  crops.  Ivory  and  hides  are  ex- 
ported. 

In  1917  there  were  2,954,861  inhabitants, 
and  about  2,900,000  of  these  were  natives. 
The  Bantus,  who  are  agriculturists,  and  the 
Baganda  are  the  most  impor-tant  tribes.  The 
Baganda,  who  number  about  600,000,  are 
noted  for  their  intelligence.  Most  of  them 
have  embraced  Christianity,  and  they  are 
rapidly  adopting  the  ways  of  civilization. 
They  build  permanent  homes,  and  have  done 
much  in  constructing  roads  and  in  developing 
the  country  since  it  was  opened  to  Europeans, 
The  country  has  railway,  steamboat  and  tele- 
graph communication. 

The  protectorate  is  divided  into  five  prov- 
inces for  the  purpose  of  local  administra- 


3664 


UHLANS 


3665 


ULYSSES 


tion.  The  native  tribes  maintain  their  own 
form  of  control  in  all  local  measures,  and 
some  of  these  governments  are  veiy  efficient. 
Entebbe  is  the  seat  of  government  and  Brit- 
ish headquarters,  and  Mengo  is  the  native 
capital. 

Uganda  was  first  visited  by  Captain  Speke 
in  1862.  It  was  again  visited  in  1875  by 
Stanley,  who  wrote  an  extended  description 
of  the  country  and  its  people  for  his  Through 
the  Dark  Continent. 

UHLANS,  oo'  lahnz,  bodies  of  mounted 
lancers,  chief!}'  employed  in  reconnoitering, 
skirmishing  and  outpost  duty.  They  were  of 
Eastern  European  origin,  and  formerly  wore 
a  semi-Oriental  uniform  with  flowing  sleeves 
and  baggy  trousers.  Later,  Uhlans  became  a 
part  of  several  western  aimies.  In  the  World 
War  (1914-1919)  the  term  was  particularly 
applied  to  the  Prussian  light  cavalrv  troops. 

UINTA,  «  in'  tah,  MOUNTAINS,' a  moun- 
tain range  in  Northeastern  Utah,  a  part  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  system,  jutting  at  right 
angles  from  the  Wasatch  range.  Its  highest 
peaks  are  Gilbert  Peak,  13,687  feet  above 
sea  level;  Emmons  Peak,  13,624  feet,  and 
Wilson  Peak,  13,300  feet.  The  Green  River 
gorge  cuts  across  the  Uinta  range,  disclosing 
the  varied  strata  of  the  mountains,  some  of 
which  contain  deposits  of  coal. 

UKRAINE,  The,  called  also  Ukrainia^  a 
district  in  the  southwestern  part  of  European 
Russia,  proclaimed  an  independent  republic 
in  November,  1917,  at  the  time  of  the  over- 
throw of  the  Kerensky  regime  by  the  Bolshe- 
viki.  The  Ukraine  is  made  up  of  those 
former  Russian  provinces  inhabited  by  the 
Little  Russians,  or  Ruthenians.  Its  estimated 
area  is  216,400  square  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  about  30,000,000.  Kiev  is  the 
capital.  The  Ukraine  occupies  a  portion  of 
one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  in  Europe, 
and  has  been  called  the  "granaiy  of  Russia." 

Its  career  since  the  downfall  of  the  czar  has 
been  very  troubled.  The  government  estab- 
lished in  1917  sent  peace  delegates  to  Brest- 
Litovsk,  and  a  treaty  with  the  Central  Powers 
was  signed  on  February  9,  1918.  Germany 
expected  to  obtain  large  supplies  of  grain 
from  the  Ukrainians,  but  the  peasants,  who 
were  angered  by  the  methods  employed, 
burned  the  stores  in  preference  to  handing 
them  over  to  the  Gennans. 

After  the  armistice  was  signed  it  was  hoped 
that  order  might  be  restored,  but  the  Ukraine 
shared  all  the  troubles  of  the  other  border 

230 


Russian  states.  Its  claims  to  the  province 
of  Galicia  were  disputed  by  Poland,  and  there 
was  conflict  with  the  Rumanians  over  Bess- 
arabia. In  addition,  the  Bolshevik  government 
of  Russia  proper  sent  a  "red"  army  into  the 
region  to  establish  soviet  rule.  The  new 
republic  was  engaged  in  continual  fighting 
for  months  after  the  armistice  of  Novem- 
ber, 1918,  and  by  August,  1919,  no  settle- 
ment had  been  reached,  though  the  Bolshe- 
viki  were  in  partial  control.  See  Russia; 
World  War. 

ULCER,  ul'  ser,  an  open  sore  on  the  skin 
or  any  of  the  mucous  membranes,  both  exter- 
nal and  internal.  The  tendency  of  an  ulcer  is 
to  eat  awaj'  the  underh'ing  tissues.  An  ab- 
scess, on  the  other  hand,  usually  begins  in  the 
tissues  and  works  outward  (see  Abscess). 
Ulcers  may  be  caused  by  constitutional  dis- 
orders or  through  infection.  Treatment  con- 
sists in  giving  the  patient  fresh  air,  proper 
diet  and  hygienic  surroundings,  and  pro- 
viding local  treatment  for  the  sore.  Such 
treatment  must  be  prescribed  by  the  attending 
pliysician.  Ulcers  due  to  tuberculosis  can 
often  be  healed  by  exposure  to  sunlight. 

ULTRAMARINE,  ul  trah  ma  reeri,  a 
beautiful  and  durable  sky-blue  pigment,  a 
color  formed  of  the  mineral  called  lapis  lazuli. 
This  substance  is  much  valued  by  painters, 
on  account  of  the  beautj'  and  permanence 
of  its  color,  both  for  oil  and  water  painting. 

ULYSSES,  u  lis'eez,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Odysseus,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  their 
legendary  heroes,  an  important  character  in 
the  Iliad.  Rejected  by  Helen,  Ulysses  mar- 
ried Penelope  and  settled  down  with  her  to 
a  happy  life.  Shortly  after  the  birth  of  his 
son  Telemachus,  the  Trojan  War  broke  out, 
and  Ulysses,  in  spite  of  a  vow  to  help  Mene- 
laus,  was  unwilling  to  leave  home  and  engage 
in  the  struggle.  In  order  to  escape,  he 
feigned  madness,  but  Palamedes  visited  him 
and,  becoming  convinced  of  his  sanity,  made 
use  of  a  stratagem.  While  Ulysses  was  plow- 
ing up  the  seashore  and  sowing  it  with  salt, 
Palamedes  placed  the  boy  Telemachus  in 
front  of  his  father's  plow,  and  Ulysses,  care- 
fully turning  aside  his  team,  unwittingly 
revealed  the  fact  that  his  madness  was  merely 
feigned. 

He  was  compelled  to  join  the  expedition 
and  at  Troy  proved  himself  one  of  the  brav- 
est of  the  Greek  heroes.  The  chief  interest  in 
Ulysses,  however,  attaches  to  his  adventures 
while  he  was  returning  from  Troy.    Driven 


UMBELLIFERAE 


3666 


UNDERWOOD 


to  the  country  of  the  Lotus-eaters,  he  with 
difficult}'  broke  the  spell  east  upon  his  com- 
panions and  induced  them  to  continue  the 
voyage.  Meeting  with  Polyphemus  the 
Cyclops,  be  put  him  to  death,  thus  offending 
Neptune,  who  constantly  pursued  him  with 
his  wrath.  He  was  driven  upon  the  island  of 
Circe ;  he  was  placed  in  danger  between  Scj'lla 
and  Charybdis,  and  he  was  borne,  after  the 
death  of  all  of  his  companions,  to  the  island 
of  the  nymph  Calypso,  where  he  remained 
for  seven  years.  Returning  at  last  to  Ithaca, 
he  found  Penelope  in  gTeat  trouble,  but  with 
the  aid  of  Telemachus  overcame  her  annoy- 
ing suitors  and  made  himself  powerful  again 
in  his  kingdom. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles   for   additional  information: 
Calypso  Penelope 

Circe  Polyphemus 

UMBELLIFERAE,  umbel  ifur  ee,  the 
parsley  family  of  flowering  plants,  contain- 
ing about  2,000  species,  among  which  are 
the  familiar  garden  varieties,  carrot,  parsnip, 
celerj^,  anise,  parslej',  fennel  and  caraway. 
The  flowers,  usually  inconspicuous  and  indi- 
vidual, are  arranged  in  large  umbrellalike 
groups,  called  umbels.  The  leaves  contain 
oil  and  a  resinous  matter,  sometimes  of  a 
poisonous  character.  The  umbelliferae  are 
distributed  throughout  the  world,  but  are 
most  abundant  in  the  north  temperate  zone. 

UM'BER,  a  mineral  pigment  resembling 
ochre,  yielding  a  brown  paint  when  raw  and 
a  reddish  paint  when  burnt.  It  is  found  in 
many  localities  in  Europe,  notably  the  is- 
land of  Cj'prus,  and  takes  its  name  from 
Umbria,  Italy,  where  it  was  first  discovered. 
There  are  veins  of  umber  in  Illinois,  Penn- 
sylvania and  several  other  states. 

UMBREL'LA  BIRD,  a  black  South  Amer- 
ican bird,  related  to  the  crows  and  remark- 
able for  its  handsome  drooping  crest  of  blue- 
black  feathers.  It  lives  in  the  deep  woods, 
depositing  its  eggs  on  a  platform  of  sticks 
in  the  top  of  a  high  tree.  Its  cries  are  de- 
scribed as  "lowings." 

UNALASKA,  oonahlahs'kah,  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  about 
seventy-five  miles  long  and  twenty  miles  wide 
at  its  widest  point.  The  chief  settlement  is 
Unalaska,  or  Iluliuk,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
island.  Population,  420.  See  Aleutian  Is- 
lands. 

UNCAS,  un'kahz  ( ?-about  1683),  an 
American  Indian  chief,  bom  in  the  Pequot 
settlement  in  Connecticut.     In  1635  he  re- 


belled against  the  head  chief  of  the  Pequots 
and  founded  a  tribe  of  his  own  known  as  the 
Mohegan.  In  1637  he  combined  with  the  col- 
onists for  the  destruction  of  the  Pequots 
and  was  given  a  portion  of  the  conquered 
territory.  His  friendly  intercourse  with  the 
colonists  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  Narra- 
gansetts,  who  made  war  upon  the  Mohegans, 
and  for  the  next  few  years  Uncas  was  al- 
most continually  defending  his  territory  from 
invasion.  A  monument  has  been  erected  in 
Noi'wich,  Conn.,  in  his  honor, 

UNCTION,  or  EXTREME  UNCTION,  a 
sacrament  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  ad- 
ministered to  the  dying  to  give  them  strength 
and  grace  physically  and  spiritually  in  the 
hour  of  death.  In  this  sacrament,  the  priest, 
dipping  his  thumb  in  the  oil,  anoints  the  sick 
person  in  the  form  of  the  cross  upon  the 
eyes,  ears,  mouth,  nose,  hands  and  feet,  say- 
ing, "Through  this  Holy  Unction  and  His 
most  tender  mercy,  may  the  Lord  pardon 
thee  whatever  sins  thou  hast  committed  by 
seeing.  Amen."  He  repeats  the  same,  adapt- 
ing it  to  the  part  anointed.  The  oil  used 
in  this  sacrament  must  be  blessed  by  the 
bishop,  a  ceremony  performed  each  year  on 
Maundv  Thursday. 

UN'DERGROUND  RAIL'ROAD,  the 
name  applied  to  a  method  used  by  Northern 
abolitionists  before  the  Civil  War  in  assist- 
ing slaves  from  the  South  to  escape  from 
their  masters.  Regular  routes  were  laid  out, 
and  certain  houses  at  convenient  intervals 
were  designated  as  stations.  Fleeing  ne- 
groes were  conducted  secretly  from  one  of 
these  points  to  the  next,  given  rest  and  food 
and  prepared  for  the  next  stage  in  their  jour- 
ney. The  most  common  routes  were  through 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  the  goal  of  each 
being  Canada.  Among  the  prominent  pro- 
moters of  the  underground  railroad  were 
Gerrit  Smith,  Theodore  Parker  and  Levi 
Coffin.  It  is  believed  that  fully  25,000  ne- 
groes were  thus  given  liberty  during  the 
quarter  century  preceding  the  Civil  War, 
fines  inflicted  on  detection  for  violation  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  having  little  effect  on 
the  abolitionists.  An  interesting  account  of 
the  system  occurs  in  Mrs.  Stowe's  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin. 

UNDERGROUND  RAILWAY.  See  Sub- 
way. 

UNDERWOOD,  Oscar  W.  (1862-  ), 
an  American  statesman,  one  of  the  prom- 
inent Democrats  in  Congress  of  the  present 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


3667 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


decade.  He  was  bom  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  and 
was  educated  in  that  city  and  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia.  After  completing  a  law 
course,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1884  and 
began  practice  in  Birmingham,  Ala.  Enter- 
ing politics,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  and 
took  his  seat  in  the  lower  house  in  1895  as 
Representative  of  the  Ninth  Alabama  dis- 
trict. This  office  he  held  until  1915.  In 
the  special  session  of  Congress  called  by  Pres- 
ident Wilson  in  1913  to  revise  the  tariff.  Un- 
derwood, who  was  chairman  of  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee  and  majority  leader  in 
the  House,'  took  a  prominent  part  in  framing 
the  tariff  law  t-hat  bears  his  name  (see  Tar- 
iff). In  1914  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate 
for  the  term  1915-1921. 

UNEMPLOYMENT.  In  all  countries,  at 
all  times,  a  certain  proportion  of  laborers — 
skilled  and  unskilled — are  out  of  work.  The 
term  unemployment  is  applied  in  economics 
to  this  industrial  condition.  The  unemployed 
may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes 
— those  who  are  out  of  work  because  of  con- 
ditions beyond  their  control,  and  those  in- 
dolent men  who  Avill  not  work  as  long  as  they 
can  obtain  a  living  by  their  wits.  This  article 
considers  only  the  first  class. 

Causes  of  Unemployment.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  chief  causes  of  unemploy- 
ment: 

1.  Changre  of  Season.  Some  occupations 
■depend   upon   the   season,    such    are   those    of 

bricklayers,  stonemasons,  and  others  in- 
cluded in  the  building  trades.  In  cold  coun- 
tries these  occupations  must  cease  during 
the  winter. 

2.  Fluctuation  of  Demand.  A  number  of 
industries  have  their  dull  seasons  and  their 
busy  seasons.  Clothing'  and  millinery  are 
good  illustrations  of  industries  of  this  class. 

3.  New  Inventions  and  Discoveries.  The 
introduction  of  new  machinery  and  of  new 
processes  of  manufacture  always  throw  a 
number  of  workmen  out  of  employment,  tem- 
porarily, but  men  thrown  o-ut  in  this  way  are 
usually  given  employment  in  some  other  oc- 
cupation, if  they  are  willing  to  make  the 
change. 

4.  Cliange  of  Location.  Occasionally  an 
industry  is  removed  to  a  distant  locality,  and 
some  of  the  Avorkmen  are  unable  or  unwill- 
ing to  remove  to  the  new  location  and  are  left 
without  employment.  This  condition  is  fre- 
quently brought  about  by  combining  firms  in- 
to a  trust.  For  economic  reasons  the  trust 
usually  closes  some  of  the  plants. 

5.  Congestion  of  Labor.  Every  year  thou- 
sands of  men  and  women  flock  to  the  great 
cities  for  the  purpose,  as  they  suppose,  of  bet- 
tering their  condition.  To  these  other  thou- 
sands   are    added    by    immigration.      Usually 


there  are  more  laborers  in   large  cities  than 
the  regular  industries  can  profitably  employ. 

6.  Industrial  Depression.  During  periods 
of  prosperity  there  is  a  tendency  to  produce 
commodities  in  excess  of  the  demand  for  them. 
In  course  of  time  the  market  becomes  over- 
stocked, manufacturers  have  their  capital  in- 
vested in  products  that  they  cannot  sell,  and 
production  Is  greatly  restricted  or  entirely 
suspended.  When  this  occurs,  large  numbers 
of  workmen  are  without  jobs. 

7.  Labor  Troubles.  Disagreements  be- 
tween employers  and  employes  over  wages 
and  other  conditions  all  too  frequently  lead 
to  strikes  and  lockouts,  causing  large  num- 
bers to  be  thrown  out  of  employment  for  in- 
definite periods.  In  these  contests  both 
parties  generally  lose.  See  Labor  Organiza- 
tions; Strike. 

Means  of  Prevention.  From  the  nature  of 
the  problem"  statistics  of  unemployment  are 
incomplete,  and  consequently  are  of  little 
value.  Much  time  and  effort  have  been 
expended  in  trying  tcf  solve  the  problem,  yet 
it  is  found  that  the  unemployed  in  the 
United  States  include  from  12.5  to  27  per 
cent  of  the  laboring  population.  This  means 
that  at  all  times  there  are  several  million 
idle  workmen.  The  following  measures  have 
been,  taken  or  sugg€sted  to  remedy  this 
condition : 

1.  Labor  Bureaus.  The  establishing  of 
labor  bureaus,  which  register  applications  for 
positions  and  calls  for  workmen,  has  been 
found  an  excellent  means  of  bringing  the 
workman  and  the  employer  together.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Labor  through 
branch  bureaus  located  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  is  serving  as  a  general  clearing 
house  for  the  unemployed,  and  its  services 
are  very  beneficial.  A  number  of  states  also 
have  established  free  employment  bureaus. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  many  private 
bureaus   that  operate  on  a  commission  basis. 

2.  Publishingr  Labor  Conditions.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  those  who  have  devoted  much 
study  to  this  problem  that  regular  publica- 
tion by  responsible  authorities,  state  or  na- 
tional, of  the  condition  of  the  labor  market 
in  great  cities  might  check  the  influx  of  la- 
borers to  these  centers. 

3.  Shorter  Days.  Some  recommend  the 
adopting  of  a  shorter  day,  so  it  would  require 
more  workmen  to  keep  prodviction  up  to  the 
standard.  However,  the  results  of  this  ex- 
periment everywhere  it  has  been  tried  have 
not  shown  the  measure  to  be  effective. 

4.  Restriction  of  Immigration.  A  large 
proportion  of  immigrants  remain  in  the  ports 
where  they  land,  the  balance  go  to  other 
cities  or  to  mining  regions,  where  there  is 
usually  a  congestion  of  labor. 

5.  Agricultural  Colonies.  With  rare  ex- 
ceptions there  is  a  scarcity  of  labor  in  the 
country.  Could  many  of  these  workmen  who 
are  out  of  employment  be  induced  to  remove 


UNGAVA 


3668 


UNIFORMS 


to  farms,  they  might  become  prosperous,  but 
special  inducements  are  necessary  to  lead 
them  to  make  this  change.  States  having 
large  areas  of  vacant  land,  philanthropic 
organizations  and  the  United  States  govern- 
ment are  interested  in  establishing  farm 
colonies. 

UNGAVA,  ung  gah'  va,  formerly  a  terri- 
tory of  Canada,  but  united  to  Quebec  in 
1912,  the  year  in  which  so  many  provincial 
boundaries  in  the  Dominion  were  changed. 
In  the  same  year  the  province  of  Quebec 
formed  a  new  ten'itory  under  its  jurisdiction, 
called  the  Territory  of  New  Quebec.  It 
includes  Ungava  and  Labrador,  and  has  an 
area  of  351,780  square  miles.  The  population 
is  about  14,300;  of  these  8,800  are  white 
people,  3,500  are  Indians  and  2,000  are  Eski- 
mos.   See  Labrador. 

UNGULA'  TES,  an  order  of  mammals  in- 
cluding the  buffalo,  camel,  cow,  deer,  ele- 
phant, pig,  goat,  sheep,  and  related  animals, 
generally  characterized  by  strong  molar 
teeth  for  the  chewing  of  vegetable  food; 
horny  hoofs,  which  enclose  their  toes;  and, 
in  many  cases,  by  the  ability  to  run  with 
speed.  Ungulates  are  the  only  animals  that 
have  horns.  They  are  important  in  human 
economy,  funishing  man  with  food,  clothing, 
working  power  and  means  of  transporta- 
tion. 

Related  Articles.       Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 

Antelope  Elephant              Ibex 

Boar  Giraffe                   Peccary 

Camel  Goat                        Rhinoceros 

Cattle  Hippopotamus  Sheep 

Deer  Horse                    Tapir 

U'NICORN,  a  fabulous  animal  of  Greek 
and  Roman  mythology,  similar  to  a  horse  but 
having  a  horn  on  its  forehead.  With  the  lion 
it  forms  a  part  of  the  British  coat  of  arms. 

UNIFORMS,  Military  and  Naval,  A 
uniform  is  a  distinguishing  dress  worn  by 
members  of  armies,  navies  and  other  organi- 
zations. This  article  treats  of  military  and 
naval  uniforms  only.  Since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  the  military  uniforms 
of  the  leading  nations  have  been  radically 
changed.  The  display  dress  of  former  times 
has  been  replaced  by  one  designed  especially, 
for  comfort  and  service.  The  change  was 
inaugurated  by  Great  Britain,  because  at  the 
beginning  of  the  South  African  War  the 
uniforms  of  the  British  soldiers  were  too 
heavy  for  service  in  a  hot  country. 

The  old  uniforms  were  replaced  by  those 
of  khaki.  The  color  adopted  was  the  same 
as  that  of  the  khaki-colored  uniforms  used  in 


India.  The  cut  was  loose;  the  coat  had  patch 
pockets  and  the  trousers  were  tight  at  the 
knee.  The  lower  leg  was  protected  by  boots, 
leather  leggings,  or  strips  of  strong  woolen 
material  called  puttees,  which  were  wound 
around  the  leg.  This  type  of  uniform  proved 
to  be  so  comfortable  and  serviceable  that  it 
has  been  practically  copied  by  all  the  lead- 
ing nations,  each  making  such  modifications 
in  color  and  minor  particulars  as  would  dis- 
tinguish its  uniform  from  tliat  of  other  na- 
tions. The  service  uniform  of  the  German 
army  was  a  greenish-gray,  and  that  of  Italy 
is  a  brownish-gray.  The  French,  however, 
still  retain  the  blue  and  red  color  scheme  of 
former  days. 

United  States.  The  service  dress  of  the 
United  States  army  is  of  khaki;  the  cut  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  British  uniform  de- 
scribed above.  A  cap  of  the  same  material 
and  color  is  worn,  but  when  the  soldier  is  in 
battle  this  cap  is  replaced  by  a  metal  hel- 
met. 

Branch  and  Line  Badges.  Each 
bi'anch  is  distinguished  by  a  badge.  Mem- 
bers of  the  general  staff  wear  the  United 
States  coat  of  arms  of  gold  and  enamel  on  a 
silver  star.  A  shield  marks  the  department 
of  the  adjutant-general,  and  the  inspector- 
general  is  designated  by  a  crossed  sword  and 
fasces  with  a  wreath,  A  sword  and  key 
crossed  on  a  wheel  and  surmounted  by  a 
spread  eagle  is  the  badge  of  the  quarter- 
master-general. ]\Iembei's  of  the  medical 
staff  wear  the  caduceus,  or  wand  of  mer- 
cury; engineers  are  indicated  by  a  metal 
castle,  and  members  of  the  signal  corps  by 
two  crossed  signal  flags  and  a  torch  in  gold 
and  silver.  The  badges  for  officers  are  as 
follows :  infantry,  two  crossed  rifles  with  the 
number  of  the  regiment  above  the  intersec- 
tion ;  for  cavalry,  two  crossed  sabers,  and  for 
artillery,  two  crossed  guns. 

Distinctions  in  Rank.  A  brigadier-general 
is  designated  by  one  star  on  the  shoulder 
straps,  and  a  major-general  by  two  stars. 
On  shoulder  knot  and  shoulder  loop  the  gen- 
eral wears  a  coat  of  arms  between  two  stars ; 
lieutenant-general,  one  large  star  between 
two  small  ones;  major-general,  two  silvei: 
stars;  brigadier-general,  one  silver  star;  col- 
onel, a  silver  eagle;  lieutenant-colonel,  a  sil- 
ver leaf;  major,  a  gold  leaf;  captain,  two  sil- 
ver bars;  flrst  lieutenant,  one  silver  bar;  sec- 
ond lieutenant,  one  gold  bar.  The  rank  of 
noncommissioned    officers    is    indicated    by 


UNION 


3669 


UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 


chevrons  on  the  coat.  All  officers,  without  dis- 
tinction of  rank,  wear  the  letters  U.  S.  in 
Gothic  design  on  the  collar. 

Gold  chevrons  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
sleeve  of  soldiers  returning  from  the  World 
War  indicated  the  length  of  service  abroad, 
there  being  one  chevi'on  for  every  six  months 
of  service. 

The  Navy.  The  uniforms  worn  in  the 
United  States  navy  may  be  considered  typical 
of  those  in  other  navies,  since  naval  uniforms 
are  similar  throughout  the  world.  Three 
uniforms — dress,  undress  and  service — are 
furnished  to  every  member  of  the  navy.  The 
dress  uniform  consists  of  a  double-breasted 
blue  broadcloth  coat  with  a  high  collar  and 
gilt  buttons;  blue  trousers  with  a  strij)  of 
gold  lace  along  the  seam;  epaulets,  hat  and 
sword.  The  service  uniform  includes  a  blue 
or  white  blouse,  with  white  braid.  This  or 
the  undress  unifonn  is  worn  during  hot 
weather  and  in  the  tropics. 

Officers  and  cadets  wear  on  the  cap  a  sil- 
ver shield  surmounted  by  a  spread  eagle,  the 
design  being  mounted  on  two  gold  anchors 
crossed.  Rank  is  indicated  by  special  em- 
blems on  collar,  epaulet  and  shoulder  strap. 
An  admiral  wears  on  the  sleeve  two  strips 
of  two-inch  gold  lace  with  a  one-inch  strip 
between;  a  rear-admiral  wears  a  half-inch 
strip  of  gold  lace  above  a  two-inch  strip; 
captain,  four  half-inch  strips;  commander, 
three  strips;  lieutenant-commander,  two 
half -inch  strips  with  a  quarter-inch  strip  be- 
tween ;  lieutenant,  two  half-inch  strips ;  lieu- 
tenant (junior  grade)  one  half-inch  strip 
with  one  quarter-inch  strip  above;  ensign, 
one  half -inch  strip;  cadet,  one  quarter-inch 
strip. 

UNION,  Act  of^  an  act  of  the  British 
Parliament  in  1841  for  uniting  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada.  It  was  the  result  of  the  Earl 
of  Durham's  famous  Report  on  the  Affairs  of 
British  North  America,  and  was  favored  at 
the  time  by  the  legislatures  of  both  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada.  Under  the  Act  of 
Union,  Canada  was  governed  by  a  legislative 
council  of  not  more  than  twenty  members, 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a  legislative 
assembly  in  which  the  provinces  had  equal 
representation.  It  was  never  entirely  satis- 
factory in  its  operation,  however,  and  was 
suceeded,  in  1867,  by  the  organization  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA,  a  self- 
governing    state    of    the    British    Empire, 


widely  known  for  its  mineral  wealth  and  con- 
sisting of  the  provinces  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Natal,  Orange  Free  State  and  the 
Transvaal.  It  was  established  by  an  act  of 
Parliament  in  1909.  It  has  an  area  of  473,- 
075  squares  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
6,000,000,  one-fifth  of  whom  are  whites,  chief- 
ly of  Dutch  and  English  descent. 

Agriculture.  The  country  consists  of 
plateaus  and  rolling  plains,  or  veldts,  which 
are  almost  treeless  and  afford  excellent  pas- 
turage. The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the 
soil  is  fertile.  Wherever  there  is  sufficient 
rainfall  excellent  crops  can  be  grown,  but 
stock  raising  is  the  chief  agricultural  occupa- 
tion. Millions  of  sheep  are  pastured  on  the 
prairies,  and  wool  is  the  staple  of  wealth 
among  the  farmers.  Angora  goats  and 
cattle  are  also  raised  in  large  numbers,  and 
ostrich  farming  has  become  an  important 
industry.  Sugar  cane  and  tea  are  success- 
fully cultivated  in  the  warmest  regions. 
Wheat  and  fruits  are  important  products  of 
the  Cape  Province.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  has  such  a  variety 
of  climate  as  to  admit  of  the  successful  culti- 
vation of  all  crops  within  its  borders. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  mines  constitute 
the  greatest  source  of  wealth,  and  the  dis- 
covery of  the  vast  deposits  of  gold  and  rich 
diamond  fields  brought  the  country  into 
universal  notice.  The  principal  gold  mines 
are  in  the  Witwatersrand  in  the  Transvaal, 
and  in  1918  the  output  of  these  mines  ex- 
ceeded $188,615,000  in  value.  The  most  valu- 
able diamond  mines  are  around  Kimberley, 
and  the  yearly  output  of  diamonds  amounts 
to  about  $50,000,000.  There  are  valuable 
copper  mines  in  Namaqualand,  and  extensive 
deposits  of  coal  and  iron  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  Cape  Province  and  Natal.  Silver, 
graphite  and  manganese  occur  in  paying 
quantities,  and  marble  and  other  building 
stone  are  found. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  The 
roads  are  fair  in  the  settled  districts,  and 
mail  carts  and  other  wagons  connect  large 
towns  off  the  railways  with  these  lines  of 
transportation.  All  the  important  ports  of 
the  south  and  east  coast  are  connected  by  rail- 
way, and  these  lines  are  joined  to  the  Cape- 
to-Cario  Railway,  extending  from  Cape  Town 
into  the  interior  of  the  continent.  At  the  end 
of  1916  there  were  9,419  miles  of  railways 
in  the  South  African  railway  system.  There 
were  over  16,000  miles  of  telegraph  line,  and 


UNIONTOWN 


3670 


UNITARIANS 


the  telephone  lines  carried  over  101,000  miles 
of  wire.  The  countrj'  has  over  2,500  post- 
offices  and  an  efficient  mail  service. 

Government.  The  government  is  organ- 
ized on  the  same  plan  as  the  governments  of 
Canada  and  Australia.  The  chief  executive 
is  the  Governor-General,  who  is  appointed 
hy  the  Crown.  He  is  aided  by  an  Execu- 
tive Council  of  his  own  selection.  The  Parlia- 
ment consists  of  a  Senate  of  forty  members 
(eight  appointive  and  thirty-two  elective) 
and  a  House  of  Assembly  of  121  members 
elected  by  the  people.  Each  province  has  its 
local  government,  consisting  of  a  lieutenant- 
governor  and  a  legislative  assembly.  The 
courts  are  guided  by  Dutch  law  in  settling 
civil  suits,  and  both  Dutch  and  English 
languages  are  used.  Both  of  these  languages 
are  taught  in  the  schools. 

History.  The  early  historj'  of  the  prov- 
inces is  given  under  their  respective  titles. 
Before  the  South  African  War  there  was  a 
constant  struggle  between  the  Dutch  and 
English  settlers.  The  war  gave  the  English 
the  ascendency,  and  the  ablest  of  the  Dutch 
leaders  soon  joined  the  English  leaders  in  an 
effort  to  establish  a  permanent  government 
that  would  be  satisfactory  to  all  parties ;  their 
efforts  resulted  in  establishing  a  federated 
state  including  the  five  provinces.  Several 
clashes  with  the  natives  have  occun-ed,  and 
soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
the  country  was  threatened  with  a  serious 
rebellion,  but  the  rebels  were  defeated  and 
order  was  restored. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal 

Province  of  the  Orang-e  Free   State 

Cape  Town  Pretoria 

Johannesburg  South  African  "War 

Kimberley  Transvaal,  The 

UNIONTOWN,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of 
Fayette  County,  seventy  miles  southeast  of 
Pittsburgh,  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the 
Pennsylvania  railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  a 
region  rich  in  coal,  iron  ore,  glass  sand  and 
natural  gas,  and  its  industrial  plants  include 
lumber  mills,  coke  ovens,  steel  works,  foun- 
dries, machine  shops  and  glass  and  other  fac- 
tories. The  principal  buildings  are  a  hospi- 
tal, a  courthouse  and  a  county  home  for  the 
poor.  Uniontown  was  settled  in  1767,  and 
the  borough  was  incorporated  in  1796.  Pop- 
ulation, 1910,  13,344;  in  1917,  21,600  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

U'NIT,  a  single  thing  regarded  as  an  un- 
divided  whole.     In   arithmetic  the  terai   is 


also  used  to  denote  the  least  whole  number, 
one  or  unity,  represented  by  the  figure  1.  In 
mathematics  and  physics,  a  unit  is  any  known 
determinate  quantity,  by  which  any  other 
quantity  of  the  same  kind  is  measured,  as 
a  foot,  a  second,  a  degree,  a  square  yard  (see 
Weights  axd  Measures).  Below  are  given 
the  more  important  special  units  used  in 
physics. 

The  unit  of  specific  gravity,  for  solids  or 
liquids,  is  the  specific  gravity  of  one  cubic 
foot  of  distilled  water  at  62  °  F. ;  for  air  and 
gases,  of  one  cubic  foot  of  atmospheric  air 
at  62  °F.  The  unit  of  heat,  or  the  thermal 
unit,  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
one  pound  of  pure  water  from  a  temperature 
of  39  °F.  to  a  temperature  of  40°  F.,  or,  in 
the  metric  system,  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
quired to  raise  a  gram  of  pure  water  from  a 
temperature  of  3.94°  C.  to  4.94°  C. 

In  electricity  the  unit  of  quantity  is  that 
quantity  of  electricity,  which,  with  an  electro- 
motive force  of  one  volt,  will  flow  through  a 
resistance  of  1,000,000  ohms  in  one  second; 
it  is  called  a  farad.  The  unit  of  electric  cur- 
rent is  a  current  of  one  farad  a  second.  The 
imit  of  physical  work  is  that  amount  of  work 
which  will  produce  a  velocity  of  one  meter 
per  second  in  a  mass  weighing  one  gram, 
after  acting  upon  it  a  second  of  time.  The 
dynamic  unit  is  the  unit  expressing  the  quan- 
tity of  force  or  the  amount  of  work  done,  as 
the  footpound. 

In  physical  calculations  the  sj^stem  of  units 
now  in  general  use  is  that  known  as  the  C. 
G.  S.  System,  based  upon  the  metric  system 
of  weights  and  measures,  in  which  the  centi- 
meter is  the  unit  of  length,  the  gram  is  the 
unit  of  mass  and  the  second  the  unit  of  time. 
Consequently,  the  unit  of  area  is  the  square 
centimeter;  the  unit  of  volume,  the  cubic  cen- 
timeter ;  the  unit  of  velocity,  a  velocity  of  one 
centimeter  per  second.  The  unit  of  momen- 
tum is  the  momentum  of  a  gram  moving  with 
a  unit  velocity. 

For  definitions  of  units  of  measurement  in 
other  fields  of  work,  see  articles  on  those 
units,  as  Foot;  Pound;  Dollar. 

UNITA'RIANS,  a  religious  denomination 
believing  in  one  God,  the  Father,  and  not  in 
a  Trinity  of  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Spirit. 
They  accept  Christ  as  a  divinely  appointed 
teacher,  to  be  followed,  but  not  worshiped, 
and  regard  the  Bible  as  an  endeavor  of  the 
religion  of  the  spirit  to  express  itself  in  lit- 
erature.   The  Unitarians  have  no  creed ;  their 


UNITED  DAUGHTERS 


3671       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


faith  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words  of 
James  Freeman  Clarke,  "the  fatherhood  of 
God,  the  brotherhood  of  man,  the  leadership 
of  Jesus,  salvation  by  character  and  the  prog- 
ress of  mankind  upward  and  onward  for- 
ever." In  1S19,  Dr.  Channing  of  Boston  led 
a  movement  which  turned  150  of  the  New 
England  churches  to  Unitarianism.  See 
Chaxxing,  William  Ellery. 

UNITED  DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  CON- 
FEDERACY. See  Confederacy,  United 
Daughters  op  the. 

UNITED  KINGDOM,  The,  officially  The 
United  IviNGDOii  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  a  term  formally  adopted  in  1801  to 
indicate  the  political  union  of  England,  Ire- 
land, Scotland  and  "Wales.  See  Great  Brit- 
ain. 

UNITED  PROVINCES  OF  AGRA  AND 
OUDH,  oi(d,  a  province  of  British  India, 
formerly  known  as  Northwestern  Prov- 
inces and  Oudh,  oecupj'ing  the  Upper  Gan- 
ges valley.  It  has  an  area  of  107,267  square 
miles,  of  which  83,109  belong  to  Oudh  and 
24,158  to  Agra.  The  northern  pai't  is  in  the 
mountainous  region  of  the  Himalaj'a,  but  the 
rest  of  the  province  is  a  low,  fertile  plain 
watered  by  the  Ganges,  the  Jumna  and  a 
number  of  other  streams.  In  the  southern 
part  the  rainfall  is  uncertain,  and  irrigation 
is  necessary.  About  one-fifth  of  the  culti- 
vated land  in  the  province  is  under  irrigation. 
The  pro%dnee  includes  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive agricultural  regions  of  India;  the 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  rice,  barley,  millet  and 
sugar  cane.  Other  products  of  importance 
are  cotton,  maize,  indigo  and  opium. 

Modem  cotton  mills  are  in  operation  at 
Cawnpore,  but  in  general.  Oriental  methods 
of  manufacture  are  employed.  The  province 
is  Avell  supplied  with  railroads,  and  the  Gan- 
ges affords  good  water  transportation.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  raw  cotton,  wheat, 
hides,  sugar,  oil  seeds,  indigo  and  opium. 
Coal,  salt,  cotton  goods  and  metals  are  im- 
ported. 

In  1911,  the  date  of  the  last  government 
census,  the  population  was  12,558,000.  About 
one-sixth  of  the  inhabitants  are  Mohamme- 
dans, afid  about  250,000  are  Christians;  the 
remainder  are  Buddhists.  The  chief  execu- 
tive is  a  lieutenant-governor,  appointed  by 
the  Governor-General  of  India.  There  is  a 
legislative  council  of  fifty  members.  The 
province  is  di^^ded  into  districts  and  munic- 
ipalities for  local  administration. 


UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD.    See 

Coast  Guard. 
UNITED      STATES      COURTS.        See 

Courts,  subhead  United  States  Courts. 

UNITED  STATES  INDIAN  TRAINING 
AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL,  at  one  time 
the  largest  and  most  successful  school  for 
American  Indians,  was  founded  at  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  in  1879.  Its  central  purpose  was  to 
provide  a  school  where  such  mental,  moral 
and  manual  training  could  be  secured  by 
Indian  boys  and  girls  that  thej^  w^ould  be  led 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  modern  civilization 
and  desire  to  attain  to  it.  Besides  the  train- 
ing in  the  common  manual  trades  and  ele- 
mentary instruction  in  the  common  branches 
of  study,  an  "outing"  system  was  provided. 
Under  this  plan,  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
students  were  sent  out  into  the  homes  of 
white  people  as  servants,  to  study  and  live  the 
life  of  the  Caucasian.  After  a  remarkably 
successful  career  of  forty  years,  during  which 
it  educated  thousands  of  Indian  youth,  many 
of  whom  returned  to  their  people  and  became 
teachers,  the  school  was  abandoned  in  1918, 
because  the  opening  of  numerous  similar 
schools  near  Indian  reservations  made  its 
continuance  unnecessar3^ 

NITED  STATES  OF 
AMERICA,  one  of  the 
world's  gi'eat  powers,  the 
oldest  of  the  great  repub- 
lics, although  one  of  the 
youngest  nations.  It  oc- 
cupies the  central  part  of 
North  America,  having 
Canada  for  its  northern 
neighbor  and  Mexico  on 
its  southwestern  border. 
The  tides  of  the  Atlantic 
wash  its  eastern  shores, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  its 
southern,  while  the  west- 
ern look  out  upon  the  broad  Pacific,  aptly 
styled  the  "American  Ocean."  The  greatest 
extent  from  east  to  west  is  3,100  miles,  and 
from  north  to  south  1,700  miles.  The  area 
of  continental  United  States  is  3,026,789 
square  miles,  of  Avhich  43,000  square  miles 
are  water.  But  to  this  area  the  outlying 
possessions  add  about  716,700  square  miles, 
making  the  total  area  of  the  territory  under 
control  of  the  United  States  government 
3,743,478  square  miles.  The  Biitish  Empire 
and  China  are  larger  than  the  United  States, 
including     its     outlying     possessions,     and 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA        3672       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Brazil  is  larger  than  continental  United 
States.  The  British  Empire  and  China  have 
each  about  four  times  the  population  of  the 
United  States,  but  Brazil  has  only  about  one- 
fourth  as  many  inhabitants. 

Geographic  Advantages.  Human  develop- 
ment has  alwaj's  been  influenced  by  geo- 
grapliic  conditions,  chief  among  ■which  are 
climate,  soil  and  relative  location.  When 
these  conditions  are  applied  to  the  United 
States,  it  is  seen  that  it  is  more  highly  favored 
geographically  than  most  other  nations.  The 
country  lies  "wholly  within  the  north  tem- 
perate zone,  which  has  been  the  home  of  the 
great  ci\-ilizations  of  history ;  it  lies  between 
two  great  oceans,  almost  equally  distant  from 
the  other  great  land  masses  of  the  earth,  with 
which  it  has  easy  communication;  mountain 
and  valley,  hill  and  plain  are  so  interspersed 
as  to  adapt  the  country  as  a  whole  to  all  lines 
of  industry;  while  the  great  interior,  with  its 
broad  plains,  fertile  soil  and  abundant  rain- 
fall is  the  richest  agTicultural  region  of  the 
world.  Great  rivers  furnish  natural  water- 
ways leading  far  into  the  interior  and  afford- 
ing inexpensive  transportation,  while  thou- 
sands of  mountain  streams  turn  the  wheels  of 
industry.  The  ease  with  which  railways  can 
be  eonstnicted  has  caused  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  be  bound  together  with  bands  of 
steel,  and  commodious  harbors  on  the  sea- 
boards accommodate  ships  laden  with  the 
products  of  all  climes.  These  conditions, 
combined  with  the  energy,  intelligence  and 
genius  of  the  American  people,  have  placed 
the  United  States  in  the  foremost  position 
among  the  great  nations  of  the  world. 

Boundaries  and  Coastal  Features.  West 
of  the  05th  meridian  the  northern  boundary 
is  formed  by  the  49th  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude until  the  Pacific  coast  is  reached;  then 
it  extends  southward  to  the  Strait  of  Juan  de 
Fuca,  thus  placing  Vancouver  Island  within 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  East  of  the  95th 
meridian  the  northern  boundary  is  very  irreg- 
ular. That  portion  of  it  between  the  merid- 
ian and  Lake  Superior  is  formed  by  the  Rainy 
and  Pigeon  rivers.  Through  the  Great  Lakes 
the  boundarv'  line  follows  the  deepest  channel, 
which  di\'ides  Lakes  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario 
nearly  equally  between  the  two  nations,  but 
gives  the  larger  part  of  Lake  Superior  to  the 
United  States.  Following  Lake  Ontario  the 
boundary  is  formed  for  a  short  distance  by 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  then  across  New 
York   and   Vermont   by  the  45th   parallel; 


thence  it  follows  the  Height  of  Land  in  an 
irregular  course  to  the  northeast,  until  the 
northerly  point  of  Maine  is  reached.  From 
there  the  boundary  is  completed  by  the  Saint 
Johns  River,  a  short,  arbitrary  line  and  the 
Saint  Croix  River.  A  portion  of  the  south- 
ern boundary  is  formed  by  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  northern  boundaiy  affords  the  finest 
example  in  the  world  of  international  faith. 
By  mutual  agreement  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  there  has  never  been 
a  fortification  erected  along  its  entire  length 
nor  has  either  nation  ever  placed  a  warship 
or  even  a  gunboat  on  the  Great  I^akes.  The 
integritj'  of  the  boundary  has  never  beeil 
violated. 

The  prominent  projections  are,  on  the  At- 
lantic coast.  Cape  Cod,  Cape  Hatteras  and 
the  peninsula  of  Florida;  on  the  Gulf  coast, 
Cape  San  Bias  and  the  delta  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Cape  Mendo- 
cino. The  important  coast  waters  are,  on  the 
Atlantic,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Long  Island 
Sound,  Delaware  Bay,  Chesapeake  Bay,  Al- 
bemarle Sound  and  Pamlico  Sound;  on  the 
Gulf,  Apalachee  Bay  and  Mobile  Bay,  and  on 
the  Pacific,  San  Francisco' Bay  and  Puget 
Sound,  Delaware  Bay,  Chesapeake  Bay,  Al- 
the  Great  Lakes,  is  12,101  miles.  The  Atlan- 
tic coast  is  6,017  miles;  the  Gulf.  3,551,  and 
the  Pacific,  2,533. 

The  chief  islands  on  the  Atlantic  coast  are 
Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Long,  Man- 
hattan, Staten,  Roanoke  and  Florida  Keys; 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Tortugas,  Saint 
George's,  Santa  Rosa,  the  Chandeleur  group, 
Galveston  and  Padre;  on  the  Pacific,  Santa 
Catalina,  the  Santa  Barbara  group  and  San 
Juan. 

Surface  and  Drainage 

The  vast  extent  of  territory  embraced 
within  the  United  States  contains  a  great  va- 
riety of  surface,  but  this  is  naturally  di\nded 
into  five  regions — the  Atlantic  Slope,  the  Ap- 
palachian Highlands,  the  Central  Plain,  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Highlands  and  the  Pacific 
Slope. 

The  Atlantic  Slope.  This  region  embraces 
a  nan'ow  strip  of  land  extending  from  the 
northeastern  corner  of  Maine  to  Florida.  In 
the  northern  part  it  is  extremely  narrow, 
and  the  slope  is  steep.  The  irregularity  of 
the  coast  line  produces  numerous  good  har- 
bors, upon  which  some  of  the  largest  cities 
of  the  countiy  are  located.  -  Chief  among 
these  indentations  are  Boston  Bay,  New  York 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3674       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Bay,  Delaware  Bay  and  Chesapeake  Bay. 
South  of  Long  Island  the  coast  region  con- 
sists of  a  tract  of  level  land,  varying  from  75 
to  300  miles  in  width,  known  as  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain.  Along  the  shore  and  for  a 
short  distance  inland  the  surface  is  low, 
level  and,  in  many  places,  marshy.  The 
land  then  rises  gradually  until  it  meets  the 
Piedmont  region,  or  foothills  of  the  Ap- 
palachians, which  consist  of  the  remains  of  an 
old,  worn-down  mountain  system,  fomaed 
previous  to  the  present  Appalachian  system. 
Where  the  plain  joins  the  Piedmont  region, 
there  is  a  marked  elevation,  known  as  the 
Fall  Line  because  the  rivei'S  reaching  the 
Atlantic  fall  over  this  uplift,  producing  nu- 
merous rapids  and  affording  excellent  water 
power. 

Appalachian  Highlands.  This  region 
constitutes  the  eastern  continental  barrier 
and  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence 
to  within  about  300  miles  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  trend  of  the  mountains  is  from 
the  northeast  to  the  southwest.  The  region 
consists  of  a  low  plateau,  from  1,500  to  3,000 
feet  in  altitude,  upon  which  are  a  numljer 
of  parallel  ranges  of  mountains.  The  north- 
ern part  of  the  plateau  is  quite  broken,  and 
the  mountains  are  disconnected,  forming  sep- 
arate ranges  or  groups,  as  the  Green  Moun- 
tains, the  White  Mountains  and  the  Adiron- 
dacks.  South  of  this  division,  however,  the 
plateau  is  continuous  and  is  sunnounted 
by  a  number  of  joarallel  ranges  of  low  moun- 
tains, such  as  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Alleghan- 
ies  and  others.  The  highest  peaks  in  these 
highlands  are  Mount  Washington  (6,293 
feet),  in  the  White  Mountains,  and  Mount 
Mitchell  (6,711  feet),  near  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  plateau.  On  their  western 
slope  these  highlands  descend  by  a  series  of 
foothills  to  the  prairie  region  in  the  central 
plain. 

Central  Plain.  This  occupies  the  vast 
interior  of  the  country,  and  embraces  that 
portion  of  the  great  central  plain  of  North 
America  included  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  naturally  divided 
into  three  regions,  the  great  plain,  the  lake 
region  and  the  gulf  region. 

The  Great  Plain.  East  of  the  Mississippi, 
this  plain  occupies  that  portion  of  the  inte- 
rior between  the  Ohio  River  and  the  lake  re- 
gion. Here  it  descends  from  the  western 
foothills  of  the  Appalachians  to  the  broad, 
^evel  prairies  which  compose  most   of  the 


states  bordering  on  the  Mississippi.  This 
stretch  of  level  or  slightly  rolling  land  con- 
tinues westward,  until  it  rises  in  gradual 
swells  to  meet  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  highlands,  where  it  attains  an  ele- 
vation of.  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Black  Hills  in  South  Da- 
kota and  Wyoming,  the  Ozark  Plateau,  which 
extends  eastward  from  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Kansas,  crossing  Arkansas,  the  south- 
ern part  of  Missouri  and  the  southern  part  of 
Illinois,  this  level  tract  of  land  extends 
southward  into  Texas  and  westward  until  it 
joins  the  Staked  Plains  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  that  state.  With  the  exception  of  the 
forests  in  Northern  Minnesota  and  in  the 
Ozark  Region,  this  entire  portion  of  the 
country  is  nearly  treeless.  Timber  is  found 
only  along  streams  and  in  regions  where 
trees  have  been  planted  by  settlers.  These 
vast  tracts  of  level,  treeless  land  are  generally 
known  as  prairies.  Their  deep,  rich  soil, 
abundant  rainfall  and  salubrious  climate 
make  the  prairies  the  most  valuable  agricul- 
tural region  in  the  world. 

Lake  Region.  The  Lake  region  constitutes 
that  portion  of  the  United  States  which  drains 
into  the  Great  Lakes,  and  thence  through  the 
Saint  Lawrence  River  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  Height  of  Land,  forming  the  southern 
boundary  of  this  region,  is  nearly  parallel 
with  the  southern  shores  of  Lakes  Ontario  and 
Erie.  It  extends  across  the  northern  part  of 
Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois,  thence  turns 
northward,  to  include  the  eastern  portion  of 
Wisconsin,  all  of  Michigan  and  the  north- 
western part  of  Minnesota.  The  region 
within  the  United  States  is  not  large.  It  is 
either  level  or  rolling,  nowhere  having  high 
altitudes  and  much  of  it  was  formerly  heavily 
timbered,  but  the  lumbering  interests  have 
greatly  reduced  the  forest  area.  The  most 
distinctive  feature  of  this  region  is  the 
presence  of  the  great  inland  seas,  which  lie 
wholly  or  partially  within  its  boundaries. 

Gulf  Region.  The  Gulf  region  includes  the 
lowlands  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  extending  inland  until  they  meet  the 
foothills  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  this  plain  ex- 
tends northward  to  the  Ohio  River,  and  west 
of  the  Mississippi  it  extends  northward  to  the 
Ozark  Mountains.  Along  the  coast  the  land 
is  low,  level  and  swampy,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  immediately  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  I\Iississippi  River,  it  rises  gradually  to- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3675       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


ward  the  interior,  until  it  reaches  a  height  of 
300  to  500  feet.  The  plain  includes  all  of 
the  southern  and  southeastern  parts  of  Texas, 
and  in  that  state  it  is  from  150  to  200  miles  in 
width. 

Rocky  Mountain  Highlands.  This  region 
occupies  nearly  one-third  of  the  area  of  the 
country,  and  consists  of  a  great  plateau,  upon 
which  rise  several  ranges  of  mountains.  This . 
plateau  reaches  its  greatest  height  and  width 
in  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  Here  it  is  nearly 
1,000  miles  wide  and  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet 
in  altitude.  On  its  eastern  slope  it  rises  from 
the  plain  in  a  series  of  elevations,  until  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  which  form  its  eastern 
boundary,  are  reached.  These  extend  en- 
tirely across  the  countiy  and  contain  nu- 
merous peaks,  with  altitudes  of  14,000  feet 
or  more.  The  western  border  of  the  plateau 
is  formed  by  the  Cascade  Mountains,  in  the 
north,  and  their  southern  continuation,  the 
Sierra  Nevadas.  These  mountains  contain 
some  peaks  higher  than  those  found  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Their  eastern  slope,  since 
they  rise  from  the  plateau,  is  less  abrupt  than 
the  western,  which  descends  to  the  valley 
between  them  and  the  low  ranges. 

Between  these  mountain  barriers,  the  sur- 
face of  the  great  plateau  is  widely  diversified 
by  lesser  ranges,  extending  in  various  direc- 
tions. These  ranges  divide  this  vast  inland 
region  into  three  well-marked  divisions,  the 
Columbia  Plateau,  in  the  north;  the  Great 
Basin,  and  the  Colorado  Plateau.  The  first 
occupies  the  mountain  regions  of  Washing- 
ton, Oregon  and  Idaho.  The  Great  Basin  in- 
cludes nearly  all  Nevada  and  Utah  and  a 
small  portion  of  Oregon  and  California;  it 
is  entirely  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  its 
rivers  find  no  outlet,  hence  it  contains  a  num- 
ber of  salt  lakes  and  marshes,  the  most  noted 
among  which  is  Great  Salt  Lake.  South  of 
this,  and  occupying  a  small  part  of  Nevada, 
nearly  all  of  Colorado,  a  part  of  Utah,  most 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  and  the  south- 
ern part  of  California,  is  the  Colorado 
Plateau,  marked  by  many  high  peaks  and  the 
deep  gorges  of  its  streams.  Within  the 
Rocky  ]\Iountain  Highlands  are  located  sev- 
eral of  the  great  national  parks. 

The  Pacific  Slope.  Between  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Cascade  mountains  and  the  coast 
are  low  parallel  ranges,  known  as  the  Coast 
Ranges.  West  of  these  is  the  narrow  strip 
of  land  bordering  upon  the  ocean.  This  low 
land  is  much  narrower, than  that  bordering 


upon  the  Atlantic,  but  between  the  moun- 
tains are  several  valleys  noted  for  their  fer- 
tility. Chief  among  these  are  the  valleys 
of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  rivers, 
the  region  around  San  Francisco  Bay  and 
that  around  Puget  Sound.  Farther  inland, 
m  the  southeastern  part  of  California,  is 
Death  Valley,  a  remarkable  depression,  300 
feet  below  sea  level. 

Rivers.  Tlie  United  States  is  drained  by 
five  river  systems— the  Lake  svstem,  the  At- 
lantic system,  the  Gulf  system,  the  Pacific 
system  and  the  Great  Basin  system.  The 
portion  of  the  country  drained  "by  the  Lake 
system  is  comparatively  small,'  and  the 
streams  flowing  into  it  are  generally  short 
and  of  little  importance,  though  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River,  forming  the  outlet  of  this 
drainage  area,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
streams  in  North  America. 

Owing  to  the  position  of  the  Appalachian 
Highlands,  the  rivers  6f  the  Atlantic  sys- 
tem are  short  and  many  of  them  are  rapid. 
However,  the  largest  of  these  streams  enter 
the  ocean  by  broad  estuaries,  which  afford 
excellent  harbors,  and  some  of  them,  par- 
ticularly the  Hudson,  the  Delaware  and  the 
Potomac,  cut  their  way  through  the  moun- 
tains, forming  deep  gorges  remarkable  for 
their  beautiful  scenery.  The  most  important 
of  these  rivers,  in  order,  beginning  at  the 
north,  are  the  Penobscot,  the  Kennebec,  the 
Merrimac,  the  Connecticut,  the  Hudson,  the 
Delaware,  the  Potomac,  the  James,  the  Pedee, 
the  Santee,  the  Savannah  and  the  Altamaha. 
Most  of  these  streams  afford  excellent  water 
power  and  the  banks  of  the  Merrimac  and 
many  others  are  lined  with  factories. 

The  rivers  of  the  Gulf  system  include  the 
Appalachicola,  the  Alabama,  the  Pearl,  the 
Sabine,  the  Trinity,  the  Brazos,  the  Colorado 
of  Texas,  the  Nueces,  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Mississippi,  which  drains  by  far  the  largest 
part  of  the  country. 

The  rivers  of  the  Pacific  system  are  few, 
and  with  the  exception  of  the  Columbia, 
draining  the  northwestern  part  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  Colorado,  flowing  into  the  Gulf 
of  California,  they  are  all  short  and  small. 
Proceeding  southward  from  the  Columbia, 
those  worthy  of  mention  are  the  Klamath,  the 
Sacramento,  the  San  Joaquin  and  the  Sa- 
linas. The  Colorado,  foi-med  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Green  and  the  Grand  in  Utah, 
drains  a  portion  of  the  plateau  between  the 
Rocky  and  the   Sierra  Nevada  mountains. 


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This  stream  is  remarkable  for  the  gorges 
•which  it  has  formed  in  the  middle  and  lower 
parts  of  its  course. 

The  Great  Basin  system  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  small  streams  which  flow  into  Great 
Salt  Lake  and  a  few  smaller  lakes,  or  those 
which  lose  themselves  in  salt  marshes  in  the 
desert.  The  Humboldt  is  the  only  important 
river  that  loses  itself  in  the  sands. 

Lakes.  Fully  one-half  of  the  area  of  lakes 
Superior,  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario  belongs 
to  the  United  States,  and  all  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan is  within  her  boundaries.  In  addition 
to  these  great  bodies  of  water,  the  northern 
part  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  contains 
many  lakes  noted  for  their  clear  waters  and 
beautiful  scenery.  Chief  among  these  is 
Moosehead,  in  Maine;  Winnepesaukee,  in 
New  Hampshire,  and  Champlain,  between 
Vermont  and  New  York.  The  northern  parts 
of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  are 
also  studded  with  lakes,  and  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  are  found  numerous  lakes, 
some  of  which,  like  Lake  Tahoe,  are  noted 
for  their  high  altitude,  others  for  their  great 
depth,  abundance  of  fish  and  beautiful  sur- 
roundings. The  Great  Basin  has  Great  Salt 
Lake  and  numerous  other  smaller  bodies  of 
salt  water. 

Scenery.      For      variety,      beauty      and 
grandeur,  the  scenery  of  the  United  States 
is  unequaled  by  that  of  any  other  country. 
The  Appalachian  Highlands  are  noted  for 
their  mountain  lakes,  sparkling  streams  and 
deep  gorges,  through  which  rivers  find  their 
way  to  the  sea.    Notable  among  the  last  are 
the   Crawford  Notch,  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains; the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson,  and  the 
Delaware  Water    Gap.     The  central   plain 
presents  to  view  vast  areas  of  fertile  fields. 
The  expanse  of  fresh  water  afforded  by  the 
Great  Lakes  is  nowhere  equaled  and  is  ap- 
proached only  by  the  great  lakes  in  the  equa- 
torial regions  of  Africa.     The  only  cataract 
comparable  with  Niagara  is  Victoria  Falls, 
on  the  Zambezi,  while  the  Shoshone  Falls, 
Yosemite  Falls,  the  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone 
and   many   others  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  are  unsurpassed  in  beauty.    The  ex- 
tent   and    grandeur    of    mountain    scenery 
found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  exceed  that  of 
any  other  single  country;  the  Royal  Gorge, 
Yosemite   Valley   and   the   canyons   of   the 
Colorado  and  Yellowstone  are  features  of 
unusual   interest,  and  the  geysers  and  hot 
springs  of  Yellowstone  National  Park  have 


caused  that  region  to  be  termed  the  "World's 
Wonderland." 

Climate 

Within  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States 
may  be  found  every  range  of  temperate 
climate,  and  the  extreme  southern  and  south- 
western sections  are  semitropical.  This 
great  diversity  of  climate  is  due  to  the  wide 
range  of  latitude  (24°),  the  position  and 
extent  of  the  mountain  systems  and  dif- 
ferences in  altitude. 

Temperature.     On  the  northern  boundary, 
the  average  temperature  for  January  is  20°, 
and  for  July,  60°.    The  contrast  between  the 
winter  temperature  on  the  Pacific  and  At- 
lantic coasts  in  the  northern  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  very  marked,  the  mean  temperature 
on  the  Pacific  coast  being  41°,  and  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  14°.     Toward  the  south  the 
average  temperature  rises,  and  it  also  be- 
comes more  nearly  equal  at  the  eastern  and 
western  extremities;  at  the  30th  parallel  of 
latitude  the  difference  between  the  average 
temperature  of  the  two  regions  for  January 
is  only  2°,  and  for  July,  only  9°,  while  at 
the  extreme  southern  boundary  the  January 
difference  is  3°,  and  the  July  difference,  but 
1°.    The  central  plain  is  open  to  the  passage 
of  air  currents  with  little  or  no  obstruction; 
consequently    alternating    north    and    south 
winds  sweep  over  this  region,  causing  sud- 
den   and   marked   changes   in   temperature. 
The  northern  part  of  the  Appalachian  High- 
lands has  a  cool  temperate  climate.    The  win- 
ters are  usually  long  and  severe,  and  in  New 
England,  New  York,  some  parts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  northern  Ohio,  there  is  a  heavy 
fall  of  snow.     Toward  the  south  the  mean 
temperature   rises,   and   south   of  Pennsyl- 
vania little  snow  falls,  except  on  the  high- 
est   mountains.     Near    the    Gulf   the    tem- 
perature seldom  falls  below  freezing  point, 
and  the  Gulf  states,  with   South   Carolina 
and  Georgia,  verge  upon  a  subtropical  cli- 
mate.   The  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  cooler 
than  other  regions  in  the  same  latitude,  be- 
cause of  its  high  altitude.    The  northern  part 
of  this  region,  as  well  as  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  central  plain,  is  subject  to  intense- 
ly cold  waves  during  winter,  the  thermometer 
occasionally  falling  as  low  as  40°  below  zero; 
yet,  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere, 
these    extremes    produce    little    discomfort. 
The  Pacific  coast  has  a  mild  climate  through- 
out the  year,  with  a  remarkably  equable  tem- 
perature.    At   sea  Jevel   the   thermometer 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3677       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


seldom  falls  below  freezing  point,  even  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  country,  and 
during  summer  it  seldom  rises  above  80°  or 
85°.  In  tlie  southern  part  of  California,  the 
temperature  in  summer  may  be  higher  than 
this,  though  hot  waves,  even  there,  last  but  a 
short  time. 

Bainfall.  The  position  of  the  mountains 
causes  a  very  unequal  distribution  of  rain. 
In  general,  all  that  portion  of  the  country 


western  part  of  Utah,  the  western  part  of 
Arizona  and  the  southeastern  part  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  practically  rainless.  This  is  be- 
cause the  winds  are  robbed  of  their  moisture 
as  they  pass  inland  from  the  Sierras.  The 
moisture  brought  by  the  winds  from  the 
Pacific  is  precipitated  on  the  western  slopes 
of  these  mountains.  The  valleys  between 
them  and  the  coast  ranges  are  well  watered, 
and  along   the  coast  through   Washington, 


east  of  the  100th  meridian,  crossing  the 
middle  of  North  and  South  Dakota  and  Ne- 
braska, has  sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture. 
In  most  of  this  region  the  annual  precipita- 
tion varies  from  40  to  60  inches,  which  is 
evenly  distributed  throughout  the  year,  mak- 
ing this  region  well  suited  to  agriculture. 
A  small  region  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
Carolina,  and  another  area  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  have  over  60  inches.  The 
northern  half  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Min- 
nesota, Iowa,  most  of  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Oklahoma  and  the  eastern  half  of  Texas  have 
from  20  to  40  inches  of  rain,  which  assures 
crops;  but  west  of  this  region  the  annual 
precipitation  varies  from  10  to  20  inches, 
and  agi'iculture  can  be  successfully  prose- 
cuted only  by  irrigation.  However,  large 
areas  are  well  adapted  to  grazing,  since 
there  is  sufficient  moisture  to  produce  a  good 
growth  of  grass.  The  great  plateau  between 
the  mountains  is  arid,  and  the  southern  half 
of  it,  including  nearly  all  of  Nevada,  the 


Oregon  and  the  northern  part  of  California, 
there  is  a  region  which  receives  over  60  inches 
of  rain  during  the  year. 

Mineral  Resources 

The  minerals  of  the  United  States  con- 
stitute one  of  its  chief  sources  of  wealth, 
and  in  extent  and  variety  they  exceed  those 
of  any  other  country.  With  the  exception 
of  some  coal  and  petroleum,  most  of  the  valu- 
able minerals  are  found  in  the  mountainous 
regions,  and  there  the  mining  industry  is 
most  fully  developed.  The  important  min- 
eral fuels  are  coal,  petroleum  and  natural 
gas;  the  chief  metals  are  iron,  gold,  silver, 
coppei',  lead,  zinc  and  quicksilver. 

Coal.  The  most  extensive  coal  measures 
are  found  in  the  central  part  of  the  Appa- 
lachian highlands,  including  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia  and  extending  westward 
through  the  southern  part  of  Ohio,  Indiana 
and  Illinois.  There  are  also  extensive  coal 
measures  in  Missouri  and  Iowa,  and  areas 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3678       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


of  lesser  extent  occur  in  North  Dakota,  Mon- 
tana, Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah  and  New 
Mexico.  There  are  also  valuable  coal  meas- 
ures in  Alaska.  In  all,  the  area  of  coal 
measures  is  almost  300,000  square  miles.  Bj' 
far  the  greater  portion  of  this  area  contains 
bituminous  coal,  but  the  anthracite  variety- 
is  confined  within  the  boundaries  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  United  States  produces  more 
coal  than  any  other  country,  the  output  be- 
ing about  one-third  the  entire  output  for 
the  world.    In  1916  it  was  526,873,371  tons. 

Petroleum.  Petroleum  ranks  next  to  coal 
in  importance  as  a  mineral  fuel,  and  the  oil 
industry  is  becoming  one  of  the  gigantic 
businesses  of  the  country.  The  chief  fields 
are  found  in  western  Pennsylvania,  West 
Virginia,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Colorado, 
Texas,  Oklahoma  and  the  southern  part  of 
California.  The  annual  output  for  the  entire 
country  is  over  300,000,000  barrels,  which  ex- 
ceeds the  quantity  produced  by  any  other 
country. 

Natural  Gas.  Natural  gas  occurs  in 
usable  quantities  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  In- 
diana and  Kentucky,  and  in  smaller  quan- 
tities it  is  found  in  a  number  of  other  states. 
It  is  of  great  advantage,  since  it  furnishes 
the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  fuel,  espe- 
cially for  many  manufacturing  purposes, 
such  as  smelting  iron  and  steel  and  manu- 
facturing glass.  Unfortunately  much  of  this 
gas  has  been  wasted. 

Iron.  Iron  ranks  first  in  value  and  im- 
portance among  the  metals  produced  within 
the  country.  The  great  deposits  of  ore  are  in 
Michigan  and  Minnesota,  around  Lake  Su- 
perior; in  eastern  New  York;  in  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  in  Alabama,  and  Georgia  and  in  south- 
ern Missouri,  in  the  Ozark  plateau.  Deposits 
of  less  importance  are  quite  widely  distrib- 
uted, especially  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  re- 
gion. Minnesota  and  Michigan  are  the  lead- 
ing states  in  the  production  of  iron  ore,  and 
the  great  centers  of  iron  manufacture  are 
naturally  where  iron  ore  and  coal  can  be 
most  cheaply  brought  together.  These  are 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana  and 
Alabama.  The  United  States  now  leads  all 
other  nations  in  the  production  of  iron  and 
steel,  her  annual  output  of  pig  iron  being 
over  39,000,000  tons. 

Gold  and  Silver.  All  the  important  gold 
and  silver  mines  are  located  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  throughout  which  the  ores 
are    quite    generally    distributed.      Present 


methods  of  extracting  the  metals  from  the 
ore  enable  miners  to  work  with  profit  at 
quantities  of  low  grade  ores  that  were  for- 
merly considered  worthless,  and  this  has  in- 
creased the  output  of  both  metals.  The  an- 
nual production  of  gold,  including  Alaska,  is 
about  $92,000,000,  and  this  amount  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  the  mines  in  South  Africa. 
The  leading  states  in  the  production  of  gold 
are  Colorado,  California,  Nevada,  Utah, 
South  Dakota,  Idaho,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,  and  these  also  contain  the  chief 
silver  mines.  In  production  of  silver,  the 
country  is  surpassed  only  by  Mexico. 

Other  Metals.  The  United  States  produces 
two-thirds  of  the  world's  supply  of  copper. 
The  most  important  mines  are  located  in 
Michigan,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Superior ;  in 
Montana,  and  in  Arizona.  Lead  is  mined  in 
Colorado,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Mis- 
souri, Utah  and  Wisconsin,  and  the  United 
States  produces  more  than  any  other  country. 
Lead  and  copper  ores  are  frequently  found 
combined  with  silver  ore.  Zinc  is  also  found 
in  Illinois,  Kansas,  Missouri,  New  Jersey 
and  Wisconsin,  the  Kansas,  Missouri,  and 
Wisconsin  mines  being  the  largest  producers. 
Quicksilver,  is  found  in  California,  which 
produces  about  all  of  that  substance  mined 
within  the  country.  The  United  States  pro- 
duces about  one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of 
aluminum,  the  reduction  works  being  at 
Pittsburgh  and  Niagara  Falls. 

Building  Stones.  Limestone  is  very  gen- 
erally distributed  throughout  the  country  and 
is  used  for  a  great  many  purposes,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  lime  and'  the  constrae- 
tion  of  foundations  for  buildings  and  of  piers 
for  bridges ;  the  finer  varieties,  such  as  those 
obtained  in  Indiana,  are  often  used  for  the 
exteriors  of  buildings,  or  when  dressed,  for 
trimmings  in  buildings  constructed  of  other 
stone  or  brick.  Granite  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  the  New  England  states,  particu- 
larly Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont; 
there  are  also  large  quan-ies  in  Minnesota 
and  other  states.  This  is  used  extensively  for 
building  purposes  and  for  tombstones. 
Granite  is  very  widely  distributed  through 
the  mountainous  regions,  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  plateau  contains  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply large  demands,  whenever  transportation 
facilities  will  warrant  working  the  quarries. 
Marble  is  extensively  quarried  in  Vermont 
and  Georgia,  and  to  some  extent  it  is  found 
in  Tennessee  and  other  states.     The  United 


PLANT  LIFE  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES 
See.  also,  full-page  illustration,  Plant  Life  of   North   America,    in   article   North    America. 

3679 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3680       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


States  produces  more  marble  than  any  other 
coiintry.  There  are  large  quarries  of  slate  in 
Vermont,  Pennsylvania  and  several  other 
states.  This  stone  is  used  for  finishing  in- 
teriors and  for  roofing.  Clays  of  suitable 
quality  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  tile 
and  for  potteiy  are  widely  distributed. 

Miscellaneous  Minerals.  Gypsum  is  found 
in  many  localities,  and  salt  is  obtained  from 
the  waters  of  salt  springs  and  wells.  New 
York  and  Michigan  being  the  leading  states 
in  its  production.  The  manufacture  of  salt 
is  an  important  industry  in  these  states. 

Vegetation.  The  plant  life  of  the  United 
States  is  characteristic  of  that  of  the  tem- 
perate regions.  Originally  fully  one-third 
of  the  country  was  covered  with  forests ;  but 
in  the  Appalachian  Highlands  and  the  Great 
Lake  region,  many  sections  have  been  almost 
wholly  denuded,  to  supply  the  demand  for 
lumber.  In  general,  the  forest  areas  include 
the  Appalachian  Highlands;  the  region  bor- 
dering on  the  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
extending  westward  to  the  easteni  boundary 
of  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North; 
the  region  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  includ- 
ing the  easteni  third  of  Texas  and  most  of 
Arkansas,  and  the  region  occupied  by  the 
Cascade  and  Coast  ranges  of  mountains,  ex- 
tending southward  from  the  Dominion 
boundary  as  far  as  the  central  part  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Appalachian  forests  are  characterized 
by  a  great  variety  of  hard  wood,  such  as 
oak,  maple,  ash,  beech  and  birch.  There  are 
also  many  cone-bearing  trees,  including 
spruce,  hemlock  and  the  white  pine,  in  the 
north,  and  the  yellow  pine  and  the  cypress, 
in  the  south.  The  forests  in  the  lake  region 
foi-merly  had  a  great  abundance  of  white 
pine,  which  was  interspei-sed  with  some  hard 
woods,  and  those  of  the  Pacific  coast  are 
notable  for  peculiar  species  of  cone-bearing 
trees,  which  attain  great  size,  particularly 
the  Douglas  fir,  the  redwood,  the  yellow  cedar 
and  the  sequoia. 

In  addition  to  its  forests  the  Appalachian 
Highland  region  and  Atlantic  coast  plain 
have  a  great  variety  of  smaller  plants,  many 
of  which  are  useful,  while  many  are  desirable 
only  because  of  their  beautiful  flowers. 
Among  the  latter  are  the  flowering  plants  of 
the  mint  family,  a  great  number  of  grasses 
and  a  number  of  shrubs.  The  great  central 
plain  is  characterized  by  the  gi'owth  of 
herbaceous  plants,  most  of  which  belong  to 


the  grass  family.  Many  of  these  grasses 
are  highly  nutritious,  and  previous  to  the 
occupation  of  this  region  by  white  men  they 
sustained  vast  herds  of  buffalo,  which  roamed 
over  the  prairies.  Within  the  arid  region  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau  are  found 
plants  peculiar  to  desert  areas.  These  con- 
sist almost  wholly  of  species  of  sagebrush, 
bunch  grass  and  buffalo  grass,  except  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  plateau.  Here  many 
species  of  cactus  are  found,  some  of  them 
growing  to  great  size.  The  Pacific  slope  is 
characterized  by  vegetation  peculiarly  its 
own,  containing  a  number  of  species  which 
are  tropical  or  semitropical  in  nature. 
Among  these  are  several  palms.  The  south- 
ern parts  of  Texas  and  Florida  have  a  num- 
ber of  species  belonging  to  the  semitropical 
regions,  and  the  vegetation  of  Florida  very 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  West  Indies. 
Two  plants  discovered  in  America  have  be- 
come of  great  economic  importance.  These 
are  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  and  tobacco.  The 
cultivated  plants  are  described  under  their 
respective  titles,  and  the  areas  that  they  oc- 
cupy are  more  fully  outlined  under  the 
subhead  Agriculture,  in  the  articles  treating 
of  the  various  states. 

Animal  Life 
The  native  animals  of  the  United  States 
include  a  large  number  of  species.  Among 
these  are  310  species  of  mammals,  756  spe- 
cies of  birds,  816  species  of  fish,  257  species 
of  reptiles  and  over  1,000  species  of  mol- 
lusks.  Among  the  larger  cjuadrupeds  of  the 
carnivorous  order  are  bears,  several  va- 
rieties of  wolf,  the  puma,  or  mountain  lion, 
the  wildcat,  the  Ijmx  and  the  coyote.  Among 
the  ruminating  animals,  various  species  of 
deer,  the  buffalo,  the  mountain  sheep  and  the 
pronghom  are  the  most  important.  Of  these, 
the  buffalo  and  the  mountain  sheep  are  pecu- 
liar to  North  America.  Both  are  now  pro- 
tected in  the  game  preserves  of  the  national 
parks.  There  are  many  species  of  rodents,  of 
which  the  beaver  is  the  largest.  This  animal 
is  also  nearly  extinct  and  is  found  only  in  the 
most  unfrequented  regions  of  the  country. 
The  prairies  abound  in  gophers  and  prairie 
dogs,  and  various  species  of  squirrels  fre- 
quent nearly  all  parts  of  the  country.  Among 
the  large  birds  of  prey  are  the  eagle,  the  hawk 
and  various  species  of  owls.  The  most  im- 
portant water  fowl  include  the  Canada  goose, 
the  pelican  and  ducks.    Other  game  birds  of 


Raccoon 


ANIMALS    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 
See,   also,  full-page  illustration.   Animals   of  North  America,  in  article  North  America.         3681 
231 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3682       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


importance  are  the  "wild  tui'key  (now  nearly 
extinct),  various  species  of  grouse  and 
pigeons.  Song  birds  exist  in  large  numbers 
and  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country'. 

Furs  and  Fish.  It  was  fish  that  first  drew 
the  French  to  America,  and  we  might  say 
that  it  was  furs  that  kept  them  there.  Lured 
by  the  profits  to  be  derived  from  buying  furs 
from  the  Indians,  they  explored  all  of  Can- 
ada as  far  west  as  the  head  of  Lake  Su- 
perior and  much  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  interior  of  the  United  States.  From 
those  early  days  to  the  present,  the  fur  trade 
has  been  a  source  of  income  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  forest  and  mountainous  regions 
of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  to  those  of 
Canada.  So  diligently  have  the  hunters 
pursued  the  most  valuable  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals— the  beaver,  the  otter  and  the  fox — 
that  these  have  nearly  disappeared  from 
the  land.  But  the  mink,  the  muskrat  and  the 
skunk  are  still  found,  and  they  furnish  the 
greater  part  of  the  fur  marketed  in  the 
United  States.  Alaska  is  valuable  for  its 
furs,  especially  the  fur  of  the  seal,  but  the 
seal  fisheries  have  been  greatly  restricted  by 
the  government,  to  prevent  the  extermina- 
tion of  these  valuable  animals.  Fur  farms 
have  been  established  in  some  of  the 
islands  off  the  Alaskan  coast  and  in  Prince 
Edward  Island,  and  here  the  valuable  sil- 
ver and  black  fox  are  raised  in  captivity. 

The  fisheries  of  the  United  States  give  em- 
plojonent  to  over  220,000  persons,  and  the 
value  of  the  yearly  output  is  about  $125, 
000,000.  Cod,  mackerel,  lobsters  and  oysters 
are  the  chief  products  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
fisheries,  and  salmon  leads  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  catch  on  the  Great  Lakes  includes 
whitefish,  lake  trout  and  sturgeon. 
Agriculture 
General  Survey.  For  more  than  a  cen- 
tury the  United  States  has  been  the  leading 
agi'ieultural  country  of  the  world,  and  not 
one-half  of  the  agricultural  resources  have 
been  developed.  The  mountains  and  large 
areas  of  arid  land  are  not  suited  to  the  grow- 
ing of  crops,  but  some  of  these  lands  offer 
go°od  pasturage,  and  upon  them  millions 
of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep  are  raised.  In 
1910  less  than  one-half  of  the  land  was  in 
fai-ms,  and  only  a  little  more  than  one-half 
of  that  in  farms  was  under  cultivation.  In 
1917  there  were  in  the  country  about  585,- 
000,000  acres  of  unappropriated  and  unsur- 
veyed  land  (see  Lands,  Public).    This  is  an 


area  more  than  three  times  the  area  of  Texas, 
and  much  of  it  will  yield  the  farmer  good 
returns  for  his  investment  and  labor. 

The  United  States  has  the  largest  acreage 
of  cultivated  land  of  any  country  in  the 
world  except  pos- 
sibly, China,  for 
which  statistics  are 
not  obtainable.  The 
crop  acreage  of  the 
United  States  ex- 
ceeds that  of  all  the 
great  countries  of 
Europe       combined, 

excluding  Russia.  Of 

,-,1  ,  •       •«    RELATIVE       PROPOR- 

still    greater    signifi-      ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^ 

eance  is  the  acreage       improved  and 

per  capita  of  popula-         unimproved 

tion,  which  in  the  United  States  is  3.5  per 

person,   while   in   European   countries  it   is 

from  1.5  to  1,  and  in  the  United  Kingdom 

only  0.4.     In  other  words,  there  is  8.4  times 

as  much  land  per  person   in  crops  in  the 

United  States  as  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and 

the  improved  land  per  person  is  much  more 

than  this. 

With  reference  to  the  food  supply  of  the 
United  States,  the  Department  of  Agi'icul- 
ture  at  Washington  makes  the  following 
statement : 

The  United  States  is  practically  independ- 
ent of  the  rest  of  the  World  in  the  food  sup- 
ply, except  for  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  cocoa,  ba- 
nanas and  olive  oil;  and  the  principal  source 
of  supply  of  these  food  products,  except  tea 
and  olive  oil,  is  found  in  the  western  hemis- 
phere. 

Of  all  the  cereals  except  rice,  the  United 
States  produces  more  than  it  consumes.  The 
United  States  produces  and  consumes  about 
70  per  cent  of  the  world's  corn,  over  25  per 
cent  of  the  world's  oats,  between  15  and  20 
per  cent  of  the  world's  barley.  Of  the  world's 
rye,  the  United  States  produces  only  about  2 
per  cent  and  of  the  world's  rice  less  than  1 
per  cent. 

Agricultural  Regions.  The  great  agricul- 
tural regions  are  the  prairies  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Basin,  east  of  the  100th  meridian;  the 
land  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the 
vallej^s  of  the  Pacific  slope.  The  Appa- 
lachian region  is  not  so  fertile  as  the  others. 
However,  in  the  valleys  and  on  other  low 
lands  there  are  many  valuable  farms.  In 
this  part  of  the  countiy  the  raising  of  cereals 
is  not  profitable,  and  the  region  cannot  com- 
pete with  the  Mississippi  Basin;  hence  the 
region  is  characterized  by  small  farms,  whose 
occupants  are  engaged  in  a  variety  of  inter- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3684       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


ests.  The  arid  region,  including  the  states 
within  the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau  and  the 
southern  part  of  California,  embraces  near- 
ly one-third  of  the  country.  Over  most  of 
this  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  wherever  water  can 
be  supplied  for  irrigation,  abundant  crops 
are  raised.  The  national  government  has 
undertaken  works  of  gigantic  proportions, 
for  the  purpose  of  reclaiming  as  much  as 
possible  of  this  region.  The  valleys  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  where  well  watered,  produce 
abundant  crops  of  all  plants  which  can  be 
raised  in  that  climate. 

The  product  map  on  page  3683  shows  that 
agriculturally  the  country  is  divided  into 
six  regions.  The  words  in  large  type  indi- 
cate the  chief  crop  or  industry  in  each  region. 
Those  in  smaller  type  indicate  other  products 
and  industries.  A  careful  study  of  this  map 
will  show  that  the  northern  New  England 
states  and  New  York  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
mixed  farming  and  dairying,  and  that  each 
of  the  other  regions  is  devoted  to  one  or 
more  principal  crops  or  industries,  each  of 
which  is  worthy  of  special  consideration. 
For  the  development  of  agriculture  in  the 
country,  see  Agriculture,  and  for  more 
particular  Recounts,  see  subhead  Agriculture, 
under  the  articles  treating  of  the  different 
states. 

Cereals.  As  a  whole,  cereals  constitute  the 
most  important  agricultural  product  of  the 
country.  The  great  region  devoted  to  these 
crops  comprises  the  states  of  the  Mississippi 
Basin,  portions  of  Pennsylvania  and  West 
Virginia,  and  portions  of  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton and  California.  The  leading  wheat- 
producing  states  are  Minnesota,  North  Da- 
kota, Kansas,  Nebraska  and  South  Dakota. 
More  than  half  the  crop  is  Avinter  wheat. 
The  annual  crop  varies  from  650,000,000  to 
about  760,000,000  bushels.  In  1917  it  was 
650,828,000  bushels.  The  leading  corn-pro- 
ducing states  are  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Indiana,  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  The  annual 
crop  varies  from  about  2,500,000,000  bushels 
to  2,900,000,000  bushels.  In  1917  it  was 
3,159,494,000  bushels.  The  leading  states  in 
the  production  of  oats  are  Illinois  and  Iowa. 
The  crop  amounts  to  about  210,000,000 
bushels  yearly.  Rice  is  produced  in  Louis- 
iana, South  Carolina,  Texas,  Georgia,  North 
Carolina  and  California.  The  annual  crop 
is  about  36,000,000  bushels.  Considerable 
buckwheat  is  gi-own  in  some  states,  and  some 
of  the  Northern  states  also  produce  more  or 


less  rye;  but  in  the  production  of  this  grain 
the  United  States  is  far  behind  some  of  the 
European  countries. 

Cotton  and  Tobacco.  Cotton  is  the  chief 
product  of  the  Southern  states  and  the  one 
from  which  they  derive  the  greatest  amount 
of  money.  The  annual  crop  amounts  to 
about  11,000,000  bales,  of  500  pounds  each. 

The  leading  states  in  its  production  are 
Texas,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Alabama,  South 
Carolina  and  Arkansas.  Tobacco  is  also  an 
important  crop,  and  it  is  generally  distrib- 
uted over  the  country.  The  amount  grown 
yearly  is  about  1,200,000,000  pounds.  The 
leading  states  in  tobacco  production,  in  the 
order  of  their  importance,  are  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania  and  South  Carolina.  A  num- 
ber of  other  states  also  raise  considerable 
quantities. 

Fruit.  Horticulture  is  an  important 
branch  of  agriculture,  and  the  raising  of 
fruit  is  the  leading  occupation  in  Florida, 
Delaware,  parts  of  New  Jersey,  the  western 
part  of  New  York  and  the  southern  and  cen- 
tral parts  of  California,  while  its  produc- 
tion engages  the  attention,  of  a  large  number 
of  farmei's  in  Washington,  Oregon,  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  Montana  and  a  number  of 
other  states.  In  Florida  pineapples  and 
oranges  are  the  chief  fruits.  In  California 
oranges,  lemons,  apricots,  grapes,  prunes  and 
almonds,  among  the  larger  fruits,  are  of 
greatest  importance,  while  grapes  and  small 
fruits  are  raised  in  large  quantities.  Grapes 
and  peaches  are  grown  extensively  in  New 
York,  and  apples  and  peaches  are  pi'oduced 
in  New  York,  Michigan,  Colorado,  Missouri 
and  numerous  other  states.  Small  fruits, 
including  raspberries,  blackberries  and  straw- 
berries, are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country  where  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  for 
their  growth. 

Other  Crops.  In  Minnesota,  Wisconsin 
and  some  other  Northern  states,  considerable 
flax  is  grown,  mostly  for  the  seed.  Sugar 
cane  is  raised  in  Louisiana  and  a  few  other 
of  the  Gulf  states,  and  the  sugar  beet  is 
grown  in  many  of  the  states.  Potatoes  are 
raised  in  large  quantities  in  Wisconsin,  Min- 
nesota and  New  York.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
grown  in  Virginia,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Illinois  and  in  a  number  of  the  Southern 
states.  Vegetables  are  grown  for  market  in 
Delaware  and  New  Jersey  and  in  nearly  all 
states  in  which  large  cities  are  located.    New 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3685       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


York  and  the  states  on  the  Pacific  slope  are 
noted  for  their  production  of  hops. 

Live  Stock.  Much  of  the  arid  region  is 
well  suited  to  grazing,  and  in  this  section  of 
the  country  large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep 
are  raised.  Texas  leads  in  the  production  of 
cattle,  and  Wyoming  is  first  in  the  produc- 
tion of  sheep.  Some  of  the  corn  states,  par- 
ticularly Iowa  and  Illinois,  are  noted  for  their 
beef  cattle  and  hogs.  New  York,  the  north- 
ern New  England  states,  Iowa,  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin  are  extensively  engaged  in  dairy- 
ing, and  the  value  of  the  dairy  products  is 
great.  The  annual  production  of  milk  in 
the  United  States  amounts  to  85,000,000,000 
pounds. 

Poultry.  The  raising  of  poultry  is  an  im- 
portant branch  of  agricultural  industry,  and 
it  engages  many  people  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  though  it  has  received  less  attention 
on  the  Pacific  coast  than  in  other  regions. 
About  500,000,000  fowls  are  raised  annu- 
ally and  1,600,000,000  eggs  are  produced. 
The  annual  value  of  the  poultry  products 
is  about  $250,000,000.  The  leading  poultry 
states  are  Illinois,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Ohio 
and  Indiana. 

Manufacturing  Industries 

Causes  of  Development.  During  the 
early  period  of  existence  as  a  nation  every- 
thing was  made  by  hand,  and  the  clothing 
and  other  necessities  for  the  family  wei'e  pro- 
duced in  the  home.  The  mother  was  house- 
keeper, spinner,  weaver  and  tailoress;  the 
father  was  farmer,  carpenter,  blacksmith 
and  harnessmaker,  and  the  traveling  shoe- 
maker came  around  once  or  twice  a  year 
and  made  shoes  for  the  family.  Gradually, 
these  industries  began  to  be  separated.  One 
family  in  the  settlement  made  the  cloth, 
one  man  did  the  carpenter  work  and  another 
became  a  blacksmith.  Shops  were  erected, 
and  where  there  was  water  power  simple 
machinery  was  installed.  As  the  number  of 
settlers  increased,  factories  became  more 
numerous  and  the  distinction  between  trades 
more  marked.  Nevertheless,  the  growth  of 
the  manufacturing  industries  was  slow  until 
about  1860,  and  since  that  date,  they  have 
developed  more  rapidly  than  any  other  lines 
of  industry.  Now  the  United  States  is  the 
leading  manufacturing  country  of  the  world, 
producing  more  tlian  one-third  of  the  world's 
manufactured  products. 

The  chief  causes  for  this  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States  as  a  manufactur- 


ing nation  are  the  country's  abundant  agri- 
cultural resources,  its  mineral  resources,  its 
extensive  forests,  the  remarkable  transporta- 
tion facilities  afforded,  the  inventive  genius 
of  the  people  and  the  opportunities  for  an 
extensive  trade  between  the  states.  The  ex- 
tent and  variety  of  agricultural  products 
assure  an  abimdance  of  food  supplies  for 
the  people,  and  the  methods  of  agriculture 
are  such  that  a  comparatively  small  propor- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  can  supply  food  for 
the  entire  nation  and  also  for  export  to 
foreign  lands.  This  leaves  large  numbers 
free  to  engage  in  other  occupations,  and 
this  enables  a  larger  proportion  of  the  peo- 
ple to  engage  in  manufactui'ing  industries 
than  would  be  possible  were  the  agricultural 
conditions  such  that  nearly  all  were  depend- 
ent for  support  upon  their  own  efforts  in 
tilling  the  soil. 

The  abundant  supply  of  coal,  iron  and 
other  useful  metals  makes  the  manufacture 
of  many  products  convenient  and  compara- 
tively cheap.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  while  the 
presence  of  clay  and  various  forms  of  build- 
ing stone  is  of  equal  advantage  in  the  con- 
struction of  factories  and  other  establish- 
ments connected  directly  or  indirectly  with 
manufacturing  industries.  The  great  forest 
areas  provide  an  abundance  of  lumber  and 
timber  for  all  articles  made  of  wood;  hence 
this  line  of  manufactures  has  been  developed 
on  a  very  large  scale. 

In  addition  to  the  coal  for  fuel,  thou- 
sands of  streams  furnish  abundant  water 
power,  and  the  invention  of  the  electric  motor 
has  brought  into  use  many  power  sites  so 
far  from  manufacturing  centers  that  the 
location  of  factories  on  them  formerly  was 
impracticable.  Since  electric  power  can  be 
earned  long  distances  without  loss,  it  may 
operate  factories  hundreds  of  miles  from  its 
source.  The  perfection  of  the  gasoline  en- 
gine has  greatly  increased  the  power  for 
propelling  machinery.  While  not  adapted  to 
large  factories  this  engine  supplies  power 
to  many  small  industries. 

The  American  people  have  alwaj's  been 
noted  for  their  mechanical  ingenuity,  and 
they  have  produced  a  great  number  of  ma- 
chines and  devices  which  have  gi'eatly  in- 
fluenced, and  in  some  cases  have  revolution- 
ized, the  industries  of  the  world.  Chief 
among  these  are  the  cotton  gin,  the  sewing 
machine,  the  steamboat,  the  reaping  machine, 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3686       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


the  telegraph  and  the  telephone.  To  these, 
many  others  of  lesser  importance  might  be 
added.  Their  combined  effect  has  been  to 
simplify  and  cheapen  many  processes  of 
manufacturing,  transportation  and  com- 
munication, all  of  which  have  aided  in  the 
development   of   manufacturing   industry. 

The  freedom  of  commerce  between  the 
states  is  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  en- 
joyed by  the  comatry.  In  no  other  region 
of  the  world  is  there  such  an  extent  of  coun- 
try entirely  free  from  tariff  barriers.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  country  embraces  lo- 
calities whose  needs  differ  widely;  conse- 
quently there  is  a  demand  for  interchange 
of  products  among  these  sections,  and  these 
conditions  have  combined  to  build  up  a  do- 
mestic commerce  much  greater  than  that 
known  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 
This  has  led  to  the  development  of  various 
lines  of  manufactures.  No  other  country 
has  such  extensive  and  numerous  transpor- 
tation lines,  both  by  water  and  by  rail ;  hence 
the  carrying  of  commodities  from  one  sec- 
tion to  another  is  comparatively  easy  and 
cheap. 

Location  of  Manufacturing  Districts. 
The  manufacturing  districts  are  veiy  un- 
evenly distributed  over  the  country.  In  gen- 
eral, those  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River 
and  north  of  the  Ohio  are  the  leading  manu- 
facturing states,  and  more  than  four-fifths 
of  all  the  manufactures  in  the  country  are 
produced  within  this  territoiy.  Without  this 
limit  are  a  few  important  manufactures, 
and  these  are  being  rapidly  developed. 
Among  them  are  the  iron  industries  of  Ala- 
bama* and  Georgia  and  the  cotton  industries 
of  Alabama,  Georgia,  North  Carolina  and 
South  Carolina.  Some  of  the  large  cities 
on  the  Mississippi  are  also  important  manu- 
facturing centers.  Chief  among  these  are 
Saint  Louis,  Saint  Paul  and  Minneapolis.  On 
the  Pacific  coast,  lumbering,  the  manufacture 
of  furniture  and  some  other  industries  are 
fully  developed,  while  others  are  increasing 
in  number  and  importance  from  year  to  year. 

Leading  Industries.  Among  the  many 
manufactured  products  of  the  country  the 
following  are  the  most  important:  Food 
products,  including  flour  and  meat ;  iron  and 
steel;  textiles;  automobiles;  lumber  and  its 
allied  products ;  leather  and  its  finished  prod- 
ucts; metals  other  than  iron  and  steel,  with 
various  allied  products,  and  paper.  To  the 
manufacture  of  these  commodities  should  be 


added  printing  and  publishing,  as  another 
major  industi*y. 

Food  Products.  The  time  was  when  the 
farmer  carried  his  wheat  to  the  local  mill, 
brought  home  the  flour,  and  the  wife  cooked 
all  the  food  for  the  household,  but  that  time 
has  passed,  and  now^  much  of  the  food  con- 
sumed in  rural  districts  as  well  as  the  cities 
is  prepared  in  large  establishments.  In 
addition  to  flour  and  cured  meat,  canned 
goods,  breakfast  foods,  biscuits  and  numer- 
ous other  articles  turned  out  by  the  whole- 
sale bakeries  are  produced  in  large  quan- 
tities and  their  annual  value  amounts  to 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

While  the  amendment  to  the  Constitu- 
tion prohibiting  the  manufacture  of  intoxi- 
cating beverages  has  greatly  curtailed  the 
output  of  these  products,  the  manufacture  of 
so-called  "soft  drinks,"  as  a  substitute  for 
"hard  liquor,"  is  a  large  industry,  and  it 
bids  fair  to  grow  in  importance. 

Iron  and  Steel.  The  United  States  pro- 
duces more  iron  and  steel  than  any  other 
eountrj^  At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
(1914)  the  output  of  pig  iron  and  steel  in 
the  United  States  was  nearly  equal  to  the 
combined  output  of  Germany,  France  and 
Great  Britain,  the  next  three  largest  pro- 
ducers. The  leading  states  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel  products  are  Penn- 
sylvania, Illinois,  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Min- 
nesota and  Michigan  lead  in  the  production 
of  iron  ore. 

Textiles.  New  England  is  the  great  cen- 
ter for  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  and 
Massachusetts  is  the  leading  state  in  this 
industry.  Outside  of  New  England,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama have  established  extensive  cotton  mills. 
In  the  outjDut  of  her  cotton  goods,  the  United 
States  is  second  only  to  Great  Britain.  Next 
in  importance  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  is  the  manufacture  of  woolens,  includ- 
ing carpets  and  hats.  Massachusetts,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Rhode  Island  are  the  states 
in  which  this  industry  is  principally  located, 
Philadelphia  being  one  of  the  greatest  cen- 
ters of  carpet  manufacture  in  the  world. 
In  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods  the  United 
States  is  the  leading  nation,  foflowed  by 
France.  The  great  centers  of  the  industry 
are  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  Ex- 
tensive factories  for  the  production  of  knit 
goods  are  also  found  throughout  the  New 
England  and  North  Atlantic  states. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3687       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Lumber.  The  lumbering  industries  natur- 
ally center  in  those  states  containing  exten- 
sive forest  areas.  It  is  now  largest  in  Oregon 
and  Washington. 

Leather.  Pennsylvania  ranks  first  in  the 
tanning  and  finishing  of  leather,  while  Mas- 
sachusetts is  the  leading  state  in  the  produc- 
tion of  boots  and  shoes.  Perhaps  in  no 
other  industry  is  the  effect  of  American  in- 
vention and  perfection  of  organization  better 
seen  than  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes.  Owing  to  the  invention  of  a  num- 
ber of  ingenious  machines,  this  industry  has 
been  highly  organized,  and  the  United  States 
produces  more  boots  and  shoes  than  any 
other  country. 

Pa^oer.  In  the  manufacture  of  paper  the 
United  States  also  leads  the  world.  Much 
of  this  product  is  now  made  from  wood  pulp, 
which  is  generally  manufactured  in  the  states 
that  have  large  supplies  of  suitable  timber 
for  this  purpose.  The  annual  output  of 
paper  and  paper  manufactures  exceeds  $43,- 
000,000. 

Automobiles.  Although  it  is  one  of  the 
youngest  industries  in  the  country,  the  manu- 
facture of  automobiles  has  reached  third  place 
among  the  manufacturing  industries.  In 
1917,  4,242,000  automobiles  and  trucks  were 
made  in  the  United  States,  and  the  value  of 
all  automobiles  owned  in  the  country  was 
$800,000,000.  After  1917  the  great  war  cur- 
tailed production.  The  leading  states  in  the 
industry  are  Michigan,  Ohio  an'd  Illinois. 
Detroit  is  the  world's  g^-eatest  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  automobiles. 

Other  Industries.  Connecticut  leads  in  the 
manufacture  of  small  articles,  such  as  needles, 
pins,  buttons,  clocks,  and  various  kinds  of 
hardware.  The  great  watch  factories  of  the 
country  are  at  "Waltham,  Mass.,  and  Elgin, 
111.  The  manufacture  of  electrical  appara- 
tus and  appliances  is  extensive  and  still  on 
the  increase.  Before  the  World  War  the 
United  States  depended  upon  Germany  for 
most  of  its  chemicals  and  dyestuffs,  but  the 
war  prevented  the  exportation  of  these  prod- 
ucts from  Germany,  and  this  condition  stim- 
ulated manufacturing  chemists  to  supply  the 
market  with  American-made  goods.  Tlie 
Avar  also  caused  a  great  advance  in  shipbuild- 
ing, placing  the  country  second  only  to  Great 
Britain  in  this  industry.  In  the  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements  and  machinery 
the  United  States  surpasses  every  other  na- 
tion.    This   industry  is   most   extensive   in 


Illinois,  Chicago  being  the  leading  center. 
Other  states  in  which  it  is  large  are  Ohio, 
New  York  and  Wisconsin.  The  yearly  out- 
put is  over  $297,000,000.  The  annual  produc- 
tion of  clay,  glass  and  stone  products  is 
over  $500,000,000.  Besides  these  larger  in- 
dustries there  are  many  smaller  ones,  con- 
sidered as  miscellaneous,  whose  annual  out- 
put exceeds  $1,000,000,000  in  value,  while  the 
hand  trades,  or  those  occupations  in  which  the 
articles  are  produced  by  the  use  of  hand 
tools,  have  an  annual  output  exceeding 
$1,184,000,000. 

Transportation  and  Communication 
Waterways.  The  United  States  has  over 
12,000  miles  of  seaeoast  and  more  than 
18,000  miles  of  inland  waterways.  Formerly 
the  inland  waterways  were  of  the  greatest 
importance,  since  by  their  means  the  in- 
terior of  the  country  found  an  outlet  to  the 
sea.  The  most  important  systems  of  these 
waterways  are  those  of  the  Mississippi  River 
and  tributaries  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Since 
the  construction  of  railways,  the  river  sys- 
tems have  become  less  valuable;  but  the 
completion  of  canals,  by  means  of  which 
steamers  of  deep  draft  can  pass  from  the 
lakes  to  the  ocean  through  the  Saint  Law- 
rence Kiver  has  rendered  this  waterway  of 
great  importance.  In  connection  with  it, 
the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal,  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  opened  the  way  for 
the  transportation  of  commodities  between 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  interior.  The 
important  canals  are  described  under  their 
titles. 

Railroads.  The  first  railroads  of  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States  were  constructed 
in  1830  and  1832,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
latter  year  there  were  23  miles  of  railway 
in  the  country.  In  1916  the  mileage  was 
over  266,000  or  more  than  that  of  the  en- 
tire continent  of  Europe.  It  is  nearly  one- 
third  of  all  the  mileage  of  the  world.  Natu- 
rally the  older  states  contain  the  larger  num- 
ber of  lines ;  the  portion  of  the  country  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River  is  fully  supplied  with 
railways,  so  that  nearly  all  towns  have  con- 
venient means  of  communication.  In  the 
Appalachian  region,  the  longest  lines  ex- 
tend approximately  north  and  south ;  west  of 
these  mountains  the  general  trend  of  the 
railways  is  east  and  west;  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  there  are  a  number  of  north  and 
south   lines,   connecting   Chicago   and    Saint 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3688      UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Louis  with  important  commercial  ports  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Some  of  these  lines  ex- 
tend into  Mexico. 

Six  transcontinental  lines  now  extend  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
the  Canadian  Northern  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific,  only  a  short  distance  north  of  the 
international  boundary  line,  also  render 
some  service  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  country.  Electric  railways 
connect  many  towns  situated  within  a  few 
miles  of  one  another,  and  these  systems  are 
being  extended  to  the  rural  districts,  especial- 
ly in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  and 
the  southern  part  of  California.  On  the 
whole,  the  country  is  well  supplied  with 
water  and  rail  transportation. 

Roads.  The  development  of  railways  and 
their  importance  in  the  industrial  systems 
of  the  country  has  caused  neglect  of  wagon 
roads,  and  in  the  construction  of  these  im- 
portant means  of  transportation  the  United 
States  is  far  behind  European  countries.  In 
most  states  the  roads  are  poor,  and  in  some 
states,  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
they  are  well-nigh  impassable. 

In  1893  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  inaugurated  the  Good  Roads 
Movement,  and  since  that  time  the  national 
government  has  given  some  assistance  in  im- 
proving the  public  highways.  In  1914  Con- 
gress appropriated  $25,000,000  for  the  con- 
struction and  improvement  of  roads,  and  in 
1918  this  amount  was  increased  to  $266,- 
750,000,  to  be  spent  within  the  next  three 
years.  This  money  is  divided  among  the 
states  on  condition  that  each  state  must  ap- 
propriate as  much  money  as  it  receives  from 
the  national  government.  This  will  create  a 
fund  sufficient  to  improve  all  the  roads  in  the 
country. 

Communication.  Telegraph  and  telephone 
lines  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  no  town  of  importance  is  now  without 
one  or  both  of  these  conveniences.  Tele- 
phone lines  extend  through  all  the  principal 
rural  sections,  most  farm  houses  have  a  tele- 
phone. The  postal  system  is  also  one  of  the 
best  in  the  world,  taking  rank  with  the  sys- 
tems of  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  France, 
and  meeting  all  of  the  reasonable  demands 
of  the  country. 

Commerce 

Domestic  Commerce.  The  domestic  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  is  larger  than 
that  of  any  other  country  and  far  exceeds 


its  trade  with  foreign  nations.  The  widely 
separated  sections  of  the  country,  differing 
from  one  another  in  climate,  soil  and  prod- 
ucts, create  a  great  demand  in  each  section 
for  the  products  of  the  others,  and  in  the 
supplying  of  this  demand  an  extensive  com- 
merce has  sprung  up.  The  amount  of  this 
trade  cannot  be  obtained,  since  no  record 
is  kept  of  the  shipments  of  merchandise  that 
are  not  entered  at  customhouses ;  but  that  it  is 
very  great  and  constitutes  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  the  country  is  evident  to  all 
who  are  conversant  with  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial systems. 

Foreign  Commerce.  Before  1915,  in  its 
foreign  commerce  the  United  States  was  ex- 
ceeded by  Great  Britain  and  Germany  and 
ranked  third  among  the  great  commercial  na- 
tions. But  the  World  War  created  such  a 
demand  for  American  products  that  it  ad- 
vanced to  first  place.  For  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1917,  the  exports  amounted  to  $6,- 
290,048,394  and  imports  to  $2,659,355,185. 
Under  normal  conditions  the  exports  are 
divided  among  the  various  products  as  fol- 
lows: Agricultural  products,  62  per  cent; 
manufactures,  30  per  cent;  forest  products, 
4  per  cent;  mining  products,  3  per  cent.  The 
imports  have  the  following  apportionment: 
Raw  material,  38  per  cent;  food  and  domestic 
animals,  21  per  cent;  manufactures,  16.79 
per  cent ;  luxuries,  14.47  per  cent. 

Most  of  the  foreign  trade  was  carried 
on  with  the  European  nations  in  the  fol- 
lowing order  of  importance:  The  United 
Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  Netherlands, 
Belgium.  Italy  and  Russia  also  have  a  con- 
siderable share.  Of  Asiatic  nations  Japan 
has  the  first  place  and  China  the  second. 
Europe  takes  about  three-fourths  of  the  ex- 
ports and  supplies  one-half  of  the  imports. 
Of  the  other  foreign  nations,  Canada  is  the 
most  important  in  North  America,  and  Bra- 
zil, Argentina  and  Chile  lead  in  South  Amer- 
ica. The  great  seaports  engaged  in  Euro- 
pean trade  are  New  York,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore,  while  those  engaged 
in  trade  with  China,  Japan  and  the 
Philippines  are  San  Francisco,  Seattle  and 
Tacoma.  The  Panama  Canal  has  also 
brought  the  Atlantic  ports  much  nearer  these 
far-eastern  countries. 

While  American  products  are  found  in 
all  countries  of  the  world,  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  has  until  recently 
been   crippled,   from   the   fact   that   nearly 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3689       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


all  of  it  is  carried  in  the  ships  of  other  na- 
tions, American  vessels  being  engaged  almost 
entirely  in  the  coastwise  trade.  During  the 
World  War  the  number  of  American  mer- 
chant ships  was  greatly  increased,  and  most 
of  the  new  ships  were  engaged  in  foreign 
trade,  placing  the  country  again  approxi- 
mately in  the  position  it  held  before  the 
Civil  War. 

The  People 

Colonial    Period.    During    the    Colonial 

Period  settlements  were  made  by  English, 

Scotch,   Irish,   Swedes,  Dutch,   French  and 

Germans,  but  the  people  from  the  British 


tion,  by  their  force  of  character  and  superior 
education  they  impressed  their  ideals  upon 
the  others,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  the  2,000,000  or  more  in- 
habitants of  the  English  colonies  were  firmly 
united.  Moreover,  during  this  century  and 
a  half  of  their  existence  the  political  ideas 
of  the  colonies  were  developed  and  estab- 
lished so  firmly  that  there  was  little  danger 
of  their  being  changed  by  immigration  in 
the  years  that  followed,  and  the  country 
entered  upon  its  national  existence  with  a 
population  firmly  united  as  to  nationality 
and  social  and  political  ideas. 


INCREASE: 

I      I  UNDER  10  PER  CENT 

I     I  I  O  TO  20  PER  CENT 

^(^'^^  20  TO  30  PER  CENT 

^^^  30  TO  50  PER  CENT 

C^^  50  PER  CENT  AND  OVER 


MAP   CLASSIFYING  STATES   WITH   RESPECT    TO  THE  PERCENTAGE  OP  INCREASE  OF 
POPULATION  BETWEEN  TWELFTH  AND  THIRTEENTH  CENSUSES. 


Isles  far  outnumbered  all  others.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Germans,  about  100,000  of 
whom  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  the  other 
nationalities  in  time  blended  with  the  Eng- 
lish, so  that  in  language,  customs,  government 
and  commercial  methods  the  colonies  were 
thoroughly  Anglo-Saxon. 

Many  of  the  first  settlers  were  people  of 
exceptional  character  and  ability,  who  were 
driven  to  the  New  World  by  civil  or  reli- 
gious persecution.  This  applies  to  the 
Quakers  and  Germans  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  Huguenots  of  South  Carolina,  as  well 
as  to  the  Puritans  of  New  England.  Al- 
though these  people  were  fewer  in  number 
than  those  who  came  to  better  their  condi- 


Increase  in  Population.  The  first  na- 
tional census  was  taken  in  1790.  At  that 
time  the  United  States  contained  in  round 
numbers  4,000,000  inhabitants.  About  one- 
fifth  of  these,  or  750,000,  were  negroes.  The 
growth  in  population  by  decades  is  shown  in 
the  table  on  page  3690. 

The  greatest  growth  has  been  in  the  cen- 
tral and  western  states,  where  the  increase 
has  been  unusually  large.  This  is  due  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  the  opportunities  and  advantages 
offered  by  a  new  country.  These  attracted 
large  numbers  of  immigrants. 

Movement  Westward.  In  1790  the  center 
of  population  was  23  miles  east  of  Baltimore. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3690       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


The  center  moved  westward  with  varying 
degrees  of  rapidity,  as  indicated  by  the  stars 
on    the    map    printed    on    this    page.      The 


CENSUS 

POPULATION, 
excluding    Alas- 
ka, Indian  reser- 

INCREASE 

vations   and  is- 
Lnd  possessions. 

NUMBER 

PER  CENT 

1920 

1910 

91,972,266 

15,977,691 

21.0 

1900 

75,568,686 

12,946,436 

■20.7 

1890 

62,622,250 

12,466,467 

24.9 

1880 

50,155,783 

11,597,412 

30.1 

1870 

38,558,371 

7,115,050 

22.6 

1860 

31,443,321 

8,251,445 

35.6 

1850 

23,191,876 

6,122,423 

35.9 

1840 

17,069,453 

4,203,433 

32.7 

1830 

12,866,020 

3,227,567 

33.5 

1820 

9,638,453 

2,398,572 

33.1 

1810 

7,239,881 

1,931,398 

36.4 

1800 

5,308,483 

1,379,269 

35.1 

1790 

3,929,214 

center  of  population  has  varied  slightly 
from  time  to  time  from  an  east  and  west 
line,  and  during  the  period  in  which  the 
states  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  farther 
west  were  being  settled  it  moved  forward 
more  rapidly  than  it  did  during  the  decade 
between  1900  and  1910.    During  this  decade 


Island,  with  508.5  people  to  the  square  mile, 
was  the  most  densely  populated;  Massa- 
chusetts, with  419,  was  second;  New  Jersey 
had  338;  Connecticut,  231;  New  York,  191; 
Pennsylvania,  171;  Maiyland,  130;  Ohio,  117. 
Delaware,  103;  Illinois,  100.7.  All  other 
states  had  fewer  than  100  people  to  the 
square  mile.  Wyoming,  with  1.5,  and  Ne- 
vada, with  0.7,  were  the  least  densely  popu- 
lated. The  percentage  of  increase  from  1900 
to  1910  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  map, 
taken  from  Bulletin  109  of  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census.  By  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
movement  of  population  has  been  to  the  states 
west  of  the  Mississippi.  Washington  leads, 
with  an  increase  of  120.4  per  cent;  Okla- 
homa, with  an  increase  of  109.7  per  cent,  is 
second,  and  Idaho,  with  an  increase  of  101.3 
per  cent,  is  third.  The  increase  in  popula- 
tion since  the  census  in  1910  will  make  but 
ve:  y  slight  changes  in  these  figures. 

Growth  of  Cities.  Since  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  government,  the  poj^ulation  of 
cities  and  towns  has  increased  far  more,  pro- 
portionately, than  the  population  of  the 
country  at  large,   and   this  proportion   has 


Scale  of  Miles 
o  go  60         9P 


MOVEMENT  OF  THE   CENTER  OP  POPULATION 


the  center  of  population  advanced  westward 
about  39  miles,  being  in  1910  in  the  city  of 
Bloomington,  Ind. 

Density.  Had  the  population  been  even- 
ly distributed  over  the  country,  excluding 
Alaska  and  Hawaii,  in  1910,  there  would 
have  been  thirty-one  people  to  the  square 
mile.    The  average  density  was  30.9.    Rhode 


been  constantly  increasing.  In  1790,  3.4 
people  out  of  every  100  lived  in  cities  of 
8,000  or  more  inhabitants.  In  1840  this 
proportion  had  increased  to  8.5  per  100.  In 
1850,  one-eighth  of  the  people  dwelt  in  cities 
of  8,000  or  over;  in  1890,  over  one-fourth, 
and  in  1910,  over  one-third.  This  rapid 
growth  of  cities  is  due,  principally,  to  the 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3691       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


establishment  of  the  factory  system,  neces- 
sitating the  bringing  together  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  operatives;  to  increased  facilities  of 
transportation,  to  immigration,  and  to  a  de- 
sire for  better  schools. 

The  following  table  includes  the  seventy 
largest  cities  of  the  United  States.  The 
population  statistics  are  government  esti- 
mates of  1917 : 

1.  New    York     5,737,492 

2.  Chicago    2,547,201 

.•?.  Philadelphia    1,735,514 

4.  Saint  Louis    768,630 

5.  Boston     767,813 

6.  Cleveland 692,259 

7.  Detroit    619,648 

S.  Baltimore     594,637 

9.  Pittsburgh     586,196 

10.  Los   Angeles    535,485 

11.  Buffalo    475.781 

12.  San   Francisco    471,023 

13.  Milwaukee     445,008 

14.  Newark     418,789 

15.  Cincinnati    414,248 

16.  New  Orleans    377,010 

17.  Minneapolis     373,448 

18.  Washington    369,282 

19.  Seattle    366,445 

20.  Jersey    City    312,557 

21.  Portland 308,399 

22.  Kansas    City.    Mo 305,816 

23.  Indianapolis     283.022 

24.  Denver    268,439 

25.  Rochester     264,714 

26.  Providence     259,895 

27.  Saint  Paul    252,465 

28.  Louisville     240,808 

29.  Columbus     220,135 

30.  Oakland    206,405 

31.  Toledo 202,010 

32.  Atlanta 196,144 

33.  Birmingham      189,716 

34.  Omaha     177,777 

35.  Worcester    166,106 

36.  Syracuse     158,559 

37.  Richmond     156,687 

38.  New  Haven    152,275 

39.  Memphis     151,877 

40.  Spokane    150,323 

41.  Scranton     149,541 

42.  Paterson     140,512 

43.  Grand    Rapids    132,861 

44.  Fall  River 129,828 

45.  Dallas    129,738 

46.  Dayton    128,939 

47.  Bridgeport     124,724 

48.  San  Angelo    123,831 

49.  New   Bedford    121,622 

50.  Nashville    118,136 

51.  Salt   Lake   City 117,399 

52.  Sowell     114,366 

53.  Cambridge     114,293 

54.  Trenton     in.974 

55.  Hartford     112,831 

56.  Tacoma     112.770 

57.  Houston    112.384 

58.  Youngstown    112.282 

59.  Reading    111,607 


60.  Springfield,    Mass    108,668 

61.  Camden     108,117 

62.  Albany      106,632 

63.  Fort    Worth    104,562 

64.  Lynn    104,534 

65.  Des  Moines    104,052 

66.  Schenectady    103,774 

67.  Yonkers    103,066 

68.  Lawrence     102,923 

69.  Kansas    City,    Kans 102,096 

70.  Oklahoma  City,  Okla 97,588 

Immigration.  Previous  to  1800  no  sta- 
tistics of  immigration  were  kept.  Good  au- 
thorities, however,  estimate  that  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Revolutionary  "War  about 
one-fifth  of  the  people  were  immigrants  and 
that  fiom  1790  to  1800  about  5,000  people 
entered  the  country  each  year.  During  the 
first  hf^lf-century  following  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution,  immigration  was  small; 
and  previous  to  the  Civil  War,  only  about 
1,000,000  foreigners  had  settled  in  the  United 
States.  After  1870  immigrants  began  to 
come  by  the  thousands,  and  by  1910  they 
had  added  nearly  30,000,000  to  the  popula- 
tion. Previous  to  1895  most  of  the  immi- 
grants were  from  the  northern  countries  of 
Europe,  the  ma.jority  coming  from  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  Germany,  Norway  and  Sweden. 
Most  of  them  settled  in  the  new  states, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, where  their  descendants  now  constitute 
a  thrifty,  law-abiding  and  industrious  peo- 
ple. Since  that  time,  however,  the  character 
of  immigration  has  almost  entirely  changed, 
and  by  far  the  larger  projiortion  of  immi- 
gTants  come  from  Italy  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary, while  smaller  numbers  are  received 
from  other  countries  of  southern  Europe. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  tide 
of  immigration  has  very  materially  increased. 

In  1850  only  9.7  people  in  100  among  the 
population  were  foreign  born,  while  in  1910 
the  proportion  exceeded  14.  For  the  j'ear 
ending  June  30,  1910,  1,041,570  aliens"  en- 
tered the  United  States,  and  each  3-ear  there- 
after until  1915  over  1,000,000  immigrants 
were  received  each  year.     Between  1820  and 

1914  about  32,000,000  aliens  entered  the 
country,  exclusive  of  temporary  arrivals,  a 
number  equal  to  almost  one-third  the  en- 
tire population.  Immigration  was  greatly  re- 
duced during  the  World  War.  In  1914,  the 
number   of    immigrants   was    1.218,480;    in 

1915  it  was  326,700,  and  for  1916  and  1917 
the  number  was  less  than  300,000,  because  of 
the  war  which  was  being  waged  in  Europe. 
In  1917  Congress  passed  a  law  restricting 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3692       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


immigration  to  those  who  could  read  at  least 
one  language.  For  a  fuller  account  of  this 
subject,  see  the  article  Immigration. 

Color.  In  1790  the  negroes  constituted 
one-fifth  of  the  population  and  in  1910,  less 
than  one-ninth ;  that  is,  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion, 0,827,763  were  negroes.  In  1917  the 
number  had  increased  to  11,010,365,  accord- 
ing to  the  estimate  of  the  United  States 
government. 

The  great  majority  of  negroes  are  found 
in  the  states  south  of  the  Ohio  River,  includ- 
ing Texas  and  Arkansas,  though  bordering 
states  contain  large  numbers.  In  South 
Carolina  and  Mississippi,  the  negroes  out- 
number the  white  population.  In  1910  there 
were  also  71,531  Chinese  and  72,157  Japan- 
ese in  the  United  States.     The  greater  pro- 


Germany,  Switzerland,  Scotland,  Holland, 
France  and  England.  In  large  cities  and 
in  some  rural  communities  immigrants  settle 
in  communities  and  for  years  maintain  their 
language  and  many  of  the  customs  of  the 
Old  World;  but  in  most  instances  the  chil- 
dren educated  in  the  public  schools  become 
Americanized. 

With  very  few  exceptions,  English  is  the 
language  spoken  throughout  the  country, 
and  everywhere  it  is  the  official  language  of 
the  land.  After  the  United  States  entered 
the  World  War  many  states  prohibited  the 
teaching  of  any  living  language,  except  Eng- 
lish in  the  public  schools. 

In  1900  the  population  was  76,303,387,  not 
reckoning  the  outlying  possessions.  In  1910 
it  was  91,972,266.     In  1917  the  estimate  for 


GREAT  SEAL  OP   THE  UNITED  STATES 


portion  of  oriental  immigrants  are  con- 
fined to  the  Pacific  states.  There  were  also 
in  the  country  265,683  Indians,  most  of  whom 
were  on  reservations.  In  1917  the  number 
of  Indians  was  estimated  at  336,000.  Since 
1910  the  number  of  Japanese  has  increased, 
but  there  has  been  practically  no  change  in 
the  number  of  Chinese. 

Present  Character.  The  population  of 
the  United  States  comprises  representatives 
of  nearly  every  race  and  nation,  and  the. 
large  cities  are  probably  more  cosmopolitan 
than  any  others  in  the  world.  Because  of 
this  characteristic,  the  percentage  of  illit- 
eracy in  the  country  is  higher  than  it  is  in 
some   of  the  European   countries,   namely, 


continental  United  States  was  103,635,306, 
and  for  the  outlying  possessions,  10,511,300. 
The  population  of  each  of  these  possessions 
is  given  in  the  respective  articles  describ- 
ing them. 

Grovernment 
General  Features.  The  national  govern- 
ment began  with  the  Continental  Congress, 
which,  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
framed  the  first  national  constitution,  known 
as  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  This  in- 
strument, however,  was  soon  found  to  be 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  country  and 
in  1787  the  Constitution,  establishing  the 
present  government,  was  framed.  As  or- 
ganized under  the  Constitution,  the  govern- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3693       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


ment  of  the  United  States  is  a  federal  repub- 
lic, in  which  the  states  are  self-governing, 
each  having  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

The  powers  of  the  national  government 
are  defined  by  the  Constitution,  and  all  pow- 
ers not  specifically  delegated  to  the  United 
States  are  reserved  to  the  states  and  to  the 
people.  However,  the  states  are  prohibited 
from  the  exercise  of  certain  powers,  among 
which  are  making  treaties  with  foreign  na- 
tions, declaring  war  and  coinmg  money. 
There  are  other  powers,  also,  which  they  are 
forbidden  to  exercise  except  by  permission 
of  the  national  government. 

The  national  govenmient  is  organized  in 
three  coordinate  departments,  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial. 

While  these  departments,  -within  ceiiain 
limits,  are  independent  of  one  another,  each 
is  so  related  to  the  others  as  to  form,  with 
them,  an  organic  whole.  For  instance,  laws 
must  originate  in  the  legislative  department, 
but  the  president  has  the  power  of  veto,  and 
the  judicial  department  can  render  any  law 
null  and  void  by  declaring  it  unconstitutional. 
The  legislative  department  also  has  power 
to  impeach  and  try  United  States  officers, 
including  the  head  of  the  executive  depart- 
ment, and  the  president  cannot  appoint  to 
certain  offices  except  by  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate.  The  relation  of  these 
departments  to  each  other  is  shown  in  the 
diagram  accompanying  the  article  Civil  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  government  of  each  state 
is  described  in  the  article  on  that  state. 

Legislative  Department.  The  legislative 
department  consists  of  a  Congress,  compris- 
ing a  House  of  Representatives  and  a  Senate. 
The  House  of  Representatives  consists  of 
members  apportioned  among  the  states  ac- 
cording to  population,  the  apportionment 
being  made  every  ten  years.  Each  state  has 
at  least  one  Representative,  whatever  its 
population.  The  memljers  are  chosen  at 
a  general  election,  on  the  first  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  of  November,  in  even -num- 
bered years,  and  they  hold  their  offices  for 
two  years.  The  apportionment  in  1911  was 
one  Representative  to  every  211,430  inhab- 
itants, and  the  number  of  Representatives 
according  to  this  apportionment  was  435. 
The  House  of  Representatives  elects  one  of 
its  members  as  the  presiding  officer,  entitled 
speaker,  for  a  term  of  two  years.  All  bills 
for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  this 


branch  of  Congress,  but  in  passing  bills,  the 
two  houses  must  agree,  and  they  have  equal 
power  to  reject  measures. 

The  Senate  is  composed  of  two  members 
from  each  state,  formerly  chosen  by  the  state 
legislature,  but  since  the  adoption  of  the 
Seventeenth  Amendment,  elected  by  popular 
vote  for  a  term  of  six  years.  Members  are 
so  elected  that  the  terms  of  one-third  of  the 
Senators  expire  everj'  two  years.  The  pre- 
siding officer  is  the  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States.  The  Senate  has  sole  power 
to  try  cases  of  impeachment  and  to  ratify 
treaties  with  foreign  nations. 

Executive  Department.  The  executive  de- 
partment consists  of  the  President,  the  Vice- 
President  and  such  other  officers  as  the  Presi- 
dent may  select  or  as  may  be  provided  for 
by  law.  The  President  and  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent are  chosen  by  electors  for  a  term  of  four 
years.  In  order  that  this  branch  of  the  gov- 
ernment might  be  efficiently  administered, 
Washington  established,  in  1789,  the  follow- 
ing departments:  State,  War  and  Navy, 
Treasury  and  Postoffice.  Since  then  the  fol- 
lowing departments  have  been  added:  In- 
terior, 1849;  Justice,  1870;  Agriculture, 
1889 ;  and  Commerce  and  Labor,  1903,  which 
in  1913  was  divided  into  the  Department  of 
Commerce  and  the  Department  of  Labor. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Department  of 
Justice  and  the  Postoffice  Department,  the 
officers  at  the  heads  of  the  departments  are 
styled  Secretaries.  The  Attorney-General  is 
the  head  of  the  Department  of  Justice,  and 
the  Postmaster-General  is  at  the  head  of  the 
Postoffice  Department.  These  heads  of  the 
department,  taken  collectively,  constitute 
the  President's  Cabinet.  Each  of  the  depart- 
ments is  explained  under  its  title.  The  heads 
of  departments  and  other  important  officers 
are  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  while  many 
minor  officers  are  appointed  by  the  President 
without  consulting  the  Senate,  or  by  the 
heads  of  departments. 

The  President  is  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army  and  \\ix\y,  has  the  power  to  call  Con- 
gress in  special  session,  when  necessary,  and 
can  veto  any  bill  passed  by  Congress,  though 
such  a  bill  may  be  passed  over  his  veto  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  niembers  of  each  house. 
It  is  the  President's  duty  to  send  a  message 
to  Congress  at  th2  beginning  of  each  session, 
setting  forth  the  condition  of  the  counti-y 
and   recommending   such    legislation    as  he 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3694       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


believes  is  necessary.  He  also  has  power  to 
grant  reprieves  and  pardons  to  persons  who 
are  sentenced  by  United  States  courts,  and  it 
is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  laws  are  executed 
throughout  the  country  and  all  of  its  depen- 
dencies. 

The  Judicial  Department.  The  Judicial 
Department  consists  of  the  Supreme  Court 
and  such  other  courts  as  may  from  time  to 
time  be  established  by  law.  At  present  the 
United  States  courts  consist  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  nine  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals,  103 


inissioners  appointed  by  the  United  States, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  given  an  active  part 
in  the  management  of  government  affairs  as 
rapidly  as  they  became  competent.  Now 
both  of  these  possessions  have  their  own  legis- 
latures. For  a  detailed  statement,  the  read- 
er is  referred  to  the  subhead  Government  in 
the  articles  describing  each  of  these  posses- 
sions. Alaska  and  Hawaii  are  organized" 
territories.  The  Virgin  Islands,  acquired  by 
purchase  from  Denmark  in  1917,  were  placed 
temporarily  under  a  naval  governor. 


\A   R   I   B  B  E  A'N'^^^   S   E  A 
POKTO  RICO 

SCAII  or  MILEj 
,0  ZO  40 
6|5  


ISLANDS 


POSSESSIONS    OF     THE    UNITED     STATES   NOT  ON  THE  AMERICAN  CONTINENT 


District  Courts,  a  Court  of  Claims,  a  Court  of 
Private  Land  Claims,  a  Court  of  Appeals 
for  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  terri- 
torial courts  and  admiralty  courts.  The 
organization  and  jurisdiction  of  these  courts 
are  described  in  the  article  Courts. 

Outlying  Possessions.  The  acquisition  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  and  Porto  Rico  in 
1898  entailed  upon  the  United  States  a  new 
problem  in  government.  The  inhabitants  of 
these  islands  had  never  governed  themselves, 
and  they  were  not  prepared  to  assume  the 
responsibilities  of  government.  They  were  at 
first  governed  by  a  governor-general  and  corn- 


State  Governments.  The  government  of 
each  state  is  based  upon  a  constitution,  and 
in  the  main  follows  the  plan  of  the  national 
government.  Nearly  all  states  have  a  legis- 
lature of  two  branches,  a  Senate  and  a  House 
of  representatives.  In  many  the  members 
of  the  senate  are  elected  for  a  longer  term 
than  the  members  of  the  house,  and  in.  some 
states  the  terms  of  only  a  part  of  the  sena- 
tors expire  at  one  time,  so  that  one-half  of 
them  are  chosen  at  each  general  election. 
The  executive  officers  of  the  state  are  us- 
ually a  governor,  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  sec- 
retary of  state,  a  treasurer,  an  attorney-gen- 
eral and  a  superintendent  or  commissioner 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3695       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


of  public  instruction.  To  these  some  states 
add  an  auditor  of  public  accounts  and  a 
comptroller. 

The  state  government  deals  with  all  affairs 
pertaining  to  the  interests  of  the  state,  such 
as  laws  governing  marriage  and  divorce,  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  the  settling  of  estates, 
the  transference  of  real  property  and  the 
regulation  of  loans,  interests  and-  mortgages. 

In  the  matter  of  courts  there  is  a  greater 
divergence  of  plan.  Almost  every  state  has 
a  supreme  court,  which  has  a  limited  original 
jurisdiction,  and  to  which  cases  of  certain 
importance  may  be  appealed  from  the  lower 
courts.  Below  this  are  circuit  courts,  which 
usually  have  jurisdiction  over  several  eoun- 


township  officers  are  chosen  at  an  annual 
town  meeting,  in  which  all  voters  have  a  right 
to  participate.  All  the  public  business  of  the 
local  community  is  in  the  hands  of  these 
town  officers.  In  the  county  system  the  town- 
ship is  not  recognized,  the  county  being  the 
principal  unit  of  government.  The  only 
subdivision  is  the  parish.  Under  this  plan 
nearly  all  matters  of  public  interest  are 
looked  after  by  county  officers,  who  are 
chosen  at  regular  elections.  In  most  states 
these  are  known  as  county  commissioners,  or 
county  supervisors.  Between  New  England 
and  Virginia  a  third  form  of  local  govern- 
ment grew  up.  It  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
two  systems  described  above  and  may  be 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   FLAG 


ties,  and  in  some  states  there  are  county 
courts.  Almost  all  the  states  have  ccainty 
probate  courts  for  the  settlement  of  estates. 
Local  Government.  The  early  colonists 
established  two  forms  of  local  government, 
the  township  form  in  New  England,  and  the 
count tf  form  in  "Virginia  and  other  southern 
colonies.  These  shaped  the  local  government 
in  most  of  the  original  states.  Under  the 
former  plan  the  tow^iship  is  the  unit,  and  the 


called  the  mixed,  or  townsMp-county ,  system. 
Under  this  scheme  certain  minor  duties  de- 
volve upon  township  officers,  while  more  im- 
portant local  duties  rest  with  county  officers. 
The  officers  of  the  county  include  commis- 
sioners, representing  the  different  towns  of 
the  county,  an  auditor,  a  register  of  deeds,  a 
treasurer  and  a  superintendent  of  schools, 
or  school  commissioner.  Other  officers  are 
sometimes  added.    This  system,  on  the  whole, 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


3696 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts.  . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi    . 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire . 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico .... 

New  York 

North  Carolina. . 
North  Dakota  .  . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania .  .  . 
Rhode  Island  .  .  . 
South  Carolina 
South  Dakota . . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia  

Washington 

West  Virginia .  .  . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


POPULAR    NAME 


Cotton  State. 


Bear  State 

Golden  State 

Centennial  State 

Nutmeg  State 

Blue  Hen  State 

Peninsula  State 

Empire  State  of  the  South. 

Gem  of  the  Mountains 

Prairie  State 

Hoosier  State 

Hawkeye  State 

Sunflower  State 

Blue  Grass  State 

Creole  State 

Pine  Tree  State 

Old  Line  State 

Old  Bay  State 

Wolverine  State 

Gopher  State 

Bayou  State 

Bullion  State 

Treasure  State 

Tree-Planter  State 

Sagebrush  State 

Granite  State 

Garden  State 


Empire  State 

Old  North  State 

Flickertail  State 

Buckeye  State 

Boomer  State 

Beaver  State 

Keystone  State 

Little  Rhody 

Palmetto  State 

Sunshine  State 

Big  Bend  State 

Lone  Star  State 

Salt  Lake  State 

Green  Mountain  State . 

Old  Dominion 

Chinook  State 

Panhandle  State 

Badger  State 

Equality  State 


EXTREME 
LENGTH 


330 

390 
240 
770 
270 

75 
110 
460 
315 
490 
380 
265 
210 
200 
175 
275 
'235 
120 
110 
400 
400 
340 
280 
315 
205 
485 
185 
160 
390 
310 
200 
210 
205 
210 
290 
180 

50 
215 
245 
120 
620 
345 
155 
205 
230 
225 
300 
275 


EXTREME 
BREADTH 


200 
335 

275 
375 
390 
90 
35 
400 
250 
305 
205 
160 
300 
400 
350 
280 
205 
200 
190 
310 
350 
180 
300 
580 
415 
315 
90 
70 
350 
320 
520 
360 
230 
585 
375 
300 
35 
235 
380 
430 
760 
275 
90 
425 
340 
200 
290 
365 


TOTAL  AREA 

SQUARE  MILES 

RANK 

51,998 

28 

113,956 

5 

53,335 

20 

158,297 

2 

103,948 

7 

4,965 

,46 

2,370 

47 

58,666 

21 

59,265 

20 

83,888 

12 

56,665 

23 

36,354 

37 

56,147 

24 

82,158 

13 

40,598 

36 

48,506 

30 

33,040 

38 

12,327 

41 

8,266 

44 

57,980 

22 

84,682 

11 

46,865 

31 

69,420 

18 

146,997 

3 

77,.520 

15 

110,690 

6 

9,341 

43 

8,224 

45 

122,634 

4 

49,204 

29 

52,426 

27 

70,837 

16 

41,040 

35 

70,057 

17 

96,699 

9 

45,126 

32 

1,248 

48 

.30,989 

39 

77,615 

14 

42,022 

34 

265,896 

1 

84,990 

10 

9,564 

42 

42,627 

33 

69,127 

19 

24.170 

40 

56,066 

25 

97,914 

8 

ADMITTED  TO 
THE  UNION 


1819 
1912 

1836 
18.50 
1870 

* 

* 

1845 
* 

1890 
1818 
1816 
1846 
1861 
1792 
1812 
1820 


1837 
1858 
1817 
1821 
1889 
1867 
1864 


1912 

* 

* 
1889 
1803 
1908 
1859 


1889 
1796 
1845 
1896 
1791 
* 

1889 
1863 
1S48 
1890 


ESTIMATED 

POPULATION 

(1918) 


2,395,270 

272,034 
1,792,965 
3,119,412 
1,014,581 
1,286,268 

216,941 

938,877 
2,935,617 

461,766 
6,317,734 
2,854,167 
2,224,771 
1,874,195 
2,408,547 
1,884,778 

782,191 
1,384,539 
3,832,790 
3,133,678 
2,345,287 
2,001,466 
3,448,498 

486,376 
1,296,877 

114,742 

446,352 
3,080,371 

437,015 
10,646,989 
2,466,025 

791,437 
5,273,814 
2,377,629 

888,243 
8,798,067 

637,415 
1,660,934 

735,434 
2,321,253 
4,601,279 

453,648 

366,192 
2,234,030 
1,660,578 
1,439,165 
2,553,983 

190,380 


*  Original  State. 

is  more  satisfactory  than  either  of  the  others, 
and  it  has  influenced  the  systems  of  local  gov- 
ernment in  practically  all  of  the  western 
states.  It  combines  sufficient  local  interest 
with  an  economy  in  management  that  is  not 
possible  under  the  old  township  system. 

Territories.  As  the  national  domain  was 
settled,  territorial  forms  of  government 
were  organized  to  exercise  control  over  such 
areas  as  would  best  meet  the  needs  of  the 
inhabitants.    As  the  territories  became  more 


densely  populated  they  were  subdivided, 
and  the  subdivisions  were  in  time  admitted 
into  .the  Union  and  became  states.  Under 
a  territorial  government  the  governor  and 
territorial  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate;  otherwise  the  territory  administers 
its  local  affairs,  the  same  as  does  a  sta:te, 
electing  a  legislature  which  enacts  laws  to 
meet  the  needs  of  its  inhabitants.  In  1919 
Alaska  and  Hawaii  were  territories. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3697       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Finance.  The  Constitution  gives  Con- 
gress power  to  levy  and  collect  direct  taxes, 
duties  on  imported  goods  and  excise  taxes. 
Direct  taxation  soon  proved  to  be  unpop- 


AMERICA  AT  THE  TIME  OP  THE  REVO- 
LUTION 
ular,  and  except  in  extreme  cases,  such  as 
war,  rebellion  and  famine,  was  rarely 
adopted  until  1913,  when  an  income  tax  law 
was  passed.  Most  of  the  government's  reve- 
nue, however,  until  1920  was  derived  from 
import  duties  and  excise  taxes  on  spirituous 
liquors,  tobacco  and  other  articles  of  manu- 
facture, particularly  luxuries.  In  that  year 
the  nation  lost  its  liquor  revenues  through 
the  prohibition  amendment.  In  1917  tax3s 
were  levied  on  many  articles  not  ordinarily 
taxed,  because  of  the  expenses  incuiTed  on 
account  of  the  World  War. 

The  income  is  usually  ample  for  the  needs 
of  the  government.  Loans  are  occasionally 
obtained  through  the  sale  of  bonds.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  five  such  loans  were  made, 
aggregating  $19,100,000,000.  Four  of  them 
were  designated  as  Liberty  Loans,  and  the 
fifth  as  the  Victory  Loan.  All  were  over- 
subscribed. United  States  bonds  are  usually 
payable  after  a  long  period,  and  while  the 
interest  is  low,  the  permanency  of  the  in- 
vestment  and   the   perfect   security   offered 

232 


by  the  government  make  them  very  desirable 
to  capitalists. 

The  most  important  items  of  expenditure 
are  pensions,  the  postoffice,  the  army,  the 
navy  and  the  interest  on  the  public  debt. 

Political  Divisions.  Within  the  United 
States  proper  there  are  48  states  and  1  fed- 
eral district.  The  external  possessions  con- 
sist of  the  territories  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii; 
Guam,  the  Philippines,  Tutuila,  Porto  Rico, 
the  Virgin  Islands,  formerly  the  Danish  West 
Indies,  and  a  few  other  small  islands.  At 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  there  were 
thirteen  organized  states,  and  these  are 
knowm  as  the  Original  States.  The  first  new 
state  admitted  was  Vermont,  in  1791,  and 
the  last  were  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  which 
came  into  the  Union  in  1912.  The  outlying 
possessions  are  described  under  their  titles. 
The  table  given  below  includes  only  the  states 
within  the  United  States  proper.  The  figures 
given  are  taken  from  the  United  States  Cen- 
sus of  1910,  except  populations,  which  are 
estimates  of  1918.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
the  latest  additions  to  the  union  of  states, 
elect  one  Representative  each. 

Territorial  Expansion 
At  the  organization   of  the   government, 
the   Mississippi   River   formed   the   western 
boundary    of    the    United    States,    and    the 


UNITED   STATES   IN    1800 

area  of  the  country  was  828,000  square  miles. 
Only  about  300,000  square  miles,  or  a  little 
over  one-third  of  this  area,  was  actually 
settled.     In  1803  the  first  great  addition  of 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      3699       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


territory  was  made  by  the  purchase  of  Louis- 
iana. Sixteen  years  later,  this  was  followed 
by  the  acquisition  of  Florida.  With  these 
accessions  of  territory,  the  country  was  open- 
ly committed  to  the  policy  of  expanding  her 
domains,  so  that  in  the  admission  of  Texas 
and  the  taking  over  of  the  territory  ceded  by 
Mexico  no  new  policy  was  established,  ex- 
cept in  the  method  pursued.  Thus  far  all 
territory  acquired  had  been  adjoining  the 
United  States,  but  in  1867  Secretary  Seward, 
in  the  purchase  of  Alaska,  took  a  radical  step, 
in  acquiring  territory  somewhat  remote  from 
the  country.  A  still  more  radical  step  was 
taken  in  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  and  the 
acquisition  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and 
Porto  Rico.  In  1917  the  Danish  West  Indies 
were  purchased  and  renamed  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands. Each  of  these  possessions  is  described 
under  its  title. 

The  following  table  contains  data  concern- 
ing the  territory  added  to  the  United  States : 


Territorial 
Division 

Year 

Area 
Added 

(SQ.  MI.) 

purchasp 
Pk;cb 

181)3 
1819 
1845 
1846 
1848 
1853 
1867 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1901 
1904 
1917 

8(5,025 

70,107 

389,795 

288  689 

523,802 

36,211 

590,884 

6,449 

3,435 

210 

114,958 

77 

68 

474 

134 

$15,000,000 

Fhrida 

5,499,768 

Texas                      

Oregon  Territory 

Mexican  Cession 

18,250,000t 
10.000,000 

Alaska 

7,200,000 

Philippine  Islands 

Tutuila  (Samoa  Is ) 

20,000,000 

100,000 

10,000,000* 

Virgin  Islands 

25,000,000 

Total               

2,900,318 
827,844 

Sir2,039,7GS 

Total 

3,9"n.l62  1 

•Besides  an  annual  rental  of  ?250,"00. 

tThis  does  not  include  SIO.OOO.OOO  paid  to  Texas  for  territory  out- 
side of  its  present  boundaries,  but  included  in  the  state  at  the  time  of 
annexation. 

Education 
The  United  States  has  no  national  system 
of  education,  in  the  sense  that  there  is  an 
educational  system  administered  by  the  Fed- 
eral government.  However,  from  the  time 
of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  in  which  certain 
sections  of  land  in  the  Northwe?t  Territory 
were  reserved  for  educational  purposes,  the 
national  government  has  assisted  very  ma- 
terially in  public  education,  by  granting 
generous  portions  of  the  public  domain  for 
the  support  of  universities,  agricultural  col- 
leges and  public  schools,  and  in  1917  liberal 
appropriations  were  granted  for  vocational 
education  below  college  grade.     In  addition 


to  this  it  maintains  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
which  is  a  division  under  the  Department  of 
the  Interior.  The  chief  officer,  called  the 
commissioner  of  education,  collect  statistics 
and  publishes  a  biennial  report,  containing 
educational  data  of  national  importance. 
Further  than  this  his  duties  are  advisory 
only.  However,  under  the  able  commis- 
sioners who  have  filled  the  office  since  the  bu- 
reau was  established,  very  much  has  been 
done  to  advance  the  educational  interests  of 
the  country.  The  work  of  the  bureau  is 
more  fully  explained  in  the  article  Educa- 
tion, Bureau  of. 

The  administration  of  the  public  schools 
is  left  to  the  states,  and  each  maintains  its 
own  system  of  public  education.  However, 
these  systems  so  closely  resemble  one  another 
that,  taken  together,  they  practically  consti- 
tute a  national  system  of  education.  The  ar- 
ticles Common  Schools,  High  Schools,  and 
those  on  the  important  universities  of  the 
country  will  furnish  additional  information. 

Art  and  Literature 
For  information  on  American  art  see  the 
articles  Painting  and  Sculpture.  American 
literature  will  be  found  in  the  article  Litera- 
ture, subhead  American  Literature. 

History 

Discovery  and  Exploration.  At  the  time 
of  its  discovery  by  Europeans,  America  was 
inhabited  by  savages  belonging  to  the  Ameri- 
can, or  Red,  race.  The  origin  and  antiquity 
of  these  people  and  the  degree  of  their 
civilization  are  still  subjects  of  investigation 
and  dispute.  It  is  also  uncertain  at  what  time 
and  place  the  American  continents  were  first 
discovered.  Norse  seamen  are  said  to  have 
visited  the  North  American  coast  about  A.  d. 
1000,  and  it  is  probable  that  fishermen  from 
Northern  Europe  had  made  voyages  acros.s 
the  Atlantic  before  that  date.  But  even  if 
both  these  facts  were  true,  the  credit  for  the 
real  discovery  of  America  must  still  be  given 
to  those  navigators  who,  at  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  crossed  the  Atlantic  and  ex- 
plored the  shores  of  the  "New  World." 

The  first  of  these  navigators  was  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  who  in  1492  discovered  the 
Bahama  Islands  and  on  later  voyages  ex- 
plor(^d  the  South  and  Central  American 
coasts.  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1497 
and  1498,  under  the  auspices  of  England, 
skirted  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  perhaps 


TWO  NATURES 
Barnard 


MEMORY 
French 


ETHAN  ALLEN 
Mead 


DEATH  AND  THE  SCULPTOR.       French 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON 
Ward 


3700 


EXAMPLES  OP  AMERICAN  SCULPTURE 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3701        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


New  England,  giving  Britain  the  basis  for 
her  claim  to  the  continent  of  North  Amei'iea. 
About  the  same  time  Americus  Vespucius  was 
exploring  the  coasts  of  South  America,  and 
in  his  honor  America  was  named.  In  1513 
Balboa,  a  Spanish  adventurer,  discovered  the 
Pacific,  and  in  the  same  year  Ponce  de  Leon 
discovered  and  explored  Florida.  Verrazano 
was  the  first  to  represent  France  in  this  new 
field,  his  voyage  being  made  in  1524.  French- 
men and  Spaniards  then  vied  for  the  control 
of  the  new-found  riches.  Narvaez,  Coronado 
and  De  Soto,  in  the  south,  set  out  to  conquer 
for  Spain  the  vast  interior  of  the  North 
American  continent,  while  in  the  north.  Car- 
tier,  and  in  Florida,  Ribaut  and  the  HugTie- 
Dots  attempted  to  establish  the  power  of 
France,  but  without  success. 

Meantime,  English  enterprise  had  been  dor- 
mant, but  with  the  advent  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
to  the  throne,  in  1558,  a  group  of  distin- 
guished marinei"s  became  anxious  to  extend 
English  influence  in  the  New  World.  Of 
these,  Sir  John  Hawkins,  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  and  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh were  the  most  important,  but  they  ac- 
complished little  of  permanent  value.  It 
was  not  till  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  real  progress  was  made  toward 
subduing  and  colonizing  America.  At  that 
time,  France,  under  the  leadership  of  such 
brilliant  men  as  Champlain,  Marquette,  Joliet 
and  La  Salle,  extended  her  influence  through- 
out the  region  of  Canada  and  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Ohio  valleys,  establishing  fur- 
trading  posts  throughout  this  territory.  In 
1565  Spain  established  a  settlement  at  Saint 
Augustine,  Florida,  and  made  feeble  efforts  to 
extend  her  authority  northward,  but  with 
little  success. 

Colonization.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
development  of  each  of  the  colonies,  is  given 
in  articles  upon  the  several  states  and  also 
upon  the  leading  discoveries  and  explorers  of 
the  period. 

English  Colonies.  The  chief  fact  in 
American  history  during  the  seventeenth 
century  is  the  settlement  of  English  colonies 
along  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  was  begun 
in  1607  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  London  Company,  a  trading 
and  colonizing  corporation  similar  to  the 
East  India  Company.  This  colony  was  in 
large  measure  a  commercial  and  political 
enterprise,  and  its  settlers  were  drawn  from 
all  classes,  but  especially  from  the  wealthy 


and  the  adventurous.  During  its  early  life 
Jamestown  witnessed  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant episodes  of  American  history,  among 
them  the  establishment  of  the  first  represent- 
ative assembly  in  America  (1619),  and  the 
institution  of  negro  slavery  (1619). 

The  second  English  settlement  was  at 
Pl.vmouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1620,  and  was 
made  by  men  who  had  fled  from  England  to 
avoid  religious  persecution.  In  1628  a  set- 
tlement was  made  at  Salem  by  English  Puri- 
tans. This,  too,  was  a  religious  movement. 
The  early  histoi-y  of  Plymouth  and  Salem,  the 
latter  called  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  was 
somewhat  troubled.  The  colonists  early 
manifested  a  desire  for  self-government, 
which  led  to  bitter  contests  with  the  king, 
but  at  the  same  time  brought  about  important 
progress  toward  political  and  religious 
liberty.  However,  in  1636  Roger  Williams 
was  exiled  for  his  religious  belief,  and  in 
1651  a  bitter  persecution  of  the  Quakers  be- 
gan in  Boston.  Meantime,  Harvard  College 
had  been  founded  in  1638,  and  the  first  print- 
ing press  had  been  set  up  in  1639. 

The  success  of  the  early  colonies  led  to 
other  enterprises,  and  settlements  in  New 
Plampshire  and  Maine  resulted.  But  even 
the  freedom  which  was  nominally  established 
in  Massachusetts  did  not  satisfy  that  com- 
munity, and  in  1633  bodies  of  settlers  from 
the  coast  began  to  travel  inland  and  found 
settlements  along  the  Connecticut  River. 
These  developed  into  the  Colony  of  Connecti- 
cut, which  in  1637  adopted  the  first  written 
constitution  in  America,  known  as  the  "Fund- 
amental Orders  of  Connecticut."  New  Haven 
was  settled  in  this  year  and  was  united  with 
Connecticut  in  1682.  Maryland  was  organ- 
ized as  a  proprietaiy  colony,  under  the  Lords 
Baltimore,  and  its  first  settlement  was  at 
Saint  Mary's,  the  original  purpose  being  to 
found  a  haven  of  refuge  for  English  Catho- 
lics. The  territory  of  the  Carolinas  was  first 
settled  by  Virginians,  but  in  1663  it  was 
granted  to  eight  English  noblemen,  who 
divided  it  into  two  colonies,  which  were  again 
united  in  1699,  but  governed  separately  after 
1729. 

Pennsylvania  was  a  Quaker  proprietaiy 
colony,  founded  by  William  Penn,  Jr.,  in 
3676  and  colonized  six  years  later.  Its  gov- 
ernment was  organized  on  an  extremely 
liberal  basis  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  other  American  colonies.  The  settle- 
ment of  Rhode  Island  was  the  outgrowth  of 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3702      UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


the  religious  persecution  in  Massachusetts,  be- 
ing founded  by  two  exiles,  Koger  Williams 
and  Anne  Hutchinson,  the  former  settling  at 
Providence,  the  latter  at  Portsmouth. 

They  eventually  united  their  forces. 
Georgia  was  the  last  of  the  thirteen  colonies 
to  be  settled;  it  was  founded  by  James 
Oglethorpe  in  1732,- as  a  refuge  for  honest 
debtors.  A  village  was  settled  at  Savannah 
in  the  following  year. 

Other  Colonies.  New  Jersey  was  first 
colonized  by  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Nassau,  now 
Gloucester.  This  was  subsequently  conquered 
by  the  Swedes,  restored  to  the  Dutch  in 
1 655  and  finally  transf  en^ed  to  the  English  in 
1664,  becoming  a  proprietary  province  under 
Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  The 
Dutch  were  also  the  first  to  establish  colonies 
within  the  territory  of  New  York,  by  reason 
of  tlie  voyage  of  Henry  Hudson  in  1609. 
Albany  was  settled  in  1624,  and  New  Amster- 
dam (New  York),  two  years  later.  The 
colony  was  conquered  by  the  English  in  1664. 
Delaware  was  long  a  fighting  ground  between 
the  Dutch  and  the  Swedes,  the  latter  finally 
being  compelled  to  relinquish  their  claim; 
but  the  English  conquered  in  1664. 

Colonial  Development.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  scattering  colonies  of  all 
the  nations  steadily  advanced  in  strength 
and  constantly  extended  their  borders,  until 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  Labrador  to  Mexico 
was  dotted  with  prosperous  villages  and  trad- 
ing centers.  During  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  interests  of  France 
and  England  began  to  come  into  conflict,  as 
each  attempted  to  extend  its  dominion  over 
the  fertile  interior  of  the  continent.  This 
resulted  in  a  series  of  wars,  known,  collect- 
ively, as  the  French  and  Lidian  wars,  extend- 
ing with  but  slight  interruptions  from  1689 
to  1763.  This  long  conflict  had  three  great 
results  from  the  standpoint  of  the  colonies: 
(1)  It  practically  drove  France  from  America 
and  decided  that  American  Institutions 
should  be  organized  chiefly  upon  British 
models;  (2)  it  gave  the  colonists  military 
experience  and  a  feeling  of  independent 
power,  which  made  them  more  willing  to 
stand  firmly  for  their  rights  against  the 
mother  country ;  (3)  it  disclosed  the  necessity 
for  intercolonial  union. 

During  this  same  time  the  colonies  were 
developing  politically  and  were  manifesting 
more  and  more  clearly  their  determination  to 
govern  themselves,  at  least  in  all  local  affairs. 


The  Development  of  Union.  From  the 
earliest  times  events  in  America  had  shaped 
themselves  to  the  end  that  the  colonies  should 
become  not  independent  units,  but  parts  of 
a  general  system.  By  the  middle  of  the 
eigthteenth  century  the  necessity  of  such  a 
result  had  become  more  evident,  only  because 
in  the  meantime  minor  issues  of  a  local  nature 
had  been  decided,  and  because  recent  events, 
in  which  all  the  colonies  were  united,  had 
disclosed  to  the  colonists  their  common  in- 
terests and  ideals.  This  development  of  the 
spirit  of  union  culminated  in  1754  in  a  con- 
gTess,  held  at  Albany  for  the  purpose  of 
framing  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  the  In- 
dians, and  also  of  devising  a  plan  for  the 
union  of  all  the  colonies.  The  latter  plan,  pre- 
pared by  Franklin,  was  adopted  by  the  con- 
vention, but  it  was  rejected  by  every  colony 
and  by  the  mother  country.  The  reasons  for 
its  rejection  disclosed  a  state  of  affairs  which 
found  its  natural  conclusion  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War.  Says  Franklin,  "The  Assem- 
bly did  not  adopt  it,  as  they  all  thought  there 
was  too  much  prerogative  in  it,  and  in  Eng- 
land, it  was  judged  to  have  too  much  of  the 
democratic."  Thus  the  issue  was  clearly 
drawn  between  England  and  the  colonies ;  the 
former  was  set  resolutely  against  the  grow- 
ing spirit  of  independence  and  democracy  in 
America ;  the  latter  were  determined  to  pre- 
vent interference  in  their  affairs. 

Revolutionary  War.  Causes  and  Begin- 
nings. The  fundamental  cause  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  had  both  economic  and  politi- 
cal phases.  It  was  laid  in  the  theory  of 
colonization  held  by  every  important  country 
in  the  world  at  that  time,  namely,  that  col- 
onies existed  for  the  mother  country  and  that 
thej'  had  no  political  or  commercial  rights 
except  those  specifically  granted  to  them. 
This  principle  probably  would  not  have  been 
contested,  if  the  tendency  of  all  governments, 
and  especially  of  England,  had  not  been  to 
repress  the  growing  strength  of  their  colonies 
and  thus  to  cause  distressing  economic  condi- 
tions, which  the  colonists  themselves  had  no 
power  to  remedy. 

This  led  to  the  demand  for  political  self- 
government,  which,  when  refused,  roused  a 
spirit  of  resistance  and,  finalh^,  of  revolution. 
This  end  was  hastened  by  the  passage  of  more 
and  more  repressive  legislation,  such  as  the 
enlargement  of  the  Navigation  Acts  (which 
see),  the  establishment  of  British  garrisons  in 
America  and  the  taxation  of  the  colonies  to 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      3704       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


support  these  garrisons.  To  enforce  the 
second  policy,  a  stamp  tax  was  inaugurated, 
which  gave  to  every  colonist  a  grievance  and 
awakened  the  famous  cry,  "Taxation  without 
representation  is  tyranny."  The  act  repeal- 
ing the  Stamp  Act  was  accompanied  by  a 
declaration  that  the  Crown  had  the  right  to 
tax  the  Colonies,  and  thus  it  was  of  little 
benefit  in  appeasing  the  wrath  of  the  Ameri- 
cans. When  followed  by  the  Townshend  Acts 
the  situation  became  serious  and  culminated 
in  open  violence  in  Boston,  during  which 
British  soldiers  in  Boston  killed  a  number  of 
citizens. 

It  soon  became  evident  to  the  leading  men 
in  the  colonies  that  little  was  to  be  expected 
in  the  direction  of  conciliation,  and  an  ef- 
fort was  made  to  unite  the  colonies  more 
firmly  in  opposition  to  the  mother  country. 
One  of  the  important  means  to  this  end 
was  the  formation  of  committees  of  corre- 
spondence, which  kept  the  different  colonies 
informed  of  the  march  of  events  throughout 
the  country.  The  spirit  of  defiance  became 
more  widespread,  as  was  indicated  by  the 
destruction  of  the  Gaspee,  a  British  man-of- 
war,  stationed  near  Rhode  Island  to  prevent 
violation  of  the  customs  laws,  and  by  the 
Boston  Tea  Party.  To  punish  this  lawless- 
ness, the  British  government  passed,  and  at- 
tempted to  enforce,  laws  clearly  violating  the 
English  constitution,  and  striking  at  rights 
especially  dear  to  the  colonists.  Among 
these  were  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  closing  the 
port  of  Boston  to  all  commerce,  and  acts 
allowing  the  trial  in  England  of  certain  offi- 
cial offenders,  permitting  the  quartering  of 
soldiers  upon  the  colonies  and  abolishing 
certain  provisions  of  their  charters.  To  en- 
force these  laws.  General  Gage  and  a  force 
of  soldiers  were  sent  to  Massachusetts. 

The  colonies  were  thoroughly  aroused,  and 
in  reply  to  a  request  of  the  Massachusetts 
assembly,  they  sent  delegates  to  a  congress 
at  Philadelphia,  September  1,  1774.  This 
body,  known  as  the  First  Continental  Con- 
gress, passed  resolutions  of  protest  against 
the  British  policy  and  agreed  not  to  import 
goods  from  England,  then  adjourned,  to  re- 
assemble May  1,  1775.  Their  petition  to 
Parliament  was  answered  by  still  more  op- 
pressive acts;  and  before  the  second  Con- 
gress met,  the  American  cause  had  gone  be- 
yond the  stage  of  discussion  or  compromise. 
The  colonies,  led  by  Massachusetts,  collected 
military  forces  and  supplies,  and  when  Gen- 


eral Gage  attempted  to  seize  the  stores  at 
Lexington  and  Concord,  and  to  arrest  Samuel 
Adams  and  John  Hancock,  his  force  was 
met  by  a  body  of  minutemen,  drawn  up  on 
Lexington  Common.  In  the  battle  which 
followed  the  first  blood  in  the  Revolutionary 
War  was  shed.  The  government  of  the  col- 
onies was  soon  taken  over  by  the  patriots 
and,  guided  and  inspired  by  the  Second 
Continental  Congress,  measures  of  increasing 
defiance  and  independence  were  taken  from 
time  to  time.  (See  articles  upon  the  Rev- 
olutionary War  in  America  and  the  deci- 
sive battles,  for  brief  outlines  of  the  chief 
military  campaigns;  see  also  articles  upon 
the  great  statesmen  and  soldiers  of  the 
period.) 

Results  of  the  War.  At  the  opening  of  the 
struggle  the  people  of  the  country  were  not 
united  in  the  conviction  that  political  inde- 
pendence of  Great  Britain  was  the  end  to  be 
desired.  They  were  still  loyal  to  the  mother 
country  and  were  determined  to  fight  to  re- 
gain their  rights  as  Englishmen  But  the 
passage  of  events  and  the  necessary  as- 
sumption of  the  ordinary  functions  of  gov- 
ernment by  Congress  and  the  provisional 
governments  of  the  colonies,  brought  the 
question  of  independence  prominently  for- 
ward and  finally  caused  independence  to  be 
proclaimed.  Meanwhile,  foreign  relations 
had  been  established  by  the  appointment  of 
a  committee  to  correspond  with  foreign  gov- 
ernments, and  this  resulted,  in  February, 
1778,  in  the  signing  of  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  France.  This  treaty  is.  generally  con- 
sidered the  turning-point  of  the  war,  since 
it  led  to  such  active  support  by  France  that 
England  was  eventually  compelled  to  make 
peace,  the  treaty  being  signed  at  Paris,  Sep- 
tember 3,  1783. 

Articles  of  Confederation.  The  financial 
and  internal  affairs  of  the  colonies  were  in 
a  far  from  satisfactory  state.  The  Conti- 
nental Congress  had  assumed  only  the  abso- 
lutely necessary  functions  and  had  no  legal 
power  to  compel  obedience  to  its  decrees. 
Appreciating  the  importance  of  forming  a 
stronger  government  to  replace  that  which 
was  being  destroyed  by  the  Revolution,  Con- 
gress appointed  a  committee  in  the  summer 
of  1776,  to  draw  up  articles  for  the  confeder- 
ation of  the  thirteen  colonies.  These  articles, 
though  a  vast  improvement  over  the  organi- 
zation which  had  previously  existed,  left 
much  to   bo  desired,  since  the  same  spirit 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3706        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


which  had  led  the  colonists  to  resist  the  en- 
croachments of  British  power  led  them  to 
fear  the  establishment  of  a  strong  power 
among  themselves.  The  articles  therefore 
provided  for  no  executive  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment, leaving  all  power  with  Congress, 
which  could  pass  laws  only  with  the  consent 
of  the  representatives  of  nine  states,  a  ma- 
jority of  the  representatives  of  each  state 
being  necessary  to  cast  its  vote. 

In  spite  of  the  apparent  weakness  of  the 
government  which  was  thus  created,  state 
jealousies  prevented  the  adoption  of  the  ar- 
ticles until  almost  the  close  of  the  war,-  in 
1781.  Meantime,  the  financial  affairs  of  the 
government  as  a  whole  and  of  the  several 
colonies  had  come  to  a  serious  state,  since 
all  the  governments  had  been  compelled  to 
borrow  vast  sums  of  money  and,  besides,  had 
issued  paper  notes  in  pajnuent  of  debts.  This 
paper  money,  coming  from  many  sources 
without  adequate  security,  rapidly  depre- 
ciated in  value,  until  at  the  close  of  the  war 
it  was  practically  worthless.  The  department 
of  war  was  in  a  similarly  disorganized  state. 

Adoption  of  th3  Constitution.  Soon  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion a  large  faction  in  the  states  demanded 
that  a  stronger  government  be  immediately 
organized,  but  it  was  several  years  before 
they  were  able  to  win  public  sentiment  to 
their  view.  Finally,  in  1786,  a  convention 
was  proposed  by  several  states,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  amending  the  Articles,  in  order  to 
increase  the  power  of  the  central  govern- 
ment. This  convention  met  in  May,  1787, 
at  Philadelphia,  and  contained  in  its  member- 
ship the  most  able  and  distinguished  states- 
men in  America,  including  George  Washing- 
ton, Alexander  Hamilton,  James  Madison, 
Gouverneur  Morris,  Robert  Morris,  Roger 
Sherman  and  others.  Its  sessions  were  tur- 
bulent, owing  to  the  presence  of  a  strong  mi- 
nority party,  who  feared  the  centralization 
of  authority,  and  it  was  only  through  com- 
promise that  the  Constitution  was  finally 
produced  and  accepted.  In  its  completed 
form  it  did  not  satisfy  either  party,  and  the 
discussion  which  had  taken  place  in  the 
convention  was  carried  before  the  people 
in  the  contest  for  ratification.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Jay,  Hamilton,  Madison,  Henry 
Lee,  George  Washington  and  others,  it  was 
finally  adopted,  however,  being  recoqTiized  as 
the  most  satisfactory  constitution  which  could 
at  that  time  be  made. 


Before  its  final  adjournment,  the  old  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederation  performed  its 
most  notable  work,  in  passing  the  famous 
Ordinance  of  1787,  for  the  government  of  the 
Northwest  Territory. 

Organization  of  the  National  Government. 
After  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by 
nine  states.  Congress  proceeded  to  plan  for 
the  organization  of  the  new  government.  The 
election,  held  in  February,  1789,  resulted  in 
the  unanimous  choice  of  George  Washington 
for  President ;  John  Adams,  having  the  next 
highest  number  of  votes,  was  made  Vice- 
President.  Tlie  inauguration  of  the  govern- 
ment was  delayed  until  April  30,  1789.  Wash- 
ington took  the  oath  of  office  at  New  York, 
where  the  first  national  Congress  was  as- 
sembled. 

This  body  already  showed  a  tendency  to- 
ward division.  The  Federalists,  that  is,  those 
who  had  advocated  the  ratification  of  the 
Constitution,  were  opposed  by  the  old  Anti- 
Federalists,  now  styling  themselves  Demo- 
cratic-Republicans, or  Republicans,  who  de- 
sired the  strict  interpretation  of  the  Consti- 
tution and  a  tendency  toward  decentralization 
of  power.  Washington  chose  for  his  advisers 
representatives  of  both  of  these  factions, 
Hamilton  being  tlie  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  former,  and  Jefferson,  of  the  latter.  Ham- 
ilton became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and 
the  first  important  action  of  the  new  gov- 
ernment was  the  carrying  into  effect  of 
principles  suggested  by  him  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  finances  of  the  country.  These 
included  the  inauguration  of  the  tariff  duties ; 
the  establishment  of  a  national  bank;  the 
assumption  of  debts  contracted  by  the  states 
during  the  Revolution ;  the  institution  of  the 
excise  tax;  the  establishment  of 'a  national 
mint,  and  a  system  of  coinage.  All  of  these 
measures  aroused  the  greatest  opposition, 
but  all  were  passed,  and  all  soon  proved  their 
value  and  efficacy.  Washington  set  himself 
to  organize  the  executive  departments  of  the 
government,  and  he  established  precedents 
which  have  ever  since  been  followed.  During 
his  first  term,  also,  the  judicial  system  was 
organized,  and  the  first  ten  amendments  to 
the  Federal  Constitution  were  adopted. 

In  spite  of  his  opposition,  Washington 
was  nominated  and  reelected  unanimously 
in  1793.  Adams  was  also  reelected  Vice-Pres- 
ident, but  was  opposed  by  George  Clinton  of 
New  York,  a  Republican.  The  most  im- 
portant matter  connected  with  Washington's 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3707        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


second  administration  was  the  relation  of  the 
government  to  foreign  nations,  especially 
England  and  France.  The  Federalists  sym- 
pathized with  England,  and  the  Republicans 
sympathized  with  France,  in  the  war  which 
had  begun  between  them.  The  visit  of  Citi- 
zen Genet,  Washington's  refusal  to  recognize 
him  and  the  later  proclamation  of  neutrality, 
together  with  the  signing  of  the  very  unsat- 
isfactory treaty  with  England,  known  as  the 
Jay  Treaty,  and  the  refusal  of  England  to 
evacuate  its  posts  in  the  Northwest  Territory 
or  to  grant  privileges  to  American  commerce, 
all  led  to  serious  domestic  disturbances  and 
almost  to  war ;  but  such  an  event  was  averted 
by  Washington's  tact  and  frankness.  His 
second  administration  was  also  important 
for  the  suppression  of  the  first  rebellion 
against  the  government,  the  Whisky  Insur- 
rection in  Pennsylvania ;  for  the  unsuccess- 
ful expedition  of  Saint  Clair  against  the  In- 
dians and  the  successful  expedition  of  Gen- 
eral Wayne,  resulting  in  the  cession  of  a 
large  tract  of  land  by  the  Indians  to  the 
United  States.  A  treaty  was  negotiated  with 
Spain,  by  which  the  United  States  secured 
the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  In 
1793  Eli  Whitney  invented  the  cotton  gin, 
which  was  to  be  of  greater  political  impor- 
tance during  the  next  century  than  any  other 
single  invention  of  history. 

Washington  positively  refused  to  accept 
a  third  term  as  President,  delivered  a  famous 
farewell  address  and  retired  to  Mount  Ver- 
non. He  was  succeeded  by  John  Adams,  a 
Federalist,  who  received  71  votes,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Thomas  Jefferson,  a  Republican,  who 
received  but  68.  Adams'  administration  was 
at  first  highly  popular,  on  accoimt  of  the  firm 
stand  which  it  took  against  the  insolent  ac- 
tions of  France,  but  the  passage  in  1798  of 
the  Alien  and  Sedition  acts  not  only  forfeited 
the  popularity  of  the  party,  but  led  to  its 
overthrow.  The  famous  Kentucky  and  Vir- 
ginia resolutions  were  passed  at  this  time  in 
relation  to  these  laws.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  changed  in  1800  from  Philadelphia 
to  Washington.  Doubtless  the  most  im- 
portant appointment  of  Adams'  administra- 
tion was  that  of  John  Marshall  to  be  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 

At  the  election  in  1800,  Adams  was  defeat- 
ed, but  the  two  Republican  candidates,  Jeffer- 
son and  Burr,  had  an  equal  number  of  elec- 
toral votes.  The  House  of  Representatives 
elected  Jefferson  after  a  long  contest. 


Supremacy  of  the  Anti-Federalists.  The 
ascendency  of  the  Anti-Federalists  marks  an 
important  change  in  American  politics.  At 
the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  there  was 
a  notable  reaction  from  the  extreme  ideas 
of  liberty  which  that  struggle  had  expressed, 
and  the  Constitution  placed  far  more  power 
in  the  central  government  than  pleased  many 
of  the  more  radical  Democrats  in  the  country. 
But  after  Adams'  administration,  another 
reaction  set  in,  away  from  centralization,  to- 
ward democracy.  In  spite  of  his  theories  of 
strict  construction,  Jefferson  soon  was  com- 
pelled to  take  steps  involving  broader  powers 
than  either  of  his  Federalist  predecessors  had 
assumed.  First  was  the  purchase  of  Louisi- 
ana in  1803,  the  constitutionality  of  which 
even  he  himself  doubted.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  attempted  to  reduce  the  importance  of 
the  national  government  by  making  but  small 
appropriations  for  the  ai-my  and  navy;  but 
he  was  compelled  to  abandon  even  this  policy 
when  a  war  with  the  Barbary  powers  broke 
out  in  1801.  During  his  first  term  the  Twelfth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  was  passed, 
changing  the  method  of  voting  for  President 
and  Vice-President. 

Jefferson  was  reelected  in  1804,  with  George 
Clinton  of  New  York  as  Vice-President.  The 
jnost  important  problem  which  confronted 
him  during  his  second  administration  was 
the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  the  com- 
mercial war  between  France  and  England. 
He  attempted  to  establish  in  law  his  theory 
that  the  United  States  could  compel  Europe 
to  consider  its  rights  by  shutting  American 
ports  to  the  commerce  of  European  nations. 
This  was  the  cause  of  the  Embargo  Act  of 
December,  1807,  forbidding  American  vessels 
to  leave  for  foreign  ports  (see  Embargo). 
However,  this  measure  did  not  accomplish 
its  intended  purpose,  but  instead  it  seriously 
injured  American  commerce.  The  relations 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
became  more  and  more  strained,  because  of 
the  persistent  attempts  of  British  vessels  to 
impress  seamen  from  American  ships.  This 
resulted  in  several  small  battles.  During 
Jefferson's  administration,  also,  Aaron  Burr 
attempted  to  separate  the  western  states  from 
the  Union;  Lewis  and  Clark  made  their 
famous  expedition  to  the  Pacific  coast  (see 
Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition)  ;  the  Cum- 
berland Road  was  authorized  and  begun; 
West  Point  Militaiy  Academy  was  estab- 
lished; Fulton  succeeded  in  constructing  the 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3708        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


first  successful  steamboat,  and  the  slave  trade 
was  abolished  after  1808. 

Jefferson  declined  a  third  election  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  Secretary  of  State,  James 
Madison,  who  defeated  Charles  C.  Pinckney. 
The  Embargo  Act  was  replaced  by  the  Non- 
Intercourse  Act,  before  Madison's  inaugura- 
tion, but  this  did  not  relieve  matters  greatly. 
Madison  attempted  to  carry  out  Jefferson's 
policy,  but  M'as  finally  compelled  to  take 
more  stern  measures,  and  the  War  of  1812 
resulted.  Meantime,  Madison  was  reelected, 
with  Elbridge  Gerry  as  Vice-President,  de- 
feating De  Witt  Clinton.  The  war  was  vigor- 
ously opposed  by  the  Federalists,  especially 
of  New  England,  and  they  held  a  convention 
at  Hartford,  in  December,  1814,  which,  it 
was  rumored,  threatened  secession;  but  this 
movement  did  not  gain  sufficient  strength  to 
be  a  serious  menace  to  the  country.  The 
treatv  of  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent,  Decem- 
ber 24,  1814. 

The  end  of  the  war  marked,  also,  the  prac- 
tical end  of  the  Federalist  party  as  an  organ- 
ization, for  its  unpatriotic  stand  during  the 
war  had  won  for  it  the  derision  of  people  in 
all  parts  of  the  countiy.  However,  the  Anti- 
Federalist  party  had  meantime  so  changed 
its  position  upon  conBtitutional  questions 
that  many  of  the  Federalist  principles  were 
already  firmly  incorporated  in  the  govern- 
ment. During  Madison's  term,  laws  were 
passed  granting  a  isecond  charter  to  the 
tjnited  States  Bank,  establishing  a  protec- 
tive tariff  and  appropriating  large  sums  for 
internal  improvements,  all  measures  which 
the  Anti-Federalists  had  formerly  opposed. 
The  Supreme  Court,  under  Marshall's  leader- 
ship, had  also  taken  firm  ground  in  favor  of  a 
strong  national  government. 

The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  In  1816  James 
Monroe  of  Virginia,  Madison's  Secretaiy  of 
State,  was  elected  President,  receiving  the 
votes  of  all  the  states  except  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut  and  Delaware,  which  were  cast 
for  Rufus  King  of  New  York.  Since  the 
downfall  of  the  Federalist  party  had  removed 
many  questions  from  controversy,  Monroe's 
administrations  are  sometimes  known  as  the 
"Era  of  Good  Feeling;"  but,  in  fact,  just  as 
sincere  debate  was  carried  on  during  this  time 
as  at  any  time  before  or  after,  the  main 
questions  being  the  tariff  and  the  admission  of 
Missouri,  the  latter  of  which  involved  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  rising  issue  of  slavery.  Monroe 
was  reelected  in  1820,  receiving  all  the  elec- 


toral votes  but  one,  which  was  cast  for  John 
Quincy  Adams.  The  most  important  incident 
of  his  second  administration  was  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  In  1824  a 
higher  protective  tariff  was  passed.  The  elec- 
tion of  1824  turned  upon  personal  questions 
and  resulted  in  a  contest  between  Andrew 
Jackson,  John  Quincy  Adams,  William  H. 
Crawford  and  Heniy  Clay,  the  House  of 
Representatives  finally  electing  John  Quincy 
Adams. 

Rise  of  the  Whigs.  This  election  marks 
another  change  in  the  political  history  of  the 
United  States.  The  Republican,  or  Demo- 
cratic-Republican, party  at  this  time  took 
the  name  of  Democratic,  which  it  has  since 
retained,  and  the  Clay  and  Adams  factions, 
consisting  of  the  loose  constructionists  of  the 
old  party,  took  the  name  of  National  Repub- 
lican, which  eventually  was  changed  to  Whig. 
Adams'  administration  was  marked  by  a  long 
controversy  between  his  followers  and  those 
of  Jackson,  who  claimed  that  they  had  been 
deprived  of  the  election  by  a  corrupt  com- 
pact between  Adams  and  Clay.  This  helped 
to  defeat  the  Adams  faction  in  1828  and  to 
elect  Jackson.  The  most  important  event  of 
this  period  was  the  passage  of  the  Tariff  of 
Abominations  of  1828,  which  led  to  the  nulli- 
fication controversy  in  the  following  admin- 
isti-ation.  Adams'  term  also  saw  the  exten- 
sion of  the  policy  of  internal  improvements  at 
the  expense  of  the  national  government,  and 
the  beginning  of  a  vast  immigration  into  the 
West. 

Democracy  Again  in  Power.  Jackson  was 
elected  in  1828  by  a  vote  of  178  to  83,  with 
John  C.  Calhoun  as  Vice-President.  This 
election  marks  the  return  of  the  radical  Demo- 
cratic party  to  power.  The  chief  contests  of 
Jackson's  term  were  over  the  United  States 
Bank  and  the  tariff,  the  fonner  being  refused 
a  continuance  of  its  charter  and  the  latter 
resulting  in  the  nullification  episode,  which 
was  firmly  handled  by  President  Jackson, 
secession  being  prevented  by  a  compromise 
bill  introduced  by  Henry  Clay.  During  this 
controversy  the  famous  debate  between  Dan- 
iel Webster  and  Robert  Y.  Hayne  occurred. 
Jackson  was  reelected  in  1832  over  Henry 
Clay,  John  Floyd  and  William  Wirt,  and 
Martin  Van  Buren  was  chosen  Vice-President. 
His  second  administration  was  marked  by 
Indian  disturbances,  in  the  South  with  the 
Cherokee  and  Seminole,  and  in  the  West  with 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes  under  Black  Hawk. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      3709        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


The  Senate  took  firm  ground  against  the 
President,  especially  for  his  attitude  toward 
the  national  bank,  and  this  contest  was  bitter 
throughout  his  tenn.  The  question  of  the 
independence  or  annexation  of  Texas  also 
arose  during  Jackson's  second  term  and  sig- 
nalized the  increasing  importance  of  the 
slavery  eontrovei'sj',  the  Texas  question  re- 
solving itself  into  a  contest  upon  the  part,  of 
the  South  for  tlie  extension  of  slavery  ter- 
ritory, and  resistance  to  this  policy  by  the 
North.  The  first  anti-slaveiy  societies  date 
from  this  time.  President  Jackson's  terms 
were  also  notable  for  the  first  important  con- 
test over  the  si:)oils  system,  which  he  had 
introduced  into  the  national  government. 

Jackson  was  succeeded  by  his  follower, 
Martin  Van  Buren,  who  defeated  the  Whig 
candidate,  William  Henry  Harrison  of  In- 
diana. Richard  M.  Johnson  was  elected  Vice- 
President.  The  first  year  of  Van  Buren's 
term  was  marked  by  a  terrible  financial  panic, 
which  caused  the  failure  of  many  banks  and 
corporations  and  produced  great  suffering 
among  the  people.  Van  Buren  continued  the 
hostility  of  the  Democratic  party  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  nationa-l  bank  and  replaced  that 
institution  by  a  system  known  as  the  inde- 
pendent treasury.  Van  Buren's  plan,  with 
modifications,  has  continued  to  the  present. 

A  Whig  Triumph.  The  financial  depres- 
sion and  other  issues  led  to  the  election  of  the 
popular  Whig  candidate,  William  Henry 
Harrison,  in  1840,  after  a  memorable  cam- 
paign, known  to  history  as  the  "log  cabin 
and  hard  cider  campaign."  The  anti-slavery 
party  at  this  election  for  the  first  time  nom- 
inated independent  candidates,  James  G. 
Birney  being  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty 
party.  Harrison  died  shortly  after  his  in- 
auguration, and  was  succeeded  by  John  Tyler, 
formerly  a  Democrat.  He  immediately  came 
into  conflict  with  Congress  over  the  proposed 
reestablishment  of  the  national  bank,  and  he 
vetoed  two  bills  drawn  to  that  end.  The 
controversy  became  so  heated  that  all  of 
Tyler's  Cabinet  except  Webster  resigned,  he 
remaining  merely  to  complete  the  negotiation 
of  the  famous  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty, 
which  fixed  the  northeastern  boundaiy  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada. 

In  1843  President  Tyler  arranged  a  treaty 
■with  the  Republic  of  Texas,  providing  for 
the  future  annexation  of  that  country  to  the 
United  States,  but  it  was  rejected  by  the 
Senate.      The    Texas    question   became    the 


leading  issue  in  the  following  campaign,  how- 
ever, which  resulted  in  the  election  of  James 
K.  Polk,  the  Democratic  candidate,  over 
Henry  Clay,  the  Whig,  and  James  G.  Birney, 
the  candidate  of  the  Liberty  party.  Before 
Tyler  left  office  Congress  had  approved  a 
resolution  for  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

Texas  and  the  Mexican  War.  The  ad- 
ministration of  President  Polk  was  chiefly 
notable  for  the  precipitation  of  the  Mexican 
War,  as  a  result  of  his  order  to  the  United 
States  troops  under  General  Taylor  to  take 
possession  of  ten-itorv^  claimed  by  both  Texas 
and  Mexico.  Texas  was  admitted  as  a  state 
in  June,  1845.  The  war  resulted  in  an  easy 
victory  for  the  United  States  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  the  United 
States  tei-ritoiy  was  gi-eatly  extended.  The 
war  is  described  in  the  article  Mexican  War. 

The  dispute  over  the  territoi-y  of  Oregon 
was  also  an  issue  in  the  campaig-n  in  1844 
and  was  settled  by  a  ti-eaty  with  England  in 
1846.  During  Polk's  administration,  the 
Walker  tariff  of  1846  was  passed;  it  was 
a  return  to  the  principle  of  tariff  for  revenue 
only.  The  independent  treasuiy  was  also 
firmly  established.  The  slavery  question 
again  cropped  out  over  the  extension  of  the 
institution  to  the  ten-itoiy  acquired  from 
Mexico  and  in  the  fonnation  of  the  Free-Soil 
party.  Gold  was  discovered  in  California 
in  1848  and  resulted  in  a  vast  immigration 
to  that  region. 

The  Liberty  party  had  been  fused  with  the 
Free-Soil  party,  and  in  1848  it  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren  as  its  candidate  for  Presi- 
dent, against  Lewis  Cass,  the  Democratic 
nominee,  and  General  Zachary  Taylor,  the 
Whig  nominee.  Taylor  was  elected,  with 
Millard  Fillmore  as  Vice-President. 

Downfall  of  the  Whigs.  In  spite  of  its 
triumph  at  this  election,  the  Whig  party  soon 
showed  signs  of  disintegration,  being  ab- 
sorbed in  part  by  the  Free-Soil  movement, 
which  later  took  form  in  the  Republican 
party.  Meantime,  the  Democratic  party  came 
under  the  control  of  its  pro-slaveiy  faction, 
and  the  slavery  issue  was  therefore  brought  to 
a  crisis.  For  a  time  in  1850  the  controversy 
seemed  to  be  allayed  through  the  compromise 
measures,  which  admitted  California  as  a  free 
state,  but  gave  the  South  numerous  conces- 
sions, in  the  form  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
and  the  organization  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah 
with  the  right  to  admit  or  i^rohibit  slavery 
as  thev  chose. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      3710        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


President  Taylor  died  before  the  Jiassage  of 
these  acts,  and  Millard  Fillmore  succeeded  to 
the  Presidency.  The  most  important  event 
of  his  administration  was  the  signing  of  the 
Claj'ton-Bulwer  Treaty,  regarding  the  inter- 
oceanic  canal.  In  the  election  of  1852  the 
Democrats  were  successful,  Franklin  Pierce 
of  New  Hampshire  becoming  President,  and 
William  E.  King  of  Alabama,  Vice-President. 
The  Whig  nominees  were  General  Winfield 
Scott  and  William  A  Graham.  The  Free- 
Soil  party  nominated  John  P.  Hale  of  New 
Hampshire  and  George  W.  Julian. 

Slavery.  In  spite  of  the  apparent  cessation 
of  the  slavery  controversy,  the  struggle  soon 
revived  over  the  organization  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  the  doc- 
trine proposed  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas  for  the 
regulation  .  of  these  territories,  known  as 
"squatter  sovereignty"  (which  see).  This 
contest  marked  the  final  dissolution  of  the 
Whig  party,  most  of  the  Southern  members 
joining  with  the  Demoei'ats  in  favor  of  the 
extension  of  slavei'y,  the  Northerners,  to- 
gether with  other  anti-slavery  factions,  unit- 
ing to  form  the  Republican  party.  During 
this  time  a  fierce  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  Kansas  ensued  between  the  anti-slavery 
and  pro-slavery  factions  (see  Kansas,  sub- 
head History).  It  was  during  Pierce's  ad- 
ministration that  Commodore  Perry  negoti- 
ated his  treaty  with  Japan. 

The  election  of  1856  again  resulted  in  a 
Democratic  success,  James  Buchanan  being 
elected  President  and  John  C.  Breckinridge 
Vice-President,  over  John  C.  Fremont  and 
William  L.  Dayton,  the  Republican  candi- 
dates, and  Millard  Fillmore  and  A.  J.  Donel- 
son,  the  nominees  of  a  new  party,  known  as 
the  Know-Nothings  or  American  party.  It 
was  during  Buchanan's  administration  that 
the  slavery  struggle  came  to  a  head.  It  wit- 
nessed the  Supreme  Court  decision  in  the 
Dred  Scott  case,  declaring  that  Congress  had 
no  right  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories ; 
the  attempts  upon  the  part  of  Southern 
statesmen  to  gain  possession  of  Cuba,  for  the 
extension  of  slaveiy,  and  the  continuation  of 
the  bitter  struggle  in  Kansas,  which  resulted, 
in  the  succeeding  administration,  in  the  ad- 
mission of  Kansas  as  a  free  state.  In  1859 
occurred  John  Brown's  raid  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  which  roused  the  most  bitter  antag- 
onism in  the  South.  The  Democratic  party 
was  now  practically  divided,  and  two  sets  of 
candidates  were  nominated,  one  by  the  North- 


ern wing  and  the  other  by  the  Southern 
wing.  The  former  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
of  Illinois,  and  Hersehel  V.  Johnson,  of 
Georgia ;  the  latter,  John  C.  Breckinridge,  of 
Kentucky,  and  Joseph  Lane>  of  Oregon.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln, 
of  Illinois,  and  Hannibal  Hamlin,  of  Maine, 
while  a  third  party,  the  sujceessor  of  the 
American  party,  now  known  as  the  Consti- 
tutional Union  party,  nominated  John  Bell, 
of  Tennessee,  and  Edward  Everett,  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Lincoln  was  elected  by  a  compara- 
tively small  plurality  and  by  far  less  than 
a  majority  of  the  popular  vote. 

Secession.  The  election  of  Lincoln  was  the 
signal  for  the  South  to  take  measures  to  over- 
come the  overwhelming  opposition  to  them 
in. the  United  States  government,  and  it  re- 
sulted in  the  secession  of  South  Carolina  on 
December  20,  1860.  Mississippi,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas,  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee followed  within  the  next  six  months, 
and  a  new  nation,  known  as  the  Confederate 
States  of  America,  was  organized  at  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  in  February,  1861.  President 
Buchanan  opposed  secession,  but  denied  his 
right  to  coerce  the  seceding  states  to  return 
to  the  Union,  and  therefore  he  made  little  ef- 
fort to  protect  government  property  in  the 
South,  which  was  being  taken  over  as  rapidly 
as  possible  by  the  seceding  states.  Eiforts  at 
compromise  were  made  during  Buchanan's 
administration,  but  without  effect.  A  reso- 
hition  introduced  into  the  Senate  by  Senator 
Crittenden  proposed  to  divide  the  Union  into 
a  slave  country  and  a  free  country. 

Civil  War.  In  his  inaugural  address  Pres- 
ident Lincoln  urged  all  sections  and  classes  to 
come  to  the  support  of  the  government,  but 
expressed  his  determination  to  prevent  se- 
cession. Accordingly,  he  soon  called  for  vol- 
unteers. The  Confederate  government  also 
called  for  volunteers  and  retaliated  for  Lin- 
coln's proclamation  of  a  blockade  by  licensing 
privateers  to  prey  upon  Northera  commerce. 
The  war  began  with  the  bombardment  of 
Fort  Sumter  on  April  14,  and  its  surrender. 
In  April,  1862,  Congress  purchased  and 
emancipated  all  slaves  in  the  District  of 
Columbia ;  two  months  later  it  abolished  slav- 
ery throughout  the  territories  and  the  public 
domain,  and  on  January  1,  1863,  President 
Lincoln  issued  his  famous  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  which  he  had  announced  in  the 
previous  September,  after  the  Battle  of  An- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3711        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


tietam.  This  proclamation  set  free  all  the 
slaves  in  states  then  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States. 

Dui-ing  the  war  the  President  did  not  have 
the  undivided  support  of  the  North.  His 
suspension  of  the  "writ  of  habeas  corpus,  the 
suppression  of  newspapers  and  of  public 
gatherings,  the  Conscription  Act  of  1863  and 
the  apparent  failure  of  the  Union  armies  in 
the  field  during  the  early  years  of  the  war, 
all  led  to  serious  opposition  and  criticism. 
The  financial  problems  of  the  war  also  neces- 
sitated taxes  and  other  extraordinary  meas- 
ures, which  became  exceedingly  unpopular. 
However  in  the  election  of  1864  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  in  spite  of  the  nomination  of 
a  popular  general,  George  B.  McClellan,  was 
defeated,  on  a  platform  which  declared  that 
the  war  was  a  failure,  and  liincoln  was 
triumphantly  reelected.  West  Virginia, 
which  had  been  separated  from  the  old  State 
of  Virginia,  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle,  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  De- 
cember, 1862.  The  war  practically  came  to 
a  close  on  the  surrender  of  General  Lee  in 
April,  1865,  but  the  rejoicing  which  that 
event  caused  was  soon  overshadowed  by  uni- 
versal sorrow  at  the  assassination  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln,  April  14.  For  a  full  account 
of  the  war,  see  the  article  Civil  War  ix 
America.  See,  also,  articles  on  the  impor- 
tant battles  and  the  leading  statesmen  and 
military  leaders  of  the  period. 

Reconstruction.  The  problems  which  the 
close  of  the  war  would  bring  were  anticipated 
by  Lincoln  and  by  Congress,  and  steps  were 
taken  as  early  as  1863  to  provide  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  seceded  states  to  the  Union  and 
the  reestablishment  of  loyal  state  govera- 
ments.  President  Johnson,  who  acceded  to 
the  presidency  at  the  death  of  Lincoln,  car- 
ried out  as  far  as  possible  his  predecessor's 
lenient  policy  of  reconstruction,  but  in  so 
doing  he  won  the  enmity  of  Congress  and  was 
impeached,  being  saved  from  conAnction  by 
a  sinsle  vote.  Meantime,  Congress  had  passed 
the  Thirteenth  Amendment,  abolishing  sla- 
vert'^,  and  it  had  been  ratified  in  December, 
1865.  It  had  also  passed  other  laws,  placing 
the  Southern  states  in  the  position  of  con- 
quered provinces.  In  1868,  Arkansas,  Ala- 
bama, Florida.  Xorth  and  South  Carolina, 
Georgia  and  Louisiana  were  readmitted  to  the 
Union. 

The  election  of  1868  placed  General  U.  S. 
Grant  in  the  President's  chair,  with  Schuyler 


Colfax  of  Indiana,  as  Vice-President.  The 
Democratic  candidates  were  Horatio  Sey- 
mour of  New  York,  and  Francis  P.  Blair, 
Jr.,  of  Missouri.  Before  Grant's  inaugura- 
tion, the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  had  been  passed, 
granting  suffrage  to  the  negroes.  The  latter 
was  ratified  in  March,  1870.. 

The  most  important  event  of  Grant's  first 
term  was  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
claims,  which  were  claims  of  the  United 
States  against  England  for  American  ships 
destroyed  by  the  Alohama,  a  Confederate 
privateer  that  was  fitted  out  in  England. 
The  award  was  favorable  to  the  United 
States.  The  Union  Pacific  Railroad  was  com- 
pleted, giving  the  Countrj"  its  fii"st  transcon- 
tinental railway,  but  the  construction  was 
accompanied  by  a  stock  deal  which  involved 
several  members  of  Congress  and  the  Vice- 
President  in  a  notorious  scandal,  fully  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Credit  Mobilier  of 
America. 

The  reconstruction  policy  of  Congress  led 
to  serious  difficulties  in  the  South,  which 
the  President  sought  to  remove,  but  with  only 
partial  success.  Irresponsible  demagogues 
from  the  North  secured  appointment  to  offices 
in  the  South,  and  were  thus  placed  in  posi- 
tions which  they  were  nowise  cjualified  to  fill. 
Their  chief  aim  seemed  to  be  to  reap  all 
possible  benefit  for  themselves  and  then  to 
leave  the  country  when  they  could  no  longer 
hold  office.  They  were  styled  carpetbaggers, 
because  it  was  alleged  that  they  could  carry 
all  their  personal  effects  in. a  cai-petbag. 

This  carpetbag  regime  and  other  abuses 
led  to  the  fomiation  of  a  secret  organization 
among  the  men  of  the  South,  known  as  the 
Ku-Klux  Klan,  whose  chief  purpose  was  to 
resist  the  carpetbaggers  and  to  prevent  the 
execution  of  their  orders.  A  fuller  account 
of  these  events  will  be  found  in  the  articles 
Reconstruction  and  Impeachment,  and  in 
the  articles  on  the  various  Southern  states 
under  the  subhead  History. 

The  Credit  Mobilier  scandal  led  to  a  de- 
mand for  a  reforai  in  the  civ-il  service,  which 
was  made  an  important  issue  in  the  succeed- 
ing campaign.  This  issue,  with  that  of  re- 
construction and  the  tendency  of  the  Repub- 
licans to  centralize  power,  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  party,  the  Liberal  Republican 
partv,  whose  candidates.  Horace  Greelv  and 
B.  Gratz  Brown,  were  endorsed  by  the  Demo- 
cratic convention.     However,  General  Grant 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3712       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


■v^as  reelected,  with  Henry  Wilson  of  Massa- 
chusetts as  Vice-President,  Greeley  having 
died  before  the  count  of  the  electoral  votes. 
In  the  same  election  the  Prohibition  party 
and  a  labor  reform  party  first  appeared. 

Grant's  second  teiTu  was  troublesome.  Soon 
after  his  reelection  he  was  confronted  by 
a  difficulty  with  Spain.  A  Spanish  warship 
seized  the  American  merchantman  Virginms, 
which  was  carrying'  munitions  and  other 
supplies  to  the  rebels  in  Cuba.  Four  Cubans 
who  were  on  the  vessel,  the  captain  and 
thirty-six  of  the  crew,  were  executed  by 
orders  of  the  Spanish  authorities.  The  affair 
came  near  leading  the  country  into  war  with 
Spain,  but  it  was  finally  settled  by  diplomacy. 
Another  difficulty  was  caused  by  the  alliance 
of  several  Federal  revenue  collectors  with 
distillers  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  the 
government  of  the  excise  tax  on  whisky. 
This  WTiisTiy  Ring,  as  the  combination  was 
called,  had  influential  friends  in  the  Treasury 
Department  at  "Washington,  and  it  was  a 
long  time  before  the  loss  of  revenue  could  be 
located.  The  "ring"  was  finally  exposed, 
the  officials  implicated  were  dismissed  from 
office  and  the  distillers  were  prosecuted  and 
convicted,  but  most  of  the  prominent  ones 
were  pardoned.  There  was  a  controversy 
over  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  and 
a  disastrous  financial  panic  in  1873.  Indian 
troubles  culminated  in  a  war  with  the  Modoes 
and  Sioux,  during  which  General  Custer  and 
his  entire  force  were  massacred. 

In  1876  the  Centennial  Exposition  was 
held  in  Philadelphia  to  commemorate  the  first 
century  of  the  nation's  independence.  It 
was  the  first  great  international  exposition 
held  in  America,  and  all  the  leading  nations 
of  the  world  were  represented. 

Industrial  and  Economic  Progress.  Dis- 
content with  Grant's  administration  increased. 
The  Democrats  gained  a  majority  in  Congress 
and  made  a  hard  fight  for  the  election  of 
1876.  Their  candidate,  Samuel  J.  Tilden, 
received  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote,  but 
was  defeated  by  one  electoral  vote,  as  a  result 
of  an  investigation  by  a  specially  constituted 
electoral  commission,  which  considered  the 
disputed  returns  from  several  states.  The 
successful  candidate.  President  Hayes,  im- 
mediately withdrew  United  States  troops 
from  the  South  and  thus  paved  the  way  for 
a  return  of  good  feeling  between  the  two 
sections.  His  term  was  also  notable  for  the 
rise  of  a  party  representing  the  laboring 


classes,  which  demanded  a  bimetallic  standard 
of  monej'',  the  suppression  of  national  bank 
notes,  the  institution  of  an  income  tax  and 
the  prohibition  of  Chinese  immigration.  This 
party  became  known  as  the  Greenback  party. 
In  1878  the  Bland-Allison  Bill,  which  re- 
quired the  government  to  purchase  not  less 
than  $2,000,000  nor  more  than  $4,000,000  of 
silver  per  month,  was  passed,  and  in  the 
following  year  si^ecie  payments  were  re- 
sumed. In  1880  within  the  Kepublican  party 
arose  a  fierce  contest  for  control  between  the 
followers  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant  who  demanded 
for  him  a  third  term,  and  those  of  James  G. 
Blaine  and  John  Sherman.  James  A.  Gar- 
field, of  Ohio,  a  compromise  candidate,  was 
finally  chosen,  however,  and  was  victorious 
over  General  Winfield  S.  Hancock,  the  Demo- 
cratic nominee,  and  James  B.  Weaver,  the 
Greenback-Labor  candidate. 

The  early  part  of  Garfield's  administration 
was  marked  by  the  continuation  of  the  party 
contest  and  by  the  disclosure  of  frauds  in 
the  postal  service.  President  Garfield  was 
assassinated  in  July,  1881,  and  died  in  the 
following  September,  Chester  A.  Arthur 
becoming  President.  During  his  administra- 
tion the  Edmunds  law  against  polygamy  was 
passed;  also  a  bill  suspending  Chinese  im- 
migration for  ten  years.  Civil  service  reform 
was  forced  to  the  front  by  the  Democratic 
party,  and  in  1884  their  nominee,  Grover 
Cleveland,  of  New  York,  was  elected  over 
James  G.  Blaine  by  a  small  popular  plurality. 
The  election  disclosed  an  independent  move- 
ment in  the  Republican  party,  which  was  led 
by  some  of  the  most  prominent  Republicans 
in  the  country.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  of 
Massachusetts,  was  the  candidate  of  the 
Greenback-Labor  party,  and  John  P.  Saint 
John  was  the  candidate  of  the  Prohibition 
party. 

President  Cleveland  proceeded  to  extend 
the  civil-service  reform  to  a  vast  number  of 
offices,  thus  securing  the  antagonism  of  many 
of  the  political  leaders  in  his  own  party. 
The  death  of  Vice-President  Hendricks  made 
necessary  the  passage  of  a  law  governing  the 
Presidential  succession.  During  the  same 
administration  a  new  anti-polygamy  law, 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887  and  a 
law  prohibiting  Chinese  immigration,  were 
passed.  The  administration  was  character- 
ized by  an  unprecedented  use  of  the  veto 
power,  especially  upon  private  pension  bills. 
The  campaign  of  1888  turned  upon  the  tariff, 


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UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3713       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


which  President  Cleveland  had  brought  for- 
ward as  an  issue  by  a  late  message  in  De- 
cember, 1887.  Cleveland  was  nominated  by 
the  Democrats  in  that  year,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Eepublican  candidate,  Benjamin  Har- 
rison, though  Cleveland  received  a  majority 
of  the  popular  vote. 

Harrison's  administration  was  notable  for 
the  remarkable  diplomacy  of  James  G. 
Blaine,  for  the  extension  of  the  policy  of 
recipj'ocity,  for  the  passage  of  the  McKinley 
Tariff  Bill,  the  extension  of  the  pension  sys- 
tem by  a  dependent  pension  law,  passed  in 
1890,  by  the  repeal  of  the  Bland- Allison  law 
and  the  substitution  of  the  Sherman  Silver 
Purchase  Act,  requiring  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  to  purchase  4,500,000  ounces  of 
silver  each  month  and  to  coin  2,000,000 
ounces  into  dollars  monthly.  The  monarchy 
in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  was  overthrown,  and 
a  bill  favoring  annexation  to  the  United 
States  was  passed  by  Congress.  In  1892  the 
Democratic  party  returned  to  power,  with 
Grover  Cleveland  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  as 
its  candidates,  the  Repi;blicans  having  nomi- 
nated President  Harrison  and  Wliitelaw 
Reid.  The  People's  party,  or  Populists,  the 
successor  of  the  Greenback-Labor  party,  n. 
inated  James  B.  Weaver  of  Iowa  and  received 
22  electoral  votes. 

Financial  Depression.  The  second  admin- 
istration of  Cleveland  opened  with  a  terrible 
financial  panic,  with  which  most  of  the  early 
important  events  of  his  term  were  connected, 
especially  his  efforts  to  repeal  the  Shennan 
law,  his  issuance  of  bonds  to  replenish  the 
treasury  gold  reserve  and  the  passage  of  the 
Wilson  Tariff  Law.  The  treaty  of  annexa- 
tion of  Hawaii  was  also  withdrawn  from  the 
Senate,  and  the  United  States  government 
made  an  effort  to  reestablish  the  monarchy 
over  the  islands.  Cleveland's  term  was  also 
marked  by  the  successful  intervention  of  the 
United  States  in  a  boundary  dispiite  between 
Venezuela  and  Great  Britain;  by  a  great 
world's  fair  at  Chicago;  by  the  settlement 
of  the  Bering  Sea  controversy  over  the  seal 
fisheries;  by  the  extension  of  the  civil  serv- 
ice reform  and  by  a  great  strike  of  railroad 
employes,  which  necessitated  the  calling  out 
of  Federal  troops.  The  Democratic  party 
failed  to  support  the  President  in  his  finan- 
cial policy,  an-d  at  its  convention  in  1896  it 
nominated  William  Jennings  Bryan  of  Ne- 
braska for  President,  upon  a  platform  de- 
manding the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of 

233 


silver  on  the  ratio  of  16  ounces  of  silver  to 
one  ounce  of  gold.  The  Republicans  nomi- 
nated William  McKinley  of  Ohio.  A  faction 
of  the  Democratic  party  formed  a  new  organ- 
ization, known  as  the  National  Democratic 
party,  favoring  the  gold  standard,  and  nomi- 
nated John  M.  Palmer  of  Illinois.  The  Pi'o- 
hibitionist  candidate  was  Joshua  Levering; 
the  Socialist  Labor  standard  bearer  was 
Charles  H.  Matchett.  The  Populist  party 
endorsed  Bryan  and  the  Free  Silver  Pro- 
hibition party  nominated  Charles  E.  Bent- 
ley.  McKinley  was  elected  by  a  large  elec- 
toral and  popular  majority. 

Spanish-American  War  and  its  Effects. 
The  most  important  episode  of  McKinley's 
term  was  the  Spanish- American  War  (which 
see).  It  resulted  in  the  abolition  of  Spanish 
rule  in  Cuba  and  the  establishment  of  mili- 
tary government  under  the  United  States, 
which  continued  until  1902,  when  the  Repub- 
lic of  Cuba  was  organized.  The  war  also 
brought  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Porto  Rico. 
In  1898  Hawaii  was  annexed  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1900  it  was  made  a  territory. 

A  law  establishing  the  gold  dollar  as  the 
standard  of  currency  was  adopted  in  1900, 
and  bills  reorganizing  the  army  and  abolish- 
ing the  army  canteen  were  passed  in  1901. 
The  United  States  participated  in  a  joint 
international  military  expedition  to  China, 
to  assist  in  the  suppression  of  the  Boxer  re- 
bellion, in  1900.  The  diplomatic  events  fol- 
lowing this  expedition  emphasized  the  change 
in  the  position  of  the  United  States  in  in- 
ternational affairs,  and  showed  its  new  rank 
as  a  world  power. 

The  chief  issues  in  the  campaign  of  1900 
were  imperialism,  that  is,  the  question  of  the 
retention  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  the 
trust  problem.  McKinley  was  again  the  Re- 
publican nominee,  and  Bryan  was  the  Dem- 
ocratic candidate.  McKinley  was  elected 
by  an  increased  majority.  Soon  after  his 
inauguration.  President  McKinley  was  as- 
sassinated, while  attending  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  at  Buffalo,  and  he  was  succeeded 
by  Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  retained  Mc- 
Kinley's Cabinet  and  furthered  his  policy. 

Commercial  and  Economic  Expansion. 
During  Roosevelt's  administration,  the  im- 
portant events  were  the  passage  of  the 
Chinese  Exclusion  Bill;  a  law  pi-oviding  for 
the  iiTigation  of  the  arid  lands  of  the  West ; 
the  conclusion  of  a  reciprocity  treaty  with 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA      3714       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Cuba;  the  creation  of  a  department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor,  which  in  1913  was  reorgan- 
ized into  the  Department  of  Commerce  and 
the  Department  of  Labor,  the  passage  of  the 
bills  for  the  reorganization  of  the  militia, 
the  increase  of  the  navy  and  the  creation  of 
a  general  staff  for  the  army;  the  passage 
of  an  anti-trust  law  in  1903 ;  the  ratification 
of  a  treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  giving  the  United  States  the 
right  to  construct  and  maintain  a  canal 
across  the  Isthmus.  In  1904  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  the  new  Republic  of  Panama 
providing  for  the  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  Roosevelt's  administration  was  also 
marked  by  the  successful  conclusion  of  a 
treaty  fixing  the  boundary  between  Alaska 
and  the  Northwest  Territories  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  the  result  being  generally  fav- 
orable to  the  United  States.  The  campaign 
of  1904  turned  on  the  personalities  of  the 
candidates  and  on  the  questions  raised  by  the 
policy  of  the  Roosevelt  administrations. 
Roosevelt  was  elected  by  a  large  majority 
over  Alton  B.  Parker,  the  Democratic  candi- 
date. The  successful  intervention  of  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  to  end  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  the  prosecution  of  several  large  coi-pora- 
tions  for  violation  of  the  anti-trust  law,  the 
agitation  for  regulation  of  railroad  rates, 
the  rigid  investigations  of  insurance  corpora- 
tions, and  the  movement  for  the  consen-ation 
of  natural  resources  are  important  in  Roose- 
velt's second  administration. 

Republican  Defeat.  In  the  election  of 
1908,  William  Howard  Taft,  the  Republican 
candidate,  was  successful  over  Bryan.  In 
the  spring  of  1909  the  President  called  Con- 
gress in  special  session  to  revise  the  tariff. 
But  the  new  tariff  was  unpopular,  and  was 
one  of  the  strongest  factors  in  causing  the 
election  of  a  majority  of  Democrats  to  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  1910.  This 
Congress  passed  acts  for  the  admission  of 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  as  states,  and 
considered  a  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada 
which  was  finally  rejected  by  the  Canadians. 
The  election  of  1912  was  marked  by  a  split 
in  the  Republican  party.  The  regular  Re- 
publicans renominated  Taft  and  Shennan,  but 
the  supporters  of  Roosevelt,  charging  that 
they  had  been  defrauded  of  their  rights  in 
the  convention,  withdrew,  held  a  convention 
of  their  own  and  formed  the  national  Pro- 
gressive party,  which  nominated  Roosevelt 
for  President  and  Hiram  Johnson  of  Cali- 


fornia for  Vice-President.  The  Democratic 
candidates,  Woodrow  Wilson  and  Thomas  R. 
]\tarshall,  were  elected  by  a  plurality  of  more 
than  2,000,000  votes. 

Wilson's  Administration.  Immediately 
after  his  inauguration  President  Wilson 
called  Congress  ui  special  session  to  revise  the 
tariff;  the  Underwood-Simmons  Tariff  Act 
was  the  result.  Other  important  legislation 
included  the  Federal  Reserve  Act  of  1913, 
establishing  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks,  the 
Clayton  Anti-Trust  Act,  the  Trade  Com- 
mission Act,  and  the  repeal  of  the  clause 
exempting  American  ships  from  pajdng  toll 
for  passing  through  the  Panama  Canal,  in 
1914.  The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  to 
commerce,  the  international  expositions  at 
San  Francisco  and  San  Diego,  Calif.,  the 
Bryan  arbitration  treaties  with  most  of  the 
world's  civilized  nations,  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  seventeenth  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  Avere  other  important  events  of 
Wilson's  first  term. 

Foreign  relations  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  President  and  of  Congress  to  an  un- 
usual extent.  During  Taft's  administration 
a  revolution  occurred  in  Mexico.  Madero, 
the  President,  was  assassinated,  and  Huerta, 
who  was  considered  responsible  for  Madero's 
death,  had  assumed  the  Presidency.  Wilson 
refused  to  recognize  Huerta,  but  maintained 
a  strictly  neutral  policy  towards  Mexican 
aft'airs,  notwithstanding  many  insults  were 
offered  to  American  citizens  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States. 

Affairs  came  to  a  crisis  in  April  1914,  when 
a  number  of  marines  from  a  United  States 
warship  stationed  at  Tampico  were  arrested 
by  Huerta's  soldiers,  while  they  went  ashore 
peaceably  to  purchase  supplies.  Rear-Ad- 
miral  Mayo  demanded  the  release  of  the  men, 
an  apology  and  a  salute  to  the  United  States 
flag.  Huerta  refused  to  salute  the  flag,  and 
the  President  applied  to  Congress  for  per- 
mission to  employ  the  military  and  naval 
forces  to  enforce  his  demands.  His  request 
was  granted,  and  United  States  forces 
occupied  Vera  Cruz.  There  was  a  strong 
demand  for  intervention,  but  the  President 
continued  his  policy  of  "watchful  waiting", 
in  the  belief  that  the  forces  under  Can^anza 
would  soon  overthrow  Huerta,  and  this  the^ 
finally  accomplished. 

After  Carranza  became  President,  Villa, 
his  chief  aid  in  the  overthrow  of  Huerta, 
rebelled  and  gained  control  over  a  number 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3715       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


of  the  northern  states  of  Mexico.  In  1916 
Villa's  forces  made  a  number  of  marauding 
raids  into  Texas,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
and  a  punitive  expedition  under  command 
of  General  Pershing,  in  conjunction  with 
the  forces  of  Carraiiza,  attempted  to  capture 
Villa,  but  he  escaped  to  the  mountains,  and 
in  course  of  time  the  United  States  force  was 
withdrawn. 

The  embargoes  and  bloc-kades  established 
by  the  belligerent  nations  in  the  World  "War 
complicated  American  relations  with  these 
nations,  especially  with  Great  Britain  and 
Germany,  because  of  the  effect  of  these 
measures  upon  American  commerce.  The 
sinking  of  the  Lusitania,  May  7,  1915,  by  a 
German  submarine,  came  near  severing  diplo- 
matic relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Germany,  but  the  Imperial  Government  made 
promises  that  partially  satisfied  the  Presi- 
dent, and  the  breach  was  avoided.  Germany's 
acts  aroused  intense  feeling  against  the  coun- 
try in  the  United  States,  and  many  Ameri- 
cans expected  and  desired  war. 

In  the  campaign  of  1916  the  nominees  of 
the  Republican  party  for  President  and  Vice- 
President  were  Charles  Evans  Hughes  of 
New  York  and  Charles  W.  Fairbanks  of  In- 
diana. Pi'esident  Wilson  and  Vice-President 
Marshall  were  the  Democratic  nominees.  The 
Republicans  attacked  the  President's  foreign 
policies,  such  as  his  "watchful  waiting"  in 
regard  to  Mexico  and  his  long  drawn-out  dip- 
lomatic contest  with  Geimany,  and  they  op- 
posed the  economic  theories  of  the  Democrats. 
The  Democrats  asked  for  an  endorsement  of 
Wilson's  record  for  constructive  statesman- 
ship in  domestic  affairs  and  approval  of  his 
forbearance  and  patience  in  the  handling  of 
intricate  international  problems.  One  of  the 
rallying  cries  of  the  Democrats  was  "Wilson 
kept  us  out  of  war."  The  election  was  very 
close,  for  the  country  was  plainly  confused 
as  to  the  exact  attitude  of  both  parties  toward 
Germany.  Wilson  and  Marshall  secured  276 
electoral  votes  and  Hughes  and  Fairbanks 
255.  The  Republicans  carried  the  East  and 
several  Middle  West  states;  the  Democrats 
carried  most  of  the  West,  part  of  the  Middle 
West,  and  the  South  solidly.  In  general,  the 
President  ran  ahead  of  his  party,  but  the 
Democratic  majority  in  Congress  was  con- 
siderably reduced. 

The  Approach  of  War.  In  spite  of  his 
record  as  a  peace  President,  Wilson  was 
forced  to  lead  the  country  into  the  World 


War  early  in  his  new  administration.  On 
January  31,  1917,  the  German  government 
made  known  its  decision  to  begin  unrestricted 
submarine  warfare.  The  President  was  in- 
formed that  American  ships  of  any  kind 
whatsoever  violating  certain  specified  regu- 
lations would  be  sunk  without  warning.  This 
decision  was  the  culmination  of  a  long  series 
of  insults  on  the  part  of  Germanj^,  including 
the  indefensible  activities  of  an  unscrupu- 
lous and  well-organized  spy  system. 

With  the  approval  of  the  majority  of  the 
people,  the  President  on  February  3  broke 
off  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany  and 
handed  Count  Barnstorff,  the  German  ambas- 
sador, his  passports.  After  several  weeks 
of  uncertaint}',  during  which  German  agres- 
sions continued  unchecked,  the  President 
(April  2,  1917)  appeared  before  a  special 
session  of  the  Sixty-fifth  Congress,  and  in 
a  speech  of  moving  eloquence  asked  that  body 
to  declare  that  a  state  of  war  existed  between 
the  Imperial  German  government  and  the 
United  States.  The  next  day  the  Foreign 
Affairs  Committees  of  both  houses  agreed 
upon  a  resolution  formally  declaring  this 
fact.  On  April  4  the  Senate  passed  the  reso- 
lution by  a  vote  of  86  to  6  and  the  House 
took  similar  action  on  April  6  by  a  vote  of 
373  to  50.  On  the  afternoon  of  that  day 
the  resolution  was  signed  by  the  President. 

In  the  World  War.  Measures  relating  to 
the  prosecution  of  the  war  were  given  im- 
mediate consideration.  As  emergencies  arose, 
laws  conferring  extraordinary  powers  upon 
the  President,  providing  for  regi;lating  the 
distribution  of  food  and  fuel,  placing  the 
operation  of  the  railroads  and  finally  of  the 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines  under  control 
of  the  government,  were  passed.  Regard- 
less of  party,  Congi'ess  and  the  nation  sup- 
ported the  President  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  war.  Taxes  were  increased,  and  five 
government  loans  aggregating  over  .$19,000,- 
000,000  were  authorized  and  ovei-subscribed. 
Never  before  had  a  nation  accomplished  a 
task  of  such  magnitude  within  the  allotted 
time  as  did  the  United  States  in  prosecuting 
the  war  with  Germany. 

At  the  declaration  of  war  America  had 
an  army  of  less  than  200,000  men.  The  na- 
tion was  insufficiently  supplied  with  arms, 
munitions  and  other  equipment  for  a  large 
army,  and  was  without  sufficient  ships  for 
transporting  men  and  supplies  to  Europe. 
Through   the   cooperation   and   help   of  its 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3716       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Outline  on  the  United  States 


I.  Location  and  Extent 

(a)  Latitude 

(b)  Longitude 

(c)  Boundaries 

(d)  Area 

(e)  Comparison  with  other  coun- 
tries 

II.  Surface  and  Drainage 

(a)  Atlantic  slope 

(b)  Appalachian  highlands 

(c)  Great  central  plain 

(d)  Rocky  Mountain  highlands 

(e)  Pacific  slope 

(f )  River  systems 

(g)  Lakes 

III.  Climate 

(a)  Conditions    expected,   due  to 

latitude 

(b)  Changes  wrought  by  physical 

conditions 

(c)  Average   temperature   in   va- 

rious sections 

(d)  Average   rainfall    in    various 

sections 

(e)  Need  for  irrigation 

IV.  Industries 

(a)  Mineral  resources 

(1)  Where  each  is  found 

(2)  Annual  output  and  value 

(3)  States  leading  in  produc- 

tion 

(b)  Agricultural  products 

(1)  Cereals 

(2)  Fruits 

(3)  Market  gardening 

(4)  Live  stock  and  dairy  pro- 

ducts 

(c)  Manufactures 

(1)  Natural  locations  of  dis- 

tricts 

(2)  Leading  industries 

(a)  Iron  and  steel 

(b)  Textiles 

(c)  Boots  and  shoes 

(d)  Others  of  note 

(e)  Rank  with  other  na- 

tions   in    produc- 
tion 

(d)  Commerce 

(1)  Domestic  commerce 


(a)  By  rail  i 

(b)  By  water  i 

(c)  Coasting  trade  i 
(2)   Foreign  commerce 

(a)  Leading  countries  in- 

cluded in 

(b)  Exports  and  imports 

(c)  Principal      countries 

engaged  in  carry- 
ing trade 

V.  Population 

(a)  Per  cent  of  annual  increase 

(b)  Center  and  density  of  popu- 

lation 

(c)  Comparative  growth  of  cities 

and  rural  communities 

(d)  Immigration 

VI.  Government 

(a)  General  character 

(b)  Departments 

(1)  Executive 

(a)  President 

(b)  Vice-President 

(2)  Legislative 
(a)  Congress 

(1)  Senate 

(2)  House  of   Rep- 

resentatives 

(3)  Judicial 

(a)  Supreme  Court 

(b)  Inferior  courts 

(1)  Circuit  courts 

(2)  District  courts 

(3)  Courts    of    ap- 

peals 

(e)  State  governments 

(d)  Government  of  dependencies 

(e)  Territories 

VII.  Education  in  United  States 

VIII.  Cities 

(a)  List  of  twenty-five  largest 
IX.  History 

(a)   Periods 

(1)  Discovery    and    explora- 

tion 

(2)  Colonization 

(3)  Development  of  colonies 

(4)  War  for  independence 

(5)  Organization  of  republic 

(6)  National  growth 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3717       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


(a)  Development   of   re- 

sources 

(b)  Annexation    of    ter- 

ritory 

(7)  Mexican  war 

(8)  Slavery  issue 

(9)  Civil  war 

(10)  Reconstruction 

(11)  Industrial  progress 

(12)  Spanish- American  war 

(13)  World  War 

Questions  on  the  United  States 

How  does  the  United  States  compare  in 
area  with  the  other  great  countries  of  the 
world? 

How  does  it  compare  with  them  in 
population  ? 

AVhen  it  is  6  P.  M.  in  Manilla,  what  time 
is  it  in  New  York? 

What  change  does  a  ship  have  to  make 
in  its  dates  in  going  from  San  Francisco 
to   the  Philipi^ine  Islands? 

What  geographic  conditions  exert  the 
gi'eatest  influence  upon  human  develop- 
ment? 

What  effect  does  the  geographic  posi- 
tion of  the  United  States  have  upon  her 
industrial  development? 

How  does  this  location  affect  her  re- 
lations to  other  countries? 

Whj'  were  the  English  colonies  con- 
fined to  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast? 

What  is  the  most  remarkable  feature 
of  the  boundary  line  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada? 

Why  is  the  Atlantic  coast  line  so  much 
longer  than  that  on  the  Pacific  ? 

Which  coast  has  the  larger  number  of 
good  harbors?    Why? 

What  is  the  Fall"  Line?  Why  is  it  so 
called? 

What  part  of  the  United  States  is  the 
greatest  agricultural  region  in  the  world? 

What  conditions  have  made  it  so? 

Account  for  the  location  and  growth  of 
the  following  cities:  New  York,  Chicago, 
Galveston,  Seattle. 

How  many  railroads  extend  across  the 
United  States  from  the  Mississippi  River 
to  the  Pacific  Coast? 

What  effect  have  these  so-called  trans- 


continental lines  had  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River? 

How  does  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  differ  from  the  Articles  of 
Confederation  ? 

What  iDolitical  party  supported  the 
ratification  of  the  Constitution?  From 
what  circumstance  was  this  party  named? 

What  American  inventions  have  ex- 
erted the  greatest  influence  upon  the  in- 
dustries and  commerce  of  the  world? 

What  regions  in  the  United  States  are 
widely  known  for  their  scenery? 

What  has  the  National  government 
done  to  presei-v'e  these  regions  for  the 
people  ? 

What  island  possession  of  the  United 
States  is  about  two-thirds  the  area  of  Con- 
necticut? How  does  it  compare  with 
Connecticut  in  population? 

From  what  nations  did  the  United 
States  receive  the  largest  number  of  immi- 
grants in  the  years  just  preceding  the 
World  War? 

What  effect  did  the  Worid  War  have 
upon  immigration? 

How  do  you  account  for  the  rapid 
growth  of  cities  since  1890  ? 

What  effect  did  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  mto  the  World  War  have 
upon  the  American  merchant  marine? 

What  precedents  of  long  standing  did 
President  Wilson  set  aside? 

Why  does  not  the  United  States  have  a 
national  system  of  education? 

To  what  does  the  League  of  Nations  bind 
the  United  States? 

How  many  Americans  were  killed  in  the 
World  War  ?  How  many  died  of  disease  ? 
How  many  were  wounded  ? 

How  imi^ortant  are  the  new  oil  fields  in 
Texas? 

What  cities  in  the  Ignited  States  are  al- 
most directly  north  of  the  city  of  Panama, 
at  the  western  terminus  of  the  Panama 
Canal? 

AVhat  is  the  status  of  woman  suffrage  in 
the  United  States? 

What  is  the  status  of  Porto  Rico? 

What  is  the  "Galveston  plan"  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  cities? 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA       3718       UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


allies,  the  unstinted  devotion  and  loyalty  of 
the  American  people  and  a  speeding  up  of  all 
war  activities,  the  United  States  placed  on  the 
battlefields  of  France  over  2,225,000  soldiers, 
trained  and  equipped,  including  needed  men 
back  of  the  lines.  The  American  army 
played  an  important  part  in  the  operations 
of  the  summer  of  1918,  and  contributed  ma- 
terially to  bringing  about  an  armistice  on 
November  11,  1919.  (For  a  full  account  of 
the  nation's  war  activities,  see  the  article 
World  War.) 

The  Way  to  Peace.  During  America's 
participation  in  the  struggle  President  Wil- 
son had  issued  a  statement  summarizing  the 
objects  for  which  America  was  fighting.  These 
were  grouped  into  fourteen  paragi'aphs,  the 
last  of  which  called  for  a  general  association 
of  the  nations.  This  suggestion  for  a  league 
of  nations  became  the  cornerstone  of  Wil- 
son's peace  policies.  As  spokesman  on  the 
moral  issues  of  the  war,  the  President  became 
the  outstanding  figure  in  the  diplomacy  of 
the  struggle,  and  it  seemed  fitting  that  he 
should  head  the  American  delegation  to  the 
peace  conference,  which  met  in  Paris  in  Jan- 
uary, 1919.  Plis  decision  to  cross  the  ocean 
and  to  remain  away  from  his  country  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  caused  much  dis- 
cussion and  some  bitter  criticism,  as  always 
happens  when  a  precedent  is  broken.  The 
President,  however,  felt  that  his  personal  at- 
tendance at  the  peace  sessions  was  essential. 
The  other  American  delegates  were  Secretary 
of  State  Lansing,  General  Tasker  H.  Bliss, 
Henry  White,  former  minister  to  Germany, 
and  Edward  M.  House,  personal  adviser  of 
the  President. 

Wilson  returned  to  America  late  in  Febru- 
ary to  sign  bills  essential  to  carrying  on  the 
activities  of  the  government,  and  after  a 
Aveek's  stay  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  re- 
mained until  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles,  June  28.  He  reached  home  in 
July,  and  on  the  tenth  of  the  month  addressed 
a  joint  session  of  the  Sixty-sixth  Congress, 
which  he  had  called  by  cable  to  meet  in  special 
session  on  May  19.  The  President  gave  a 
general  summary  of  the  results  of  the  peace 
conference  and  voiced  his  conviction  that  a 
league  of  nations  was  vital  to  the  future 
peace  of  the  world.  He  then  submitted  the 
treaty  to  the  Senate  for  ratification. 

In  the  fall  elections  of  1918  the  Democrats 
had  lost  heavily;  the  Republicans  had  a  ma- 
jority of  two  in  the  Senate  and  they  eon- 


trolled  the  House  of  Representatives.  Con- 
siderable opposition  to  the  proposed  league 
had  developed  among  the  Republicans  dur- 
ing the  President's  absence,  and  the  Presi- 
dent, sensing  the  need  of  solidifying  senti- 
ment for  the  covenant  throughout  the  coun- 
try, began  a  speech-making  tour  in  August  in 
behalf  of  the  treaty,  as  the  terms  of  the 
compact  and  the  league  provisions  were 
closely  interwoven. 

Recent  National  Issues.  The  great  inter- 
national questions  that  occupied  the  admin- 
istration after  1914  somewhat  overshadowed 
the  events  of  domestic  interest.  By  January, 
1919,  the  XVIIIth  Amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, prohibiting  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  liquor,  had  been  ratified  by  the  requi- 
site number  of  states,  and  a  government 
proclamation  set  January  16,  1920,  as  the 
date  for  the  amendment  to  go  into  effect. 
In  November,  1918,  however.  President  Wil- 
son signed  a  food  production  bill  making  the 
United  States  prohibition  territory  after 
June  30,  1919.  The  "dry"  interval  was 
scheduled  to  last  until  the  army  was  declared 
demobilized.  Under  this  bill,  on  July  1, 1919,- 
the  entire  country  became  a  prohibition  nar 
tion  for  the  first  time.  The  XlXth  Amend- 
ment, extending  suffrage  rights  to  women 
throughout  the  country,  was  adopted  by  both 
houses  of  Congress  in  the  spring  of  1919,  and 
was  submitted  to  the  state  legislatures  for 
ratification.  Prominent  measures  before  the 
Sixty-sixth  Congress  included  a  bill  for  the 
establishment  of  a  new  Department  of  Educa- 
tion. A  movement  was  also  under  way  for 
creating  a  budget  system  to  regulate  national 
finances. 

Related  Articles.  At  the  end  of  each  state 
article  the  reader  will  fli^d  listed  the  names 
of  the  cities,  mountains,  lakes  and  rivers  of 
the  region  under  discussion,  as  well  as  impor- 
tant historical  events  connected  w^ith  the 
development  of  each  state.  There  are  other 
important  lists  following:  the  articles  on 
Ag-riculture,  Education,  and  the  different  wars 
in  -w^hich  America  has  engaged,  to  all  of 
which  the  reader  is  referred.  Below  are 
various  other  topics  which  will  help  one  to 
secure  detailed  information  on  the  subject. 

PHYSICAL    FEATURES 

Alleghany  Mountains     Niagara  Falls  and 
Appalachian  Moun-  River 

tains  Ohio    River 

Canyon  Palisades 

Cascade  Range  Parks,   National 

Coast  Range  Piedmont    Region 

Colorado,  Grand  Rocky   Mountains 

Canyon    of   the  Royal  Gorge 

Columbia  River  Saint  Lawrence  River 

Glacier  National  Sierra  Nevada 

Park  Mountains 

Great  Lakes  Yellowstone  National 
Mammoth    Cave  Park 

Mississippi    River  Yosemite   National 
Missouri   River  Park 

Natural  Bridge 


U.  S.  STEEL  CORPORATION 


3719 


UNIVERSE 


INDUSTRY    AND    PRODUCTS 

Agriculture  Irrig-ation 


Automobile 
Barley 
Bookbinding' 
Boots   and    Shoes 
Brick  and  Brick- 
laying 
Coal 
Copper 
Corn 
Cotton 
Cotton   Gin 
Dairying 
Dry    Farming 
Fish  and  Fisheries 


Lead 

Leather 

Lumber 

Meat   Packing 

Natural  Gas 

Oats 

Paper 

Petroleum 

Potatoes 

Poultry 

Printing 

Seal 

Silver 

Steel 


Forests   and   Forestry  Textiles 

Fur  and  Fur  Trade  Tobacco 

Gold  Wheat 

Horticulture  Zinc 
Iron 

TRANSPORTATION    AND    COMMUNICATION 

Cable,  Submarine  Roads  and  Streets 

Canal    (with    list)  Telephone 

Railroad  Telegraph 

OUTLYING    POSSESSIONS 

Alaska  Porto  Rico 

Guam  Samoa 

Hawaii  Virgin  Islands  of 
Philippine   Islands  the  United  States 

PRESIDENTS 

See  President  of  the.  United   States 

STATESMEN,     MILITARY    LEADERS,    ETC. 

See  Biography 

GOVERNMENT      AND      HISTORY 

Alabama,    The  Louisiana  Purchase 

Alien  and  Sedition  Mexican  War 

Laws  Missouri  Compromise 

Black   Hawk  Monroe  Doctrine 

Boston   Massacre  Mound  Builders 

Boston  Tea  Party  Nations,  League  of 

Burr,  Aaron  Navigation  Acts 

Chesapeake,  The  Non-Intercourse  Act 

Clayton-Bulwer  Northwest  Territory 

Treaty  Nullification 

Confederation,  Ordinance  of  1787 

Articles  of  Ostend  Manifesto 

Congress  Panama  Canal 

Constitution  of  the  Political    Parties    in 

United  States  the  ITnited  States 

Carpetbaggers  Prohibition 

Courts  Puritans 

Declaration  of  Inde-  Representatives, 

pendence  House  of 

Electoral  College  Revolutionary  War 

Electoral  Commission  Senate 

Emancipation  Procla-  Slavery 

mation  Spanish-American 
Embargo  War 

Eric  the  Red  Squatter  Sovereignty 

French  and  Indian  Star  Route 

Wars  Supreme  Court 

Genet,  Edmon  Tariff 

Hay-Pauncefote  Versailles,  Treaty  of 

Treaty  War  of  1812 

Indians,   American  Whisky  Insurrection 

Jay  Treaty  Wilmot  Proviso 

Kentucky  and   Vir-  Woman  Suffrage 

ginia    Resolutions  World  War 

Ku-Klux  Klan  X  Y  Z  Correspondence 
Lecompton  Constitution 

UNITED  STATES  STEEL  CORPORA- 
TION, the  largest  business  enterprise  in  the 
world,  was  organized  in  1901,  by  the  con- 
solidation of  a  number  of  large  corporations 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 
These  included  the  Carnegie,  the  Federal 
Steel,  the  American  Steel  and  Wire,  the  Na- 
tional Steel,  the  National  Tube  and  the 
American  Tin  Plate  companies.  The  United 
States  Steel  Corporation  makes  more 
steel  than  all  of  Great  Britain  or  Germany, 


and  one-fourth  of  the  total  amount  made  in 
all  the  countries  of  the  world.  Many  of  the 
employes  have  become  stockholders,  and  the 
corporation  has  a  commendable  record  in  its 
dealings  with  its  great  army  of  workmen.  In 
1911  the  United  States  government  brought 
suit  for  the  dissolution  of  the  corporation  on 
grounds  of  violating  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Law;  in  1915  the  courts  sustained  the  cor- 
poi-ation  and  an  appeal  was  taken  to  the  Su- 
preme Court.  There  had  been  no  decision  on 
the  appeal  by  September,  1919. 

The  capital  of  the  corporation  is  over 
$1,000,000,000,  and  its  gross  earnings  ex- 
ceed a  million  dollars  for  every  working  day. 

UNIVER'SALISTS,  a  religious  body 
whose  distinctive  belief  is  that  all  men  will 
ultimately  be  saved;  in  other  words,  that 
eternal  progress  is  the  lot  of  every  created 
soul.  This,  they  claim,  is  in  harmony  with 
the  teachings  of  Jesus  and  early  interpreta- 
tions of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  with  science 
and  philosophy.  As  a  faith  universalism  has 
a  place  in  Christian  thought  far  beyond  the 
confines  of  the  organized  body,  which  was 
established  late  in  the  eighteenth  century  in 
Massachusetts  by  an  English  clergyman,  John 
]\^urra5^  There  are  now  about  55,000  Uni- 
versalists  in  the  United  States  and  2,000  in 
Canada. 

UNIVERSAL  LANGUAGE,  a  proposed 
medium  of  communication,  for  the  use  of  all 
peoples  of  the  earth  which  have  commercial 
intercourse  with  each  other.  There  have  been 
two  unsuccessful  efforts  in  this  direction 
within  I'ecent  j^ears,  Esperanto  and  Volapuk 
(which  see). 

UNIVERSE,  u'tvivurs,  a  term  referring 
to  all  created  things,  embracing  everything 
included  in  space,  planets,  suns,  stars,  con- 
sidered as  an  orderly  system.  Man's  idea 
of  the  universe  has  been  an  expanding  one. 
At  first  he  considered  the  earth  the  center 
about  which  sun,  moon  and  stars  revolved. 
Then  he  discovered  that  earth,  asteroids  and 
planets  revolve  about  the  sun  and  thought  of 
our  solar  system  as  the  universe.  Now  he 
knows  that  the  system  of  which  our  earth 
is  a  part  is  but  one  among  the  millions  whirl' 
ing  majestically  in  the  immensity  of  space. 
The  universe  in  its  vastness  is  beyond  the 
power  of  the  mind  to  conceive. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    following 
tites   for   additional   information: 
Astronomy  Planet 

Farth  Stars 

Moon  Solar  System 

Nebular  Hypothesis       Sun 


UNIVERSITY 


3720 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY,  an  institu- 
tion for  advanced  learn- 
ing or  for  the  examina- 
tion of  students  who  have 
comi^leted  specified 
courses  in  the  higher 
branches.  Universities  are 
maintained  in  nearly  all 
countries,  and  they  con- 
fer degrees  which  receive 
universal  recognition.  A 
study  of  the  organization 
of  the  universities  of  dif- 
ferent countries  shows 
that  there  are  some  varia- 
tions in  plan  and  spirit, 
but  everywhere  the  term 
university  implies  a  high- 
er grade  of  institution  than  does  college 
(which  see). 

In  the  United  States.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  university  has  been  used  in- 
discriminately and  is  sometimes  applied  to 
degree-conferring  institutions,  regardless  of 
their  provision  for  graduate  work.  Moreover, 
many  schools  established  in  the  newer  states, 
either  by  private  or  denominational  enter- 
prises, have  been  styled  universities  when 
they  are  really  colleges  offering  courses  given 
in  the  undergraduate  department  of  the 
true  university. 

A  university  maintains  a  college  of  lib- 
eral arts,  and  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  en- 
gineering, agriculture,  journalism,  etc.  In 
the  universities  of  highest  standard  students 
entering  the  professional  departments  are  re- 
quired to  have  two  or  more  years  of  college 
work. 

According  to  the  plan  upon  which  they 
have  been  established,  American  universities 
can  be  grouped  into  the  following  classes: 

(1)  Those  which  have  developed  from  older 
colleges,  such  as  Harvard,  Tale,  Pennsylvania 
and   Princeton. 

(2)  Those  that  have  been  established  by 
act  of  legislature  and  are  known  as  state  uni- 
versities, such  as  the  universities  of  Michi- 
gan, Minnesota,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois. 

(3)  Those  that  have  been  established  by 
benefactions,  such  as  Johns  Hopkins  and 
Cornell. 

(4)  Those  established  under  the  auspices  of 
some  religious  denomination,  such  as  the 
Catholic  University,  at  Washington;  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  and  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, at   Evanston  and  Chicago. 

All  of  these  institutions  maintain  under- 
graduate, or  college,  departments,  and  in 
some  of  the  newer  states  the  state  university 


is  under  the  necessity  of  maintaining  a  pre- 
paratory school. 

German  Universities.  This  class  includes 
all  universities  where  the  German  language 
is  spoken,  and  in  addition  to  those  in  Ger- 
many proper,  it  embraces  the  universities 
of  Switzerland  and  Austria.  In  these  uni- 
versities the  faculties  of  all  departments 
are  independent  of  one  another;  and  the 
work  of  all  is  characterized  by  a  scientific 
spirit  which  leads  to  the  greatest  freedom  in 
original  research.  They  derive  their  support 
from  the  government,  but  each  is  allowed  the 
greatest  liberty  in  the  management  of  its  own 
affairs  and  in  the  determination  of  its  courses 
of  study. 

French  Universities.  The  French  uni- 
versities ai'e  modeled  after  the  University  of 
Paris.  A  number  of  these  were  early  or- 
ganized; but  during  the  French  Revolution 
the  universities,  with  all  other  educational  in- 
stitutions, were  abolished.  Upon  the  reor- 
ganization of  affairs,  Napoleon  organized 
the  University  of  France,  which  was  at  the 
head  of  the  educational  system.  According 
to  his  plan,  the  university  had  charge  of  all 
higher  education  and  was  divided  into  fifteen 
faculties,  located  in  as  many  educational  dis- 
tricts, with  the  central  authority  at  the  Uni- 
versity at  Paris.  This  arrangement  con- 
tinued until  1896,  when  the  districts  were 
made  independent,  each  being  given  con- 
trol of  its  own  affairs,  under  the  direction 
of  the  minister  of  education. 

English  Universities.  English  univer- 
sities are  of  two  types,  those  founded  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  such  as  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, which  are  unique  among  the  univer- 
sities of  the  world  in  their  plan-and  organiza- 
tion, and  those  that  have  been  founded  since 
the  eighteenth  century,  such  as  Durham  Uni- 
versity and  the  University  of  London,  which 
is  only  a  degree-conferring  institution.  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  are  aggregations  of 
separate  colleges,  each  with  its  own  faculty, 
rules  of  organization  and  traditions,  but  all 
subject  to  a  central  authority. 

In  Canada.  Provincial  and  endowed 
universities  and  colleges  are  maintained  in 
the  Dominion  in  large  numbers.  The  uni- 
versities of  British  Columbia,  Alberta,  Sas- 
katchewan and  Manitoba  correspond  in  a 
general  way  to  the  American  state  univer- 
sities. In  Ontario  the  University  of  Toronto 
is  at  the  head  of  the  school  system.  In 
Quebec  the  two  leading  universities,  MeGill 


UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION 


3721 


URAL  MOUNTAINS 


and  Laval,  are  at  the  head  of  th(i  Protestant 
and  the  Catholic  schools,  respectively. 

CPor  more  detailed  information,  consult 
the  articles  on  the  various  institutions  and 
provinces.) 

Related  Articles.  The  most  important  uni- 
versities of  the  world  are  described  in  these 
volumes  under  their  separate  headings.  They 
are  listed  at  the  end  of  the  article  Education. 
Each  of  the  American  state  universities  is 
given  separate  treatment  in  alphabetical 
order. 

UNIVERSITY  EXTEN'SION,  a  move- 
ment for  extending  the  means  of  a  higher 
education  to  persons  of  all  classes,  by  a  sys- 
tem of  lectures  and  instruction,  carried  on 
by  instructors  of  an  established  university. 
University  extension  originated  with  Cam- 
bridge University,  England,  in  1872,  and  it 
was  taken  up  by  the  University  of  Oxford 
in  1885. 

In  the  United  States  the  movement  was 
systematically  started  by  Doctor  Melville 
Dewey  in  1888.  At  that  time  Doctor  Dewey 
was  chief  librarian  of  Columbia  University, 
and  he  laid  before  the  regents  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York  a  plan 
for  university  extension,  in  connection  with 
public  libraries.  Two  years  later  a  com- 
mittee of  the  New  York  colleges  and  uni- 
versities urged  the  regents  to  establish  such 
a  system  of  teaching  under  state  supervision, 
and  in  1821  a  bill  passed. the  legislature,  ap- 
propriating $10,000  for  the  expenses  of  or- 
ganizing the  movement.  Previous  to  this, 
some  extension  work  had  been  done  by  the 
professors  of  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
who,  however,  conducted  it  as  an  individual 
enterprise,  and  in  1891  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  organized  a  corps  of  lecturers, 
who  were  to  lecture  on  literature,  histoiy, 
sociology  and  science  in  the  surrounding 
towns,  wherever  local  organizations  for  the 
study  of  any  of  these  subjects  could  be 
formed.  From  these  beginnings  the  larger 
universities  took  up  the  work,  and  it  gradu- 
ally extended  over  the  country.  The  most 
successful  work  has  been  done  by  the  univer- 
sities of  Pennsylvania,  Cornell,  Harvard, 
Yale,  Chicago  and  Wisconsin. 

The  plan  includes  (1)  the  arrangement  of 
lecture  study  courses  with  syllabi,  by  the 
faculties  of  the  university;  (2)  the  organ- 
ization of  local  centers,  these  centers  to  in- 
clude people  who  are  interested  in  pursuing 
some  one  of  the  lecture  courses;  they  decide 
upon  the  subject  to  be  studied  and  engage 
the  lecturer,  whose  salary  and  traveling  ex- 
penses are  paid  by  the  center;   (3)   the  lec- 


ture, with  studies  conducted  either  before 
or  after  it,  the  lecturer  carrying  on  a  quiz, 
in  which  he  gives  opportunity  for  free  dis- 
cussion, asking  and  answering  questions; 
(4)  traveling  libraries,  which  are  sent  to  the 
different  centers;  (5)  the  preparation  of 
papers  by  members  of  the  center,  these  pa- 
pers being  read  and  graded  by  the  lecturer; 
(6)  the  giving  of  credits  by  the  university, 
for  satisfactory  completion  of  the  work. 
These  credits  are  of  limited  value  to  those 
who  are  seeking  degrees.  Agricultural  col- 
leges in  some  states  have  extension  depart- 
ments which  render  very  practical  assistance 
to  the  farmer  and  his  family.  The  extension 
department  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
is  intended  to  cover  practically  all  lines  of 
industry  in  the  state.  See  Chautauqua 
Institution. 

UNTER  DEN  LINDEN,  un'ter  dmjn  lin 
den,  the  finest  and  most  famous  avenue  of 
Berlin,  a  mile  in  length  and  196  feet  in 
width,  extending  from  tlie  Brandenburg 
Gate  to  the  monument  of  Frederick  the  Great 
and  the  Platz-am-Opernhaus.  It  is  bordered 
by  rows  of  beautiful  linden  and  chestnut 
trees  and  flanked  by  many  attractive  shops. 
See  Berlin. 

U'PAS,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  same  fam- 
ily as  the  mulberry  and  breadfruit,  common 
in  the  forests  of  Java  and  the  Philippine 
Islands.  The  exaggerated  stories  formerly 
current  concerning  the  deadly  exhalations 
of  this  plant  are  now  believed  to  have  their 
origin  in  the  presence  of  volcanic  gases  in 
the  Javanese  valleys.  The  sap,  however,  is 
poisonous  and  forms  the  principal  element  in 
a  mixture  used  by  the  natives  for  tipping 
their  arrowheads.  The  fiber  of  the  bark  is 
made  into  a  kind  of  cloth. 

U'RAL  MOUNTAINS,  a  low  mountain 
range  in  Eussia  extending  southward  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  approximately  along  the 
60th  meridian  of  east  longitude,  and  form- 
ing a  portion  of  the  boundary  between  Eu- 
rope and  Asia.  The  highest  elevations  are 
in  the  northern  and  southern  sections  and 
exceed  5,000  feet.  The  central  section  is 
low,  and  through  a  pass  in  this  part  of  the 
range  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  reaches 
Siberia.  The  lower  slopes  are  covered  with 
forests  of  evergreens,  birch  and  beech.  The 
Central  Urals  are  rich  in  mineials,  which  in- 
clude gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc 
and  platinum.  There  are  also  large  deposits 
of  coal. 


URAL  RIVER 


3722 


URINE 


URAL  RIVER,  a  river  of  Russia,  rising 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains 
and  flowing  southward  a  distance  of  1,400 
miles  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  chief  trib- 
utaries are  the  Kizil  and  the  Sak-Mara  from 
the  west,  and  the  Sunduk,  the  Or  and  the 
Ilek  from  the  east.  Eainfall  in  the  Ural 
basin  is  slight,  and  the  river  is  shallow  and 
unnavigable,  except  during  the  period  of 
high  water. 

URA'NIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  muse 
of  astronomy,  usually  represented  as  holding 
in  her  left  hand  a  celestial  globe  and  in  her 
right  a  staff  or  compass. 

URA'OTUM,  a  rare,  silvery-white  metallic 
element,  found  chiefly  as  an  oxide  in  pitch- 
blende. It  is  the  source  of  uranium  yellow, 
used  for  painting  on  glass  and  porcelain, 
and  in  making  the  fluorescent  yellow  uranium 
glass.  With  its  compounds,  uranium  is  radio- 
active, undergoing  slow  disintegration  with 
the  formation  of  a  new  element,  known  as 
uranium  X.     See  Radioactivity. 

U'RANUS,  the  seventh  planet  from  the 
sun,  discovered  by  Sir  William  Herschel  in 
1781  and  first  called  Georgium  Sidus,  in 
honor  of  George  III,  and  afterwards 
Herschel,  in  honor  of  the  discoverer.  Both 
these  names  falling  into  disuse,  the  name 
TJravms,  suggested  by  Bode,  was  adopted. 
Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  more  than 
1,750,000,000  miles.  The  length  of  its  year 
is  equal  to  about  eighty-four  of  our  years; 
the  length  of  its  day  is  thought  to  be  about 
ten  hours.  Its  mean  diameter  is  estimated 
at  about  33,000  miles.  Its  volume  is  about 
seventy-four  times  that  of  the  earth,  but  its 
mean  density  is  so  much  less  that  the  mass 
of  Uranus  is  only  about  twelve  and  one- 
half  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth. 

Uranus  has  four  satellites,  which  differ 
from  those  of  all  but  one  of  the  other 
planets,  in  that  their  orbits  are  nearly  per- 
pendicular to  that  of  the  planet,  while  the 
satellites  of  the  other  planets  revolve  in  near- 
ly the  same  plane  as  the  planet  to  which 
they  belong.  Through  the  telescope,  Uranus 
is  merely  a  pale,  greenish  disk,  with  no  cer- 
tain markings;  but  the  spectroscope  seems 
to  indicate  that  it  differs  materially  from  the 
other  planets  in  composition.  To  the  naked 
eye  it  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  mag- 
nitude.   See  Planet. 

URANUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  hus- 
band of  Gaea,  the  earth,  and  father  of  her 
children,  the  Titans  and  Cyclops.     Uranus 


hated  his  children  and  confined  them  in  Tar- 
tarus, but  on  the  instigation  of  Gaea,  Saturn, 
the  youngest  of  the  Titans,  overthrew  and 
dethroned  him.  From  the  part  of  his  blood 
which  fell  upon  the  earth  sprang  Gigantes, 
father  of  the  giants,  and  from  the  part  which 
fell  into  the  sea  sprang  the  goddess 
Aphrodite. 

UR'BAN,  the  name  of  eight  Roman  Popes, 
three  of  whom  made  notable  contribution  to 
history. 

Urban  I,  Saint,  was  bishop  of  Rome  from 
222  to  230.  He  was  a  strong  pontiff,  setting 
himself  firmly  against  the  schismatic  move- 
ment of  Hippolytus,  which  he  kept  in  check. 

Urban  II  was  Pope  from  1088  to  1099.  He 
successfully  prosecuted  the  struggle  of  the 
Papacy  against  Henry  IV,  and  in  1094  he  ex- 
communicated Philip  I  of  France  for  his  mat- 
rimonial infidelity.  In  1095  he  presided  at  the 
famous  Council  of  Clermont,  which  gave  the 
impulse  to  the  Crusades.  He  died  before  the 
success  of  the  First  Crusade,  which  he  had 
organized. 

Urban  VIII,  Pope  from  1624  to  1644,  sup- 
ported Richelieu's  policy  against  Austria  and 
Spain.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  and  was  a  patron  of 
Galileo. 

URBAN'A,  III.,  the  county  seat  of  Cham- 
paign County,  128  miles  nearly  south  of 
Chicago,  on  the  Wabash,  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  Saint  Louis  railroads. 
It  is  near  Champaign,  and  the  state  univer- 
sity is  situated  between  the  two  cities  (see 
Illinois,  University  of).  The  surrounding 
region  is  agricultural  and  contains  valuable 
deposits  of  fire  clay.  The  city  has  railroad 
shops,  brick  works,  a  lawnmower  and  iron 
novelty  factories.  Some  of  the  prominent 
structures  are  the  courthouse,  the  municipal 
building,  the  Masonic  Temple,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building,  Thomburn  High  School,  the  Cham- 
paign County  Teachers'  and  Pupils'  Library 
and  the  Illinois  State  Laboratoiy  and  Natural 
History  Library.  Urbana  was  settled  in 
1824  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1860. 
Population,  1910,  8,245;  in  1917,  10,146 
(Federal  estimate). 

URINE,  iifrin,  the  fluid  waste  separated 
from  the  blood  by  the  kidneys.  It  carries  out 
of  the  system  many  of  the  wornout  tissues, 
especially  the  nitrogenous  waste.  Its  com- 
position varies  in  different  animals.  Human 
urine,  of  a  healthy  indiridual,  is  a  clear, 
amber-colored  fluid,  slightly  acid,  and  it 
weighs  one  and  fifteen-thousandths  to  one 
and  twenty-five  thousandths  times  as  much  as 
water.     The  average  quantity  discharged  in 


URSA  MAJOR 


3723 


URUGUAY 


twenty-four  hours  is  about  two  and  a  half 
pints,  but  the  amount  varies  greatly,  being 
diminished  during  excessive  perspiration, 
thirst  and  fever,  and  being  increased  by  cold, 
by  drinking  large  quantities  of  water,  by 
exercise,  by  certain  foods,  as  salt  or  sugar, 
and  by  certain  drugs.  The  principal  solid 
and  the  most  imi:)ortant  ingredient  found  in 
urine  is  urea,  the  amount  of  which  varies, 
being  greater  when  animal  food  is  used  free- 
ly than  when  the  diet  is  vegetable.  The 
condition  of  the  urine  is  an  index  to  the  state 
of  health,  and  physicians  often  analyze  it 
as  a  part  of  their  diagnosis.  The  presence 
of  albumin  indicates  Bright's  disease,  and 
the  presence  of  sugar  indicates  diabetes. 

URSA  MAJOR  and  URSA  MINOR 
(greater  bear  and  lesser  bear),  two  constel- 
lations of  the  northern  hemisphere  always 
visible  and  wheeling  about  the  Polar  Star, 
which  at  present  is  that  star  in  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  little  bear's  tail.  In  the  larger 
constellation  are  seven  bright  stars  which 
outline   the   Great   Dipper. 

UR'SO,  Camilla  (1842-1902),  a  famous 
violinist,  born  in  Nantes,  France,  who  came 
to  America  at  the  age  of  ten.  She  appeared 
in  concert  with  immense  success,  becoming 
the  most  noted  female  violinist  in  the  world. 

URSULA,  Saint,  a  legendary  saint  and 
martyr  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  Avhose 
story  has  been  given  various  forms.  She  is 
supposed  to  have  suffei-ed  death  about  the 
year  237.  By  repute  the  daughter  of  a  Brit- 
ish king,  she  was  desired  by  the  son  of  an- 
other king  for  his  wife;  if  his  suit  were 
denied,  her  father's  lands  would  be  devas- 
tated. Ursula  had  vowed  to  remain  a  virgin, 
so  she  succeeded  in  securing  a  three-years' 
delay  before  deciding.  During  this  time  she 
was  to  visit  holy  places,  and  she  chose  11,000 
virgins  to  accompany  her.  When  Cologne 
was  reached  in  a  voyage  down  the  Rhine  the 
Huns  murdered  all  of  them;  a  church  was 
later  built  over  their  remains. 

URSULINES,  n/sulinz,  or  NUNS  OF 
SAINT  URSULA,  a  sisterhood  founded  by 
Saint  Angela  Merici,  at  Brescia,  Italy,  in 
1537,  especially  for  the  education  of  girls. 
They  had  many  houses  in  France  during  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  Canadian  Ursu- 
lines  date  from  1639;  the  Irish,  from  1771. 
There  are  now  four  houses  in  Ireland,  four 
in  England  and  twenty-four  in  the  United 
States,  with  thousands  of  pupils.  The  whole 
number  is  300  convents  and  7,000  nuns. 


RUGUAY,  ii'roo  gwa,  or 
oo'roo  gici,  officially  The 
Eastern  Republic  of 
Uruguay,  is  the  smallest 
republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica. It  is  separated  from 
Argentina  on  the  west  of 
the  Uruguay  River,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north- 
east and  east  by  Brazil; 
the  great  estuary  of  the 
Rio  de  La  Plata  washes 
its  southern  shore.  The 
country  is  nearly  tri- 
angular in  outline;  its 
greatest  length  and 
breadth,  350  miles,  are  about  equal;  its 
area  is  72,153  square  miles,  making  it  about 
one-half  the  size  of  Montana,  or  equal  to  the 
combined  areas  of  North  Dakota  and  Dela- 
ware. 

The  People.  The  population  is  about 
equally  divided  between  the  white  and 
colored  peoples,  the  latter  including  Para- 
guay Indians,  or  Guarani,  and  mixed  breeds. 
Spaniards  and  Italians  constitute  the  great 
majority  of  the  whites,  though  the  Germans 
and  Fi'eneh  are  numerous.  The  speech,  man- 
ners and  customs  are  Spanish.  The  color 
line  is  drawn  in  the  names  of  the  political 
parties  which  are  designated  as  Blancos  and 
Colorados  (whites  and  colored),  but  in  po- 
litical practice  these  names  have  lost  much 
of  their  former  significance.  The  chief  cities 
are  Montevideo  (which  see),  the  capital, 
with  a  population  of  378,466  in  1916;  Pay- 
sandu,  on  the  Uruguay  River;  Mercedes,  San 
Jose,  Agosto  and  Maldonado. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  by  far 
the  largest  number  of  adherents,  and  until 
1916  it  was  the  state  Church.  In  that  year 
the  state  Church  was  abolished,  and  all  reli- 
gious denominations  were  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  before  the  government. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  In  the  north  and 
west  there  are  ranges  of  low  mountains,  or 
hills,  which  attain  an  altitude  of  about  2,000 
feet,  and  along  the  Uruguay  River  are  table- 
lands, somewhat  higher  than  those  in  Ar- 
gentina ;  but  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
countiy  is  low  and  marshy,  and  the  interior 
is  composed  of  x*olling  plains.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Uruguay,  which  forms  the  west- 
ern boundary,  and  its  largest  tributary,  the 
Negro,  which  flows  aci-oss  tlie  country  in  a 
southwesterly    dii-ection,     dividing    it     into 


URUGUAY 


3724 


URUGUAY 


two  nearly  equal  parts.  Lake  Merim,  situ- 
ated on  the  northeastern  border,  is  partly  in 
Uruguay  and  partly  in  Brazil.  The  plains 
in  the  interior  and  the  hills  in  the  north 
and  northwest  are  covered  with  dense  for- 
ests, and  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
countiy  is  overgrown  with  grass. 

Resources  and  Industries.  The  chief  min- 
erals are  iron,  zinc,  lead,  antimony,  sulphur 
and  coal,  and  some  gold  has  been  found. 
There  are  also  quarries  of  marble  and  other 
building  stone,  but  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  country  have  not  been  extensively  ex- 
ploited. The  rich  soil  and  salubrious  climate, 
accompanied  by  an  abundance  of  moisture, 
make  the  country  favorable  for  agricul- 
ture, yet  only  small  areas  are  under  tillage. 
The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  corn,  barley, 
millet,  oats,  rye  and  flaxseed.  Stockraising 
is  the  most  important  industry  of  the  coim- 
try,  and  large  numbers  of  horses,  mules, 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared. 

In  1917  there  were  over  8,000,000  cattle 
and  26,384,000  sheep.  Wool  is  the  chief 
export. 

Transportation  and  Trade.  Many  of  the 
rivers  are  navigable,  and  are  used  for  inland 
transportation.  There  are  over  1,600  miles 
of  railway  connecting  the  chief  centers  of 
trade  within  the  country  with  those  of 
Argentina,  besides  170  miles  of  tramways. 
In  proportion  to  its  size,  Uruguay  has  more 
miles  of  good  roads  than  most  other  South 
American  countries.  All  the  important 
towns  have  telegraph  and  telephone  service. 

The  imports  consist  of  foodstuffs,  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  clothing,  machinery  and 
other  manufactured  products.  The  exports 
include  meats,  hides,  tallow,  cattle,  wool  and 
a  few  other  agricultural  products. 

Education.  The  University  of  Uruguay,  at 
Montevideo,  is  the  leading  educational  insti- 
tution. It  has  departments  of  law,  medicine, 
mathematics,  agi'iculture,  commerce,  social 
service  and  veterinary  science.  There  are  also 
a  preparatory  school  and  other  institutions 
for  secondary  education  and  normal  schools 
for  both  sexes.  Its  library  and  museum  are 
of  considerable  value.  The  public  schools 
are  poor.  There  is  a  compulsory  education 
law,  but  it  is  not  enforced,  and  the  proportion 
of  illiteracy  is  very  large. 

Government  and  History.  Uruguay  has  a 
republican  form  of  government,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  a  President.  This  official  was 
originally  elected  by  the  national^  legislative 


body,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  In  1919  a  new  constitution  went 
into  effect,  providing  for  the  poj^ular  elec- 
tion of  the  President  and  the  Council  of 
Administration  of  nine  members,  which 
appoints  the  following  members  of  the  Presi- 
dent's Cabinet :  the  Ministers  of  Industries 
and  Labor,  Public  Instruction,  Finance  and 
Public  Works.  The  President  appoints  the 
Ministers  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Interior,  Army 
and  Marine.  The  Council  prepares  the  bud- 
get, collects  the  taxes,  may  initiate  new  laws, 
arranges  loans  and  provides  for  the  increase 
or  reduction  of  the  national  currency. 

Uruguay  was  a  source  of  dispute  between 
Spain  and  Portugal  in  early  times,  but 
finally  became  a  Spanish  possession,  forming 
a  part  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Buenos  Aires. 
Later  Brazil  attempted  to  enforce  the  Portu- 
guese claim,  and  for  a  short  time  occupied 
the  country,  but  in  1828  Uruguay  became 
independent.  In  October,  1917,  the  country 
severed  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany. 

Uruguay  River,  a  river  of  South  America, 
which  rises  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Brazil, 
flows  westward,  then  southward,  and  enters 
the  estuary  of  the  Eio  de  la  Plata.  It  forms 
a  part  of  the  boundary  between  Brazil  and 
Argentina  and  the  entire  boundary  between 
Argentina  and  Uruguay.  Its  length  is  about 
950  miles,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course 
it  is  from  six  to  nine  miles  wide.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels  as  far  as  Paysandu, 
about  150  miles,  and  for  smaller  vessels  for 
300  miles  farther. 

USURY,  u'  zliu  ry,  originally,  money 
paid  for  the  use  of  money,  or  interest;  ac- 
cording to  present  usage,  interest  in  excess 
of  the  legal  rate.  In  most  states  a  maximum 
rate  of  interest  is  fixed  by  law,  and  penalties 
of  greater  or  less  severity,  imposed  for  charg- 
ing a  higher  rate.  The  table  below  gives  the 
legal  rate  of  interest  in  each  of  the  states, 
and  also  the  rate  permitted  if  both  parties 
agree.    See  Interest. 


STATES 

Legal 
Rate 

Con- 
tract 

Rate 

STATES 

Legal 
Rate 

Con- 
tract 
Rate 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 

Cent 

Alabama    .  .  . 

8 

8 

Florida     .  .  . 

8 

10 

Alaska    

8 

12 

Georgia    . . . . 

7 

8 

Arizona    .... 

6 

10 

Idaho    

7 

12 

Arkansas     . . 

6 

10 

Illinois     .  .  .  . 

5 

7 

California    .  . 

7 

<t 

Indiana    . .  .  . 

6 

8 

Colorado    .  .  . 

8 

Iowa 

6 

8 

Connevcticut 

6 

6 

Kansas     .  .  .  . 

6 

10 

Delaware     .  . 

6 

6 

Kentucky    .  . 

6 

6 

D.    of  Col.    .  . 

6 

10 

Louisiana    .  . 

5 

8 

USURY 


3725 


UTAH 


STATES 

Legal 
Riite 

Con- 
tract 
Rate 

STATES 

Legal 
Rate 

L  on- 

tract 
Rate 

Per 

Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
C^nt 

Maine    

Maryland     .  . 

Mass 

Michigan     .  . 
Minnesota 
Mississippi    . 
Missouri     .  .  . 
Montana    .  .  . 
Nebraska     .  . 
Nevada     .... 
New   Hamp. 
New   Jersey 
New  Mexico 
New  York   .  . 
N.    Carolina 
N.    Dakota     . 

6 
6 
6 
5 
6 
6 
6 
8 

7 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 

* 

6 

• 

7 
10 
10 

8 

• 

10 

* 

6 
6 

12 
G 
6 

12 

Ohio    6         8 

Oklahoma    .  .      6       10 

Oregon     6     |  10 

Penn 6     |    6 

R.    Island    .  .      6    |     * 
S.   Carolina   .      7     |    8 
S.   Dakota    .  .      7       12 
Tennessee     .  I*  6        6 

Texas    j    6       10 

Utah     1    8       12 

Vermont    ...|    6         6 
Virginia     ...      6         6 

Wash 6       12 

W.  Virginia        6         6 
Wisconsin     .      6       10 
Wyoming    .  .      8     |  12 

•Any  rate  on  which  both  parties  may  agree. 


TAH,  one  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
states,  originally  settled  by  the  Mormons. 
They  called  the  territory  which  they  had 
organized  Deseret,  a  name  meaning  industry 
as  used  in  the  Book  of  Mormon.  Congress, 
however,  refused  to  permit  the  use  of  this 
name,  and  the  territory  was  organized  under 
the  present  name,  which  is  the  designation 
of  the  Ute,  or  Utah,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  and 
means  highlanders.  Because  of  the  presence 
within  its  borders  of  the  extensive  salt  lake 
so  widely  known,  Utah  is  popularly,  though 
not  officially,  called  the  Salt  Lake  State. 

Location  and  Area.  The  state  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  on  the 
east  by  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  on  the  south 
by  Arizona  and  on  the  west  by  Nevada.  It 
has  straight  bounding  lines  on  all  sides,  and 
is  regularly  oblong  in  shape,  except  in  the 
northeastern  corner,  where  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Wyoming  cuts  off  several  square 
miles. 

Having  an  area  of  84,990  square  miles,  the 
state  is  the  tenth  in  the  Union  in  size;  it  is 
only  308  square  miles  larger  than  Minnesota, 


and  is  almost  exactly  twice  as  large  as  the 
state  of  Virginia. 

People  and  Cities.  Utah  had  a  population 
of  373,351  in  1910,  when  it  ranked  forty-first 
in  the  Union  in  number  of  inhabitants.  The 
average  density  per  square  mile  was  4.5 ;  only 
six  other  states  are  less  densely  settled.  On 
July  1,  1918,  according  to  Federal  estimates, 
the  population  was  453,648.  A  little  less 
than  eighteen  per  cent  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion is  foreign  born,  the  principal  nation- 
alities being  English,  Danish,  Swedish,  Greek, 
German,  Italian,  Scotch  and  Norwegian. 
Tliere  are  about  1,800  Indians  on  reserva- 
tions, and  about  1,200  negroes. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
adherents  of  tlie  Church  of  Latter  Day  Saints 
(Monnon).  Roman  Catholics,  Methodists, 
Presbyterians  and  various  other  sects  are 
found  in  small  numbers. 

About  fifty  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  live 
in  municipalities  having  2,500  population  or 
more.  The  largest  cities  are  Salt  Lake  City, 
the  capital  (121,623,  Federal  estimate  for 
1917),  Ogden  and  Provo  City. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  is 
greatly  diversified,  containing  high  moun- 
tains, broad,  arid  valleys  and  desert  plateaus. 
Near  the  middle  of  the  northern  boundary, 
the  Wasatch  Mountains  enter  the  state  and 
extend  southward  along  the  middle  line, 
finally  degenerating  into  plateaus.  This  is 
the  principal  mountain  range  of  the  state, 
and  its  position  marks  the  highest  land,  from 
which,  as  a  watershed,  the  streams  flow  east- 
ward and  westward,  the  fonner  to  the  Colo- 
rado, the  latter  to  sink  in  the  Great  Basin. 
Eastward  from  the  Wasatch,  along  the  north- 
em  boundary  of  Utah,  stretches  a  broad, 
massive  range,  known  as  the  Uintah. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  with  its  extraordinary 
percentage  of  saline  matter  in  solution,  is 
but  the  remnant  of  a  vast  body  of  fresh 
water,  which  once  covered  Western  Utah. 
The  principal  stream  of  Eastern  Utah  is  the 
Colorado.  This  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  Green  River,  which  rises  in  the  Wind 
River  Mountains  of  Wyoming  and  the  Grand, 
whose  sources  are  in  the  snow  fields  on  Long's 
Peak,  in  Colorado.  The  Green  and  the  Colo- 
rado receive  numerous  branches  from  the 
Uintah  and  Wasatch  ranges,  among  them  the 
Uintah,  the  Price,  the  Fremont,  the  San 
Rafael  and  the  Virgin.  The  scenery  is  varied, 
including  fertile  valleys,  snow-capped  moun- 
tains, the  Great  American  Desert  (an  area  as 


UTAH 


3726 


UTAH 


large  as  Connecticut),  deep  canj-ons,  dashing 
Cascades  and  the  greatest  natural  bridges  in 
the  world,  including  the  Nonnezoshi  Bridge, 
noted  for  its  great  height,  and  the  Eainbow 
Bridge,  named  from  its  beautiful  arch. 

Climate.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
ranges  from  48°,  in  the  north,  to  51°,  in  the 
south.  The  mean  temperature  at  Frisco  is 
51°.  The  average  rainfall  is  16  inches.  If 
the  snow  chances  to  fall  early  in  the  winter, 
it  becomes  eomiDaet,  and  the  melting  is  re- 
tarded. A  fall  of  snow  late  in.  the  season 
lies  loosely  on  the  mountain  sides,  and  the 
water  reaches  the  valleys  before  the  crops  are 
ready  to  receive  its  full  benefit. 

Mineral  Resources.  Xext  to  agriculture, 
mining  is  the  chief  industry  of  Utah.  Silver 
is  found  in  nearly  all  the  mountains,  and 
in  1917  Utah  led  the  states  in  the  production 
of  this  metal.  The  gold  product  is  about 
$3,650,000.  Utah  ranks  third  in  the  produc- 
tion of  copper  and  fourth  in  lead.  Other 
important  metals  are  iron  and  zinc.  There 
are  extensive  coal  fields  in  Emeiy,  Carbon 
and  Summit  counties,  the  largest  sulphur 
deposits  in  the  world  are  in  Millard  and 
Washington  counties,  and  a  superior  quality 
of  on3^  is  found  on  the  west  shore  of  Utah 
Lake.  Salt  is  mined  in  Juab  County,  and  is 
obtained  from  Great  Salt  Lake.  Other  min- 
eral products  are  asj^halt,  building  stone, 
mica,  graphite  and  gypsum.  The  state  also 
has  a  natural  gas  area. 

Agriculture.  The  agricultural  districts  of 
the  state  are  chiefly  in  the  valleys  immediately 
west  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  in  the  G-reat 
Basin.  Elsewhere,  except  in  a  few  favored 
spots,  the  altitude  or  the  insufficient  water 
supply  east  of  the  Wasatch  range,  prevents 
successful  farming.  This  vast  area  is  used 
for  grazing,  and  large  herds  of  sheep  and 
cattle  are  raised.  Many  sheep  are  exported, 
and  the  annual  production  of  wool  exceeds 
15,000,000  pounds. 

Irrigation  in  the  Great  Basin  of  Utah  was 
the  first  important  enterprise  of  the  kind 
by  Anglo-Saxons  in  the  arid  west.  In  1847, 
the  Mormon  pioneere  turned  the  waters  of 
City  Creek  upon  the  parched  soil  of  Salt 
Lake  Valley,  and  now,  out  of  1,250,000  acres 
of  improved  land,  over  1,000,000  acres  are 
in'igated.  The  wheat,  oats,  barley,  hay  and 
rye  are  of  superior  quality,  and  the  jaeld  is 
large.  In  most  localities  the  heights  are  too 
cool  for  successful  corn-growing.  Potatoes, 
beets    and    other   vegetables    are   profitably 


raised.  Utah  is  the  fourth  state  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  beets.  Fruits  are  abundant. 
Among  these  are  apples,  peaches,  plums, 
apricots,  chen-ies  and  grapes;  and  in  the 
south,  oranges,  lemons  and  figs  are  grown. 

Manufactures.  The  leading  manufactur- 
ing industry  is  the  smelting  and  refining 
of  copper  and  lead  ores.  Other  industries, 
in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are  the 
manufac^re  of  beet  sugar,  flour  and  grist 
milling,  construction  and  repair  of  railroad 
cars  and  locomotives,  the  manufacture  of 
butter  and  cheese,  the  canning  of  fruits  and 
vegetables,  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes  and  of  salt.  The  drying  of  fruits  is  an 
important  industry. 

Transportation.  The  state  has  railway 
communication  with  all  the  great  cities,  east 
and  west.  The  principal  roads  are  the  Union 
Pacific,  the  Southern  Pacific,  the  Denver  & 
Rio  Grande,  the  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles  & 
Salt  Lake  and  the  Western  Pacific.  Short 
lines  connect  the  mining  towns  with  the  prin- 
cipal cities.  In  all,  the  state  has  about  2,350 
miles  of  railway  lines.  Utah  has  a  consid- 
erable local  commerce.  The  state  exports, 
however,  a  large  proportion  of  the  products 
of  the  mines  and  ranges. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  representatives.  The 
number  of  senators  can  never  exceed  thirty 
and  the  number  of  representatives  cannot 
exceed  three  times,  or  fall  below  twice,  the 
number  of  senators.  Both  senators  and  rep- 
resentatives are  apportioned  bj^  districts,  one- 
half  of  the  senators  being  elected  every  two 
years,  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  the  rep- 
resentatives being  elected  for  two  years.  The 
executive  department  consists  of  the  gover- 
nor, secretary  of  state,  auditor,  treasurer, 
attornej^-general  and  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  elected  for  four  years.  The 
state  courts  comprise  a  supreme  court,  con- 
sisting of  three  judges,  elected  for  six  years, 
and  such  iru^erior  courts  as  may  be  established 
by  law.  The  judges  of  the  district  courts 
are  elected  for  four  years.  The  state  con- 
stitution provides  for  woman  suffrage. 

Education.  The  present  educational  sys- 
tem dates  from  1890,  when  a  uniform  system 
of  public  schools  was  established,  taking  the 
place,  to  quite  an  extent,  of  schools  that  had 
been  maintained  by  various  church  organ- 
izations. High  schools  are  supported  in  all 
of  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  and  there  is  a 
state  university  at  Salt  Lake  City,  with  which 


UTAH 


3727 


UTAH 


UTAH 


THE  SALT  LAKE  STATE 


ftl,;;,.,%,/t',V,.c...-l(..        .        ...     .. 


In  Monument  Valley 


Population   of  Cities 

•  Over  120,000 

•  30,000  to  35.000 
■  10,000  to  15,000 


State 


Seal 


Sego  Li  ly. 

State  Flower 


the  state  normal  school  is  connected.  The 
state  agricultural  college  is  at  Logan,  with 
experiment  stations  in  the  Saint  George  re- 
gion and  at  Xephi.  The  Mormon  Church 
also  has  an  educational  system  peculiarly  its 
own,  and  well  organized.  At  the  head  of 
this  are  the  Latter  Day  Saint's  University,  in 
Salt  Lake  City,  Brigham  Young  College,  at 
Logan,  and  Brigham  Young  Academy,  at 
Provo.  Schools  are  also  maintained  by  other 
denominations. 

Institutions.  Penal  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions are  under  the  control  of  boards  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  They  include  an  in- 
dustrial school  at  Ogden,  a  hospital  for  the 
insane  at  Provo  City,  a  school  for  the  deaf 
and  blind  at  Ogden,  and  a  state  penitentiary 
at  Salt  Lake  City. 

History.  The  first  white  visitors  to  Utah 
were  the  members  of  Coronado's  expedition 
in  1540,  but  the  territory  was  not  settled 
for  nearly  three  hundred  years.  In  1824 
Great  Salt  Lake  was  discovered  by  James 
Bridger,  and  soon  afterwards  trading  posts 
were  set  up  in  its  vicinity.  The  real  history 
of  Utah  begins  with  the  coming  of  the  Mor- 
mons in  1847.  In  the  following  year  the 
United  States  gained  possession,  under  the 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  and  in  1849 
a  constitution  for  the  "State  of  Deseret"  was 
adopted.     Though  Congress  refused  admis- 


sion to  the  new  state,  it  organized  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Utah,  including  a  much  greater 
area  than  the  state  now  has.  The  attempt 
of  the  Mormons  to  keep  other  settlers  out  of 
the  territory  led  to  an  expedition  of  Federal 
troops  in  June,  1858,  which  took  possession 
of  Salt  Lake  City.  The  practice  of  polygamy 
among  the  Moimons  was  viewed  with  dis- 
favor by  Congress,  and  a  law  making  it  a 
crime  was  passed  in  1862,  but  was  not  se- 
riously enforced  for  many  years.  Finally, 
twenty  years  later,  the  Edmunds  bill,  dis- 
franchising polj'gamists  and  placing  the  ter- 
ritory under  a  commission  of  five  men,  was 
passed.  This  was  made  more  stringent  in 
1887  and  again  in  1890,  but  in  the  latter  year 
the  Moi-mon  Church  declared  that  it  no  longer 
countenanced  polygamy.  Finally,  in  1894, 
a  constitution  was  adopted,  and  the  state  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  two  years  later.  Pro- 
hibition was  voted  for  the  state  in  advance  of 
national  action. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following: 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Logran  Provo  City 

Ogden  Salt  Lake  City 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

Colorado  River  Uinta  Mountains 

Great   Salt   Lake  Utah    Lake 

UNCLASSIFIED 


Dry  Farming 

Irrig-ation 

Mormons 


Polygramv 
Young-.  Brigham 


UTAH 


3728 


UTICA 


i  I  Items  of  Interest  on  Utah 

!■!  The  state  motto  of  Utah  is  the  word 

[|  Beseret,    meaning    industry.      Utah's 

[1  flower  emblem  is  the  sego  lily. 

"I  Statewide  prohibition  was  adopted  in 

:::|  loir. 

J  School  attendance  for  thirty  weeks 
i  annually  is  compulsory  for  children 
ij  from  eight  to  sixteen  years,  who  live  in 
■11  large  cities.  Elsewhere  the  required 
■:|  attendance  is  for  twenty  weeks.  There 
ill  are  about  650  public  elementary  schools 
i;i  and  nearly  fifty  public  high  schools. 
:'|  The  constitution  pro^ddes  for  the  in- 
"I  itiation  of  any  desired  legislation  by 
iij  the  legal  voters  or  such  number  of 
i;!  them  as  may  be  determined  by  law. 
■if  Among  the  points  of  scenic  interest 
ill  is  a  pulpit-shaped  rock  in  Echo  Can- 
Ill  yon.  It  is  said  that  Brigham  Young 
'i  preached  in  this  pulpit  his  first  sermon 
;;|  to  the  Mormon  colonists. 
Ill  In  1915  there  was  an  uprising  of  the 
III  Indians  on  the  Piute  Reservation.  To 
ij  settle  the  difficulty  General  Hugh  Scott 
llll  was  sent  out  by  the  government. 
i|  Four  barrels  of  the  water  of  Great 
nil  Salt  Lake  will  produce,  after  evapora- 
I'i  tion,  nearly  a  barrel  of  salt. 

iil  Questions  on  Utah 

ill  What  is  peculiar  about  the  bound- 

i;;!  aries  of  Utah  ? 

I;ii  Describe    briefly    the    surface    and 

liij  drainage. 

II  "What  artificial  aids  are  necessary  to 
ill  agriculture  in  Utah? 

li  What  are  the  principal  cro]ps  ? 

Illl  How  does  Utah  rank  as  a  producer 

llll  of  beet  sugar? 

;';|  How   does  Utah  rank  in  the  pro- 

[;||  duction   of   silver?     Copper?    '  Lead? 

v\  Xame    two    other    important    mineral 

Ilij  products. 

Illl  What  are  the  principal  commodities 

lit  shipped  to  points  outside  the  state? 

ill  What  are  the  principal  manufactur- 

llll  ing  industries? 

III  What  sensation  do  swimmers  in  Great 
|;i|  Salt  Lake  experience? 

Ill  In  what  year  did  the  Mormons  emi- 

i|i|  grate  to  Utah  ? 

iil  What  can  be  said  of  the  great  natural 

■  ■  bridges  in  the  state  ^ 


UTAH,  Uni\'eksity  of,  a  state  university 
established  at  Salt  Lake  City  in  1850,  as 
the  University  of  the  State  of  Deseret.  Soon 
after  its  establishment,  the  school  was  closed 
until  1867,  owing  to  lack  of  funds.  The 
j)resent  charter  was  secured  in  1891,  when  a 
grant  of  sixty  acres  of  land  and  a  state  ap- 
jiropriation  of  $300,000  for  buildings  were 
made.  At  that  time  the  present  name  was 
adopted.  The  university  maintains  a  school 
of  arts  and  science,  a  state  school  of  mines, 
schools  of  education,  medicine,  law  and  com- 
merce and  finance,  and  the  state  normal 
school.  The  faculty  has  a  membership  of 
over  100,  and  the  student  enrollment  is  about 
1,200.  There  is  a  library  of  over  50,000 
volumes.  The  legislature  has  made  liberal 
grants  for  improvements,  and  has  provided 
a   state  tax  to  insure  a  regular  income. 

UTAH  LAKE,  a  fresh-water  lake  in  the 
north-central  part'  of  Utah,  about  twenty- 
four  miles  in  lengfh  and  eight  miles  in  width. 
It  is  situated  in  a  valley  bordered  by  moun- 
tains, and  it  discharges  into  Great  Salt  Lake 
through  the  Jordan  River. 

UTE,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Shoshonean 
family,  foiTaerly  scattered  throughout  New 
Mexico,  Utah,  Colorado  and  Nevada,  where 
they  can'ied  on  a  relentless  warfare  with  the 
Xavajos.  They  were  a  restless  tribe,  living 
by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  rareh^  engaging 
in  agiiculture.  They  are  at  present  confined 
to  an  Indian  reservation  in  Colorado,  and 
number  al)out  2,000. 

U'TICA,  an  ancient  Phoenician  city  of 
jSForth  Africa,  located  on  the  Gulf  of  Tunis. 
Though  subject  to  Carthage,  it  for  a  long 
time  resisted  that  authority  successfully,  and 
was  never  contented  under  Carthaginian  rule. 
In  the  third  Punic  War  Utiea  submitted  to 
Rome,  and  after  the  fall  of  Carthage  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Africa. 
It  was  at  Utica  that  Cato  killed  himself, 
after  Caesar's  victory  at  Thapsus.  The 
Arabs  destroyed  the  city  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. It  was  excavated  by  the  French  en- 
gineer, Daux,  in  1869. 

UTICA,  K  y.,  the  county  seat  of  Oneida 
Countj^,  ninety-five  miles  northwest  of  Al- 
bany, on  the  Mohawk  River,  and  the  Erie 
Canal  and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the 
West  Shore,  the  Delaware  &  Lackawanna 
and  the  New  York,  Ontario  &  Western  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  gateway  to  the  Adirondack 
region  and  a  center  for  tourists.  It  has  an 
elevation  of  about  500  feet  above  the  sea,  and 


UTILITARIANISM 


3729 


UTRECHT 


is  laid  o\;t  with  wide  streets.  The  city  is 
famed  for  its  magnificent  old  elms.  Fine 
state  roadways  radiate  in  all  directions. 

There  is  a  large  public  library,  besides  that 
of  the  Oneida  Historical  Society,  and  law, 
medical,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  Hebrew  libraries. 
The  Utica  Catholic  Academy,  Assumption 
Academy,  the  New  School  and  a  number  of 
other  private  schools  are  located  here.  An 
unusual  number  of  charitable  institutions 
have  caused  the  place  to  be  called  the  "City 
of  Charities."  They  include  the  Saint  Luke's 
Homeopathic,  the  Faxton  and  the  general 
hospitals;  a  state  hospital  for  the  insane; 
Saint  Elizabeth's  Hospital  and  Home;  the 
state  Masonic  Home  and  various  homes  for 
orphans,  aged  and  homeless.  The  school 
buildings  of  the  city  are  among  the  best  in 
the  state,  and  the  educational  standard  is 
high.  Other  prominent  structui-es  are  a 
county  courthouse,  a  state  armory  and  a 
Federal  building. 

Utica  has  good  transportation  facilities, 
and  is  an  important  commercial  and  indus- 
trial center.  It  ships  large  quantities  of 
cheese  and  other  dairy  products,  roses,  fruit, 
live  stock  and  manufactured  goods.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  men's  clothing, 
hosiery  and  knit  goods,  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  furnaces,  machine  shop  and  lumber 
products,  farm  implements,  paints,  fire  ex- 
tinguishers, automobile  parts,  cutlery  and 
iron  pipe. 

During  the  French  and  Indian  War  a  fort 
was  erected  on  this  site  to  control  the  fording 
place  on  the  Mohawk.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  Philip  Schuj'ler.  A  settlement 
grew  up  and  was  known  as  Old  Fort  Schuyler 
until  its  incorporation  as  the  village  of  Utica 
in  1798.  The  city  was  chartered  in  1832. 
Population,  1910,^74,419;  in  1917,  89,272 
(Federal  estimate). 

UTILITA'RIANISM,  a  term  given  to  that 
system  of  ethics  and  philosophy  whose  funda- 
mental principle  is  that  the  standard  of  right 
and  wrong  is  the  happiness  of  mankind ;  that 
is,  that  an  act  is  good  only  to  the  extent  that 
it  proves  itself  serviceable  in  promoting  the 
welfare  or  happiness  of  society.  This  theory 
is  of  modem  origin,  having  been  first  definite- 
ly stated  by  John  Stuart  Mill  and  accepted 
by  such  later  philosophers  as  Spencer  and  Sir 
Leslie  Stephen.  However,  it  is  the  natural 
outgrowth  of  the  philosophy  of  such  men  as 
Hume,  Locke,  Bentham  and  Hobbes.  See 
Philosophy. 

234 


UTO'  PIA,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  no 
place,  is  an  ideal  country  where  all  things 
are  perfect.  The  term  is  taken  from  the  title 
of  a  political  romance  written  by  Sir  Thomas 
More,  in  1516,  describing  the  state  of  society 
on  an  imaginary  island  where  all  the  property 
belonged  to  the  commonwealth,  to  which  ever}' 
one  contributed  by  his  labor  and  from  which 
he  received  his  supplies.  Its  mild  penal  code 
was  in  striking  contrast  to  that  which  pre- 
vailed at  that  period  in  England.  The  people 
had  learned  to  tolerate  diversity  of  opinion 
in  religious  matters.  Promotion  was  accord- 
ing to  merit,  and  the  citizens  rose  through  all 
the  gradations  of  their  existence,  from  form 
to  form,  as  in  a  great  public  school.  Utopia 
was  published  in  Latin  in  1516,  and  was  later 
translated  into  English  by  Bishop  Burnet. 
It  attained  a  wide  popularity,  its  name  fur- 
nishing the  familiar  epithet  Utopian,  which 
is  commonly  applied  to  idealistic  projects  of 
reform  in  religion,  government  or  society. 

UTRECHT,  lif  trekt,  Netherlands,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  situated  on 
the  Rhine,  where  it  branches  into  the  Old 
Rhine  and  the  canalized  Vecht.  It  lies 
twenty-three  miles  southeast  of  Amsterdam, 
and  is  the  chief  railway  center  of  the  Nether- 
lands. It  is  strongly  fortified,  according  to 
belief  prior  to  1914,  for  it  was  the  outpost 
of  defense  for  Amsterdam.  The  University 
of  Utrecht,  dating  from  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  is  located  here.  Its  library 
contains  over  250,000  volumes.  The  city 
also  has  a  number  of  learned  societies,  a  mu- 
seum of  paintings  by  the  old  masters  and  an 
archiepiscopal  museum,  which  contains  a  col- 
lection of  sacred  relies.  The  Gothic  Cathe- 
dral of  Saint  Martin,  rising  in  the  center  of 
the  city,  is  the  most  prominent  edifice. 

The  principal  industries  are  the  manufac- 
ture of  carpets,  velvets,  floor  cloths,  cottons, 
linens,  cigars,  chemicals,  musical  instru- 
ments and  machinery.  The  trade  is  impor- 
tant. In  this  city,  in  1579,  the  Union  of 
Utrecht  was  formed,  establishing  the  Dutch 
Republic.  In  1713  the  Peace  of  Utrecht 
was  concluded  here,  terminating  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession.  Population, 
1911,  121,317. 

UTRECHT,  Peace  of,  a  series  of  treaties 
agreed  upon  at  Utrecht,  between  the  years 
1713  and  1715,  by  the  powers  that  had  been 
engaged  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion. This  was  the  most  important  political 
adjustment  between  the  Peace  of  Westpha- 


UTRECHT 


3730 


UZ 


lia    (1G48)    and    the    Congress    of   Vienna 
(1815). 

By  its  provisions,  Austria  and  Holland 
on  the  north,  Prussia  on  the  east  and  Savoy 
on  the  southwest  were  secured  from  French 
aggression.  A  treaty  between  France  and 
England  recognized  the  Hanoverian  line  of 
kings,  engaged  never  to  unite  the  crowns  of 
France  and  Spain,  and  ceded  to  England 
Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland  and  Hudson  Bay 
and  Strait.  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  were 
ceded  to  England  by  Spain,  which  also  trans- 
ferred Naples,  Milan,  Sardinia  and  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  to  France.  The  Dutch  were 
allowed  to  garrison  eight  frontier  towns  in 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  as  protection 
against  France,  and  were  given  important 


trade  privileges.  France  surrendered  Lor- 
raine and  certain  cities  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  retaining  Alsace,  with  Strass- 
burg.  The  Prussian  king  received  confirma- 
tion of  royal  title  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
was  raised  to  kingly  dignity.  England  re- 
ceived trade  concessions  which  laid  the  basis 
of  a  lucrative  slave  trade  with  Spanish 
America. 

It  is  from  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  that  Eng- 
land dates  its  commercial  and  colonial  ex- 
pansion. See  Succession  Wars,  subhead 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

UZ,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  scene  of  the 
story  of  Job,  a  region  probably  lying  east  or 
southeast  of  Palestine. 


V,  the  twenty-second  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish aljihabet,  was  used  interchangeably 
with  u  in  Latin,  and  in  English  until  the 
seventeenth  centuiy.  The  sound  of  v  is  al- 
ways the  same,  and  the  letter  which  is  most 
closely  allied  to  it  is  /,  with  which  it  is  often 
interchanged  in  related  languages.  In  Eng- 
lish this  close  connection  of  the  two  letters 
is  shown  by  the  plural  of  such  words  as  wi/e, 
wires;  hal/,  halres. 

As  a  Roman  numeral,  V  means  five;  with 
a  line  above  it,  it  stand  for  5,000. 

VACATION  SCHOOLS.  The  long  sum- 
mer vacation  for  public  school  pupils,  espe- 
cially in  the  congested  sections  of  cities  where 
there  are  no  playgrounds,  has  been  found  to 
be  anything  but  beneficial  to  the  children. 
Many  of  the  lai'ge  cities  now  maintain  schools 
in  such  centers  for  a  portion  of  the  vacation, 
and  these  are  known  as  vacation  schools. 
Some  of  the  branches  taught  are  the  same 
as  those  in  the  regular  course  of  study,  but 
usuall,y  more  time  is  given  to  industrial  train- 
ing and  to  recreation.  The  girls  are  taught 
sewing  and  cooking;  the  boys,  woodwork 
or  some  other  occupation.  Some  schools  of- 
fer work  of  the  regular  term  for  pupils  who 
failed  of  promotion.  In  schools  having  a 
large  number  of  pupils  of  foreign  parentage, 
special  emphasis  is  placed  upon  English. 
Vacation  schools  are  popular,  and  usually  the 
number  of  applicants  for  admission  far  ex- 
ceeds the  capacit}^  of  the  buildings. 

VACCINATION,  vak  se  na'simn,  inocula- 
tion with  the  cowpox — a  disease  akin  to,  but 
much  less  severe  than,  smallpox — in  order  to 
prevent  a  person  from  catching  the  latter,  or 
to  make  the  attack  much  less  severe.  The 
principle  upon  which  vaccination  is  based 
is  that  if  one  acquires  the  disease  in  a  mild 
form,  antitoxins  for  the  cure  of  the  disease 
will  be  manufactured  in  the  blood  and  render 
that    person   immune   from    the   attacks    of 


smallpox  for  several  years.  The  practice  of 
vaccination  was  introduced  bj''  Edward  Jen- 
ner,  an  English  physician,  and  it  soon  came 
into  common  use. 

The  usual  method  in  vaccination  is  to  make, 
upon  the  upper  part  of  the  arm,  a  few 
scratches  across  one  another,  with  a  clean 
lancet  point.  The  virus  from  cowpox  erup- 
tions is  then  rubbed  on  the  skin  where  the 
scratches  have  been  made.  If  the  vaccination 
proves  successful,  a  small  inflamed  sore  ap- 
pears about  the  third  day  and  increases  in 
size  until  the  tenth  day.  On  the  eighth  day 
the  constitutional  effects  manifest  themselves 
by  a  slight  pain  in  the  part,  headache,  shiver- 
ing and  loss  of  appetite.  These  subside  in 
one  or  two  days.  Afterward  the  fluid  in  the 
pustule  dries  up,  and  a  scab  foims,  which 
disappears  about  tlie  twentieth  day,  leaving  a 
scar  in  the  skin.  Few  things  have  been  more 
definitely  proved  in  medicine  than  that  vac- 
cination is  a  preventive  of  smallpox.  To  se- 
cure perfect  immunity,  repeated  vaccinations 
at  intervals  of  several  years  are  necessary 
in  most  eases. 

There  is  no  danger  in  vaccination  if  pure 
virus  is  used  and  if  the  wound  is  kept  free 
from  infection.  The  wise  plan  is  to  have  the 
vaccination  made  by  a  good  physician,  who 
will  treat  the  wound  properly  and  prevent 
anv  injurious  results. 

VACCINE  THERAPY,  vah'seen  the/a  iii, 
a  method  of  medical  treatment  for  combating 
diseases  caused  by  bacteria.  The  treatment 
is  based  upon  the  principle  that  injection 
into  the  system  of  killed  bacteria  that  produce 
the  disease  will  develop  in  the  blood  another 
sort  of  bacteria  that  will  destroy  the  disease- 
producing  bacteria.  The  vaccines  are  usu- 
ally prepared  by  placing  some  fluid  of  the 
body  containing  the  disease-producing  bac- 
teria in  some  substance  in  which  the  bacteria 
will  grow  rapidly,  then  purifying  this  "cul- 


3731 


VACUUM 


3732 


VALENTINIAN  I 


ture"  and  treating  it  with  k  preservative.  The 
vaccine  is  injected  hypodermieally,  and  works 
in  a  few  hours.  This  method  of  treatment 
is  successful  in  such  diseases  as  carbuncle,  ul- 
cers, typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis  and  asthma. 
See  Serum  Therapy. 

VACUUM,  a  teiTQ  usually  applied  to  a 
space  from  which  air  or  other  gases  have 
been  exhausted.  An  absolute  vacuum  is  im- 
possible, since  however  completely  the  gases 
may  be  exhausted,  the  space  will  still  be  filled 
with  ether  (see  Ether).  However,  in  the 
ordinary  use  of  the  term,  a  vacuum  is  said  to 
be  produced  when  the  air  is  removed  from 
space  as  completely  as  possible  bj'  means  of 
an  air  pump.  Such  vacuums  are  sufficiently 
perfect  for  common  experiments.  The  most 
perfect  vacuum  formed  in  practice  is  that 
above  the  mercury  in  a  barometer  tube,  pro- 
duced by  filling  the  tube  with  mercury  and 
allowing  it  to  settle  "until  the  column  sus- 
tained is  equal  to  the  weight  of  an  equal  col- 
umn of  atmosphere  (see  BAROiiETER).  Other 
practical  applications  of  the  vacuum  are 
found  in  the  vacuum  brake  and  the  vacuum 
pan.    See  Air  Brake  ;  Vacuum  'Pxs. 

VACUUM  CLEANER,  a  device  for  re- 
moving dust  from  floors,  walls  and  hangings 
by  means  of  rolling  brushes  and  air  suction. 
Small  cleaners  propelled  by  hand  or  capable 
of  being  attached  for  power  to  electric  sock- 
ets are  in  use  in  individual  households.  For 
larger  buildings  an  air  pump  mounted  on  a 
truck  and  run  by  a  gasoline  engine  may 
go  from  door  to  jJoor,  carr^'ing  the  dust  to 
a  box  in  the  truck  by  means  of  a  large  hose. 
Office  buildings  are  commonly  equipped  with 
stationary  engines,  run  by  gasoline  or  elec- 
tricity and  operating  a  pump  connected  with 
a  sj'stem  of  joipes  leading  to  the  different 
floors. 

The  use  of  the  vacuum  cleaner  is  a  distinct 
advance  in  the  matter  of  sanitation,  as  the 
former  method  of  sweeping  with  brooms 
scattered  the  dust  and  was  a  means  of  spread- 
ing contagion. 

VALDAI,  vaJ  di',  HILLS,  a  group  of  bills 
in  West  Central  Russia,  forming  the  chief 
watershed  of  that  part  of  Europe.  They 
consist  of  hills  and  plateaus,  with  an  average 
altitude  of  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet.  Formerly 
covered  with  forests,  they  are  now  cleared 
and  cultivated.  They  contain  the  sources  of 
the  Volga,  the  Dnieper  and  the  Duna. 

VALENCIA,  vallen'slieah,  Spaix,  the 
third  city  in  population  in  the  country,  situ- 


ated on  the  Guadalaviar  River,  three  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean.  Its  history  dates 
to  138  B.  c.  It  was  desti'oyed  by  Pompey  of 
Rome,  and  was  captured  by  the  Visigoths  in 
413  and  by  the  Mooi-s  in  714.  From  1021  to 
1238  it  was  the  capital  of  an  independent 
Moorish  kingdom.  In  its  modem  aspect  it 
is  a  picturesque  mixture  of  Moorish  archi- 
tecture and  modern  streets  and  plazas.  The 
University  of  Valencia,  founded  in  1411,  is 
one  of  the  foremost  in  Spain.  The  harbor  is 
secure  and  well  equipped  to  accommodate 
commerce  and  the  city  is  an  important  rail- 
way center.  The  leading  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  silk,  and  the  place  is  also 
noted  for  the  making  of  colored  tiles,  Fruit 
raising  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

VA'LENS  (328-378),  Roman  emperor  of 
the  East,  associated  in  power  with  his  brother 
Valentinian  I.  The  chief  event  of  Valens' 
reign  was  a  war  with  the  Goths,  who,  driven 
southward  by  the  Huns,  had  received  per- 
mission to  settle  on  Roman  territorJ^  Irri- 
tated, however,  by  the  treatment  they  received 
at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  officials,  they  soon 
took  up  arms  and  destroyed  Valens  and  the 
greater  part  of  his  anny. 

VALENTINE,  Saint,  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  said  to  have  been  martyred 
in  A.  D.  306.  The  custom  of  choosing  valen- 
tines on  his  day  (February  14)  has  been  ac- 
cidentally associated  with  his  name.  On  the 
eve  of  Saint  Valentine's  day,  young  people  of 
both  sexes  used  to  meet,  and  each  of  the  men 
drew  from  a  number  of  names  of  the  opposite 
sex.  Each  gentleman  thus  got  a  lady  for  his 
valentine,  and  he  became  the  valentine  of  a 
lady,  to  whom  he  was  bound  to  be  faithful 
for  a  year.  A  similar  custom  prevailed  in 
the  Roman  Lupercalia,  to  which  the  modern 
custom  has,  with  probability,  been  traced. 
The  day  is  now  celebrated  by  sending  through 
the  post,  sentimental  or  ludicrous  missives, 
speciallv  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

VALENTINIAN  I  (321-375),  on  the 
death  of  Jovian,  in  364,  chosen  emperor  of 
Rome  by  the  army,  therefore  one  of  the 
"barracks  emperors."  He  shared  the  em- 
pire with  his  brother  Valens,  who  ruled  in 
the  East.  Although  chiefly  occupied  through- 
out his  reign  in  repelling  invasions  of 
the  barbarians,  he  proved  himself  a  firm 
and  just  mler,  instituting  many  political 
and  social  reforms.  His  sons,  Gratianus  and 
Valentinian  II,  succeeded  him. 


VALENTINIAN  III 


3733 


VALLEY 


VALENTINIAN  III,  Roman  emperor 
from  425  to  455.  He  was  made  emperor  by 
Theodosius  II,  his  grandfather,  but  never 
really  exercised  the  imperial  power,  leaving 
it  in  the  hands  of  his  mother,  Placidia,  until 
her  death  in  450,  and  then  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  eunuch  Heraclius.  Although  the  bar- 
barians who  were  constantly  harassing  the 
empire  were  repeatedly  defeated  by  Aetius, 
general  of  the  army,  Spain,  Africa,  Gaul  and 
other  provinces  were  lost  to  Rome  during 
Valentinian's  reign,  and  the  empire  grew 
steadily  weaker.  Valentinian  was  assassin- 
ated. 

VALE'RIAN,  a  medicinal  plant,  native  to 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  growing  abun- 
dantly by  the  sides  of  rivers  and  in  ditches 
and  moist  weeds.  The  aromatic,  volatile  oil 
obtained  from  its  roots  is  used  as  a  stimulant 
in  the  treatment  of  nervous  and  circulatoiy 
disorders. 

VALHAL'LA,  in  Old  Norse  mythology, 
the  palace  of  immortality,  inhabited  by  the 
souls  of  heroes  slain  in  battle,  and  carried 
hither  by  the  swift  Valkj'ries.  Here  they 
spent  their  time  in  drinking  and  feasting  and 
fighting  furious  battles ;  their  wounds,  though 
often  serious,  were  healed  every  night.  The 
name  Valhalla  is  applied  figuratively  to  any 
edifice  which  is  the  final  resting  place  of  many 
heroes.    See  Valkyries. 

VALKYRIES,  valki/eez,  in  Old  Norse 
mythology-,  the  maiden  attendants  of  Odin, 
who,  at  his  command,  rode  over  battlefields 
and  bore  the  souls  of  the  bravest  of  the  slain 
to  Valhalla,  Odin's  great  hall.  Here  the 
Valkyries  waited  upon  the  heroes,  serving 
them  mead  in  vessels  made  from  skulls.  The 
Valkyries  were  sometimes  regarded  as  the 
personification  of  clouds,  especially  of  storm 
clouds.    See  Valhalla. 

VALLADOLID,  vahl  ya  do  leed',  Mexico. 
See  ]\roi;ELiA,  Mexico. 

VALLEJO,  valya'ho,  Calif.,  a  city  of 
Solano  County,  situated  on  the  northeastern 
shore  of  San  Pablo  Bay,  twenty-three  miles 
northeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific  railroad.  It  has  a  fine,  deep  har- 
bor, which  admits  the  largest  ocean  shijis.  and 
is  an  important  shipping  point  for  grain. 
Its  leading  establishment  is  the  Mare  Island 
Na^'y"  Yard.  There  are  also  flour  mills  and 
tanning  yards.  The  city  is  built  on  the 
slopes  of  a  hill,  and  the  surrounding  country 
is  devoted  to  the  raising  of  fi-uit.  The  public 
institutions  include  an  oi-phans'  home.  Saint 


Vincent's  Academy,  a  sailors'  clubhouse,  a 
Carnegie  Library  and  a  city  hall.  The  city 
was  founded  in  1851  with  the  intention  of 
making  it  the  capital  of  the  state.  The  leg- 
islature met  here  in  1851,  in  1852  and  for  a 
time  in  1853.  The  commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  adopted  in  1911.  Population, 
1910,  11,340;  in  1917,  13,803  (Federal  es- 
timate). 

VAL'  LEY,  low  land  between  mountains, 
hills  or  bluffs.  The  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant valleys  have  been  fonned  by  the  up- 
heaval and  folding  of  the  earth's  crust.  Such 
valleys  are  found  among  mountain  systems, 
and  are  called  intermontane  valleys.  They 
are  long  and  naribw,  and  their  floor  may 
have  an  elevation  several  hundred  or  several 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  sim- 
plest valleys  of  this  sort  are  found  in  the 
Jura  Mountains,  where  the  strata  were  not 
broken  in  folding  and  where  the  slopes  are 
remarkably  uniform  and  even.  Many  of  the 
so-called  basins  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  plat- 
eau are  also  valleys  formed  b}'  the  folding 
of  strata,  but  most  of  these  are  irregular 
and  are  caused  by  transverse  ranges,  show- 


A   VALKYRIE 


ing  that  the  movements  by  which  they  were 
formed  were  very  complex. 

Valleys  running  parallel  to  the  mountain 
ranges  are  known  as  longitudinal  valleys, 
those  running  across  the  ranges  are  trans- 


VALLEYFIELD 


3734 


VALPARAISO 


verse  valleys.  Transverse  valleys  may  be 
due  to  breaks  in  the  folded  strata,  but  most 
of  them  have  been  formed  by  erosion.  They 
are  usually  narrow,  with  very  steep  sides,  and 
the  floor  is  only  wide  enough  for  the  stream 
which  flows  in  it.  When  of  high  altitude 
these  valleys  are  known  as  passes.  Among  the 
most  celebrated  of  these  passes  are  the  Kabul 
Pass  in  the  Himalayas  and  the  Simplon 
Pass.  When  of  low  altitude,  transverse  val- 
leys are  frequently  known  as  water  gaps,  as 
the  Delaware  Water  Gap. 

Valleys  in  volcanic  regions  are  usually  due 
to  volcanic  action  and  are  found  in  the  side 
or  on  the  summit  of  mountains,  around  the 
crater.  They  are  small  and  of  comparatively 
little  importance.  Elver  vallej^s  are  fonned 
by  erosion,  but  their  location  was  first  de- 
termined by  the  formation  of  mountains  and 
valleys  by  folding.  Glacial  valleys  are  those 
which  have  been  formed  or  modified  by  the. 
action  of  glaciers.  They  are  found  in  moun- 
tainous regions,  and  most  of  them  were  un- 
doubtedly river  gorges,  pre\'ious  to  the  gla- 
cial period.  The  lochs  and  firths  of  Scotland 
are  good  illustrations. 

Drowned  valleys  are  those  partially  under 
the  sea,  and  are  formed  by  the  lowering  of 
the  coast.  The  fiords  of  Norway,  Delaware 
Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  are 
good  examples. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the     following 
titles   for  additional  information: 
Canyon  Glaciers 

Fiord  Mountain 

VALLEYFIELD,  Que.,  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  the  Saint  Lawrence  &  Adiron- 
dacks  railways,  is  the  western  terminus  of 
the  Beauharnois  Canal.  The  town  has  large 
cotton  and  flour  mills,  paper,  biscuit,  gasoline 
motor,  glove,  clothing  and  cigar  factories. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 
Considerable  lumbering  and  iron  mining  are 
done  in  the  vicinity.    Population,  1916,  9,449. 

VALLEY  FORGE,  a  village  in  Chester 
County,  Pa.,  famous  as  the  site  of  the  quarters 
of  the  American  colonial  army  under  George 
Washington  in  the  winter  of  1777  and  1778. 
The  army  was  11,000  strong  when  it  went  into 
camp,  December  17,  but  owing  to  mismanage- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  quartermaster-gen- 
eral and  the  commissary  department  the  sup- 
plies were  totally  inadequate,  and  fully  half 
the  men  were  soon  tmfit  for  duty.  The  suf- 
fering of  the  soldiers  during  the  winter  and 
following  spring  was  almost  incredible  and 
tried  the  patriotism  of  even  the  most  loyal 


friends  of  the  colonial  cause.  Washington 
remained  with  his  men  throughout  this  period 
and  with  the  aid  of  Baron  Steuben  finally 


WASHINGTON'S  HEADQUARTERS  AT 
VALLEY   FORGE 

succeeded  in  bringing  the  army  to  a  high  state 
of  efficiency.  Camp  was  broken  June  18, 
1778.  The  site  is  now  partially  included  in 
a  tract  preserved  by  the  state  and  known  as 
Valley  Forge  Park. 

VALOIS,  val  wahf,  a  dynasty  ruling  in 
France  from  1328  to  1589,  having  its  origin 
in  the  circumstances  by  which  Philip  III,  in 
1285,  gave  the  county  of  Valois  to  his  younger 
son,  Charles.  Upon  the  extinction  of  the 
Capet  dynasty,  in  1328,  the  eldest  son  of  this 
Charles  of  Valois  ascended  the  French  throne 
as  Philip  VI.  The  elevation  of  the  House  of 
Valois  to  the  throne  of  France  gave  rise  to  the 
series  of  long  and  bloody  conflicts  with 
England  known  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 

VALPARAISO,  valpari'zo,  Chile,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Valparaiso  and 
the  chief  port  of  the  country,  situated  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  sixty-eight  miles  northwest  of 
Santiago.  It  has  a  commodious  harbor,  pro- 
tected by  a  newly-constructed  breakwater, 
and  is  connected  by  regular  lines  of  steamers 
with  leading  American  and  European  ports. 
It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  a  large  naval 
arsenal. 

Back  of  the  harbor  rise  hills  and  mountains, 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  which  is  the  newer 
residence  portion  of  the  city.  The  lower 
town  contains  the  business  section  and  city 
park.  The  buildings  are  mostly  constructed 
of  stone  and  are  of  a  substantial  character. 
The  educational  institutions  include  a  naval 
school,  a  number  of  colleges  and  a  school 
for  marines.  The  city  maintains  a  hydro- 
graphic  bureau  and  a  museum  of  natural 
history.  The  industrial  establishments  in- 
clude foundries,  machine  shops,  bottling 
works,  distilleries,  sugar  refineries  and  rail- 


VALPARAISO  UNIVERSITY 


3735 


VAN  BUREN 


road  shops.  The  pi-incipal  exports  are  grain, 
wool,  leather,  guano,  saltpetre  and  copper; 
the  imports  are  textile  and  other  manufac- 
tured and  mineral  products. 

Valparaiso  was  founded  by  Juan  de 
Saavedra  in  1536.  It  has  been  visited  by 
several  disastrous  earthquakes,  the  latest 
being  that  of  August  16  and  17,  1906,  which 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  city,  killed  more 
than  a  thousand  persons  and  rendered  at 
least  75,000  homeless.  Population,  1910, 
179,815. 

VALPARAISO  UNIVERSITY,  an  edu- 
cational institution  at  Valparaiso,  Ind., 
founded  in  1873  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
university  advantages  for  students  of  limited 
means.  There  are  no  entrance  requirements, 
and  tuition  and  boarding  fees  are  below  the 
average.  There  are  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty  departments,  offering  general  and  pro- 
fessional courses.  In  normal  years  about 
6,000  students  are  in  attendance,  and  the 
faculty  numbers  over  200.  The  library  eon- 
tains  about  17,000  volumes.  Valparaiso  Uni- 
versity is  coeducational  and  nonseetarian.  It 
has  law  and  medical  departments  in  Chicago. 

VALUE.    See  Supply  AND  Demand. 

VALVE,  a  device,  as  a  cap,  ball  or  slide, 
for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  flow  of 
liquids,  steam,  gas  or  loose  material  through 
pipes,  tubes  or  chutes.  As  to  the  method 
of  their  operation,  most  valves  may  be  in- 
cluded in  this  general  classification:  (1) 
valves  opened  and  closed  by  hand;  (2)  those 
operated  by  independent  mechanism;  (3) 
those  operated  by  mechanisms  connected  with 
the  machine  whose  operation  they  control ; 
and  (4)  those  opened  and  closed  by  the  mo- 
tion of  the  fluid  whose  flow  they  control. 
Valves  may  rotate,  rise  and  fall  from  their 
seats  or  open  and  close  by  sliding  on  and 
parallel  to  their  seats.  In  the  human  anat- 
omy the  loose  flap  or  fold  of  lining  mem- 
brane which  regulates  the  flow  of  the  blood 
and  other  bodily  fluids  is  called  a  valve.  See 
Pump;  Steam  Engine. 

VAM'PIRE,  in  Slavic  folklore,  a  corpse 
which  leaves  its  grave  during  the  night  and 
sucks  the  blood  of  living  human  beings,  par- 
ticularly of  young  people  and  children.  The 
victims  gradually  lose  strength  and  finally 
die  from  no  apparent  malady,  while  the 
corpse  retains  the  appearance  of  a  living 
being.  The  belief  in  vampires  is  an  ancient 
one,  fostered  by  the  medieval  Greek  church 
as  a  means  of  terrifying  the  people  into 


godly  behavior.  It  still  persists  in  the  locality 
of  the  lower  Danube,  where  heretics,  out- 
casts and  criminals  are  still  supposed  to  be- 
come vampires  at  death. 

Figuratively,  a  vampire  is  a  person  who 
in  any  way  preys  on  another.  Kipling's 
poem.  The  Vampire,  characterizes  the  para- 
sitic woman. 

VAMPIRE  BAT,  a  Central  and  South 
American  bat  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
habit  of  some  of  the  species  of  sucking  the 
blood  of  the  cows,  horses,  and  even  men,  at- 
tacking them  in  their  sleep.  These  bats  are 
of  small  size,  are  tailless,  and  have  a  pair  of 
upper  scissors  elongated  and  sharpened  to 
pierce  the  skin  of  their  victims.  They  have 
gullets  so  small  that  only  a  liquid  diet  is 
possible,  and  the  intestinal  canal  is  modified 
to  accommodate  a  diet  of  blood.  The  de- 
structive qualities  of  these  bats,  however, 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated. 

VANA'DIUM,  a  silvery-white  metallic  ele- 
ment, extracted  by  difficult  processes  from 
a  number  of  minerals.  It  is  of  value  as 
an  alloy  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  es- 
pecially that  used  in  automobile  construction, 
because  it  increases  elasticity  and  tensile 
strength.  Certain  vanadium  salts  yield  com- 
pounds that  produce  intense,  permanently 
black  pigments  that  are  combined  with  ani- 
line in  the  manufacture  of  dyes  and  also  as 
the  basis  of  black  writing  fluids, 

'AN  BUREN,  Martin 
(1782-1862),  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  eighth 
President  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  the  close 
friend  and  the  successor 
of  Andrew  Jackson,  to 
whom  he  owed  his  nomi- 
nation by  the  Democrats. 
Van  Buren  was  totally 
unlike  his  imperious,  out- 
spoken predecessor.  He 
was  slight  of  figure, 
courteous,  mellow-voiced 
and  soft-spoken,  yet  be- 
neath his  placidity  of 
manner  there  lay  individuality,  a  firm  will 
and  strength  of  character.  Tactful  and  con- 
ciliating as  he  was,  Van  Buren  could  fight 
doggedly  for  principle,  and  notwithstanding 
his  strong  sense  of  party  loyalty,  he  could 
break  with  his  party  when  his  conscience  so 
dictated.  His  administration  is  noteworthy 
chiefly  for  the  establishment  of  the  independ- 


VAN  BUREN 


3736 


VAN  BUREN 


ent  treasury  system,  the  result  of  his  own 
tireless  efforts.  At  the  time  he  gained  little 
credit  for  this  achievement,  but  historians  of 
to-day  find  this  the  outstanding  feature  of 
his  career  as  President. 

Early  Life.  Martin  Van  Buren  was  born 
at  Kinderhook,  Columbia  County,  New  York, 
on  December  5,  1782.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
small  farmer.  He  attended  the  local  schools 
until  he  was  fourteen,  after  which  he  became 
office  boy  for  a  neighborhood  lawyer,  rising 
to  the  positions  of  clerk,  copyist  of  pleas  and 
special  pleader  in  the  constables'  courts. 
After  six  years  of  such  training  he  entered  a 
New  York  law  office,  and  in  1803  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  then  entered  into  a 
partnership  with  his  half  brother,  James 
Van  Allen,  in  Kinderhook,  where  he  was 
soon  a  conspicuous  figure  in  local  Democratic 
(then  called  Democratic-Republican)  politics. 
"Within  the  next  few  years  Van  Buren  ad- 
vanced rapidly  in  his  profession,  becoming 
probate  judge  in  Columbia  County,  in  1808, 
and  holding  that  position  until  1813. 

Political  Advancement.  In  1812  Van 
Buren  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  of  New 
York,  and  in  1815,  while  still  a  member  of 
that  body,  was  appointed  attorney-general. 
He  was  reelected  to  the  senate  for  the  term 
1816-1820,  but  lost  his  position  as  attorney- 
general  in  1819  because  of  a  political  dis- 
agreement with  Governor  De  Witt  Clinton. 
Throughout  this  period  he  was  steadily  gain- 
ing in  power  of  leadership,  and  in  1820  was 
successful  in  securing  the  reelection  of  Rufus 
King  to  the  United  States  Senate.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  himself  won  a  seat  in  that 
body. 

Van  Buren  remained  in  the  Senate  until 
1828,  when  he  was  elected  governor  of  New 
York.  In  the  Senate  he  had  favored  strict 
construction  of  the  Constitution  on  all 
questions,  and  as  a  member  of  the  finance 
committee  and  chairman  of  the  judiciary 
committee  he  had  made  a  good  impression 
by  his  sincerity  and  moderation.  His  career 
as  governor  is  of  special  interest  to-day,  in 
that  he  advocated  two  principles  whose  wis- 
dom is  more  appreciated  at  present  than  in 
his  time.  In  the  first  place  he  opposed  free 
banking,  and  advocated  a  s^'stem  whereby  all 
the  state  banks  would  become  "mutual  in- 
surers of  each  otheris  soundness."  This  plan 
is  a  feature  of  the  present  Federal  Reserve 
system.  Secondly,  he  recommended  that 
state   and   national    elections   be   separated. 


While  tliis  principle  has  not  been  extensively 
adopted,  its  soundness  is  generally  accepted. 

In  the  Presidential  election  of  1828,  Van 
Buren  effectively  suj^ported  Andrew  Jack- 
son, whom  he  warmly  admired,  and  in  1829 
the  latter  rewarded  him  with  the  most  im- 
portant place  in  his  fii^t  Cabinet,  that  of 
Secretary  of  State.  Van  Buren  retained 
this  office  long  enough  to  settle  a  disagree- 
ment between  England  and  the  United 
States  with  respect  to  the  trade  of  the  West 
Indies. 

He  resigned  in  1831  and  soon  accepted  the 
post  of  minister  to  England,  but  as  a  bit  of 
part}''  iJolitics  the  Senate  Whigs  succeeded  in 
holding  up  the  nomination  after  the  ap- 
pointee had  sailed.  It  was  known  in  politi- 
cal circles  that  Van  Buren  had  resigned  in 
order  not  to  jeopardize  his  chances  for  the 
Presidential  nomination  in  1836,  to  which  he 
was  looking  forward.  The  Whigs  hoped  to 
discredit  him  by  their  maneuver,  but  the  pre- 
text which  they  used  was  so  feeble  that  their 
act  served  only  to  increase  Van  Buren's 
popularit}''.  In  1832  he  was  elected  Vice- 
President  on  the  ticket  with  Jackson,  and 
was  in  line  for  the  nomination  for  President 
on  the  expiration  of  Jackson's  second  term. 
The  Whigs  were  badly  split,  and  in  the 
electoral  college  in  1836  the  party  vote  was 
divided  among  William  Henry  Harrison, 
Hugh  L.  White  of  Tennessee,  Daniel  Webster 
and  W.  P.  Mangum  of  South  Carolina.  Van 
Buren  had  170  votes  against  seventy-three 
for  his  nearest  rival,  Harrison. 

Administration.  The  new  President  fell 
heir  to  a  legacy  of  financial  chaos,  and  his 
whole  administration  was  clouded  by  that  is- 
sue. Preside  nt 
Jackson,  in  1833, 
had  removed  the 
funds  of  the  gov- 
ernment from  the 
United  States 
Bank,  practically 
putting  an  end  to 
the  institution, 
which  he  regarded 
as  a  symbol  of  the 
"money  power." 
The  funds  had 
been  distributed 
among  certain 
"pet  banks,"  which  used  them  in  unsound 
speculation.  Subsequently,  Jackson  issued  a 
"specie    circular"    requiring    that   gold    and 


MARTIN    VAN    BURE3N 


VAN  BUREN 


3737 


VAN  BUREN 


Administration  of  Martin  Van  Buren,  1837-1841 


I.  The  President 

(1)  Birth 

(2)  Education 

(3)  Early  career 

(4)  Later  life 

(5)  Character 

(6)  Death 

II.  The  Panic  of  1837 

(1)  Causes 

(a)  Over-speculation  in  land 

(b)  Expenditures    for    internal 

improvements 
(e)   Panic  in  England 

(d)  Failure  of  the  wheat  crop 

(e)  Wild-eat  banking 

(2)  Effects 

(a)  High  prices  of  necessaries 

(b)  Bank   and    brokerage   fail- 

ures 

(c)  Business  failures 

(d)  Distress  among  the  poor 

(e)  Suspension  of  specie  pay- 

ments 

(3)  Led    to    independent    treasury 
III.  Domestic  Affairs 

(1)  Slavery  agitation 

(a)   Riots  and  demonstrations 

(1)  Murder  of  Lovejoy 

(2)  Garrison     mobbed     in 

Boston 

(2)  Second  Seminole  War 

(a)  Skirmishes  and  raids 

(b)  Capture    of    Osceola    and 

other  chiefs 

(c)  Zachary  Taylor's  force  de- 

feats    Indians     at     Oke- 
ehobee  swamp 

(3)  Oregon  settlements 

(a)  Mostly    by    Hudson     Bay 

Company 

(b)  Americans  were  missionar- 

ies 

(4)  The  Mormons  in  Missouri 

(a)  Control  of  the  government 

by  the  Mormon  church 

(b)  Troubles  at  Kirtland 

(c)  Driven  out  of  Missouri 

(5)  Riots  and  disorder 

(a)  The  "buckshot"  war 

(b)  The  "broad  seal"  war 


(c)  Anti-rent  or  "patroon"  war 

(d)  Canadian  rebellion 

(1)  Attempts       to      enlist 

American  aid 

(2)  Strict  neutrality  of  the 

United  States 
(3)   The  Caroline  affair 
(6)   Great  inventions  and  discoveries 

(a)  Friction  matches,  1838 

(b)  Magnetic  telegraph 

(e)  First  photograph  taken 
(d)   Vulcanized  rubber 

IV.  Quarrel  with  Mexico 

(1)  Causes 

(a)  Property  of  Americans  in 

danger 

(b)  United  States  vessels  seized 

(c)  United    States   citizens   im- 

prisoned    and     executed 

(2)  Mexico  resented  recognition  of 

Texan  independence 
V.  Election  of  1840 

(1)  Issues 

(2)  Candidates 

Questions  on  Van  Buren 

When  was  Martin  Van  Buren  born  ?  In 
what  state? 

What  profession  did  he  adopt? 

What  public  offices  did  he  hold  before 
1837? 

What  can  you  say  of  his  abilities  and 
character  ? 

What  were  the  principal  causes  of  the 
panic  of  1837?  Give  details  of  each  as 
far  as  you  can.  \ 

What    were    some    of    the    immediate  i 
effects  of  the  i:)anic  ?  j 

What    is    meant    by    the    independent  ; 
treasury  or  subtreasury  system?  \ 

Who  was  Elijah  Lovejoy?    Where  did   \ 
he  live?  '  j 

Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  career  of  \ 
William  Lloyd  Garrison.  | 

What  future  President  took   a  prom-   j 
inent  part  in  the  second  Seminole  War?   j 

Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Mormon   1 
sect?  I 

Name  three  inventions  perfected   dur-   I 
ing  Van  Buren's  administration.  I 


VAN  BUREN 


3739 


VANCOUVER 


silver  be  paid  for  public  lands,  which  drained 
the  banks  of  their  reserves  and  caused  many 
failures.  It  was  a  period  of  credit  inflation, 
reckless  issuance  of  paper  money  and  ex- 
travagant expenditures  for  public  improve- 
ments, and  in  1837,  shortly  after  Van  Buren 
began  his  term,  a  disastrous  panic  over- 
whelmed the  nation. 

The  President  called  Congress  in  special 
session,  and  in  his  first  message,  September  1, 
1837,  outlined  his  policy.  After  explain- 
ing the  causes  of  the  panic,  he  presented  his 
plan  for  an  independent  treasury,  whereby 
the  control  of  national  finances  would  be 
divorced  from  private  banking  and  the  gov- 
ernment would  be  the  custodian  of  its  own 
funds,  as  it  is  to-day.  For  three  years  he 
labored  to  have  this  policy  adopted ;  not  until 
July,  1840,  did  he  succeed  in  persuading  a 
reluctant  Congress  to  pass  the  law  which  he 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  "second  Declaration  of 
Independence."  Except  for  a  short  interval 
under  the  Whig  regime,  the  independent 
treasury  has  remained  a  pennanent  national 
institution. 

Though  the  financial  issue  overshadowed 
all  others,  it  is  not  true  that  Van  Buren's 
term  was  in  other  respects  uneventful.  The 
slavery  issue,  becoming  yearly  more  en- 
tangled with  politics,  was  the  cause  of  such 
disturbances  as  the  murder  of  Elijah  Love- 
joy  at  Alton,  111.,  and  the  mobbing  of  the 
great  abolitionist,  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 
There  were  outbreaks  in  New  York  against 
the  landlords,  or  patroons,  and  in  Missouri 
against  the  Mormons;  in  Florida  a  desperate 
war  with  the  Seminoles  was  waged.  A 
rebellion  in  Canada  and  the  establishment  of 
the  republic  of  Texas  caused  disturbances 
along  the  international  boundaries,  north  and 
south. 

Van  Buren  was  not  responsible  for  these 
conditions,  but  they  reacted  against  him,  and 
with  the  prevalent  hard  times  served  to  make 
his  administration  and  the  Democratic  party 
extremely  unpopular.  He  also  alienated 
many  voters  by  refusing  to  aid  the  Canadian 
rebels,  though  time  has  vindicated  his  atti- 
tude of  strict  neutrality.  Considerable  ma- 
terial progress  is  recorded  of  the  period.  In 
1837  the  magnetic  telegraph  was  invented; 
friction  matches  were  first  used  in  1838;  in 
1839  the  first  photograph  was  taken  in  A- 
merica.  In  1839,  too,  the  process  of  vulcaniz- 
ing rubber  was  invented  by  Charles  Goodyear. 

Van  Buren  was  a  candidate  for  reelection. 


but  his  administration  was  connected  with 
too  much  that  was  disagreeable,  and  he  was 
defeated.  He  secured  but  sixty  electoral 
votes,  to  234  for  the  Whig  candidate,  William 
Henry  HaiTison.  Calmlj'  accepting  his  de- 
feat, he  retired  to  his  country  seat  of  Linden- 
wald  in  his  native  count}'. 

As  Ex-President.  Van  Buren  by  no  means 
disappeared  from  the  public  eye  during  the 
last  two  decades  of  his  life.  In  1844  he  took 
a  firm  stand  against  the  annexation  of  Texas, 
thus  losing  the  Democratic  nomination  for  the 
Presidency,  and  within  the  next  three  years 
he  came  out  definitely  against  the  extension 
of  slavery.  In  1848  the  faction  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  which  ujoheld  the  Wilmot  Proviso 
(which  see)  nominated  him,  against  his 
wishes,  for  the  Presidency,  and  the  nomina- 
tion was  -confirmed  by  a  convention  of 
"Free-Soilers."  The  regular  Democrats 
nominated  Lewis  Cass,  from  whom  Van 
Buren  pulled  enough  votes  to  give  the  elec- 
tion to  Zachary  Ta^ylor.  Van  Buren  re- 
ceived about  300,000  popular  votes,  but  he 
carried  no  state.  He  remained  a  Democrat 
to  the  end  of  his  life,  but  his  sympathy  for 
the  anti-slavery  cause  made  him  a  firm  sup- 
porter of  Lincoln  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War.  He  died  in  the  second  year  of 
the  struggle,  and  was  buried  at  Kinderhook, 
N.  Y. 

Related  Artieles.  Consult  the  following- 
titles  for  additional  information  : 

Garrison,  William  Seminole 

Lloyd  Texas   (history) 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.  Treasury  Department 

Political  Parties   in 
the  United  States 

VANCOUVER,  vankoo'ver,  B.  C,  the 
fourth  largest  city  of  Canada  and  the 
metropolis  of  the  province,  is  situated  on 
Burrard  Inlet,  an  arm  of  the  Strait  of  Geor- 
gia. Vancouver  is  the  western  terminus 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  it 
was  laid  out  by  .that  railway  corpora- 
tion in  1885.  It  is  now  the  terminus  of 
four  other  lines  of  railway — the  Cana- 
dian Northern,  the  Northern  Pacific, 
the  Great  Northern  and  the  Pacific  Great 
Eastern.  It  is  also  the  western  terminus  of 
the  British  Columbia  Electric  Railway,  which 
extends  to  Chilliwack  and  New  Westminster. 
The  city  is  on  one  of  the  best  harbors  in 
the  world,  and  has  regular  steamship  con- 
nection with  China,  Japan  and  other  ports 
of  the  Orient.  It  also  has  a  coastwise  trade 
with  Alaska  and  the  Pacific  ports  of  the 
United  States. 


VANCOUVER 


3740 


VANCOUVER  ISLAND 


The  prominent  buildings  include  the  Bank 
of  Montreal,  the  Canadian  Bank  of  Com- 
merce, the  Merchants'  Bank,  the  custom- 
house, public  library  and  courthouse.  The 
University  of  British  Columbia,  the  leading 


THE   PUBLIC   BUILDING,   VANCOUVER. 

educational  institution  of  the  province,  is 
located  here.  Stanley  and  English  parks, 
the  former  having  an  area  of  600  acres,,  add 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  city. 

Vancouver  is  the  nearest  North  Amer- 
ican port  to  the  Orient,  and  it  has  a  large 
wholesale  trade  exceeding  $50,000,000  a 
year.  It  is  also  an  important  manufac- 
turing center.  The  principal  manufactures 
include  lumber  and  lumber  products,  struc- 
tural steel,  wooden  and  steel  ships,  furniture, 
machinery  and  refined  sugar.  Population, 
1911,  100,401 ;  in  1916,  estimated  140,000. 

VANCOUVER,  George  (1758-1798),  an 
explorer  and  discoverer.  He  accompanied 
Cook  on  several  of  his  voyages,  and  later 
was  in  command  of  an  expedition  to  explore 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  From  there  he 
sailed  by  way  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  to 
North  America,  where  he  surveyed,  in  a 
period  of  two  years,  the  coast  from  35°  to 
56°  North  latitude.  Vancouver  Island  was 
named  after  him.  He  sailed  for  England 
via  Cape  Horn  and  Saint  Helena,  and  died 
shortly  after  his  arrival  at  his  home  in  Surrey. 


VANCOUVER,  Wash.,  the  county  seat 
of  Clarke  County,  five  miles  north  of  Port- 
land, Ore.,  on  the  Columbia  River  and  on 
the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern, 
the  Oregon-Washington  Railway  &  Naviga- 
tion Company,  and  the  Spokane,  Portland  & 
Seattle  railroads.  It  is  the  United  States 
military  headquarters  for  the  department  of 
Columbia.  Vancouver  lies  in  a  section  of 
large  forests  and  farming  lands.  The  leading 
industrial  plants  include  a  saw  mill,  a  flour 
mill,  an  ice  plant,  a  creamery,  a  cannery, 
car-repair  shops,  brickyards,  box  factories 
and  fruit-packing  plants.  The  state  schools 
for  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and  Saint 
Joseph's  Hospital  are  located  here.  Notable 
buildings  are  a  Carnegie  Library,  the  United 
States  National  Bank  Building,  and  a  court- 
house and  postoffice.  A  new  Interstate 
bridge  spans  the  Columbia  River  at  this 
point.  Vancouver  was  first  settled  as  a  post 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1828,  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1858.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  9,300;  in  1917,  13,805  (Eederal 
estimate). 

VANCOUVER  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  off  the  coast  of  British  Co- 
lumbia, of  which  it  is  politically  a  part.  It 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  of  Canada 
by  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  and  Queen  Charlotte 
Sound  and  from  the  United  States  by  the 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  Its  length  is  275 
miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  sixty-five  miles; 
and  its  area,  about  12,000  square  miles.  The 
island  is  generally  mountainous,  being  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Coast  Ranges  formation.  It 
has  a  mild,  moist  climate,  and  in  the  south 
and  east  its  soil  is  fertile  and  well  suited  to 
agriculture  and  fruit  growing.  The  moun- 
tains are  generally  covered  with  heavy  conif- 
erous and  deciduous  forests.  The  interior 
is  well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  large  numbers 
of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  are  raised. 
Fishing  interests  along  the  shores  of  the 
streams  and  lakes  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. Mineral  resources  include  coal,  gold 
and  copper.  The  coal  mines  are  extensively 
worked  and  supply  the  greater  part  of  the 
coal  used  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  chief 
town  is  Victoria,  the  capital  of  British  Co- 
lumbia. The  island  was  visited  by  Van- 
couver, an  officer  of  the  British  navy,  in 
1792,  and  was  named  for  him.  The  United 
States  claimed  it,  but  when  the  Oregon 
boundary  question  was  settled  in  1846,  it 
became  a  possession  of  Great  Britain. 


VANDALS 


3741 


VAN  DYCK 


VAN'DALS,  an  ancient  Teutonic  people, 
inhabiting  the  region  between  the  Vistula 
and  the  Oder,  whence  they  moved  southward 
and  settled  in  Pannonia,  becoming  Cliristians 
of  the  Arian  faith.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  centurj^  they  entered  Gaul  and  crossed 
the  Pyrenees  into  Spain.  One  section  settled 
in  Galicia  and  were  almost  entirely  destroyed 
in  a  struggle  with  the  Goths  and  Suevi;  the 
other  settled  in  a  part  of  Baetica,  which  re- 
ceived from  them  the  name  Andalusia.  In 
429  they  crossed  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
under  their  dreaded  leader,  Genseric,  carry- 
ing devastation  and  ruin  from  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic  to  the  frontiers  of  Cyrene.  In 
455  Genseric  and  his  soldiers  sacked  Rome, 
plundering  and  ruining  temples,  beautiful 
buildings  and  works  of  art.  The  word  vandal 
is  still  applied  to  persons  who  are  wilfully 
destructive. 

VANDERBILT,  Cornelius  (1794-1877), 
American  capitalist  and  financier,  bom  on 
Staten  Island,  X.  Y. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  bought  a  boat  and 
ferried  passengers 
and  goods  across  to 
the  cit}'.  Gradually 
extending  his  enter- 
prise, by  the  age  of 
forty  he  had  become 
the  owner  of  a  fleet 
of  sound  and  river 
steamers  running  to 
Boston  and  up  the 
Hudson.  In  1849  he 
founded  a  steamship 
and  transfer  line  by  way  of  Lake  Xiearagua 
to  California,  and  during  the  Crimean  "War 
he  established  a  line  of  ocean  steamships  to 
Havi-e.  Because  of  the  large  fleet  of  boats 
he  owned  he  was  popularly  known  as  "Com- 
modore." Later  he  transferred  his  capital 
from  steamships  to  railroads,  obtaining  a 
controlling  interest  in  a  large  number  of 
Eastern  roads,  and  extending  his  system  to 
Chicago  by  securing  the  Lake  Shore  &  ]\Iichi- 
gan  Southern,  the  Canada  Southeni  and 
Michigan  Central  roads.  At  his  death  he 
left  a  fortune  of  $100,000,000  to  his  son, 
"William  Henry  Vanderbilt.  His  philan- 
thropies included  a  gift  of  a  million  dollars 
for  the  foundino-  of  Vanderbilt  L'niversitv. 

VANDERBILT,  Cornelius  (1843-1899), 
son  of  William  Heni-y  Vanderbilt,  made  first 
vice-president  of  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 


CORXELIUS 
VAXDERBILT 


road  when  his  father  succeeded  to  its  presi- 
dency, on  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  in  1877.  He  subse- 
quently held  directorships  in  more  than  thirty 
different  railroad  companies.  He  was  a  con- 
tributor to  many  educational  institutions,  in- 
eluding  Vanderbilt  and  Yale  Universities. 
The  prized  treasure  of  the  ^Metropolitan 
^Museum,  Xew  York,  Rosa  Bonheur's  Horse 
Fair,  was  the  gift  of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt. 

VANDERBILT,  William  Hexrt  (1821- 
1885),  son  of  "Commodore"  Vanderbilt  and 
his  successor  in  the  management  of  the  Van- 
derbilt system  of  railroads,  which  he  extended 
till  he  controlled  the  Michigan  Central,  the 
Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern,  the  Can- 
ada Southern,  the  Chicago  &  North  "Western, 
the  Xickel  Plate  and  the  AVest  Shore  railroad. 
He  was  considered  one  of  the  greatest  author- 
ities on  transportation  of  his  day.  He  gave 
large  sums  to  Vanderbilt  University  and  Col- 
umbia Universitv. 

VANDERBILT,  "William  Kissam  (1849- 
),  son  of  "William  Heniy  Vanderbilt,  en- 
trusted by  his  father  with  the  management 
of  numerous  responsible  offices  connected 
with  the  Xew  York  Central  Railroad  and  a  di- 
rector in  fourteen  different  lines.  With  his 
brother,  Frederick  "William  and  George 
Washington  Vanderbilt.  he  founded  the  Van- 
derbilt Clinic  in  Xew  York  City,  and  erect- 
ed Kissam  Hall  at  Vanderbilt  L'niversity,  in 
memorv  of  their  mother. 

VANDERBILT  UNIVERSITY,  a  coedu- 
cational institution,  established  at  Xashville, 
Tenn.,  in  1872,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
!?.[ethodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  who  gave 
$1,000,000  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
the  school.  According  to  its  present  organi- 
zation, however,  the  university  is  not  under 
sectarian  management.  There  are  main- 
tained a  college  of  arts  and  sciences,  and 
schools  of  law,  religion,  medicine,  dentistry, 
phannacy  and  engineering.  Vanderbilt  Uni- 
versity has  been  a  strong  influence  in  the 
South  in  keeping  educational  standards  high. 
It  has  a  student  enrollment  of  over  700  and 
a  faculty  of  about  125.  There  are  62,000 
volumes  in  the  library.  The  university  has 
received  generous  gifts  from  the  Vanderbilt 
familv  and  fi'om  Andrew  Carnesrie. 

VAN  DYCK,  or  VANDYKE,  vandiW, 
AxTHOxr,  Sir  (1599-1641),  next  to  Rubens 
his  teacher,  the  most  famous  portrait  painter 
of  the  Flemish  school.    He  was  born  at  Ant- 


VAN  DYKE 


3742 


VANILLA 


werp,  where  his  father  was  a  merchant  and 
his  mother  a  skilled  worker  in  tapestry.  He 
studied  under  Van  Balen  and  Rubens  and  also 
in  Genoa,  Venice  and  Rome.  Having  ac- 
quired a  great  reputation  in  Antwerp  as  a 
fashionable  portrait  painter,  he  was  invited 
to  England  by  Charles  I,  who  bestowed  upon 
him  knighthood  and  a  considerable  annuity. 
While  in  England  he  painted  more  than  300 
portraits,  his  patrons  including  almost  every 
distinguished  person  of  the  court.  His  por- 
traits are  characterized  by  delicacy  and  re- 
finement. Those  best  known  are  Portrait  of 
Charles  I  and  Children  of  Charles  I  and  the 
Portrait  of  a  Lady  and  Child.  He  also' 
painted  a  number  of  historical  and  mytholog- 
ical subjects,  and  his  Elevation  of  the  Cross 
and  Crucifixion  are  well  known.  He  maiTied 
Mary  Ruthven  of  the  English  nobility,  and 
lies  buried  in  Saint  Paul's,  London. 

VAN  DYKE,  Henry  (1852-  ),  Ameri- 
can poet,  essayist  and  educator.  He  was 
born  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  graduated  at 
Princeton  and  at 
Princeton  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  In 
1878  he  became 
pastor  of  the 
United  Congrega- 
tional Church  of 
Newport,  R.  I.,  and 
five  years  later  was 
called  to  the  Brick 
P  r  e  s  by terian 
Church  of  New 
York.  Here  he  re- 
mained as  pastor  until  1900,  when  he  became 
professor  of  English  literature  in  Princeton 
University.  Van  Dyke  has  written  extensive- 
ly, and  always  attractively,  in  various  fields. 
The  Builders  and  Other  Poems  and  Music 
and  Other  Poems  are  among  his  volumes  of 
poetry.  The  Gospel  for  an  Age  of  Doubt  and 
Sermons  to  Young  Men  are  examples  of  his 
religious  work;  The  Slue  Flower  and  The 
Ruling  Passion  are  some  of  his  charming 
works  of  fiction,  and  Fisherman's  Luelc  and 
Little  Rivers  include  his  best  work  in  the 
field  of  essays.  In  1913  Dr.  Van  Dyke  was 
appointed  minister  to  the  Netherlands  by 
President  Wilson,  a  position  which  he  held 
with  honor  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
World  War.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1917 
before  the  United  States  entered  the  war. 
After  America  became  a  belligerent  he  was 
appointed  supervisory  chaplain  in  the  navj^ 


HENRY   VAN    DYKE 


VAN  HISE',  Charles  Richard  (1857- 
1918),  an  American  geologist  and  educator, 
born  at  Fulton,  Wisconsin,  educated  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin.  Soon  after  gradua- 
tion he  became  connected  with  the  faculty  of 
his  alma  mater,  serving  successively  as  in- 
structor in  chemistry,  assistant  professor  of 
mineralogy,  professor  of  geology  and  presi- 
dent of  the  university,  to  which  position  he 
was  elevated  in  1903.  Under  his  administra- 
tion the  institution  became  one  of  the  most 
progressive  and  useful  schools  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  particularly  effective  in 
making  extension  courses  available  to  all 
classes  of  people  throughout  the  state. 

Professor  Van  Hise  was  made  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in 
1883.  He  won  recognition  as  the  highest 
authority  on  rocks  of  the  Algonkian  and 
Archaean  Systems  and  especially  on  the  ore- 
bearing  rocks  of  the  Lake  Superior  region. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  books  on 
geological  subjects  and  of  The  Conservation 
of  Natural  Resources  in  the  United  States. 

VAN  HORNE,  William  Cornelius,  Sir 
(1843-1915),  railway  official  and  expert,  best 
known  for  his  connection  with  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  which  was  completed  under 
his  energetic  and  efficient  management.  He 
served  that  railway  from  1882  to  1910  as  gen- 
eral manager,  vice-president,  president  and 
chairman  of  the  board  of  directors,  succes- 
sively. Van  Home  was  born  in  the  United 
States  and  sensed  several  mid-western  rail- 
roads in  that  country  before  being  called  to 
Canada. 

VANIL'LA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  orchid  family,  source  of  the  well- 
known  vanilla  of  commerce.  The  plants  are 
common  in  Mexico, 
and  are  also  found  in 
Central  and  South 
America  and  the  East 
Indies.  The  vanilla 
plant  climbs  by  means 
of  aerial  roots  and  has 
large  white,  red  or 
greenish  flowers.     The 

fruit  is  a  long,  brown,        ^/mr9imf/r\      wmi 
shiny  bean,  filled  with    ••■'w-'^^fL^^^a      ^W^. 

a  dark,  oily,  odorous 

pulp.     This    bean    is 

gathered  before  it  is  VANILLA 

fully  ripe,  and  the  oil  is  extracted  by  a  slow 

process  which  brings  out  its  peculi-ar  odor 

and  flavor.     Vanilla  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 


VAN  RENSSELAER 


3743 


VARNISH 


stimulant,  but  its  chief  use  is  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  liquors  and  perfumery  and  in  flavor- 
ing candy  and  other  confections.  The  vanilla 
plant  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  produces 
a  crop  every  three  years  and  continues  bear- 
ing for  thirty  or  forty  years.  Vanilla  is 
produced  artificially  by  several  methods ;  and 
as  the  beans  are  very  expensive,  the  artifi- 
cial product  is  very  common. 

VAN  RENSSELAER,  vaJmren' selahr, 
Stephen  (1764-1839),  an  American  politi- 
cian, the  eighth  "pati'oon"  of  the  vast  estate 
near  Albany,  now  forming  three  entire 
counties,  which  was  first  acquired  by  Killian 
Van  Rensselaer  (1595-1644).  He  was  born 
in  New  York  and  educated  at  Harvard.  In 
1783  he  married  a  daughter  of  General  Philip 
Schuyler.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Federalists 
in  his  state  and  served  in  the  state  senate  and 
assembly,  and  in  Congress  from  1823  to 
1829.  He  was  a  moving  spirit  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals 
and  was  president  of  their  boards  from  1811 
till  their  completion,  in  1825.  In  1824  he 
founded  at  Troy  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute. 

VATOR,  in  physics,  the  gaseous  state  into 
which  solids  and  liquids  pass  when  heated. 
In  their  structure  and  physical  properties, 
there  is  practically  no  difference  between 
vapors  and  gases  (see  Gas),  but  in  ordinary 
usage  the  term  vapor  is  applied  to  those 
gases  that  are  formed  by  the  action  of  heat 
on  liquids  and  solids,  while  the  term  gas  is 
applied  to  those  substances  which  remain  in 
gaseous  form  under  ordinary  conditions  of 
temperature  and  pressure.  We  speak  of 
steam  as  a  vapor  and  of  oxygen  as  a  gas. 
Water  vapor  formed  by  the  action  of  the  heat 
of  the  sun  on  the  surface  of  the  land  is  always 
present  in  the  atmosphere  and  has  an  im- 
portant effect  on  climate.    See  Rain. 

VARICOSE,  var  e  hose',  VEINS,  dilated 
veins,  which  are  marked  by  knottj'  swellings 
at  the  valves.  The  disease  commonly  affects 
the  lower  limbs  and  sometimes  becomes  very 
painful  and  even  dangerous,  from  the  burst- 
ing of  tlie  veins,  though  it  often  is  merely  an 
inconvenience.  Rest  and  support  in  an 
elevated  position  and  the  application  of 
proper  bandages  are  elements  in  the  treat- 
ment. 

VARI'ETY,  in  plant  and  animal  classifi- 
cation, a  subdivision  of  a  species,  including 
an  individual  or  group  of  individuals  dif- 
fering in   some  nonessential  way  from   the 


rest  of  the  species.  Varieties  are  believed  to 
result  from  differences  in  climate,  nourish- 
ment, cultivation  and  the  like,  and  to  be  less 
permanent  than  species. 

In  naming  plants  and  animals,  the  name 
of  the  variety  is  placed  third,  following  the 
name  of  the  species;  as  Ranunculus  multifi- 
dus,  variety,  terrestris.  Here,  Ranunculus 
multifidus  is  the  common,  yellow,  water  crow- 
foot, and  the  variety  terrestris  is  a  form 
growing  on  the  ground. 

VA'RIOLOID,  a  mild  form  of-  smallpox, 
induced  by  inoculation.     See  Smallpox. 

VAR'NISH,  a  transparent  liquid  made  by 
dissolving  gums  in  alcohol,  turpentine  or  oil. 
It  is  used  to  fonn  a  transparent  coat  over 
surfaces  to  protect  them  from  air  and  mois- 
ture or  to  make  them  more  beautiful.  The 
resinous  substances  most  commonly  em- 
ployed for  varnishes  are  mastic,  lac,  copal, 
amber  and  asphalt :  and  the  solvents  are  fixed 
oil,  volatile  oil  and  alcohol.  Varnishes  are 
colored  with  arnotto,  gamboge,  saffron, 
dragon's  blood  and  other  substances. 

The  base  of  varnish  is  gum  copal,  or  the 
fossil  gum  found  in  Zanzibar,  Sierra  Leone, 
New  Zealand  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  best  gum  is  found  in  Zanzibar.  When 
the  gum  is  received  in  the  varnish  factory, 
it  is  broken  up  into  pieces  about  the  size 
of  small  egg  coal.  As  it  is  being  broken 
up,  it  is  selected,  for  in  one  chunk  of  the 
amberlike  material  there  may  be  both  trans- 
parent and  almost  opaque  streaks;  the  white 
transparent  gum  goes  into  the  making  of 
the  best  grades  of  varnish,  and  the  dark- 
colored  gum  goes  into  the  poorer  grades. 
After  the  gum  copal  is  broken,  it  is  run 
through  a  series  of  hand  sieves,  which  divide 
it  into  block,  nut,  chip  and  dust,  for  conven- 
ience in  handling.  The  gum  is  then  ready 
for  the  kettle. 

For  first-class  varnish,  only  Calcutta  lin- 
seed oil  is  used.  This  oil  is  made  from  the 
flaxseed  of  India.  The  turpentine  used  for 
thinning  the  varnish  is  of  the  best  and  purest 
grade.  The  copper  kettles  in  which  the 
melting  and  mixing  are  done  are  on  truck 
wheels,  so  that  they  can  be  rolled  over  a 
fire  or  taken  off  easily.  The  melting  gum  is 
constantly  stin-ed.  When  the  oil  has  been 
mixed  with  the  liquid  gum,  the  kettle  is  run 
back  over  the  fire  once  more,  and  the  gum 
and  oil  are  boiled  again.  Then  it  is  set 
away  to  cool,  after  which  a  quantity  of 
turpentine  is  mixed  with  the  gum  and  oil 


VASCO  DA  GAMA 


3744 


VATICAN 


and  the  varnish  is  made.  The  varnish  is 
strained  through  cotton  before  it  is  pumped 
into  the  storage  tanks,  where  it  is  left  to 
age  for  at  least  six  months  and  often  for  two 
years. 

Shellac  varnish  is  made  in  churns,  or  bar- 
rels, revolving  on  journals.  The  shellac  as 
it  comes  from  India  looks  like  amber-colored 
mica,  for  it  is  in  thin  sheets  and  is  almost 
transparent.  This  shellac  is  mixed  with  the 
proper  amount  of  alcohol,  to  dissolve  it  and 
form   the*  varnish. 

VAS'CO  DA  GAM'A.  See  Gam  a, 
Vasco  da. 

VASE,  a  vessel  of  an  ornamental  char- 
acter, generally  of  pottery  but  frequently  of 
stone,  glass,  metal  or  other  materials.  Those 
which  have  come  down  to  us  from  ancient 
times  in  greatest  numbers  are  the  so-called 
Etruscan  vases,  made  of  terra  cotta  and 
adorned  with  painted  figures  (see  Etruria, 
subhead  Etruscan  Vases).  The  Greek  vases 
of  the  oldest  style  come  chiefly  from  Corinth 
and  the  islands  of  Thera  and  Melos.  Those 
of  the  late  rich  style  have  been  almost  ex- 
clusively discovered  in  Lower  Italy,  Apulia 
and  Lucania.  They  were  probably  manufac- 
tured there,  chiefly  in  the  fourth  and  third 
centuries  B.  c. 

Italy,  France  and  Germany  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  produced 
many  vases  which  are  the  perfection  of  ar- 
tistic form  and  execution  and  since  the 
fifteenth  centuiy  the  Venetian  vases  have 
been  masterpieces  of  art.  From  India,  China 
and  Japan  also  have  been  obtained  vases  of 
various  materials,  especially  of  porcelain, 
vying  in  elegance  of  foiTQ  and  beauty  of 
ornamentation  with  those  produced  in  Eu- 
rope. Of  late,  some  vases  have  been  pro- 
duced in  the  potteries  of  the  United  States 
which  compare  favorably  with  those  made 
in  other  lands. 

VASELINE,  vas'e  lin,  or  vas'e  leen,  a 
product  composed  of  a  mixture  of  paraffines, 
obtained  from  petroleum  after  the  hydro- 
carbons are  driven  off.  It  is  used  as  a  base 
for  ointments,  pomades  and  cold  cream,  and 
is  employed  for  coating  surgical  instruments 
and  steel  surfaces,  generally  to  protect  them 
from  rust.    See  Petroleum. 

VAS'SAR  COLLEGE,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing American  colleges  for  women,  founded 
neaj-  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  in  1861,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Matthew  Vassar,  whose 
generosity  made  its   establishment  possible. 


He  gave  200  acres  of  land  and  $788,000  for 
the  enterprise.  The  college  buildings,  which 
are  located  on  a  picturesque  elevation  over- 
looking the  Hudson  River,  include  seven 
residence  halls,  Thompson  Memorial  Library, 
a  museum  and  an  observatory.  There  is  also 
a  farm  of  675  acres,  on  which  is  maintained 
a  model  dairy.  Consei'vatories,  flower  gar- 
dens, an  open  air  theater  and  athletic  grounds 
are  other  interesting  features.  Vassar  main- 
tains high  standards  of  scholarship  and  pro- 
vides courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of 
Baclielor  of  Arts  and  Master  of  Arts.  There 
is  a  faculty  of  over  140,  and  a  student  en- 
rollment of  about  1,100.  The  library  con- 
tains over  86,000  books  and  pamphlets. 

Matthew  Vassar  (1792-1866),  founder 
of  the  college,  was  born  at  Norfolk,  England, 
but  was  brought  to  America  when  four  years 
old.  His  boyhood  was  passed  near  Pough- 
keepsie, where  his  father  built  up  a  pros- 
perous brewing  business.  Besides  contrib- 
uting funds  to  establish  the  college  which 
bears  his  name,  he  gave  generously  to  other 
causes. 

VAT'ICAN,  the  most  extensive  palace  of 
modem  Rome,  residence  of  the  Pope,  built 
upon  the  Vatican  Hill,  from  which  it  receives 
its  name.  It  is  a  long  rectangular  edifice, 
lying  north  and  south,  with  an  irregular  clus- 
ter of  buildings  at  each  end.  The  present 
building  was  begun  by  Pope  Eugenius  III 
(1145-1153)  and  has  been  enlarged  and  em- 
bellished by  many  subsequent  Popes.  It  now 
possesses  twenty  courts,  and,  it  is  said,  1,100 
rooms.  Immense  treasures  are  stored  in  it, 
including  celebrated  collections  of  pictures 
of  many  of  the  great  masters,  and  museums 
in  which  all  periods  of  the  arts  are  repre- 
sented by  many  of  their  most  perfect  pro- 
ductions. Among  its  noblest  art  ti'easures 
are  the  frescoes  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  painted  by  Michelangelo,  represent- 
ing scenes  and  figures  connected  with  sacred 
history;  the  frescoes  painted  by  Raphael  on 
the  ceilings  and  walls  of  certain  apartments, 
known  as  Raphael's  stanze,  the  subjects  be- 
ing biblical  and  allegorical. 

Since  the  return  of  the  Pope  from  Avignon 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Vatican  has 
been  the  residence  of  the  pontiffs,  and  here 
the  conclaves  meet  for  the  election  of  new 
Popes.  Since  the  unification  of  Italy  and  the 
consequent  loss  to  the  Papacy  of  all  political 
power,  the  Pope  has  never  gone  beyond  the 
Vatican  gardens. 


VATICAN  COUNCIL 


3745 


VEGETABLES 


The  Vatican  Library  was  first  constituted 
by  Nicholas  V  (1447-1455)  and  was  added  to 
and  enlarged  by  Leo  X,  Pius  IV,  Pius  V  and 
other  Popes.  The  manuscript  collections, 
which  are  said  to  contain  about  25,600  manu- 
scripts, are  priceless.  The  number  of  printed 
volumes  has  been  estimated  at  from  150,000 
to  220,000,  including  2,500  fifteenth  eentuiy 
editions  and  a  great  number  of  bibliographi- 
cal rarities. 

VATICAN  COUNCIL,  the  Ecumenical 
Council  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  met 
in  the  Vatican  under  Pope  Pius  IX,  Dee.  8, 
1869,  and  adjourned  July  18,  1870.  No 
council  had  ever  been  attended  by  so  large  a 
number  of  ecclesiastics.  It  declared  the  per- 
sonal infallibility  of  the  Pope,  when  speaking 
ex  cathedra,  to  be  a  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
a  declaration  yet  maintained. 

VAUDEVILLE,  vode'vil,  in  the  French 
sense,  a  kind  of  farcical  comedy  in  which 
dialogue  is  interspersed  with  dancing,  comic 
acting  and  songs  of  the  day,  a  name  origi- 
nally given  to  a  popular  humorous  drinking 
song,  first  composed  in  the  valley  of  Vaii-de- 
Vire.  In  the  United  States,  vaudeville  is 
merely  a  series  of  singing,  acting  and  dancing 
numbers,  pretending  to  no  unity  and  baring 
no  relation  to  the  drama. 

VAULT,  in  architecture,  a  continued  arch, 
or  an  arched  roof,  so  constructed  that  the 
stones,  bricks  or  other  materials  of  which 
it  is  composed,  sustain  and  keep  one  an- 
other in  place.  Vaults  may  be  cylindrical, 
elliptical,  single,  double,  cross,  diagonal  or 
Gothic. 

VEDAS,  va'das,  from  a  Sanskrit  word 
meaning  kyioxo,  the  oldest  sacred  writings  of 
India,  written  in  Sanskrit  and  supposed  to 
have  been  produced  by  a  series  of  authors 
between  1500  and  1000  b.  c.  The  Vedas  are 
four  in  number,  called  respectively,  the  Itig- 
Veda,  Yajur-Veda,  Sama-Veda  and  Atharva- 
Veda.  Of  these  the  Big-Veda  is  the  oldest 
and  most  important.  Its  name  means  stanzas 
of  praise,  and  it  consists  of  more  than  a 
thousand  hjTnns,  most  of  them  celebrating 
the  deeds  and  begging  the  blessing  of  the 
greater  gods.  The  other  three  seem  to  have 
been  drawn  largely  from  the  first  one.  The 
latest  of  the  four  is  sometimes  questioned  as 
to  authenticity,  being  concerned  rather  with 
superstition  than  with  religion.  It  reflects 
the  development  of  the  Brahmanical  system 
with  its  departure  from  the  earlier  mono- 
theistic system  and  its  polytheistic  rites. 

235 


All  the  Vedas  are  believed  by  the  Brahmans 
to  be  inspired,  and  are  held  by  them  in  the 
highest  respect. 

VEGA  CARPIO,  va'ga  kah/pe  o,  Felix 
Lope  de  (1562-1635),  a  dramatic  poet  of 
Spain,  best  known  as  Lope  de  Vega,  the 
most  prolific  imaginative  writer  in  the  an- 
nals of  literature.  Born  in  Madrid,  in  1562, 
he  joined  the  army,  and  in  1588  accompanied 
the  Invincible  Armada  on  its  ill-fated  expe- 
dition against  England.  After  being  twice 
married  and  twice  a  widower,  he  became  a 
priest  and  subsequently  entered  the  order  of 
Saint  Francis.  He  had  already  published 
various  poems,  but  his  dramatic  and  poeti- 
cal productions  now  multiplied  with  extra- 
ordinary rapidity.  For  many  years  there 
was  scarcely  a  week  when  he  did  not  produce 
a  play,  and  he  himself  declared  that  he  often 
wrote,  rehearsed  and  produced  a  play  in 
twenty-four  hours.  He  enjoyed  an  immense 
popularity  and  received  marks  of  distinction 
from  the  king  of  Spain  and  from  Pope 
Urban  VIII.  About  three  hundred  of  his  dra- 
matic works  have  been  printed.  They  reveal 
an  inexhaustible,  though  ill-regulated,  im- 
agination, a  strong  mixture  of  the  sublime 
and  the  ridiculous  and  extraordinary  facility 
in  versification. 

VEGETABLE,  vej'e  ta  h'l,  I-VORY.  See 
Ivory  PAL:\r. 

VEGETABLES,  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  generally  used,  those  parts  of  plants, 
exclusive  of  fnaits.  which  are  used  for  food. 
In  some,  as  the  turnip,  the  roots  are  the  parts 
used ;  in  others,  as  the  onion,  the  bulbs.  The 
tubers  of  the  potato  and  artichoke;  the 
stems  of  asparagus;  the  leaves  of  the  lettuce 
and  cabbage;  the  flower  buds  of  the  cauli- 
flower; the  green  fruit  of  the  cucumber; 
the  ripe  fruit  of  the  tomato;  the  seeds  of 
com,  peas  and  beans,  are  common  vegetable 
■foods. 

The  principal  components  of  vegetables 
are  water,  protein,  fat,  nitrogen,  starch  and 
certain  indigestible  refuse,  like  fiber  and 
ash.  The  proportions  of  these  constituents 
vary  among  different  vegetables,  but  in  all, 
the  principal  element  is  water.  The  amount 
of  water  varies  from  58.9  per  cent,  in  green 
beans,  to  95.4  per  cent,  in  the  cucumber. 
The  per  cent  of  protein  varies  from  .4  per 
cent,  in  the  watennelon,  to  9.4  per  cent,  in 
green  beans.  The  r.mount  of  fat  varies  from 
.1  per  cent,  in  the  pumpkin,  the  radish,  the 
potato,  celery  and  the  beet,  to  1.1  per  cent  in 


VEGETARIANISM 


3746 


VEINS 


green  corn.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  varies 
from  2.2,  in  lettuce,  to  26.1,  in  the  sweet 
potato. 

Of  fresh  vegetables,  green  shelled  beans 
have  the  highest  fuel  value,  and  the  cucum- 
ber has  the  lowest,  the  value  of  the  latter 
being  about  one-ninth  that  of  the  former. 
Others  which  contain  a  high  fuel  value  are 
sweet  potatoes,  green  peas,  green  com,  sugar 
peas  and  parsnips.  In  the  cooking  of  vege- 
tables, besides  the  loss  of  water  content,  there 
are  chemical  changes  which  often  detract  ma- 
terially from  the  food  value.  Vegetables 
form  an  important  part  of  the  diet,  because, 
in  addition  to  their  nutritive  value,  they 
contain  organic  acids  and  other  elements 
essential  to  the  health  of  the  system. 

Related  Articles.  For  descriptions  of  the 
vegetables  in  common  use  consult  the  fol- 
lowing titles: 

Artichoke  Corn  Pea 

Asparagus  Cress  Potato 

Bean  Cucumber  Pumpkin 

Beet  Eggplant  Radish 

Brussels  Kohl-rabi  Rhubarb 

Sprouts  Lentil  Spinach 

Cabbage  Lettuce  Squash 

Carrot  Onion  Tomato 

Cauliflower  Oyster   Plant  Turnip 

Celery  Parsley  Sweet   Potato 

Chard  Parsnip  Yam 
Chicory 

VEGETA'RIANISM,  the  belief  and  prac- 
tice of  subsisting  on  a  vegetable  diet  to  the 
exclusion  of  animal  food,  a  doctrine  held  in 
ancient  times  by  such  men  as  Pythagoras, 
Plato  and  Plutarch  and  later  by  Rousseau, 
Shelle}'  and  Swedenborg.  At  present  vege- 
tarian societies  exist  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  United  States,  Canada  and  sev- 
eral European  countries.  A  vegetable  diet, 
it  is  claimed,  is  more  healthful,  economical 
and  ethically  effective  than  a  diet  mixed 
with  animal  food.  Vegetarians  differ  among 
themselves,  however,  as  to  the  degree  to 
which  they  exclude  animal  products,  some 
excluding  only  flesh,  others  fish  and  fowl, 
and  others  milk,  eggs  and  cheese,  as  well. 
While  scientific  investigations  on  the  whole 
show  the  superior  efiicacy  of  a  mixed  diet 
on  the  human  mechanism,  the  vegetarians 
have  without  doubt  done  society  a  service 
in  calling  attention  to  the  prevailing  custom  of 
eating  too  much  meat. 

VEII,  veyi,  an  ancient  Etruscan  town,  in 
early  times  the  most  fonnidable  rival  of 
Rome.  The  Romans  and  the  Veientines  were 
constantly  at  war,  and  because  the  latter 
were  uniformly  unsuccessful  in  pitched 
battle,  they  adopted  the  plan  of  shutting 
themselves  up  in  the  city  when  the  Romans 


approached  and  of  going  out  to  plunder 
when  they  were  safe  from  attack.  The  fam- 
ily of  Fabius,  to  whom  had  been  entrusted 
the  defense  of  Roman  territory  against  the 
Veientines,  were  decoyed  into  ambush  and 
put  to  death  in  this  manner.  About  396 
B.  c.  Camillus  took  the  city,  after  which  it 
declined  to  an  insignificant  village. 

VEIN,  vane,  in  geology,  a  formation  of 
igneous  rock,  occupying  a  fissure  in  other 
rock,  as  represented  by  the  nearly  perpen- 
dicular layers 
in  the  figure. 
They  often  ex- 
tend into  the 
earth  hundreds 
of  feet.  Veins 
are  usually 
formed  by  rock 
in  molten  condi- 
tion, forced  into  veins 
the  crevice  by  pressure,  but  may  also  be  the 
result  of  mineral  deposits  left  by  under- 
ground waters.  They  often  contain  ore  de- 
posits, as  gold,  silver  and  other  metals. 
Miners  call  a  metal-bearing  vein  a  lode. 
Small  veins  are  often  seen  in  boulders  and 
pebbles,  where  they  can  be  easily  studied. 
See  Dike  ;  Geology. 

VEINS,  a  system  of  canals,  or  tubes,  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  bodies  of  animals, 
for  the  purpose  of  returning  the  impure  blood 
to  the  heart  and  lungs,  after  it  has  been 
carried  to  the  various  parts  by  the  arteries. 
Veins  originate  in  the  capillaries  as  tiny 
tubes,  and  as  they  unite  they  decrease  in 
number  and  increase  in  size,  till  all  those 
from  the  head,  neck  and  upper  extremities 
form  the  superior  vena  cava  and  those  from 
the  other  parts  of  the  body  forin  the  inferior 
vena  cava.  Both  these  large  veins  empty 
into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  veins  in  the  circulatory  system 
is  shown  in  the  color  plate  accompanying  the 
article  Circulation. 

The  walls  of  the  veins,  like  those  of  the 
arteries,  are  composed  of  three  coats,  but 
they  are  less  elastic  and  have  no  pulsation. 
They  collapse  readily  when  empty.  The  dis- 
tinguishing parts  of  a  vein  are  the  valves, 
which  are  made  of  folds  in  the  internal  coat 
and  are  arranged  in  pairs.  They  lie  against 
the  walls  when  the  blood  is  flowing  onward, 
but  if  from  any  cause  the  flow  is  obstmcted, 
the  valves  are  forced  upward  till  they  meet 
in  the  middle  of  the  vein,  and  so  prevent  the 


VELAZQUEZ 


3747 


VENATION 


blood  from  flowing  backward.  The  action 
of  the  valves  may  be  shown  by  pressing  on 
some  vein  near  the  surface,  thus  preventing 
Ihe  flow  of  the  blood  toward  the  heart,  when 
the  valves  will  make  little  elevations  in  the 
vein.  Valves  are  not  found  in  the  very  small- 
est veins,  nor  in  those  of  the  abdomen,  lungs 
and  brain. 

The  blood  flowing  from  a  wounded  vein  is 
dark  in  color  and  comes  out  in  an  even 
stream.  To  check  the  flow,  press  on  the  vein 
below  the  wound  or  between  it  and  the  ex- 
tremity. 

Related    Articles.  Consult     the     following 

titles   for  additional  information: 

Arteries  Circulation 
Capillaries  Wound 

VELAZQUEZ,  or  VELASQUEZ,  va  lahs' 
kaith,  Don  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silvat 
(1599-1660),  the  greatest  master  of  Spanish 
painting.  He  was  born  at  Seville,  of  Portu- 
guese parents,  and 
studied  fii^st  under 
Francisco  Herrara 
the  elder,  and  after- 
ward under  Francis- 
co Pacheco  ■  In  1622 
he  went  to  Madiid. 
and  as  the  result  of 
this  ^-isit  received  an 
appointment  a? 
principal  painter  to 
Philip  IV.  Through 
the  advice  and  inter- 
cession   of    Rubens, 


i  5^^'^ 


if/h' 


VELAZQUEZ 


Velazquez  went  later  to  Italy,  where  he  close- 
ly studied  the  works  of  Michelangelo,  Raphael 
and  Titian  and  the  contemporary  painters, 
especially  Guido  Reni,  whose  influence  is  evi- 
dent to  a  marked  degree  in  his  works.  On  his 
return  to  Spain,  in  1631,  Velazquez  was  re- 
ceived with  great  distinction,  and  in  1658  the 
king  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  noble. 

Valazquez'  chief  characteristic  in  painting 
is  naturalism.  He  was  never  imaginative,  but 
painted  exactly  what  he  saw,  combining  this 
power  of  realism  with  a  mastery  of  light, 
shade,  coloring  and  composition.  Among  his 
finest  works  are  the  Aguodor,  or  Water  Car- 
rier; a  Nativitif,  or  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds; the  Brothers  of  Joseph ;  Moses  Taken 
from  the  Nile;  portraits  of  Philip  IV  and 
of  Elizabeth,  his  queen,  Pope  Innocent  X 
and  other  dignitaries,  and  many  pictures  both 
from  histor>'  and  from  common  life. 

VELOCIPEDE,  ve  lose  peed,  a  light  ve- 
hicle or  carriage  propelled  by  the  feet  of  its 


rider.  One  of  the  older  foims  of  this  car- 
riage was  constructed  of  two  wheels  of  nearly 
equal  size,  placed  one  before  the  other  and 
connected  hy  a  beam,  on  which  the  driver's 
seat  was  fixed.  The  rider,  sitting  astride  the 
machine,  propelled  it  by  the  thmst  of  each 
foot  on  the  ground.  This  form  dates  from 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It 
was  about  half  a  century  later  that  treadles, 
operating  cranks  on  the  axle  of  the  front 
wheel,  came  into  use.    See  Bicycle. 

VELOCITY,  ve  lose  ty,  the  rate  at  which 
a  body  changes  its  position  in  space.  Veloc- 
ity is  popularh'  expressed  as  so  many  miles 
per  hour  or  as  so  many  feet  per  second.  The 
velocity  of  a  body  is  uniform,  when  it  passes 
through  equal  spaces  in  equal  times;  it  is 
variable,  when  the  spaces  passed  through  in 
equal  times  are  unequal;  it  is  accelerated, 
when  during  each  portion  of  time  it  passes 
through  a  greater  space  than  during  the 
preceding  equal  portion;  it  is  retarded,  when 
a  less  space  is  passed  through  in  each  succes- 
sive portion  of  time.  Linear  velocity  is  speed 
forward  in  a  straight  line;  angular  velocity 
is  speed  about  an  axis. 

VEL'VET,  the  most  familiar  of  the  fabrics 
woven  with  a  pile,  produced  by  adding  to  the 
usual  threads  of  the  warp  and  weft  an  ad- 
ditional row  of  warp  yarns,  woven  into  the 
ground  of  the  cloth  and  passed  over  wires  on 
the  surface.  In  the  case  of  a  loop  pile,  the 
wires  are  drawn  out,  without  cutting,  but  for 
velvet  or  other  cut  pile,  a  knife  is  passed 
along  a  groove  on  the  top  of  each  wire  before 
the  wire  is  withdrawn.  Real  velvet  is  made 
entirely  of  silk.  Cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
woven  in  this  manner,  are  called  velveteen 
and  plush,  respectively. 

Some  of  the  richest  and  most  artistic  of 
the  textiles  woven  on  Italian  looms  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  were  made, 
in  part  at  least,  of  velvet.  Similar  stuffs 
were  also  made  in  Spain  and  Flanders.  Many 
of  these  were  for  ecclesiastical  vestments 
and  altar  cloths,  and  for  hangings.  The  effect 
of  a  raised  pattern  in  velvet,  on  a  plain  or 
figured  silk  ground,  is  very  beautiful.  Some- 
times a  design  is  formed  of  a  long,  upon  a 
short,  pile,  called  velvet  upon  velvet,  and 
this,  too,  has  a  fine  effect.  Velvet  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  made  first  in  China- 

VELVET  LEAF.     See  Indian  Mallow. 

VENATION,  ve  na'shun,  the  arrangement 
of  veins  in  leaves,  related  to  the  shape  of 
the  leaf  and  its  mode  of  gennination,  an  im- 


VENDETTA 


3748 


VENEZUELA 


portant  characteristic  in  the  classification  of 
plants.  Most  leaves  are  netted-veined,  paral- 
lel-veined or  fork-veined.  The  netted-veined 
are  the  most  numerous,  and  are  divided  in- 
to several  groups.  True  netted  leaves  have 
a  single  midrib  from  which  branch  primary 
veins  terminating  in  delicate  veinlets  that 
curve  upward  just  within  the  margin  of  the 
leaf.  If  the  primary  veins  extend  directly 
to  the  edge  of  the  leaf  they  are  said  to  be 
feather-veined.  For  illustrations  of  vena- 
tion, see  the  article  Lea\'es. 

VENDET'TA,  an  Italian  word,  taken  from 
the  Latin  vindicta,  meaning  revenge,  is  a 
blood  feud  in  which  the  next  of  kin  assumes 
responsibility  for  avenging  a  murdered  per- 
son, probably  a  survival  of  methods  of  en- 
forcing justice  practiced  before  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  state  and  of  public  courts.  In 
Corsica  the  vendetta  is  held  to  be  one  of  the 
most  binding  of  family  obligations,  and  the 
custom  is  held  to  a  greater  or  less  degree 
among  the  Albanians,  Druses,  Bedouins  and 
other  isolated  and  primitive  peoples.  The 
feuds  among  the  mountaineers  of  Eastern 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and  Western  Vir- 
ginia in  America  are  analogous  to  the  ven- 
detta. 

VENDOME,  vahN'dohm',  COLUMN,  142 
feet  high,  stands  in  Paris,  in  the  Place  de  la 
Vendome.  It  was  built  in  1811  by  Napoleon's 
order,  was  later  thrown  down  by  the  com- 
munists, but  the  preserved  pieces  were  re- 
erected  on  the  same  spot  in  1875.  The 
masonry  column  is  set  with  900  feet  of 
bronze,  made  from  1,200  melted  captured 
cannon,  depicting  memorable  scenes  in  the 
Napoleonic  campaigns  from  1806  to  1810. 
The  Place  Vendome  was  named  for  the  Duke 
of  Vendome,  who  as  a  member  of  a  noble 
house  of  the  old  French  kingdom  served  his 
country  in  many  wars. 

VENEER',  a  thin  layer  of  hard  wood,  as 
mahogany,  rosewood  or  maple,  glued  to  the 
surface  of  wood  of  a  commoner  sort,  to  give 
the  whole  the  appearance  of  being  of  the 
more  valuable  material.  It  is  used  for 
furniture  and  some  interior  finishings.  Ow- 
ing to  recent  improvements  in  sawing  ma- 
chinery, layers  can  be  obtained  that  are  al- 
most as  thin  as  paper.  A  good  piece  of 
veneer,  contrary  to  popular  belief,  may  be 
more  serviceable  than  solid  wood,  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  less  likelv  to  warp  and  crack. 

VENETIAN,  vene'sian,  SCHOOL  OF 
PAINTING.    See  Painting. 


Statue  of 
Simon  Bolivar 


ENEZUELA,  ven  e  zw^ 
la,  a  republic  of  South 
America,  officially  known 
as  the  United  States  of 
Venezuela,  lying  north 
of  Brazil  and  north  and 
east  of  Colombia.  The 
coast  line,  which  borders 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  has 
a  number  of  important 
indentations,  the  largest 
being  the  Gulf  of  Vene- 
zuela and  the  Gulf  of 
Paria.  The  country  con- 
tains twenty-two  states, 
two  territories  and  a  Fed- 
eral district  in  which  the 
capital  is  located.  Its 
greatest  extent  from  northeast  to  southwest  is 
about  925  miles,  and  from  north  to  south,  725 
miles.  Having  an  area  of  393,976  square 
miles,  it  is  the  seventh  country  of  South 
America  in  area,  and  is  but  little  smaller 
than  California,  Montana  and  Oregon  com- 
bined. 

The  People.  By  far  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  are  Indians.  Among 
the  mestizos,  or  natives,  there  are  many  of 
negro  blood.  The  whites  are  of  Spanish 
descent;  they  represent  the  culture  and  cus- 
toms of  Spain,  and  constitute  the  ruling 
class.  The  country  is  unevenly  populated, 
most  of  the  people  living  in  the  agricultural 
and  mountainous  regions  of  the  northwest. 
The  interior  is  largely  unexplored  and  un- 
inhabited. Spanish  is  the  prevailing  lan- 
guage. In  1916  the  population  was  estimated 
at  2,827,762.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the 
leading  Church,  but  all  faiths  are  tolerated. 
Education  is  free  and  compulsory,  but  the 
elementary  schools  are  poor,  and  the  attend- 
ance laws  are  not  enforced.  In  1918  there 
were  only  50,000  pupils  in  the  elementary 
schools.  There  were  fifty-eight  secondary 
schools  for  boj'S,  thirty-eight  for  girls  and 
six  for  both  sexes.  At  Caracas,  the  capital, 
there  is  a  normal  school  for  men  and  one  for 
women.  There  were  also  thirty-four  schools 
for  higher  instruction  and  twenty-one  acad- 
emies. There  are  universities  at  Caracas  and 
Merida.  There  are  also  miltary,  commercial 
and  other  schools  in  the  various  cities.  But 
notwithstanding  all  these  institutions  and  ef- 
forts to  educate  the  youth,  it  is  estimated  that 
at  least  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
unable  to  read  and  write. 


VENEZUELA 


3749 


VENEZUELA 


Surface  and  Drainage.  Venezuela  is  nat- 
urally divided  into  three  surface  regions. 
These  are  the  highland  region  in  the  north- 
west, the  Guiana  highlands  in  the  southeast 
and  the  Orinoco  valley  between.  The  high- 
land region,  in  the  northwest,  is  formed  by 
two  ranges  of  the  Andes  Mountains,  one  of 
which  extends  directly  north  and  south  and 
forms  the  boundary  between  Venezuela  and 
Colombia.  This  range  contains  some  sum- 
mits with  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet.  The 
other  range  enters  the  country  near  the  head- 
waters of  the  Orinoco  and  extends  north- 
easterly to  the  Gulf  of  Triest.  This  range 
contains  the  highest  land  in  the  country; 
some  of  the  peaks  have  an  altitude  of  over 
15,000  feet  and  are  capped  with  perpetual 
snow.  Between  these  ranges  of  the  Andes  is 
the  low  depression  occupied  by  Lake  Mara- 
eaibo,  which  is  directly  connected  with  the 
sea.  The  boundary  between  Venezuela  and 
Brazil  is  formed  by  the  Parima  and  Paearima 
mountains,  which  rise  to  altitudes  varying 
from  6,000  to  11,000  feet.  From  these  ranges 
the  land  gradually  descends  to  the  basin  of 
the  Orinoco.  This  great  interior  is  divided 
into  the  lowlands,  along  the  lower  part  of 
the  river's  course,  and  the  llanos,  which  lie 
chiefly  north  of  the  river  and  between  it  and 
the  Andes.  A  portion  of  this  region  is  yet 
unexplored,  but  it  is  supposed  to  consist  of 
rolling  plains  and  hills,  heavily  covered  with 
forests. 

Venezuela  is  supposed  to  have  over  1,000 
rivers  and  is  perhaps  more  completely 
watered  than  any  other  country  of  South 
America.  Chief  among  these  rivers  is  the 
Orinoco,  flowing  through  the  middle  of  the 
country,  and  its  chief  tributaries,  the  Apure, 
the  Meta  and  the  Rio  Negro,  the  last  of  which 
is  connected  with  the  Amazon  by  the  Cassi- 
quiare.  The  Orinoco  and  its  chief  tributaries, 
all  of  wliich  are  navigable,  furnish  an  outlet 
not  only  for  the  interior  of  Venezuela,  but 
for  a  portion  of  Columbia  as  well.  There 
are  a  number  of  less  important  streams  flow- 
ing into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Of  the  lakes, 
Maracaibo,  in  the  northwestern  part,  is  the 
largest  and  most  important. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Venezuela  de- 
pends upon  altitude  more  than  upon  latitude. 
The  varying  elevations  of  the  country  di- 
vide it  into  three  climatic  regions.  The  first 
is  the  lowland  region,  which  extends  from  sea 
level  to  an  altitude  of  2,300  feet.  This  has  a 
hot,  tropical  climate,  with  a  mean  annual 


temperature  of  about  77°.  The  second  is  the 
region  of  the  interior,  ranging  in  altitude 
from  2,300  to  6,500  feet.  This  region  has  a 
salubrious,  temperate  climate,  with  a  mean 
temperature  of  about  65°  and  with  a  com- 
paratively narrow  range  of  temperature,  the 
thermometer  seldom  rising  above  80°  or  fall- 
ing below  60°.  In  the  highlands  of  the 
mountains  is  a  cold  region,  which  ranges  in 
mean  temperature  from  near  freezing  point 
to  that  of  pei-petual  snow.  There  are  two 
seasons,  the  rainy  and  the  dry.  During  the 
rainy  season  the  lowlands  and  most  of  the 
interior  receive  copious  rain,  in  some  sections 
sufiicient  to  flood  the  country.  Along  the 
coast  and  the  lower  courses  of  the  rivers  the 
climate  is  somewhat  unhealthful,  but  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  interior  are  pleasant 
and  healthful,  even  to  those  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  temperate  latitudes. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  country  eon- 
tains  large  deposits  of  minerals.  Gold  is 
found  in  the  Yuruari  territory  and  is  mined 
to  a  considerable  extent,  the  annual  output 
in  1918  being  81,327  ounces.  Silver  mines 
occur  in  the  central,  southern  and  south- 
western parts  of  the  country,  while  copper 
and  iron  are  widely  distributed.  Some  tin  is 
also  found.  Other  minerals  of  importance 
are  sulphur,  coal  and  kaolin.  There  are  a 
number  of  salt  mines  in  the  country,  and  they 
are  worked  by  the  government.  Petroleum 
is  found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
country,  in  the  State  of  Los  Andes.  There 
are  valuable  deposits  of  asphalt  on  the  island 
of  Trinidad,  in  the  vicinity  of  Maracaibo  and 
in  the  State  of  Bermudez.  This  is  the  rich- 
est asphalt  region  in  the  world.  Granite, 
marble  and  other  building  stones  are  widely 
distributed  over  the  country.  Lack  of  capi- 
tal and  transportation  facilities  has  thus  far 
prevented  the  exploitation  of  the  mineral 
industries  of  the  countiy. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  oc- 
cupation of  the  inhabitants.  However,  only 
about  one-ninth  of  the  surface  is  under  cul- 
tivation. The  chief  crops  are  coffee,  cacao, 
sugar  cane,  cereals,  fruits,  beans,  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables.  Tobacco  is  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  lowlands,  and  the  forests 
furnish  valuable  products  for  export,  chief 
among  which  are  copaiba,  vanilla  and  rubber. 
In  general,  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state. 
Primitive  implements  and  methods  are  used, 
and  but  poor  returns  are  received  for  the 
capital  and  labor  invested.    The  large  areas 


VENEZUELA 


3750 


VENEZUELA 


of  pasture  land  particularly  adapt  the  coun- 
try to  cattle  raising,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  agricultural  in- 
dustrj\  The  country  also  has  large  numbers 
of  horses,  goats  and  sheep. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  are 
comparatively  unimportant  and  are  con- 
fined to  the  larger  cities.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods, 
shoes,  hats,  can-iages,  furniture  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  The  country  also  has  a 
number  of  breweries  and  distilleries.  Refrig- 
erating plants  for  supplying  meat  for  ship- 
ment have  been  established  at  Puerto  Cabello 
and  Baranco,  and  a  cocoanut  butter  and  oil 
factory  has  been  opened  at  Cumana.  The 
most  important  manufacturing  industries 
are  exploited  by  foreign  -capital  and  are 
under  foreign  management. 

Transportation.  The  interior  is  reached 
by  the  Orinoco  and  its  numerous  navigable 
tributaries.  Roads  are  few  and  poor, 
except  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities,  but 
they  are  being  rapidly  improved.  Caracas 
is  joined  with  its  seaport.  La  Guira,  by  rail- 
way. A  few  other  interior  towns  are  also 
connected  with  seaports  in  this  way.  In  all, 
the  country  has  over  530  miles  of  railwa}'  in 
operation.  Through  a  French  cable  it  has 
communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  the  important  cities  and  towns  have  tele- 
graph   and   telephone   service. 

The  leading  seaports  are  connected  by 
steamer  with  the  ports  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  The  commerce  of  the  coun- 
try is  not  as  great  as  its  resources  and 
population  would  warrant.  The  chief  article 
of  export  is  coffee.  Other  important  exports 
include  cacao,  hides,  deer  and  goat  skins, 
rubber,  tobacco,  fustic  and  some  other 
forest  products.  Some  cattle  are  shipped  to 
Cuba.  Most  of  the  coffee  and  hides  go  to 
the  United  States.  The  imports  consist  of 
foodstuffs,  manufactured  goods  and  ma- 
chinery. 

Government.  The  government  is  repub- 
lican in  form.  The  present  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1914.  The  head  of  the  executive 
department  is  the  President,  who  is  elected 
for  seven  years  and  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet 
of  Ministers,  through  whom  he  acts.  The 
members  of  the  council  are  appointed  by  Con- 
gress every  two  years,  and  the  President  is 
chosen  by  the  Congress.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  of  two  houses, 
a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies.     The 


members  of  the  Senate  are  apportioned  two 
to  each  state  and  district,  and  are  elected 
for  three  years.  The  Deputies  are  appor- 
tioned according  to  population,  one  to  every 
35,000  and  one  every  15,000  additional  in- 
habitants, and  are  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage. No  state  is  deprived  of  a  Deputy  if 
its  population  is  less  than  35,000.  Each 
province  or  state  has  its  own  legislature  and 
executive,  while  the  unorganized  territories 
and  colonies  are  governed  by  an  executive 
appointed  by  the  national  government. 

History.  The  coast  of  Venezuela  was 
first  seen  by  Columbus  in  1498.  The  follow- 
ing year  it  was  more  carefully  examined  by 
Vespucius,  who  gave  the  region  the  name 
it  now  bears,  which  means  Little  Venice; 
it  was  applied  because  of  the  discovery  of  an 
Indian  village  built  on  palisades  over  the 
waters  of  Lake  Maracaibo.  The  first  Span- 
ish settlement  was  made  in  1527,  and  for 
more  than  two  centuries  the  country  was  a 
Spanish  colony,  during  which  time  it  suf- 
fered from  change  of  rulers  and  internal 
dissensions.  The  early  Spaniards  treated 
the  natives  in  a  most  cruel  manner  and 
enslaved  many  of  them.  The  struggle  for  in- 
dependence began  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  and  was  completed  by  the  efforts 
of  the  patriots  under  Bolivar  in  1821,  when 
Venezuela  and  New  Granada  united  under 
one  government  and  formed  the  country  of 
Colombia.  In  1829  Venezuela  seceded  and 
became  an  independent  republic.  The 
country  has  always  suffered  from  frequent 
revolutions  and  rebellions.  It  has  also  had 
several  disputes  with  European  powers  con- 
cerning boundary  lines.  The  last  of  these 
assumed  such  importance  that,  in  1894  the 
United  States  recognized  the  seriousness  of 
the  contention  between  Venezuela  and  Great 
Britain  and  suggested  to  the  latter  country 
that  the  dispute  be  settled  by  arbitration. 
This  was  finally  agreed  to,  and  the  question 
was  submitted  to  a  special  tribunal,  which  in 
1899  made  final  settlement  of  the  boundary 
line  between  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana. 

In  1897  a  serious  political  disturbance 
began,  which  led,  two  years  later,  to  a  rebel- 
lion. This  became  so  widespread  that  it 
threatened  the  existence  of  the  established 
government,  but  in  October,  1902,  the  revo- 
lutionists suffered  a  serious  defeat,  and  their 
army  was  dispersed.  In  1902  the  country 
had  a  serious  dispute  with  France,  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  over  the  payment  of  claims 


VENICE 


3751 


VENICE 


due  subjects  of  these  several  nations,  and  in 
December  Great  Britain  and  Germany  com- 
bined in  a  naval  demonstration  and  blockaded 
some  of  the  Venezuelan  ports.  Through  the 
intercession  of  the  United  States,  however, 
all  parties  agTeed  to  submit  the  dispute  to  the 
court  of  arbitration  at  The  Hague,  and  the 
points  in  dispute  were  satisfactorily  adjusted. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Bolivar,    Simon  Maracaibo 

Caracas  Trinidad 

VENICE,  ven' is,  Italy,  a  city  famed 
throughout  the  world  for  its  unique  character 
and  splendid  art  treasures.  Venice,  built 
on  a  cluster  of  islands,  has  canals  for  its 
principal  streets,  and  more  bridges  than  any 
other  city  in  the  world.  Gondolas  and  other 
boats  take  the  place  of  cabs,  street  cars  and 
automobiles.  The  city  lies  in  a  sheltered 
lagoon  on  the  northwestern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  164  miles  by  rail  east  of  Milan. 
The  islands  on  which  it  is  built  number  120, 
and  are  divided  into  two  main  groups,  be- 
tween which  flows  the  celebrated  Grand  Canal. 
This  canal,  which  is  the  principal  thorough- 
fare, passes  through  the  city  in  the  form  of  a 
letter  S  and  divides  it  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts.  The  canal  is  crossed  hj  four  bridges, 
the  chief  of  which  is  the  Rialto.  There  are 
146  smaller  canals,  by  means  of  which  all 
parts  of  the  city  can  be  reached  by  boat. 

The  description  which  follows  applies  to 
Venice  as  it  exists  in  nonnal  years.  During 
the  "World  War  it  was  repeatedly  attacked  by 
airplanes,  and  was  on  one  occasion  threatened 
with  capture.  Its  most  valuable  art  treasures 
were  removed  to  Rome  and  other  interior 
centers,  but  these  were  returned  at  the  close 
of  the  war. 

The  Piazza,  or  Square  of  Saint  Mark's,  is 
the  center  of  intei^est.  This  is  the  great  cen- 
ter of  business  and  amusement.  It  is  576 
feet  long,  269  feet  wide  on  one  side  and  185 
feet  wide  on  the  other.  The  east  side  is 
faced  by  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Mark's,  one 
of  the  most  renowned  structures  of  its  kind 
in  the  world.  On  the  north  and  south  sides 
of  the  square  are  the  palaces  formerly  oc- 
cupied by  the  procurators  of  the  cathedral, 
and  they  now  form  a  part  of  the  royal  palace. 
These  buildings  contain  many  rare  paintings 
by  some  of  the  most  celebrated  artists  of 
Venice,  including  Tintoretto  and  Paul 
Veronese.  The  famous  Campanile,  which  fell 
in  1902,  and  was  rebuilt,  also  faces  the 
square.     Another  object  of  interest  facing 


the  square  is  the  clock  tower,  built  in  1496 
and  surmounted  by  two  bronze  figures,  which 
strike  the  hours  on  a  large  bell. 

Among  the  churches  of  special  interest  is 
that  of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  which  eon- 
tains  excellent  paintings  of  Titian,  including 


his  masterpiece,  The  Assumption  of  the  Vir- 
gin, and  The  Presentation  in  the  Temple. 
The  Church  of  San  Sebastiano  is  celebrated 
for  its  altarpieces  by  Paul  Veronese,  and  the 
Friari,  a  church  built  for  the  friars,  is  inter- 
esting for  its  size  and  because  it  is  a  good 
representation  of  the  Italian  Gothic  style  of 
architecture.  It  contains  many  monuments 
and  pictures.  The  palaces  are  of  no  less 
interest  than  the  churches.  Of  these  the 
palace  of  the  Doges,  originally  built  in  800, 
but  several  times  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  is 
the  most  important.  During  the  time  of 
Venice's  greatest  prosperity,  this  was  the 
residence  of  its  nilers.  It  now  contains  many 
treasures  of  art.  From  the  rear  of  this  palace 
the  celebrated  ''Bridge  of  Sighs"  leads  to  the 
prison,  which  is  still  in  use.  Many  of  the 
palaces  are  now  used  for  other  purposes, 
serving  as  hotels,  museums  and  office  build- 
ings. The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  is  also  of 
great  interest,  because  it  contains  one  of  the 
most  valuable  collections  of  paintings  found 
in  Europe.  The  Rialto  is  the  principal  com- 
mercial street  and  typically  represents  the 
life  of  the  city.  The  bridge  of  this  name 
crosses  the  Grand  Canal  at  the  point  where 
the  first  settlement  was  made. 

Modern  Venice  is  of  considerable  commer- 
cial importance.  The  manufactures  include 
lace,  tapestries,  mosaics,  bronzes,  jewelry 
and  wood-carvings  among  its  finer  wares,  and 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  chemicals,  heavy 
machinery  and  clocks  among  its  larger  in- 
dustries. There  is  also  some  shipbuilding, 
and  glassware  is  manufactured. 


VENIZELOS 


3752 


VENTRILOQUISM 


The  islands  occupied  by  the  city  were  for- 
merly a  refuge  from  the  hordes  of  barbarians 
which  invaded  Italy  from  the  north.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  first  settlement  was  made 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  but 
there  is  no  authentic  record  of  the  fact.  In 
the  sixth  century  Venice  was  independent, 
though  it  was  tributary  to  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. It  was  obliged  to  defend  itself  from 
pirates  and  from  the  Lombards  of  Italy,  and 
because  of  this  an  organized  government 
was  formed  and  the  leader  or  ruler,  entitled 
doge,  was  selected.  The  Crusades  gave  the 
city  a  great  impetus,  because  it  became  a  com- 
mercial center  for  these  military  movements. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  Venice  had  in- 
creased in  commercial  importance  and  power 
until  considerable  surrounding  territory  of 
the  mainland  was  under  its  control,  and  just 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  America  it  was 
the  leading  commercial  city  of  Europe.  From 
that  time  its  influence  began  to  wane.  The 
Turks  captured  Constantinople  and  cut  off 
much  of  the  trade  from  the  East.  A  route 
to  India  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
also  brought  much  of  that  trade  to  Portugal, 
and  the  commerce  which  had  entered  Europe 
through  Venetian  harbors  now  came  through 
Genoa  and  other  cities  to  the  west.  In  1797 
the  Venetian  Republic  was  deprived  of  its 
independence  by  Napoleon,  and  most  of  the 
possessions  were  given  to  Austria.  Within  a 
few  years  the  Austrians  ceded  Venice  to 
Italy.  Between  this  time  and  1866,  the  city 
was  alternately  under  the  rule  of  Austria 
and  Italy,  until  finally  by  vote  of  the  inhab- 
itants it  was  joined  to  Italy. 

The  proximity  of  Venice  to  the  war  zone 
during  the  World  War,  especially  after  the 
Austro-German  drive  of  1917,  caused  great 
anxiety  as  to  its  fate,  but  it  was  never 
captured.  However,  the  uncertain  conditions 
caused  thousands  of  its  inhabitants  to  flee, 
and  until  the  close  of  the  war  it  retained 
only  the  memories  of  its  former  glory  and 
activity.  Time  and  peace  will  restore  its 
prosperity  and  make  it  again  the  mecca  of 
art  lovers  and  tourists.  Before  the  World 
War  it  had  an  estimated  population  of 
163,000. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional   information: 

Adriatic  Sea  Dog-e 

Bridge  of  Sighs  Saint  Mark's, 

Campanile  Cathedral  of 

VENIZELOS,  ven  e  zaf  lohs,  Eleutherios 
(1864-       ),  an  eminent  Greek  lawyer  and 


statesman,  through  whose  influence  Greece 
was  brought  into  the  World  War  on  the  side 
of  the  entente  allies,  was  bom  of  humble 
parentage  on  the  island  of  Crete.  He  was 
educated  in  Canea,  Crete  and  the  University 
of  Athens.  After  completing  his  education 
Venizelos  returned  to  Crete,  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty-three  was  elected  to  the  assembly, 
where  he  soon  became  the  leader  of  the 
liberal  party.  In  1910  he  removed  to  Athens 
to  become  the  leader  of  a  party  founded  by 
the  Military  League,  which  was  working  for 
constitutional  reform.  Within  a  year  he  was 
chosen  Prime  Minister,  and  his  influence  be- 
came so  strong  that  several  factions  united 
to  oppose  his  policies. 

In  1913  King  Constantine,  whose  wife  was 
a  sister  of  Emperor  William  II,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Greece.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  Venizelos  led  the  movement  to 
unite  Greece  with  the  entente  allies,  but  Con- 
stantine advocated  strict  neutrality.  Venize- 
los resigned  in  March,  1915,  since  he  and 
the  king  could  not  work  together.  He  was, 
however,  persuaded  to  form  a  new  Ministry ; 
when  Bulgaria  entered  the  war  against  Ser- 
bia, he  insisted  that  the  Greek  forces  be 
mobilized,  and  accomplished  his  puipose  in 
spite  of  the  king's  opposition.  Since  Greece 
was  bound  by  treaty  to  go  to  the  aid  of 
Serbia  if  it  were  attacked  by  Bulgaria,  Ven- 
izelos insisted  that  this  agreement  be  ful- 
filled. Constantine  refused  his  consent,  and 
the  Prime  Minister  again  resigned. 

In  September,  1916,  Venizelos  and  his  fol- 
lowers set  up  a  provisional  government  at 
Canea,  but  later  transferred  it  to  Saloniki. 
When  Constantine  was  forced  to  abdicate  in 
1917,  Venizelos  was  returned  to  power  and 
Greece  joined  the  forces  against  the  Central 
Powers.  He  represented  his  country  at  the 
peace  conference  at  Versailles  in  1919.  See 
Greece;  World  War. 

VENTILATION,  ven  ti  la' shun.  See  Heat- 
ing AND  Ventilation. 

VENTRILOQUISM,  ven  triV  o  Tcwiz'm,  the 
art  of  speaking  in  such  a  way  that  the  voice 
seems  to  come  not  from  the  speaker  but 
from  another  source.  Long  practice  is  nec- 
essary to  develop  the  art  to  perfection.  The 
ventriloquist  is  able  to  "throw  his  voice," 
or  produce  the  illusion  of  distance  chiefly 
by  proper  control  of  his  larynx.  He  draws 
a  full  breath,  speaks  without  moving  the 
muscles  of  his  face,  neck  or  chest,  expelling 
the  air  through  a  narrow  glottis.     The  ven- 


VENUE 


3753 


VENUS 'S  FLYTRAP 


triloquist's  success  depends  largely  on  his 
skill  in  directing  the  imagination  of  his 
audience.  The  human  ear  is  not  quick  to 
detect  the  direction  from  which  a  sound 
comes,  and  if  a  listener's  attention  is  directed 
to  a  particular  location  his  imagination  is 
apt  to  associate  it  with  the  sound  he  hears. 

VEN'UE,  Change  of,  a  change  in  the 
county  or  judicial  district  in  which  a  case 
in  law  is  brought  to  trial.  It  is  made  for 
the  convenience  of  witnesses  or  on  motion 
of  the  defense  because  prejudice  on  the  part 
of  the  court  or  community  precludes  a  fair 
trial  in  the  jurisdiction  where  the  action  is 
brought.  Change  of  venue  is  regulated  by 
statute. 

VE'NUS,  the  Roman  name  for  the  god- 
dess of  love.  The  Greeks  called  her 
Aphrodite.  By  some  accounts  she  was  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter,  but  according  to  the 
most  popular  legend  she  was  born  from  the 
sea  foam,  near  the  island  of  Cythera.  She 
was  brought  up  by  the  nymphs  in  their  ocean 
caves,  and  when  she  had  attained  the  fulness 
of  her  size  and  beauty,  she  was  conducted 
to  Olympus,  where  she  excited  the  greatest 
admiration.  All  of  the  gods  wished  to  marry 
her,  but  she  scorned  them  all,  and  as  a  pun- 
ishment she  was  compelled  by  Jupiter  to 
mari-y  Vulcan,  the  ugliest  of  the  gods.  He 
gained  no  great  happiness  from  the  union, 
for  Venus  always  despised  him  and  bestowed 
her  love  on  Mars  and  on  the  mortals  Adonis 
and  Anchises.  Cupid  was  her  son  by  Mars, 
and  Aeneas  was  her  son  by  Anchises.  Venus 
was  the  special  protectress  of  all  young 
people  who  were  in  love,  but  she  does  not 
seem  to  have  continued  her  interest  in  their 
affairs  after  they  were  once  maiTied.  She 
was  consequently  chiefly  worshiped  by  young 
people. 

VENUS,  one  of  the  smallest  but  the  most 
brilliant  and  conspicuous  of  the  planets, 
second  from  the  sun,  its  orbit  lying  between 
Mercury  and  the  Earth.  To  the  ancients, 
Venus  was  known  as  Lucifer,  morning  star, 
and  Hesperus,  evening  star,  according  as  it 
was  seen  after  sunset  or  before  sunrise.  As 
evening  star  on  clear  moonless  nights  it  may 
be  observed  to  cast  a  shadow,  its  reflecting 
power  being  three  times  as  great  as  that 
of  the  moon,  due  probably  to  a  dense  at- 
mosphere and  the  presence  of  many  clouds. 
The  diameter  of  Venus  is  7,700  miles,  and 
it  is  67,200,000  miles  distant  from  the  sun. 
Its  sidereal  revolution  is  performed  in  225 


days;  its  rotation  period  remains  in  doubt, 
because  of  difficulty  of  observation.  It  has 
various  phases,  according  to  the  position  it 
occupies,  appearing  as  a  thin  crescent,  grad- 
ually increasing  to  a  full  circle  and  then 
decreasing  until  it  disappears. 

Transit  of  Venus,  the  passage  of  the 
planet  Venus  across  the  disk  of  the  sun, 
an  occurrence  of  unsurpassed  interest  to 
astronomers  and  the  entire  scientific  world. 
A  full  transit  of  Venus  across  the  center  of 
the  sun's  disk  occupies  about  eight  hours,  the 
time  being  shortened  when  it  occurs  nearer 
the  edge  of  the  disk.  Transits  of  Venus 
were  observed  in  1874  and  1882,  and  will 
occur  again  in  2004  and  2012. 

VENUS  DE  MILO.    See  Sculpture. 

VENUS 'S  FLOWER  BASKET,  a  beau- 
tiful sponge,  whose  skeleton  looks  like  spun 
glass,  woven  into  an  exquisite  pattern,  so 
delicate  and  white  that  one  can  scarcely  be- 
lieve it  to  be  a  natural  skeleton.  It  is  found 
in  the  deep  sea  near  the  Philippine  Islands. 

VENUS 'S  FLY'TRAP,  or  DIONAEA, 
di  0  ne'a,  a  plant  of  the  sundew  family,  the 
leaves  of  which  serve  as  traps  for  insects, 
upon  which  the  plant  feeds.  It  grows  in 
the  sandy  soil  of  the 
North  Carolina 
coast,  and  the  insects 
it  entraps  are  neces- 
sary to  supply  it 
with  the  nitrogen 
lacking  in  the  earth. 
A  flower  stalk  bear- 
ing a  cluster  of  small 
white  flowers  rises 
from  a  rosette  of 
leaves  which  spring 
directly  from  the 
ground.  Each  leaf  is 
divided  into  two 
parts,  the  lower,  flat 

J   ^',    -,   i-i       .   '  VENUS'S  FLYTRAP 

and  bladelike  m  ap- 
pearance, and  the  upper,  a  roundish  portion, 
consisting  of  two  lobes,  divided  by  a  midrib. 
On  the  surfaces  of  the  lobes  are  sensitive, 
hairlike  processes,  and  along  the  edges  are 
sharp  bristles.  When  an  insect  alights  on 
one  of  these  sensitive  hairs,  the  two  lobes 
come  together  like  a  trap.  A  fluid  is  se- 
creted by  means  of  which  the  plant  as- 
similates the  juices  of  the  animal.  When 
the  food  is  exhausted  the  leaf  opens.  After 
a  leaf  has  captured  several  insects  it  loses 
its  vitality  and  dies.    See  Sundew. 


VERA  CRUZ 


3754 


VERDI 


VERA  CRUZ,  va'rah  krooz,  Mexico,  the 
chief  seaport  of  the  republic,  situated  on  an 
arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  about  190  miles 
east  of  Mexico  City.  Though  the  site  is  low 
and  sandy  and  the  climate  somewhat  un- 
healthful,  the  constniction  of  sanitation  and 
port  works  has  greatly  improved  conditions 
and  has  prevented  the  recurrence  of  periodic 
outbreaks  of  yellow  fever.  At  the  entrance 
of  the  fine  harbor  is  the  picturesque  old 
fortress  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  formerly 
used  as  a  prison,  but  now  only  an  interesting 
relic  of  colonial  days.  The  city  itself,  with 
its  encircling  wall  built  of  coral,  is  very 
attractive.  Buildings  of  recent  construc- 
tion include  a  customhouse  and  a  post  and 
telegraph  office,  both  constructed  of  cement, 
and  the  handsome  building  of  the  general 
lighthouse  board,  erected  on  land  reclaimed 
from  the  sea.  The  dwelling  houses  of  Vera 
Ciniz  are  built  of  coral  limestone  in  Span- 
ish style. 

The  streets  of  the  city  are  narrow,  but 
are  straight  and  well-kept,  and  are  paved 
with  asphalt  over  a  wide  area.  Liberty 
Boulevard  is  the  handsomest  thoroughfare, 
and  there  are  two  public  gardens.  Prom- 
inent institutions  include  Vera  Cruz  Insti- 
tute (a  high  school),  the  naval  school,  the 
only  one  of  the  kind  in  Mexico,  the  public 
library  and  a  hospital.  There  are  several 
factories,  and  fishing  is  an  important  occu- 
pation. Vera  Cruz  has  a  large,  commodious 
harbor,  with  modern  docks  and  other  im- 
provements, and  enjoys  a  large  general 
trade.  Regular  lines  of  steamers  from  the 
United  States,  the  West  Indies  and  Europe 
visit  the  port,  and  four  railway  lines  meet 
here. 

The  city  was  founded  by  Cortez  in  1520. 
During  the  Mexican  War  it  was  captured  by 
Americans,  and  in  1914  it  was  temporarily 
occupied  by  United  States  marines  as  a  re- 
sult of  Huerta's  insult  to  the  flag  (see  Mex- 
ico, subhead  History).  To  the  Americans 
chief  credit  is  due  for  making  the  city 
sanitary,  for  during  their  occupation  they 
cleaned  it  thoroughly.  Population,  about 
50,000. 

VERB.  The  verb  is  that  part  of  speech 
which  expresses  action  or  that  tells  what 
some  object  is  or  does,  as,  "The  boy  runs," 
"The  man  lifts  the  stone,"  "Fishes  swim," 
"He  suffers  much,"  "The  leaves  are  green." 
Verbs  usually  have  the  power  of  indicating 
time  and  mode,  by  means  of  tenses  and  moods. 


these  varying  in  the  different  languages,  as 
does  also  the  conjugation,  or  system  of  verbal 
inflections  and  forms  as  a  whole. 

According  to  their  relation  to  objects,  verbs 
are  classed  as  transitive  and  intransitive.  A 
transitive  does  or  may  take  an  object,  as 
"John  struck  Harry."  An  intransitive  verb 
may  not  or  cannot  take  an  object,  as  "The 
tree  falls."  Some  verbs  are  used  both  transi- 
tively and  intransitively,  as  "The  boy  studies" 
and  "The  boy  studies  his  lesson."  According 
to  their  form  in  different  tenses,  verbs  are 
regular  or  irregular.  A  regular  verb  fonns 
its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding 
d  or  ed  to  the  present  tense  form,  as  live, 
lived.  Irregular  verbs  form  their  past  tense 
and  past  participle  otherwise,  as  give,  gave. 

Transitive  verbs  are  in  the  active  or  pas- 
sive voice,  according  to  their  representation 
of  the  subject  as  acting  or  as  being  acted 
upon,  as  "The  sun  attracts  the  earth,"  "The 
earth  is  attracted  by  the  sun."  Auxiliary 
verbs  are  those  used  with  principal  verbs  to 
indicate  mood  and  tense,  as  "The  man  is 
here,"  "The  man  was  here  yesterday,"  I  will 
go  tomorrow."  Inflection  of  a  verb  is  giving 
the  changes  in  form  to  denote  person,  num- 
ber and  tense.  Conjugation  is  the  process 
of  systematically  carrying  a  verb  through  all 
its  different  moods,  tenses,  persons  and  num- 
bers, in  both  active  and  passive  voices,  if  it 
is  a  transitive  verb. 

VERBENA,  vur  he'  nah,  a  genus  of  tropi- 
cal and  subtropical  American  plants  of  the 
vervain  family,  several  species  of  which  are 
cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 
The  cultivated  varieties  have  creeping  or 
spreading  stems  and  bear  their  blossoms  in 
dense,  showy  spikes,  of  almost  every  color 
except  yellow.  The  wild  varieti-es  are  often 
troublesome  as  weeds.  The  verbena  of  the 
perfumers  is  the  lemon  grass,  from  which  the 
oil  of  verbena  is  extracted. 

VERDI,  ver'de,  Giuseppe  (1813-1901), 
the  greatest  composer  of  opera  Italy  has 
produced.  He  was  bom  at  Roneole,  near 
Parma,  the  son  of  a  poor  storekeeper.  He 
early  showed  a  fondness  for  music,  and  at 
the  age  of  eight  began  his  studies  with  the 
village  organist.  Later  he  was  taught  for 
three  years  by  the  organist  of  a  neighboring 
village.  Verdi  then  went  to  Milan  and 
placed  himself  under  the  conductor  of  the 
famous  Seala  Theater.  In  1839  an  opera 
of  his  was  accepted  by  the  Scala  manage- 
ment, and  the  price  paid  for  it — about  four 


VERDIGRIS 


3755 


VERGIL 


GIUSEPPE  VERDI 


hundi-ed  dollars — was  more  money  than  the 
composer  had  ever  before  possessed  in  all  the 
combined  years  of  his  life.  Verdi  had  married 
some  years  previously,  and  the  struggle  with 
poverty  had  been  a  hard  one. 

With  the  accept- 
ance of  his  first 
opera  and  commis- 
sions for  new  ones, 
the  eve  of  a  better 
day  seemed  at  hand. 
Then  suddenly  his 
wife  and  both  of  his 
children  died.  After 
a  long  period  of  in- 
activity which  fol- 
lowed this  crushing 
loss,  the  composer 
returned  to  his  labors  with  redoubled  energy 
and  produced  in  succession  The  Corsair, 
Rigoletto,  II  Trovatore  and  La  Traviata;  and 
in  a  few  years  Verdi  found  himself  a  rich 
man.  In  1870  the  kliedive  of  Egypt  commis- 
sioned from  him  an  opera  for  the  opening  of 
a  Cairo  Theater,  and  A'idu  was  written.  This 
is  considered  his  best  work.  Later  operas 
were  Othello  and  Falstaff,  both  founded  on 
the  Shakespearean  dramas  of  the  same  names. 
No  other  composer  of  opera  has  so  en- 
deared himself  to  the  masses  as  has  Verdi. 
The  haunting  melodies  of  II  Trovatore  and  of 
others  scarcely  less  famous  are  known 
throughout  the  world. 

VERDIGRIS,  vu/  de  grees,  a  greenish 
substance  that  forms  on  copper  when  ex- 
posed to  acetic  acid.  It  is  used  principally 
in  the  composition  of  paints  and  Paris  Green, 
in  the  manufacture  of  dj^es  and  as  an  oint- 
ment, or  liniment.  Taken  internally,  it  is 
poisonous.  "White  of  egg  and  milk  are  anti- 
dotes. 

VERDUN,  vair  duN' ,  France,  a  mined 
fortified  town  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
countrj^,  a  "rock  of  history  around  which 
the  storms  of  battle  have  raged  repeatedly." 
In  1792,  during  the  French  Revolution,  and 
in  1870,  after  a  bitter  siege,  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Germans,  and  for  months  during  the 
World  War  it  was  the  scene  of  the  most 
desperate  fighting.  It  was  before  Verdun, 
however,  in  the  last  great  struggle,  that  the 
French  vowed  "lis  ne  passer ont  pas"  ("They 
shall  not  pass"),  and  it  was  here  that  the 
flower  of  the  army  of  the  Crown  Prince  of 
Germany  spent  itself  in  vain.  Verdun  lies  in 
the  valley  of  the  Meuse  River,  175  miles  by 


rail  from  Paris,  and  forty-two  miles  from 
Metz,  which  is  again  a  French  city.  Before 
the  war  Verdun  was  a  town  of  20,000  inhab- 
itants, and  a  center  for  the  manufacture  of 
hardware,  confections,  leather  goods  and 
liquors. 

Battle  of  Verdun.  After  the  war  of  1870- 
1871  Verdun  was  made  a  first-class  fortress, 
having  about  it  a  thirty-mile  ring  of  sixteen 
large  forts  and  twenty  smaller  works.  The 
great  attack  on  the  outer  defenses  was  be- 
gun in  February,  1916.  General  Petain  com- 
manded the  French  forces.  During  seven 
months  of  the  most  sanguinaiy  fighting,  from 
February  to  September,  the  Geimans  gained 
130  square  miles  of  territory,  but  failed  to 
capture  the  heart  of  the  fortress;  had  they 
succeeded  they  would  have  made  a  breach  in 
the  allied  defense  of  Paris.  In  October  a 
counter-attack  under  General  Nivelle  was  be- 
gun, which  was  followed  by  a  second  offen- 
sive in  December.  The  French  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  second  line  of  defenses  by  Feb- 
ruary, 1917,  and,  after  a  period  of  inactivity, 
began  a  third  offensive  in  August.  A  suc- 
cession of  smashing  blows  drove  the  Ger- 
mans back  until  all  the  dominating  positions 
were  in  French  hands.  The  Battle  of  Ver- 
dun is  counted  a  great  allied  victory.  The 
losses  were  exceedingly  heavy  on  both  sides ; 
it  is  believed  the  Germans  lost  over  half  a 
million  men. 

VERESTCHAGIN,  vyeh  reh  shchah'gin, 
Vasili  (1842-1904),  a  Russian  painter,  noted 
especially  for  his  pictures  of  war  scenes.  He 
was  born  at  Novgorod,  and  was  educated 
in  Saint  Petersburg  (Petrograd)  and  in 
France  and  Germany.  Among  his  produc- 
tions are  a  series  of  paintings  based  on  the 
expedition  of  1867  against  the  Central  Asian 
provinces,  The  Departure  of  Napoleon  from 
Moscow  and  Roosevelt  at  the  Head  of  the 
Rough  Riders.  Verestchagin  depicted  the 
cruel  side  of  war  with  remarkable  realism. 
He  was  killed  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War, 
while  on  a  battleship  which  was  sunk  by  the 
Japanese. 

VERGIL,  vur'jil  (70-19  b.  c),  the  com- 
mon designation  of  Publius  Vergilius  Maro, 
a  great  Roman  poet,  author  of  the  Aeneid. 
He  was  bom  near  Mantua,  in  northern  Italy, 
«nd  was  the  son  of  a  small  land-owner.  His 
education,  which  was  careful  and  thorough, 
was  received  at  Cremona,  Milan,  Naples  and 
Rome,  where  he  became  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  Epicurean  philosophy.    A 


VERGIL 


3756 


VERMILION 


naturally  retiring  disposition  and  a  delicate 
constitution,  together  with  the  fact  of  his 
not  being  by  birth  a  Roman  citizen,  would 
have  cheeked  any  aspirations  he  might  have 
had  to  the  calling  of  the  soldier,  the  orator 
or  the  statesman.  He  retired  to  his  father's 
estate,  with  the  intention  of  passing  his  life 
in  the  pursuit  of  poetry  and  agriculture,  but 
was  rudely  disturbed  by  the  allotment  of  his 
farm  to  the  soldiers  of  Octavius,  after  the 
Battle  of  Philippi  (42  b.  c).  He  recovered 
it  through  the  aid  of  Asinius  Pollio,  the  Ro- 
man governor;  but  further  troubles  arose, 
and  he  abandoned  it,  going  at  the  instance 
of  friends  to  Rome,  where  soon  afterward  he 
became  acquainted  with  Maecenas  and  Octa- 
vius, to  whom  Pollio  had  recommended  him. 
Through  these  powerful  friends  he  received 
an  estate  in  Campania  and  was  enabled  to 
devote  his  life  to  his  favorite  pursuits. 

Vergil  had  become  a  great  favorite  of 
Octavius,  and  when,  after  the  Battle  of 
Actium  (31  B.  c),  the  latter  became  Augus- 
tus, the  poet  was  not  forgotten.  It  was  under 
the  encouragement  and  patronage  of  the  em- 
peror that  Vergil's  greatest  work,  the  Aeneid, 
Avas  written;  and*  indeed  only  the  firm  es- 
tablishment of  the  Empire  and  the  glorious 
achievements  of  Augustus  in  war  and  peace 
could  have  produced  such  an  epic.  During 
the  years  of  its  composition  the  poet  recited 
selections  before  the  imperial  household. 
When  the  Aeneid  was  brought  to  a  close, 
Vergil  went  to  Athens,  intending  to  spend  a 
few  years  in  revising  the  poem  and  complet- 
ing certain  unfinished  parts.  Soon  afterward 
Augustus  arrived  in  Athens  from  the  East, 
and  he  induced  Vergil  to  accompany  him  to 
Italy.  Under  the  strain  of  seasickness  and 
exposure  to  the  strong  sea  air,  his  delicate 
constitution  broke  down,  and  he  barely  lived 
to  reach  Italy,  dyings  at  Brundusium,  Sept. 
21,  19  B.  c.  Rather  than  leave  his  life-work, 
the  Aeneid,  imperfect  and  incomplete,  he 
ordered  it  burned,  but  finally  yielded  to  the 
request  of  Augustus,  that  its  revision  might 
be  entrusted  to  his  friends  Tucca  and  Varius, 
who  edited  it  with  the  utmost  care.  The  first 
of  Vergil's  poems  of  which  the  authorship  is 
certain  are  the  Bucolics,  or  Eclogues.  While 
based  on  the  model  of  the  Idyls  of  Theo- 
critus, these  ten  poems  are  by  no  means 
solely  pastoral  in  character.  Many  contain 
allusions  or  are  entirely  devoted  to  current 
political  events  or  to  matters  concerning  the 
poet,   the   background   and   language   alone 


being  pastoral.  The  Georgics  comprise  four 
books  of  didactic  poems  on  agricultural  sub- 
jects. Book  I  deals  with  the  tilling  of  the 
soil;  Book  II,  with  the  cultivation  of  fruit 
trees ;  Book  III  tells  of  horses  and  cattle,  and 
Book  IV  treats  of  bees.  The  Georgics  are 
addressed  to  Maecenas  and  were  said  by  some 
to  have  been  written  at  his  patron's  request ; 
the  work  is  the  most  finished  of  all  Vergil's 
poetry. 

The  Aeneid,  the  composition  of  which  prob- 
ably occupied  most  of  the  twelve  years  be- 
tween the  beginning  of  Augustus's  reign  and 
the  poet's  death,  is  Vergil's  greatest  work, 
although  it  is  not  as  highly  polished  as  some 
of  his  other  poems.  In  general  treatment  of 
character  and  incident,  it  is  inferior  to  its 
Greek  models,  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey; 
but  certain  parts  are  very  successfully  han- 
dled; and  the  whole  poem  is  conceived  in  a 
spirit  of  delicacy,  true  culture  and  noble  pa- 
triotism. In  refinement  of  expression  and 
elegant  metrical  constniction,  Vergil  has  not 
been  surpassed.  For  an  outline  of  the  poem, 
see  Aeneid. 

VERMES,  vu/meez,  or  WORMS,  that 
branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  formerly  in- 
eluding  all  invertebrate  creatures  (those 
without  backbones)  except  the  insects,  but 
now  restricted  to  such  forms  as  earthworms, 
sea-worms  and  leeches.  Most  of  the  ani- 
mals of  this  division  have  long,  flat  or  cylin- 
drical bodies,  which  are  divided  more  or  less 
distinctly  into  segments  which  have  no 
limbs.  Many  of  the  Vermes  are  parasites, 
and  some  live  in  the  intestines  of  human  be- 
ings, where  they  cause  great  discomfort.  See 
Zoology. 

VERMICELLI,  vur  me  cheVle  or  vur  me 
sel'le.      See  Macaroni. 

VERMIFORM,  vu/me  form,  APPEN'- 
DIX,  a  long,  slender,  wormlike  organ,  which 
opens  from  the  colon  near  its  lower  end.  It 
is  normally  from  three  to  six  inches  in  length 
and  is  hollow  to  its  tip.  It  is  in  the  right 
side  of  the  lower  abdomen  and  projects  u]")- 
ward  and  inward  in  most  cases.  Little  is 
known  of  its  function,  which  is  probably 
unimportant.     See  Appendicitis. 

VERMILION,  a  bright  red  pigment, 
named  from  a  French  word  meaning  little 
worm,  because  formerly  crimson,  or  car- 
mine, was  obtained  from  a  small  red  worm. 
The  vermilion  of  commerce  is  obtained  by 
mixing  together  in  a  revolving  drum,  mer- 
cury, sulphur  and  a  solution  of  potash  in 


VERMONT 


3757 


VERMONT 


water,  and  heating  the  mixture  to  about 
115°,  when  it  gradually  assumes  a  red  color. 
VeiTQilion  is  a  permanent  color  and  can  be 
used  with  water  or  oil,  but  volatilizes  at  red 
heat  and  cannot  be  used  for  enamels.  Cin- 
nabar, a  sulphide  of  mercury  which  occurs 
in  large  quantities  in  California,  Brazil, 
Spain,  China  and  other  countries,  is  also  a 
valuable  source  of  vermilion. 


ERMONT',  the  second  largest  of  the 
New  England  states,  popularly  called  the 
Green  Mountain  State_,  green  mountains 
being  an  English  translation  of  the  French 
words  verts  and  monts,  from  which  Ver- 
mont is  derived.  The  state  is  appropriately 
named,  for  its  picturesque  mountains  with 
their  wooded  slopes  are  among  the  most 
charming  phases  of  New  England  scenery. 
The  flower  emblem  of  the  state  is  the  red 
clover. 

Location  and  Area.  Vermont  lies  direct- 
ly south  of  the  Canadian  province  of  Que- 
bec, and  its  southern  boundary  follows  the 
northern  Massachusetts  line.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  New  Hampshire,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Connecticut  River,  and 
on  the  west  by  New  York.  It  is  therefore 
the  only  New  England  state  having  no  coast 
line.  The  western  boundary,  however,  fol- 
lows the  deepest  channels  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain  for  more  than  one  hundi'ed  miles, 
and  over  half  the  lake  belongs  to  Vermont. 
Along  the  northern  boundary  the  state  is 
ninety  miles  wide;  along  the  southera,  but 
forty.  From  north  to  south  it  is  about  150 
miles  in  extent,  and  its  area  is  9,564  square 
miles,  220  square  miles  in  excess  of  the 
area  of  New  Hampshire.  Maine,  the  largest 
New  England  state,  is  over  three  times  as 
large  as  Vermont,  which  ranks  forty-second 
in  size  among  the  states  of  the  Union. 

People  and  Cities.  In  1910,  when  the 
population  was   355,956,  Vermont  was  the 


forty-second  state  in  number  of  inhabitants. 
Since  the  Thirteenth  Census  it  has  dropped 
behind  Idaho  and  New  Mexico  in  population, 
according  to  Federal  estimates.  The  esti- 
mate bureau  credited  it  with  366,192  inhab- 
itants in  July,  1918.  The  average  density 
per  square  mile  is  thirty-nine;  for  the  entire 
United  States  it  is  thirty-one. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  foreign-bom  in- 
habitants, who  number  about  50,000,  are 
French-Canadians,  and  consequently  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  claims  the  largest 
number  of  adherents  of  any  one  denomina- 
tion. Among  Protestant  bodies,  the  Congre- 
gational, IMethodist,  Baptist  and  Episcopal 
are  the  most  important. 

Slightly  more  than  half  the  population  live 
under  rural  conditions.  Burlington,  with  an 
estimated  population  of  21,802  in  1917,  is 
the  largest  city.  Rutland,  Barre  and  Ben- 
nington are  next  in  order.  Montpelier  (7,856 
in  1910)  is  the  capital. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  entire  state 
is  mountainous,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the 
Green  Mountain  range,  which  extends  from 
the  Canadian  border  into  Massachusetts,  and 
to  numerous  parallel  ranges,  which  extend  in 
a  nearly  north  and  south  direction.  The 
Taconic  range  lies  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  state  and  is  parallel  to  the  main  range. 
There  are  also  several  short  ranges  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  sections.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  main  range  from  north  to  south 
are  Jay,  Sterling,  Mansfield,  Camel's  Hump, 
Lincoln,  Pico,  Killington,  Shrewsbury,  Strat- 
ton  and  Haystack,  of  which  Mount  Mansfield, 
with  an  altitude  of  4,364  feet,  is  the  highest. 
There  are  twenty-one  peaks  having  an  alti- 
tude of  3,500  feet  or  more.  All  of  the  moun- 
tains of  the  parallel  ranges  are  comparatively 
low,  have  rounded  summits  and  are  well  tim- 
bered. These  various  ranges  are  separated  by 
low,  broad  valleys,  through  which  one  or  more 
streams  flow  and  which  have  fairly  fertile 
soil.  The  lowest  point  in  the  state  is  the 
valley  of  Lake  Champlain.  In  genei'al  the 
surface  is  a  combination  of  forest-clad  hills 
and  mountains,  beautiful  valleys  and  spark- 
ling lakes  and  streams. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  state  is  drained  by 
the  Connecticut  River  and  its  tributaries,  the 
most  important  of  these  being  the  Pas- 
sumpsic,  the  Waits,  the  White,  the  Otta- 
queechee,  the  Williams,  the  Saxtons  and  the 
West.  The  western  part  of  the  state  is 
drained   into   Lake   Champlain   and  thence 


VERMONT 


3758 


VERMONT 


into  the  Saint  Lawi-ence  River.  The  most 
important  streams  flowing  into  the  lake  are 
the  Missisquoi,  the  Lamoille,  the  Winooski 
and  the  Otter  Creek,  the  last  being  the  larg- 
est river  wholly  within  the  state.  The  south- 
western section  is  drained  into  the  Hudson 
River  by  the  Battenkill  and  the  Hoosic. 

The  most  important  lake  is  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  more  than  half  of  which  belongs  to 
Vermont.  Other  lakes  in  the  Champlain 
Valley  are  Bomoseen,  Saint  Catherine  and 
Dunmore.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
state  is  Lake  Memphremagog,  a  portion  of 
which  is  in  Vermont  and  the  remainder  in 
Canada.  Southeast  of  this  is  Willoughby 
Lake,  renowned  for  its  peculiar  surroundings. 
The  lake  is  about  six  miles  long  and  lies 
between  two  mountains  which  seem  to  have 
been  rent  asunder  in  some  j^ast  geologic  age. 
This  region  also  contains  numerous  other 
smaller  lakes,  frequently  known  as  ponds. 
All  of  these  bodies  of  water  have  become 
favorite  summer  resorts. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  Vennont  is  sub- 
ject to  extreme  and  sudden  changes.  In  sum- 
mer the  temperature  varies  from  65°  to  90° 
in  winter  it  ranges  from  18°  to  45°. 
At  Burhngton  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  45°.  The  climate  is  milder  in  the  Cham- 
plain  Valley  than  east  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tains. During  the  winter  there  is  often  much 
snow,  which  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  state 
covers  the  ground  for  three  months.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  thirty-three  inches. 
The  air  is  clear  and  pure. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  chief  mineral 
wealth  of  the  state  is  in  its  quarries.  No 
other  state  in  the  Union  produces  so  great  a 
variety  or  quantity  of  marble  and  granite, 
and  Vermont  has  practically  become  the 
center  of  the  marble  and  granite  industries. 
The  value  of  the  annual  output  of  granite 
exceeds  $3,000,000;  the  largest  quarries  are  at 
Barre  and  "Woodbury.  The  marble  industry 
is  chiefly  in  Rutland  County.  Roofing  and 
other  slate  are  obtained  in  large  quantities, 
and  the  output  is  of  fine  quality. 

Agriculture.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  along 
the  streams  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  hills  is  usually  fertile,  though  but  very 
little  of  it  compares  favorably  in  this  respect 
with  the  soils  of  the  great  prairie  states  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  Agriculture  is  the 
leading  industry  of  the  state.  The  farms  are 
comparatively  small,  averaging  less  than  200 
acres,  and  most  of  them  are  tilled  by  their 


owners.  Fonuerly  Vermont  was  known  for 
its  production  of  wheat,  oats,  corn  and  pota- 
toes, but  since  the  development  of  the  great 
agricultural  states  m  the  Missippi  Valley,  the 
New  England  states  have  been  unable  to  com- 
pete in  the  markets  which  the  Western  pro- 
ducers could  reach;  consequently,  in  recent 
years  methods  and  products  have  been  radi- 
cally changed.  Now  intensified  farming  is 
generally  practiced  and  the  raising  of  wheat 
has  given  way  to  the  raising  of  corn,  which 
is  very  generally  used  as  ensilage.  Dairying 
is  the  chief  agricultural  industry.  Excellent 
qualities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  made,  and 
these  find  ready  market  in  Boston  and  other 
Eastern  cities.  In  the  output  of  these  prod- 
ucts the  state  ranks  among  the  first  ten. 
Vermont  has  always  been  famed  for  the  excel- 
lent breeds  of  horses  produced  there,  and 
horses  are  still  raised  in  large  numbers.  In 
some  sections  the  raising  of  garden  vegetables 
and  apples  for  market  is  also  a  profitable 
industry,  and  Vermont  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
United  States  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
maple  sugar  produced. 

Manufactures.  The  chief  manufacturing 
industries  include  dressing  stone  particularly 
marble  and  granite;  the  manufacture  of 
scales,  centered  in  Saint  Johnsbury  and  in 
Rutland;  the  production  of  flour  and  other 
grist  mill  products ;  the  manufacture  of  lum- 
ber products,  and  the  manufacture  of  textiles, 
particularly  woolen  goods.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  electrical  power,  many  small  fac- 
tories have  been  established  within  the  state, 
obtaining  their  power  from  mountain  streams 
which  were  previously  useless.  This  has 
increased  the  output  of  manufactures  very 
materially  since  1890. 

Transportation.  The  northwestern  part 
of  the  state  finds  a  ready  outlet  by  water 
through  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Richelieu 
River,  but  these  are  closed  to  navigation 
during  the  winter  season.  Lines  of  railway 
traverse  the  state  from  north  to  south,  both 
on  the  eastern  and  western  sides.  There  are 
also  numerous  cross  lines  so  that  every  countj' 
has  good  railway  facilities,  and  nearly  every 
town  is  on  a  line  of  railway  or  within  ready 
access  of  it.  The  railways  of  the  state  are 
under  the  control  of  the  Rutland,  the  Boston 
&  Maine  and  the  Grand  Trunk  systems,  and 
the  total  mileage  is  about  1,075.  A  number  of 
electric  lines  connect  near-by  towns. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a   senate   of  thirty  members   and   a  house 


VERMONT 


3759 


VERMONT 


Bennington  Battle  Monument 


Quarry 
in    Vermont 


of  representatives  of  246  members,  the  latter 
containing  one  representative  for  each  town 
and  city  within  the  state.  Both  senators  and 
representatives  are  elected  every  two  years. 
The  legislature  meets  biennially.  The  execu- 
tive department  consists  of  a  governor,  lieu- 
tenant-governor, secretary  of  state,  treasurer 
and  auditor,  elected  by  the  people  for  two 
years.  The  courts  consist  of  a  state  supreme 
court  of  seven  judges,  a  chancery  court  and 
county  courts.  The  judges  of  the  supreme 
court,  the  commissioner  of  education  and 
some  other  officers  are  elected  by  the  legis- 
lature for  terms  of  two  years.  Women  enjoy 
Presidential  suffrage. 

Education.  The  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion is  at  the  head  of  the  public  school  system. 
The  township  system  is  in  vogue,  in  which  the 
town  constitutes  the  smallest  unit  for  school 
purposes.  County  examiners  are  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion. It  is  the  duty  of  the  examiners  to 
examine  and  license  teachers.  Supervision 
is  by  districts  in  which  several  adjoining 
towns  are  united.  A  superintendent  who 
devotes  his  entire  time  to  the  work  is  ap- 
pointed for  each  district.  Graded  schools 
are  maintained  in  all  of  the  larger  towns  and 
villages,  most  of  which  have  high  schools. 
The  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  the 
University  of  Vei-mont,  at  Burlington,  with 
which  is  connected  the  State  Agricultural 
College;  Middlebmy  College,  at  Middlebury, 
and  Norwich  University  at  Northfield. 
Montpelier  Seminary,  at  Montpelier;  God- 
dard  Seminary,  at  Barre;  Saint  Johns- 
bury  Academy,  at  Saint  Johnsbury;  Ver- 
mont Academy,  at  Saxton's  River,  and  Brig- 
ham  Academy,  at  Bakersfield,  are  among  the 
most  prominent  academies.  There  are  nor- 
mal schools  at  Johnson  and  Castleton.  Teach- 
er-training courses  are  also  provided  in  a 
number  of  high  schools  and  academies.  In 
1910  the  normal  school  at  Randolph  was 
changed  to  the  State  School  of  Agriculture. 

Institutions.  The  charitable  and  correc- 
tional institutions  of  the  state  include  the 
state  penitentiary  at  Windsor,  the  house  of 
correction  at  Rutland,  the  industrial  school 
at  Vergennes,  the  state  asylum  for  the  insane 
at  Waterbury,  the  soldiers'  home  at  Benning- 
ton, the  state  sanatorium  at  Pittsford.  There 
are  also  ten  hospitals  under  the  control  of 
the  state  authorities. 

History.  The  first  white  man  to  enter  the 
territory  of  Vermont  was  probably  Cham- 


VERMONT 


3760 


VERMONT 


|;1  Items  of  Interest  on  Vermont  ji'l 

H  About  10,000  of  the  foreign-bom  in-  |;|j 

N  habitants  came  from  the  British  Isles.  |i|| 

P  There  are,  besides,  over  11,000  English-  p| 

j-j  Canadians.  1;] 

m  School   attendance   during   the   full  |j 

fij  school  term  is  compulsory  for  children  ji 

|!;|  from    six    to    fifteen    years    of    age.  j,:| 

I;;!  No  child  less  than  sixteen  who  has  not  jj 

[ill  completed  nine  grades  of  school  may  jj 

iiil  work  in  any  industrial  establishment.  j.j 

II  There  are  about  2,500  public  schools  jl 

if  in  the  state  and  nearly  65,000  enrolled  n 

jiil  pupils.  |:;[ 

l;;|  In  January,  1918,  Vermont  had  295,-  |!;j 

lilt  000  milch  cows,  189,000  other  cattle,  H 

l;;|  89,000  horses,  106,000  sheep  and  120,-  |i 

!1  000  swine.  i\ 

I I  The     marble     quarries     were     first  |;1 

III  opened  in  1785.  They  produce  half  of  |:| 
|j  the  marble  of  the  United  States.  !!!! 
|;f  During  the  summer  months  the  peo-  ji 
iiii  pie  in  the  mountain  and  lake  towns  lij 
t;;!  find  entertaining  the  tourists  a  profit-  |;'| 
I'll  able  occupation.  j-l 
|"l  Vermont  was  the  first  state  to  adopt  |;:j 
fij  a  clause  in  its  constitution  prohibiting  jJ 
jiij  slavery.  |:!| 
|;|i  It  was  the  first  to  be  adroitted  after  M 
N  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitu-  |i| 
iil  tion.  iJ 
liil  The  present  constitution  of  Vermont  |;;| 
III  was  adopted  in  1793.  |::f 

II  Questions  on  Vermont  |:;i 
ilf  When  was  Vermont  admitted  to  the  j;|l 
1  Union?  || 

III  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  liij 
III  of  the  state?  {:;[ 
III  What  is  the  highest  mountain  peak?  m 
III  Name  the  principal  rivers.  j:,! 
Ill  How  has  the  introduction  of  elec-  |;1 
ill  trical  power  affected  the  manufactur-  [  j 
III  ing  industry?  li 
III  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  i;!| 
||[  products?  |::| 
III  How  does  Vermont  rank  in  the  pro-  III 
llJ  duction  of  maple  sugar?  Of  marble?  |i|| 
III  What  are  the  principal  manufactur-  M 
M  ing  industries?  j:! 
M  For  what  products  are  some  of  the  !;;| 
i-il  leading  cities  noted?  M 
M  Why  is  the  state  a  favorite  summer  j-j 
lij  resort?  |:'! 

i;ii'S!!:!!!!!:!!fll!!!l!!!!:i!!!n!!!!!!!!1!!!!!ll!!!ll!!!™!!!!!!!ll!!«fiS!»!!!l!!H!"W!!!l!!!!!!!!!l!!r|!|!^^ 


plain  (1609),  but  no  settlements  were  made 
until  1665,  when  French  trading  posts  were 
established  on  the  western  border.  Vermont 
was  the  scene  of  numerous  expeditions  by 
both  French  and  English  during  the  French 
and  Indian  Wars.  After  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  centur3^  the  territory  was  a  cause 
of  dispute  between  New  Hampshire  and  New 
York,  each  claiming  jurisdiction  over  it, 
by  reason  of  charters  and  royal  grants.  On 
accounts  of  the  grants  of  lands  made  there 
by  New  Hampshire,  Vermont  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Hampshire  Grants.  It  was 
finally  decided  by  England  that  New  York 
had  jurisdiction,  but  the  settlers  of  Vermont, 
by  means  of  organized  militia,  known  as 
"Green  Mountain  Boys,"  resisted  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  authority  of  New  York. 
This  resulted  in  several  skirmishes. 

During  the  Revolution,  Vermont  organized 
its  own  forces  and  fought  with  great  effect 
against  the  Indians  and  British  in  the  north. 
Meantime  it  set  up  a  claim  of  independent 
statehood,  and  existed  as  an  independent 
state  for  fourteen  years,  until  it  was  admitted 
into  the  Union,  March  4,  1791.  Its  progress 
during  the  nineteenth  century  was  consistent. 
Its  government  in  most  respects  was  rather 
more  democratic  than  that  of  other  New 
England  states.  During  the  Civil  War  it 
furnished  its  full  quota  of  troops,  and  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  operations  of  the  Fenians 
in  1866  and  1870.  In  1852  an  amendment 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
was  adopted,  but  was  repealed  in  1902,  high 
license  and  local  option  being  substituted. 
Admiral  George  Dewey  and  Captain  Charles 
E.  Clark  of  the  Oregon  were  among  noted 
Vermonters;  President  Chester  A.  Arthur 
and  Vice-President  Levi  P.  Morton  and 
William  A.  Wheeler  were  also  among  her 
sons.  The  state  has  always  been  known  for 
the  sterling  character  of  its  people,  and  in 
proportion  to  its  population  has  been  second 
to  none  in  the  number  of  eminent  men  it 
has  furnished  to  the  nation. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information  : 

CITIES 

Barre  Montpelier 

Benning-ton  Rutland 

Burlington 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

Memphremagog 

(lake) 
Taconic  Mountains 

HISTORY  , 

Allen,  Ethan  Green  Mountain  Boys 

Champlain,   Samuel        New  Hampshire 
(history) 


Champlain,   Lake 
Connecticut   River 
Green  Mountains 


VERMONT 


3761 


VERSAILLES 


VERMONT,  Unh^rsity  of,  a  coeducation- 
al institution  of  learning,  founded  in  1791 
at  Burlington.  In  1862  the  university  was 
assured  a  share  in  the  benefits  of  the  land- 
grant  act  passed  by  Congress,  and  three  years 
later  the  Vermont  Agricultural  College  was 
incorporated  with  it.  "State  Agricultural 
College"  is  still  a  part  of  the  legal  title  of 
the  institution,  which  is  organized  into  col- 
leges of  arts  and  science,  engineering,  agri- 
culture and  medicine.  There  is  a  student  en- 
rollment of  about  900,  and  a  faculty  of  about 
115.  The  library  contains  about  99,000 
volumes. 

VERNE,  vairn,  Jules  (1828-1905),  a 
popular  French  romancer.  He  studied  law 
for  some  time,  but  aftenvard  began  writing 
short  pieces  for  the 
stage.  He  then  began 
to  write  stories  of  ad- 
venture. The  highly 
imaginative  and  fan- 
tastic exj^loits  he  re- 
counted were  given  an 
air  of  plausibility  by 
the  author's  manner ' 
of  presenting  them  as 
scientifically  possible. 
His  first  essay  in  the 
vein  of  the  mai-velous 
was  Five  WeeJcs  in  a 
Balloon.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  Ticenty  Thousand  Leagues  under 
the  Sea,  From  the  Earth  to  the  Moon, 
Around  the  World  in  Eighty  Days,  Michael 
Strogoff  and  The  Mysterious  Island.  Most 
of  his  books  have  been  translated  into  the 
various  European  languages,  and  some  even 
into  Arabic  and  Japanese.  They  will  long 
remain  popular  for  their  ingenuity  and  their 
lively  style. 

VERONA,  va  ro'nah,  Italy,  next  to 
Venice  the  most  famous  city  in  the  Venetian 
plain.  The  city  is  so  old  that  an  old  Roman 
amphitheater  built  by  the  emperor  Diocletian 
still  stands,  for  many  years  a  ruin,  eloquent 
of  the  dead  past,  but  now  restored.  This 
building  is  over  500  feet  long  and  is  106 
feet  high ;  it  was  built  to  seat  20,000  people. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  busiest  part  of  the  town 
is  a  marble  tablet  marking  the  spot  where  the 
people  believe  Juliet  lived,  and  to  whose 
house  came  Romeo.  Through  the  town  runs 
the  swiftly-flowing  Adige  River,  which  is 
spanned  by  seven  bridges.  Population,  1916, 
about  86,000. 

236 


JULES  VERNE 


VERONESE,  va  ro  nay'  z ah,  Paul  (152S- 
1588),  the  popular  name  of  Paolo  Cagliari, 
an  eminent  Italian  artist,  born  at  Verona. 
He  studied  painting  under  his  uncle,  Antonio 
Badile,  and  worked  successively  in  Venice, 
Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy;  but  Venice 
was  his  chief  residence.  Some  idea  of  his 
talent  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  he 
was  soon  recognized  as  a  rival  of  Titian  and 
Tintoretto.  He  was  an  excellent  colorist,  as 
were  most  of  the  Venetian  school,  and  he  was 
distinguished  by  the  richness  and  fertility  of 
his  imagination.  His  pictures  are  exceeding- 
ly numerous  and  varied  in  subject.  Among 
his  masterpieces  are  The  Marriage  at  Cana 
(now  in  the  Louvre),  The  Calling  of  Saint 
Andreio  to  the  Apostleship,  The  Rape  of  Eu- 
ropa,  The  Family  of  Darius  at  the  Feet  of 
Alexander,  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  Consecra- 
tion of  Saint  Nicholas  and  Saint  Helena  and 
The  Vision  of  the  Invention  of  the  Cross. 
The  last  five  mentioned  are  in  the  National 
Gallery.  Veronese  died  at  Venice  in  the 
full  maturity  of  his  genius. 

VERON'  ICA,  Saint,  a  female  saint,  who, 
according  to  legend,  met  Jesus  Christ  bending 
under  the  weight  of  the  cross  and  offered  him 
her  veil  to  wipe  the  sweat  from  his  brow. 
The  divine  features  were  found  miraculously 
impressed  on  the  cloth,  and  this  veil  was 
brought  from  Palestine  to  Rome,  where  it 
is  still  preserved  by  the  canons  of  Saint 
Peter's.  Milan  and  other  places  claim  they 
have  the  genuine  veil. 

VERRAZANO,  ver  a  tsah' no,  Giovanni 
DA  (1480?-1527),  a  Florentine  navigator, 
about  whose  life  little  is  known.  About 
1523  he  made  his  first  voyage  of  discovery, 
and  in  1524  he  voyaged  to  America,  prob- 
ably touching  the  coast  of  North  Caro- 
lina. He  wrote  a  letter  to  Francis  I,  de- 
scribing this  voyage,  and  this  letter  is  almost 
the  only  source  of  information  concerning 
his  discoveries.  Some  accounts  relate  that 
Verrazano  was  hanged  as  a  corsair;  others 
state  that  he  died  while  preparing  for  another 
expedition  to  America.  The  exact  truth  may 
never  be  known. 

VERSAILLES,  versah'y',  France,  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  the  Seine-et-Oise, 
situated  twelve  miles  southwest  of  Paris. 
The  town  is  noted  as  the  location  of  the 
magnificent  Palace  of  Versailles,  erected  in 
1661  by  Louis  XIV  and  since  that  time  the 
scene  of  a  number  of  important  and  dramatic 
events  in  the  history  of  France  and  of  the 


VERSAILLES 


3762 


VERSAILLES 


world.  Here,  in  1871,  the  French  signed 
the  hard  treaty  terms  which  concluded 
the  Franco-German  War;  in  July,  1919,  the 
victorious  allies  concluded  in  the  same  palace 
peace  terms  with  Gennany  at  the  close  of  the 
World  War  (see  Versailles^  Palace  of; 
Versailles^  Treaty  of)  .  From  1871  to  1879 
Versailles,  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
republic  of  France.  Population,  1911,  60,458. 
VERSAILLES,  Palace  of,  the  famous 
residence  of  the  Bourbon  court  and  subse- 
quent place  of  meeting  of  many  important 
conferences  for  the  adjustment  of  national 
and  international  affairs,  including  that  fol- 
lowing the  World  War.  The  palace  was  built 
as  a  residence  by  Louis  XIV  in  1661,  at  a 
cost  of  $100,000,000.  It  was  permanently  oc- 
cupied by  the  court  about  1682  and  remained 
its  center  for  a  hundred  years,  or  until  the 
overthrow  of  the  Bourbons  at  the  opening 
of  the  French  Revolution.  Since  that  time 
it  has  been  used  principally  as  a  vast  museum, 
its  collections  representing  the  development 
of  French  history  and  art  from  the  time  of 
Clovis  to  the  present  day.  Especially  inter- 
esting is  a  collection  representing  the  era  of 
the  Crusades. 

The  Versailles  palace  is  three  stories  high, 
in  form  a  great  square  with  wings  at  either 
side  and  at  the  back  projecting  into  its 
surrounding  park.  It  has  an  imposing 
facade  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  above  which 
are  inscribed  the  words,  A  toutes  les  gloires 
de  la  France  ("To  all  the  glories  of  France") . 
The  extensive  Versailles  gardens  are  filled 
with  terraces,  fountains,  decorative  ponds 
and  artificially  aiTanged  trees  and  plants. 

With  the  palace  are  associated  the  names 
of  Mme.  de  Pompadour,  Mme.  du  Barry  and 
Marie  Antoinette.  Here  was  signed  the 
Treaty  of  1783  between  England,  France  and 
Spain  on  the  same  day  that  England  recog- 
nized the  independence  of  the  United  States. 
Here,  in  1789,  was  held  the  meeting  of  the 
States-General  which  formed  the  opening  act 
of  the  French  Revolution.  During  the  Siege 
of  Paris,  1870-71,  King  William  of  Prussia 
made  his  headquarters  here,  and  there  he 
was  proclaimed  Emperor  William  I  of  Ger- 
many. Again,  in  1919,  the  interest  of  the 
world  centered  on  Versailles,  as  the  confer- 
ence of  the  powers  adjusted  anew  the  affairs 
of  a  world  shaken  by  the  four  years  of  the 
World  War,  this  time  with  a  new  diplomacy 
based  on  the  principles  of  a  League  of 
Nations. 


Hall  of  Mirrors, 

Where  Treaty 

Was  Signed 


VERSAILLES, Treaty  of, 
the  name  of  the  treaty 
which  formally  con- 
cluded the  World  War, 
negotiated  by  represent- 
atives of  the  allied 
powers  on  the  one  hand, 
and  those  of  the  central 
powers,  including  Tur- 
key, on  the  other.  There 
were  four  separate 
treaty  agreements,  made 
with  Germany,  Austria, 
Bulgaria  and  Turkey, 
respectively.  The  pre- 
liminary work  on  the 
agreements  was  carried 
on  in  Paris,  but  the 
name  Versailles  is  applied  to  the  treaty  be- 
cause the  actual  signing  of  the  agreement 
with  Germany,  the  head  of  the  Teutonic  al- 
liance, took  place  in  Versailles,  a  suburb  of 
Paris.  The  Gennan  treaty  was  the  first  one 
negotiated,  and  was  signed  in  the  famous 
Hall  of  Mirrors,  in  the  Palace  of  Versailles, 
in  the  same  room  where,  in  1871,  William  I 
was  crowned  emperor  of  Germany  at  the 
close  of  the  Franco-German  War. 

The  peace  conference  began  sessions  at 
Paris  on  January  18,  1919.  The  United 
States,  the  British  Empire,  France,  Italy  and 
Japan  were  represented  by  five  delegates 
each ;  Brazil,  Belgium  and  Serbia  were  repre- 
sented by  three  each,  and  there  were  two 
each  from  China,  Greece,  Poland,  Portugal, 
the  Czecho-Slovak  Republic,  Rumania  and 
the  kingdom  of  Hedjaz.  Two  delegates  were 
allotted  respectively  to  Australia,  Canada, 
South  Africa  and  India,  and  one  to  New 
Zealand,  as  these  British  possessions  had 
made  great  sacrifices  for  the  allied  cause. 
Other  minor  nations  were  allowed  one  dele- 
gate each,  namely,  Siam,  Cuba,  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Honduras,  Siberia,  Nicaragua,  Panama 
and  Montenegro.  Each  delegation  acted  as 
a  unit.  The  most  influential  group  consisted 
of  the  heads  of  the  American,  British,  French 
and  Italian  commissions — President  Wood- 
row  Wilson  and  Premiers  Lloyd-George, 
Clemeneeau  and  Orlando.  They  were  termed 
"the  big  four." 

The  conference  held  its  sessions  in  the 
building  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
meeting  in  a  splendid  reception  room  origi- 
nally called  Salle  d'Horloge  (Hall  of  the 
Clock).    It  required  nearly  six  months  to  ne- 


VERSAILLES 


3763 


VERSAILLES 


gotiate  a  treaty  with  Germany.  On  May  7, 
1919,  109  days  after  the  associated  powers 
had  begun  their  deliberations,  German  envoys 
received  the  terms  on  which  the  victorious 
powers  were  willing  to  make  peace.  The 
head  of  the  German  commission  was  Count 
von  Brockdorff-Rantzau.  A  period  of  fif- 
teen days  was  allotted  the  German  envoys  in 
which  to  reply  to  the  terms.  An  extension  of 
this  period  was  granted,  however,  and  Ger- 
man counter  proposals  were  not  delivered  un- 
til May  29.  On  June  16,  a  revised  version 
of  the  treaty,  which  had  been  slightly  modi- 
fied, was  tendered  the  Germans,  and  on  that 
date  the  delegation  started  for  Germany.  The 
German  National  Assembly  at  Weimar  rati- 
fied the  revised  treaty  on  June  22,  and  on 
June  28  the  tenns  were  signed  in  Versailles. 
It  was  found  necessary  to  api^oint  a  new  com- 
mission, the  original  envoys  refusing  to  sign. 
A  summary  of  the  terms  follows : 

How  Germany  Paid.  Germany  was 
stripped  of  all  colonial  possessions,  required 
to  cede  certain  portions  of  its  European 
domain,  and  forced  to  agree  to  the  payment 
of  heavy  indemnities. 

Territorial  Changes.  The  following  changes 
in  Europe  were  authorized : 

To  France — Alsace-Lorraine,  5,600  square 
miles. 

To  Belgium — Two  small  districts  (Eupen 
and  Malmedy)  between  Holland  and  Luxem- 
bourg, 382  square  miles. 

To  Poland — Part  of  Silesia  and  most  of 
Posen  and  West  Prussia,  27,686  square  miles. 

To  league  of  nations — Mouth  of  Memel 
River  and  internationalized  area  around  Dan- 
zig, 729  square  miles;  basin  of  the  Sarre  (in- 
ternationalized temporarily),  738  square 
miles. 

Territory  depending  on  vote  of  people: 
Southeastern  third  of  East  Prussia  and  dis- 
tricts along  the  North  Vistula  River,  5,785 
square  miles.  Northern  Schleswig,  2,787 
square  miles.     Upper  Silesia. 

France  was  given  the  right  to  use  the  out- 
put of  the  Sarre  coal  mines  for  fifteen  years.  A 
vote  is  to  be  taken  at  the  end  of  that  period 
to  decide  the  future  status  of  the  Sarre  val- 
ley. Germany  ceded  in  all  about  43,700  square 
miles. 

The  following  changes  in  colonial  posses- 
sions were  authorized: 

Togoland  and  Kamerun — future  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  league  of  nations. 

German  East  Africa — under  the  mandate  of 
Great  Britain. 

German  Southwest  Africa — under  the  man- 
date of  South  Africa. 

■  German  Samoan  Islands — under  the  man- 
date of  New  Zealand. 

Caroline,  Marshall  and  Ladrone  Islands — 
under  the  mandate  of  Japan. 


New  Guinea — under  the  mandate  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

Total,  about  1,139,800  square  miles. 

German  concessions  in  China,  notably  Kiao- 
chau  and  the  Shantung  peninsula,  were  trans- 
ferred to  Japan. 

Other  Conditions.  Germany  lost  most  of 
its  navy  and  most  of  its  merchant  marine, 
and  the  army  was  ordered  reduced  to  200,000 
men.  Possession  of  fourteen  submarine 
cables  was  ordered  relinquished,  and  sover- 
eignty over  the  Kiel  Canal,  the  Rhine  and 
other  important  rivers  was  lost.  Reparation 
for  all  damage  done  by  the  war  was  demand- 
ed, the  amount  to  be  determined  by  inter- 
national commissions.  (Estimated,  $25,- 
000,000,000  or  more. )  Luxembourg  was  freed 
from  the  German  customs-union.  Germany 
was  required  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  German  Austria  and  Czecho-Slovakia, 
French  control  in  Morocco  and  the  British 
protectorate  in  Egypt.  Though  not  admitted 
as  a  member,  Germany  was  required  to  rec- 
ognize the  principle  of  the  league  of  na- 
tions, the  provisions  for  which  occupied  the 
first  section  of  the  treaty. 

Austrian  Settlement.  The  complete 
text  of  the  Austrian  treaty  was  handed  to  the 
Austrian  delegation  at  Saint  Germain, 
France,  on  July  20,  the  first  section  having 
been  tendered  on  June  2.  Austria  was  re- 
duced to  the  following  territories : 

PROVIDENCE  AREA     POPULATION 

Lower  Austria 7,658  3,532,000 

Upper  Austria    4,628  853,000 

Salzburg     2,763  215,000 

Carinthia   3,989  396,000 

Styria     8,662  1,444,000 

Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg 11,312  1,092,000 

39,012  7,532,000 

The  exact  boundaries  were  left  to  the  de- 
termination of  commissions,  as  there  were 
disputes  with  Jugo-Slavia,  Czecho-Slovakia 
and  Italy  to  be  settled. 

Austria's  army  was  reduced  to  30,000  men, 
and  the  country  was  required  to  guarantee 
reparations  for  damages,  the  amount  to  be 
determined  by  a  commission,  as  in  case  of 
Germany. 

Turkish  Settlement.  It  was  generally 
accepted  that  the  Turkish  Empire  would  be 
dismembered.  Among  several  plans  pro- 
posed, the  following  is  believed  to  embody 
the  final  demands : 

That  Constantinople  be  placed  under  the 
administration  of  an  international  board, 
with  the  sultan  exercising  nominal  suzerain- 
ty;  that  the  greater  part   of  Anatolia,  or 


VERSE 


3764 


VESPASIAN 


Asia  Minor,  be  left  under  Turkish  control, 
as  the  population  is  dominantly  Turkish ;  that 
Turkey  in  Europe  be  divided  between  Greece 
and  Bulgaria,  and  that  Greece  be  given 
Smyrna  and  islands  off  the  western  coast  of 
Anatolia;  that  Arabia  be  united  under  the 
king  of  Hedjas  as  an  independent  state;  that 
Armenia  be  recognized  as  an  independent 
state  under  the  guardianship  of  America  or 
Great  Britain;  that  Syria  and  Mesopotamia 
be  made  independent  states  under  French 
and  British  protection,  respectively;  that 
Palestine  be  a  separate  state  under  British 
protection. 

Bulgarian  Settlement.  While  prelimi- 
nary work  was  being  carried  on  in  regard  to 
the  Bulgarian  treaty,  the  Bulgars  were  ask- 
ing that  the  Dobrudja  and  Macedonia  be  in- 
corporated in  the  Bulgarian  kingdom.  The 
Bulgarian  claims,  as  set  forth  by  the  Foreign 
Minister,  were  as  follows : 

In  the  East  we  think  we  are  justified  in 
asking  for  the  restoration  of  the  Adrianople 
district  as  far  as  the  Media-Enos  line,  which 
■was  awarded  to  Bulgaria  by  the  London 
treaty  of  May,  1913.  On  the  south  we  expect 
free  access  to  the  Aegean  Sea  from  Enos  to 
Orfani.  In  Macedonia  we  expect  that  portion 
which  was  admitted  by  the  Serbians  in  their 
treaty  with  us  in  1912  as  of  Bulgarian  origin 
and  character,  which  includes  the  towns  of 
Monastir,  Prilep,  and  Veles  (Koprili).  As  for 
the  part  which  is  designated  in  the  treaty 
as  the  "contested  zone,"  -which  includes  the 
districts  of  Uskub  and  Kumanova,  the  deci- 
sion respecting  ■which  was  to  be  left  under  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  to  the  then  Russian  em- 
peror, we  are  content  to  leave  to  the  peace 
conference  to  determine.  As  to  Dobrudja,  we 
hope  the  peace  conference  -will  undo  the  injus- 
tice done  Bulgaria  when  this  province  was 
taken  from  her  by  the  Russians  in  order 
that  they  might  give  it  to  Rumania  in  return 
for  Bessarabia. 

There  was  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  al- 
lied commissioners  that  Bulgarian  demands 
were  excessive,  and  that  they  could  not  be 
granted.  Settlement  of  the  Balkan  bounda- 
ries in  a  just  and  impartial  way  is  essential 
for  the  future  peace  of  Europe,  and  the 
whole  problem  was  being  considered  from 
every  point  of  view.    See  World  Wae. 

VERSE,  vurs,  a  line  of  poetry,  or,  more 
commonly  but  less  correctly,  a  stanza  com- 
posed of  several  lines.  The  term  is  also  used, 
in  its  broader  sense,  to  mean  the  measured 
and  cadenced  form  of  speech  or  composition 
adopted  in  poetry.  Verse,  as  simply  cadenced 
lines,  is  of  great  antiquity,  but  the  use  of 
rhymed  cadences  is  comparatively  modem. 


Blank  verse  is  verse  in  which  the  lines  do  not 
end  in  rhymes.     For  the  classifications  of 
verse  on  the  basis  of  meter,  see  Meter. 
VERTEBRATES,    or    VERTEBRA'TA, 

the  highest  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
comprising  all  creatures  having  backbones. 
Vertebrates  are  classified  as  fishes,  amphib- 
ians, reptiles,  birds  and  mammals.  Their 
bodies  are  capable  of  division  into  head, 
trunk  and  tail,  and  they  have  typically  four 
limbs  (fins  in  fishes)  and  an  outer  skin  that 
consists  of  more  than  one  layer  of  cells.  The 
skeleton  is  internal,  and  the  central  nei'vous 
system  consists  of  a  nerve  cord  and  brain, 
to  which  latter  the  sense  organs  are  connected. 
Vertebrates  also  possess  a  system  of  sympa- 
thetic nerves,  a  digestive  tract,  respiratory 
organs  (gills  or  lungs),  special  excretory 
organs,  and  reproductive  organs,  usually  with 
separate  sexes. 

In  the  long  process  of  evolution  these  ana- 
tomical essentials  have  been  highly  developed 
and  variously  differentiated.  Not  till  the 
Tertiary  Period,  far  down  the  line  of  the  geo- 
logical ages,  did  the  mammals  appear,  while 
man,  the  youngest  of  creatures,  is  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Pleistocene  Age.  As 
man  advances  in  scientific  knowledge  and  me- 
chanical skill,  penetrating  to  every  part  of 
the  world,  the  other  vertebrates  become  few- 
er and  fewer,  except  as  he  domesticates  them 
and  raises  them  in  numbers  for  use  as  food, 
the  manufacture  of  clothing  or  means  of 
transportation. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information : 

Amphibians         Fish  and  Reptiles 

Birds  Fisheries  Rodents 

Carnivora  Mammals  Ungulates 

Cetacea  Marsupialia  Zoology 

Primates 

VERTIGO,  vur  te  go,  an  attack  of  gid- 
diness, in  which  stationary  objects  appear  to 
move  in  various  directions,  the  person  af- 
fected finding  it  difficult  to  maintain  an  erect 
position.  It  is  a  common  symptom  of  ex- 
cessive or  defective  supply  of  blood  to  the 
brain,  as  well  as  of  ner\'ous  and  general  de- 
bility, though  it  also  frequently  arises  from 
the  disturbance  of  the  digestive  organs. 
Rapidly  whirling  the  body  will  produce  a 
severe  form  of  vertigo. 

VESPASIAN,  vez  pa  zhe  an  (9-79),  em- 
peror of  Rome.  After  serving  with  distinc- 
tion in  Germany  and  in  Britain,  as  com- 
mander of  a  legion,  he  was  made  consul.  He 
aftei-ward  became  proconsul  of  Africa;  and 
on  the  rebellion  of  the  Jews,  he  was  sent  with 


VESPUCCI 


3765 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


an  army  into  Judea.  He  reduced  nearly  all 
Galilee  and  was  preparing  to  attack  Jeru- 
salem -when  he  received  news  of  Nero's  death 
(a.  d.  68).  Then  followed  the  emperors 
Galba,  Otho  and  Vitellius,  and  in  A.  D.  G9. 
Vespasian  was  himself  elected  emperor  by  the 
army.  He  left  the  siege  of  Jeinisalem  to  his 
son  Titus  and  returned  to  Rome.  He  im- 
mediately refonned  the  discipline  of  the 
army,  purified  the  senatorial  and  equestrian 
orders  and  imi^roved  the  administration  of 
justice.  He  was  the  patron  of  ^earned  men, 
particularly  Quintilian,  Pliny  and  Josephus. 
He  rebuilt  a  part  of  the  city,  restored  the 
capitol  and  erected  the  gigantic  amphitheater, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  still  celebrated  under 
the  name  of  "the  Colosseum. 

VESPUCCI,  ves  poof  die,  Amerigo.  See 
Americus  Vespucius. 

VES'TA,  a  Roman  divinity,  the  goddess  of 
the  hearth.  She  was  worshiped,  along  with 
the  Penates,  at  every  family  meal,  when  the 
household  assembled  round  the  hearth,  which 
was  in  the  center  of  the  room.  Her  public 
sanctuary  was  in  the  Fomm,  and  the  sacred 
fire  was  kept  constantly  burning  in  it  by  the 
vestal  virgins,  her  priestesses.  A  special 
building,  near  the  temple,  was  set  aside  as 
the  dwelling  of  the  vestals.  Each  communi- 
ty had  a  hearth,  on  which  was  kept  con- 
stantly alight  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta,  and 
colonists  setting  out  from  a  city  took  with 
them  some  of  the  old  fire  to  kindle  a  flame  in 
their  new  home.  Few  legends  are  connected 
with  Vesta. 

VESUVIUS,  ve  su  vi  us,  the  only  active 
volcano  in  Europe,  situated  on  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  in  Italy.  Its  first  recorded  eruption 
took  place  in  A.  D.  79,  when  the  city  of  Pom- 
peii was  buried  under  twenty  feet  of  loose 
ashes  and  Herculaneum  was  covered  by  a 
ton^ent  of  mud.  The  elder  Pliny,  in  command 
of  the  Roman  fleet  at  Misenum,  sailed  to  the 
relief  of  the  distracted  inhabitants,  but  was 
suffocated  with  them  by  volcanic  vapors. 
The  catastrophe  is  graphically  described  by 
his  son,  the  younger  Pliny,  in  two  letters 
written  to  Tacitus,  long  after  the  event. 

Another  eruption  of  Vesuvius  occurred 
in  the  year  of  472,  when  ashes  wore  carried 
as  far  as  Constantinople.  In  1794  and  in 
1822  there  were  also  violent  eruptions,  and 
a  series  of  lesser  eruptions  took  place  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century,  beginning  with 
1865.  The  latest  eruption  occurred  in  1906. 
The  mountain  is  a  state  of  constant  activity, 


and,  being  of  easy  access,  has  been  studied 
by  more  scientists  and  visited  by  more  tour- 
ists than  any  other  volcano  in  the  world. 
An  electric  railway  takes  passengers  from 
Naples  to  within  450  feet  of  the  crater,  and 
under  direction  of  a  guide  visitors  may  de- 
scend some  distance  into  the  crater.  An 
obsei-vatory  is  located  on  the  west  shoulder  of 
the  mountain,  at  an  elevation  of  2,200  feet. 

Geologically,  Vesuvius  is  thought  to  be  of 
recent  origin.  It  is  a  solitary  mountain, 
with  a  base  about  thirty  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence and  is  surmounted  by  two  summits.  The 
higher  one,  Vesuvius  proper,  is  the  cone  from 
which  are  emitted  the  streams  of  lava.  The 
lower  one,  known  as  Mount  Somma,  partly 
encloses  the  active  cone.  The  mountain 
varies  in  height  according  to  the  amount  of 
material  thrown  out  or  carried  away  by  erup- 
tions, averaging  about  4,000  feet  above  the 
sea  level. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Herculaneum 
Naples 


Pompeii 
Volcano 


VETCH,  a  common  name,  rather  loosely 
applied  to  several  genera  of  climbing  plants 
that  are  natives  of  the  temperate  zones. 
Many  of  them  have  been  cultivated  as  forage 
plants  for  ages,  and  some  yield  edible  seeds. 
Recently  several  species  have  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States  for  winter  forage ;  the 
hairy  vetch  makes  a  good  crop  yielding  from 
two  to  four  tons  of  hay  an  acre.  In  Europe 
spring  vetch,  or  tare,  is  more  common.  The 
plant  has  bluish-pink  flowers  resembling  those 
of  the  pea,  and  compound  leaves  composed  of 
twenty  or  thirty  leaflets. 

VET'ERINARY  MEDICINE,  the  art 
which  deals  with  the  nature,  causes  and  ti-eat- 
ment  of  the  disorders  of  the  domestic  animals. 
The  first  veterinary  school  was  instituted  in 
1762  at  Lyons,  France;  in  1766  that  at  Alfort, 
near  Paris,  was  opened.  A  similar  institution 
was  established  at  London  in  1791,  and  in 
the  year  following,  one  in  Berlin.  In  the 
United  States  veterinary  chairs  have  been 
added  to  the  Univei-sity  of  Pennsylvania, 
Cornell  University  and  to  several  other  lead- 
ing universities,  as  well  as  to  many  of  the 
schools  of  agriculture.  Besides  these,  there 
are  many  private  schools  that  give  thorough 
instruction.  Recently  the  requirements  of 
admission  to  veterinary  courses  have  been 
materially  advanced,  and  in  the  better  schools 
four-year  courses  of  study  are  required. 


VETO 


3766 


VICEROY 


The  veterinarian  must  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
domestic  animals,  and  of  the  causes  and  effects 
of  the  diseases  common  to  them.  Moreover, 
he  must  be  a  keen  observer,  for  he  must  rely 
solely  upon  his  obsei'vation  in  making  a 
diagnosis;  the  horse  or  the  cow  cannot  tell 
him  how  it  feels  or  where  pain  is  located. 
All  states  and  the  Canadian  provinces  require 
every  veterinarian  to  possess  a  diploma  from 
an  approved  school,  or  to  take  a  rigid  exam- 
ination before  he  is  allowed  to  practice. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  services  that  the 
veterinarian  renders  is  the  detection  and 
prevention  of  contagious  diseases  among 
domestic  animals,  and  his  services  for  this 
purpose  are  usually  authorized  by  the  state, 
which  maintains  a  board  or  commission, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  laws  for  pre- 
venting the  spread  of  contagious  diseases 
among  domestic  animals  are  enforced. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  in  the 
United   States   Department  of  Agriculture, 
takes  care  of  veterinary  questions  that  come 
before  the  government,  and  the  states  and 
large  cities  have  veterinarians  who  investigate 
diseases  and  attend  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
veterinary   laws   of   the    districts   in   which 
they  have  power.     Important  documents  are 
issued  for  public  circulation  by  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industi-y  and  by  the  experiment 
stations   and   boards   of   agriculture  in   the 
several  states.     In  its  progress   veterinary 
medicine  has  kept  pace  with  human  medicine, 
VE'TO,  from  the  Latin,  meaning  I  forbid, 
refers  to  the  power  of  a  chief  executive  to 
negative  any  legal  measure  originating  in  a 
lawmaking  body.    There  are  several  f  onns  of 
veto  power,  which  may  all  be  included  in  two 
main  classes — absolute  and  limited.     In  the 
case  of  the  former  the  executive  action  is 
final ;  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the  legislature 
may  override  the  executive  decision,  if  an 
extraoidinary  majority  is  in  favor  of  the  bill. 
In  Great  Britain  the  veto  of  the  ruler  is 
absolute,  but  the  power  has  not  been  exercised 
since  1708.    In  France  the  veto  is  limited,  of 
the  form  known  as  suspensive;  that  is,  the 
President  may  suspend  the  operation  of  a 
law  and  demand  its  reconsideration.    A  simi- 
lar form  of  limited  veto  is  in  effect  in  the 
United   States,   where  the  Presidential  veto 
may  be  overriden  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the 
members  of  each  house  of  Congress, 

VFADUCT,  a  structure  for  eanying  a  wa- 
terway or  roadway  across  a  valley  or  low- 


land or  over  a  public  highway.  Viaducts  of 
the  older  type  usually  consist  of  a  series  of 
arches  of  brick  work,  masoniy  or  spans  of 
steel,  but  of  late  they  have  been  largely  con- 
structed of  reinforced  concrete.  The  viaduct 
crossing  the  Kaw  River  valley,  connecting 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  Kansas  City,  Kan., 
has  a  length  of  8,400  feet.  The  viaduct  at 
Des  Moines,  Iowa,  used  by  the  Chicago  & 
North  "Western  Eailroad,  is  2,685  feet  in 
length.  Other  notable  viaducts  are  those 
over  Tunkhannock  Creek  and  Martin's  Creek 
on  the  Lackawanna  road,  the  one  across  the 
Pecos  River  in  Texas,  the  viaduct  over  the 
White  Elster  at  Goltsch,  Saxony,  and  that 
at  Gokteik,  Burma.     See  Bridge. 

VICAR,  in  a  general  sense,  a  representa- 
tive or  deputy  authorized  to  perform  the 
duties  of  another.  In  the  Church  of  England 
a  vicar  is  the  priest  of  a  parish,  who  receives 
only  the  smaller  tithes,  or  a  salary.  In  the 
United  States  the  large  city  parishes  which 
support  two  or  more  churches  maintain  a 
vicar  for  the  clerical  duties  of  the  chapels. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  vicar  apos- 
tolic is  a  bishop  who  possesses  no  diocese,  but 
who  exercises  jurisdiction  over  a  certain  dis- 
trict by  direct  authority  of  the  pope;  vicar- 
general  is  the  official  assistant  of  a  bishop  or 
archbishop.  The  Pope  calls  himself  the 
Vicar  of  Christ  on  earth. 
VICE-ADMIRAL,  See  Admiral. 
VICE-PRESIDENT,  the  official  of  the 
United  States  government  who  is  second  in 
executive  authority  to  the  President.  The 
Vice-President  is  chosen  in  the  same  way  and 
for  the  same  length  of  tenn  as  the  Presi- 
dent. A  candidate  for  Vice-President  must 
be  a  natural-born  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
must  have  reached  the  age  of  thirty-five  years 
and  must  have  been  for  fourteen  years  a 
resident  of  the  United  States,  He  is  inau- 
gurated in  the  Senate  chamber  at  Washing- 
ton on  the  same  day  and  immediately  follow- 
ing the  inauguration  of  the  President,  His 
chief  duty  is  to  preside  over  the  sessions  of 
the  Senate,  He  is  not  allowed  to  vote,  except 
in  case  of  a  tie.  He  becomes  President  if 
the  President  dies  or  is  permanently  incapac- 
itated from  performing  the  duties  of  his 
office;  Tyler,  Fillmore,  Johnson,  Arthur  and 
Roosevelt  succeeded  to  the  Presidency  in  this 
manner.  The  salary  of  the  Vice-President  is 
$12,000  a  year. 

VICE'ROY,  an  official  who  rules  a  province 
or  colony  in  the  name  of  a  sovereign,  there- 


VICKSBURO 


3767 


VICTORIA 


fore,  a  vice-king.  The  Governor-General  of 
British  India  is  unofficially  called  a  viceroy, 
and  the  title  has  also  been  applied  to  the 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

VICKS'BURG,  Miss.,  the  largest  city  in 
the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  Warren 
County,  forty-three  miles  west  of  Jackson, 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  a  few  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo,  and  on  the  Yazoo  & 
Mississippi  Valley,  the  Alabama  &  Vicks- 
burg,  and  the  Vicksburg,  Shreveport  &  Pa- 
cific railroads.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  high 
bluff  overlooking  the  river.  Near  it  is  the 
Vicksburg  National  Military  Park,  which  re- 
stored the  Vicksburg  battle  ground  as  it  was 
in  1863.  The  principal  buildings  of  the  city 
are  the  courthouse,  the  Federal  building  and 
the  Mississippi  State  Charity  Hospital.  The 
educational  institutions  include  Saint  Aloy- 
sius  College  for  boys,  Cherry  Street  College 
for  colored  students,  and  the  Saint  Francis 
Xavier  Academy. 

Vicksburg  is  the  center  of  a  lai'ge  cotton- 
raising  district  and  is  noted  for  its  cotton 
trade.  It  has  numerous  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, including  cottonseed-oil  mills, 
saw  and  lumber  mills,  box,  furniture,  wagon, 
ice  and  boat-oar  factories,  canning  establish- 
ments, boiler  works,  ear  shops,  etc. 

The  town  was  laid  out  on  the  plantations 
of  John  Lane  and  William  Vick,  and  the 
city  was  incorporated  in  1840.  During  the 
early  part  of  the  Civil  War  it  was  strongly 
fortified,  and  after  a  long  siege  it  was  sur- 
rendered to  General  Grant  on  July  4,  1863. 
Population,  1910,  20,814;  in  1917,  23,179 
(Federal  estimate). 

VICTOR  EMMAN'UEL  II  (1820-1878), 
king  of  Sardinia,  the  son  of  Charles  Albert. 
His  aptitude  for  a  military  career  became 
evident  when  he  commanded  the  Savoy  brig- 
ades against  Austria  (1848-1849),  and  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Battle  of  Goito 
by  his  reckless  valor.  After  the  Battle  of 
Novara  his  father  abdicated,  and  Victor 
Emmanuel  ascended  the  throne  of  Sardinia. 
He  had  then  to  negotiate  with  Austria  under 
most  unfavorable  circumstances,  but  he  stead- 
ily refused  to  give  up  the  principle  of  rep- 
resentative government  in  the  Sardinian 
constitution,  and  this  gained  for  him  the 
good  will  of  the  Italian  people.  Under  the 
advice  of  his  celebrated  minister,  Cavour,  he 
regulated  the  finances,  reorganized  the  army 
and  secularized  the  church  property,  for 
which  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Pope. 


Victor  Emmanuel  took  part  in  the  Crimean 
War  against  Russia,  and  in  1859,  assisted  by 
France,  he  renewed  the  contest  with  Austria, 
winning  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Sol- 
f  erino.  By  the  Treaty  of  Villaf  ranca  and  the 
Peace  of  Zurich,  which  followed  these  suc- 
cesses, Lombardy  was  added  to  his  domin- 
ions, but  he  had  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France.  Panna,  Modena  and  Tuscany  now 
became  united  to  Sardinia,  and  Garibaldi's 
successes  in  Sicily  and  Naples  brought  the 
whole  of  Southern  Italy  over  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel. Early  in  1861,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  Italy.  By  the  Peace  of  Vienna 
(1866)  Austi'ia  ceded  Venetia,  and  on  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison  from 
Rome  in  1870  that  city  annexed  itself  to 
Italy.  The  king  entered  Rome  on  July  2, 
1871,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Quiri- 
nal.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Humbert. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles   for   additional  information: 

Cavour,  Count  Humbert  I 

Crimean  War  Italy    (history) 
Garibaldi,  Giuseppe        Sardinia,  Kingdom  of 

VICTOR  EMMAN'UEL  III  (1869-  ), 
king  of  Italy,  son  of  Humbert  I  and  Queen 
Margharita.  He  entered  the  army  in  1887 
and  was  steadily  advanced  in  rank.  At  the 
coronation  of  Nicho- 
las II  of  Russia,  in 
1896,  and  at  Queen 
Victoria's  jubilee,  in 
the  following  year, 
he  was  present  as  his 
father's  representa- 
tive. In  1896  he 
married  Princess 
Helena  of  Mont- . 
enegro.  When  his 
father  was  assassin- 
ated in  1900,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne, 
and  he  proved  a  just 
and  liberal  ruler. 
The  king  assumed  ac- 
tive command  of  the  Italian  armies  on  the 
Austrian  front  when  Italy  entered  the  World 
War,  and  his  attitude  throughout  the  war 
strengthened  him  in  the  esteem  of  his  sub- 
jects. The  royal  pair  have  three  children, 
princesses  Yolanda  and  Mafalda,  and  Prince 
Humbert. 

VICTO'RIA  (1819-1901),  a  beloved  Queen 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  Empress  of  India.  She  was  the 
onlv  child  of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  fourth 


VICTOR 
EMMANUEL  III 


VICTORIA 


3768 


VICTORIA 


son  of  George  III,  and  was  born  at  Kensing- 
ton Palace.  The  duke  died  when  Victoria  was 
only  eight  months  old,  and  she  was  brought 
up  by  her  mother  with  exceptional  prudence 
and  care.  Upon  the  death  of  her  uncle  Wil- 
liam IV,  June  20,  1837,  she  ascended  the 
throne  and  was  crowned  at  Westminster, 
June  28,  1838.  The  English  people  knew 
little  of  their  young  queen,  who  had  been 
brought  up  in  seclusion,  but  she  soon  proved 
herself  possessed  of  the  clear  judgment  and 
moderation  which  a  sovereign  needs,  and  of  a 
thorough  goodness  which  won  the  hearts  of 
her  subjects. 

During  the  reign  of  Victoria  there  were 
eighteen  changes  of  government,  the  follow- 
ing Premiers  tak- 
ing office  at  the 
dates  given :  1835, 
Melbourne;  1841, 
Peel;  1846,  Rus- 
sell ;  1852,  Derby ; 
1852,  Aberdeen ; 
1855,  Palmerston ; 

1858,  Derby; 

1859,  Palmerston ; 

1865,  Russell; 

1866,  Derby; 
18  6  8,  Disraeli ; 
1868,  Gladstone; 
18  7  4,  Disraeli ; 
1880,  Gladstone; 
1885,  Salisbui-y ;  1886,  Gladstone;  1886,  Salis- 
bury; 1892,  Gladstone;  1895,  Salisbury. 

The  leading  events  of  the  reign  were  the 
confederation  of  Canada;  the  Opium  War 
in  China;  the  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws, 
under  the  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel ; 
the  successive  steps  in  parliamentary  reform ; 
the  enfranchisement  of  the  Jews ;  the  Catholic 
Emancipation  act;  the  assumption  of  the 
government  of  India  by  the  Crown;  the 
Crimean  War;  the  wars  with  Afghanistan, 
Abyssinia  the  Zulu  tribes  and  Egypt;  the 
long  struggle  on  the  Irish  home-rule  question 
the  beginning  of  the  South  African  War,  and 
the  Australian  federation. 

In  February,  1840,  Victoria  was  married  to 
her  cousin.  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  and  the  marriage  proved  an  unusually 
happy  one.  Four  sons  and  five  daughters 
were  born  to  the  royal  couple.  Victoria, 
Princess  Royal,  born  in  1840,  married  in 
1858  to  Frederick  William,  afterward 
German  Emperor,  died  in  1901;  Albert  Ed- 
ward, Prince  of  Wales,  bom  in  1841,  married 


VICTORIA 


to  Alexandra,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Den- 
mark, succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  mother ;  Alice,  born  in  1843,  mar- 
ried in  1862  to  Prince  Frederick  William  of 
Hesse,  died  in  1878.;  Alfred,  bom  in  1844, 
married  in  1874  to  Marie,  daughter  of 
the  Czar  of  Russia,  died  in  1901;  Helena, 
born  in  1846,  was  married  in  1866  to  Prince 
Christian  of  Denmark;  Louise,  bom  in  1848, 
was  married  in  1871  to  the  Marquis  of  Lome ; 
Arthur,  born  in  1850,  was  married  in  1879  to 
Princess  Louise  Marguerite  of  Prussia ;  Leo- 
pold, born  in  1853,  married  in  1882  to  Prin- 
cess Helen  of  Waldeck,  died  in  1884;  Prin- 
cess Beatrice,  bom  in  1857,  was  married  in 
1885  to  Prince  Henry  of  Battenberg.  In 
1861  the  Prince  Consort  died,  and  the  queen 
withdrew  from  social  life. 

During  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  Great 
Britain  enjoyed  a  long  era  of  uninterrupted 
prosperity;  peace  and  contentment  prevailed 
at  home,  and,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  re- 
lations of  amity  were  maintained  with  foreign 
powers.  In  length  her  reign  was  unprec- 
edented in  the  world's  history.  It  is  true 
that  Louis  XIV  of  France  ruled  over  a  longer 
period  than  she,  but  subtracting  the  years 
during  which  he  was  under  a  regent,  his 
responsible  tenure  of  the  crown  was  shorter 
than  hers.  Although  George  III  nominally 
ruled  sixty  years,  owing  to  his  insanity  a 
part  of  his  reign  was  also  under  a  regent. 

In  1887  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
colonies  celebrated  the  golden  jubilee,  or 
fiftieth  year  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign.  In 
1897  they  celebrated  the  diamond  jubilee, 
with  ceremonies  more  imposing  than  had  ever 
attended  any  similar  event.  Representatives 
of  all  the  colonies  were  present,  and  a  grand 
procession,  viewed  by  millions,  moved 
through  the  streets  of  London.  Victoria  died 
January  22, 1901. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional   information: 

Corn  Laws  India    (history) 

Crimean  War  South    African    War 

Great    Britain 
(history) 

VICTORIA,  a  state  of  the  Australian 
Commonwealth,  situated  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  continent.  Victoria  is  next  to 
the  smallest  state  of  the  Commonwealth,  but 
is  second  in  population.  Only  Tasmania 
has  a  smaller  area,  and  New  South  Wales  is 
the  only  state  with  more  inhabitants.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  New  South  Wales, 
on  the  south  and  southeast  bv  the  Indian 


VICTORIA 


3769 


VICTORIA 


Ocean  and  on  the  west  by  South  Australia. 
Its  area  is  87,884  square  miles,  or  a  little 
less  than  the  areas  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  combined.  It  has  about  600  miles 
of  sea  coast,  with  a  considerable  number  of 
bays  and  indentations,  esi^ecially  about  the 
middle,  where  Port  Phillip  Bay,  with  an  area 
of  875  square  miles  and  an  entrance  barely 
two  miles  wide,  affords  shelter  sufficient  for 
the  largest  fleet. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  interior, 
though  diversified  by  mountains,  is  chiefly 
distinguished  by  vast,  unwooded  plains,  most- 
ly occujDied  as  pasture.  There  is  one  prin- 
cipal mountain  range,  a  portion  of  the  Great 
Dividing  Range  of  Eastern  Australia,  run- 
ning from  east  to  west  through  the  state, 
with  various  offshoots.  The  eastern  portion 
of  it,  called  the  Australian  Alps,  with  numer- 
ous northern  and  western  ramifications,  rises 
to  6,500  feet  in  Mount  Bogong  and  to  6,100 
feet  in  Mount  Hotham.  and  has  several  other 
peaks  exceeding  5,000  feet  in  height.  The 
most  westerly  portion,  called  the  Grampians, 
runs  north  and  south,  and  in  Mount  William 
reaches  a  height  of  5,600  feet.  The  Gram- 
pians and  the  Australian  Alps  are  connected 
by  such  ranges  as  the  Pyrenees  and  Hume 
Range,  containing  numerous  cones  and  ex- 
tinct craters.  This  is  the  region  of  the  gold 
fields.  The  rivers  are  numerous,  but  they 
are  generally  small  and  dry  up  in  summer, 
leaving  the  countiy  parched.  The  chief  is 
the  Murray,  which  rises  in  the  Australian 
Alps  and  forms  the  northern  boundai-y  of 
the  state  for  980  miles.  It  is  1,300  miles 
long  and  is  navigable  for  several  hundred 
miles. 

The  climate  of  Victoria  is  temperate,  but 
liable  to  sudden  changes,  and  hot  winds  blow 
at  intervals  from  l^ovember  to  February, 
causing  great  discomfort.  The  hottest  period 
is  in  January  and  February,  when  the  ther- 
mometer sometimes  rises  to  108°  in  the  shade. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Victoria  is  the  prin- 
cipal gold-producing  colony  of  Australia,  the 
yearly  output  being  valued  at  $9,000,000. 
Tin,  antimony,  copper  and  coal  are  also 
among  the  minerals  worked. 

General  farming  is  quite  extensively  fol- 
lowed. The  chief  crops  among  the  cereals 
are  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  Hay  is  grown, 
and  forage  crops  are  also  raised.  Among 
fruits,  grapes  take  the  lead,  and  considerable 
attention  is  given  to  the  manufacture  of 
wine.     Stock  raising  is  important,  and  wool 


growing  is  the  chief  branch  of  agricultural 
industry.  The  state  has  6ver  12,000,000 
sheep,  and  the  annual  output  of  wool  aver- 
ages over  100,000,000  pounds. 

The  manufacturing  industries  are  quite 
generally  distributed,  and  include  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles,  machinery,  food  prepa- 
rations, butter  and  cheese  and  malt  and  spir- 
ituous liquors. 

Most  of  the  commerce  is  with  Great  Bri- 
tain, and  in  its  foreign  trade  Victoiia  is  the 
second  state  of  the  commonwealth.  The 
chief  exports  are  wool,  gold,  daii-y  products 
and  wheat.  Railway  lines  extend  to  all  the 
most  important  trade  centers  and  connect 
these  directly  or  indirectly  with  Melbourne, 
the  chief  city  and  commercial  port.  In  all, 
there  are  about  4,000  miles  of  railway  in 
the  state. 

Government.  The  governor,  who  is  the 
chief  executive  officer,  is  appointed  by  the 
British  sovereign.  The  legislature  consists 
of  a  council  of  thirty-four  members,  who  are 
chosen  for  six  years,  and  an  assembly  of 
sixty-five  members,  elected  for  three  years. 
Suffrage  is  granted  to  men  and  women  on 
equal  terms.  Melbourne,  the  capital,  is  the 
second  largest  city  of  Australia^  following 
Sydney.  Population  of  the  state,  1911,  1,- 
315,551;  in  1917,  estimated  at  1,402,650. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information  : 
Australia  Melbourne 

Ballarat  Murray  River 

VICTORIA,  B.  C,  capital  of  the  province, 
is  situated  on  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
Vancouver  Island,  on  the  Strait  of  San  Juan 
de  Fuca,  seventy-five  miles  northwest  of 
Seattle,  Wash.  It  is  within  three  miles  of 
Esquimault,  a  naval  base  with  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  city 
is  well  laid  out  and  has  good  streets ;  excellent 
roads  connect  it  with  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. The  public  buildings  include  the  par- 
liament house,  the  goverament  offices  and  the 
provincial  museum  and  libraiy,  the  city  hall, 
the  courthouse,  a  marine  hospital,  the  Angli- 
can Cathedral  and  exposition  buildings.  Vic- 
toria is  an  important  industrial  center  and 
has  lumber  mills,  shipyards,  potteries,  pow- 
der works  and  other  manufactories.  It  also 
has  a  large  trade  in  salmon.  Onginally  a 
I>ost  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1862,  and  until  the 
founding  of  Vancouver  was  the  largest  Cana- 
dian city  on>  the  Pacifiq  coast.  Its  import 
trade  is  large,  the  value  of  products  shipped 


VICTORIA  CROSS 


3770 


VIENNA 


in  yearly  being  about  $10,000,000.    Popula- 
tion, about  60,000. 

VICTORIA  CROSS,  the  most  highly-prized 
British  military  and  naval  decoration,  in- 
stituted as  a  recognition  of  valor  in  the 
presence  of  the  enemy  at  the  close  of  the 
Crimean  War  in  1856.  It  is  granted  to 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  any  rank,  including 
native  officers  and  men  of  the  Indian  army. 
Up  to  1913  only  522  crosses  had  been 
awarded;  this  number  was  considerably  in- 
creased during  the  World  War.  The  cross  is 
the  more  valuable  because  it  is  awarded 
sparingly,  and  only  for  the  most  conspicuous 
acts  of  bravery  and  devotion  to  the  Empire. 

VICTORIA  FALLS,  a  celebrated  cataract 
in  the  Zambezi  River,  in  Rhodesia,  South 
Africa,  discovered  by  Livingstone  in  1855 
and  named  by  him  in  honor  of  Queen  Victo- 
ria. After  flowing  for  a  long  distance  over 
a  rough  and  broken  plateau,  covered  with 
brush  and  stunted  trees,  the  Zambezi  plunges 
suddenly  into  a  chasm  nearly  400  feet  deep. 
The  falls,  3,000  feet  in  width  and  360  feet 
in  height,  are  the  most  magnificent  in  the 
world.  At  low  water  the  fall  is  broken  by 
projecting  rocks  and  is  described  by  an  ob- 
server as  resembling  a  film  of  delicate  lace, 
but  when  the  river  is  swollen  during  the  rainy 
season,  an  unbroken  sheet  of  water  is  hurled 
over  the  ledge,  forming  a  cataract  unequaled 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  The  roar  of  the 
falls  can  be  heard  for  twenty  miles,  and  the 
cloud  of  spray  thrown  into  the  air  is  visible 
for  ten  miles.  Because  of  this  cloud,  the  na- 
tives named  the  cataract  Mosi-oa-tuni,  which 
means  roaring  smoke. 

Below  the  cataract  the  Zambezi  flows  for 
a  long  distance  through  a  narrow  gorge,  with 
nearly  perpendicular  walls  of  basalt.  Just 
below  the  falls  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway 
crosses  the  river  on  a  magnificent  steel  bridge, 
600  feet  long  and  420  feet  above  the  water; 
it  is  the  highest  stnieture  of  the  kind  in  the 
world.  From  this  bridge  a  magnificent  view 
of  the  falls  is  obtained. 

VICTORIA  NYAN'ZA,  the  largest  lake  in 
Africa,  having  a  surface  area  of  26,000 
square  miles  and  after  Lake  Superior  the 
largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  It 
was  discovered  in  1858  by  Captain  Speke 
and  named  for  Queen  Victoria  {nyanze  is  the 
local  word  for  lake).  It  lies  about  600  miles 
from  the  eastern  coast  and  is  crossed  by  the 
equator.  It  is  fed  by  several  streams,  the 
most   important   being   the   Kagera   to   the 


west,  and  drains  an  area  of  92,000  square 
miles,  where  there  is  an  annual  rainfall  of 
seventy-five  inches.  It  is  the  principal  source 
of  the  Nile  River.  As  the  Nile  issues  from 
the  lake  it  forms  the  Ripon  Falls,  which 
are  about  1,200  feet  across.  The  lake  is  rocky 
and  shallow  and  is  dotted  with  islands.  Port 
Bell,  Entebbe  and  Jinja  are  the  principal 
ports. 

VICUNA,  ve  koo'nyah,  a  small  animal  of 
the  camel  family,  somewhat  resembling  a 
wild  goat  or  an  antelope,  which  inhabits  the 
Andes  Mountains  in  South  America.  It  is 
economically  valuable  because  of  its  soft, 
silky,  brown  wool,  which  is  of  better  quality 
even  than  that  of  the  alpaca.  It  is  commonly 
seen  in  herds  of  from  six  to  fifteen  females 
and  one  male.  The  animals  are  very  timid, 
and  have  never  been  domesticated. 

VIENNA,  ve  ennah,  the  capital  and 
largest  city  of  the  new  republic  of  Austria, 
before  the  great  war  the  fourth  city  in  Europe 
in  population,  and  one  of  the  most  preten- 
tious capitals  in  the  world.  The  day  of 
Vienna's  outstanding  influence  is  past.  By 
the  terms  of  the  peace  treaty  of  1919  Austria 
was  reduced  to  a  state  of  less  than  8,000,000 
inhabitants,  and  out  of  the  old  domain  were 
erected  several  independent  states  with  cap- 
itals of  their  own.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  new  Austria  can  support  a  capital 
of  over  2,000,000  inhabitants,  which  was  the 
population  of  Vienna  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war. 

The  city  was  formerly  the  center  of  Aus- 
trian social  life  and  gayety,  of  the  national 
administration,  of  art,  education  and  music, 
of  banking,  commerce  and  finance.  As  a 
result  of  the  disastrous  war  the  wealth  of 
Vienna  disappeared,  as  did  the  court  and  the 
prestige  of  the  aristocrae3%  The  people  who 
were  left  were  burdened  with  debts  and 
physically  weakened  by  the  privations  of 
the  war. 

General  Description.  The  city  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  330  miles 
south-southeast  of  Berlin  and  630  miles  east 
of  Paris.  The  site  is  picturesque,  for  the 
plain  on  which  the  city  was  built  is  bordered 
by  mountains,  whose  bases  are  covered  with 
magnificent  forests.  A  branch  of  the  Dan- 
ube, known  as  the  Danube  Canal,  traverses 
the  city  from  northwest  to  southeast.  This 
canal  is  spanned  by  many  bridges,  and  by  the 
construction  of  a  lock  a  section  of  it  has 
been  made  into  a  capacious  harbor. 


VIENNA 


3771 


VIENNA 


Vienna  is  built  upon  the  plan  of  the  old 
European  cities,  containing  an  inner,  or 
central  city,  surrounded  by  suburbs,  which  are 
now  incorporated  in  the  city  and  divided  into 
districts.  The  old  town,  or  Innere  Stadt, 
occupying'  the  center  of  the  city,  was  formerly 
enclosed  by  a  wall  and  fortifications.  In 
1858  these  were  removed,  and  a  magnificent 
boulevard,  the  Ringstrasse,  was  erected  upon 
their  site.  This  is  one  of  the  finest  streets  in 
Europe,  and  upon  it  are  found  most  of  the 
important  public  buildings  of  the  city.  In 
the  newer  parts  the  streets  are  broad,  and 
there  are  a  number  of  boulevards  and  parks. 
Chief  among  these  is  the  Prater,  in  the  south- 
eastern quarter,  having  an  area  of  over  4,000 
acres.  The  streets,  parks  and  bridges  are 
decorated  with  numerous  statues  and  monu- 
ments. The  buildings  are  noted  for  their 
beauty  and  elegant  ornamentation,  making 
Vienna,  from  the  standpoint  of  architecture, 
one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  world. 

Buildings  and  Monuments.  In  the  center 
of  the  Innere  Stadt  is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Stephen,  which  dates  from  the  thirteenth 
century  and  is  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  struc- 
tures in  Europe.  Other  buildings  of  impor- 
tance in  and  about  the  Ringstrasse  are  the 
imperial  palace,  in  the  southeastern  quarter, 
noted  for  its  age  and  size,  rather  than  for  its 
beauty;  the  townhall,  a  magnificent  building 
adorned  with  many  statues;  the  imperial 
museums  of  natural  history  and  of  art,  with  a 
monument  of  Maria  Theresa  between  them; 
the  houses  of  parliament;  the  palace  of  jus- 
tice; the  imperial  opera  house;  a  number  of 
churches,  noted  for  their  statuary  and  paint- 
ings and  the  University  of  Vienna,  with  its 
numerous  structures.  Among  the  noted 
monuments  not  already  mentioned  are  the 
monument  to  Mozart,  the  equestrian  statues 
of  Archduke  Charles  and  Prince  Eugene  of 
Savoy  and  the  monument  to  the  Archduchess 
Christines. 

Institutions.  The  educational  institutions 
include  the  University  of  Vienna,  a  polytech- 
nic institute,  an  agricultural  college,  a  geo- 
logical institute,  the  academy  of  sciences,  the 
conservatoiy  of  music  and  the  military  geo- 
graphical institute,  besides  a  large  number  of 
trade  schools,  which  prepare  their  students 
for  such  occupations  as  printing,  bookbinding 
and  other  mechanic  arts.  The  imperial 
library  contains  900,000  volumes,  besides  a 
large  number  of  manuscripts  and  engravings, 
and  the  library  of  the  university  has  650,000 


volumes.  These  are  supplemented  by  other 
libraries  in  the  various  institutions.  The 
collections  in  the  academy  of  art  and  the  mu- 
seums are  among  the  best  in  the  world,  while 
the  armory  contains  a  large  collection  of 
weapons  and  other  instruments  of  war.  The 
chief  charitable  institution  is  the  general 
hospital,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  famous 
institutions  of  its  kind  in  the  world;  before 
the  war  medical  students  were  drawn  to  it 
from  all  over  Europe  and  America.  There 
are  also  an  asylum  of  the  insane,  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  hospitals  and  homes  for  the 
blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

Industries.  Vienna  is  situated  at  the  cross- 
ing of  the  great  commercial  routes  from 
London,  Berlin  and  Paris  to  Constantinople 
and  from  Petrograd  to  Rome.  Its  situation 
made  it  an  important  industrial  and  commer- 
cial center.  Among  the  leading  industries 
were  the  manufacture  of  silks,  woolens  and 
other  textiles,  clothing,  machinery,  railway 
cars,  locomotives  and  supplies,  musical  in- 
struments, furniture,  scientific  and  surgical 
instruments,  pottery,  jewelry,  leather  goods, 
malt  liquors  and  numerous  other  products. 
Before  the  war  the  city  had  an  extensive 
trade  with  the  surrounding  country  and  with 
the  leading  commercial  centers  of  Europe, 
but  during  the  war  this  trade  was  almost 
entirely  cut  off. 

History.  Vienna  occupies  the  site  of  an 
ancient  Roman  camp,  known  as  Vindobona. 
It  first  became  prominent  as  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Austria,  and  for  about  150  years 
from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it 
was  the  capital  of  the  German  Empire.  It 
was  the  seat  of  the  celebrated  Congress  of 
Vienna  that  reorganized  Europe  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon.  Population  in  1911, 
2,031,498;  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
in  1914  it  was  estimated  at  2,149,800.  See 
Austria;  Austria-Hungary ;  World  War; 
Versailles,  Treaty  of. 

VIENNA,  Congress  of,  a  convention  of 
representatives  of  European  powers  which 
assembled  late  in  1814  to  reorganize  the  polit- 
ical system  of  Europe  after  the  close  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars.  It  was  a  brilliant  assem- 
blage of  crowned  heads,  prominent  diplomats 
and  statesmen,  of  whom  Czar  Alexander  I 
of  Russia,  Prince  Metternich,  the  Austrian 
Minister  of  State,  Prince  Talleyrand  of 
France,  Castlereagh  and  Wellington  of  Great 
Britain  and  Hardenberg  and  Humboldt  of 
Prussia  were  among  the  most  powerful. 


VIKINGS 


3772 


VINCENNES 


By  the  provisions  of  the  Congress  of  Vien- 
na, France  was  deprived  of  the  territory  con- 
quered by  Napoleon;  Holland  and  Belgium 
were  united  into  a  single  kingdom  under  the 
House  of  Orange ;  Norway  and  Sweden  were 
joined  under  a  single  ruler,  one  of  Napo- 
leon's generals,  and  the  independence  and 
neutrality  of  Switzerland  were  guaranteed. 
The  German  states  were  loosely  confederated 
under  a  diet  at  Frankfort.  In  Italy  the  old 
governments,  consolidated  under  Napoleon, 
were  restored.  Poland  was  reestablished 
as  a  constitutional  kingdom  dependent  upon 
Russia.  Great  Britain  found  compensation 
in  the  extension  of  its  colonial  possessions. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  is  criticized  for 
its  blindness  to  the  spirit  of  nationalism  that 
had  been  awakened  throughout  Europe  by 
the  events  of  the  French  Revolution.  It  de- 
fined boundaries  arbitrarily,  without  consult- 
ing the  peoples  concerned,  thus  laying  the 
basis  of  many  disputes  and  future  wars.  The 
diplomatic  method  known  as  the  balance  of 
power,  brought  into  prominence  by  this  Con- 
gress, led  to  unending  international  compli- 
cations that  finally  resulted  in  the  bursting 
forth,  in  1914,  of  the  World  War,  the  most 
widespread  and  violent  conflict  in  all  history. 

VI'KINGS.     See  Northmen. 

VILLA,  veeV  ya,  Francisco,  or  Pancho 
(1877-  ),  a  Mexican  revolutionist  and 
bandit,  bom  at  Las  Nieves.  His  real  name 
is  DoROTEO  Arango;  he  called  himself  Yilla 
after  joining  the  Madero  revolution.  He  had 
no  education,  and  became  a  bandit  and  out- 
law at  a  early  age;  long  before  the  Madero 
uprising  President  Diaz  had  offered  a  reward 
for  his  capture.  In  1914  he  joined  Car- 
ranza  in  a  revolution  against  Huerta,  and 
the  next  year  he  started  a  revolution  against 
Carranza,  gaining  control  of  parts  of  the 
states  of  Sonora,  Chihuahua  and  Sinaloa. 

In  March,  1916,  Villa  invaded  New  Mexi- 
co, and  raided  the  town  of  Columbus.  United 
States  troops  under  Pershing  made  an  ex- 
pedition of  500  miles  into  Mexico  to  capture 
Villa,  but  he  fled  to  the  mountains  and  es- 
caped. After  the  troops  were  withdrawn, 
in  1917,  he  resumed  his  depredations,  but 
did  not  invade  the  United  States  again  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  World  War.  In  the 
summer  of  1919,  however,  his  attitude  be- 
came very  threatening,  and  an  American  pa- 
trol crossed  the  border  and  broke  up  a  fight 
between  a  band  of  Villistas  and  a  Carranza 
force  at  Juarez,  because  flying  bullets  had 


caused  casualties  in  El  Paso,  Texas.     See 
Mexico;  United  States;  Carranza. 

VILLEINS,  xiiV  linz,  a  class  of  feudal  serfs, 
who  were  allowed  to  hold  portions  of  land  at 
the  will  of  their  lord,  on  condition  of  per- 
forming menial  and  non-military  services. 
It  frequently  happened  that  lands  held  in 
villeinage  descended  in  uninterrupted  suc- 
cession from  father  to  son,  until  at  length  the 
occupiers  or  villeins  became  entitled,  by 
prescription  or  custom,  to  hold  their  lands  so 
long  as  they  performed  the  required  serv- 
ices. And  although  the  villeins  themselves 
acquired  freedom,  the  villein  services  were 
still  the  condition  of  the  tenure.  These  cus- 
toms were  preserved  and  evidenced  by  the 
rolls  of  the  several  courts  in  which  they  were 
entered,  or  by  the  immemorial  usage  of  the 
several  manors  in  which  the  lands  lay.  And 
as  such  tenants  had  nothing  to  show  for  their 
estates  but  the  entries  into  those  rolls,  or 
copies  of  them,  they  at  last  came  to  be  called 
tenants  hy  copy  of  court  roll,  and  their  tenure 
was  known  as  a  copy-hold.  See  Feudal 
System. 

VIL'LI,  minute  projections  covering  the 
mucous  lining  of  the  small  intestine.  Each 
villus  contains  an  artery,  a  vein,  a  capillary, 
or  a  network  of  capillaries,  and  lacteal.  The 
function  of  the  villi  is  to  absorb  the  nutri- 
tious matter  from  the  digested  food  in  the 
intestines,  after  which  the  digested  fats  are 
carried  to  the  thoracic  duet,  and  the  sugars, 
water,  proteids  and  inorganic  salts  are  car- 
ried by  the  portal  vein  to  the  liver.  In  con- 
stipation the  villi  are  submerged  by  waste 
matter,  and  the  absorption  of  food  matter  by 
them  is  made  difficult  or  impossible. 

VIL'NA,  Russia,  a  city  of  about  200,000 
population,  situated  on  the  navigable  Vilna 
River  between  Petrograd  and  Moscow.  It 
is  an  old  city,  dating  from  the  tenth  century. 
Before  the  annexation  of  Lithuania  by  Rus- 
sia in  1795,  it  was  the  capital  of  that  coun- 
tiy.  It  has  long  been  an  ecclesiastical  and 
educational  center.  It  is  surrounded  by  an 
agricultural  country  and  carries  on  com- 
merce in  grain  and  timber.  In  April,  1919, 
Vilna  was  seized  from  the  Bolshevik  forces 
by  a  Polish  army.    See  Lithuania. 

VINCENNES,  vin  senz',  Ind.,  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  the  United  States,  the  county 
seat  of  Knox  County,  117  miles  southwest  of 
Indianapolis,  on  the  Wabash  River  and  on  the 
Vandalia,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Southwest- 
ern,  the   Cleveland,    Cincinnati,   Chicago  & 


VINCENT 


3773 


VINCI 


Saint  Louis,  and  the  Chicago  and  Eastern 
Illinois  roads.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  lum- 
bering and  coal-mining  region  and  has  manu- 
factures of  flour,  lumber  and  clay  products, 
novelties,  paper,  stoves  and  farm  and  mining 
implements. 

It  is  the  seat  of  the  Vincennes  University, 
Saint  Rose  Female  College,  a  cathedral  li- 
brary and  a  public  library.  Other  interesting 
features  are  the  house  in  which  William 
Henry  Harrison  lived  when  he  was  governor 
of  the  ten-itory,  the  old  legislative  house,  the 
courthouse,  the  city  hall,  the  first  in  Indiana, 
the  Federal  building,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  build- 
ing, the  Vincennes  Sanatorium,  Harrison 
Park  and  several  Indian  mounds  near  the  city. 

Vincennes  is  located  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  Indian  village,  called  Chip-kaw-kay. 
The  French  erected  a  fort  here  about  1702, 
and  a  permanent  settlement  soon  grew  up.  It 
was  first  called  "The  Post,"  but  was  later 
given  its  present  name,  in  honor  of  its 
founder,  Francois  Morgan  de  Vinsenne.  The 
place  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1763,  was 
captured  by  Virginia  troops  under  Colonel 
George  Rogers  Clark  in  1779  and  was  turned 
over  to  the  United  States  in  1783.  It  was  the 
capital  of  Indiana  Territory  from  1801  to 
1816  and  was  made  a  city  in  1856.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  14,895;  in  1917,  18,089  (Federal 
estimate). 

VINCENT,  George  Edgar  (1864-  ), 
an  American  educator  and  sociologist,  son  of 
Bishop  John  H.  Vincent,  born  at  Rockford, 
111.  After  his  graduation  from  Yale  Uni- 
versity in  1885  he 
traveled  in  Europe 
and  the  Orient  and 
then  engaged  for  a 
time  in  journalistic 
and  literary  work.  In 
1888  he  became  vice- 
president  of  the 
Chautauqua  system 
and  in  1907  president 
of  the  Chautauqua 
Institution.     At   the 

same  time  he  was  a  „ 

,  n    4.1       i?         GEORGE  E.  VINCENT 

member  oi  the  fac- 
ulty of  the  University  of  Chicago,  having 
been  appointed  in  1894.  In  1904  he  was 
made  professor  of  sociology';  from  1900  to 
1907  be  was  dean  of  the  junior  colleges,  and 
from  1907  to  1911,  dean  of  the  faculties  of 
arts,  literature  and  science.  In  1911  pro- 
fessor Vincent  became  president  of  the  Uni- 


versity of  Minnesota,  and  in  1917  resigned 
from  that  post  to  accept  the  presidency  of 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation  (which  see).  He 
has  written  Social  Mind  and  Education  and, 
with  A.  W.  Small,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Society, 

VINCENT,  vinsent,  John  Heyl  (1832- 
),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop,  best 
known  as  one  of  the- founders  of  the  Chautau- 
qua Assembly  movement.  He  was  born  at 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  and  was  educated  at  Lewis- 
burg  (Pa.)  Academy  and  at  Wesleyan  In- 
stitute, Newark,  N.  J.  Entering  the  New 
Jersey  Conference  in  1853,  he  preached  four 
years  in  the  East,  and  was  then  transferred  to 
the  Rock  River  Conference,  in  Northern 
Illinois.  In  1865  he  established  the  North- 
west Sunday-School  Quarterly,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  The  Sunday-School  Teacher. 
From  1868  to  1884  he  was  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Sunday-School  Union  of  his 
denomination  and  editor  of  its  publications. 
Ten  years  previous  to  the  latter  date  he  had 
helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  Chautauqua 
Institution  and  in  1878  had  become  its  chan- 
cellor. He  was  elected  bishop  in  1888,  and 
twelve  years  later  was  appointed  resident 
bishop  in  Europe,  remaining  abroad  four 
years  and  then  retinng  from  the  active 
episcopate  in  1904.  His  publications  include 
The  Chautauqua  Movement,  The  Church 
School  and  Its  Officers,  Studies  in  Young 
Life,  A  Study  in  Pedagogy  and  Family  Wor- 
ship for  Every  Day  in  the  Year.  See  Chau- 
tauqua Institution. 

VINCI,  vin'  che,  Leonardo  da  (1452-1519), 
one  of  the  foremost  scholars  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  and  one  of  the  greatest  artists 
of  all  time.  His  place  in  history  is  unique, 
not  only  because  of  the  high  quality  of  his 
art,  but  because  of  the  versatility  of  his 
genius  and  his  intellectual  influence  on  his 
contemporaries.  Such  a  combination  of 
artistic  and  scientific  capacities  has  not  been 
known  in  any  other  man.  Leonardo  was  dis- 
tinguished not  only  as  a  painter,  but  as  a 
sculptor,  an  architect,  a  musician  and  an 
engineer.  As  a  philosopher  and  man  of 
science  he  was  the  forerunner  of  Galileo, 
Bacon  and  Descartes.  He  was  acknowledged 
the  greatest  physicist  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. He  "united  a  remarkable  knowledge 
of  mathematics  with  the  most  admirable  in- 
tuition of  nature,"  and  he  "anticipated  the 
grandest  discoveries  of  modern  science,"  says 
a  modem  scholar. 


VINEGAR 


3774 


VIOLIN 


Leonardo  was  bom  at  the  small  town  of 
Vinci,  near  Florence,  the  son  of  a  Florentine 
notary.  In  his  youth  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  great  personal  beauty,  physical  strength 
and  eagerness  for  knowledge.  After  studies 
with  the  celebrated  painter  and  sculptor  Ver- 
rocchio  he  became  an  independent  artist,  and 
from  the  age  of  twenty  onward  enjoyed  the 
most  distinguished  patronage;  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  Ludovico  the  Duke  of  Milan  and 
Francis  I  of  France  treated  him  with  the 
highest  honor.  As  architect,  engineer,  paint- 
er sculptor  and  decorator,  he  received  numer- 
ous commissions,  and  in  everything  he  un- 
dertook he  aimed  at  perfection. 

His  supreme  masterpiece.  The  Last  Supper, 
painted  on  a  wall  of  the  monastery  of  Santa 
Maria  delle  G-razie,  at  Milan,  represents 
Christ,  seated  with  his  disciples,  at  the  dra- 
matic instant  following  His  announcement 
that  one  of  the  twelve  should  betray  Him.  In 
characterization  and  dramatic  and  spiritual 
significance  it  surpasses  all  other  treatments 
of  the  same  subject.  Unfortunately,  the 
picture  has  been  exposed  to  dampness  and 
smoke,  and  these  elements,  together  with 
clumsy  attempts  to  restore  it,  have  oblit- 
erated much  of  its  origin-al  beauty.  The 
most  celebrated  of  Leonardo's  easel  pictures, 
that  known  as  Mona  Lisa,  is  the  portrait  of 
a  prominent  Florentine  lady,  perhaps  the 
most  famous  portrait  in  the  world  (see 
Painting).  The  Virgin  of  the  Bocks,  The 
Virgin,  Saint  Anne  and  Christ  and  John  the 
Baptist,  all  in  the  Louvre,  are  his  other  chief 
masterpieces.  Leonardo  spent  his  last  years 
in  France  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  He 
wrote  a  celebrated  treatise  on  painting. 

VIN'EGAR,  a  sour  liquid  whose  active 
principle  is  acetic  acid,  is  made  from  the 
juices  of  fniits  and  vegetables  and  from 
almost  any  other  liquid  that  will  ferment.  It 
is  used  as  a  condiment  and  in  the  pickling 
and  preserving  of  foods.  The  vinegar  of 
commerce  is  made  from  wine,  cider  or  malt 
exposed  to  the  air,  usually  at  a  heightened 
temperature  until  the  alcohol  which  it  con- 
tains turns  into  acetic  acid.  By  far  the  larg- 
est part  of  the  vinegar  used  in  the  United 
States  is  made  from  cider.  Ohio,  New  York, 
Michigan  and  Missouri  lead  in  the  industry. 

Cheap  grades  of  vinegar  are  usually  given 
their  sour  taste  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric 
acid.  This  adulterated  product  is  very  un- 
healthful,  and  should  not  be  purchased.  The 
presence   of   the   acid   can   be   detected   by 


boiling  a  mixture  of  vinegar  and  potato 
starch,  and  when  this  becomes  cool,  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  iodine.  If  the  vinegar  is 
pure,  the  mixture  will  turn  blue  on  the  addi- 
tion of  the  iodine;  if  sulphuric  acid  is  pres- 
ent, the  color  will  remain  unchanged. 

VIN'LAND,  the  name  given  to  that  part 
of  North  America  which  was  visited  by 
Norsemen  several  centuries  before  Columbus 
made  his  famous  voyage.  As  early  as  the 
tenth  century  a  Norwegian  viking,  Bjami 
Herjulfson,  was  driven  by  storms  to  the 
mainland  near  Greenland,  and  in  the  year 
1000  Lief  Ericson  landed  on  the  continent, 
probably  somewhere  between  Delaware  and 
Labrador.  He  named  the  region  Vinland 
(also  spelled  Vineland)  because  of  the 
numerous  wild  grapevines  there.  It  is  be- 
lieved, however,  that  the  Norsemen  did  settle 
at  some  point  in  America  and  that  they  built 
homes,  which  they  deserted  because  of  the 
hostility  of  Indians.  The  former  popular 
belief  that  the  old  mill  at  Newport  and  the 
Dighton  Rock  are  evidences  of  their  visit  has 
long  since  been  discarded,  the  former  hav- 
ing been  erected  by  an  early  governor  of 
Rhode  Island  and  the  latter  being  the  work 
of  Algonquin  Indians. 

VrOL,  a  class  of  ancient  musical  instru- 
ments, which  may  be  regarded  as  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  modern  violins.  They  were 
fretted  instruments,  with  three  to  six  strings, 
and  were  played  with  a  bow.  There  were 
three  instruments  in  a  set,  differing  in  pitch ; 
these  were  the  treble,  tenor  and  bass  viols, 
and  in  concerts  they  were  commonly  played 
in  pairs — two  treble,  two  tenor  and  two  bass. 
The  bass  viol,  or  viol  da  gamba,  developed 
into  the  modem  violoncello. 

VrOLET,  the  popular  name '  given  to  a 
genus  of  plants,  of  which  there  are  many 
species.  They  are  favorite  flowers  in  all 
northern  and  temperate  climates,  and  many 
of  them  are  among  the  first  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance in  the  spring.  The  greatest  favor- 
ites are  the  common  sweet  violet  and  the 
heart's-ease,  the  former  being  especially 
esteemed  for  its  fragrance.  The  well-known 
pansies,  so  common  as  garden  flowers,  are 
but  varieties  of  one  species,  produced  by 
cultivation.  In  different  localities,  various 
species  are  called  johnny-jump-ups.  The 
so-called  dog-tooth  violet  belongs  to  the  lily 
family. 

VIOLIN',  a  musical  instrument,  consist- 
ing of  four   catgut   strings,   the  lowest  of 


VIOLONCELLO 


3775 


VIREO 


which  is  covered  ^-ith  silvered  copper  wire, 
stretched,  by  means  of  a  bridge,  over  a  hol- 
low wooden  body,  and  played  with  a  bow. 
It  is  considered  the  most  jierfect  of  musical 
instruments,  on  account  of  its  capabilities 
of  fine  tone  and  expression  and  of  produc- 
ing all  the  tones  in  any  scale  in  perfect  tune. 
It  forms,  with  the  viola,  the  violoncello,  or 
bass  violin,  and  the  double  bass,  the  main 
element  of  all  orchestras. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  violin  are  the 
sctoll,  or  head,  in  which  are  placed  the  pins 
for  tunmg  the  strings;  the  neck,  wliich  con- 
nects the  scroll  with  the  body,  and  to  which 
is  attached  the  fingerboard,  upon  which  the 
strings  are  stopped  by  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand,  as  it  holds  the  neck  in  plajdng;  the 
belli/,  over  which  the  strings  are  stretched, 
and  which  has  two  /-shaped  sound  holes,  one 
on  each  side;  the  back,  or  under  side;  the 
sides,  or  ribs,  uniting  the  back  and  belly ;  the 
tailpiece,  to  which  the  strings  are  fastened, 
and  the  bridge.  The  back,  neck  and  sides  are 
generally  of  sj'camore,  the  belly  of  deal,  the 
lingerboai'd  and  tailpiece  of  ebony.  Almost 
all  the  pieces  are  put  together  with  glue. 

The  four  strings  of  tlie  violin  are  tuned 
at  G,  on  the  upper  spae«  of  the  base  staff, 
D,  A,  E,  reckoning  upward.  Every  inter- 
mediate semitone  in  a  comjiass  of  3  J  octaves 
may  be  produced  by  stopping  the  strings 
with  the  finger's,  and  the  compass  may  be  al- 
most indefinitely  extended  upward  by  touch- 
ing the  strings  lightly.  The  viola,  or  tenor 
violin,  has  four  strings,  tuned  to  C  (in  the 
second  space  of  the  base  staff),  D,  A,  G, 
reckoning  upward ;  it  is  an  octave  higher  than 
the  violoncello  and  a  fifth  lower  than  the 
violin. 

The  art  of  violin-making  reached  its  high- 
est development  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  greatest  of  the 
world's  violin  makers,  Stradivarius,  Amati 
and  Guarneri  worked  at  Cremona,  Italy. 
Very  fine  instruments  were  also  made  at  the 
same  time  in  France  and  Gennany. 

VIOLONCELLO,  vi  o  Ion  clieV  lo,  also 
called  Cello  (cheVo),  a  large  musical  in- 
strument of  the  violin  class,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  violin  and  the  double  bass.  The 
performer  rests  one  end  of  the  instrument  on 
the  floor  between  his  knees,  and  supports  the 
neck  with  his  left  hand.  There  are  four  gut 
strings,  the  two  lowest  covered  with  silver 
wire.  They  are  tuned  in  fifths — C,  G,  D,  A. 
The  instrument  has  a  compass  from  C  to  A/ . 


The  higher  notes  are  in  the  treble  clef,  the 
lower  in  the  bass.  Although  the  instrument 
is  much  larger  than  the  violin,  the  cello  bow 
is  shorter.  Comparatively  little  solo  music 
has  been  written  for  the  cello. 

VI'PER,  the  name  applied  to  a  family  of 
venomous  rei:»tiles  found  in  tropical  and  tem- 
perate regions  of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 
This  snake  has  a  flat,  triangular  head,  which 
in  most  species  is  covered  with  scales.  The 
pupil  of  the  ej'e  is  like  a  cat's  eye.  The 
common  viper  is  rarely  more  than  two  feet 
long,  is  usually  browTiish-yellow,  with  black 
triangular  spots  on  its  sides  and  zigzag  lines 
on  its  back.  Its  bite,  as  a  rule,  is  not  fatal, 
but  may  cause  pain  and  fever.  It  is  the 
only  poisonous  snake  in.  Great  Britain.  An- 
other species,  called  the  sand  viper,  having 
a  small  fleshy  horn  on  its  nose,  is  found 
along  the  shores  of  ]\rediterranean  countries. 
In  Africa  occur  the  death  adder,  pujf  adder 
and  saw  viper.  The  horned  vriper  of  the 
Egj'ptian  desert  which  preys  at  night  and 
burrows  in  the  sand  during  the  day,  is  much 
feared  on  account  of  its  bite,  which  is  usu- 
ally fatal.  The  largest  and  most  deadly  of  all 
vipers  is  BusselVs  viper  of  India.  It  is  five 
feet  long,  and  its  poison  is  invariably  fatal. 

VIRCHOW,  vee/Ko,  Rudolf  (1821- 
1902),  a  German  physician  and  pathologist, 
boni  in  Pomerania.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Berlin  and  early  became  famous  as  a  lecturer 
on  pathological  anatomy  at  Berlin  Univer- 
sity. His  advanced  liberal  opinions  during 
the  movement  of  1848  induced  the  govern- 
ment to  deprive  him,  temporarily,  of  his  ap- 
pointment. In  1849  he  accepted  a  chair  at 
Wurzburg,  where  he  remained  seven  years,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  he  returned  to  Berlin 
as  professor  in  the  university  and  director  of 
the  pathological  institute  attached  to  it.  In 
1858  he  published  Celhdar  Pathology,  in 
which  he  showed  that  pathological  tissues  are 
a  collection  of  cells.  Virchow  rendered  im- 
mense sei'vice  to  medical  science  by  his  dis- 
coveries in  regard  to  inflammation,  ulceration, 
tuberculosis  and  other  diseases,  and  he  has 
had  great  influence  on  the  whole  of  modem 
medicine,  including  hospital  reform  and  sani- 
tary science.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
not  only  on  scientific,  but  also  on  political 
subjects,  and  many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  the  English  and  other  Euro- 
pean languages. 

VIR'EO,  a  common  name  of  a  small  family 
of  birds,  whose  plumage  is  generally  of  a 


VIRGIL 


3776 


VIRGINIA 


greenish  shade.  They  are  sometimes  called 
greenlets,  and  about  a  dozen  species  are  found 
in  the  United  States.  Many  of  the  birds  are 
singers,  the  songs  of  the  several  species  vary- 
ing considerably.  The  birds  feed  exclusively 
upon  insects,  and  thus  render  a  distinct 
service  to  the  farmer.  The  nests  of  all  are 
similar,  being  cup-shaped  and  constructed 
of  ribbonlike  materials. 

The  best-known  species  in  the  United 
States  is  the  red-eyed  vireo.  It  is  about  six 
inches  long,  has  bright  olive-green  back  and 
tail,  and  a  double  line  of  ash  and  white  over 
the  eye,  the  iris  of  which  is  red.  The  yellow- 
throated  vireo  has  a  bright,  olive-green  back 
and  yellow  throat  and  breast.  The  warhling 
vireo  is  of  plain  plumage,  but  has  a  charm- 
ing song. 

VIRGIL,  vur'jil.     See  Vergil. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  a  group  of  islands  purchased  by 
the  United  States  from  Denmark  in  1917 
for  $25,000,000.  Before  the  change  of 
ownership  they  were  known  as  the  Danish 
West  Indies.  Geographically  the  Virgin 
Islands  are  a  part  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
which,  with  the  Windward  Islands  to  the 
south  of  them,  constitute  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
stretching  southward  from  Porto  Rico  in  a 
great  semicircle  nearly  to  the  coast  of  South 
America. 

The  Virgin  Islands  consist  of  three  main 
islands — Saint  Croix,  Saint  John  and  Saint 
Thomas — and  about  fifty  smaller  ones,  only 
five  of  which  are  inhabited.  The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  three  larger  islands  is  about 
26,000,  and  the  combined  area  is  about  132 
square  miles.  Saint  Croix  has  an  approxi- 
mate area  of  eighty-four  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  14,901.  Saint  Thomas  is 
twenty-eight  square  miles  in  extent,  and  is 
inhabited  by  10,191  persons;  Saint  John, 
with  an  area  of  twenty  square  miles,  has  959 
inhabitants.  (The  population  statistics  are 
from  the  official  census  report  of  1917.) 
The  great  majority  of  the  people  are  of  negro 
or  of  mixed  white  and  negro  blood. 

These  islands  are  of  volcanic  and  coral 
origin,  and  are  of  slight  importance  indus- 
trially, but  because  of  their  strategic  value 
as  outposts  for  the  protection  of  the  Panama 
Canal  their  purchase  by  the  United  States 
was  highly  approved  by  all  Americans.  The 
harbor  of  Charlotte  Amalie,  the  chief  town 
on  Saint  Thomas,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  town  is  an  important 


calling  station  for  vessels  plying  between 
Europe  and  the  Americas,  especially  for 
those  bound  for  the  Panama  Canal.  Vessels 
not  on\j  may  secure  coal,  oil  and  other  sup- 
plies, but  find  in  the  harbor  a  safe  refuge 
from  stoiTus.  The  Virgin  Islands  carry  on 
a  small  import  and  export  trade,  sending  to 
the  United  States  sugar,  hides  and  skins  and 
cabinet  woods.  They  receive  coal,  foodstuffs, 
boots  and  shoes,  refined  sugar  and  other  com- 
modities used  in  everyday  life.  See  Saint 
Thomas;  Travels  in  Distant  Lands^  sub- 
head, Among  the  Lesser  Antilles. 


IRGINIA,  vur  jin  e  ah,  one  of  the 
thirteen  original  states  of  the  American 
Union,  belonging  to  the  South  Atlantic 
group.  In  colonial  days  it  was  referred  to 
in  official  documents  as  the  "Dominion  of 
Virginia,"  a  name  that  survives  in  its  pop- 
ular designation,  the  Old  Dominion.  Vir- 
ginia is  the  picturesque  name  given  the 
colony  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  bestowed 
it  in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  "Virgin  Queen" 
of  England.  As  colony  and  state  Virginia 
has  had  a  unique  and  honored  place  in 
American  history.  On  its  soil  in  1607  was 
planted  the  first  permanent  English  settle- 
ment in  the  New  World.  A  leader  in  the 
struggle  for  independence,  it  gave  the  Amer- 
ican nation  its  first  President  and  seven 
others,  besides  Patrick  Henry,  John  Mar- 
shall, Richard  Henry  Lee,  John  Randolph 
and  other  distinguished  orators  and  states- 
men. Virginia's  honorary  title,  "Mother 
of  Presidents,"  is  well  deserved. 

Location  and  Area.  The  state  is  the  most 
northerly  of  the  South  Atlantic  group.  It  has 
the  shape  of  an  irregular  triangle,  with  the 
apex  pointing  northward,  and  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina  lying  along  the  base,  on  the 
south.  The  sloping  western  boundaiy  lies 
adjacent  to  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky; 


VIRGINIA 


3777 


VIRGINIA 


Maryland  is  at  the  extreme  north  and  along 
the  northeast;  Chesapeake  Bay  and-  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  bound  the  state  on  the  east. 
With  an  area  of  42,027  square  miles,  Vir- 
ginia is  the  thirty-third  commonwealth  in  the 
Union  in  size.  Of  its  area,  2,365  square 
miles  are  water  surface,  as  the  state  has 
numerous  landlocked  harbors  and  rivers. 
The  states  nearest  it  in  size  are  Tennessee, 
with  an  area  of  42,022  square  miles,  and 
Ohio,  which  covers  41,040  square  miles. 

People  and  Cities.  In  1910  Virginia  had 
2,061,612  inhabitants  and  an  average  density 
of  51.2  persons  to  the  square  mile,  and  was 
twentieth  in  rank  among  the  states  in  popula- 
tion. The  population  on  July  1,  1918,  ac- 
cording to  Federal  estimates,  was  2,234,030. 

About  one-third  of  the  people  are  of  negro 
blood;  the  proportion  of  foreign-born  to  the 
total  white  population  is  about  five  per  cent, 
and  of  the  native-bom  population  nine- 
tenths  are  Virginians  by  birth.  Russians, 
Germans,  English,  Irish  and  Scotch  are  the 
most  prominent  of  the  foreign-bom  groups. 

The  principal  religious  bodies  are  the  Bap- 
tist, Methodist,  Presbyterian,  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  Episcopalian. 

Richmond,  with  an  estimated  population 
of  160,719  in  1918,  is  the  capital  and  largest 
city.  It  is  the  only  municipality  with  over 
100,000  inhabitants.  The  cities  next  in  size 
are  Norfolk,  Roanoke,  Portsmouth,  Lynch- 
burg and  Petersburg. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  There  are  six  nat- 
ural divisions  of  Virginia,  which  differ  great- 
ly in  scenery,  soil  and  productions.  Named 
in  their  order,  from  east  to  west,  they  are 
the  tidewater  country,  middle  Virginia,  the 
Piedmont  section,  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  valley 
and  Appalaehia.  The  tidewater  country  con- 
sists of  lowlands,  extending  about  100  miles 
westward  from  the  ocean;  it  is  divided  by 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  deeply  cut  by  smaller 
bays,  estuaries  and  rivers.  Middle  Virginia, 
extending  from  the  tidewater  to  the  eastern 
outlying  spur  of  the  Appalachian  system,  is 
an  undulating  plain,  increasing  in  elevation 
toward  its  western  limits.  The  Piedmont 
section  is  a  narrow  belt,  lying  at  the  foot  of 
the  Blue  Ridge.  Its  mountains  and  hills  ex- 
tend in  every  direction,  enclosing  picturesque 
valleys  of  every  shape.  The  Blue  Ridge, 
from  three  to  twenty  miles  wide,  broken  by 
gorges  and  a  series  of  beautiful  peaks  and 
expanding  into  an  elevated  plateau  toward 
the  south,  is  the  principal  range. 

237 


The  highest  peak  is  White  Top  (5.530 
feet),  near  the  Tennessee  Hue.  The  valley, 
between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghanies, 
is  the  garden  spot  of  the  state.  The  lime- 
stone formations  in  the  central  part  of  this 
valley  contain  several  noted  caverns,  besides 
the  famous  Natural  Bridge,  considered  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Appalaehia, 
the  westernmost  section,  is  a  mountainous 
region,  crossed  by  numerous  narrow  ranges, 
inclosing  troughlike  valleys. 

The  Potomac,  which  forms  a  portion  of 
the  boundary  between  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land, drains  the  northern  and  eastern  parts 
of  the  state.  Its  chief  tributaries  from  Vir- 
ginia are  the  South  Branch  and  the  Shenan- 
doah. The  important  streams  flowing  into 
Chesapeake  Bay,  from  the  north  southward, 
in  their  order,  are  the  Rappahannock,  the 
York  and  the  James.  The  Roanoke  flows 
into  the  state  near  the  central  point  of  the 
southern  boundai-y  and  proceeds  eastward 
for  a  number  of  miles  and  then  returns  to 
North  Carolina.  This,  with  its  tributaries, 
drains  the  south-central  region.  The  south- 
western part  is  drained  into  the  Tennessee, 
and  the  northwestern,  into  the  Ohio.  The 
chief  streams  flowing  through  this  region  are 
the  Big  Sandy,  which  foims  a  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
and  the  Great  Kanawha.  Many  of  the  moun- 
tain streams  are  characterized  by  deep  gorges 
and  beautiful  waterfalls. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  diversified  accord- 
ing to  the  natural  divisions  of  surface.  In 
general,  the  state  is  free  from  intense  heat 
and  severe  cold,  although  sudden  changes  are 
common  in  most  localities.  The  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  56  °.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  forty-four  inches.  The  climate 
is  healthful  the  year  round. 

Mineral  Resources.  Virginia  has  a  wide 
variety  of  minerals,  and  the  annual  output 
of  all  products  is  valued  at  over  $16,000,000. 
In  the  southwestern  part,  in  the  Appalachian 
region,  there  are  valuable  coal  mines  now 
yielding  close  to  10,000,000  tons  a  year. 
Coal  is  the  most  important  of  the  minerals, 
and  is  followed  by  stone  products,  notably 
granite  and  other  building  stones,  soapstone, 
marble  and  talc.  Virginia  is  the  first  state 
in  the  production  of  soapstone.  Clay  prod- 
ucts and  lime  are  next  in  order  of  impor- 
tance; among  the  former  common  brick  con- 
stitutes about  eighty  per  cent  of  the  total 
product. 


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VIRGINIA 


The  state  is  among  the  first  ten  in  the 
production  of  iron,  and  is  first  in  the  produc- 
tion of  iron  pyrite,  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  Other  min- 
erals of  commercial  value  include  salt,  sand 
and  gravel,  copper,  zinc  and  lead.  There  ai'e 
numerous  mineral  springs  distributed  over 
the  state,  many  of  which  are  frequented  as 
health  resorts  because  of  their  medicinal 
properties.  Hot  Springs,  seventy-five  miles 
north  of  Roanoke,  is  one  of  the  best  known. 

Agriculture.  Agricultural  pursuits  oc- 
cupy over  half  the  population  of  the  state, 
and  agriculture  is  the  leading  industry. 
Climatic  conditions  are  favorable  in  nearly 
all  parts,  and  varieties  of  soil  make  possible 
a  wide  diversity  of  products.  Along  the 
eastern  shore  and  in  "Tidewater"  Virginia 
there  is  a  rich  marl  on  which  vegetables 
flourish,  and  there  truck  gardening  is  a 
highly  profitable  branch  of  agriculture.  Pea- 
nuts are  also  raised  in  the  east,  as  well  as  in 
a  few  other  localities,  and  the  yearly  output 
is  surpassed  only  by  that  of  North  Carolina. 
The  great  tobacco  fields  are  in  the  central 
section,  while  the  Piedmont  region  is  famous 
for  its  orchards  and  grazing  lands.  In  the 
fertile  soil  of  the  valley  between  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  the  Alleghanies  abundant  cereal 
harvests  are  produced. 

In  point  of  value  and  yield,  com  is  the 
most  important  of  the  large  crops,  and  is 
followed  by  wheat,  tobacco,  hay  and  forage. 
In  the  output  of  tobacco  Virginia  is  sur- 
passed only  by  Kentucky  and  North  Caro- 
lina; the  annual  crop  is  about  130,000,000 
bales.  Potatoes  are  the  most  important 
vegetable  product,  the  yearly  output  averag- 
ing about  18,000,000  bushels.  There  is  also' 
a  small  cotton  crop.  Among  orchard  fruits, 
apples  lead,  while  strawberries  are  the  most 
valuable  small  fruit.  Dairying  and  the  rais- 
ing of  horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine 
are  profitable  enterprises;  the  state  is  noted 
for  its  thoroughbred  horses. 

Fisheries.  Virginia  is  one  of  the  leading 
states  in  value  of  oyster  fisheries,  as  the 
tidal  waters  contain  immensely  profitable 
beds  of  that  mollusk;  about  two-thirds  of 
the  value  of  the  entire  fishery  output  is  rep- 
resented by  the  oyster  catch.  Other  products 
of  the  fisheries  include  shad,  menhaden,  ale- 
wives,  clams,  crabs  and  bluefish. 

Manufactures.  The  leading  manufactur- 
ing enterprises  are  those  connected  with  the 
making   of   lumber    and   lumber   products. 


Second  in  importance  is  the  manufacture  of 
smoking  and  chewing  tobacco.  Richmond, 
which  is  the  great  center  of  this  interest,  has 
one  of  the  largest  tobacco  factories  in  the 
United  States.  Flour  milling,  car  construc- 
tion and  rej^air,  leather  tanning,  the  manu- 
facture of  fertilizer,  paper  making,  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods  and  of  boots,  shoes 
and  the  roasting  of  peanuts  are  other 
profitable  lines  of  manufacture.  Shipbuild- 
ing has  developed  extensively  of  late  years, 
especially  at  Newport  News,  on  Hampton 
Roads.  Here  is  one  of  the  largest  shipyards 
in  the  country.  Good  water  power,  a  wealth 
of  raw  materials  and  ready  means  of  trans- 
portation are  all  favorable  factors  in  the 
industrial  growth  of  the  state. 

Transportation.  There  are  over  4,700 
miles  of  railroad  in  operation.  Some  of  the 
main  lines  are  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  the 
Southern,  the  Norfolk  &  Western,  the  Balti- 
more &  Ohio  and  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line. 
Coastwise  steamers  run  regularly  between 
Virginia  ports  and  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore  and  Boston,  and  a  line  of  freight- 
ers plies  between  Newport  News  and  Liver- 
pool. Hampton  Roads,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
James  River,  is  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
along  the  Atlantic  coast.  There  is  a  large 
interstate  traffic,  both  by  rail  and  water. 
The  exports  consist  of  tobacco  and  its  manu- 
factured products,  lumber,  gi'ain,  cotton, 
fruit,  vegetables,  coal,  iron  and  naval  stores, 
and  the  imports  are  manufactured  goods  and 
food  products.  Norfolk  is  the  chief  cotton 
shipping  port,  and  Newport  News  the  prin- 
cipal city  for  coal  shipment. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate,  which  cannot  exceed  forty  members  or 
have  less  than  thirty-three  members,  and  a 
house  of  delegates  of  not  less  than  ninety,  or 
more  than  100,  members.  The  senators  are 
elected  for  four  years  and  the  delegates  for 
two.  The  executive  department  consists  of  a 
governor,  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  secretary 
of  the  commonwealth,  an  auditor,  a  treasurer, 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  an 
adjutant-general  and  commissioners  of  agri- 
culture and  insurance.  The  state  courts  con- 
sist of  a  supreme  court  of  appeals,  of  five 
judges,  chosen  by  the  legislature  for  twelve 
years,  and  circuit  courts,  which  are  held  in 
twenty-four  judicial  districts,  each  of  which 
has  a  judge,  elected  by  the  legislature  for 
eight  years.  Lower  courts  are  established 
for  cities  and  towns. 


VIRGINIA 


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VIRGINIA 


Education.  The  school  sj-stem  is  under  the 
control  of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, elected  by  the  people,  and  a  state  board 
of  education  of  eight  members,  which  con- 
sists of  the  governor,  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  the  attorney-general,  three 
representatives  of  higher  institutions,  chosen 
by  the  legislature,  and  two  superintendents 
chosen  by  this  group  of  six.  The  revenue  for 
school  purposes  is  provided  almost  wholly 
bj'  local  and  state  taxation.  Separate  schools 
are  maintained  for  colored  and  white  chil- 
dren, and  the  law  requires  that  each  district 
must  have  at  least  five  months'  school  dur- 
ing the  year.  Notwithstanding  the  difiicul- 
ties  under  which  Virginia  labored  after  the 
Civil  War,  the  schools  of  the  state  have  made 
continual  advancement. 

The  state  maintains  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  the 
Virginia  Military  Institute,  TTilliam  and 
Mary  College  (the  second  oldest  university 
in  the  United  States),  the  Virginia  Xormal 
and  Collegiate  Institute,  for  men,  at  Peters- 
burg, and  a  state  female  normal  school,  at 
Farmville.  Nonnal  courses  for  negroes 
are  given  in  VTilliam  and  Maiy  College,  and 
there  are  industrial  schools  for  women  at 
Harrisonburg  and  Fredericksburg.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  at  Charlottes\'ille,  was 
founded  by  Thomas  Jefferson;  the  military 
Institute,  at  Lexington,  is  called  the  ""West 
Point  of  the  South."  Other  institutions  of 
higher  learning  include  the  following  well- 
known  schools : 

Elizabeth    College    (for   women)    at    Salem. 

Hampton  Xormal  and  Agricultural  Institute 
at  Hampton    (colored). 

Hampden-Sidney  College  (for  men)  at 
Hampden -Sidney. 

Hollins  College   (for  women)   at  Hollins. 

Martha  Washington  College  (for  women) 
at    Abingdon. 

Randolph-Macon  College  (for  men)  at  Ash- 
land. 

Randolph-Macon  Women's  College  at 
Lynchburg. 

Richmond  College  (for  men)  at  Westhamp- 
ton. 

Sweet  Briar  Institute  (for  women)  at  Sweet 
Briar. 

Washington  and  Lee  University  (for  men) 
at  Lexington. 

Westhampton  College  (for  women)  at 
Westhampton. 

Institutions.  The  charitable  and  cor- 
rectional institutions  include  the  penitentiary 
at  Kiohmond,  the  state  farm  at  Lassister  Post 
Office,    the   central    hospital    at    Petersburg, 


southwestern  hospital  at  Marion,  the  western 
hospital  at  Staunton,  the  Virginia  epileptic 
colony  and  the  Virginia  colony  for  the  feeble- 
minded at  Madison  Heights,  the  Catawba 
sanatorium,  the  Virginia  school  for  the  deaf 
and  blind  at  Catawba,  and  the  Virginia 
school  for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind  at  New- 
port News. 

History.     The    shores    of    Virginia    were 
probably  first  visited  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in 
1498,  but  no  attempt  at  settlement  was  made 
until  late  in  the  following  century,  when  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  sent  out  several  expeditions 
without  success.     The  London  Company  was 
formed  in  1606,  and  in  the  following  spring 
a  colony  was  established  at  Jamestown.     Its 
leading  spirit  was  Captain  John  Smith,  whose 
energy  and  ability  saved  the  settlement  from 
early  destruction  by  famine  and  Indian  at- 
tacks.    In  1610  Lord  Delaware  was  sent  to 
the  colony  as  governor,  and  under  his  wise 
administration     the     settlement     prospered. 
The  year  1619  witnessed  the  introduction  of 
negro  slavery  by  Dutch  traders,  as  well  as  the 
establishment  of  the  first  representative  as- 
sembly in  America.    From  this  time  on  many 
immigrants,  driven  from  England  by  the  per- 
secution   of    the   Puritans,    arrived   in   Vir- 
ginia;  but  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Puritan 
revolution,    in    1642,    William    Berkeley,    a 
stanch  royalist,  became  governor  and  prompt- 
ly suppressed  the  rebellious  spirit.     At  this 
time  an  influx  of  royalists  also  began,  which 
led  to   serious   opposition   to   the   Cromwell 
regime  in  England  and  to  the  joyful  recog- 
nition of  the  return  of  the  Stuarts  to  the 
throne.    However,  within  the  next  few  years 
discontent  with  economic  conditions  and  the 
policy  of  the  administration  led  to  a  serious 
insurrection,   known    as   Bacon's   Rebellion. 
The  eighteenth   century-  in  Virginia  was 
marked   by   remarkable   development,    espe- 
cially in  the  westward  districts  of  the  colony. 
During  the  French  and  Indian  Wars,  Vir- 
ginia took  an  exceptionally  prominent  part, 
but  it  was  also  a  leader  in  the  resistance  to 
Parliamentary  taxation,  its  Assembly  pass- 
ing some  of  the  earliest  and  most  important 
measures  of  the  period.     Virginia  also  fur- 
nished some  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures 
of  the  time,  such  as  Washington,  Jefferson, 
Patrick  Henry,  the  Lees  and  Madison.    The 
state  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  war-  ended  on  Virginia  soil, 
in  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis.     During  the 
early  years  of  the  Republic,  the  state  was 


VIRGINIA 

THE  OLD  DOMINION 


State  Seal 


Houdon's  Statue  of 

Wash 

Cap 


All  that  IS  left    of 

Old    Jamestown 


Population  of  Cities 
r*Over    150,0  00 

From  90,000  to  100,000 
"       30,000   "  50,000 
A  •'       I  5,000  "  30,000 


An  Oyster  Gatherep 


William  and  MaryColleoe, 
Chartered  in  1693 


Stratford,  Westmoreland   County, 
the   Birthplace  of  Robert  E.Lee 


Jackson  Monument,.  Richmond 


3780 


VIRGINIA 


3781 


VIRGINIA 


Items  of  Interest  on  Virginia 

The  present  state  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1902. 

Tlie  first  white  child  born  in  the  New 
"World  was  born  in  Virginia. 

The  fi»st  exports  of  iron  ore  were 
sent  from  Virginia  in  1608. 

Twenty  thousand  pounds  of  tobacco 
were  exported  in  1619. 

The  first  representative  assembly  in 
North  America  was  the  Virginia  House 
of  Burgesses,  which  met  for  the  first 
time   in   1619. 

In  1648  the  population  of  the  colony 
was  15,000. 

Seven  states  have  been  formed  from 
territory  which  foimerly  belonged  to 
Virginia. 

During  the  Civil  "War,  of  the  six 
great  campaigns  in  the  East,  four  were 
on  Virginia  soil;  the  first  Manassas 
Campaign  (1861),  the  Peninsular 
battles  (1862),  the  second  Manassas, 
Fredericksburg  and  Chaneellorsville 
(1862-63),  and  the  great  Battles  of  the 
Wilderness  and  campaigns  around 
Petersburg   (1864^65). 

Questions  on  Virginia 

Wliat  is  the  area  of  Virginia  ? 

Name  and  describe  the  physical  divi- 
sions. 

Describe  the  drainage. 

Wl>at  is  the  character  of  the  coast 
line? 

What  is  the  most  valuable  product 
of  the  fisheries? 

How  do^es  Virginia  rank  as  a  to- 
bacco-growing state? 

Name  four  other  important  crops. 

What  is  the  most  valuable  mineral 
product  ? 

Name  two  minerals  in  which  Vir- 
ginia leads  all  other  states. 

What  are  the  leading  manufactured 
products? 

How  many  miles  of  railroad  are  there 
in  the  state? 

What  natural  advantages  has  Rich- 
mond ?  What  are  its  leading  industries  ? 
What  buildings  of  historical  interest 
still  stand  in  Richmond? 

Name  five  prominent  educational  in- 
stitutions. 


stanchly   Anti-Federalist,   but   eight  of  the 
first  nine  Presidents  were  Virginians. 

The  state  was  at  first  favorable  to  the 
liberation  of  the  slaves,  but  under  the  influ- 
ence of  states'  rights  theories  and  of  agri- 
cultural conditions,  it  finally  adhered  to  the 
policies  of  the  lower  South,  and  in  the  Civil 
War  Virginia  not  only  furnished  the  ablest 
generals  in  the  Confederate  armies,  but  be- 
came the  battle  ground  of  the  gi'eat  struggle. 
The  state  at  first  opposed  secession,  but  finally 
passed  the  resolution,  April  17,  and  from 
that  time  forward  it  was  a  continuous  fight- 
ing ground  between  the  two  armies,  many 
of  the  most  important  actions  of  the  war, 
including  Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox, 
taking  place  within  its  borders.  A  new  con- 
stitution, framed  in  1863,  was  adopted,  but 
an  amendment  allowing  negro  suffrage  was 
rejected  in  1868,  and  the  state  was  not  re- 
admitted until  1870.  In  1902  a  constitutional 
provision  was  adopted,  limiting  suffrage. 
Since  the  Civil  War  the  state  has  been  almost 
continuously  Democratic  in  both  state  and 
national  politics.  Statewide  prohibition  be- 
came efi'ective  in  1916. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following- 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Alexandria  Petersburg 

Danville  Portsmouth 

Lynchburg  Richmond 

Newport  News  Roanoke 

Norfolk  Staunton 

HISTORY 

Bacon's  Rebellion  Jamestown 

Bull  Run,  Battles  of      Revolutionary  War  in 

Chaneellorsville,  America 

Battle  of  Smith,    John 

Fredericksburg-,  West  Virginia,   sub- 
Battle   of  head  History 

Harper's  Ferry 

RI-VERS 

James  Roanoke 

Potomac  Shenandoah 

Rappahannock 

TOPOGRAPHIC   FEATURES 

Alleghany   Mountains    Natural   Bridge 
Blue  Ridge  Piedmont   Region 

Luray  Caverns 

VIRGINIA,  Minn.,  a  mining  and  lum- 
bering city,  fifth  in  size  in  the  state,  in  Saint 
Louis  County,  seventy-five  miles  northwest 
of  Duluth,  and  on  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Duluth  &  Iron  Range,  the  Duluth,  Winnipeg 
&  Pacific,  and  the  Missabe  &  Northern  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  distributing  point  for  ores 
from  the  Vermilion  and  Mesaba  ranges,  one 
of  the  most  important  iron-producing  re- 
gions of  the  world.  Its  saw  mills  turn  out 
a  million  feet  of  finished  white  pine  lumber 
daily.  An  extensive  dairy  industry  is  de- 
veloping.    The  town   was   settled  in  1892 


VIRGINIA 


3782 


VISIBLE  SPEECH 


and  became  a  city  in  1905.  It  lias  been  twice 
burned  by  forest  fires.  There  are  a  Federal 
building,  a  public  library,  a  county  court- 
house and  two  parks.  The  workmen  of  the 
mills  and  mines  are  largely  of  European 
birth.  Population,  1910,  10,473;  in  1917, 
15,954. 

VIRGINIA,  University  of,  a  state  insti- 
tution of  higher  learning,  located  near  Char- 
lottesville, four  miles  from  Monticello,  the 
old  home  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  The  univer- 
sity was  founded  by  the  state  of  Virginia 
through  the  influence  of  Jefferson,  in  1819, 
and  it  owes  much  of  its  efficiency  to  his  in- 
terest and  care.  In  October,  1903,  the  gov- 
ernment board  created  the  office  of  president, 
and  in  Jvme,  1904,  Edwin  Anderson  Alder- 
man was  elected  first  president  of  the  uni- 
versity. The  institution  is  organized  into 
academic,  engineering,  law,  medical  and  agri- 
cultural dejDartments.  There  are  about  sev- 
enty-five instructors  and  over  900  students, 
and  the  library  contains  100,000  volumes. 
The  state  of  Virginia  makes  an  annual  appro- 
priation for  the  maintenance  of  the  univer- 
sity. Among  the  interesting  buildings  is  the 
Rotunda,  housing  the  library.  The  structure 
is  modeled  upon  the  Pantheon  at  Rome. 

VIRGINIA  CITY,  Nev.,  third  city  in  size 
in  the  state,  the  county  seat  of  Storey  Coun- 
ty, fifty-two  miles  southeast  of  Reno,  on  the 
Virginia  &  Truckee  railroad.  The  city  grew 
up  about  the  famous  Comstock  lode,  the 
world's  richest  silver  mine,  discovered  in 
1859,  and  since  that  time  having  a  con- 
solidated output  amounting  to  approximate- 
ly a  billion  dollars.  The  settlement  was  first 
known  as  Ophir  and  later  as  Silver  City.  It 
received  its  present  name  from  James  Feni- 
more,  an  early  settler,  familiarly  known  as 
"Old  Virginia."  The  city  was  incorporated 
in  1864.  The  population  in  1880  was  10,917, 
the  subsequent  decrease  being  largely  due  to 
exhaustion  of  the  lode  and  a  decline  in  the 
price  of  silver.    Population,  1910,  2,244. 

VIRGINIA  CREEPER,  a  shrubby,  hardy 
climbing  plant  of  the  grape  family.  It  is 
much  grown  on  walls  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  in  the  British  Isles  and  in  America 
as  an  ornamental  vine.  The  stem  develops 
tiny  rootlets  along  its  entire  length,  and  by 
means  of  these  the  vines,  which  often  attain 
a  great  size  and  weight  are  upheld.  The 
foliage  is  compound,  five  leaflets  to  a  stem, 
and  in  autumn  is  brilliantly  colored.  The 
wild  Virginia  creeper  is  sometimes  mistaken 


for  poison  ivy,  though  the  latter  has  three 
leaflets  on  a  stem.  Because  of  the  little 
bunches  of  dark  blue  berries  which  appear 
in  the  fall  the  creeper  is  sometimes  called 
false  grape. 

VIRGINIA  RESOLUTIONS.  See  Ken- 
tucky AND  Virginia  Resolutions. 

VIRGO,  vw/go  (the  virgin),  the  sixth 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  rejiresented  by  the  sign  ItP. 
The  principal  star  of  this  constellation  is 
Spica,  one  of  the  lesser  first-magnitude  stars. 
The  sun  enters  the  constellation  of  Virgo 
about  August  20th. 

VmUS.  As  the  term  is  used  in  medicine, 
virus  means  disease  poison,  particularly  the 
poison  by  which  disease  is  conveyed  from  one 
person  to  another  by  contact.  Formerly  the 
application  of  the  term  was  restricted  to  such 
diseases  as  measles,  scarlet  fever  and  small- 
pox, but  the  culture  of  any  bacteria  may  be 
called  a  virus.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  vaccine  used  in  vaccination. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Antitoxin  Medicine 

Bacteria  Vaccination 

Germ  Theory  Vaccine  Therapy 

VISCOUNT,  vi'hount,  originally,  in  Eng- 
lish usage,  the  officer  who  acted  as  deputy 
to  a  count  or  earl.  As  a  hereditary  title,  it 
was  first  granted  to  John  Beaumont,  in  1440. 
A  viscount  is  "Right  Honorable"  and  is 
styled  "My  Lord."  His  wife  is  a  viscountess, 
and  his  children  are  addressed  as  "Honor- 
able." 

VISHITU,  the  second  of  the  three  great 
Hindu  gods,  by  his  special  worshipers  con- 
sidered to  be  the  greatest.  In  the  early  Vedas 
he  was  not  regarded  as  the  most  exalted 
deity,  but  this  rank  was  accorded  to  him  by 
the  later  writers.  The  myths  relating  to 
Vishnu  are  characterized  by  the  idea  that 
whenever  a  great  physical  or  moral  dis- 
order affected  the  world,  Vishnu  descended 
to  set  it  right.  He  is  generally  represented 
as  having  four  hands,  in  which  he  holds  a 
conch-shell,  blown  in  battle;  a  disk,  the 
symbol  of  supreme  power;  a  mace,  the  em- 
blem of  punishment,  and  a  lotus,  the  sign  of 
the  creative  power.  Often  he  is  shown  as 
riding  on  a  being,  half  man  and  half  bird. 
See  Brahma;  Siva. 

VISIBLE  SPEECH,  a  term  applied  by 
Prof.  A.  Melville  Bell,  its  inventor,  to  a.  sys- 
tem of  aphabetical  characters,  designed  to 
represent  every  possible  articulate  utterance 
of  the  organs  of  speech.    The  system  is  based 


VISIGOTHS 


3783 


VIVISECTION 


or  an  exliaustive  classification  of  the  iDOSsible 
actions  of  the  speech  organs,  each  organ  and 
every  mode  of  action  having  its  appropriate 
sjTnbol.  It  is  said  that  this  invention  is  of 
great  utility  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb 
to  comprehend  spoken  words  and  in  aiding 
students  of  foreign  languages  to  acquire  their 
pronunciatf?)n  from  books. 

VISIGOTHS,  vis'  e  goths.    See  Goths. 

VISION,  vizh'ioi,  or  SIGHT,  the  act  of 
perceiving  objects  through  the  eye.  As  an 
optical  instrument,  the  eye  closely  resembles 
a  camera,   the   cornea   and   crystalline  lens 


corresponding  to  the  lens  of  a  camera,  and 
the  retina  corresponding  to  the  screen.  The 
rods  and  cones  of  the  retina  are  sensitive 
only  to  the  light,  and  their  great  number  and 
variety  enables  the  perfect  eye  to  respond 
to  light  waves  producing  all  colors.  Rays 
of  light  entering  the  eye  through  the  pupil 
are  refracted,  and  they  cross  just  back  of  the 
lens,  the  rays  from  A  coming  to  a  focus  on 
the  retina  at  a,  and  those  at  B  coming  to  a 
focus  at  h,  thus  forming  an  inverted  image 
on  the  retina.  This  may  be  observed  by 
carefully  cutting  away  the  sclerotic  coat  from 
aroi'.nd  the  optic  nerve  of  an  eye  taken  from 
one  of  the  lower  animals,  exposing  the  retina 
over  an  area  about  the  size  of  a  dime,  and 
holding  the  eye  towards  a  lighted  lamp  in  a 
darkened  room.  An  image  of  the  lamp 
inverted  on  the  retina  can  be  plainly  seen. 

Physiology  of  Vision,  Though  the  image 
may  fall  on  the  retina  of  a  dead  eye,  there  can 
be  no  vision  in  such  case,  as  vision  must  de- 
pend upon  the  action  of  the  li\'ing  optic 
nerve. 

The  sensorv'  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve  orig- 
inate in  the  optic  centers  of  the  brain.  These 
fibers  meet  and  cross  at  the  base  of  the  brain, 
forming  the  optic  commissure,  from  which 
the  optic  nerves  extend  to  each  eye.  In  the 
commissure,  half  of  the  fibers  cross,  so  that 
each  optic  nerve  consists  of  half  of  the  fibers 
from  its  own  optic  center  and  half  of  the  fi- 
bei^s  from  the  optic  center  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  brain.     On  reaching  the  eye,  these 


fibers  are  so  distributed  that  those  from  the 
right  optic  center  form  the  right  half  of  the 
retina  in  each  eye,  and  those  from  the  left 
center  form  the  left  half.  When  the  rods 
and  cones  are  stimulated,  impulses  are  trans- 
mitted along  the  optic  nerves  and  optic  tracks 
to  the  centers  of  unconscious  sight  in  the 
brain.  From  these  centers,  other  nerves 
extend  to  the  centers  of  vision,  and  when  the 
stimuli  are  strong  enough  to  cause  impulses 
to  be  transmitted  to  these  centers,  the  person 
becomes  conscious  of  them  and  sees  the  object. 
This  is  completed  vision,  and  the  image  is 
retained  in  memory  for  a  greater  or  less 
length  of  time,  depending  upon  the  strength 
of  the  stimuli  and  mental  condition  at  the 
time  the  vision  occurs.  Consciousness  and 
memory  are  mental  activities,  so  that  com- 
plete, intelligent  \'ision  depends  upon  mental, 
as  well  as  physical  action. 

Related     ArtieleB.  Consult     the     following 

titles   for  additional  information: 
Camera                 Eye  Light 

Color  Lens  Memory 

VIS'TULA,  a  river  of  Central  Europe, 
rising  in  Eastern  Silesia  and  flowing  in  a 
general  northeasterly  direction  into  the 
Frisches  Haff  and  the  Baltic  Sea.  Its  delta 
encloses  numbers  of  wooded  islands,  and  its 
arms  are  subject  to  extensive  change  in  their 
banks  and  the  volume  of  their  discharge.* 
Among  the  cities  on  its  banks  are  Cracow, 
Warsaw  and  Danzig.  The  river  is  about 
630  miles  in  length  and  is  navigable  for  a 
considerable  part  of  this  distance,  though 
navigation  is  made  difficult  by  constantly 
shifting  sandbanks. 

VI'TAL  STATISTICS.  See  Population, 
subhead  Vital  Statistics. 

VITAMINES,  vitam'inz,  a  term  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  for  life,  and  applied 
to  certain  substances  found  in  minute  quan- 
tities in  natural  foodstuffs.  They  are  believed 
to  occur  in  the  outer  coat  of  rice  and  other 
grains,  in  uncooked  milk,  in  butter  and 
yeast  and  in  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables.  Our 
knowledge  of  them  is  limited,  but  it  is  evident 
that  they  promote  growth  and  help  to  reg- 
ulate the  body  processes.  Scientists  are  mak- 
ing extended  investigations  to  discover  the 
chemical  formula  of  vitamines,  and  their 
exact  relation  to  health  and  nutrition. 

VIT'RIOL,  Oil  of,  the  common  name  given 
to  strong  sulphuric  acid.  See  Sulphuric 
Acid. 

VIVISECTION,  viviseh'shnn,  physiolog- 
ical investigation  on  living  animals  for  the 


VIZIER 


3784 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


purpose  of  discovering  or  demonstrating 
some  fact  of  physiology.  The  term,  which 
literally  means  the  cutting  of  the  living,  was 
formerly  employed  to  designate  only  cutting 
operations  upon  living  animals  for  purposes 
of  experiment.  To-day  it  has  a  broader  ap- 
plication and  includes  the  inoculating  with 
disease  germs,  experimenting  with  drugs, 
medicines,  foods,  with  the  effects  of  tem- 
perature upon  living  organisms,  as  well  as 
cutting  operations  involving  nerves,  arteries 
and  vital  organs. 

Vivisection  has  been  generally  regarded  as 
the  necessary  means  of  acquiring  physiolog- 
ical knowledge.  Practically  our  entire  knowl- 
edge of  bacteriology  and  of  the  effects  of 
drugs  and  medicines  has  been  gained  through 
this  method  of  investigation,  and  nearly  every 
operation  and  appliance  to  relieve  pain  or 
save  life  has  been  made  possible  through  it. 
The  facts  concerning  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  respiration,  digestion  and  the  func- 
tions of  the  nervous  system  have  been  dis- 
covered by  means  of  vivisection.  The  experi- 
ments are  conducted  in  the  most  humane 
manner  possible.  The  animals  to  be  operated 
upon  are  placed  under  the  influence  of  anaes- 
thetics and  suffer  little  or  no  pain.  If  an 
experiment  necessitates  the  mutilation  of  the 
'subject,  the  animal  is  put  to  death  while  it  is 
still  insensible. 

VIZIER,  viz^yer,  a  high  official  in  Moham- 
medan countries,  particularly  the  prime  min- 
ister to  the  sultan,  known  as  the  grand  vizier 
and  possessing  powers  second  only  to  the 
ruler  himself. 

VLADIVOSTOK,  vlahdyevohstohV,  Si- 
beria, the  chief  commercial  and  naval  port  of 
the  country  on  the  Pacific,  the  eastern  termi- 
nus of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  city 
lies  at  the  southern  end  of  a  peninsula,  on  an 
arm  of  the  Sea  of  Japan.  It  has  a  fine  har- 
bor, ice-free  nine  months  of  the  year,  and  is 
connected  by  steamship  lines  with  Japanese, 
Korean,  North  Siberian  and  North  American 
ports.  The  city  is  impressive  in  appeai^ance 
when  viewed  from  the  magnificent  bay,  but 
on  closer  inspection  is  disappointing.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  great  quantities  of  war 
supplies  were  deposited  at  Vladivostok,  and 
after  the  Bolsheviki  overthrew  the  govern- 
ment in  Russia  the  allies  landed  troops  in  the 
city  to  guard  the  supplies  and  maintain  or- 
der. Vice  was  rampant  in  the  troubled  days 
of  the  war.  Population,  1911,  91,464.  See 
Siberia. 


VOCA'TIONAL  EDUCATION,  that  type 
of  education  designed  to  prepare  young  peo- 
ple for  their  life  work.  As  the  term  is  or- 
dinarily used,  it  applies  to  education  below 
college  grade,  but  in  its  broadest  sense  it 
should  include  preparation  for  professions  as 
well  as  occupations.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  vocational  education  has 
made  rapid  progress  everywhere  in  Europe 
and  America. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  World 
War  in  1917,  the  government  at  once  dis- 
covered the  dearth  of  skilled  workmen  in  all 
the  trades  in  which  increased  activity  became 
at  once  a  vital  necessity.  Especially  was 
there  a  scarcity  of  mechanics,  carpenters  and 
shipbuilders,  and  to  supply  the  demand,  the 
government  entered  upon  a  campaign  of  in- 
dustrial training  on  a  scale  never  before  un- 
dertaken. This  campaign  was  conducted  by 
the  committee  on  Education  and  Special 
Training  of  the  War  Department.  Colleges, 
technical  schools  and  high  schools  followed 
the  lead  of  this  committee,  and  the  progress 
in  vocational  education  in  the  two  years  fol- 
lowing the  declaration  of  war  exceeded  that 
during  the  ten  years  preceding  that  date. 

The  labor  conditions  confronting  the  gov- 
ernment led  to  a  thorough  study,  on  the  part 
of  educators,  of  the  relation  of  the  schools  to 
this  condition.  Some  of  the  most  far-reaching 
causes  of  the  lack  of  skilled  workmen  were 
found  to  be,  first,  dropping  the  old  appren- 
tice system  without  providing  anything  to 
take  its  place,  and  the  rise  of  the  factory 
system,  involving  the  extensive  use  of  ma- 
chines which  do  not  require  skilled  opera- 
tives; second,  lack  of  education.  Only  one- 
fourth  of  the  pupils  who  enter  the  primary 
grades  of  the  public  schools  complete  the 
work  of  the  eighth  grade,  and  nearly  one-half 
of  them  leave  school  before  they  reach  the 
seventh  grade.  Most  of  these  boys  and  girls 
go  to  work  with  practically  no  foundation 
for  mental  development,  and  only  a  few  of 
them  become  skilled  workmen  in  any  occupa- 
tion requiring  a  trained  mind. 

A  majority  of  these  pupils  leave  school 
because  they  find  no  interest  in  the  subjects 
presented  in  the  course  of  study  and  because 
their  parents  are  unable  to  realize  the  impor- 
tance to  their  children's  success,  of  at  least, 
an  elementaiy  education,  whatever  occupa- 
tion they  may  follow.  If  the  course  of  study 
could  be  so  changed  as  to  relate  it  more  vital- 
ly to  the  occupations  of  life,  it  is  agreed  that 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


3785 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


most  of  these  pupils  could  be  retained  in 
school.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  the  leading  edu- 
cators made  such  revisions  of  the  courses  of 
study  as  enabled  them  to  provide  more  lib- 
erally for  vocational  subjects  and  vocational 
guidance. 

Vocational  Guidance.  Vocational  guid- 
ance is  the  first  step  in  vocational  education. 
For  lack  of  it  at  the  proper  time,  many  boys 
and  girls  become  misfits  for  life.  By  voca- 
tional guidance  is  meant  that  friendly  interest 
in  and  oversight  of  boys  and  girls  that  will 
keep  them  in  school,  hold  up  to  them  ideals 
worth  following,  and  lead  them  to  have  a 
definite  purpose  in  life.  This  oversight  should 
be  given  by  both  parents  and  teachers,  and 
should  always  be  kindly  and  sjTnpathetie. 
Its  ultimate  aim  should  be  to  lead  bo^'s  and 
girls  to  choose  their  life  work  deliberately, 
and  to  make  such  choice  as  will  harmonize 
with  their  respective  desires  and  aptitudes 
and  lead  to  a  successful  career.  Proper  vo- 
cational guidance  does  not  force  boys  and 
girls  to  choose  occupations  before  they  are 
old  enough  to  know  what  they  want  to  do. 
On  the  contrary,  it  strives  to  prevent  them 
from  making  choice  hastily. 

Vocational  guidance  is  especially  helpful 
to  boj's  and  girls  between  twelve  and  sixteen 
years  of  age.  It  should  help  them  "to  a  better 
understanding  of  their  own  abilities,  of  the 
opportunities  afforded  to  do  the  world's  work 
and  of  the  best  possible  use  to  be  made  of 
such  abilities  and  opportunities."  Between 
fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age,  both  boys 
and  girls  leave  school  in  large  numbers. 
A  wise  vocational  counselor  may  influence 
many  of  them  to  remain  in  school  for  one  or 
two  years  more.  But  he  should  follow  with 
equal  care  those  who  go  into  the  various  lines 
of  industry'.  These  young  people  should  be 
encouraged  to  continue  their  education  while 
at  work,  and  all  possible  assistance  should  be 
given  them. 

The  competent  vocational  counselor  also 
keeps  in  touch  with  the  employer.  While 
noting  the  industry  and  the  efiiciency  of  these 
young  people,  he  likewise  notices  the  con- 
ditions under  which  they  work,  and  whether 
or  not  the  occupation  in  which  each  is  engaged 
is  suited  to  the  worker's  strength  and  apti- 
tude. When  one  is  found  working  amidst  im- 
desirable  surroundings  or  at  an  occupation 
for  which  he  is  in  no  wise  fitted,  a  change  is 
recommended.     On  the  other  hand,  boys  and 


girls  should  be  encouraged  to  give  the  occu- 
pations they  have  respectively  entered  upon 
a  fair  trial,  to  put  their  best  efforts  into 
their  v.'ork  and  to  learn  all  they  can  about 
the  business  or  trade  in  which  they  are  en- 
gaged. 

Pre- Vocational  Education.  Pre-vocational 
training  is  designed  to  assist  young  people 
who  have  not  chosen  a  vocation  in  making 
such  a  choice.  In  large  cities  where  there 
are  schools  equipped  for  carrying  on  various 
lines  of  industry  the  pupils  are  given  oppor- 
tunity to  try  out  different  vocations.  But  in 
addition  to  this,  instruction  is  given  upon  the 
advantages,  possibilities  and  disadvantages 
of  each  occupation,  so  each  pupil  may  have  a 
fair  understanding  of  the  relative  position  in 
the  world's  industry  which  the  vocation  he 
chooses  holds.  The  bearing  of  the  different 
branches  in  the  course  of  study  upon  the 
various  occupations  should  also  be  explained, 
and  courses  of  reading  should  be  suggested. 
The  Junior  High  School  is  an  important  aid 
in  this  phase  of  the  vocational  education 
(see  High  School,  subhead  Junior  High 
School). 

Vocational  Schools.  About  eighty-five  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  trained  in  the  public  schools 
earn  their  living  through  industi'ial  processes, 
and  vocational  schools  are  designed  to  fit 
young  people  for  useful  occupations.  They 
differ  from  the  old  style  manual  training 
school  in  training  their  pupils  specifically  to 
enter  upon  some  occupation,  while  the  in- 
struction in  the  manual  training  school  is 
more  for  the  purpose  of  training  the  hand 
for  the  cultural  value  derived  from  such  train- 
ing. 

Vocational  schools  are  elementary  in  char- 
acter, but  they  do  not  receive  pupils  under 
fourteen  years  of  age.  The  courses  are' 
usually  two  years  in  length;  a  few  schools 
have  three-year  courses.  In  most  of  the 
schools  the  time  is  about  equally  divided 
between  book-work  and  shop-work.  The  school 
work  includes  English,  mechanical  drawing, 
mathematics  and  other  closely-related  sub- 
jects. The  shop-work  is  taught  by  practical 
men.  ]\Iany  evening  schools  are  largely  vo- 
cational. 

Continuation  Schools.  There  is  an  in- 
creasing demand  for  better  educated  work- 
men in  all  lines  of  industry.  Many  boys  and 
girls  and  men  and  women  have  entered  upon 
their  chosen  vocations  with  less  than  a  com- 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


3786 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 


mon  school  education,  and  the  purpose  of 
continuation  schools  is  to  enable  these  iJeoi^le 
to  continue  their  school  work  while  following 
their  occupations.  Students  in  these  schools 
may  pursue  lines  of  work  that  will  perfect 
them  in  some  special  industry,  or  they  may 
continue  their  general  education.  Evening 
schools  may  be  considered  a  branch  of  con- 
tinuation schools.  The  most  successful 
schools  of  this  type  are  those  where  arrange- 
ments are  made  with  the  employer  by  which 
the  student  is  allowed  to  spend  a  part  of  the 
day  at  work  and  the  remainder  at  school. 
In  some  schools  the  students  are  allowed 
credit  for  this  outside  work.  Schools  operat- 
ing on  this  plan  are  sometimes  called  coopera- 
tive schools. 

Technical  High  Schools.  Technical  high 
schools  have  become  a  feature  in  the  school 
systems  of  most  large  cities.  Such  schools 
aim  to  prepare  trained  workers  for  leader- 
shir)  in  the  industrial  world,  for  positions  of 
higher  rank  than  those  of  skilled  mechanics. 
Cleveland  and  Chicago  took  the  lead  in  intro- 
ducing industrial  courses  in  high  school  work, 
and  these  and  other  cities  have  such  special 
schools. 

The  textile  industry  in  the  United  States 
supports  a  number  of  schools  which  are 
closely  allied  to  the  high  schools.  Prominent 
among  these  are  the  Textile  School  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  at  Philadelphia,  and 
three  schools  in  Massachusetts,  at  Pall  River, 
New  Bedford  and  Lowell,  all  three  cities 
being  great  cloth  manufacturing  centers. 
These  schools,  which  are  partly  supported  by 
the  state,  turn  out  mature  students  able  to 
fill  important  positions  in  the  textile  mills. 
Secondary  schools,  such  as  the  Lewis  Institute 
at  Chicago,  the  Drexel  Institute  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  the  Pratt  Institute  at  Brooklyn, 
now  offer  similar  courses  of  training. 

Trade  Schools.  Trade  schools  have  been 
developed  to  take  the  place  of  the  appren- 
ticeship system.  The  first  important  one  in 
the  United  States,  the  New  York  Trade 
School,  was  founded  in  1881,  and  was  in- 
tended primarily  for  the  mechanics  in  the 
building  trades.  A  number  of  other  impor- 
tant schools  were  established  in  the  next  thir- 
ty years,  but  not  until  1910  was  there  a  not- 
able increase  in  the  number  of  trade  schools. 
Many  of  the  schools,  like  the  Baron  de  Hirseh 
School  in  New  York,  are  privately  endowed. 
In  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Philadelphia,  Indi- 
anapolis, Worcester  and  Portland,   Oregon, 


are  trade  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part 
by  the  municipality. 

United  States  Aid.  The  most  important 
factor  in  promoting  vocational  education  in 
the  United  States  is  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
which  became  effective  in  February,  1917. 
This  law  is  explained  under  High  School 
(which  see).  The  passage  of  this  bill,  for 
which  the  National  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Industrial  Education  had  labored  for 
ten  years,  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new 
educational  policy,  in  granting  Federal  aid 
to  schools  below  collegiate  grade  which  are 
not  state  institutions.  This  act  supplements 
the  Morrill  Act,  which  provided  for  the 
state  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations,  and  it  makes  provision  for  the  train- 
ing of  a  large  group  of  the  population  that 
cannot  be  reached  directly  by  the  Federal 
government.  The  provision  of  the  act  re- 
quiring the  state  governments  to  cooperate 
with  the  Federal  government  in  order  to  de- 
rive any  benefit  from  the  appropriation 
places  vocational  education  on  a  permanent 
basis  in  every  state. 

Aid  to  Soldiers.  In  June,  1918,  Congress 
passed  a  law  providing  for  the  vocational 
education  of  disabled  soldiers  and  sailors  on 
their  return  to  civil  life.  The  responsibility 
for  this  training  is  placed  with  the  Federal 
Board  of  Vocational  Education,  and  the  plan 
provides  for  the  cooperation  of  the  War  and 
Navy  departments,  the  Bureau  of  War  Risk 
Insurance  and  the  labor  exchanges  in  the 
Department  of  Labor.  The  scope  of  the  work 
includes  completion  of  the  training  for  such 
occupation  as  the  soldier  may  choose  and 
placing  him  in  industry. 

Another  important  phase  of  vocational 
education  among  the  soldiers  is  the  Students' 
Army  Training  Corps.  The  aim  of  this 
coi-ps  is  "to  train  officer-candidates  and  tech- 
nical experts  of  all  kinds  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  service."  Soon  after  the  organization 
of  this  work  it  was  placed  in  operation  in 
over  550  colleges,  universities,  professional, 
technical  and  trade  schools  of  the  country. 
The  corps  was  divided  into  two  sections — 
collegiate,  or  section  A,  and  vocational,  or 
section  B.  The  work  in  section  B  dealt  large- 
ly with  the  difficulty  confronting  the  govern- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  stated 
in  the  opening  paragraph  of  this  article..  In 
order  to  accomplish  the  work  necessary  with- 
in a  given  time,  the  soldiers  were  assigned  to 
the  various  schools  and  colleges  of  the  eoun- 


VODKA 


3787 


VOLCANO 


try,  where  they  remained  under  military  dis- 
cipline and  were  given  industrial  instruction, 
including  shop  practice  for  periods  of  two 
months  each,  one  unit  following  another  un- 
til the  training  was  completed. 

Effect  Upon  the  Educational  System.  The 
work  of  the  section  B  units  of  the  Students' 
Army  Training  Corps  is  considered  to  have 
been  the  most  significant  experiment  in  vo- 
cational education  undertaken  under  a  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  and  the  influence 
upon  the  American  educational  system  has 
been  far-reaching.  The  results  derived  from 
these  short  courses  have  demonstrated  beyond 
doubt  the  futility  of  short  and  incomplete 
courses  and  shop  periods.  It  is  necessary 
for  the  student  to  devote  enough  time  to 
vocational  training  to  work  out  the  process- 
es completely.  This  exjoeriment  also  'dem- 
onstrated the  necessity  of  a  more  general 
development  of  the  continuation  school  and 
upon  a  much  larger  scale  than  has  yet  been 
contemplated. 

Another  fact  learned  from  the  recent  study 
of  vocational  education  is  that  laws  relating 
to  general  education,  laws  relating  to  voca- 
tional education  and  laws  relating  to  child 
labor  are  not  coordinated.  Until  such  co- 
ordination is  made  in  both  state  and  national 
laws,  the  most  efficient  work  in  education 
cannot  be  done. 

VOD'KA,  an  alcoholic  liquor  in  concen- 
trated form  distilled  from  rye,  potatoes  or 
barley  and  widely  in  use  by  the  peasants  in 
Russia  previous  to  its  prohibition  by  edict 
of  the  czar,  early  in  the  World  War.  This 
edict  was  followed  by  increased  military  effi- 
ciency and  comparative  prosperity  among 
the  peasants.  The  sobering  up  of  the  mil- 
lions who  had  been  formerly  brutalized  by 
drink  was  a  potent  cause  in  bringing  about 
the  revolution  of  March,  1917.  During  the 
revolution,  great  stores  of  liquor  in  the  cel- 
lars of  the  nobility  were  destroyed.  See  Rus- 
sia. 

VOICE,  vois,  sound  emitted  by  the  vocal 
cords  of  persons  and  animals,  by  means  of 
which  they  communicate  to  one  another  their 
thoughts  or  emotions.  The  organ  of  the  voice 
is  the  larynx,  a  cartilaginous  box  at  the  top 
of  the  trachea,  or  windpipe,  capable  of 
more  delicate  adjustment  than  any  musical 
instrument.  Across  its  top  are  stretched 
highly-sensitive  and  delicate  mucous  mem- 
branes, the  edges  of  which  are  specialized  to 
form  the  vocal  cords.    Sound  is  produced  by 


a  blast  of  air  forced  from  the  lungs  upward 
through  the  glottis,  or  opening  between  the 
cords. 

The  pitch  of  the  voice  depends  upon  the 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords;  the  greater  the 
tension,  the  higher  the  note  produced.  Dur- 
ing the  emission  of  acute  sounds,  the  glottis 
contracts  to  a  mere  line.  A  deep  rumbling 
sound  is  made  by  relaxed  cords.  The  strength 
or  loudness  of  the  voice  depends  on  the 
energy  of  the  expiratory  blast.  Its  quality 
depends  upon  the  form  and  thickness  of  the 
cords,  and  is  modified  by  the  varying  position 
of  tongue,  teeth  and  lips. 

In  the  speaking  voice,  the  notes  have  nearly 
all  the  same  pitch,  variety  being  mainly 
achieved  through  articulation  in  the  mouth. 
The  musical  voice  makes  use  of  a  larger 
number  of  notes,  and  their  vibrations  corre- 
spond to  the  notes  of  the  musical  scale.  In 
singing,  the  vocal  cords  are  under  greater 
tension  than  in  speaking.  The  principal 
difference  between  male  and  female  voices 
lies  in  their  pitch.  The  female  vocal  cords 
are  shorter  than  those  of  the  male,  therefore 
their  pitch  is  correspondingly  higher.  The 
male  singing  voice  is  classed  as  tenor,  or  bass, 
according  to  quality,  and  the  female  as 
soprano  or  contralto.  The  combined  range 
of  both  covers  about  four  octaves.  A  boy's 
voice  is  alto  or  soprano,  because  the  vocal 
cords  are  no  longer  than  those  of  the  female. 
Change  of  voice  in  the  adolescent  boy,  when 
the  voice  cracks  or  breaks,  is  due  to  rapid 
change  in  the  larynx  and  temporary  imj^er- 
feet  muscular  control.    See  Larynx. 

VO'  LAPUK,  an  artificial  language  invent- 
ed by  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  a  German 
priest,  and  published  by  him  in  1879.  It  was 
intended  for  use  as  an  international  langi^age, 
but  the  hope  of  its  friends  has  never  been 
realized.  Volapiik  is  extremely  simple  and 
regular  in  construction,  and  the  orthography 
is  entirely  phonetic,  tbe  words  being  pro- 
nounced as  they  are  written.  The  root  words 
are  derived  from  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
Volapiik  at  first  attracted  many  students, 
and  international  congresses  were  held  in 
1884,  1887  and  1889.  Disagreements  among 
its  adherents  regarding  reforms  in  tbe  lan- 
guage retarded  the  movement  and  ultimately 
led  to  the  development  of  new  and  rival 
systems.    See  Esperanto. 

VOLCANO,  vol  kafno,  a  mountain  that  has 
one  or  more  openings  through  which  heated 
matter  is  thrown   from  the  interior.     The 


VOLCANO 


3788 


VOLCANO 


parts  of  a  volcano  are  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion below.  The  base  comprises  the  walls  and 
often  blends  with  the  cone  so  completely  that 
no  line  of  separation  can  be  discovered.  The 
term  cone  is  usually  applied  to  the  upper 


VOLCANO 

(a)  Crater;  (b)  Extinct  crater;  (c^  Crevice; 
(d)  Steam  cavity. 

and  more  recently  formed  portion  of  the  vol- 
cano. In  its  summit  is  the  opening  called 
the  crater.  Leading  from  the  crater  down 
into  the  interior  of  the  mountain  is  the  vent, 
or  chimney. 

The  form  of  the  volcano  depends  quite 
largely  upon  the  material  thrown  out.  If 
this  is  ashes  or  thick  viscid  lava,  that  does 
not  flow  rapidly,  the  slopes  of  the  mountain 
are  steep  and  may  be  quite  regular,  as  in 
the  case  of  Vesuvius,  Etna  and  many  of  the 
volcanoes  of  the  Andes.  If  the  material  is 
of  molten  lava,  that  flows  freely,  a  low,  flat 
mountain,  with  gentle  slopes,  is  formed.  The 
volcanoes  of  Hawaii  are  the  best  illustrations 
of  this  type.  In  these  volcanoes  the  flow  of 
lava  seldom  takes  place  through  an  opening 
at  the  summit,  but  an  outlet  is  forced  through 
one  or  more  crevices  in  the  sides  of  the 
mountain.  The  crater  is  large  and  shallow 
and  contains  numerous  vents,  surrounded  by 
small  cones.  Between  these  may  also  be 
found  pools  of  molten  lava. 

In  size,  volcanoes  vary  from  low  mountains, 
comparatively  small,  like  those  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Mediterranean,  to  great  peaks,  whose 
summits  are  from  17,000  to  20,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  as  is  seen  in  the  volcanoes  of  the 
Andes  and  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  are  extinct  volcanoes. 

Volcanoes  are  classified  as  active,  dormant 
and  extinct.  Active  volcanoes  are  those  either 
in  continuous  or  frequent  action.  Dormant 
volcanoes  are  those  which  are  active  only  at 
long  intervals,  and  extinct  volcanoes  are  those 
which  have  ceased  action  altogether.  There 
is,  however,  no  absolute  division,  as  a  volcano 
may  pass  from  one  class  into  another  without 
warning,  that  is,  a  dormant  or  extinct  volcano 


may  become  active,  and  an  active  volcano 
may  become  extinct. 

Eruptions.  The  nature  of  the  eruption  is 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  material 
thrown  out,  and  its  violence  is  usually  pro- 
portional to  the  length  of  time  the  mountain 
has  been  quiet.  Volcanoes  accustomed  to 
throw  out  molten  lava  seldom  eject  ashes  in 
large  quantities.  At  the  beginning,  the  lava 
flows  rapidly,  but  as  it  cools  it  crusts  over 
and  flows  more  and  more  slowly  until  its  mo- 
tion ceases.  The  flow  destroys  everything  in 
the  path  of  the  fieiy  stream,  and  the  erup- 
tion often  causes  great  devastation,  suffering 
and  loss  of  life.  Some  eruptions  are  charac- 
terized only  by  solid  matter  and  steam.  The 
solid  matter  is  in  the  form  of  masses  of  rock, 
gravel,  sand  and  dust,  or  ashes.  These  rise 
to  a  great  height  and  are  often  carried 
through  the  atmosphere  for  many  miles. 

The  causes  of  volcanic  action  are  not  well 
understood;  but  the  chief  cause  is  generally 
believed  to  be  the  contact  of  water  with  high- 
ly heated  portions  of  the  earth's  interior. 
The  violence  of  the  action  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  expansive  force  of  steam  that  has 
suddenly  been  released  from  great  pressure. 
The  steam  forces  out  the  ashes.  The  flow  of 
lava  is  probably  caused  by  its  being  squeezed 
into  the  fissure  by  the  movements  of  the 
earth's  crust.  Some  geologists  believe  that 
there  are  lakes  of  molten  rock  in  various 
places  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  that 
these  are  subject  to  tides  like  those  on  the 
ocean.  They  reason  that  the  increased  pres- 
sure caused  by  these  tides  may  now  and  then 
force  an  opening  in  the  earth's  crust  through 
which  the  heated  matter  is  thrown  out.  An 
eruption  is  usually  preceded  by  an  increase 
in  temperature  of  the  land  at  the  base  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  the  drying  up 
of  springs  and  wells  and  frequently  by  local 
earthquakes.  The  most  disastrous  eruptions, 
as  affecting  loss  of  life,  were  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  A.  D.  79 ;  Krakatoa,  in  1883,  and 
Mont  Pelee,  on  the  island  of  Martinique,  in 
1902.  At  this  eruption  over  thirty  thousand 
people  lost  their  lives  within  a  few  hours. 
The  eruption  of  Mount  Etna  in  1911  was  also 
very  disastrous. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following' 

titles  for  additional  information: 


Aconcagua 

Ararat 

Cotopaxi 

Earthquake 

Etna 

Fujiyama 


Herculaneum 
Hood,  Mount 
Kilimanjaro 
Lava 

Martinique 
Mauna  Kea 


Mauna  Loa 

Mountain 

Pompeii 

Popocatepetl 

Rainier,   Mount 

Vesuvius 


VOLE 


3789 


VOLTAIRE 


VOLE,  an  English  name  applied  to  several 
species  of  the  rat  family.  The  voles  are 
widely  distributed,  being  found  in  Europe, 


FIELD  VOLE 


Africa,  Asia  and  in  North  and  South  Ameri- 
ca. The  water  vole  is  about  the  same  size  as 
the  brown  rat,  and  it  is  often  called  a  rat. 
It  has  dark  brown  or  black  fur,  a  tail  about 
half  the  length  of  the  body,  and  very  strong 
hind  feet,  with  five  rounded  pads  on  the 
lower  surfaces.  It  burrows  by  the  banks  of 
streams  and  feeds  for  the  most  part  on  vege- 
table food.  The  field  vole,  or  sliort-tailed 
field  mouse,  is  about  the  size  of  a  common 
mouse,  but  the  body  is  stouter  and  the  tail 
shorter.  It  has  brownish-gi-ay  fur;  its  hind 
feet  have  six  pads.  It  lives  in  fields  and 
woods,  feeds  on  vegetable  food,  is  very  pro- 
lific and  often  does  much  damage  to  grain 
and  other  crops.  The  hank  vole  is  like  the 
field  vole,  but  it  has  a  rusty-colored  back, 
larger  ears  and  a  longer  tail. 

VOL'GA,  a  river  of  Russia,  the  largest  in 
Europe.  It  rises  near  the  Valdai  Hills,  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Russia,  and  flows 
in  a  circuitous  course  eastward  and  then 
southward,  entering  the  Caspian  Sea  through 
a  broad  delta,  a  few  miles  below  Astrakhan. 
The  length  of  the  river  is  about  2,200  miles, 
and  it  is  navigable  for  nearly  its  entire 
course.  The  chief  tributaries  from  the  north 
and  east  are  the  Oka,  the  Sura  and  the  Sai-- 
pa,  and  from  the  west,  the  Tvertsa,  the  Mo- 
loga,  the  Sheksna,  the  Kostroma,  the  Vet- 
luga,  the  Kama  and  the  Samara.  The  width 
of  the  river  varies  from  420  feet  to  700  feet 
and  exceeds  even  2,400  feet,  at  Nijni  Nov- 
gorod. During  the  spring  it  sometimes  over- 
flows, when  its  width  vaiies  from  one  and 
one-fourth  miles  to  three  miles.  By  means 
of  canals  the  Volga  is  connected  with  the 
Black,  the  Baltic  and  the  White  seas,  and 
with  other  important  navigable  rivers,  so 
that  it  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important 
inland  waterways  of  Europe.  With  its  trib- 
utaries it  traverses  a  region  inhabited  by 
50,000,000  people. 


VOLT,  the  unit  employed  in  measuring 
electric  pressure,  such  a  pressure  as  will  pro- 
duce a  flow  of  one  ampere  per  second  against 
a  resistance  of  one  ohm. 

VOLTA,  vohV  ta,  Alessandro  (1745- 
1827),  an  Italian  scientist,  famous  for  his 
researches  and  discoveries  in  physics  and  as 
the  inventor  of  the  voltaic  battery,  named 
after  him.  He  was  born  at  Como,  Italy, 
where,  in  1774,  he  became  professor  of  phy- 
sics in  the  Royal  School.  He  previously 
made  important  investigations  and  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry  and  physics,  especially 
in  electricity.  In  1779  he  became  professor 
of  physics  in  the  University  of  Pavia,  and 
remained  there  twenty-five  years.  He  in- 
vented the  electroscope,  the  electrical  con- 
denser, the  voltaic  pile  and  the  voltaic  cell, 
or  battery.    See  Electric  Battery. 

VOLTAIC  CELL,  or  VOLTAIC  BAT- 
TERY. See  Electric  Battery;  Electric- 
ity, subhead  Voltaic  Electricity. 

VOLTAIRE,  vol  tai/,  the  assumed  name 
of  Jean  Franqois  Marie  Arouet  (1694- 
1778),  a  French  writer  and  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Paris.  His  father,  a  notary,  gave 
him  the  best  education  possible,  and  the 
young  man  was  early  recognized  as  a  scholar. 
In  1718  a  tragedy  named  Oedipus  was 
brought  out  by  him  and  was  most  enthusias- 
tically received.  He  soon  became  a  fashion- 
able poet,  and  resided  mainly  at  Paris,  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  brilliant  society. 

In  1726  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille 
for  having  sent  a  challenge  to  the  Chevalier 
Rohan,  by  whom  he  had  been  insulted,  but  he 
was  liberated  within  a  month  and  allowed 
to  go  to  England.  Here  he  resided  till  1729, 
in  friendship  with  some  of  the  chief  literary 
men  of  the  day,  and  he  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  English  literature.  His  Henriade,  an  epic 
celebrating  the  exploits  of  Henry  IV  of 
France,  was  completed  and  published  by 
subscription  in  England,  and  was  widely  read 
throughout  Europe,  except  in  France,  from 
which  country  it  was  excluded  by  the  govern- 
ment because  of  its  forceful  presentation  of 
the  idea  of  religious  toleration. 

After  his  return  to  France,  Voltaire  lived 
chiefly  at  Paris  till  1734.  During  this  period 
he  raised  himself  from  very  moderate  cir- 
cumstances to  a  condition  of  affluence  by 
successful  monetary  speculations.  From 
1734  to  1749  he  resided  with  Madame  du 
Chatelet  at  Cirey,  in  Lorraine,  and  he  pro- 
duced many  plays  during  this  period.    After 


VOLTMETER 


3790 


VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA 


the  death  of  Madame  du  Chatelet,  Voltaire 
accepted  the  oft-repeated  invitations  of 
Frederick  the  Great  to  live  at  his  court,  at 
Potsdam.  Here  he  was  received  with  great 
honor,  but  a  series  of  disagreements  with 
the  king  ended  in  Voltaire's  retirement  from 
the  Prussian  court  in  1753.  After  some  un- 
settled years  he  fixed  his  residence  with  his 
niece,  Madame  Denis,  at  Femey,  near  the 
boundary  of  the  Republic  of  Geneva,  and 
here  he  received  a  constant  succession  of  dis- 
tinguished visitors  and  maintained  a  cor- 
respondence wihich  included  in  its  range 
most  of  the  rulers  and  savants  of  Europe. 
In  February,  1778,  he  returned  to  Paris,  but 
died  soon  afterwards. 

Voltaire's  works  embrace  almost  every 
branch  of  literature — poetry,  the  drama, 
romance,  history,  philosophy  and  even  science. 
He  produced  no  single  literary  masterpiece; 
his  greatness  lay  in  his  power  to  discern 
fanaticism  and  superstition,  and  nearly  all 
his  works  are  strongly  animated  by  a  spirit 
of  hostility  to  the  priests  and  the  religion 
they  represented.  He  was  one  of  the  fore- 
most of  that  band  of  writers  whose  revolt 
against  conventions,  openly  and  most  force- 
fully expressed,  was  preparing  the  way  for 
the  French  Revolution.  It  is  the  commonly 
accepted  opinion  that  he  was  an  atheist,  but 
this  has  never  been  proved.  Voltaire's  liter- 
ary fame  chiefly  rests  on  his  philosophical 
novels,  Zadig,  Candi-de,  L'Ingenu;  his  his- 
tories, The  Age  of  Louis  XJV,  The  History  of 
Charles  XII;  his  correspondence,  and  more 
than  all,  perhaps,  on  his  poetical  epistles, 
satires  and  occasional  light  poems,  all  of 
which  exhibit  wit,  gaiety,  vivacity  and  grace. 

VOLT'METER,  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  pressure  of  an  electric  current.  It 
consists  of  a  permanent  steel  horseshoe  mag- 
net, with  a  piece  of  soft  iron  attached  to 
each  pole.  Between  the  poles,  a  soft  iron 
cylinder  is  suspended,  so  that  it  can  rotate 
vertically.  Around'  this  cylinder  is  a  light 
rectangular  frame  of  copper,  wound  with 
a  coil  of  insulated  wire.  Spiral  springs  are 
attached  at  each  end  of  this  frame,  and  a 
.needle,  which  moves  over  a  graduated  dial, 
is  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  axis. 
When  an  electric  cuiTent  passes  through  the 
coil  or  wire,  it  causes  the  copper  frame  to 
turn  upon  its  axis.  The  springs  furnish  an 
amount  of  resistance  that  must  be  overcome 
by  the  current,  and  the  position  of  the  needle 
on   the   dial  indicates   the  pressure.     Volt- 


meters are  used  with  dynamo  electric  ma- 
chines.    See  Volt. 

VOLUNTEERS',  citizens  who,  of  their 
own  accord,  offer  the  state  their  sei-vices  in 
a  military  capacity.  The  oldest  volunteer 
force  in  Great  Britain  is  the  Honorable  Ar- 
tillery Company  of  the  city  of  London, 
which  received  its  charter  of  incorporation 
from  Henry  VIII.  Until  the  second  year 
of  the  World  War  Great  Britain  depended 
upon  a  volunteer  army  to  take  care  of  terri- 
torial defense,  and  its  volunteer  forces  in 
1914  numbered  over  251,000.  Not  until  May, 
1916,  was  conscription  put  in  force  in  Great 
Britain,  It  was  applied  to  England,  Scot- 
land and  Wales,  but  not  to  Ireland,  which, 
however,  sent  large  numbers  of  volunteers  to 
the  front.  Canada  contributed  a  volunteer 
army  of  over  400,000,  but  adopted  conscrip- 
tion in  December,  1917.  New  Zealand,  South 
Africa  and  Australia  relied  wholly  on  volun- 
teering, and  all  contributed  generously.  In 
all  of  the  other  allied  nations,  as  well  as  in 
the  enemy  countries,  conscription  had  been 
a  permanent  policy  before  the  war. 

In  the  United  States.  The  volunteers  in 
American  armies  played  an  important  part 
in  all  wars  before  America's  entrance  into 
the  World  War.  Though  conscription  was 
resorted  to  in  the  Civil  War,  about  2,500,000 
enrolled  voluntarily  on  the  Union  side,  and 
half  as  many  on  the  Confederate.  Volun- 
teers and  regulars  made  up  the  American 
army  of  the  Spanish- American  War.  In  the 
World  War  there  were  calls  for  volunteers 
in  special  branches  of  the  service,  and  the 
state  national  guards  were  classed  as  volun- 
teers, but  the  bulk  of  the  gi-eat  army  that 
contributed  so  much  to  the  defeat  of  Ger- 
many was  made  up  of  men  enrolled  through 
the  selective  draft.  This  was  the  first  time 
that  America  ever  enrolled  all  of  its  men 
under  forty-six  years  of  age  for  military  serv- 
ice. Navies  are  usually  recruited  through 
volunteering,  but  this  is  a  matter  of  custom 
and  precedent.  See  Conscription;  World 
War. 

VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA,  a  reli- 
gious and  philanthropic  organization,  for- 
merly the  American  branch  of  the  Salvation 
Arm3^  In  1896  Ballington  Booth,  head  of  the 
Salvation  Army  in  America,  believing  that 
the  methods  of  his  father,  William  Booth,, 
were  not  perfectly  suited  to  conditions  in 
America,  severed  the  connection  of  his  branch 
which,  thenceforth,  has  had  an  independent 


VOMITING 


3791 


VOWEL 


existence.  The  main  purpose  of  the  English 
and  the  American  bodies,  however,  has  re- 
mained the  same. 

The  Volunteers  are  organized  on  a  semi- 
military  plan,  and  the  officers  bear  military 
titles.  They  support  various  benevolent  in- 
stitutions. Lodging  houses  for  destitute  men 
and  women  and  fresh-air  camps  for  women 
and  children  are  among  their  most  important 
charities.  A  great  quantity  of  Christian  lit- 
erature is  distributed,  and  open-air  religious 
services  are  conducted  on  the  streets.  A  Vol- 
unteer Hospital  has  been  established  in  New 
York  City,  where  needy  eases  are  taken  care 
of.  The  ofilcial  organ  of  the  society  is  The 
Volunteers'  Gazette,  published  at  its  head- 
quarters in  New  York.  General  Ballington 
Booth  and  his  wife,  Maud  Ballington  Booth, 
are  joint  presidents.     See  Salvation  Army. 

VOM^ITING,  the  forcible  expulsion  of 
matter  from  the  stomach,  through  the  oeso- 
phagus, or  gullet.  It  is  not  a  disease  in  it- 
self, but  it  is  a  symptom  common  to  numerous 
diseases,  or  as  an  accompaniment  of  extreme 
nervous  sensitiveness.  The  treatment  of  vom- 
iting depends  upon  its  cause  and  upon  the 
disease,  if  any,  which  accompanies  it.  Lying 
down,  the  application  of  mustard  to  the  pit 
of  the  stomach,  or  small  doses  of  soda,  ice, 
whisky  or  coffee  will  sometimes  relieve  it. 
While  sudden  and  violent  vomiting  in  a 
healthy  person  is  an  indication  of  some  poi- 
sonous substance  in  the  stomach,  yet  very 
frequently  vomiting  is  nature's  method  of 
relieving  an  overloaded  stomach.  See  Nau- 
sea. 

VORTICELLA,  vor  te  seVlaJi,  or  BELL 
ANIMALCULE,  an  i  mal'ku  le,  a  genus  of 
infusoria,  or  one-celled  animals  characterized 
by  a  bell-shaped  body,  the  opening  of  which 
is  surrounded  by  tiny  hairs,  or  cilia.  These 
cilia  are  kept  in  constant  and  rapid  motion, 
wherebj''  they  draw  in  particles  of  food.  At 
the  opposite  end  of  the  body  is  a  slender 
stem,  by  means  of  which  the  animal  attaches 
itself  to  objects  in  the  water,  such  as  rocks 
or  weeds.  This  stem  also  moves,  with  a 
spiral  springlike  motion,  and  may  be  drawn 
up  into  the  body  when  the  animal  wishes  to 
detach  itself  from  its  moorings  and  swim 
freely  about. 

VOSGES,  volizh,  MOUNTAINS,  a  chain  of 
mountains  about  100  miles  long,  extending 
in  a  north-northeast  direction  along  the  fron- 
tiers of  Alsace  in  France,  their  course  being 
nearly  parallel  with  that  of  the  Rhine.    They 


are  separated  from  the  Jura  Mountains  by 
the  valley  of  the  Doubs  on  the  south.  The 
Vosges  are  composed  chiefly  of  granite  and 
are  covered  with  forests  of  pine  and  beech 
to  a  height  of  about  3,600  feet,  beyond  which 
their  summits,  which  are  rounded  in  forms, 
are  grassy.  The  highest  peak  is  Ballon  de 
Guebwiller,  4,067  feet.  These  mountains  con- 
tain considerable  silver,  copper,  lead  and  coal 
and  large  quantities  of  rock  salt.  Some  of 
the  bitter  fighting  of  the  World  War  took 
place  in  the  Vosges  region. 

VOTE.     See  Election;  Ballot. 

VOTING  MACHINE,  a  device  for  auto- 
matieally  registering  and  counting  votes, 
having  the  advantages  of  secrecy,  simplicity, 
rapidity  of  registration  and  counting  and 
the  avoidance  of  duplication. 

In  most  patterns  of  voting  machines,  the 
voter  enters  the  booth,  and  not  till  all  the 
curtains  are  closed  will  the  machine  register 
his  vote.  The  names  of  the  candidates  are 
arranged  in  order,  either  by  parties  or  al- 
phabetically. The  voter  can  either  vote  a 
straight  ticket  or  can  vote  for  individual  can- 
didates. In  the  former  case,  either  by  the 
use  of  a  key  or  by  means  of  a  lever,  he 
registers  a  vote  and  thus  locks  the  mecha- 
nism, so  that  he  cannot  vote  further,  unless, 
by  turning  back  the  lever,  he  cancels  his 
first  vote.  If  he  wishes  to  split  the  ticket, 
he  turns  a  lever  or  key  for  one  candidate  for 
each  office,  and  is  prevented  thereby  from 
voting  for  any  other  candidate.  As  he  leaves 
the  booth,  by  opening  the  curtains  or  doors 
at  the  exit  he  sets  the  machine  for  the  next 
voter.  Each  vote  cast  for  each  office  or  for 
a  straight  ticket  is  registered  by  a  patent  de- 
vice on  a  slip  of  paper,  so  that  as  soon  as 
the  last  vote  is  cast,  the  final  returns 
are  ready  to  be  announced.  Many  states 
have  authorized  the  use  of  voting  machines 
at  the  option  of  the  local  authorities. 

VOWEL,  an  open  sound  made  by  the  voice 
in  speaking,  distinguished  from  the  conso- 
nant sounds,  which  are  made  with  the  or- 
gans of  speech  more  or  less  closed.  Vowels 
may  be  sounded  by  themselves,  but  conso- 
nants can  be  pronounced  only  in  combina- 
tion with  vowels.  In  English,  the  vowel 
sounds  are  represented  by  the  letters,  a,  e,  i, 
o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y.  Each  really 
represents  several  sounds,  as  the  a-sounds  in 
the  words  father,  flask,  hall,  ichat,  any,  pref- 
ace, final  and  abound.  Most  other  languages 
have  vowel  sounds  which  the  English  does 


VULCAN 


3792 


VULTURE 


not  possess.  A  more  detailed  discussion  of 
vowels  may  be  found  in  the  article  Orthog- 
raphy. 

VUL'CAN,  called  by  the  Greeks  Hephaes- 
tus, in  classical  mythology,  the  god  who  pre- 
sided over  fire  and  the  working  of  metals, 
and  who  patronized  handicraftsmen  of  every 
kind.  He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno, 
but,  unlike  the  other  gods,  he  was  seriously 
lame.  By  some  writers  he  was  said  to  have 
been  born  lame,  and  for  that  reason  he  was 
believed  to  have  been  thrown  by  his  mother 
from  Olympus;  but  by  others  his  lameness 
is  attributed  to  his  having  been  thrown  from 
Olympus  by  Jupiter,  for  interfering  in  Ju- 
no's behalf  in  a  quarrel  between  her  and 
Jupiter. 

VUL'CANIZINGr.  See  Rubber  and  Rub- 
ber Manufacture. 

VUL'GATE,  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
Bible,  which  has,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  official  authority,  and  which  the 
Council  of  Trent,  in  its  fourth  session,  on 
May  27,  1546,  declared  "shall  be  held  as 
authentic  in  all  public  lectures,  disputations, 
sermons  and  expositions;  and  that  no  one 
shall  presume  to  reject  it  under  any  pretense 
whatsoever."  Even  in  the  early  period  of 
the  Church,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  existed,  made  not  from  the  He- 
brew, but  from  the  Septua^nt.  Saint  Je- 
rome found  that  this  translation  was  not  al- 
ways accurate,  and  between  A.  D.  385  and  405 
he  made  a  new  Latin  translation  from  the 
Hebrew,  with  the  aid  of  the  best  Greek 
translations.  This  at  first  met  with  the  great- 
est opi^osition,  as  the  Septuagint  was  re- 
garded as  an  inspired  translation,  and  any 
deviation  from  it  was  considered  sacrile- 
gious. Before  his  death  Jerome  had  justi- 
fied himself  and  proved  the  purity  of  his  in- 
tentions, but  it  was  not  until  the  ninth  cen- 
tury that  his  version  came  to  be  used 
throughout  the  Church  and  not  until  cen- 
turies later  that  it  was  authorized.  The  ver- 
sion now  in  use  is  the  edition  published  by 
Clement  VIII  in  1592. 


VUL'TURE,  the  common  name  for  a  class 
of  carrion-eating  birds,  characterized  by 
necks  destitute  of  feathers  and  by  elongated 
beaks,  with  curved  upi^er  mandibles.  Their 
talons  are  not  relatively  strong,  and  in  tear- 


VULTURES 
1,  Griffin;  2,  Pondicherry. 

ing  their  prey  they  make  more  use  of  their 
beaks  than  of  their  claws.  Vultures  are  usu- 
ally of  a  cowardly  disposition  and  will  not 
attack  live  animals,  unless  the  latter  are 
seriously  wounded  or  dying,  as  they  feed  al- 
most entirely  on  decaying  animal  flesh.  They 
fly  high  in  the  air  and  detect  their  prey  from 
great  distances.  They  are  valuable  scaven- 
gers in  all  warm  and  tropical  countries.  The 
California  vulture  has  a  long,  flat,  orange- 
colored  head  and  dull  black  i^lum'age,  with  a 
grayish  wing  band.  It  builds  a  loose  nest 
of  sticks,  in  a  hollow  in  a  tree  or  cliff,  and 
lays  one  round,  greenish-white  egg.  The 
Egyptian  species,  called  "Pharaoh's  hen,"  is 
found  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Medi- 
terranean.   See  Condor;  Turkey  Buzzard. 


W,  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet.  It  is  formed,  as  its  name  indicates, 
by  doubling  the  u  or  v,  and  before  it  appeared 
as  a  separate  character  in  English  its  sound 
was  sometimes  represented  by  uu  or  vv.  At 
the  end  of  words  or  syllables  it  is  either 
silent,  as  in  low,  or  it  modifies  the  preceding 
vowel,  as  in  new,  how,  having  tlien  the  power 
of  a  vowel. 

WABASH,  loaw'bash,  Ind.,  the  county  seat 
of  Wabash  County,  forty-two  miles  south- 
west of  Fort  Wayne,  on  the  Wabash  River 
and  on  the  Big  Four  and  the  Wabash  rail- 
roads. It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  agricultural 
and  stock-raising  region.  Its  industries  in- 
clude railroad  shops,  bridge  and  iron  works, 
cabinet  and  motor  truck  factories  and  woolen 
and  lumber  mills.  The  city  is  built  in  rock 
and  is  hilly  even  in  the  business  section. 
It  has  a  Federal  building,  Carnegie  Library, 
Masonic  Temple  and  Memorial  Hall.  Wa- 
bash was  settled  and  incorporated  in  1837, 
and  was  chattered  as  a  city  in  1866.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  8,687;  in  1917,  8,737  (Federal 
estimate). 

WABASH  RIVER,  a  river  550  miles  in 
length,  rising  in  the  western  part  of  Ohio, 
flowing  northwestward,  westward  then  south- 
ward into  the  Ohio  thirty  miles  below  Evans- 
ville,  Ind.  It  crosses  Indiana,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  its  course  forms  a  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  is 
navigable  during  high  water  as  far  as  Laf- 
ayette, Ind.,  and  at  ordinary  levels  to  Cov- 
ington. Its  chief  tributary  is  the  White  River. 
Some  of  the  principal  towns  on  its  banks  are 
Wabash,  Peru,  Logansport,  Lafayette,  Cov- 
ington, Terre  Haute  and  Vincennes. 

WACHT  AM  RHEIN,  Die  ("the  Watch  on 
the  Rhine"),  a  German  patriotic  song.  The 
words  were  written  by  Max  Schneckenburger 
in  1840,  when  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Rhine 
seemed  in  danger  of  falling  into  the  hands  of 


France.  The  music,  by  Karl  Wilhelm,  was 
composed  in  1854. 

WA'CO,  Tex.,  the  county  seat  of  McLen- 
nan County,  located  ninety-seven  miles  south- 
west of  Dallas,  on  the  Brazos  River  and  on  the 
Texas  Central,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas, 
the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern,  the  Gulf, 
Colorado  &  Santa  Fe,  the  San  Antonio  & 
Aransas  Pass  and  the  International  &  Great 
Northera  railroads.  Water  with  medicinal 
properties  obtained  from  artesian  wells  makes 
the  city  a  popular  health  resort.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  agricultural  and  stock  raising 
district,  and  is  the  center  of  a  large  wholesale 
business.  There  are  grain  elevators,  flour 
mills,  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  foundries, 
machine  shops,  bottling  works  and  packing 
houses.  Notable  buildings  are  the  Waco 
Xatatorium,  a  Federal  building,  a  Carnegie 
Library,  courthouse  and  Masonic  Temple. 
Baylor  University  and  Paul  Quinn  College  are 
located  here. 

Wac«  was  laid  out  in  1849  and  was  in- 
corporated the  next  year.  It  has  adopted 
the  commission  form  of  government.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  26,425;  in  1917,  34,015  (Federal 
estimate). 

WADAI,  waVdi,  formerly  a  native  state 
in  the  central  part  of  Africa,  annexed  to  the 
French  Congo  in  1909.  The  boundaries  are 
indefinite,  but  the  area  is  estimated  at  170,- 
000  square  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  of  a 
desert  character,  but  there  are  oases  scattered 
through  the  region,  and  in  some  sections 
there  are  fertile  tracts  covered  with  forests. 
The  population,  estimated  at  2,000,000,  is 
composed  chiefly  of  negroes  and  Arabs,  who 
are  Mohammedans.  The  capital  is  Abeshr, 
and  it  is  connected  with  Bengeazi  by  caravan 
route. 

WAGER,  wafjur,  a  bet,  also  something 
staked  on  any  uncertain  outcome  of  an  issue, 
such  as  the  result  of  a  contest,  or  the  in- 


3793 


WAGES 


3794 


WAGNER 


evitable  alternative  in  events,  such  as  elections 
ajid  the  weather.  The  party  whose  opinion 
proves  to  be  correct  receives  what  has  been 
staked  by  both.  By  statutes  of  England, 
Scotland  and  the  United  States,  all  contracts 
or  agreements,  whether  oral  or  in  writing,  de- 
pending on  wagers,  are  null  and  void,  and 
money  due  thereon  cannot  be  recovered  in  any 
court  of  law.  A  wager  is  therefore  called 
a  debt  of  honor,  since  it  cannot  be  collected 
except  through  the  good  faith  of  the  parties. 

WAGES,  wa'jez.  In  modern  industry' 
production  requires  land,  capital  and  labor. 
The  paj'ment  for  land  is  rent;  the  payment 
for  capital  is  interest,  and  the  payment  for 
labor  is  wages.  In  the  common  meaning  of 
the  term  wages  is  the  money  one  man  re- 
ceives for  working  for  another.  Wages  may 
be  classified  as  nominal  and  real.  Nominal 
wages  are  the  wages  expressed  in  money,  or 
as  an  absolute  quantity,  as  five  dollars  a  day. 
Real  wages  denote  the  purchasing  value  of 
the  money  received.  To  illustrate:  If  the 
cost  of  living  advances  and  a  laborer's  wage 
remains  the  same,  his  real  wage  is  lowered. 
If  a  bricklayer  who  received  five  dollars  a 
day  in  1914,  received  the  same  wage  in  1919, 
when  the  cost  of  living  had  increased  fifty 
per  cent,  his  real  wage  was  only  one-half  of 
what  it  was  in  1914.  To  enable  him  to  main- 
tain his  standard  of  living  his  nominal  wage 
in  1919  would  have  to  be  raised  to  seven  and 
one-half  dollars  a  day. 

Difference  in  Wages.  In  economics,  labor 
is  considered  as  a  commodity,  the  same  as 
land,  building  material  or  wheat,  and  one  of 
the  chief  causes  in  fixing  wages  is  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand,  other  conditions  being 
equal.  When  there  are  more  laborers  than 
production  requires,  wages  will  be  low;  when 
laborers  are  scarce,  producers  bid  for  their 
services,  and  wages  are  high.  Wages  in  some 
occupations  are  higher  than  in  others  be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  the  occupation.  Per- 
manency of  occupation,  for  instance,  is  an 
important  factor  in  fixing  wages.  One  can 
afford  to  work  for  a  lower  wage  at  an  occu- 
pation which  furnishes  employment  the  year 
round  than  at  an  occupation  which  furnishes 
employment  only  part  of  the  time.  Skilled 
labor  commands  higher  wages  than  unskilled 
labor,  and  dangerous  occupations  higher  than 
those  not  considered  as  dangerous. 

Wages  and  Profit  Sharing.  Many  large 
firms  distribute  periodically  among  their  em- 
ployes a  certain  per  cent  of  their  profits. 


From  the  viewpoint  of  economics,  their  share 
of  profit  should  not  be  considered  as  wages, 
but  from  the  practical  viewpoint  of  both 
employer  and  employe  it  is  considered  as  so 
much  additional  compensation,  or  so  much 
increase  of  the  laborer's  share  of  production. 

Influence  of  Labor  Organizations.  Labor 
organizations  have  in  many  instances  secured 
higher  wages  for  their  members  than  could 
have  been  secured  without  organization,  be- 
cause the  organization  can  resort  to  col- 
lective bargaining  and  force  upon  employers 
terms  that  the  workmen  individually  cannot 
secure.  On  the  other  hand,  the  uniformity 
of  wages  thus  secured  may  work  injustice  to 
the  most  efficient  laborers,  who  under  indi- 
vidual initiative  could  increase  their  output 
and  are  thus  deprived  of  their  full  share  of 
production. 

The  Wage  Problem.  The  problem  of 
wages  is  always  before  the  industrial  world, 
and  it  is  the  supreme  cause  of  conflict  be- 
tween capital  and  labor.  There  are  those 
who  believe  that  capital  and  labor  are  and 
ever  must  be  antagonistic,  and  that  the  capi- 
talist class  should  be  dispossessed  of  their 
property.  The  socialists  claim  that  all 
sources  of  production  should  be  the  property 
of  the  state  and  that  the  laborer  should  re- 
ceive all  the  profits  for  his  work.  Present 
tendencies  are  toward  more  harmonious  re- 
lations between  capital  and  labor,  and  to- 
ward just  compensation  of  laborers. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information  : 
Capital  Profit  Sharing- 

Labor  Organizations     Socialism 

WAGNER,  valig' niir,  Wilhem  Richard 
(1813-1883),  a  German  composer,  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer, 
born  at  Leipzig.   He 
received    his    educa- 
tion at  Leipzig  and 
Dresden     and    after 
1834    filled    various 
musical     engagments 
at  Magdeburg,  Riga  | 
and  Konigsberg.    In 
1839  he  went  to  Pa- 
ris and  London  and 
there    composed    his 
operas     Bienzi     and 
The    Flying    Dutch- 
man.     The   brilliant  ^^^^^^?lil^g^^^^ 
success  of  the  operas 

secured  him  the  eonductorship  at  the  Royal 
Opera  of  Dresden  in  1843.     He  joined  the 


WAGON 


3795 


WALDENSES 


insurrectionary  movement  of  1848  and  was 
compelled  to  exile  himself.  Until  his  return 
to  German}-,  in  1864,  he  spent  most  of  his 
time  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  Paris  and  London. 
His  Taniihauser  and  Lohengrin  appeared  in 
1845  and  1850,  respectively.  The  king  of 
Bavaria,  Louis  II,  became  an  enthusiastic 
patron  of  Wagner,  and  the  theater  at 
Baireuth,  especially  built  for  "Wagner  by  the 
contributions  of  Wagner  societies  through- 
out the  world,  was  chiefly  supjjorted  from 
the  king's  purse.  Here  the  famous  tetralogy 
Der  Ring  des  Nihehmgen,  consisting  of  Das 
Jtheingold,  Die  Walkilre,  Siegfried  and  Gut- 
terdcimmerung,  was  first  performed  in  1876. 
A-bout  a  year  before  his  death  Wagner  wrote 
Parsifal,  which  has  since  been  produced 
with  emphatic  success.  He  gave  to  his  works 
a  national  character  by  selecting  his  subjects 
from  old  German  legends.  His  theory, 
founded  upon  the  ideas  of  Gluck  and  Weber, 
was  that  in  a  perfect  musical  drama,  the  three 
arts,  poetry,  music  and  dramatic  representa- 
tion, should  be  welded  together  into  one  well- 
balanced  whole.  His  particular  views  on 
music  are  embodied  in  a  well-known  work, 
entitled  Oper  und  Drama.     See  Opera. 

WAG'ON,  a  four-wheeled  vehicle  drawn 
by  one  or  more  horses  and  used  for  carrying 
passengers  or  merchandise.  In  cities  they 
are  rapidh^  being  displaced  by  automobile 
trucks.  Wagons  are  constructed  of  a  great 
variety  of  patterns,  the  body  being  adapted 
to  the  particular  use  for  which  the  vehicle  is 
intended.  Farm  wagons  have  long  rectangu- 
lar boxes,  so  made  that  they  can  be  taken  off 
or  put  on  the  gear  at  will.  Most  of  these 
wagons  may  also  have  the  running-gear  ex- 
tended or  shortened  to  suit  the  purpose  for 
which  the  wagon  is  needed.  Road  wagons 
have  a  light  running-gear,  springs  and 
upholstered  seats.  The  greatest  wagon 
^yorks  in  America  are  those  of  a  famous 
company  at  South  Bend,  Ind.  See 
Carriage. 

WAGRAM,  tcah'gram,  BATTLE  OF,  a 
battle  that  resulted  in  one  of  Napoleon's  most 
celebrated  victories.  It  was  fought  at  the 
village  of  Wagram,  twelve  miles  northeast 
of  Vienna,  Austria,  on  July  5  and  6,  1809, 
between  a  force  of  128,600  Austrians  under 
Archduke  Charles,  and  181,700  French  un- 
der Napoleon.  The  losses  on  each  side  were 
about  25,000,  killed  and  wounded.  On  the 
12th  of  the  month  following  the  battle  an 
armistice  was  signed  at  Znaim,  and  peace 


was  concluded  on  October  14,  at  Sehonbrunn. 
Bj'  the  treaty  Austria  lost  some  territoiy  to 
Bavaria  and  Saxonj',  and  gave  up  its  sea  coast 
to  France;  a  part  of  Poland  and  Galicia 
was  ceded  to  Russia,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte 
was  acknowledged  king  of  Spain. 

WAG'TAIL,  a  group  of  birds  so  called 
from  theii'  habit  of  jerking  their  long  tails 
when  running  or  perching.  Though  several 
species  are  common  in  EuroiDe,  rarely  is  the 
bird  seen  in  the  United  States.  The  wag- 
tails frequent  muddy  lands  and  pastures, 
running  rapidly  along  the  edge  of  water  and 
catching  the  insects  they  find  there.  A  spe- 
cies of  wagtail  breeds  on  the  coasts  of  Alaska 
in  summer,  making  its  nest  of  woven  roots 
and  grasses  on  or  near  the  ground.  The  eggs 
are  white  with  brown  spots. 

WAITE,  Morrison  Remick  (1816-1888), 
an  eminent  American  jurist,  born  at  Lyme, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1837  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  two  years  later.  He 
practiced  successfully  in  Maumee  City  and 
Toledo,  Ohio,  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
and  in  1871  was  sent  to  Geneva  as  United 
States  counsel  in  the  Alabama  case.  Presi- 
dent Grant  appointed  him  to  succeed  Salmon 
P.  Chase  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  in  1874.  He 
held  the  position  until  his  death,  winning  es- 
teem for  his  impartiality  and  learning. 
Among  the  important  questions  presented  to 
the  Supreme  Court  and  decided  during  Chief 
Justice  Waite's  term  were  those  affecting 
polygamy,  election  laws,  the  ci\nl  rights  of 
negroes,  the  Bell  telephone  case,  the  power 
of  removal  bj'  the  President  and  the  Chicago 
anarchist  cases. 

WAKE,  in  the  Church  of  England  a  fes- 
tival formerly  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
day  on  which  the  parish  church  was  con- 
secrated and  dedicated.  The  evening  pre- 
ceding the  anniversary  was  spent  in  prayer 
and  singing;  the  festival  itself  sometimes 
lasted  several  days  and  took  the  form  of  a 
carnival.  The  vigil  kept  by  Roman  Catholics 
over  the  dead  before  burial  is  kno^vn  as  a 
wake. 

WAKE-ROBIN.  See  Trillium. 

WALDENSES,  toal  den'seez,  a  Christian 
sect  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Peter 
Waldo,  a  rich  merchant  of  Lyons,  France. 
About  1170  Waldo  gave  away  his  goods  and 
his.  money  to  the  poor  and  began  preaching 
a  life  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience. 
While  holding  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 


WALES 


3796 


WALKER 


he  believed  the  people  should  be  preached  to 
in  their  own  dialects,  that  religious  writings 
should  be  translated  into  their  language,  and 
that  each  man  should  be  his  own  interpreter 
of  the  Bible.  His  followers,  known  as  "the 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons,"  suffered  many  perse- 
cutions, and  in  1231  were  excommunicated 
by  the  Pope.  Their  chief  strongholds  then 
as  now,  were  the  Cottian  Alps,  southwest  of 
Turin.  Since  1848  they  have  had  the  same 
religious  and  political  rights  as  other  reli- 
gious sects  in  Italy,  where  they  number  about 
12,000.  Branches  of  the  Church  have  been 
established  in  Argentina,  Uruguay  and  the 
United  States. 

''ALES,  waylz,  the  smallest 
division  of  Great  Britain, 
situated  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  island, 
forming  a  peninsula  be- 
tween Bristol  Channel,  on 
the  south,  and  the  Irish 
Sea,  on  the  north.  It  has 
an  area  of  7,446  square 
miles,  or  a  little  less  than 
that  of  the  state  of  New 
Jersey.  Its  surface  is 
mountainous,  particularly 
in  the  north,  where  the 
ranges  are  an  extension 
of  those  of  England.  The 
country  is  rich  in  min- 
erals, particularly  coal, 
iron,  copper  and  slate, 
and  to  these  Wales  owes  its  chief  wealth. 
The  coal  trade  is  the  most  important  and 
extensive,  and  the  city  of  Cardiff  on  the 
Bristol  Channel  is  one  of  the  largest  coal 
ports  in  the  world.  The  presence  of  coal 
and  iron  ore  has  given  rise  to  extensive  iron 
and  steel  works,  and  there  are  also  important 
copper  plants.  Other  manufactures  include 
woolen  goods,  especially  flannel,  coarse  cloth 
and  hosiery. 

Previous  to  the  Roman  occupation,  Wales 
appears  to  have  been  inhabited  by  a  mixture 
of  primitive  Iberians  and  invading  Celts. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion one  of  the  four  provinces  into  which  the 
entire  island  was  divided  included  Wales  and 
was  called  Britannia  Secunda.  After  the 
invasion  of  the  Saxons  the  country  acquired  a 
distinctly  national  character,  becoming  the 
refuge  of  the  Celts,  or  early  Britons,  who 
were  gradually  driven  to  the  west.  The 
country   was    conquered    in    the    thirteenth 


century  by  Edward  I,  who  made  his  eldest 
son  Prince  of  Wales,  a  title  that  has  ever  since 
been  confeiTed  upon  the  heir  to  the  British 
crown.  Succeeding  this  date  there  occurred 
a  number  of  national  uprisings,  and  the 
struggle  for  independence  in  Wales  was  not 
entirely  suppressed  till  1536,  when  the  coun- 
try became  incorporated  with  England,  and 
its  inhabitants  received  all  the  privileges  of 
English  subjects.  The  language  is  Welsh, 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  Celtic,  different  from 
that  used  by  the  Irish  and  the  Scotch  High- 
landers. The  political  and  educational  sys- 
tems of  Wales  are  identical  with  those  of 
England.  See  England;  Great  Britain; 
Celts. 

WALES,  Prince  of,  a  British  title  borne 
bj'  the  heir  apparent  to  the  British  throne. 
It  was  first  conferred  by  Edward  I  on  his  son, 
at  the  time  of  his  conquest  of  the  principality 
of  Wales.  Edward  III  was  never  Prince  of 
Wales,  but  the  title  has  been  conferred  on  all 
the  rdale  heirs  apparent  to  the  English  throne 
from  the  time  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
son  of  Edward  III.  The  title  is  not  heredi- 
tary, but  is  purely  honorary ;  it  does  not  pass 
to  the  holder  automatically,  but  must  be  con- 
ferred with  appropriate  ceremony.  It  im- 
plies no  power  or  authority,  and  the  accom- 
panying income  is  voted  by  Parliament. 

As  heir  to  the  crown  of  Scotland,  the 
Prince  of  Wales  bears  the  titles  of  Prince 
and  High  Steward  of  Scotland,  Duke  of  Roth- 
say,  Earl  of  Car  rick,  Baron  of  Renfrew,  and 
Lord  of  the  Isles.  The  title  Earl  of  Dublin 
also  was  borne  by  Albert  Edward  when  he 
was  Prince  of  Wales. 

The  title  was  bestowed  on  the  present 
Prince  of  Wales  in  June,  1910,-  less  than 
three  months  after  his  father  ascended  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain. 

WALHALLA,  walilhahVa,  or  TEMPLE 
OF  FAME,  a  magnificent  marble  palace 
erected  in  1830,  near  Ratisbon,  Bavaria,  by 
Ludwig  I.  The  building,  115  by  246  feet 
in  size,  is  in  a  style  similar  to  Greek  Doric. 
The  pediments  and  frieze  contain  sculptures 
representing  scenes  from  the  early  history 
of  the  Teutonic  peoples,  and  inside  are  busts 
of  noted  Germans.  The  building  is  named 
for  Walhalla,  the  mythological  hall  of  the 
Norse  deities. 

WALKER,  Francis  Amasa  (1840-1897), 
an  American  economist  and  statistician,  bom 
at  Boston,  Mass.,  the  son  of  Amasa  Walker. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  and  after- 


WALKER 


3797 


WALLACE 


ward  studied  law.  He  seiTed  in  the  Union 
army  in  the  Civil  War  and  was  made  briga- 
dier general  for  gallantry  at  Chaneellorsville, 
where  he  was  wounded.  From  1865  to  1867 
he  taught  Latin  and  Greek  at  Williston  Sem- 
inary, and  in  1869  he  was  appointed  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  statistics  at  Washington. 
As  supervisor  of  the  census  of  1870,  as 
United  States  Indian  Commissioner  in  1872 
and  (from  1873  to  1881)  as  professor  of 
political  economy  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  of  Yale  College,  he  rendered  dis- 
tinguished service.  In  1881  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. He  published  many  works,  includ- 
ing volumes  on  the  Indian  Question,  Political 
Economy,  The  Wages  Question,  Money,  In- 
ternational Bimetallism  and  The  Making  of 
the  Nation. 

WALKER,  William  (1824-1860),  an 
American  adventurer,  notorious  as  a  leader 
of  several  filibustering  expeditions.  He  was 
born  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Nashville.  After  a 
course  in  law  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  later  he  studied  medicine  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Edinburgh  and  Heidelberg.  On 
his  return  to  America  he  engaged  in  jour- 
nalism. 

In  the  summer  of  1853  Walker  organized 
an  expedition  to  conquer  the  state  of  Sonora, 
Mex.  Forced  to  fiee  from  Mexico  on  ac- 
count of  a  lack  of  provisions  and  ammuni- 
tion, he  was  arrested  by  United  States  au- 
thorities at  San  Diego,  and  was  tried  for 
violating  neutrality,  but  was  acquitted.  He 
then  conducted  expeditions  in  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica,  and  each  time  was  driven  out. 
After  several  attempts  to  conquer  Honduras, 
he  was  compelled  to  sun-ender  to  the  Hon- 
duran  government,  was  condemned  by  court 
martial  and  executed.    See  Filibuster. 

WALKERVILLE,  Ont.,  on  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Wabash,  the  Michigan  Central 
and  the  Pere  Marquette  railways,  one  and 
one-half  mile  from  Windsor,  and  directly 
across  the  river  from  Detroit.  Steamship 
lines  run  to  Fort  William,  Port  Arthur, 
Montreal  and  intermediate  points.  The  in- 
dustries of  the  town  are  supplied  by  Niagara 
electric  power;  there  are  varnish  and  paint 
factories,  wire  fence  works,  bridge  works, 
tobacco,  clothing  and  carriage  factories,  and 
manufactories  of  automobile  bodies  and  trim- 
mings, furnaces,  castings  and  marine  en- 
gines.    Population,  1916,  6,500. 


ALFRED    RUSSEL 
WALLACE 


WALKING  STICK,  a  name  applied  to  a 
gToup    of    curiously-shaped    insects,    which 
closely  resemble  a  small  branch  with  twigs. 
In  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States 
is  found  a  typical  species.     The  indiriduals 
have  long,  slender  bodies  and  long,  thin  legs. 
They  are  green  in  summer,  but  turn  brown 
in  autumn;   thus  protected  from  detection 
they  escape  all  but  the  closest  scrutiny.    The 
local  names  are  devil's  horse  and  mule  killer. 
See  Leaf  Ixsects;  Protectr-e  Coloration. 
WALLACE,  Alfred  Russel  (1822-1913), 
an   English   naturalist,   born   at   Usk,   Mon- 
mouthshire, and  educated  at  Hertford  Gram- 
mar   School.      He 
spent  many   years 
in  traveling,   espe- 
cially  in    South 
America     and     the 
Asiatic  islands,  and 
the  valuable  mate- 
r  i  a  1    collected 
these  scientific 
plorations    he 
bodied    in    Travels 
on  the  Amazon  and 
Rio     Negro,     The 
Malay  Archipelago, 
Trojncal  Nature  and  The  Geographical  Dis- 
tribution  of  Animals.     His   obsei^ation   of 
animal  life  and  his  philosoiDhieal  nature  led 
him  to  investigations  which  resulted  in  the 
formulation  of  a  theory  of  natural  selection 
and  evolutionary  development.     Before  Dar- 
win gave  his  famous  work  to  the  world  Wal- 
lace  had  published  his   Speculation  on  the 
Origin  of  Species.     His  share  in  establish- 
ing the  theory  of  evolution  has  been  acknowl- 
edged by  Darwin.    But  while  Darwin,  in  his 
later  editions  of  the  Origin  of  Species,  some- 
what modified  his  original  conclusions,  Wal- 
lace, in  a  late  work,  Darwinism,  an  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  ivith 
Some   of   its  Applications,  strongly   insists 
upon  the  complete  controlling  power  of  these 
primary  laws  and  conditions.     Moreover,  he 
differs  from  Darwin  on  the  subject  of  the 
intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual  nature  of 
man.     He  contends  that  the  higher  faculties 
have  been  developed,  not  under  the  law  of 
natural  selection,  but  under  a  higher  law, 
which   has   come  in   imperceptibly;   and   he 
maintains   that    the    Darwinian    theoiy,    in- 
stead of  opposing,  "lends  a  decided  support 
to  a  belief  in  the  spiritual  nature  of  man." 
He  claimed  to  be  a  true  Darwinian. 


WALLACE 


3798 


WALLENSTEIN 


In  later  years  Wallace  became  interested 
in  social  qviestions,  wrote  on  the  subject  of 
land  tenure  and  against  compulsory  vac- 
cination. He  became  a  convert  to  spiritual- 
ism, and  wrote  Miracles  and  Modern  Spirit- 
ualism. He  published  his  autobiography, 
entitled  My  Life.  Hia  other  books  are 
Social  Environment  and  Moral  Progress, 
The  Eevolt  of  Democracy  and  Man's  Place 
in  the  Universe.    See  Evolution. 

WALLACE,  Lewis  (1827-1905),  an 
American  soldier  and  novelist,  generally 
known  as  Lew  Wallace.  He  was  born  in 
Brooksville,  Ind.,  received  a  common  school 
education  and  began  the  study  of  law,  which 
he  practiced  at  intervals  in  Crawfordsville, 
Ind.  He  took  part  in  the  Mexican  War,  with 
rank  of  lieutenant,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Indiana  state  legislature  in  1848.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the 
service  as  colonel  of  an  Indiana  regiment,  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  in  1861  and  was 
made  major-general  for  distinguished  serv- 
ices at  Fort  Donelson  in  18G2.  He  was  re- 
moved from  command  hy  Halleek,  but  was 
reinstated  by  Grant.  He  was  sent  to  Mexico 
on  secret  diplomatic  service  in  1866,  was 
elected  governor  of  New  Mexico  in  1878  and 
was  made  minister  to  Turkey  in  1881.  His 
best-known  works  are  Ben  Hur,  The  Fair 
God,  The  Prince  of  India  and  The  Boyhood 
of  Christ. 

WALLACE,  William,  Sir  (about  1272- 
1305),  the  first  of  the  great  Scottish  patriots, 
a  man  of  herculean  proportions  and  strength 
and  possessing  in  a  high  degree  those  quali- 
ties of  leadership  which  made  his  name 
famous.  The  king  of  England  deposed  the 
Scottish  king  in  1296  and  placed  over  Scot- 
land a  guard  of  English  soldiers.  Wallace 
one  day  quarreled  with  and  killed  one  of 
these  soldiers,  and  escaped.  He  gathered 
a  band  of  Highlanders  and  began  a  guerilla 
warfare  on  the  English. 

After  collecting  a  considerable  force,  he 
was  besieging  the  castle  of  Dundee  when  he 
heard  that  Surrey  and  Cressingham  were 
advancing  upon  Stirling  with  a  large  army. 
He  met  them  in  the  vicinity  of  that  town 
and  gained  a  complete  victoiy  (1297).  After 
this  Wallace  gained  the  title  of  guardian 
of  the  kingdom  and  conducted  a  series  of 
organized  raids  into  England.  In  1298 
Edward  I  entered  Scotland,  and  Wallace 
retired  before  him,  wasting  the  country,  but 
he  was  at  length  overtaken  at  Falkirk  and 


was  compelled  to  fight;  after  a  gallant  re- 
sistance, he  was  defeated.  He  succeeded  in 
escaping,  and  little  is  known  of  his  move- 
ments thenceforth.  He  was  excluded  from 
the  peace  granted  by  Edward  to  the  Scots 
in  1304,  and  when  he  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English  he  was  conveyed  to  London  and 
executed  as  a  traitor,  though  he  had  never 
sworn  fealty  to  England. 

WALLA  WALLA,  wota  wota,  Wash., 
commercial  center  of  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  state,  county  seat  of  Walla  Walla 
County,  situated  200  miles  southwest  of 
Spokane  on  the  Walla  Walla  River,  on  the 
Oregon-Washington  Railroad  and  Naviga- 
tion Company  and  the  Northern  Pacific 
railroads.  It  is  thirty  miles  east  of  the 
navigable  Columbia  River,  and  a  hard-sur- 
faced road  has  been  constructed  from  Walla 
Walla  to  Wallula,  the  nearest  port,  to  con- 
nect with  boat  lines.  Walla  Walla  is  beau- 
tifully located  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  val- 
ley which  jDroduces  5,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat  annuallj^,  besides  extensive  fruit,  vege- 
tables, live  stock  and  dairy  and  poultiy 
products.  Its  industries  include  cold  stor- 
age and  the  manufacture  of  hai-vesting  and 
threshing  machinery,  flour,  leather,  ice, 
sashes,  doors  and  blinds. 

Whitman  College,  located  here,  has  been 
established  sixty  years  and  is  one  of  the  best 
known  institutions  of  higher  education  in  the 
Northwest.  Other  schools  are  the  Saint 
Paul's  School  for  girls,  the  Saint  Vincent's 
Academy  and  the  Walla  Walla  College. 
There  are  a  Federal  building,  a  courthouse, 
a  Carnegie  Library,  a  hospital  and  a  home 
for  widows  and  orphans. 

Walla  Walla,  a  term  which  means  rushing 
water,  grew  up  about  a  military  post,  es- 
tablished in  1856,  and  was  at  first  known  as 
Steptoe  City.  In  1868  it  was  chartered  un- 
der the  present  name.  The  commission  foi-m 
of  government  was  adopted  in  1911.  Popu- 
lation, 1910, 19,364;  in  1917,  26,067  (Federal 
estimate). 

WALLENSTEIN,  vahl'en  stine,  or 
WALDSTEIN,  Albrecht  Eusebius  Wen- 
ZEL  VON,  Duke  of  Friedland,  Sagan  and 
Mecklenburg  (].583-1634),  a  famous  leader 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  bom  at  Hermanic, 
in  Bohemia,  of  poor  but  noble  parentage. 
He  was  educated  in  a  Jesuit  College  and  at 
the  universities  of  Padua,  Altdorf  and  Bo- 
logna. Through  a  wealthy  marriage  he  be- 
came prominent  in  affair's  in  Bohemia.    For 


WALLFLOWER 


3799 


WALNUT 


military  service  against  Venice  in  1617  he 
was  made  a  count  and  commissioned  a  colo- 
nel. He  took  service  in  the  Austrian  army 
in  the  struggle  against  the  Turks,  and  when 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  broke  out  in  Bohe- 
mia (1618),  he  joined  the  imperial  forces 
against  his  native  country. 

With  a  large  army,  which  he  raised  to 
assist  the  emperor  against  the  Protestant 
League,  he  defeated  Count  Mansfeld  at  Des- 
sau (1626)  and  compelled  Bethlen  Gabor,  of 
Transylvania,  to  conclude  a  truce.  He  also 
conquered  Silesia  and  bought  from  the  em- 
peror, partly  with  military  services,  partly 
with  plunder,  the  duchy  of  Sagan,  and  other 
extensive  estates. 

In  September,  1630,  owing  to  the  jealousy 
of  the  nobles  and  the  license  of  his  follow- 
ers, he  was  deprived  of  his  command  and  re- 
tired to  his  duchy  of  Friedland,  until  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  seek  his  aid 
against  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Wallenstein 
then  obtained  almost  absolute  power,  and 
his  behavior  thenceforth  leaves  no  doubt 
that  the  emperor's  interests  were  second  to 
his  own,  and  that  he  would  not  have  hesitated 
to  join  the  emperor's  enemies,  to  secure  his 
own  independence  and  the  crown  of  Bohe- 
mia. After  some  partial  successes  he  en- 
countered the  king  of  Sweden  at  Liitzen  in 
1632,  and  in  the  battle  which  took  place  Wal- 
lenstein was  defeated  and  Gustavus  was 
killed.  Wallenstein  had  unsuccessfully  treat- 
ed on  his  own  account  with  the  Swedish 
king,  and  he  now  secretly  reopened  nego- 
tiations with  France  and  the  German  princes, 
occasionally  taking  the  field  to  display  his 
military  power.  The  court  at  Vienna  wa:? 
well  aware  of  his  double  dealing,  but  the 
emperor  was  not  strong  enough  to  remove 
him,  and  he  therefore  had  him  assassinated. 
See  Thirty  Years'  War. 

WALLFLOWER,  a  shnibby  herb,  belong- 
ing to  the  mustard  family,  native  to  South- 
ern Europe,  so  called  because  it  is  often 
found  growing  among  the  stones  of  fallen 
walls.  It  thrives  in  dry  soil  and  gravel  and 
grows  well  on  stony  cliffs.  The  flowers  in 
the  wild  state  are  invariably  yellow;  under 
cultivation  they  exhibit  a  variety  of  colors. 
A  red  specimen  is  known  as  bleeding  heart. 
Heartsease  and  gilh/flotver  are  other  names 
by  which  the  plants  are  known.  The  fra- 
grant, velvety  flowers  are  much  admired, 
and  have  gained  for  the  plant  a  place  in 
Northern  hothouses. 


WALL  OF  CHINA,  The  Great.  See 
Great  Wall  of  Chixa. 

WALLOONS,  loal  loom',  a  Celtic  race  in- 
habiting Southern  Belgium.  They  are  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Belgae  and  re- 
semble the  French  more  than  they  do  the 
Germans,  being  short  and  mostly  of  dark 
complexion.  Their  language,  also  called  Wal- 
loon, is  a  French  dialect,  retaining  numerous 
Gallic  words,  but  it  varies  somewhat  in  the 
different  provinces.  There  are  about  2,750,- 
000  Walloons  now  in  Belgium. 

WALL  PAPER,  paper  used  for  decor- 
ating the  walls  and  ceilings  of  rooms.  The  use 
of  pai^er  hangings  oi'iginated  among  the 
Chinese  and  was  not  introduced  into  Europe 
until  the  eighteenth  century.  The  papers 
at  first  were  imitations  of  the  leather,  tapes- 
try and  velvet  hangings  which  had  long  been 
common  as  wall  decorations  there,  but  gradu- 
ally the  designs  became  original  and  varied 
and  a  large  industry  grew  up.  In  America 
the  wall  paper  industry  represents  approxi- 
mately $25,000,000  investment  of  capital. 
The  design  in  the  sheet,  which  is  i^rinted  on 
presses  resembling  printing  presses,  is  re- 
peated at  intervals;  and  when  the  paper- 
hanger  puts  it  on  the  wall  he  is  careful  to 
match  the  pattern.  Some  of  the  best  artistic 
talent  is  engaged  in  the  production  of  wall 
paper  designs. 

WALL  STREET,  the  center  of  financial 
operations  in  the  United  States,  so  called 
from  the  street  in  lower  New  York  City, 
upon  which  are  located  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange,  the  Consolidated  Exchange  and 
numerous  banking  institutions  that  figure 
largely  in  the  money  market.  The  street 
itself  extends  from  BroadAvay  to  East  River, 
following  the  line  of  the  old  city  wall  built 
by  Governor  Peter  Stuyvesant  in  1653  to 
protect  the  town  from  possible  attacks  by 
the  Indians.  This  wall,  repaired  and  re- 
placed from  time  to  time,  formed  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  the  city  for  more  than 
fifty  years. 

WALNUT,  wawl'nut,  a  genus  including 
about  twelve  species  of  beautiful  trees,  most- 
ly natives  of  North  America  and  Asia. 
The  three  best-known  species  in  America  are 
the  English,  or  Persian  walnut,  the  black 
walnut  and  the  icliite  Avalnut,  or  butternut. 

The  English,  or  Persian,  walnut  is  a  native 
of  Persia  and  the  Himalaya  region,  and  is 
extensively  cultivated  on  the  California  coast 
and  in  Southern  Europe,     It  is  a  handsome 


WALPOLE 


3800 


WALTHAM 


tree,  atta'.ning  a  height  of  from  sixty  to 
ninety  feet.  It  yields  a  sweet  sap,  some- 
what like  that  of  the  sugar  maple.  The  nut, 
which  gTOws  in  a  thin,  wrinkled,  two-valved 
shell,  has  a  high  food  value,  being  a  greater 
heat  producer  than  almost  any  kind  of  meat. 
The  imripe  nuts  are  much  used  for  making 
pickles  and  ketchups.  The  wood  called 
Circassian  walnut,  is  valuable  for  cabinet 
work.  The  black  walnut  sometimes  attains 
a  height  of  150  feet  and  a  diameter  of  six 
feet,  and  is  chiefly  valued  for  its  timber, 
which  is  hard,  durable,  fine-grained  and  a 
beautiful  rich  brown  in  color.  It  has  been 
much  used  for  interior  finishing  and  for  fur- 
niture, but  is  becoming  rare.  A  beautiful 
broA\Ti  dye  obtained  from  the  bark  and  the 
husks  of  the  nuts  has  been  much  employed 
in  staining  lighter  woods.      ^ 

The  nuts,  which  are  encased  in  a  woody 
shell,  are  deliciously  flavored,  but  are  of 
comparatively  little  commercial  importance 
because  the  oil  in  them  soon  becomes  rancid. 
The  white  walnut,  or  butternut,  is  found 
from  New  England  to  Georgia  and  as  far 
west  as  Kansas.  Wide-spreading  and  lofty, 
reaching  a  height  of  seventy-five  feet  or  more, 
it  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  American 
forest  trees.  The  compound  leaves  and  green 
husks  are  clammy  and  hairy,  the  sap  is 
sugary,  like  that  of  maple,  and  the  root  is 
mildly  cathartic.  The  nuts  are  good^  to 
eat,  either  green,  made  into  pickles,  or  dried. 
WALPOLE,  wawVpole,  Horace,  Sir, 
fourth  Earl  of  Orford  (1717-1797),  an  Eng- 
lish man  of  letters,  the  son  of  Sir  Kobert 
Walpole.  He  received  his  education  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  following  his  graduation  spent 
several  years  in  travel.  In  1741  he  entered 
Parliament.  His  first  publication  was  A 
Catalogue  of  Eoyal  and  Noble  Authors, 
which  was  followed  in  1764  by  The  Castle 
of  Otranto,  a  romance  abounding  in  mystery, 
which  was  at  the  time  of  its  publication  very 
popular.  Walpole  is,  however,  chiefly  re- 
membered for  his  Letters,  which  give  enter- 
taining pictures  of  the  society  of  his  day. 
While  in  general  these  pictures  are  true 
to  life,  they  contain  many  inaccuracies  and 
exaggerations  and  are  therefore  of  little 
value  to  historians. 

WALPOLE,  Robert,  Sir,  first  Earl  of 
Orford  (1676-1745),  an  English  statesman. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  succeeded  to  his  father's 
estate  in  1700   and  entered  Parliament  as 


member  for  Castle  Rising.  In  1702  he  was 
elected  for  King's  Lj^nn,  became  an  active 
member  of  the  Whig  party  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  business  capacity 
and  by  his  ease  in  debate.  He  was  succes- 
sively Seeretaiy  of  War,  paymaster  of  the 
forces  and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  and  Prime  Minister. 
This  latter  office  he  held  for  over  twenty- 
one  years,  and,  during  his  long  administra- 
tion the  Hanoverian  sucession  became  firmly 
established,  owing  largely  to  his  prudence 
and  political  sagacity. 

He  promoted  by  an  enlightened  policy 
the  commercial  prosperity  of  the  nation  and 
relieved  the  weight  of  taxation  by  many 
improvements  in  the  tariff.  Although  he 
was  constantly  accused  of  corruption  in  office 
and  was  once  even  sent  to  the  Tower  on  such 
a  charge,  the  fact  that  he  became  no  wealthier 
through  his  long  term  of  office,  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  reports  of  his  contem- 
poraries were  unfounded. 

WALRUS,  wol'rus,  a  marine  flesh-eating 
mammal,  related  to  the  seal,  and  inhabiting 
the  colder  climates.    It  has  two  large,  pointed 


THE  WALRUS 
tusks,  from  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet  in 
length,  directed  downward  and  slightly  out- 
ward from  the  upper  jaw.  The  tusks  are 
used  in  digging  up  clams  and  other  food  from 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  animals  are 
valuable  because  of  their  hides  and  oil.  They 
are  either  killed  with  rifles  or  taken  with 
harpoons. 

WALTHAM,  woVtham,  Mass.,  a  city  in 
Middlesex  County,  ten  miles  west  of  Boston, 
on  the  Charles  River  and  on  the  Boston  & 
Maine  Railroad.  It  manufactures  more 
watches  than  any  other  city  in  Massachu- 
setts; its  watch  factories  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world.  There  are  also  large 
cotton  and  woolen  mills,  saddlery  works, 
machine  shops  and  foundries.  Waltham  has 
many  beautiful  parks,  and  is  the  scene  of 
an    annual   water   carnival    on   the    Charles 


WALTON 


3801 


WANDERING  JEW 


River.  It  has  a  state  armory  and  a  public 
library.  The  state  school  for  the  feeble- 
minded is  located  here.  It  was  originally  a 
part  of  Watertown,  but  was  made  a  separate 
town  in  1738  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1884. 
The  city  manager  form  of  government  was 
adopted  in  1917.  Population,  1910,  27,834; 
in  1917,  31,011. 

WALTON,  tcaicVton,  Izaak  (1593-1683), 
the  author  of  the  famous  Compleat  Angler, 
a  treatise  on  fishing.  For  a  number  of  years 
he  was  in  business  in  London,  as  a  linen 
draper  according  to  some  accounts ;  as  an  iron- 
monger according  to  others.  He  retired  at 
the  age  of  fifty  and  devoted  his  remaining 
forty  years  to  a  life  of  cultured  ease  and 
pleasure.  His  first  edition  of  The  Compleat 
Angler  appeared  in  1653.  It  is  to  his  ex- 
quisite delineations  of  rural  scenery,  the 
ease  and  unaffected  humor  of  his  dialogue 
and  the  delightful  simplicity  of  his  stj'le 
that  The  Compleat  Angler  owes  its  charm. 

WALTZ,  waidts,  a  dance  of  Bohemian 
origin,  executed  with  a  rapid  whirling  mo- 
tion, the  gentleman  having  his  aiTQ  round 
his  partner's  waist.  The  music  is  written 
in  triple  time  and  consists  of  phrases  of 
eight  or  sixteen  bars.  Several  of  these 
phrases  are  now  usually  united,  to  prevent 
monotony.  Johann  Strauss  and  his  son  of 
the  same  name  are  the  most  noted  com- 
posers of  waltzes.  The  valse  a  deux  temps 
is  a  form  of  waltz  in  which  two  steps  are 
made  to  each  bar  of  three  beats.  Classical 
waltzes  are  musical  compositions  in  waltz 
form,  not  intended  for  dance  tunes.  Of 
this  style  the  composer  Chopin  is  the  greatest 
master. 

WAMPANOAGr,  worn  pa  no'ag,  a  tribe 
of  Algonquian  Indians  who  once  occupied  the 
lands  east  of  Narragansett  Bay,  as  far  north 
as  Massachusetts.  Their  number  was  reduced 
from  30,000  to  barely  1,000  by  a  fearful 
epidemic,  and  a  subsequent  war  with  the 
whites  resulted  in  their  complete  destruction. 
Massasoit  and  his  son  Philip  were  famous 
men  of  the  tribe.  See  Massasoit;  King 
Philip. 

WAMPUM,  wom'pum,  white  and  purple 
shell  beads  used  for  ornament  and  circulated 
in  colonial  days  as  money  among  Indian 
tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Because  of 
the  fixed  value  given  to  wampum  strings, 
they  came  to  be  accepted  by  the  New  Eng- 
land colonists  in  exchange  for  their  own 
coins.    In  some  localities  six  wampum  beads 


equaled  a  penny.  It  was  the  custom  of  the 
Indians  to  weave  wampum  beSds  into  belts, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  figures  formed 
permanent  records.  Few  transactions  of  any 
sort  were  considered  complete  without  the 
passing  of  the  belts,  and  wampum  records 
were  invariably  used  in  the  ratification  of 
treaties.  Many  wampum  belts  of  historic 
importance  are  preserved  in  the  state 
archives  at  Albany,  New  York. 

WANAMAKER,  wahn'a  ma  kur,  John 
(1838-  ),  an  American  merchant,  cap- 
italist and  philanthropist.  He  was  bora  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  there  received  a  com- 
mon school  education  and  began  his  business 
career  as  errand  boy  in  a  book  store;  later 
he  was  a  salesman,  and  in  1861  he  established 
a  clothing  house,  which  he  enlarged  into  a 
general  department  store  in  1876.  In  1896 
he  opened  a  branch  in  New  York  City. 

He  helped  to  organize  the  Christian  Com- 
mission, which  assisted  the  soldiers  during 
the  Civil  War;  was  chairman  of  several  re- 
lief committees,  and  was  prominent  in  the 
management  of  the  Centennial  Exposition. 
Wanamaker  was  appointed  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral in  1889  and  performed  his  duties  with 
energy  and  administrative  ability.  He  also 
took  great  interest  in  religious  work  and 
actively  supported  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association.  As  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Presbyterian  Hospital  and  Bethany  Dis- 
pensary, as  originator  and  president  of  the 
first  Penny  Savings  Bank  and  as  a  donor  to 
numerous  charities  he  has  been  one  of  the 
most  influential  men  of  his  time. 

WANDERING  JEW.  A  legend,  well 
known  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  Christian 
world,  says  that  while  Christ  was  on  his  way 
to  Calvary,  bearing  his  cross,  he  was  mocked 
by  a  Jew,  who  told  him  not  to  rest,  but  to 
hurry  on  with  his  burden.  In  reply,  Christ 
said,  "I  go,  but  thou  shalt  taiTy  till  I  come." 
In  consequence,  the  man  has  continued  since 
to  wander  about  the  earth.  He  passes 
through  his  lifetime  like  any  ordinary  man, 
till  he  reaches  one  hundred  years,  and  then 
he  suffers  a  terrible  sickness,  after  which  he 
comes  forth  again  young.  This  legend  has 
been  the  subject  of  many  literary  works  in 
prose,  jioetry  and  the  drama.  The  most 
notable  novel  is  The  Wandering  Jew  by 
Eugene  Sue. 

WANDERING  JEW,  a  creeping  plant 
with  glossy  leaves  having  a  silveiy  sheen  and 
often  a  purplish  cast.   It  grows  in  almost 


WAPITI 


3802 


WAR 


any  soil,  "and  even  in  water;  and  the  per- 
sistency with  Vhich  it  lives  and  its  manner 
of  growth  are  responsible  for  the  name.  The 
plant  grows  and  spreads  rapidly  and  is 
used  to  advantage  in  hanging  baskets  and 
along  the  sides  of  window  boxes.  In  the 
warmer  of  the  temperate  climates  the  plants 
live  out  of  doors  and  often  attain  a  length 
of  several  vards. 

WAP'ITL  See  Elk. 

WAR,  wawr,  a  contest  between  nations  or 
states  (international  war),  or  between  parties 
in  the  same  state  (civil  war),  carried  on  by 
force  of  arms.  It  usually  arises  in  the  first 
case  from  disputes  about  territorial  posses- 
sions and  frontiers,  unjust  dealings  with  the 
subjects  of  one  state  by  another,  economic 
competition  and  oppression,  questions  of  race 
and  sentiment,  jealousy  of  militaiy  prestige 
or  mere  lust  of  conquest.  In  the  second  ease, 
it  is  owing  to  the  claims  of  rival  contenders 
for  supreme  power  in  the  state,  or  to  at- 
tempts to  establish  some  important  point 
connected  with  civil,  religious  or  political 
liberty.  In  all  cases  the  aim  of  each  eon- 
tending  party  is  to  overthrow  or  weaken  the 
enemy,  by  the  defeat  or  dispersion  of  his 
army  or  navy,  by  the  occupation  of  impor- 
tant parts  of  his  country,  such  as  the  capital 
or  principal  administrative  and  commercial 
centers,  or  by  the  niin  of  his  commerce,  thus 
cutting  off  his  sources  of  recuperation  in 
men,  money  and  material. 

When  war  is  carried  into  the  territory 
of  a  hitherto  friendly  power,  it  is  called  an 
aggressive,  or  offensive,  war;  and  when  car- 
ried on  to  resist  such  aggression,  it  is  called 
defensive.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  hos- 
tilities between  states,  the  power  taking  the 
initiatory  step  may  issue  a  declaration  of  war, 
which  now  usually  takes  the  form  of  an  ex- 
planatory manifesto,  addressed  to  neutral 
governments  (see  War,  Declaration  of). 

During  the  progress  of  the  struggle,  cer- 
tain laws,  usages  or  rights  of  war  have  come 
to  be  generally  recognized;  such  laws  per- 
mit the  destruction  or  capture  of  armed 
enemies,  the  destruction  of  property  likely 
to  be  serviceable  to  them,  the  stoppage  of 
their  channels  of  traffic  and  the  appropria- 
tion of  everything  in  an  enemy's  country 
necessary  for  the  support  and  subsistence  of 
the  invading  army.  On  the  other  hand, 
though  an  enemy  may  be  starved  into  sur- 
render, wounding,  except  in  battle,  mutila- 
tion and  all  cruel  and  wanton  devastation 


are  contrary  to  the  rules  of  war,  as  are  also 
bombarding  an  unprotected  town,  the  use 
of  poison  and  the  employment  of  torture  to 
extort  information  fi'om  an  enemy.  Works 
of  art  and  the  industries  of  peace  are  usually 
considered  as  exempt  from  destruction.  The 
World  War,  however,  showed  that  in  actual 
conflict  all  these  rules  may  be  disregarded  by 
a  wanton  adversary.  A  remorseless  and 
cruel  nation  breaks  every  humane  rule,  and 
its  opponents  may  retort  with  "reprisals." 
The  supreme  problem  before  civilization  at 
the  present  time  is  not  the  mitigation,  but 
the  abolition  of  war. 

When  two  nations  are  at  war  and  it  be- 
comes necessary  for  them  to  communicate,  it 
is  customary  to  request  the  services  of  the 
embassies  of  some  neutral  powers,  and  the 
belligerents  themselves  do  not  meet  until  pre- 
liminary arrangements  have  been  made  by 
the  neutrals;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  negotiations  were  carried  on 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States. 
While  terms  of  peace  are  being  considered, 
or  when  for  any  reason  the  belligerents 
wish  to  meet,  an  armistice,  or  truce,  is  de- 
clared, during  which  there  is  a  cessation  of 
hostilities. 

If  one  nation  completely  conquers  another, 
the  war  ceases;  though  many  matters  must 
subsequently  be  settled  by  a  treaty  or  by 
grant.  The  peace  treaty  of  1919  is  the  latest 
of  a  long  series  of  agreements  that  have  fol- 
lowed wars  since  civilization  began.  While 
as  a  whole  treaties  are  based  on  the  assump- 
tion that  there  will  always  be  other  wars, 
some  of  their  provisions  usually  recognize 
the  possibility  of  preventing  war  through 
international  organization   and  cooperation. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Army  Navy 

International  Law         Neutrality 

WAR,  Declaration  of,  a  formal  an- 
nouncement by  one  nation  of  its  intention  to 
begin  hostilities  against  another,  or  a  state- 
ment recognizing  the  existence  of  a  state  of 
war  between  the  two  nations.  Under  modern 
conditions,  with  such  facilities  for  rapid  com- 
munication as  the  telephone,  the  wireless 
telegraph,  the  ocean  cable,  etc.,  actual  war- 
fare is  preceded  by  negotiations  of  longer 
or  shorter  duration.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  actual  hostilities  commence  before  the 
formal  declaration  of  war,  as  in  case  of  the 
Eusso- Japanese  War  of  1904-1905.  A  more 
common  procedure  is  for  one  nation  to  send 


WAR 


3803 


WARD 


an  ultimatum  to  the  other,  setting  a  definite 
time  for  a  reijly.  In  1914,  for  example. 
Great  Britain  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Germany 
on  August  4,  demanding  a  reply  to  its  re- 
quest that  Belgian  neutrality  be  respected, 
and  requiring  an  answer  by  midnight  of  the 
same  day.  Germany's  failure  to  reply  was 
followed  by  a  war  declaration  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain.  The  war  resolution  by  which 
the  United  States  entered  the  World  War 
was  a  statement  that  war  existed  between 
the  two  countries  because  of  illegal  acts  on 
the  part  of  Germany.  See  War;  World 
War. 

WAR,  Department  of,  that  one  of  the 
executive  departments  of  a  government  which 
has  to  do  primarily  with  military  affairs. 
The  chief  of  the  department  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Secretary  of  War,  who  is  a 
member  of  the  President's  Cabinet.  He 
carries  out  the  ordere  of  the  President,  who 
is  commander  in  chief  of  the  army.  The 
War  Department  consists  of  a  number  of 
different  bureaus,  over  the  chiefs  of  which 
the  Secretary  has  general  control.  The  af- 
fairs of  the  War  Department,  however,  are 
not  confined  strictly  to  militaiy  matters,  for 
it  exercises  control  over  pensions,  sea  coast 
forts,  river  and  harbor  improvements,  the 
military  academy  and  the  government  of 
island  possessions  which  require  military 
supervision.  The  principal  bureau  chiefs  are 
the  adjutant-general,  the  inspector-general, 
the  judge-advocate-general,  the  quarter- 
master-general, the  commissary-general,  the 
sergeant-general,  the  paymaster-general  and 
the  chiefs  of  ordnance,  signal  office,  engineers 
and  pensions.  The  department  was  created 
by  act  of  Congress  in  1789. 

'WAR'BLERS,  a  family  of  tiny,  insect- 
eating  birds,  found  throughout  the  western 
continent,  about  seventy  species  of  which 
reach  the  United  States.  Their  migration 
northward  is  made  with  great  regularity, 
and  in  May  and  early  June  they  are  commonly 
observed  everywhere  in  the  Northern  states. 
In  nesting,  however,  most  species  seek  the 
deep  woods,  some  penetrating  as  far  north- 
ward as  the  Hudson  Bay  and  Yukon  regions. 
Nearly  all  spend  the  winter  in  the  tropics. 

Some  of  the  better  known  species  of 
warblers  are  the  yellow  warbler,  or  summer 
yellow  bird,  which  remains  about  Northern 
homes  and  parks  throughout  the  summer; 
the  black  and  white  xvarbler,  which  creeps 
about  the  branches  of  trees  in  early  spring; 


the  myrtle  warbler,  marked  with  four  yellow 
patches  on  head,  rump  and  wing;  the  black- 
throated  green  and  the  black-throated  blue 
tvarblers,  the  chat,  the  American  redstart 
and  the  oven  bird.  Some  warblers  have  fine 
singing  voices,  but  the  greater  number  have 
only  weak,  lisping  notes.  Their  nests  are 
usually  cup-shaped,,  woven  of  twigs  and 
grasses  and  placed  in  trees  or  bushes.  The 
eggs  are  from  three  to  five  in  number. 

WARD,  a  minor  who  has  been  placed 
under  a  guardian  appointed  by  the  courts 
and  who  becomes  legally  responsible  for  the 
protection  of  his  rights.  The  child  must 
obey  his  guardian;  he  may  not  marry  with- 
out his  consent  and  may  not  bring  suit 
against  him,  though  in  cases  of  unjust  treat- 
ment he  may  file  a  complaint  with  the  court. 
In  most  cases  wardship  ceases  with  mar- 
riage and  always  when  the  ward  becomes  of 
legal  age.     See  Guardian. 

WARD.     See  Municipal  Government. 

WARD,  Artemus.  See  Browne,  Charles 
Farrar. 

WARD,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps 
(1844-1911),  an  American  author  and  phi- 
lanthropist, born  at  Andover,  Mass.  Be- 
sides lecturing  and  engaging  in  work  for  the 
advancement  of  women  and  for  social  re- 
forms, she  also  wrote  a  number  of  stories, 
including  The  Gates  Ajar  (1868),  which 
passed  through  twenty  editions  in  the  year  of 
its  publication,  Beyond  the  Gates,  The  Gates 
Between,  Hedged  In,  The  Silent  Partner, 
The  Story  of  Avis,  A  Singidar  Life  and,  in 
conjunction  with  her  husband,  the  Rev. 
Herbert  D.  Ward,  Come  Forth  and  The 
Master  of  the  Magicians. 

WARD,  Mrs.  Humphry  (1851-  ), 
the  foremost  woman  novelist  of  twentieth- 
century  England.  She  was  born  in  Tas- 
mania and  was  reared  and  educated  in  Eng- 
land. In  1872  she 
married  Thomas 
Humphry  Ward,  a 
journalist.  Matthew 
Arnold  was  her  uncle. 

After  writing  much 
for  periodicals  and 
publishing  two  works 
of  fiction,  which  were 
not  especially  note- 
worthy, she  brought 
out  in  1888  Bobert 
Elsmere,  a  novel  which  became  immensely 
popular  and  which  won  the  favorable  notice 


\i^ 


MRS.  HUMPHRY 
WARD 


WARD 


3804 


WAR  OF  1812 


of  critics.  Then  followed  The  History  of 
David  Grieve,  Marcella,  The  Story  of  Bessie 
Costrell,  Sir  George  Tressadij,  Helbeck  of 
Bannisdale,  Eleanor,  Lady  Rose's  Daughter 
The  Marriage  of  William  Ashe,  The  Case  of 
Richard  Meynell,  Eltham  Bouse,  Missing 
and  Elizabeth's  Campaign.  The  principal 
criticism  which  has  been  passed  on  Mrs. 
Ward's  novels,  especially  on  her  earlier  ones, 
is  that  the  purpose  is  made  too  prominent  and 
that  in  all  there  is  too  great  similarity  of  lead- 
ing characters.  But  her  characters  are  clear- 
ly drawn,  her  literary  execution  is  excellent 
and  her  topics  are  always  vital  and  timely. 

WARD,  John  Quincy  Adams  (1830- 
1910),  one  of  the  foremost  American  sculp- 
tors of  his  day,  was  born  at  Urbana,  Ohio. 
Before  the  Civil  War  he  established  him- 
self in  New  York,  and  became  known  for 
his  portrait  busts  of  notable  people.  His 
statuette  The  Freedman,  made  in  1865,  w-as 
so  popular  that  thousands  of  copies  were 
sold;  his  Indian  Hunter,  which  also  makes 
a  strong  popular  appeal,  was  the  first  piece 
of  statuary  erected  in  Central  Park,  New 
York  City.  The  Good  Samaritan,  a  group 
commemorating  the  discovery  of  the  efficacy 
of  ether  as  an  anaesthetic,  is  in  Boston. 
Ward's  bronze  bust  of  Shakespeare,  a  seated 
figure  of  Horace  Greeley  and  statues  of 
George  Washington  and  Thomas  Jefferson 
are  among  his  finest  portrait  statuary.  Ward 
was  identified  with  the  leading  art  organiza- 
tions of  his  time  and  labored  unremittingly 
to  elevate  national  ideals  in  the  field  of  art 
endeavor. 

WARFIELD,  David  (1866-  ),  an 
American  actor  who  has  achieved  the  highest 
success  in  several  character  portrayals.  He 
was  born  at  San  Francisco  and  in  that  city 
began  his  stage  career  at  a  local  theater  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two.  He  went  to  New 
York  in  1890 ;  in  the  ten  years  following  he 
was  connected  with  the  Casino  Theater  and 
with  Weber  and  Field's  Music  Hall.  Later 
attracting  the  attention  of  David  Belasco, 
Warfield  w^as  starred  in  The  Auctioneer,  one 
of  his  greatest  successes.  He  was  equally 
successful  in  The  Music  Blaster,  and  this 
placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  American 
actors.  His  later  performances  have  been 
in  the  leading  role  of  The  Return  of  Peter 
Grimm  and  as  "Van  der  Decken"  in  the 
play  of  the  same  name,  based  on  the  legend 
of  The  Flying  Dutchman.  Warfield's  im- 
personation of  an  eccentric  but  kindly  old 


gentleman,  pathetic  and  courageous  in  mis- 
fortune, has  never  been  excelled  by  any 
American  actor. 

WAR'NER,  Charles  Dudley  (1829- 
1900),  an  American  editor  and  critic,  born  at 
Plainfield,  Mass.  He  received  his  degree  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1852,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  for  a  time  practiced  law  in 
Chicago.  Entering  journalism,  he  became, 
in  1860,  editor  of  the  Hartford  Press  and 
later  of  the  Courant.  As  correspondent  of 
American  papers  he  made  an  extensive  tour 
of  Europe,  and  on  his  return,  in  1884,  he 
became  one  of  the  editors  of  Harper's  Maga- 
zine, to  which  he  contributed  until  his  death. 
The  first  book  by  which  he  attained  prom- 
inence was  My  Summer  in  a  Garden,  a  vol- 
ume of  sketches,  which  was  followed  by 
Backlog  Studies,  Being  a  Boy  and  As  We 
Were  Saying.  Among  his  other  works  are 
The  Gilded  Age,  a  drama  in  which  he  col- 
laborated with  Samuel  L.  Clemens,  and  A 
Little  Journey  in  the  World,  a  novel  with  a 
moral  purpose.  He  edited  the  "American 
Men  of  Letters"  series  and  A  Library  of 
the  World's  Best  Literature. 

WARNER,  Seth  (1743-1784),  an  Amer- 
ican soldier,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Green 
Mountain  Boys,  who  opposed  New  York's 
claim  to  the  New  Hampshire  grants.  He  was 
elected  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tain Boys  in  1775,  and  the  following  year 
was  appointed  colonel  of  the  continental 
regiment.  He  received  a  colonel's  commis- 
sion for  the  part  he  took  in  the  capture  of 
Crown  Point.  He  was  in  command  at  the 
Battle  of  Hubbardton  and  rendered  efficient 
service  in  the  Battle  of  Bennington.  In 
1782  he  retired  on  account  of  ill  health. 

WAR  OF  1812,  the  name  given  to  the 
struggle  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  in  the  years  1812-1814.  The  general 
cause  of  the  war  was  the  attitude  of  Great 
Britain  in  relation  to  American  shipping. 
Its  claims  to  the  right  to  board  and  search 
American  vessels  for  the  purpose  of  impres- 
sing British  citizens,  found  in  their  crews, 
into  the  British  service;  its  decrees  and  or- 
ders to  the  detriment  of  American  com- 
merce; its  disregard  of  American  protests, 
which  had  been  a  cause  for  grievance  to  the 
Americans  for  many  years,  at  last  compelled 
them  to  attempt  to  secure  reparation  by  force. 
The  same  haughty  actions  regarding  Amer- 
ican commerce  had  been  taken  by  France, 
and  it  was  long  a  question  as  to  which  of  the 


WAR  OF  1812 


3805 


WAR  OF  1812 


two  powers  the  United  States  would  fight 
first;  but  the  proximity  of  Canada,  which 
seemed  to  offer  an  attractive  field  for  con- 
quest, and  the  old  ill-feeling  toward  England, 
resulting  from  the  Revolution,  finally  caused 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain, 
on  June  18,  1812.  Five  days  later  the  Brit- 
ish government  withdrew  the  "Orders  in 
Council,"  which  had  been  probably  the  most 
objectionable  features  of  the  British  policj^ 
since  they  established  a  paper  blockade  of 
European  ports  and  practically  excluded 
American  commerce  from  the  seas. 

At  the  outset  the  land  forces  of  the  United 
States  made  little  headway.     Great  Britain, 
with  her  vastly  superior  resources,  was  pre- 
pared  for   war,  having  been   at  war  witli 
France  for  many  years,  while  the  United 
States   government  had   shown   a   shameful 
lack  of  appreciation  of  the  dangers  attend- 
ing the  new  republic  and  had  allowed  the 
navy   and    war   departments    to    deteriorate 
almost  out  of  existence.     The  first  militaiy 
movement  was  that  of  General  Hull,  who  in- 
vaded Canada  with  two  thousand  men,  but 
soon  retreated  before  an  inferior  force  under 
General  Brock  and  surrendered  at  Detroit, 
August  16.      In  October  of 
the  same  year,  General  Van 
Rensselaer  made  another  in- 
vasion of  Canada  near  Niag- 
ara   Falls,    and    after    the 
Battle    of    Queenstown,    in 
which   the    British   general, 
Brock,  was  mortally  wound- 
ed, the  Americans  were  again 
driven  back  with  great  loss. 
Meantime,    on   the   sea   the 
United    States    vessels    had 
held  their  own.    The  Consti- 
tution had  captured  the  Brit- 
ish frigate  Guerriere  (Aug- 
ust 19).  The  Wasp,  after  a 
shai-p  battle,  took  the  Frolic. 
The  United  States  captured 
the     Macedonian,     and     in 
December    the    Constitution 
compelled  the  sun-ender  of  the  frigate  Zava. 
Of  the  American  navy  it  can  be  said  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war  there  were  prac- 
tically no  war  vessels  owned  by  the  govern- 
ment.    So  badly  in  need  of  a  naval  arm  was 
the  eountiy  that  privateers  (which  see)  were 
licensed.      A    few    naval    vessels    were    as- 
sembled ;  these  in  1812  and  1813  gave  so  good 
an  account  of  themselves  in  action  that  the 


naval  history  of  the  war  was  remarkable. 
American  valor  on  the  sea  made  forever 
memorable  such  names  as  the  Constitution 
("Old  Ironsides"),  the  Wasp  and  others 
scarc-ely  less  notable. 

In  the  spring  of  1813  General  Dearborn, 
who  had  been  placed  at  the  head  of  affairs 
in  the  Northwest,  invaded  Canada  for  the 
third  time,  with  an  army  of  1,700  men,  and 
captured  York  (Toronto).  He  was  relieved 
by  Generals  Wilkinson  and  Hampton,  who 
made  an  attempt  to  take  Montreal,  but  with- 
out success.  In  IMay  an  advance  of  the  Brit- 
isli  into  New  York  State  was  repulsed  at 
Sackett's  Harbor,  and  in  September  Com- 
modore Perry  fought  the  famous  Battle  of 
Lake  Erie,  by  which  he  captured  the  most 
important  British  fleet  upon  the  Great  Lakes. 
This  victoiy  enabled  General  Han-ison  to 
invade  Canada.  There  he  defeated  General 
Proctor,  in  the  Battle  of  the  Thames. 

In  1814  General  Jacob  Brown  again  in- 
vaded Canada,  captured  the  British  Fort 
Erie  and  defeated  the  force  under  General 
Riall  at  Chippewa.  Then  followed  the  Battle 
of  Lundy's  Lane  and  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Americans  to  Fort  Erie,  where  they  were 


MAP  OF  MAIX  OPERATIONS 

besieged.  In  the  following  September,  Gen- 
eral Provost  led  14,000  men  in  an  invasion 
of  New  York,  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain. 
The  fleet  which  he  had  got  together  was 
defeated  near  Plattsburg  by  an  American 
fleet  under  Commodore  MeDonough,  while 
the  land  force  was  also  repulsed.  At  about 
the  same  time,  the  British  fleet  ascended 
Chesapeake  Bay,  defeated  the  hastily  sum- 


WARRANT 


3806 


WARSAW 


moned  American  militia  at  Bladensburg,  en- 
tered Washington  and  sacked  the  govern- 
ment buildings,  in  retaliation  for  the  sack  of 
York  at  its  capture. 

Meanwhile,  General  Andrew  Jackson  had 
been  fighting  the  Creek  Indians  in  the  ex- 
treme South  and  had  gathered  together  an 
army  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  frontiers- 
men. In  January,  1815  this  force  was 
confronted  by  an  army  sent  direct  from 
England,  under  General  Pakenham,  and  con- 
sisting of  the  veterans  of  Wellington's  cam- 
paign against  Napoleon.  The  result  was  the 
famous  Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

On  the  sea  the  Americans  continued  to  gain 
the  upper  hand,  though  the  Chesapeake  was 
captured  by  the  Shannon,  and  other  small 
American  vessels  were  taken.  Probably  the 
most  memorable  event  upon  the  sea  during 
this  period  was  the  famous  cruise  of  the 
American  frigate  Essex,  which,  after  a  long 
and  brilliant  career  against  British  merchant- 
men, was  compelled  to  surrender  to  the 
Phoebe  and  the  Cheruh  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
March  28,  1814.  The  very  month  in  which 
the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed,  December, 
1814,  the  Federalists  of  New  England  de- 
clared their  opposition  to  the  war.  The 
Treaty  of  Ghent  provided  for  the  restora- 
tion of  all  lands  captured  by  either  side  and 
for  a  commission  to  determine  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  • 
did  not  provide  for  the  withdrawal  of  the 
British  claims  regarding  right  of  search,  the 
paper  blockade  and  the  laws  of  neutrality. 
These  practices  had  already  been  discon- 
tinued by  the  British,  on  demand  of  their 
own  merchants,  and  were  never  revived. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following- 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Blockade  New    Orleans,    Battle 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac  of 

Champlain,    Lake  Perry,  Oliver  H. 

Constitution    (ship)         Queenston    Heig-hts, 
Continental  System  Battle  of 

Embargo  Raisin    River,   Massa- 

Brie,    Lake,   Battle   of       ere  of 
Ghent,  Treaty  of  Star-Spangled    Ban- 

Hartford  Convention         ner 
Hull,  William  Thames    River,    Bat- 

Jackson.    Andrew  tie  of  the 

Lawrence,  James  Tippecanoe,  Battle  of 

Lundy's   Lane,   Battle  United  States   (his- 

of  tory) 

Milan    Decree 

WARRANT,  a  writ  issued  by  any  qual- 
ified court  officer  directing  a  constable  or 
sheriff  to  arrest  the  person  named  therein 
and  bring  him  before  the  official  issuing 
the  warrant.  A  warrant  is  usually  issued 
upon  the  oath  of  a  complaining  witness  as 
to  the  guilt  of  the  person  concerned.     Ar- 


rests without  a  warrant  are  illegal,  except 
in  time  of  public  danger,  or  when  an  overt 
act  is  witnessed  by  a  peace  officer. 

WARREN,  Joseph  (1741-1775),  an 
American  patriot,  born  at  Roxbury  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  and 
became  a  physician  at  Boston  and  a  lead- 
ing figure  in  Massachusetts  political  move- 
ments, contributing  with  voice  and  pen  to 
the  cause  of  patriotism.  He  drew  up  the 
"Suffolk  resolves,"  the  most  radical  expres- 
sion of  the  American  position  with  respect 
to  British  oppression,  and  in  the  following 
year,  1775,  was  elected  president  of  the 
provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts.  Al- 
though the  rank  of  major-general  of  Massa- 
chusetts forces  had  been  conferred  on  him, 
and  he  was  ofi^ered  chief  command  at  Bunker 
Hill,  he  took  his  place  as  a  volunteer  and 
was  killed  in  the  fight  of  June  17.  A  monu- 
ment in  his  memory  erected  in  1794,  on  the 
spot  where  he  fell,  was  later  replaced  by  the 
Bunker  Hill  Monument  (which  see). 

WAR'REN,  Ohio,  the  county  seat  of 
Trumbull  County,  fifty-two  miles  south- 
east of  Cleveland,  on  the  Erie,  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads.  It 
is  said  to  be  the  second  city  in  the  United 
States  in  the  manufacture  of  electric  lamps. 
Other  manufactures  are  fire  extinguishers, 
automobiles,  storage  tanks,  steel  ranges, 
shovels,  bath  tubs,  boilers  and  furniture.  It 
has  a  Federal  building,  a  public  library  and 
a  hospital.  The  town  was  first  settled  in 
1802  and  was  incorporated  in  1834.  Popu- 
lation, 1910,  11,129;  m  1917,  13,308  (Fed- 
eral estimate). 

WAR'REN,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of  War- 
ren County,  sixty-six  miles  southeast  of  Erie, 
on  the  Allegheny  River  and  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  New  York  Central  railroads. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  gas  and  oil  dis- 
trict, and  is  the  center  of  large  petroleum 
industries.  There  are  also  boiler  and  ma- 
chine shops  and  furniture  factories.  The 
state  hospital  for  the  insane  is  here.  Warren 
was  settled  in  1780,  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1832.  Population,  1910,  11,- 
140;  in  1917,  15,083   (Federal  estimate). 

WAR'SAW,  Poland,  capital  and  largest 
city  of  the  republic,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Vistula,  625  miles  south  of 
Petrograd  and  320  miles  east  of  Berlin. 
The  city  is  built  upon  a  hill,  which  slopes 
toward  the  river,  and  is  connected  with  its 
suburb,  Praga,  by  an  iron  bridge.    The  old 


WARSHIP 


3807 


WASHBURN  COLLEGE 


part  of  the  town  is  characterized  by  narrow 
winding  streets  and  quaint  buildings,  erected 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  enclosed  by 
a  wall,  which  is  entered  through  a  number 
of  gates.  Around  this  part  of  the  town  are 
the  suburbs,  which  are  of  a  more  modem 
structure.  In  Castle  Square  stands  the 
castle  of  the  old  Polish  kings.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  of  Saint  Johns,  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  century;  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Virgin,  dating  from  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  the  Church  of  Saint 
Anne,  of  about  the  same  date,  are  also  of 
interest.  The  city  contains  a  number  of  pub- 
lic monuments,  among  them  an  obelisk 
erected  to  the  memory  of  the  Polish  generals 
who .  fell  in  1830.  The  educational  institu- 
tions include  a  university,  an  observatory,  a 
polytechnic  institute,  a  conservatory  of  music 
and  a  museum  of  fine  arts. 

Warsaw  is  an  important  industrial 
center,  and  its  leading  manufactures  in- 
clude maehineiy,  chemicals,  food  products, 
matches,  spirits,  tobacco,  and  boots  and 
shoes.  The  city  itself  is  not  fortified,  but 
protecting  it  are  some  of  the  greatest  for- 
tresses in  the  world.  These,  with  the  city 
itself,  were  taken  by  the  Germans  in  1915 
during  the  World  War.  After  the  libera- 
tion of  Poland  at  the  close  of  the  war,  War- 
saw became  the  capital  of  the  newly-organ- 
ized republic  (see  Poland;  World  War). 
Population,  1914,  about  909,000. 

WARSHIP.  See  Navy;  Submarine;  Tor- 
pedo Boat. 

WART,  an  excrescence  of  the  skin  caused 
by  hardening  of  the  papillae.  Warts  are 
usually  the  result  of  some  form  of  ii-ritation, 
and  appear  most  commonly  on  the  hands  of 
children.  They  may  disappear  after  a  time, 
or  may  persist  through  life.  There  have 
been  many  superstitious  beliefs  as  to  methods 
of  removing  warts,  but  the  only  reliable 
way  is  that  of  having  them  cauterized  by  a 
physician,  or  treated  with  lactic  acid  or  a 
similar  chemical.  Senile  warts  result  from 
a  breaking  down  of  the  skin,  favored  by 
irritation  or  lack  of  cleanliness,  and  are 
usually  found  on  the  back,  neck  and  arms. 

WART  HOGr,  a  wild  pig,  native  to  Africa. 
It  stands  about  three  feet  high,  having 
rather  long  legs.  The  face  is  rendered  ex- 
tremely hideous  by  large  tusks  and  wart- 
like protuberances  under  the  eyes  and  at  each 
side  of  the  huge  snout.  The  coarse  hair, 
short  on  the  i^est  of  the  body,  is  long  on  the 


back  and  hangs  in  a  mane  on  the  neck.  These 
hogs  roam  in  small  groups  in  search  of  food, 
and  are  destructive  to  crops.  There  are 
two  principal  species,  one  in  Abyssinia  and 
Somaliland,  and  the  other  in  South  Africa. 

WAR'WICK,  R.  I.,  in  Kent  County,  five 
miles  south  of  Providence,  on  NaiTagansett 
and  Cowesett  bays,  on  the  Pawtucket  and 
Providence  rivers  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad.  It  is  an 
important  industrial  center  and  contains  cot- 
ton factories,  foundries,  machine  shops  and 
other  establishments.  The  place  was  set- 
tled in  1642  and  was  called  Shawomet  until 
named  in  honor  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  in 
1648.  Nathaniel  Greene  was  born  in  the 
town.  Population,  1010,  26,629;  in  1917, 
30,507  (Federal  estimate). 

WARWICK,  RiCHAftD  Neville,  Earl  of, 
called  the  "king-maker"  (1428-1471),  an 
English  soldier  and  statesman.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  Earl  of  Salisbury  and  became  Earl 
of  Warwick  after  manying  the  heiress  of  the 
Warwick  title  and  estates.  Taking  the  York- 
ist side  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  he  was  the 
main  instrument  in  placing  Edward  IV  on 
the  throne  in  1461,  in  place  of  Henry  VI, 
and  he  became  the  most  powerful  nobleman 
in  the  kingdom.  He  quaiTeled  with  Edward, 
however,  on  account  of  the  latter's  man'iage, 
went  over  to  Henry's  side  and  was  able  to 
place  him  again  on  the  throne,  but  was  de- 
feated and  slain  at  the  Battle  of  Bamet.  He 
is  the  "last  of  the  barons"  in  Bulwer-Lytton's 
novel  of  that  title. 

WASATCH,  waw'satch,  MOUNTAINS, 
a  range  belonging  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  sys- 
tem. It  extends  from  Southeastern  Idaho  to 
Southwestern  Utah,  forming  the  eastern 
boundaiy  of  the  Great  Basin  in  which  lies 
the  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  mountains  rise 
abruptly  from  the  plain  and  reach  an  aver- 
age height  of  10,000  feet.  The  highest  peak. 
Mount  Belknap,  reaches  12,000  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  peaks,  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  are  the  source  of  numerous  streams, 
and  the  region  is  broken  by  canyons.  Below 
the  snow-line  dense  pine  forests  cover  the 
slopes.    Coal,  iron  and  silver  are  mined. 

WASHBURN  COLLEGE,  a  Congrega- 
tional institution  of  higher  learning,  estab- 
lished in  1865  at  Topeka,  Kansas.  There  is 
a  school  of  liberal  arts  and  instruction  is  also 
given  in  engineering  and  law.  There  is  also 
a  preparatory  school.  The  attendance  is  850 ; 
faculty,  80. 


WASHINGTON 


3808 


WASHINGTON 


ASHINGTON,  a  prosperous  and 
progi-essive  state  of  the  American  Union, 
situated  in  tlie  extreme  northwestern  part 
of  the  country,  south  of  the  international 
boundary  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Its 
popular  name,  the  Evergreen  State,  refers 
to  its  wealth  of  pine  forests.  About  seventy 
per  cent  of  the  surface  is  forest-covered, 
and  in  the  annual  production  of  lumber 
Washington  is  the  leading  state  in  the  Union. 
The  rhododendron  is  its  flower  emblem. 

Location  and  Area.  The  state  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Canadian  province  of 
British  Columbia,  the  forty-ninth  parallel 
foi-ming  the  line  between  the  two  divisions. 
Extending  into  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state  is  the  irregular,  much-branching 
inlet,  Puget  Sound,  which  is  connected  with 
the  open  ocean  by  the  straits  of  Juan  de 
Fuca  and  Georgia.  Between  these  straits 
lies  the  island  of  Vancouver,  which  is  wholly 
Canadian  territory,  though  it  extends  south 
of  the  international  boundary.  "Washington 
touches  the  northern  extension  of  Idaho  on 
the  east,  and  along  most  of  its  southern 
border  it  is  separated  from  Oregon  by  the 
Columbia  Eiver. 

With  an  area  of  69,127  square  miles,  of 
which  2,291  square  miles  are  water  the  state 
is  the  nineteenth  in  size,  having  but  293 
square  miles  less  than  the  state  of  Missouri. 
Washington  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of 
Oregon,  its  southern  neighbor,  and  if  placed 
on  the  province  to  the  north,  would  occupy 
less  than  one-fifth   of  that  area. 

People  and  Cities.  In  1910  the  popula- 
tion of  the  state  was  1,141,990,  an  average 
density  of  17.1  to  the  square  mile.  Washing- 
ton then  ranked  thirtieth  in  population. 
On  July  1,  1918,  according  to  the  Federal 
estimates,  the  population  was  1,660,578. 

Of  the  foreign-born  groups,  who  number 
in   all   about  257,000,  the  most  prominent 


numerically  are  Canadians,  Swedes,  Ger- 
mans, English  and  Irish.  The  state  has 
eighteen  Indian  reservations,  with  a  total 
population  of  about  11,000.  There  are  also 
large  numbers  of  Japanese,  Chinese  and 
negroes. 

The  largest  religious  bodies  are  the  Roman 
Catholic,  Methodist,  Presbyterian,  Lutheran, 
Baptist  and  Congregationalist  denomina- 
tions. 

According  to  Federal  estimates  for  1917, 
Washington  has  ten  municipalities  with 
populations  exceeding  12,000.  There  are 
three  large  cities — Seattle  (366,445),  Spo- 
kane (157,656)  and  Tacoma  (117,446). 
Other  important  towns  are  Everett,  Belling- 
ham,  Walla  Walla  and  Olympia,  the  capital. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  Cascade 
Mountains  cross  the  state  from  north  to 
south  about  120  miles  east  of  the  coast,  and 
divide  it  into  two  unequal  parts.  Eastern 
Washington  and  Western  Washington. 
These  mountains  form  the  chief  physio- 
graphic feature  of  the  state  and  have  a  mean 
elevation  of  about  8,000  feet.  Their  eastern 
slope  rises  gradually  from  the  interior 
plateau,  but  the  western  slope  is  steep  and 
broken.  The  range  contains  a  number  of 
lofty  peaks  whose  summits  are  covered  with 
perpetual  snow.  The  most  noted  among 
these  are  Mount  Rainier,  14,408  feet,  now 
enclosed  in  a  national  park,  Mount  Adams, 
12,307  feet.  Mount  Baker,  10,827  feet  and 
Mount  Saint  Helens,  10,000  feet.  Eastern 
Washington,  which  includes  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  state,  contains  the  Columbia 
River  Basin,  which  is  by  far  the  largest 
natural  division  of  surface  within  the  state. 
Within  this  basin  are  the  great  irrigated 
and  gi'ain-growing  districts  and  a  number 
of  fertile  valleys.  In  the  southeastern  part 
the  Blue  Mountains  rise  to  an  altitude  of 
about  6,000  feet. 

Western  Washington  is  naturally  divided 
into  three  physiographic  regions — the  Puget 
Sound  Basin,  including  the  territory  between 
the  Olympic  and  Cascade  mountains,  and 
suri'ounding  the  great  inland  sea,  Puget 
Sound;  the  Olympic  Peninsula,  including 
that  portion  of  the  state  containing  the 
Olympic  Mountains  and  the  region  extend- 
ing from  them  to  the  Pacific,  and  the  south- 
western division,  which  occupies  the  region 
fronting  on  the  Columbia  River  and  Pacific 
Ocean  and  extending  northward  until  it 
meets  the  Olympic  Peninsula.    The  Olympic 


WASHINGTON 


3809 


WASHINGTON 


Mountains  are  the  northern  extension  of 
the  Coast  Range! 

The  eastern  section  of  the  state,  or  East- 
ern Washington,  is  drained  entirely  by  the 
Columbia  River  and  its  tributaries.  This 
river  enters  the  state  near  the  northeastern 
corner  and  flows  south  by  west  then  westward 
in  an  irregular  course,  then  southwai"d  and 
southeastward  until  it  reaches  the  southern 
boundaiy,  when  it  makes  a  sharp  turn  to  the 
west  and  pursues  its  course  to  the  Pacific. 
These  changes  in  direction  fonn  what  is 
known  as  the  Great  Bend  in  the  Columbia 
River,  and  this  is  for  a  part  of  the  way  the 
western  boundary  of  the  plateau.  The  chief 
tributaries  of  the  Columbia  are  Clark  Fork, 
from  Idaho;  the  Snake,  which  flows  through 
the  southeastern  corner  of  the  state;  the 
Spokane,  the  Okanogan,  the  Metahow,  the 
Wenatchee  and  the  Yakima.  Western  Wash- 
ington is  drained  into  Puget  Sound  and  the 
Pacific.  In  this  section  all  of  the  rivers  are 
sliort  and  comparatively  unimportant,  the 
most  important  being  the  Cowlitz,  flowing 
southward  into  the  Columbia,  the  Chehalis, 
flowing  directly  into  the  Pacific,  and  the 
Skagit,  which  enters  Puget  Sound.  The 
state  contains  a  number  of  mountain  lakes, 
the  largest  being  Lake  Chelan, 

Climate.  The  Cascade  Mountains  divide 
the  state  into  two  climatic  regions.  Eastern 
Washington  is  characterized  by  hot  summers, 
cold  though  not  severe  wintei-s  and  light  rain- 
falls, the  annual  average  being  about  sixteen 
inches.  In  many  sections  iiTigation  is  neces- 
sary to  successful  agriculture.  Except  upon 
the  higli  altitudes  there  are  many  hot  days 
during  the  summer.  During  the  winter  there 
are  hea\7'  falls  of  snow,  which  are  welcomed 
by  the  farmers,  because  as  the  snow  on  the 
lowlands  melts,  it  is  absorbed  by  the  soil,  and 
that  upon  the  mountains  during  the  summer 
feeds  the  streams  which  supply  water  for 
irrigation.  The  climate  of  Western  Wash- 
ington is  mild  and  moist.  The  prevailing 
westerlies,  blowing  moisture-laden  'from  the 
sea.  strike  the  cool  slopes  of  the  mountains 
and  have  their  moisture  condensed.  West  of 
the  Cascades  the  annual  rainfall  varies  from 
twenty  to  132  inches.  The  wintei-^  are  mild 
and  the  summers  are  free  from  extreme  heat. 

Mineral  Resources.  There  are  extensive 
deposits  of  coal  in  the  Puget  Sound  Basin, 
notably  in  King,  Pierce,  Kittitas,  Lewis, 
Whatcom  and  Thurston  counties.  These  are 
now   well    developed,   and   about   3,000,000 

239 


tons  of  coal  are  mined  annually.  Both 
bituminous  and  lignite  varieties  are  found. 
The  coal  deposits  of  Washington  are  the  only 
ones  of  any  great  extent  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Veins  of  ore  producing  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  quicksilver  and  a  number  of  rare  metals 
occur  throughout  the  mountainous  regions. 
Gold  and  silver  are  mined  in  Whatcom, 
Skagit,  Snohomish,  King,  Pierce,  Lewis, 
Skamania,  Cowlitz,  Okanogan,  Chelan,  Kit- 
titas, Yakima,  Klickitat,  Feriy  and  Stevens 
counties.  Iron  ore,  and  marble,  granite, 
onj'x,  serpentine,  limestone  and  sandstone 
occur  in  large  quantities.  Beds  of  fire  clay, 
kaolin,  talc  and  asbestos  are  among  the  valu- 
able resources  of  the  state.  The  value  of  the 
total  annual  output  is  about  $12,000,000. 

Fisheries.  The  waters  of  Puget  Sound,  the 
Columbia  River  and  the  indentations  along 
the  Pacific  coast  abound  in  excellent  food-fish, 
and  in  the  lakes  and  streams  are  found  large 
quantities  of  fresh-water  fish.  The  most 
important  branch  of  the  fisheries  is  catching 
and  curing  salmon  (see  Salmon).  Second  in 
point  of  value  are  the  halibut  fisheries.  Large 
quantities  of  oysters,  shrimps,  clams  and 
cod  are  also  taken.  In  value  of  products  of 
the  fisheries  Washington  ranks  fourth  among 
the  states. 

Agriculture.  Washington  has  a  wide  va- 
riety of  soils.  On  the  uplands  of  Eastern 
Washington  wheat  and  other  cereals  are 
raised  in  large  quantities.  In  the  diked  lands 
along  Puget  Sound  oats  are  raised,  and  in 
the  southeastern  part  barley  constitutes  the 
important  crop.  Rye,  buckwheat  and  flax 
are  also  grown,  and  in  some  counties  hops 
are  a  staple  product.  Many  large  irrigated 
areas  east  of  the  mountains  are  devoted  to 
alfalfa ;  the  state  produces  neai'ly  2,000,000 
tons  of  hay  annually.  Potatoes,  beets  and 
other  vegetables  thrive  and  yield  large  re- 
turns. 

Washington  is  also  becoming  one  of  the 
most  important  fruit-growing  states  of  the 
Union.  In  the  valleys  of  Easteni  Washington 
there  are  thousands  of  orchards,  and  they  are 
increasing  each  year  in  number  and  extent. 
This  region  is  esi^ecially  valuable  for  the  rais- 
ing of  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums  and 
cherries.  In  the  western  part  of  the  state 
small  fruits  are  raised  in  large  auantities, 
and  grapes  are  grown  upon  both  sides  of  the 
mountains. 

The  mild  winters  and  excellent  pasturage 
make  the  raising  of  live  stock  jirofitable,  and 


WASHINGTON 


3810 


WASHINGTON 


large  numbers  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
hogs  are  found.  For  all  of  these  there  is  a 
ready  market.  Dairying  is  also  profitable 
and  can  be  practiced  under  ideal  conditions. 
Manufactures.  Washington  has  abun- 
dant water  power  and  a  vast  forest  area. 
Because  of  these  conditions,  lumbering  and 
its  allied  industries — the  manufacture  of 
doors,  sash,  shingles  and  furniture — consti- 
tute the  leading  manufaetui-ing  industry,  in 
which  over  200,000  men  are  employed.  Lum- 
ber mills  are  quite  generally  distributed 
through  the  forest  regions,  but  the  most  ex- 
tensive establishments  are  found  in  the  large 
forests  of  Western  Washington.  The  total 
annual  value  of  the  output  is  about  $90,000,- 
000,  which  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
state. 

The  products  of  the  flour  and  grist  mills 
are  second  in  value,  the  most  important  com- 
modity of  the  industry  being  white  flour. 
Slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  the  canning 
and  curing  of  fish,  printing  and  publishing 
and  railroad-shop  construction  and  repair  are 
all  prosperous  lines  of  activity.  Seattle, 
Tacoma  and  other  ports  have  developed  as 
centers  of  shipbuilding,  especially  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War.  Seattle  is  the 
chief  manufacturing  city  of  the  state,  with 
Tacoma,  Everett,  Bellingham,  Aberdeen, 
Walla  Walla  and  Yakima  following. 

The  mineral  resources  have  given  rise  to 
various  other  industries. 

In  the  Puget  Sound  Basin  large  quantities 
of  lime  are  produced.  Granite  is  quarried  in 
Snohomish  and  Spokane  counties.  In  other 
localities  valuable  sandstone  occurs,  and  onyx 
of  great  variety  and  beauty  is  quarried  in 
Stevens  County.  In  King  County  are  fac- 
tories for  the  manufacture  of  brick,  tile,  terra 
eotta,  stoneware  and  sewer  pipe.  Portland 
cement  is  produced  in  Skagit  County,  and 
iron  and  steel  in  Jefferson  County. 

Transportation.  Puget  Sound  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  have  a  coast  line  exceeding 
2,000  miles  in  extent.  The  largest  ocean  ships 
can  sail  on  the  Sound  as  far  as  Seattle 
and  Tacoma,  which  are  the  chief  harbors  of 
the  state.  Three  transcontinental  lines  of 
railway  cross  the  state  from  east  to  west. 
Railway  lines  extend  north  and  south  from 
the  great  centers  of  trade  on  Puget  Sound, 
and  connect  all  important  cities  and  towns 
in  the  state  and  with,  cities  in  British  Co- 
lumbia. The  most  important  roads  are  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Oregon  &  Washington, 


the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
&  Saint  Paul  and  the  Spolfane,  Portland  & 
Seattle.  The  total  mileage  of  the  state  is 
about  7,000. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  house  of  representatives,  that  cannot  ex- 
ceed ninety-nine  members  or  be  less  than 
sixty-three,  and  a  senate,  whose  number  can- 
not exceed  one-half,  or  be  less  than  one-third 
of  the  number  of  representatives.  The 
representatives  are  elected  for  two  years, 
and  the  senators  are  elected  for  four  years. 
The  legislature  meets  biennially,  and  the  reg- 
ular sessions  are  limited  to  sixty  days.  The 
executive  department  consists  of  a  governor, 
a  lieutenant-governor,  a  secretary  of  state, 
a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  an  attorney-general, 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and 
a  commissioner  of  public  lands,  elected  for 
four  years.  The  courts  consist  of  a  supreme 
court  of  nine  judges,  elected  for  six  years, 
and  a  superior  court  in  each  county,  pre- 
sided over  by  a  judge  elected  for  four  years. 
Women  and  men  vote  on  equal  terms. 

Education.  The  public  schools  are  under 
the  direction  of  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  and  a  board  of  education.  The 
schools  are  organized  on  the  district  plan, 
and  each  district  must  maintain  a  school  for 
at  least  five  months  in  the  year.  Education 
is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  eight  and 
fifteen.  The  school  fund  is  derived  from 
state  and  local  taxes  and  from  income  from 
the  permanent  fund  derived  from  the  sale 
and  lease  of  school  lands.  The  state  univer- 
sity is  at  Seattle,  and  normal  schools  are 
maintained  at  Bellingham,  Cheney  and  El- 
lensburg.  The  state  agricultural  college  is 
at  Pullman.  A  number  of  schools  are  main- 
tained by  religious  denominations.  Among 
these  are  Gonzaga  College,  at  Spokane,  and 
Whitman  College,  at  Walla  Walla. 

Institutions.  The  schools  for  the  deaf  and 
the  blind  are  at  Vancouver.  The  hospitals 
for  the  insane  are  at  Fort  Steilacoom,  Sedro 
Woolley'and  Medical  Lake,  and  there  is  a 
soldiers'  home  at  Orting  and  a  veterans' 
home  at  Port  Orchard.  The  penal  institu- 
tions consist  of  the  penitentiary  at  Walla 
Walla  and  the  reformatory  at  Monroe.  The 
state  training  school  is  located  at  Chehalis. 

History.  For  early  history,  see  Oregon, 
subhead  Bistort/.  The  territory  of  Washing- 
ton was  separated  from  Oregon  in  1853,  and 
soon  afterward  the  discovery  of  gold  led  to 
an  influx  of  settlers,  which  in  turn  induced 


WASHINGTON 


3812 


WASHINGTON 


If  Items  of  Interest  on  Washington 

1 1  Three-fifths   of  the   shingles   manu- 

|;j  factured    in    the    United     States    are 

IJ  made  in  "Washington. 

i:!  The  area  of  the  national  forest  lands 

!!;]  is  nearly  10,000  acres. 

ij  The  northern  boundary  of  the  state 

v\  was  fixed  by  treaty  in  1846.     In  the 

iJ  Presidential  campaign  of  1844  the  pop- 

i\  ular  slogan  of  the  Democrats,  "Fifty- 

rj  four  forty  or  fight,"  had  reference  to 

i.j  this  boundary. 

ij  Girls  and  boys  between  fifteen  and 

r;i  sixteen  who  are  unemployed  are  com- 

isi  pelled  to  attend  school. 

I  Between  1900  and  1910  the  popula- 

■:|  tion  of  the  state  increased  120.4  per 

"I  cent. 

!!l  Suffrage    was    granted    women    in 

::i  1010. 

■I  Among  the  native  whites  the  illitera- 

iij  cy   averages   but   three-tenths   of   one 

li  per  cent. 

•■|  The  slopes  of  the  Olympic  Mountains 

:ii  have  deep  gorges  and  dense  forests  of 

i'l  pine,  and  are  almost  inaccessible. 

;;1  In  Seattle  there  is  the  tallest  office 

"\  building  in  the  world  outside  of  New 

I  York. 

I  Questions  on  Washington 

J  Where  are  the  Cascade  Mountains? 

::i  Of  what    is   the   Columbia    Plateau 

I  composed  ? 

;;|  What  is  the  principal  drainage  sys- 

■:|  tem  in  the  state  and  which  are  the  im- 

i  portant  tributaries? 

J  How  many  acres  in  the  national  f  or- 

!;i  est  reserve? 

•i|  How  do  the  fisheries  rank  among  the 

J  states  of  the  Union? 

i  What  is  the  value  of  the  annual  out- 

■j  put  of  minerals? 

'J  Wliat  are  the  leading  crops? 

Ij  Wliat  is  the  principal  manufactur- 

l"|  ing  industry? 

iii|  How  does  the  value  of  its  products 

I'l  compare  with  that  of  other  states? 

ij  Name  four  other  important  indus- 

[|  tries. 

I I  Why  are  Spokane,  Tacoma  and  Ever- 
ij  ett  important? 

liil  What  was  meant  by  the  slogan  "Fif- 

|;:j  ty-four  forty  or  fight"? 


t!;e  Indians  to  plan  a  massacre,  known  as  the 
Washington-Oregon  War,  in  1855.  Indian 
troubles  continued  to  appear  from  time  to 
time,  but  the  constant  increase  of  white  popu- 
lation finally  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the 
territory  by  the  Indians.  After  the  Civil 
War,  there  were  violent  anti-Chinese  agita- 
tions, which  for  a  time  retarded  this  teiTi--* 
tory's  growth.  Numerous  attempts  were 
made  to  secure  statehood,  and  in  1889  the 
Omnibus  Statehood  Bill,  admitting  the  two 
Dakotas,  Montana  and  Washington,  was 
signed  by  the  President,  and  Washington 
became  a  state.  The  growth  in  the  popula- 
tion and  wealth  of  Washin2:ton  since  its 
admission  has  been  uninterrupted.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1916,  prohibition  went  into  elfect. 

Related  Artieles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Aberdeen  Olympia  Vancouver 

Belling-ham  Seattle  Walla  Walla 

Everett  Spokane  Yakima 

Hoquiam  Tacoma 

MOUNTAINS  AND  RIVERS 

Cascade   Range  Rainier,   Mount 

Coast    Rang-e  Snake   River 

Columbia   River 

ASHINGTON,  the  capital 

of  the  United  States  of 
America,  named  for  the 
first  President  of  the  re- 
public, and  located  on  a 
site  chosen  by  him.  It 
lies  on  the  Potomac  Eiver, 
156  miles  from  Chesa- 
peake Bay  and  185  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
135  miles  southwest  of 
Philadelphia  and  228 
miles  southwest  of  New 
York.  Chicago  is  811 
miles  northwest,  and  At- 
lanta 648  miles  southwest. 
Washington  is  coexten- 
sive with  the  District  of  Columbia,  which 
covers  an  area  of  about  seventy  square  miles. 
The  southwestern  border  is  formed  by  the 
Potomac  River,  into  which  flow  Rock  Creek 
and  the  Anacostia  River.  The  latter  forms 
the  southeastern  boundar\\  Rock  Creek  was 
the  western  boundary  before  the  city  spread 
to  its  present  limits,  but  Georgetown  and 
various  suburban  districts  west  of  the  Creek 
are  now  legally  included  vrithia  the  bound- 
aries of  Washington. 

The  population  was  331,069  in  1910;  in 
1917  it  was  369,282,  according  to  a  Federal 
estimate. 


THE  WASHINGTON  MONUMENT 


WASHINGTON 


1813 


WASHINGTON 


Plan  of  the  City.  Washington  was  laid  out 
according  to  suggestions  made  by  President 
Washington  -who  emploj-ed  Pierre  Charles 
L'Enfant,  a  French  civil  engineer,  to  prepare 
the  plans  for  the  proposed  city.  It  is  said 
that  L'Enfant  rode  over  the  ground  with  the 
President  and  commissioners  and  grew  en- 
thusiastic over  the  location,  deeming  it  a  fit 
site  for  the  capital  of  a  "mighty  empire." 
Jefferson  furnished  L'Enfant  with  plans  of 
the  great  cities  of  Europe,  but  the  French 
engineer,  faithful  to  the  inspiration  he  had 
received  from  Versailles,  determined  to  have 
broad  avenues,  vistas,  streets  and  parkings, 
which  make  Washington  truly  the  "City  of 
Magnificent  Distances."  The  Capitol  was  lo- 
cated on  a  hill,  which  was  then  a  thick  wood ; 
the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  which 
marked  its  center  were  carefully  surveyed, 
and  the  streets  and  avenues  were  laid  from 
this  point  with  mathematical  exactness.  It 
was  manifestly  the  intention  that  the  chief 
front  of  the  Capitol  should  be  toward  the 
east,  and  that  the  public  buildings  should  be 
placed  about  that  side ;  but  many  forces  con- 
tributed to  change  this  idea,  and  now  the 
west  front,  with  its  great  tei-races  topping  the 
hill  and  with  its  magnificent  stairways  ex- 
tending far  down  the  side,  is  worthy  to  be 
called  the  main  entrance. 

From  the  middle  of  the  four  sides  of  the 
site  of  the  Capitol  extend  four  great  streets, 
which  separate  the  city  into  quarters,  known 
as  North  West,  North  East,  South  West  and 
South  East.  These  four  streets  are  known 
as  North  and  South  Capitol,  East  Capitol 
and  the  Mall.  The  latter  is  a  beautiful 
parked  area,  which  takes  the  place  of  a  West 
Capitol  street.  The  streets  running  parallel 
to  East  Capitol  and  the  ]\Iall  are  named, 
both  north  and  south,  for  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  The  streets  parallel  to  North  and 
South  Capitol  are  numbered  consecutively 
east  and  west.  Broad  avenues,  named  for  the 
states,  travei'se  the  city  from  northwest  to 
southeast  and  from  northeast  to  southwest. 
All  of  this  will  be  clearly  understood  if  the 
reader  will  study  the  accompanying  map.  In 
locating  any  place  it  is  necessary',  of  course, 
to  mention  the  quarter  of  the  city.  When 
this  is  done,  the  location  is  vei-y  definite;  for 
instance,  1850  F  Street  N.  W.,  would  be 
known  to  lie  between  Eighteenth  and  Nine- 
teenth streets  on  F  Street,  in  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  the  city.  In  the  addressing  of 
mail  to  the  North  West  section,  it  is  custom- 


ary to  omit  the  letters  iV.  TT^^  but  those  for 
the  other  three  sections  should  always  be 
written. 

The  North  West  quarter  of  the  city  con- 
tains most  of  the  business  houses,  the  finest 
residence  section  and  most  of  the  government 
buildings.  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  the  prin- 
cipal business  street,  extends  northwest  from 
the  Capitol  for  about  a  mile  to  the  Treasuiy 
building;  there  it  bends  sharply  to  the  north 
and  again  to  the  west,  here  passing  in  front 
of  the  Executive  Mansion  and  the  State, 
War  and  Navy  building;  beyond  that  it  turns 
again  to  the  northwest  and  extends  into 
Georgetown.  Seventh,  Ninth  and  F,  N.  W., 
are  among  the  important  business  streets 
(see  subhead  Parks  and  Boulevards) . 

Washington  is  connected  Avith  Baltimore, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago  and  other 
large  cities,  east  and  west,  by  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania  and  other  railroads. 
All  trains  run  into  the  ma^'nificent  Union 
Station,  north  of  Capitol  Hill.  Within  the 
citj',  transportation  is  rendered  easy  by  fine 
systems  of  electric  railways,  which  traverse 
all  the  principal  streets  and  run  to  the  public 
buildings.  Electric  railways  also  connect 
Washington  and  ]Mount  Vernon,  Arlington 
and  other  points  of  interest. 

Parks  and  Boulevards.  The  park  sur- 
rounding the  Capitol  occupies  sixteen  city 
blocks,  crowning  a  hill  fifty-eight  feet  high, 
overlooking  the  west  half  of  the  city.  It  is 
laid  out  with  drives  and  walks,  bordered  by 
magnificent  trees  and  beautiful  shnibbery, 
interspersed  with  beds,  in  which  blossom  the 
flowers  of  the  season.  The  small  ornamental 
buildings,  fountains  and  statuary  lend  a  pe- 
culiar charm  to  the  whole  park. 

From  the  west  front  of  the  Capitol  a  per- 
son looks  down  upon  the  broad  Mall,  which 
extends  about  a  mile  to  the  imposing  Wash- 
ington Monument,  and  is  four  blocks  wide 
throughout.  In  the  immediate  foreground, 
between  the  Mall  and  the  Capitol,  are  the 
government  conservatory  and  botanical  gar- 
dens, in  which  may  be  seen  foreign  and  na- 
tive herbs,  shrubbery  and  trees  in  profusion. 
Trees,  shrubs  and  plants  beautify  the  walks 
and  drives  of  the  Mall,  also,  along  whose 
west  side  are  grouped  several  of  the  finest 
public  buildings.  Running  north  from  the 
west  end  of  the  Mall  are  the  Executive 
grounds,  a  magnificent  tract,  which,  with  the 
private  gardens  of  the  White  House,  cover 
about  twenty  city  squares.     In  front  of  the 


WASHINGTON 


3814 


WASHINGTON 


White  House  and  across  Pennsylvania  Ave- 
nue is  Lafayette  Square,  another  exquisite 
park,  adorned  with  fine  statuary. 

The  intersections  of  the  avenues  and  streets 
throughout  the  city  form  squares  and  circles 
which  are  puhlic  gardens  filled  with  statuary, 
flowers  and  shrubs.  Other  parks  in  different 
parts  of  the  city  afford  resting  places  for 


a  city  filtration  plant.  In  the  spring,  when 
the  foliage  is  fresh  and  the  flowers  in  the 
parks  in  full  bloom,  no  more  beautiful  city 
is  to  be  found,  for  the  streets  are  all  broad 
and  open  and,  in  the  better  parts  of  the  city, 
smoothly  paved  with  asphalt. 

Public  Buildings  and  Institutions.    Chief 
of  all  the  public  buildings  is  the  Capitol, 


MAP 

1  Washington  Circle. 

2.  iJupont  Circle. 

3.  Old  Naval  Observatory. 

4.  New  Corcoran  Art  Gallery. 

5.  State,    War   and    Navy 
Building 

6.  Lafayette  Square. 

7.  White  House. 

8.  Executive   Grounds. 

9.  Treasury  Department. 

10.  Franklin  Square 

11.  Washing-ton  Monument. 

visitors,  and  out  beyond  Rock  Creek  is  the 
great  National  Zoological  Park,  which  in 
time  will  become  one  of  the  greatest  in  the 
world.  North  of  this  extends  Rock  Creek 
Park,  a  tract  which  is  preserved  in  all  its 
natural  beauty. 

Along  the  river  is  Potomac  Park,  a  tract 
of  737  acres,  made  up  of  reclaimed  land.  The 
Soldiers'  Home,  four  miles  north  of  the  Capi- 
tol, is  in  a  beautiful  park  of  500  acres.  To 
the  south  of  it  is  McMillan  Park,  containing 


AND  KEY  OP  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

12.  Bureau    of   Printing  and  22. 
Engraving.  23. 

13.  General  Postoffice.  24. 

14.  Patent  Offices.  2-5. 

15.  Land  Office  26. 

16.  Agricultural  Department  27. 
Building.  28. 

17.  Smithsonian   Institution.  29. 

18.  National  Museum.  30. 

19.  Medical   Museum.  31. 

20.  Fish  Commission.  32. 

21.  Pension  Office. 


Judiciary  Square 
City  Hall. 
Botanical  Garden. 
United  States  Capitol. 
Library    of   Congress. 
Arsenal. 
S+anton  Park. 
Garfield  Park. 
Lincoln   Park. 
Navy  Yard. 
Congressional  Cemetery. 


which  because  of  its  towering  dome  is  con- 
spicuous from  any  direction  in  which  one  ap- 
proaches the  city.  The  original  plans  for  the 
Capitol  were  drawn  by  Doctor  Thornton,  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies,  but  they  were  re- 
drawn by  Stephen  H.  Hallet;  they  were  fol- 
lowed in  the  construction  of  the  first  build- 
ing, which  little  resembled  the  Capitol  of  to- 
day. The  north  wing,  which  contains  the 
Supreme  Court  rooms,  was  finished  in  1800, 
but  the  opposite  wing  was  not  ready  until 


WASHINGTON 


3815 


WASHINGTON 


eleven  years  later.  A  wooden  passageway  then 
connected  them.  After  the  British  burned  the 
Capitol  in  1814,  the  new  central  structure  was 
planned,  and  the  original  building  was  com- 
pleted in  1827,  at  a  cost  of  not  quite  $2,500,- 
000.  In  1851  the  building  was  remodeled, 
and  in  1856  the  erection  of  the  present 
iron  dome  was  begun.  The  Capitol  as  it  now 
stands,  together  with  its  approaches,  has  cost 
about  $20,000,000.  The  building  is  751  feet 
long  and  350  feet  in  its  greatest  width,  and 
it  covers  nearly  four  acres  of  ground.  "With- 
in this  imposing  building  are  the  two  cham- 
bers occupied  by  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  rooms  for  the  Supreme 
Court  and  apartments  for  the  various  com- 
mittees and  officials  who  meet  at  the  Capitol, 
and  other  rooms,  made  necessary  by  the  great 
amount  of  business  transacted  there.  The 
rotunda,  the  marble  stairways  and  the  dome 
are  decorated  with  choice  statuary  and  paint- 
ings by  famous  American  artists.  Most  of 
the  paintings  depict  great  events  in  the  na- 
tion's history.  The  famous  doors,  designed 
by  Randolph  Rogers,  which  guard  the  east 
entrance,  are  ornamented,  in  high  relief,  with 
historic  scenes  from  the  life  of  Columbus. 
The  old  Hall  of  Representatives  is  now  called 
Statuary  Hall,  and  around  its  walls  are  stat- 
ues of  men  whose  names  have  become  house- 
hold words  in  the  nation.  Most  of  these  stat- 
ues have  been  donated  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  states  to  which  the  men  belonged. 

To  the  north,  and  in  a  space  adjoining  the 
Capitol  grounds,  is  a  new,  massive  granite 
building,  in  which  are  located  offices  for  the 
Senators,  and  to  the  south  is  another  build- 
ing of  white  marble,  which  contains  offices 
for  the  members  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. These  great  structures  constitute 
a  notable  addition  to  the  splendid  group  of 
buildings  which   crown   Capitol   Hill. 

Along  the  Llall  are  the  buildings  of  the 
Fish  Commission,  the  Medical  ^Nluseum,  the 
great  National  Museum,  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, the  Agricultural  Department  and 
the  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing.  East 
of  the  White  House  is  the  low,  massive  Treas- 
ury Department  building,  while  west  of  it 
rises  the  magnificent  building  of  the  State, 
"War  and  Navy  Departments.  The  govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  the  Pension  Office  and 
the  Interior  Department  are  in  different  lo- 
calities of  the  North  "West  quarter.  Near  the 
Capitol,  and  east  of  it,  is  the  Library  of 
Congress,  one   of  the  most  ornate  library 


buildings  in  existence.  Within  the  library 
are  housed  more  than  2,390,000  books  and 
pamphlets  and  over  500,000  pieces  of  music, 
photographs  and  manuscripts.  It  is  open 
to  the  public  during  library  hours,  but  only 
members  of  Congress  and  a  few  govern- 
ment officials  may  take  books  away  from  the 
building. 

The  United  States  navy  yard  occupies  a 
large  tract  of  land  on  the  east  branch  of  the 
Potomac,  and  the  arsenal  is  on  the  peninsula 
where  the  two  rivers  join.  The  old  naval  ob- 
servatory was  in  a  park  on  the  Potomac, 
some  distance  west  of  the  Executive  build- 
ings, but  the  present  observatory  is  on  a 
reservation  north  of  Georgetown.  The  govern- 
ment has  been  generous  with  its  public  build- 
ings and  institutions,  and  no  adequate  idea 
can  be  given  of  them  or  their  contents  in  any 
description.  Most  of  the  departmental  build- 
ings contain  museums  illustrating  their  par- 
ticular activities,  and  these  are  open  to  in- 
spection for  the  thousands  of  tourists  who 
visit  the  city.  The  government  sustains  a 
hospital  for  the  insane  and  various  other  hos- 
pitals, alms  houses  and  public  and  charitable 
institutions.  Near  the  State,  War  and  Navy 
building  is  the  new  building  of  the  Corcoran 
Art  Gallery,  a  beautiful  marble  structure, 
which,  with  its  priceless  collection  of  paint- 
ings and  statuary,  was  given  to  the  public 
by  W.  W.  Corcoran. 

Among  other  interesting  edifices  are  the 
Pan-American  Union  building,  the  Municipal 
building  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the 
Scottish   Rite   Temple. 

Government,  Commerce  and  Industries. 
The  government  of  the  city,  which  is  that  of 
the  District  of  Columbia,  is  directly  in  the 
hands  of  Congress,  which  acts  through  aboard 
of  three  commissioners  appointed  b,v  the  Pres- 
ident. Washington  is  peculiarly  the  capital 
of  the  United  States,  and  its  life  and  activities 
are  all  controlled  by  national  influences.  It 
is  the  official  residence  of  the  President,  the 
members  of  the  Cabinet,  members  of  both 
houses  of  Congress  and  the  host  of  govern- 
ment employes  who  work  in  the  various  offices 
and  departments.  When  Congress  is  in  ses- 
sion, the  whole  city  is  permeated  by  its  in- 
fluence, and  all  its  industries  are  affected. 
There  are  few  manufactures  of  any  impor- 
tance, and  little  commerce  is  carried  on  with 
outside  cities.  The  business  is  almost  entirely 
a  retail  trade  .with  the  peonle  who  live  in 
the  city.    Naturally,  the  shifting  population 


WASHINGTON 


3816 


WASHINGTON 


creates  a  demand  for  hotels,  and  tbey  are  to  be 
found  in  great  numbers,  ranging  from  the 
lavish  new  buildings  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Executive  Mansion  to  simple,  inexpensive 
hotels  and  boarding  houses,  scattered  every- 
where throughout  the  city. 

Educational  Institutions.  Washington  is 
a  great  educational  center.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent public  school  system,  -which  has  the  dis- 
tinction of  having  been  organized  in  1800 
under  a  board  of  trustees  of  which  Thomas 
Jefferson  was  the  first  president. 

The  leading  universities  of  the  capital  are 
Georgetown  University,  George  Washington 
Universitj^,  the  Catholic  University,  with  its 
affiliated  colleges  of  the  religious  orders, 
and  Howard  University,  an  institute  for 
colored  youth.  On  a  commanding  site  near 
the  city  ai'e  the  buildings  of  the  American 
University  established  by  the  Methodist 
Church. 

Supplementing  the  universities  are  the 
great  scientific  bureaus  and  institutions  for 
research  maintained  by  the  government,  such 
as  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  the  Geological  Survey,  the  Bureau 
of  Labor,  the  scientific  bureaus  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, the  Army  Medical  Museum,  the  National 
Museum,  the  Library  of  Congress  and  a  large 
number  of  small  libraries  connected  with  va- 
rious departments  of  the  government. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution,  founded  by 
James  Smithson,  an  Englishman,  who  gave 
half  a  million  dollars  for  its  establishment, 
and  the  more  recent  Carnegie  Institution, 
with  an  endowment  of  $10,000,000,  are  the 
leading  private  foundations  for  the  advance- 
ment of  knowledge. 

The  capital  thus  affords  opportunities 
for  advanced  students,  especially,  in  law, 
medicine,  political  economy  or  scientific 
research,  such  as  are  found  in  few 
other     cities. 

History.  Washington  enjoys  the  distinc- 
tion of  having  been  designed  and  built  for 
the  capital  of  a  great  nation.  Rome,  London, 
Paris  and  Berlin  grew  out  of  the  national 
conditions  surrounding  them  and  became  the 
capitals  of  great  empires,  but  the  capital  of 
the  United  States  was  located  in  a  region 
sparsely  populated  and  almost  wholly  wild; 
it  was  built  from  plans  that  were  created 
before  any  city  was  in  existence  there.  The 
site  was  selected  by  the  great  President  whose 
name  was  given  the  city,  and  he  watched 


over  its  early  daj^s  with  a  personal  care  and 
interest. 

Congress  held  its  first  session  in  the  Capitol 
in  1800.  The  city  grew  until  1814,  when, 
after  a  weak  resistance  by  American  troops 
at  Bladensburg,  it  was  captured  by  the 
British,  who  set  fire  to  the  public  buildings 
and  some  private  residences,  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  destroying  the  entire  city.  A  stonn 
put  out  the  conflagration,  and  the  next  day 
the  British,  in  a  panic  of  unnecessary  fear, 
retreated,  leaving  Washington  to  be  immedi- 
ately rebuilt.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Civil  War  it  contained  about  61,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  land  through  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  spec- 
ulators of  acute  intelligence,  and  from  time 
to  time  Congress  was  compelled  to  spend 
large  sums  of  money  in  opening  streets  and 
beautifying  that  section  of  the  city.  In  1902 
new  improvements  were  begun  according  to  a 
plan  designed  by  Daniel  H.  Burnham,  Charles 
F.  McKim,  Frederick  Law  Olmsted  and  Au- 
gustus Saint  Gaudens.  Prohibition  went  into 
effect  in  1917. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Corcoran    Art   Gallery  National    Museum 
District  of  Columbia      Potomac 
Tjibrary   of  Congress     Smithsonian 
Washington  Institution 

Monument  White  House 

Mount  Vernon 

WASHINGTON,  Booker  Taliaferro 
(about  1858-1915),  an  American  negro  edu- 
cator. Freed  from  slavery  by  the  Civil  War, 
he  began  work  in  a  salt  furnace  in  West 
Virginia,  attended  a  night  school  and  obtained 
the  rudiments  of  an  education.  He  then  went 
to  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute, where  he  remained  three  years.  After 
this  he  took  a  complete  course  at  Wayland 
Seminary  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  then 
became  an  instructor  at  Hampton,  in  charge 
of  the  work  of  the  Indian  pupils  and  of  the 
night  school. 

His  success  was  phenomenal,  and  in  1881 
he  was  selected  by  General  Armstrong,  prin- 
cipal of  the  institute,  to  start  a  normal  school 
at  Tuskegee,  Ala.  He  began  his  work  in  an 
old  building,  with  thirty  pupils,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  year  purchased  the  plantation 
where  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute  is  now  located.  Under  his  man- 
agement this  school  developed  into  the 
largest  and  most  influential  industrial 
school  for  colored  people  in  the  world 
(see  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute). 


GEORGE  WASBlNGTONStuart 
The  unfinished  portrait  in  the  Athenaeum,  Boston 


WASHINGTON 


3817 


WASHINGTON 


He  wrote  The  Future  of  the  American 
Negro,  Up  from  Slavery  (his  autobiography), 
Character  Building,  The  Story  of  My  Life 
and  Working  with  the  Hands. 

IX  T  ASHINGTON,  George 
(1732-1799),  an  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  states- 
man, the  hero  of  Ameri- 
can independence,  and 
the  first  President  of  the 
nation  which  he  helped 
to  establish.  There  are 
two  Americans  of  the 
generations  now  past  who 
have  won  the  undying 
love  and  reverence  of 
their  eountiymen — Wash- 
ington and  Lincoln. 
Though  they  are  equally 
honored,  the  one  as  founder  and  the  other  as 
preserver  of  the  American  nation,  they  are 
thought  of  as  totally  different  types.  Lincoln, 
so  much  nearer  our  own  time,  is  by  far  the 
more  human  figure.  His  humanity,  his  rugged 
appearance,  his  humor  and  his  kindliness  are 
remembered  as  the  characteristics  of  a  very 
real  man.  Washington  is  more  or  less  of  a 
mythical  personage.  The  idealized  portrait 
painted  by  Charles  Stuart,  reproduced  here- 
with in  full  page  is  in  a  way  sjTubolic  of  the 
impression  that  Americans  cherish  of  the 
"Father  of  His  Country."  He  seems  to  them 
a  lofty  figure  somewhat  detached  from  every- 
day life ;  a  great  man,  but  one  aloof  from  his 
fellowmen;  a  strong  man,  but  without  fire 
and  vigor.  The  complete  record  of  his  life 
refutes  these  ideas.  There  is  eveiy  reason 
to  believe  that  if  he  were  alive  to-day  he 
woiald  be  a  virile  and  influential  figure  in 
American  political  affairs,  a  personality  as 
vivid  as  in  his  own  time. 

Ancestry  and  Youth.  The  family  of  the 
first  President  came  of  a  line  of  well-born 
Englishmen.  They  were  the  Washing-tons  of 
Sulgi-ave  Manor,  in  Northamptonshire,  who 
traced  their  ancestry  to  a  Nonnan  knight  of 
the  twelfth  eentuiy.  About  the  year  1657 
John  and  Lawrence  Washington,  brothers, 
emigrated  to  America,  and  shortly  aftenvards 
purchased  estates  in  Westmoreland  County, 
Virginia.  The  eldest  son  of  John  was  Law- 
rence Washington,  the  grandfather  of  the 
future  President.  His  second  son,  Augustine, 
manned  Mary  Ball  as  his  second  wife,  and  the 
first  child  of  this  marriage,  George,  was  bom 
on  February  22,  1732,  on  the  family  estate 


at  Bridges  Creek,  in  Westmoreland  County. 
When  George  was  three  years  old  his  parents 
removed  to  an  estate  on  the  Rappahannock 
River,  in  Stafford  County,  and  there  the  boy's 
first  school  days  were  s^Dent.  He  went  to 
his  classes  in  an  old-fashioned  school  house 
where  the  sexton  of  the  parish  acted  as 
teacher. 

At  the  age  of  eleven  George  lost  his  father, 
and  his  widowed  mother  sent  him  to  the  old 
homestead  at  Bridges  Creek  to  live  with  his 
half  brother,  Augustine.  There  he  attended 
school  until  he  was  nearly  sixteen,  geometi'y 
and  survejang  being  included  in  his  studies. 
Wliile  he  was  not  an  apt  classical  student,  he 
made  excellent  progress  in  surveying,  and 
throughout  this  school  period  he  cultivated 
robust  health  by  outdoor  exercise,  such  as 
horseback  riding  and  athletic  games.  It  was 
when  he  was  thirteen  that  he  wrote  the  mles 
of  good  behavior  now  so  well  known. 

Soon  after  he  left  school  George  went  to 
live  with  his  eldest  half  brother,  Lawrence, 
who  was  occupying  that  portion  of  the  estate 
known  as  Mount  Vernon.  Lawrence  Wash- 
ington had  married  the  daughter  of  William 
Fairfax,  who  was  the  manager  of  the  great 
estate  of  his  cousin.  Lord  Fairfax,  the  head 
of  the  family.  Lord  Fairfax  conceived  a 
great  liking  for  young  Washington,  and  pres- 
ently entrusted  to  him  the  task  of  marking 
out  the  boundaries  of  the  Fairfax  estate. 
George  began  his  duties  in  1748,  when  he  was 
but  a  few  days  past  sixteen,  and  for  many 
months  he  endured  the  hardships  of  a  sur- 
veyor in  the  wilderness.  His  work  was  so 
well  done  that  he  was  subsequently  appointed 
public  surveyor  of  Culpeper  County,  and  his 
surv'eys  were  considered  admirable  examples 
of  thoroughness  and  accuracy. 

In  1751  George  accompanied  his  brother 
Lawrence  on  a  trip  to  the  West  Indies.  The 
journey  was  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  re- 
storing the  elder  brother's  health,  under- 
mined by  service  in  the  British  navy.  In  1752, 
a  few  months  after  the  brothei-s  returned 
to  Virginia,  Lawrence  died,  and  George  found 
himself  the  guardian  of  his  niece  and  one  of 
the  executors  of  the  estate.  The  death  of  this 
niece  a  few  years  later  made  him  master  of 
the  mansion  and  the  beautiful  grounds  about 
it — the  Mount  Veraon  that  is  to-day  a  sacred 
place  to  all  loyal  Americans. 

Early  Military  Career.  Not  long  before 
he  died  Lawrence  Washington  had  used  his 
influence  to  have  his  brother  appointed  an 


WASHINGTON 


3818 


WASHINGTON 


adjutant-general  over  one  of  the  several  mili- 
tary districts  into  which  Virginia  colony  was 
divided.  This  division  was  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  threatened  encroachments  of  the 
Indians  and  of  the  French,  who  were  estab- 
lishing posts  along  the  Ohio.  Washington's 
eager  pursuit  of  the  study  of  military  tactics 
was  interrupted  by  the  trip  to  the  West 
Indies,  but  he  resumed  his  duties  as  adjutant- 
general  after  his  return,  and  late  in  1753  was 
requested  by  Governor  Dinwiddle  to  carry  a 
message  of  warning  to  the  French  forces  in 
the  Ohio  Valley.  It  was  a  hazardous  mission 
for  a  young  man  of  twenty-one,  and  the 
selection  reflects  favorably  upon  Washing- 
ton's reputation  for  reliability  and  good 
judgment.  In  November,  accompanied  by  an 
experienced  frontiersman,  he  started  on  his 
600-mile  journej^  After  many  naiTow  es- 
capes from  the  Indians  and  the  perils  of  the 
wilderness,  he  completed  his  mission  and  re- 
ported to  Governor  Dinwiddle  on  January 
16,  1754,  at  Williamsburg,  the  capital  of 
Virginia.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Virginia 
regiment. 

A  skirmish  with  the  French  in  the  summer 
of  1754,  which  was  not  decisive,  was  followed 
by  a  reorganization  of  the  Virginia,  troops 
and  Washington's  temporary  retirement  from 
things  military.  Early  in  1755,  however. 
General  Braddock  an-ived  from  England 
with  two  regiments  of  British  regulars,  and 
offered  the  young  colonial  a  place  on  his 
staff,  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  Promptly 
accepting,  Washington  entered  eagerly  into 
the  preparation  of  the  campaign,  and  on 
July  9  took  part  in  the  disastrous  fight  at 
Fort  Duquesne.  How  the  English  regulars 
were  mowed  down  by  bullets  fired  from  be- 
hind trees,  and  how  the  Virginians  under 
Washington  saved  the  little  army  from  an- 
nihilation by  fighting  under  cover,  as  did 
the  French  and  Indians,  is  known  to  every 
American  school  boy.  The  troops  succeeded 
in  withdrawing  from  the  field,  but  Braddock 
was  fatally  wounded,  and  died  four  days 
later.  Washington  later  reorganized  the  colo- 
nial troops  and  was  their  chief  commander 
until  1758,  when  he  retired  to  Mount  Vernon 
to  rest.  It  was  with  great  satisfaction,  how- 
ever, that,  in  November,  1758,  he  accompa- 
nied the  British  forces  to  the  smoking  ruins 
of  Fort  Duquesne,  which  was  renamed  Fort 
Pitt  in  honor  of  England's  great  Prime 
Minister. 


At  Mount  Vernon.  The  period  between 
the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  and 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  brought  to 
Washington  some  of  the  happiest  years  of 
his  life.  In  January,  1759,  he  married  Mrs. 
Martha  Custis,  an  attractive  and  wealthy 
young  widow  with  two  children,  John  and 
Martha  Parke  Custis.  The  management  of 
his  own  and  his  wife's  property  provided  an 
outlet  for  his  business  instincts,  and  he  en- 
tered whole-heartedly  into  the  public  affairs 
of  Virginia  colony  as  a  delegate  to  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  to  which  he  had  been  elected 
before  his  marriage.  These  duties,  with 
those  of  a  good  churchman  and  a  hospitable 
colonial  gentleman,  rounded  out  a  life  com- 
pletely wholesome  and  happy.  The  Mount 
Vernon  mansion  was  always  filled  to  over- 
flowing during  the  hunting  season,  but  none 
of  its  inmates  enjoyed  the  pleasures  of  the 
chase  more  than  the  master  himself. 

As  relations  grew  strained  between  the 
colonies  and  the  mother  counti-y,  Washington 
for  a  long  time  hoped  that  an  agreement 
might  be  reached  without  resort  to  war,  and 
he  was  very  guarded  in  his  utterances.  In 
1769,  however,  he  drew  up  a  nonimportation 
agreement  which  was  adopted  by  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  and  from  that  time  on  he  re- 
fused to  permit  any  of  the  banned  articles 
to  be  brought  into  his  house. 

As  a  member  of  the  provincial  convention, 
held  in  August,  1774,  at  Williamsburg,  he 
vigorously  upheld  the  right  of  the  colonies 
to  govern  themselves,  and,  moved  by  reports 
about  the  effects  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  ex- 
claimed in  an  impassioned  speech,  "I  will 
raise  a  thousand  men  and  march  with  them, 
at  their  head,  for  the  relief  of  Boston."  Vir- 
ginia sent  him  as  one  of  its  six  delegates  to 
the  First  Continental  Congress,  and  in  this 
and  the  succeeding  Congress,  held  in  1775, 
he  was  clearly  one  of  the  commanding  figures, 
though  he  let  others  make  the  speeches. 

The  Revolutionary  War.  On  June  15, 
1775,  two  months  after  the  Battle'  of  Lexing- 
ton, Washington  was  unanimously  chosen 
by  Congress  to  be  commander  in  chief  of  the 
Continental  forces.  Addressing  the  assembly 
the  following  day,  he  modestly  accepted  the 
honor,  and  assured  the  delegates  that  he 
would  expect  no  remuneration  except  for  his 
own  expenses.  He  then  departed  on  horse- 
back for  Boston,  and  on  July  3,  1775,  took 
command  of  the  Continental  army,  in  Cam- 
bridge.   The  old  elm  under  which  this  cere- 


WASHINGTON'S  HOME  AND  HIS  TOMB  AT  MOUNT  VERNON 


WASHINGTON 


3819 


WASHINGTON 


mony  took  place  is  still  preserved  as  a  cher- 
ished relic.  9 

The  military  events  of  the  long  struggle 
which  the  colonies  waged  for  independence 
are  told  in  these  volumes  in  the  article  on  the 
Revolutionaiy  War.  The  personal  share  of 
Washington  in  the  hard-won  victory  cannot 
be  overestimated;  from  the  perspective  of  a 
century  and  a  half  it  seems  almost  incredible 
that  he  did  succeed.  Difficulties  beset  him 
that  would  have  broken  the  courage  of  a 
weaker  man.  His  little  army  of  barely  14,000 
was  lacking  in  arms,  supplies,  discipline 
and  organization.  There  was  no  uniform 
policy  among  the  colonies  on  any  matters  es- 
sential to  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and 
authority  was  vested  in  too  many  officials  and 
organizations  to  bring  about  any  semblance 
of  unity.  There  were  bickerings,  quarrels 
and  plots.  Yet,  somehow,  Washington  over- 
rode all  obstacles.  For  one  thing,  he  was 
loved  and  trusted  by  his  men,  and  because 
of  that  trust  they  endured  terrible  hard- 
ships to  uphold  him. 

When  the  army  went  into  winter  quarters 
at  Valley  Forge,  in  December,  1777,  Wash- 
ington informed  Congress  that  he  had  2,898 
men  unfit  for  duty  because  they  were  "bare- 
footed and  otherwise  naked."  It  is  a  matter 
of  record  that  blood  in  the  snow  marked  the 
path  of  those  unshod  troops  as  they  marched 
into  camp. 

As  a  military  leader  Washington  was  su- 
perior to  any  of  the  field  commanders  sent 
over  by  England.  In  fact^  his  tactics  in  the 
movements  on  the  Delaware  River  were  char- 
acterized by  Frederick  the  Great  as  the  "most 
brilliant  achievements  recorded  in  military 
annals."  Years  later  the  old  Prussian  soldier 
sent  his  portrait  to  Washington,  with  this 
message :  "From  the  oldest  general  in  Europe 
to  the  greatest  general  in  the  world." 

Coupled  with  his  genius  as  a  soldier  was 
an  abiding  faith  in  the  justice  and  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  American  cause.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  stiniggle  a  movement  was  started 
to  have  Washington  assume  the  title  of  king, 
but  his  repudiation  of  such  a  course  was 
voiced  in  language  as  vigorous  as  he  could 
make  it.  His  great  popularity  never  under- 
mined his  modest  sense  of  his  own  worth  or 
his  deep-rooted  conviction  that  the  American 
nation  was  destined  to  be  a  democracy  in 
which  kings  could  have  no  part. 

On  November  2,  1783,  he  took  final  leave 
of  his  faithful  army,  and  the  following  De- 


cember appeared  before  Congress  to  resign 
the  commission  tendered  him  over  seven  years 
before.    He  said: 

Having  now  finished  the  work  assigned  me, 
I  retire  from  the  great  theatre  of  action,  and, 
bidding  an  affectionate  farewell  to  this 
august  body,  under  whose  orders  I  have  long 
acted,  I  here  offer  my  commission,  and  take 
my  leave  of  all  employments  of  public  life." 
"You  retire,"  replied  the  president  of  Con- 
gress, "from  the  theatre  of  action  with  the 
blessings  of  your  fellow-citizens;  but  the 
glory  of  your  virtues  will  not  terminate  with 
j'our  military  command:  it  will  continue  to 
animate   remotest  ages." 

On  Christmas  Eve  Washington  arrived  at 
Mount  Vernon,  where,  during  the  interval 
before  the  organization  of  the  government 
under  the  Constitution,  he  enjoyed  once  more 
the  life  of  plantation  owner  and  private 
citizen.      | 

The  Constitution  and  the  First  Adminis- 
tration. Five  years  after  the  signing  of  the 
peace  treaty  a  new  crisis  called  Washington 
again  into  public  life.  Under  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  affairs  were  steadily  grow- 
ing more  chaotic,  and  in  May,  1787,  a  con- 
vention was  called  to  meet  in  Philadelphia 
to  prepare  a  new  form  of  union.  To  this 
body  Washington  was  sent  as  head  of  the 
Virginia  delegation;  on  its  organization  he 
was  unanimously  elected  its  president.  In 
September  the  convention  completed  a  new 
Constitution  and  gave  it  to  the  states  for 
ratification.  The  influence  that  Washington 
exercised  in  the  consummation  of  this  great 
achievement  is  ably  summarized  in  Woodrow 
Wilson's  History  of  the  American  People : 

"It  gave  the  convention  great  dignity  that 
Washington  had  presided  over  its  counsels  and 
was  heart  and  soul  for  the  adoption  of  the 
measures  it  proposed.  His  name  and  quiet 
force  had  steadied  the  convention  on  many 
an  anxious  day  when  disagreement  threat- 
ened hopeless  breach.  His  fame  and  Influence 
infinitely  strengthened  also  the  measures  pro- 
posed, now  that  they  were  completed.  He 
supported  them  because  they  were  thorough- 
going and  courageous  and  cut  to  the  root  of 
the  difficulties  under  which  the  country  was 
laboring.  Issue  had  been  joined  now,  as  he 
had  wished  to  see  it  joined,  between  govern- 
ment or  no  government,  and  the  country 
was  to  know  at  last  where  it  stood  in  the 
most  essential  matters  of  its  life." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  when  the  votes 
of  the  first  Electoral  College  were  counted  it 
was  found  that  Washington  was  the  unani- 
mous choice  for  President  of  the  United 
States,  ^x^ohn  Adams  was  honored  with  the 
Vice-Presidency. 


WASHINGTON 


3820 


WASHINGTON 


Washington  was  inaugurated  in  New  York, 
■which  was  then  the  national  seat  of  govern- 
ment. Standing  on  the  balcony  in  front  of 
the  old  Federal  Hall,  whose  site  is  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  imposing  Subtreasury,  he  took 
the  oath  of  office  on  April  30,  1789,  though 
the  legal  day  for  the  ceremony  was  March  4. 
Difficulties  in  setting  the  new  machinery  in 
motion  were  responsible  for  the  delay. 

From  the  first  he  displayed  in  civil  affairs 
the  same  equalities  of  leadership  and  invari- 
able good  judgment  which  he  had  shown  dur- 
ing his  military  career.  He  set  about  in- 
fonning  himself  concerning  all  that  had  hap- 
pened during  the  period  of  the  Confedera- 
tion— the  relations  of  the  new  government 
to  foreign  nations,  and  the  questions  of  in- 
ternal administration  and  finance,  which  were 
soon  to  become  pressing  issues.  *  He  also 
chose  a  remarkably  strong  Cabinet,  includ- 
ing Thomas  Jefferson  and  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, who,  though  directly  opposite  in  their  . 
political  opinions,  were  aclmowledged  leaders 
in  the  political  life  of  the  country. 

The  selection  of  Alexander  Hamilton  as 
head  of  the  Treasury  Department  was  mo- 
mentous in  its  results,  for  through  his  far- 
seeing  statesmanship  the  country  was  put  on 
a  sound  financial  basis.  In  accordance  with 
Hamilton's  program  the  national  govern- 
ment assumed  the  debts  of  the  states  incurred 
during  the  war;  a  national  bank  and  a  mint 
were  established ;  and  a  national  income  was 
provided  for  by  duties  on  imports  and  a 
system  of  internal  revenue. 

Other  important  events  of  the  first  four 
years  under  the  Federal  Constitution  were 
the  organization  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court,  the  admission  of  Vermont 
(1791)  and  Kentucky  (1792)  as  states,  the 
adoption  of  a  decimal  system  of  coinage,  and 
the  incorporation  into  the  Constitution  of 
the  first  ten  amendments.  So  profoundly 
impressed  were  the  people  with  the  results 
of  Washington's  first  term  that  there  was  a 
spontaneous  demand  that  he  serve  again. 
Against  his  personal  wishes  he  consented, 
and  was  unanimously  reelected,  being  in- 
augurated in  Philadelphia  on  March  4,  1793. 
The  city  of  Washington  did  not  become  the 
national  capital  until  1800. 

The  Second  Term.  During  this  term  in- 
ternational affairs  for  a  time  overshadowed 
domestic  issues.  A  war  between  France  and 
England  vastly  aroused  the  sympathies  of 
a  group  friendly  to  France,  and  there  were 


some  extremists  who  demanded  that  the  na- 
tion go  to  its  assistance.  Another  faction  as 
vehemently  urged  neutrality  or  support  for 
England.  Washington,  who  saw  clearly  that 
the  United  States  was  too  weak  and  insecure 
to  be  implicated  in  European  quarrels,  is- 
sued a  proclamation  of  neutrality  and  re- 
fused to  take  sides.  An  unfortunate  inci- 
dent of  this  affair  was  tlie  activity  of  Edmon, 
or  "Citizen,"  Genet,  a  Frenchman  whose  de- 
fiance of  the  proclamation  caused  the  gov- 
ernment considerable  anxiety.  The  French 
sympathizers  were  also  greatly  exercised 
over  the  acceptance  of  the  Jay  Treaty  (1794) 
with  England.  This  treaty  was  not  so  fa- 
vorable to  America  as  its  sponsors  wished, 
but  it  was  the  best  that  could  be  obtained, 
and  it  served  the  purpose  of  averting  war 
with  England,  which  Washington  felt  would 
be  a  national  calamity. 

The  power  of  the  Federal  government  was 
vigorously  exercised  in  this  administration. 
In  Pennsylvania  in  1794  there  occurred  an 
insurrection  in  pi'otest  against  the  excise  tax, 
to  quell  which  Washington  ordered  out  15,000 
militia.  Trouble  with  the  Indians  was  settled 
by  Anthony  Wajme's  victory  over  them  at 
Fallen  Timbers  in  1794,  and  by  the  negotia- 
tion of  treaties.  Other  events  include  the 
invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney; 
the  erection  of  the  first  woolen  mill  in  Mas- 
sachusetts; the  admission  of  Tennessee  into 
the  Union,  and  the  development  of  two  great 
political  parties,  by  followers  of  Hamilton 
and  Jefferson,  respectively. 

The  End  of  the  Story.  Washington  de- 
clined a  third  election,  delivered  his  famous 
farewell  address  and  retired  to  Mount  Ver- 
non in  1797.  Thereafter  he  devoted  himself 
to  agriculture,  though  in  1798,  at  the  pros- 
pect of  the  war  with  France,  he  was  chosen 
commander  in  chief  of  the  United  States  ar- 
my and  accepted,  though  he  was  not  called 
into  the  field.  He  died  in  December,  1799, 
from  illness  brought  on  by  long  exposure  in 
the  saddle.  The  news  caused  almost  as  wide- 
spread mourning  in  Europe  as  in  America. 
The  greatest  statesmen  and  soldiers  of  every 
nation  united  in  paying  him  tribute  as  a  man, 
general,  statesman  and  friend  of  humanity. 
The  words  of  his  old  friend  and  companion, 
"Lighthorse  Harry"  Lee,  "First  in  war,  first 
in  peace  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  eoun- 
trjTnen,"  were  without  question  literally  true. 
He  had  avoided  the  snares  of  factional  and 
partisan  politics,  had  generously  overlooked 


WASHINGTON 


ri82i 


WASHINGTON 


Administration  of  George  Washington,  1789-1797 


l\       I.  Election  and  Inauguration 
|;;i     II.     The  President 

I  (1)  Birth 

III  (2)   Ancestry 

III  (3)  Education 

ill  (4)   Previous  public  career 

ill  (5)   Character 

liij  (6)  Rank  as  a  statesman 

II  (7)  Death 

M    III.     Organization  of  the  Go\ternment 
M  (1)    Strict    and    loose    constnie- 

lii|  tionists 

llj  (a)   Eollowers  of  Hamilton 

III  (b)   Followers  of  Jefferson 
jlil               (2)   Executive  departments 

If  (^)   State 

II  (b)   Treasury 

I  (c)   War 

Hi  (d)   Attorney-General 

III  (3)   Federal  courts  established,  1783 
jijl  (4)   Financial  measures 

ill  (a)   The  public  debt 

II  (b)   The  excise,  1791 

III  (e)  Bank  of  the  United  States 

II  (d)   The  Mint 

||  (e)   Tariff  on  imports,  1780 

ij    IV.     Domestic  Affairs 

III  (1)   Governmental 

III  (a)  Last  state  ratifies  the  Con- 

pl  stitution 

(b)  Census  of  1790 

(c)  Whisky  Insurrection,  1794 

(d)  Admission     of     Vermont, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee 

(e)  Site  of  Washington  chosen 

(f)  Ten  Amendments 

(g)  Campaigns     against     the 
Indians 

(2)   General 

(a)  Invention  of  cotton  gin 

(b)  Death  of  Franklin 

(c)  Slavery 

(d)  Settlement    of    Northwest 
Territory 

V.    Foreign  Affairs 

(1)  Genet  and  quarrel  with  France 

(2)  Jay  Treaty 

(3)  Treaty  with  Spain 

(a)  Opened  the  Mississippi 

(b)  Florida  boundaiy 


VI.    Election  of  1796  i|i 

(1)  Political  parties  III 

(a)  Federalists  il| 

(b)  Republicans  |:!| 

(2)  Candidates  i 

(a)  John  Adams  p 

(b)  Thomas  Pinckney  H 

(c)  Thomas  Jefferson  Ij 

(d)  Aaron  Bun*  \,\ 

(3)  Election  of  Adams  jlj 

Questions  on  Washington  j-j 

Where  was  Washington  at  the  time  of  |J 

his  election  to  the  Presidency?  fi 

Where  was  he  inaugurated?  || 

Vrhat  city  was  the  capital  during  most  \\ 

of  his  administration?  i\ 

IIow   does   he  rank   as   a   soldier   and  l-l 

;  tatesman  ?  \\ 

In  what  way  did  Hamilton's  ideas  influ-  fi 

enee  the  organization  of  the  government?  |'| 

What  were  the  original  executive  depart-  p 

ments  ?  {"J 

Was  the  Attornejf-General  the  head  of  a  |4 

department  ?  |i 

Who   were   the   members   of   the   first  |"| 

Cabinet?  I:] 

When  were  the  Federal  courts  estab-  |;| 

lished  ?  I'll 

What  compromise  was  necessary  before  |i!| 

Hamilton  could  secure  the  assumption  of  11 

the  state  debts?  jj 

Wlien  was  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  j:| 

organized  ?  p 

What  were  some  of  its  powers?  fi 

When  was  the  first  tariff  law  passed  ?  |i|| 

What  was  its  primary  object?  Hi 

When  was  the  first  census  taken  1  m 

What    states    were    admitted     during  ji;! 

Washington's  term  of  office?  p 

What  caused  the  trouble  with  the  In-  Ji 

dians  in  the  Northwest  ?  jiif 

What    battles   were   fought    and   with  1;;| 

what  result  ?  ji 

What  party  was  friendly  to  France?  jiif 

Why?  ^  j;;! 

Give  an  account  of  Genet's  visit  to  the  li 

United  States.  M 

What  was  the  Jay  Treaty  ?    What  did  it  pl 

accomplish  ?  |J 


WASHINGTON 


3822 


WASHINGTON  ARCH 


the  harshest  criticisms  and  had  respected  and 
used  the  abilities  of  his  severest  critics  and 
opponents.  Though  a  slave-holder  at  his 
death,  he  was  in  favor  of  the  gradual  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  by  legislation,  and  by  his  will 
he  arranged  that  his  one  hundred  twenty- 
five  slaves  should  be  emancipated  at  the  death 
of  his  wife,  so  that  the  negroes  of  the  two 
estates  who  had  intermarried  might  not  be 
separated.  "Washington's  body  and  that  of 
his  wife,  who  survived  him  nearly  three  years, 
rest  in  the  family  vault  at  Mount  Vernon. 

Consult  Lodge's  George  Washington,  in  tlie 
American  Statesmen  Series,  and  Fislte's 
Washington  and  His  Country,  a  condensed 
and  simplified  edition  of  Washington  Irving's 
Life  of  Washington. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Braddock,   Edward         Political  Parties  in 
Constitution  the  United  States 

French  and  Indian  Tariff 

Wars  Ilevolutionary    War 

Genet,  Edmon  C.  United  States 

Jay  Treaty  Whisky  Insurrection 

Mount    Vernon 

WASHINGTON,  Martha  (1732-1802), 
the  wife  of  George  Washington,  born  in  New 
Kent  County,  Ya.,  the  daughter  of  John 
Dandridge,  a  wealthy  planter.  Her  first  hus- 
band, to  whom  she  was  mari'ied  in  1749,  was 
Daniel  Parke  Custis.  She  was  married  to 
George  Washington  in  1759.  As  mistress 
of  the  White  House  she  won  a  finn  place  in 
the  hearts  of  the  people.  She  died  at  Mount 
Vernon  two  years  and  a  half  after  the  death 
of  President  Washington. 

WASHINGTON,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of 
Washington  County,  situated  thirty-two  miles 
southwest  of  Pittsburgh,  on  the  Pennsylva- 
nia and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railroads.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Washington  and  Jefferson 
College,  the  oldest  college  west  of  the  Alle- 
■ghenies,  and  also  of  the  Washington  Semi- 
nary. Notable  structures  are  the  Federal 
building,  courthouse,  library,  sanitarium  and 
hospital  buildings.  Washington  is  said  to 
have  erected  the  first  community  building  in 
the  United  States.  Glass,  tubes,  tin  plate, 
pottery  and  baby  carriages  are  the  leading 
manufactures.  The  place  was  settled  in  1768 
and  was  originally  called  Bassettown.  It  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1784  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  borough  in  1852.  Population, 
1910,  18,778;  in  1917,  22,076  (Federal  esti- 
mate) . 

WASHINGTON,  Treaty  op,  the  treaty 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
signed  in  1871,  providing  for  the  settlement 
of  several  difficulties  between  the  two  coun- 
tries,   chief    of    which    were    the    Alabama 


claims.  A  commission,  which  consisted  of 
five  representatives  of  Great  Britain,  headed 
by  Earl  de  Grey  and  Sir  John  MacDonald, 
and  five  representatives  of  the  United  States, 
headed  by  Hamilton  Fish  and  E.  R.  Hoar, 
began  its  meetings  May  8  at  Washington. 
It  referred  the  Alabama  Claims  to  a  special 
court,  which  was  to  meet  at  Geneva  (see 
Alabama,  The  Geneva  Arbitration).  It 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  mixed 
commission,  to  discuss  and  decide  upon  the 
northwestern  fisheries  question,  and  it  sub- 
mitted the  northwest  boundary  dispute  to 
the  arbitration  of  the  emperor  of  Germany. 
It  also  laid  down  certain  rules  regarding 
neuti'ality  in  war,  which  were  to  govern  the 
Geneva  Tribunal  in  deciding  the  Alabama 
question  and  which  have  since  been  consid- 
ered the  true  principles  of  international 
law  upon  the  subject. 

WASHINGTON,  University  of,  a  coedu- 
cational state  institution  founded  at  Seattle. 
It  was  organized  in  1861,  but  the  regular 
four  years'  courses  were  not  established  un- 
til 1877.  In  1889  it  became  the  state  uni- 
versity, as  Washington  entered  the  Union 
that  year.  It  maintains  a  college  of  liberal 
arts,  a  college  of  engineering,  a  school  of 
forestry'',  a  school  of  mines,  a  school  of  busi- 
ness administration,  a  library  school,  colleges 
of  pharmacy  and  law  and  a  graduate  de- 
partment. The  university  has  a  faculty  of 
nearly  200,  and  a  student  body  of  about 
4,000".  The  library  contains  over  83,800 
volumes. 

WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVERSI- 
TY, a  coeducational  institution  located  at 
Lexington,  Va.  It  was  established  as  the 
Augusta  Academy  in  1749  and  afterwards 
renamed  Washington  Academy  in  recogni- 
tion of  a  gift  of  money  made  to  the  insti- 
tution by  the  "Father  of  his  Country."  This 
gift  still  yields  an  annual  income  of  $3,000. 
In  1865  ■  General  Robert  E.  Lee  was  made 
president  of  the  institution,  a  position  which 
he  held  with  great  influence  upon  the  stu- 
dents for  five  years.  In  1871  the  present 
name  of  the  institution  was  adopted.  The 
university  is  divided  into  schools  of  com- 
merce, applied  science,  law  and  courses  lead- 
ing to  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  B.S.,  and  LL.B. 
It  has  a  faculty  of  thirty-five  members,  about 
500  students  and  property  and  endowment 
aggregating  $1,700,000. 

WASHINGTON  ARCH,  a  beautiful  me- 
morial structure,  erected  to  commemorate  the 


WASHINGTON  ELM 


3823 


WATCH 


first  inauguration  of  George  Washington  as 
President  of  the  United  States.  It  stands 
at  the  foot  of  Fifth  Avenue,  Ne\v*York,  and 
was  designed  by  Stanford  White.  It  is  of 
marble,  seventy-seven  feet  high  and  sixty- 
two  feet  broad,  with  a  single  archway  forty- 
seven  feet  high  and  thirty  feet  broad.  Its 
cost  of  $128,000  was  met  by  popular  sub- 
scription, 

WASHINGTON  ELM,  a  famous  elm, 
standing  near  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
Common,  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  Near  the 
base  is  a  stone  seat  with  the  inscription: 
"Under  this  tree  Washington  took  the  com- 
mand of  the  American  Army  July  3,  1775." 
The  tree  is  carefully  protected,  but  is  de- 
caying with  age. 

WASHINGTON  MONUMENT,  an  im- 
posing marble  obelisk  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
measuring  550  feet  in  height.  It  is  the  tallest 
structure  in  the  world,  excepting  the  Eiffel 
Tower  in  Paris.  It  was  begun  in  1848,  but 
was  not  dedicated  until  1885,  on  Washing- 
ton's birthday.  The  top,  from  which  a  mag- 
nificent view  of  the  surrounding  country  is 
obtained,  is  reached  by  an  elevator  and  also 
by  an  interior  iron  stainvay.  The  monu- 
ment covers  an  area  of  16,000  square  feet 
and  cost  $1,187,710. 

WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  a  coedu- 
cational school  at  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  founded 
in  1853  by  Dr.  William  Greenleaf  Eliot,  on 
condition  that  it  be  kept  nonsectarian  and 
nonpartisan.  Its  activities  were  carried  on 
in  different  parts  of  the  city  till  1905,  when 
all  were  removed  to  the  present  fine  location 
outside  the  city  limits.  Ten  new  granite 
buildings  on  this  site  were  occupied  by  ex- 
hibits and  executive  offices  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  Exposition  in  1904.  The  depart- 
ments of  the  university  are  those  of  en- 
gineering, architecture,  law,  medicine, 
dentistry,  fine  arts  and  social  economy.  The 
faculty  numbers  230,  and  the  student  regis- 
tration is  about  2,000.  The  library  con- 
tains 165,000  volumes. 

WASHITA,  loosh'etah,  RIVER,  or 
OUACHITA  RIVER,  a  river  that  rises  in  the 
western  part  of  Arkansas,  flows  southeast  and 
then  south  into  Louisiana  and  discharges  into 
the  Red  River,  about  fifteen  miles  above  the 
confiuence  of  that  stream  with  the  Missis- 
sippi. The  Washita  is  connected  with  the 
Mississippi  by  a  series  of  bayous.  Its  length 
is  550  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats for  about  350  miles.    • 


WASP,  tvahsp,  a  winged  insect  resembling 
the  bee  in  many  respects.  The  body  is  bluish 
in  color,  with  yellow  markings,  or  black, 
marked  with  white  or  yellow.  Common  wasps 
live  in  societies,  or  colonies,  composed  of 
males,  females  and  workers,  or  neuters  (see 
Bee).  The  females  are  anned  with  an  ex- 
tremely powerful  and  venomous  sting;  the 
males  do  not  sting. 

The  nest  of  the  wasp  is  ingenious,  both 
in  material  and  constmction.  It  is  built 
in  the  ground  or  attached  to  a  wall  or  tree, 
and  is  composed  of  a  kind  of  chewed  wood 
pulp  or  paper  manufactured  by  the  females. 
Within  these  nests  the  combs  are  enclosed 
completely,  except  for  the  small  opening 
where  the  wasps  enter.  The  cells  of  the 
comb,  in  which  the  lai-vae  and  pupae  are 
reared,  are  six-sided  and  arranged  in  tiers, 
with  the  mouth  downward  or  sidewise. 

Wasp  colonies  multiply  rapidly,  and  have 
been  known  to  attain  to  30,000  members  in 
a  favorable  summer  season.  But  in  the  fall 
all  the  members  perish  except  a  few  females, 
which  pass  the  winter  under  stones  or  in 
hollow  trees.  Wasps  are  voi-acious  insects, 
living  upon  sugar,  meat,  fruit,  honey  or 
the  juices  of  other  insects.  Certain  species 
live  solitary  lives,  each  mother  making  its 
own  nest  and  earing  for  its  own  eggs  and 
larvae. 

WATAU'GA  ASSOCIATION,  in  Ameri- 
can history  a  name  given  to  an  association  of 
settlers,  formed  in  1772,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  what  is  now  Tennessee,  just  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  Articles  were  drawn 
up  for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  government 
for  the  district,  and  provision  was  made  for 
five  executive  councilors,  thirteen  legislators, 
a  sheriff  and  an  attorney.  The  government 
had  no  jurisdiction  over  any  but  the  signers 
of  the  compact,  and  the  ten-itory  soon 
swarmed  with  outlaws  and  adventurers.  In 
order  to  secure  protection,  the  community, 
under  the  name  of  Washington  District, 
asked  for  and  secured  representation  in  the 
North  Carolina  Assembly. 

WATCH,  a  small,  portable  mechanism  for 
measuring  time,  having  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  wheels  as  a  clock,  geared  in  the  same 
manner,  but  differing  from  a  clock  in  having 
a  hairspring  and  a  balance  wheel,  instead 
of  a  pendulum,  and  in  having  its  parts  much 
smaller  and  more  deHcately  adjusted.  It  is 
attached  to  a  chain  and  carried  in  the  pocket, 
or  to  a  bracelet  and  worn  on  the  wrist. 


WATCH 


3824 


WATCH 


Mechanism.  A  watch  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  case  and  tlie  works.  The  case  is  of 
metal,  usually  gold  or  silver,  and  it  is  made 
with  one  or  two  covers.  The  works  consist 
of  two  plates,  perforated  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  the  wheels  in  position,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  contain,  between  them,  all 
of  the  wheels  except  the  balance  wheel.  The 
lower  plate,  known  as  the  pillar  plate,  rests 
next  to  the  dial.  The  upper  plate  may  be 
in  one  or  in  several  pieces,  but  in  the  best- 
made  watches  it  is  usually  in  one  piece. 
These  plates  are  bored  and  chiseled  so  that 
each  wheel  fits  perfectly  into  its  place.  The 
I)€rforations,  in  which  the  minute  axles  of 
the  wheels  rest,  are  usually  set  in  jewels, 
which  prevent  wear.  There  are  four  wheels 
in  the  watch;  these  are  (1)  the  barrel  wheel, 
within  which  the  mainspring  is  attached,  (2) 
the  first  wheel,  (3)  the  second  wheel  and  (4) 
the  third  wheel,  which  is  attached  to  the  pin- 
ion of  the  escapement  wheel.  The  motion 
is  imparted  by  the  uncoiling  of  the  spring 
and  is  regulated  by  the  escapement,  which  is 
kept  in  operation  by  the  action  of  the  main- 
spring and  the  hairspring  combined,  the  two 
giving  it  an  oscillating  movement.  The  wheel 
which  meshes  into  the  pinion  of  the  escape- 
ment wheel  revolves  once  a  minute  and  has 
sixty  teeth  upon  its  circumference.  The 
pinion  of  this  wheel  meshes  into  the  circum- 
ference of  the  wheel  Avhieh  gives  the  motion 
to  the  minute  hand,  and  this  meshes  into  the 
pinion  of  the  center  wheel,  which  gives  the 
motion  to  the  hour  hand.  The  watch  is 
regulated  by  a  lever  device,  connected  with 
the  hairspring.  By  moving  this  to  the  right, 
or  left,  the  tension  is  lessened  or  strength- 
ened. 

Watch  Making.  The  works  of  a  watch 
have  for  their  foundation  two  plates  of  an 
alloy  of  brass  and  nickel.  These  plates  are 
cut  at  the  foundr}^,  where  the  metal  is  east, 
from  dies  f uimished  by  the  watch  factory. 

The  rough  plates  are  passed  under  trim- 
ming, or  stripping,  punches,  which  smooth 
off  the  roughness.  Indentations  absolutely 
exact  are  then  made  in  the  foundation  plate, 
to  allow  room  for  the  wheels.  The  plate  is 
placed  under  the  lathe  portion  of  a  machine, 
and  a  steel  copy  of  what  it  is  to  be  is  fast- 
ened to  another  part.  The  machine  follows 
the  outline  of  the  steel  model,  graduallj'  cut- 
ting out  the  foundation  plate,  so  that  the 
various  parts  of  the  mechanism  of  the  watch 
will  be  thrown  into  proper  position.     The 


thickness  of  the  plate  and  the  depth  of  the 
indentations  are  measured  so  as  to  be  per- 
fect, according  to  a  gauge,  two  degrees  of 
which  equal  the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch. 
The  necessary  screw  holes  and  apertures  for 
the  settings  are  then  drilled  into  the  plate. 
The  work  on  the  upper  plate  is  done  in  the 
same  manner.  The  plates  are  then  polished 
and  smoothed  down,  on  an  Ayr  stone,  a  stone 
harder  than  a  soapstone  and  softer  than 
emery,  capable  of  polishing  without  scratch- 
ing. 

The  jewels  used  in  watch  making  are  gar- 
nets, rubies,  sapphires  and  diamonds.  Gar- 
nets are  most  common  and  are  cut  with  dia- 
mond points  into  minute  disks  and  then 
smoothed  and  pierced.  These  disks  are  set 
in  larger  disks  of  gold.  The  foundation 
plates  are  given  an  ordinary  heavy  plating 
of  gold,  by  the  battery  process,  and  the 
jewels  with  their  settings  are  fitted  and  fast- 
ened into  the  plate  by  exceedingly  small 
screws. 

The  wheels  of  a  watch  are  stamped  out  of 
sheets  of  brass,  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  pieces.  The  screws  and  springs  are 
made  from  sheet  steel,  the  screws  being  cold- 
drawn  from  wire.  In  tempering  some  of  the 
screws,  the  workman  uses  a  thermometer  of 
a  peculiar  sort,  in  order  to  regulate  accurate- 
ly the  temperature  to  which  they  are  to  be 
heated  and  cooled.  Others  are  regulated  by 
a  careful  observation  of  their  color.  The 
figures  are  printed  on  the  dial  by  a  process 
resembling  lithography  (see  Lithography). 
The  base  of  the  dial  is  of  copper  and  is 
stamped  out  of  a  thin  sheet  of  the  metal,  in 
such  a  manner  that  a  rim  is  left  turned  up 
for  a  short  distance  all  around.  Powdered 
enamel  is  spread  on  the  disk,  ?.nd  it  is  then 
fired,  like  potteiy  or  china.  Steel  plates  are 
engraved  with  the  design  to  be  executed,  and 
the  lines  are  filled  with  a  mineral  paint  of 
the  desired  color.  The  plate  is  then  passed 
under  a  roller,  covered  with  sheet  rubber,  and 
the  dial  receives  the  impression  from  the  rub- 
ber on  the  roller.  It  is  again  fired,  and  when 
fancy  colors  are  employed,  each  color  re- 
quires a  separate  impression  and  firing.  The 
balance  wheel  requires  forty  different  steps 
in  its  manufacture. 

When  all  the  parts  are  assembled,  the 
watch  is  taken  to  a  refrigerator  and  sub- 
jected to  cold.  This  is  followed  by  a  period 
in  a  hot  air  compartment,  the  two  tests 
ranging  from  40  °  to  103  °  F.    The  making  of 


WATER 


3825 


WATER  BEETLE 


watches  by  hand  is  thought  to  have  originated 
in  Germany  about  1500.  Since  the  advent 
of  the  machine-made  watch,  the  United  States 
has  reached  the  foremost  position  as  a  watch- 
manufactm'ing  country.  The  largest  watch 
factory  in  the  world  is  at  Waltham,  Mass., 
and  another,  nearly  as  large,  is  located  at 
Elgin,  111.    See  Clock. 

WATER,  the  liquid  that  covers  five-sev- 
enths of  the  earth  and  is  essential  to  all 
animal  and  vegetable  life,  is  a  chemical  com- 
pound of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  propor- 
tion of  two  atoms  of  the  former  to  one  of 
the  latter.  Its  chemical  symbol,  therefore, 
is  H.,0.  Pure  water  is  a  colorless,  tasteless, 
odorless  liquid.  It  appears  blue,  like  the 
atmosphere,  when  seen  in  mass. 

Three  Forms  of  Water.  Water  takes 
three  forms,  each  depending  upon  tempera- 
ture. It  takes  a  solid  form,  that  of  ice  or 
snow,  at  32°  Fahrenheit  (0°  Centigrade)  and 
all  lower  temperatures ;  and  it  takes  the  form 
of  vapor  or  steam  at  212°  F.  (100°  C.)  un- 
der a  pressure  of  29.9  inches  of  mercury,  and 
it  retains  that  form  at  all  higher  tempera- 
tures. Under  ordinary  conditions,  water 
possesses  the  liquid  form  only  at  tempera- 
tures lying  between  32°  and  212°.  It  is, 
however,  possible  to  cool  water  very  con- 
siderably below  32°  F.  and  yet  maintain  it 
in  the  liquid  form.  Water  may  also  be  heated, 
under  pressure  in  the  laboratoiy,  many  de- 
grees above  212°  F.,  without  passing  into  the 
state  of  steam. 

The  specific  gravity  of  water  is  1  at 
39.2°  F.,  (that  is,  one  cubic  centimeter  of 
■water  weighs  one  gram),  and  it  is  the  unit 
to  which  the  specific  gravities  of  all  solids 
and  liquids  are  referred,  as  a  convenient 
standard;  one  cubic  inch  of  water,  at  62°  F. 
and  29.9  inches  barometrical  pressure, 
weighs  252.458  grains.  Distilled  water  is  815 
times  heavier  than  atmospheric  air.  Water 
is  at  its  greatest  density  at  39.2°  F. 
(4°  C),  and  in  this  respect  it  presents  a  sin- 
gular exception  to  the  general  law  of  expan- 
sion by  heat.  If  water  at  39.2°  F.  be  cooled, 
it  expands  as  it  cools,  till  reduced  to  32°, 
when  it  solidifies;  and  if  water  at  39.2°  F. 
be  heated,  it  expands  as  the  temperature  in- 
creases, in  accordance  with  the  general  law. 
Were  it  not  for  this  peculiar  property  of  wa- 
ter, ice  would  settle  to  the  laottom  of  lakes 
and  streams  and  they  would  become  masses 
of  solid  ice,  a  condition  which  would  soon 
destroy  all  life  upon  the  earth. 


Water  as  a  Solvent.  From  a  chemical 
point  of  view,  water  is  a  neutral  fluid  and 
shows  in  itself  neither  acid  nor  basic  prop- 
erties; but  it  combines  with  both  acids  and 
bases,  forming  hydrates,  and  with  neutral 
salts.  Water  also  enters,  as  a  liquid,  into 
physical  combination  with  the  greater  num- 
ber of  all  known  substances.  Of  all  liquids, 
water  is  the  most  powerful  and  general 
solvent,  and  on  this  important  property  its 
use  depends.  In  consequence  of  the  great 
solvent  power  of  water,  it  is  never  found 
pure  in  nature.  Even  in  rain  water,  which 
is  the  purest,  there  are  always  traces  of 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia  and  sea  salt.  Where 
the  rain  water  has  filtered  through  rocks  and 
soils  and  reappears  as  spring  or  river  water, 
it  is  always  more  or  less  charged  with  salts 
derived  from  the  earth,  such  as  sea  salts, 
gypsum  and  chalk.  When  the  proportion 
of  these  is  small,  the  water  is  called  soft; 
when  larger,  it  is  called  hard  water.  The 
former  dissolves  soap  better  and  is  therefore 
preferred  for  washing;  the  latter  is  often 
pleasanter  to  drink.  Some  springs  contain 
a  considerable  quantity  of  foreign  ingredi- 
ents, which  impart  to  the  water  particular 
properties.  The  only  way  to  obtain  perfectly 
pure  water  is  to  distill  it,  but  matter  simply 
held  in  suspension  may  be  taken  out  by  suit- 
able filtration. 

Sources  of  Water.  The  great  resei-voirs 
of  water  on  the  globe  are  the  seas  and  lakes, 
which  cover  more  than  three-fifths  of  its  sur- 
face, and  from  which  water  is  raised  by 
evaporation.  Uniting  with  the  air  in  the' 
state  of  vapor,  it  is  wafted  over  the  earth, 
ready  to  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of  rain, 
snow  or  hail.  Water,  like  air,  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  life,  and  healthy  human  life 
requires  that  it  should  be  free  from  con- 
tamination ;  hence,  an  ample  and  pure  water 
supply  is  considered  as  one  of  the  first  laws 
of  sanitation. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Boiling-  Point 

Chemistry 

Cloud 

Dew 

Distillation 

Kiosion 

Kvaporation 

P'reezing- 

WATER,  Ordeal  by.    See  Ordeal. 

WATER  BEETLE,  any  representative  of 
several  families  of  beetles  Avhich  live  in  or  up- 
on the  water.    Three  of  the  families  include 


Frost 

River 

Hail 

Snow 

Humidity- 

Spring 

Hydrogen 

Steam 

Ice 

Vapor 

Mineral  Waters  Water  Power 
Ocean  Water  Purifi- 

Rain  cation 


WATER  BUG 


3826 


WATER  LILY 


beetles  which  live  permanently  in  water;  the 
rest  include  those  species  which  live  in  the 
water  only  in  the  larvae  (young)  stage. 

The  diving  beetle  has  a  flat,  oval  body, 
over  which  the  wings  fit  tight.  The  hind 
legs,  which  have  a  fringe  of  hairs,  are  flat- 
tened and  adapted  to  swimming;  the  front 
legs  are  short.  The  common  water  beetle 
seen  in  summer  darting  over  the  surface  of 
ponds  has  a  water-tight  compartment  be- 
neath the  close-fitting  wings  for  the  storage 
of  breathing  air.  In  the  evening  these  beetles 
leave  the  water  and  fly  about.  The  larvae, 
called  water  tigers,  are  exceedingly  rapa- 
cious, seizing  in  their  sickle-like  jaws  small 
fish,  tadpoles  and  other  larvae,  from  which 
they  suck  the  juices.  Breathing  is  effected 
through  tubes  terminating  in  the  tail,  which 
is  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  whirligig  beetles,  so  called  from  their 
habit  of  moving  in  circles  on  the  water,  have 
long,  clawed  front  legs  and  shorter,  paddle- 
shaped  hind  legs.  The  body  has  an  oily  sur- 
face unaffected  by  water,  and  the  compound 
eyes  are  adapted  for  vision  in  water  and  in 
air.  One  of  the  largest  of  the  water  beetles 
is  the  glossy  black  beetle,  often  seen  on  the 
wing  at  night.  These  insects  can  be  trans- 
ferred to  an  indoor  aquarium,  and  their 
whole  interesting  life  history  may  be  studied 
in  the  school  room.    See  Beetle. 

WATER  BUG,  a  name  applied  to  any  in- 
sect belonging  to  one  of  six  large  families,  in- 
cluding water  striders,  water  bo^atmen,  water 
scorpions,  toad  bugs  and  fisJikillers.  All  have 
flat  bodies,  and  are  equipped  with  oar-shaped 
legs  for  swimming.  They  may  be  seen  on 
summer  days  darting  over  the  surface  of 
ponds  and  lagoons  or  resting  quietly  on  the 
surface,  their  bodies  being  buoyed  up  by  the 
air  stored  in  various  parts  of  the  insects. 
If  alarmed,  they  may  dive  to  the  bottom  and 
cling  to  plants  or  stones.  About  a  dozen 
species  are  found  in  America.  Some  of  them 
leave  the  water  and  fly  around  lights  at 
night;  the  electric  light  bug  is  one  of  these. 
Some  of  the  adults  lie  dormant  in  the  mud 
of  water  bottoms  in  winter;  others  hibernate 
in  rubbish  on  the  banks,  and  here  the  eggs 
are  deposited.  When  the  young  hatch  they 
tumble  into  the  water  and  feed  on  insects 
and  other  small  animal  food.  The  females 
of  some  species  bore  holes  in  aquatic  plants 
and  deposit  their  eggs  there.  In  the  United 
States  the  croton  bug,  a  house  pest  resem- 
bling   the   cockroach,   is   incorrectly   called 


water  bug,  because  it  is  usually  seen  on  or 
near  waim-water  pipes. 

WAT'ERBURY,  Conn.,  one  of  the  county 
seats  of  New  Haven  County,  thirty  miles 
southwest  of  Hartford,  on  the  Naugatuck 
River  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  Railroad.  It  is  an  important  manu- 
facturing center,  leading  the  United  States 
in  brass  and  copper  goods  and  for  this  rea- 
son sometimes  Imown  as  the  "Brass  City." 
The  famous  Waterbury  watches  have  been 
manufactured  here  in  immense  numbers  since 
1879.  There  are  also  button  factories,  foun- 
dries, machine  shops,  knitting  mills,  clock 
factories,  bottling  works,  publishing  houses 
and  engraving  establishments. 

Among  the  educational  institutions  are 
Saint  Margaret's  School  for  girls,  Convent 
of  Notre  Dame,  Gerard  School,  two  business 
colleges  and  a  public  high  school.  Other 
important  features  are  the  Bronson  Public 
Library,  Waterburj^  Hospital,  St.  Mary's 
Hospital,  Southmayd  Home  for  old  ladies, 
the  city  hall  and  the  Masonic  Temple.  The 
place  was  settled  in  1677  and  was  known  by 
the  Indian  name  of  Mattatuck  until  its  in- 
corporation as  a  town,  in  1686.  It  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1853.  In  1691  it  suf- 
fered from  a  flood;  in  1712  an  epidemic 
proved  fatal  to  about  one-tenth  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  in  1902  a  large  portion  of  the 
business  section  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The 
town  and  city  of  Waterbury  were  consoli- 
dated in  1900  and  cover  an  area  of  twenty- 
eight  square  miles.  Population,  1910,  73,- 
141;  in  1917,  89,201  '(Federal  estimate). 

WATER  COLORS,  pigments  mixed  and 
ground  with  gum  size  or  some  other  adhesive 
substance,  instead  of  oil.  The  water  colors 
used  in  painting  pictures  are  in  the  form  of 
small,  dry  and  hard  cakes,  while  those  used 
in  coloring  walls  and  the  like  are  simply 
mixed  up  with  glue  or  size.  The  quick  dry- 
ing of  water  colors  is  favorable  to  rapid  exe- 
cution, and  a  greater  clearness  and  trans- 
parency is  obtained  than  in  an  oil  painting. 

WATER  DOG.    See3IuD  Puppy. 

WATERFALL.     See  Cataract. 

WATER  LILY,  a  water  plant  with  a 
gorgeous  blossom,  found  in  quiet  waters  of 
the  temperate  and  torrid  zones.  From  the 
oozy  bottom  the  stems  rise  to  the  top  of  the 
water;  there  the  leaves  open  out  and  lie  flat 
upon  the  surface,  and  the  buds  unfold,  dis- 
closing numerous  petals,  stamens  and  carpels. 
The  flowers  may  be  pink,  white  or  blue,  and 


WATERLOO 


3827 


WATERLOO 


sometimes  they  are  veiy  fragrant.  The 
most  famous  of  water  lilies  is  the  Queen 
Victoria,  a  native  of  South  America.  The 
leaves,  six  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  are  flat, 
with  upturned  rim,  and  are  often  strong 
enough  to  support  a  man's  weight.  The 
blossoms,  a  foot  in  diameter,  open  on  two 
successive  nights;  the  first  night  they  are 
white  and  fragrant,  the  second,  pink  and 
malodorous. 

The  Australian  water  lily  is  often  as  large 
and  is  usually  blue.  The  Egj^ptian  lotus  is 
also  a  blue  lily,  famous  since  remote  antiq- 
uity. The  American  pond  lily  is  a  lovely, 
creamy-white  flower,  with  petals  radiating 
in  circles  and  a  cluster  of  golden  stamens. 
It  expands  to  the  sunshine  and  closes  at 
dusk.  The  golden  lily  of  Florida  is  a  hand- 
some flower,  and  the  common  yellow  water 
lily  of  higher  latitudes  is  less  showy,  but 
blooms  all  summer.  A  rose-colored  variety  is 
also  found  in  North  America.  The  seeds  of 
the  pond  lily  lie  sunk  in  pits  in  the  flattened 
top  of  a  hemispherical  pod.  Those  of  several 
species  are  edible,  and  are  sometimes  called 
water  chinquapin.  They  were  an  important 
article  of  food  among  the  Indians. 

WATERLOO,  Battle  of,  the  famous 
battle,  fought  June  18,  1815,  near  Waterloo, 
a  village  in  Belgium  about  eleven  miles  south 
of  Brussels,  between  Napoleon  and  the  allied 
forces  under  Bliicher  and  Wellington.  It 
was  Napoleon's  last  battle,  and  it  put  an  end 
to  his  power  (see  Hundred  Dats).  There 
had  been  two  preliminaiy  battles  on  the  16th, 
one  at  Quatre-Bras,  by  which  Ney,  although 
forced  to  retire,  prevented  Wellington  from 
joining  his  Prussian  allies,  and  one  at  Ligny, 
in  which  the  Prussians  under  Bliicher  were 
defeated  by  Napoleon.  On  the  morning  of 
the  eighteenth  the  main  French  army  was 
drawn  up  near  Waterloo,  opposite  the  allied 
British,  Dutch  and  German  forces,  under 
Wellington.  Bliicher,  with  the  Prussian 
army,  was  absent  at  the  opening  of  the  fight. 
The  French  army  numbered  about  72,000,  the 
allied  army  about  67,000,  of  which  number 
many  were  untrained  troops. 

Napoleon's  plan  was  to  defeat  Wellington 
before  Bliicher  could  come  up  with  his  troops, 
but  the  ground  was  in  such  a  condition  from 
the  rain  that  had  fallen  all  night  that  he  was 
obliged  to  delay  opening  battle  until  almost 
noon.  Wellington,  on  the  contrarj^,  simply 
aimed  to  hold  out  until  the  Prussians  arrived, 
when  a  combined  attack  might  be  made  on 


the  French.  In  accordance  with  these  plans 
the  struggle  throughout  the  day  consisted 
chiefly  of  charges,  brilliant  but  unsuccessful, 
on  the  part  of  the  French,  and  firm  resistance 
on  the  part  of   the  English.     The  French 


BATTLE  OP  WATERLOO 

cavalry,  charging  during  the  afternoon, 
plunged  into  an  unseen  sunken  road,  and 
unable  to  check  their  rush,  they  filled  the 
great  ditch  with  troopers,  over  whom  the  re- 
mainder rode  on.  These  repeated  charges, 
although  stubbornly  resisted,  had  their  effect, 
and  the  outcome  of  the  battle  remained 
doubtful  until  late  in  the  day,  when  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Prassians,  at  a  time  when  both 
armies  were  about  exhausted  completely 
turned  the  tide  against  the  French.  Napo- 
leon's last  effort  was  the  charge  of  the  Old 
Guard,  the  picked  veterans  from  the  Im- 
perial Guard,  late  in  the  evening.  Its  rout 
was  complete,  and  many  of  its  squares,  re- 
fusing to  surrender  or  retreat,  fell  to  the 
last  man.  Wellington  now  gave  the  order 
for  a  general  advance,  and  the  French,  utter- 
ly overpowered,  gave  way  at  every  point. 
The  army  broke  up  in  confusion,  and  the  dis- 


WATERLOO 


3828 


WATER  POWER 


astrous  retreat,  with  the  Prussians  in  piu'- 
suit,  lasted  through  the  night.  Napoleon 
himself  escaped  by  flight.  The  French  lost 
in  this  battle  probably  thirty-one  thousand 
in  killed,  wounded  and  missing,  while  the 
allies  lost  over  twenty-two  thousand. 

The  importance  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo 
as  the  means  of  finally  crushing  Napoleon 
has  been  somewhat  exaggerated.  Even 
had  he  been  successful  on  that  day,  he  could 
never  have  regained  his  old  power.  But  the 
accomplishment  of  his  overthrow  that  early 
in  his  campaign  was  fortunate  for  the  allies 
and  for  the  French,  as  it  saved  further  blood- 
shed.   See  Napoleon  I. 

WATERLOO',  lowA^  the  county  seat  of 
Black  Hawk  County,  on  the  Red  Cedar  River 
and  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific, 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago  Gi'eat  West- 
em,  and  the  Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls  &  North- 
ern railroads.  Since  1900,  Waterloo  has 
been  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing  cities 
in  the  state.  It  is  known  as  the  "Factory 
City;"  it  manufactures  about  twenty  per 
cent  of  all  the  United  States-made  gasoline 
engines  of  the  farm  type.  There  are  also 
foundries,  malleable  iron  works,  concrete 
works,  machine  shops,  farm  implement  fac- 
tories, packing  houses,  canneries  and  cream 
separator  factories.  The  principal  structures 
are  a  Federal  building,  a  courthouse,  mu- 
nicipal buildings,  two  Carnegie  Libraries, 
Presbyterian  and  Serphic  Heights  hospitals, 
the  Russell-Lamson  Hotel,  and  several  im- 
posing bank  buildings  and  business  blocks. 
Our  Lady  of  Victory  Academy  and  two  busi- 
ness colleges  are  located  here.  The  city  was 
settled  about  1845,  and  was  incorporated  in 
1868.  Population,  1910,  2G,693;  in  1917, 
36,987  (Federal  estimate). 

WATERLOO,  Ont.,  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  three  miles  northwest  of  Berlin.  It 
is  an  important  center  for  manufacturing, 
furniture,  boots  and  shoes,  threshing  ma- 
chines, buttons,  mattresses,  washing  ma- 
chines, trunks  and  bags,  bricks  and  tiles  be- 
ing the  most  important  products.  Niagara 
electric  power  is  furnished  to  the  factories. 
There  are  good  public  and  separate  schools 
and  six  churches.    Population,  1916,  5,090. 

WATERMELON,  a  creeping  variety  of 
gourd.  The  rind  of  the  fruit  is  smooth  and 
dark  green  when  ripe;  the  inside  of  the 
melon  is  a  coarse  red  or  yellowish  pulp, 
ninety  per  cent  of  which  is  water.  Its  native 
home  was  Africa,  but  it  has  been  widely  cul- 


tivated from  remote  times.  It  is  very 
popuiar  in  the  United  States,  where  it  has 
become  a  most  important  crop  for  the  fruit- 
growers of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
states,  in  which  sections  thousands  of  acres 
are  devoted  to  raising  melons  for  the  north- 
ern market.  Watermelons  in  smalle"  quan- 
tities are  raised  as  far  north  as  Southern 
Ontario.  The  ideal  soil  for  melon  euHure  is 
light,  sandy  loam,  which  is  naturally  dry 
or  else  thoroughly  drained.  Most  melons 
weigh  from  twentv  to  fifty  pounds. 

WATER  PLANTS.  See  Aquatio 
Plants. 

WATER  POLO,  a  ball  game  similar  to 
hockey,  played  by  swimmers,  with  a  ball 
filled  with  air,  which  fioats.  It  is  a  good 
game  for  swimming  tanks,  and  is  then  played 
generally  throughout  the  winter  season.  The 
object  of  the  game,  of  course,  is  for  one  side 
to  carry,  push  or  throw  the  ball  to  the  op- 
ponent's goal  line,  at  the  end  of  the  tank. 

WATER  POWER.  By  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  machinery  in  the  world  is  oper- 
ated, directly  or  indirectly,  by  water  power. 
Many  of  the  great  factories,  mills  and  elec- 
tric plants  are  located  on  or  near  rapid 
streams,  because  water  joower  is  much  less 
expensive  than  steam  power.  The  install- 
ment of  a  water-power  plant  usually  requires 
the  construction  of  a  dam,  a  canal  or  flume 
to  conduct  the  water  to  the  wheel,  and  a 
power  house.  The  original  expense  may  be 
greater  than  that  of  a  steam  plant,  but  the 
extra  expense  is  soon  recovered  by  the  saving 
in  operating  expenses,  for  when  properly 
installed,  the  water-power  plant  will  run  for 
years  with  only  slight  repairs,  and  without 
fuel  cost. 

Classification.  Water-power  plants  are  di- 
vided into  three  classes — low-head,  medium- 
head,  and  high-head,  according  to  the  height 
of  the  fall.  Low-head  plants  have  a  fall  not 
exceeding  100  feet ;  medium-head,  not  exceed- 
ing 350  feet,  and  the  high-head  class  includes 
all  plants  having  a  fall  of  more  than  350 
feet.  The  fall  of  some  plants  in  this  class 
exceeds  5,000  feet.  Most  of  the  great  plants 
are  of  low-head  type,  and  they  are  located 
on  the  banks  of  large  streams.  They  gain 
in  volume  what  they  lose  in  fall.  The  larg- 
est plant  of  this  tj^pe  in  the  world  (1919) 
is  at  Keokuk,  Iowa  (see  Keokuk).  The 
most  noted  plant  of  the  medium-head  type 
js  at  Niagara  Falls,  where  over  300,000 
horse  power  has  been  developed. 


WATER  POWER 


5829 


WATER  PURIFICATION 


Plants  of  the  high-bead  type  are  usually 
found  on  mountain  streams  having  a  rapid 
flow  and  small  volume  of  water.  A  dam  is 
constructed  across  a  deep,  naiTow  valley  to 
impound  the  water,  which  is  conducted  to 
the  power  house  through  steel  pipes.  The 
power  house  may  be  two  or  three  miles  be- 
low the  dam,  so  a  high  fall  is  secui-ed.  These 
plants  are  operated  by  a  small  volume  of 
water  under  veiy  high  pressure  and  they 
require  a  special  type  of  water  wheel  (see 
Turbine  Wheel).  Their  principal  use  is 
in  generating  electric  power,  which  is  often 
carried  long  distances  over  wires.  The 
power  used  in  operating  the  street  cars  in 
San  Francisco,  for  instance,  is  generated  over 
125  miles  from  the  city. 

Estimating  Water  Power.  The  power  of 
water  for  operating  machinery  is  derived 
from  its  weight  or  pressure.  The  pressure 
of  a  column  of  water  of  a  given  height  is 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  water.  A  cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  62.5  pounds;  therefore 
a  column  of  water  one  foot  square  and  ten 
feet  high  weighs  625  pounds,  and  at  its  base 
exerts  a  pressure  on  a  square  foot  equal  to 
that  weight.  The  nile  for  estimating  the 
horse  power  of  a  water  fall  is  as  follows : 
Multiply  the  flow  in  cubic  feet  per  second 
by  the  height  of  the  fall  and  this  product  by 
.1134.  A  faU  of  100  feet  and  600  cubic  feet 
flow  will  have  a  power  equal  to  100X600X 
.1134,  or  6,804  horse  power. 

Government  Ownership.  In  the  United 
States  all  water  power  on  government  land 
is  under  control  of  the  government,  and  since 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  strin- 
gent laws  for  preventing  great  power  sites 
from  falling  into  the  hands  of  monopolists 
have  been  passed.  Unfortunately,  however, 
before  the  conservation  movement  was 
started,  many  valuable  sites  had  been  appro- 
priated by  capitalists  and  a  legal  claim  to 
them  had  been  established.  Since  water, 
like  air,  is  one  of  the  great  natural  resources 
of  a  country,  the  theoiy  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened governments  is  that  it  belongs  to  all 
the  people ;  therefore  all  water  power  should 
be  under  control  of  the  government,  and  it 
should  be  leased,  not  sold.  Canada  is  far 
ahead  of  the  United  States  in  this  respect,  for 
in  Canada  all  water  power  is  under  govern- 
ment control.  Power  sites  may  be  leased,  but 
none  can  be  pui-chased. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  total  water  power 
of   the   United    States   is   30,000,000   horse 


power,  and  that  less  than  one-sixth  of  it  has 
been  developed.  The  water  power  of  Canada 
is  estimated  at  18,000,000  horse  power,  only 
about  eight  per  cent  of  which  has  been  de- 
veloped. Europe  has  41,000,000  horse 
power,  and  utilizes  only  one-tenth  of  it. 
The  water  power  of  the  other  continents  is 
not  known. 

WATERPROOFING,  a  process  of  ren- 
dering cloth  and  other  articles  proof  against 
water.  In  the  preparation  of  mackintoshes 
a  solution  of  rubber  is  spread  on  the  goods, 
and  the  cloth  is  doubled,  pressed  and  finished 
with  the  waterproof  layer  in  the  middle. 
Such  goods  are  impervious  both  to  air  and 
to  water,  but  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view 
they  are  not  desirable  for  constant  wear.  A 
new  process  has  been  introduced,  which  ren- 
ders the  fabrics  proof  against  water,  but  does 
not  obstruct  ventilation.  The  materials  are 
saturated  with  soap  and  then  dipped  in  an 
alum  solution.  Still  another  process,  by 
which  the  same  result  is  obtained,  consists 
of  treating  the  fibei-s  of  the  cloth,  instead  of 
the  manufactured,  woven  fabric,  with  the 
solution.  Paraffin  is  often  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  i-ubber  in  waterproofing  leather, 
wood  and  various  other  substances.  Paper 
is  made  waterproof  by  immersing  it  in  a 
solution  of  shellac  in  borax,  a  treatment 
which  causes  it  to  resemble  parchment  paper. 

WATER  PURIFICATION.  Pure  water 
is  essential  to  health,  and  often  one  of  the 
most  perplexing  problems  connected  with 
water  supply  is  that  of  securing  pure  water. 
Because  of  its  solvent  power,  all  water  ob- 
tained from  natm'al  sources  contains  more 
or  less  impurities,  some  of  which  may  be 
highly  injurious.  Among  the  mineral  impur- 
ities held  in  solution  are  usually  found  lime, 
iron,  compounds  of  sulphur  and  sometimes 
compounds  of  lead.  The  impurities  not  held 
in  solution  are  clay,  particles  of  soil,  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  and  bacteria. 

Lime  and  sulphur  are  not  injurious  to 
health;  neither  is  iron,  unless  it  occurs  in 
excess.  The  pi'esence  of  clay,  sand  and  or- 
ganic matter  makes  the  water  turbid,  and 
the  organic  matter  renders  the  water  dan- 
gerous to  health.  All  these  substances  should 
be  removed. 

The  processes  employed  for  purifying 
water  on  a  large  scale  include  settling  or 
sedimentation,  filtering  and  chemical  treat- 
ment. Settling  is  secured  by  allowing  the 
water  to  remain  quietly  in  large  tanks,  from 


WATERSHED 


3830 


WATERTOWN 


which  it  flows  slowly  from  the  top.  Where 
the  water  contains  a  large  quantity  of  solid 
matter  two  or  three  settling  tanks  may  be 
necessary,  but  usually  one  is  sufficient.  The 
sand  and  gravel  of  the.  earth  form  a  natural 
filter  for  spring  water,  and  this  sort  of  filter 
is  used  in  water  purification.  The  filters 
consist  of  lai'ge  tanks  with  perforated  bot- 
toms, over  which  layers  of  gravel  and  sand 
are  placed.  As  the  water  percolates  through 
these  layers  the  solid  matter  and  most  of 
the  bacteria  are  removed.  If  the  water  con- 
tains a  large  proportion  of  lime,  it  may  be 
treated  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
alumina.  The  lime  separates  this  compound 
into  alumina  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid 
unites  with  the  lime  or  magnesia  in  the  water 
and  renders  it  harmless,  and  the  alumina 
coagulates  the  organic  matter  and  carries  it 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

Home  Tests.  Epidemics  of  typhoid, 
diphtheria  and  other  contagious  diseases  are 
often  traced  to  impure  water.  Because  water 
is  clear,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  pure. 
A  glass  of  the  most  sparkling  water  imag- 
inable may  contain  millions  of  death-dealing 
germs,  and  every  household  should  know  of 
simple  means  of  testing  water  whose  purity 
is  suspected.  The  following  tests  can  be  ap- 
plied by  any  one  at  practically  no  expense: 

(1)  Into  a  vial  containing  about  two 
ounces  of  water  put  a  quantity  of  granulated 
sugar  equal  in  volume  to  a  pea  or  small  bean. 
When  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  cork  the  vial 
and  set  it  in  a  warm  place  for  forty-eight 
hours.  If,  when  the  cork  is  removed,  the 
water  emits  a  disagreeable  odor,  it  is  unsafe. 

(2)  Make  a  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash  by  dropping  into  an  ounce  of  water  a 
few  crystals  of  this  substance,  which  can  be 
obtained  at  any  drug  store.  Into  a  glass  of 
the  suspected  water  place  a  few  drops  of  the 
solution.  If  the  purple  color  disappears,  the 
water  is  unsafe. 

These  tests  are  satisfactory  within  cer- 
tain limits,  but  all  water  suspected  of  pol- 
lution should  be  tested  by  a  chemist;  any 
householder  may  have  this  done  free  of 
charge  by  sending  a  sample  of  the  water  to 
the  State  Department  of  Public  Health  or 
to  the  state  university.  Water  for  house- 
hold purposes  should  not  be  run  through 
lead  pipes,  for  it  may  attack  the  lead  and 
form  compounds  that  are  exceedingly  poison- 
ous.   See  Lead  Poisoning. 

WATERSHED,  an  elevation  of  land  which 
separates  the  headwaters  of  natural  drain- 
age systems.    Such  a  configuration  of  land  is 


sometimes  called  a  divide.  A  watershed 
separating  great  river  systems  may  be  only 
a  slight  rise  of  ground,  such  as  the  divide 
between  the  waters  flowing  into  Hudson  Bay 
on  the  north  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  the 
Atlantic  on  the  south  and  east.  Again  it 
may  be  a  range  of  lofty  mountains,  such  as 
the  Rockies,  which  sepaj'ate  the  headwaters 
of  streams  flowing  respectively  into  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Pacific. 

WATERSPOUT,  a  whirling  column  of 
water,  extending  from  a  cloud  to  the  sur- 
face of  a  body  of  water,  like  the  ocean  or  a 
lake.  The  presence  of  this  column  is  marked 
by  the  cloud  of  vapor  which  it  contains.  This 
cloud  is  formed  by  the  rapid  condensation  of 
the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  due  to  ex- 
pansion and  rapid  cooling,  caused  by  the  low 
pressure  in  the  area  occupied  by  the  column. 
If  the  conditions  continue  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  rain  is  produced  and  sometimes  falls 
in  such  quantities  as  to  constitute  a  small 
deluge.  In  waterspouts  over  the  ocean,  the 
lower  part  of  the  column  may  contain  vapor 
from  salt  water,  but  usually  the  vapor  is  that 
of  fresh  water.  Waterspouts  are  caused  in 
the  same  v/ay  as  whirlwinds.  See  Whirl- 
wind. 

WATERTOWN,  N.  Y.,  the  county  seat  of 
Jefferson  County,  seventy-three  miles  north- 
east of  Sjrraeuse,  on  the  Black  River  and  on 
the  New  York  Central  Railroad.  The  city 
is  the  center  of  one  of  the  most  productive 
dairying  regions  of  the  country,  doing  an 
annual  business  in  cheese  alone  of  $1,500,000. 
There  are  also  extensive  deposits  of  iron  and 
limestone  in  the  vicinity.  The  river  furnishes 
extensive  water  power,  and  there  are  large 
paper  and  pulp  mills,  foundries,  machine 
shops,  silk  mills  and  other  establishments. 
The  principal  buildings  include  a  Federal 
Building,  a  Masonic  Temple,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
the  Flower  Memorial  Library,  a  courthouse 
and  an  armory.  The  city  has  two  hospitals, 
two  orphanages  and  a  home  for  the  aged. 
Watertown  was  settled  in  1800,  was  made 
the  county  seat  in  1805,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1869.  It  adopted  the  commission 
form  of  government  in  1918.  Population, 
1910,  26,730;  in  1917,  30,404  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 

WATERTOWN,  S.  D.,  the  county  seat  of 
Coddington  County,  214  miles  west  of  Min- 
neapolis, on  the  Big  Sioux  River  and  on  the 
Chicago  &  North  Western,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  &  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern  and 


WATERVILLE 


3831 


WATERWORKS 


the  Minneapolis  &  Saint  Louis  railroads.  It 
is  about  three  miles  from  Lake  Kampeska, 
a  resort  for  camping  and  fishing.  Water- 
town  is  an  important  shipping  point  for 
grain  and  stock.  There  are  large  grain 
elevators,  warehouses  and  flouring  mills. 
Leather  goods,  agricultural  implements,  car- 
riages and  wagons,  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products  are  manufactured.  The  city 
has  a  Carnegie  Library  and  two  hospitals. 
It  is  under  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment.   Population,  1910,  8,829. 

WATERVILLE,  Maine,  a  city  in  Ken- 
nebec County,  seventeen  miles  northeast  of 
Augusta,  on  the  Kennebec  River  and  on  the 
Maine  Central  Railroad.  Colby  College, 
Cobum  Classical  Institute,  the  Urusline 
Academy  and  a  Carnegie  Library  are  notable 
institutions  and  buildings.  The  principal 
industrial  establishments  are  run  by  water 
power  from  the  river  and  include  cotton 
mills,  woolen  mills,  railroad  shops  and  fur- 
niture and  carriage  factories.  The  first  set- 
tlement was  made  here  about  17G0,  but  it 
remained  a  part  of  Winslow  until  1802.  The 
city  was  chartered  in  1888.  Population,  1910, 
11,458;  in  1917,  12,903  (Federal  estimate). 

WATERVLIET,  waw  tur  vleet' ,  N.  Y.,  a 
city  in  Albany  County,  on  the  Hudson  River, 
opposite  Troy,  near  the  terminals  of  the 
Erie  and  Champlain  canals,  and  on  the  Dela- 
ware &  Hudson  railroad.  A  United  States 
arsenal  was  established  here  in  1807  on  a 
reservation  of  109  acres,  and  has  since  been 
one  of  the  largest  permanent  centers  in  the 
country  for  the  manufacture  of  war  mate- 
rials. Other  manufactures  include  woolen 
goods  and  iron  and  lumber  products.  The 
place  was  originally  called  West  Troy.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1836  and  as 
a  city  in  1897. 
Population,  C 
1910,  15,074;  in 
1917,  15,622 
(Federal  es- 
timate). 

WATER 
WHEEL,  a 
wheel  construct- 
ed and  set  up 
for  operating 
machinery 
by  water  power. 
The  old  style  water  wheels  were  large  wooden 
structures,  rotating  upon  a  horizontal  axis. 
They  were  constructed  of  two  frames,  from 


OVERSHOT  "WHEELi 


four  to  six  feet  apart,  joined  at  their  circum- 
ferences, with  buckets  or  floats  attached,  as 
occasion  required.  They  were  known  as  over- 
shot or  undershot  wheels,  according  to  the 
method  of  operating,  the  overshot  wheel  re- 
ceiving water  at  the  top,  and  the  undershot 
at  the  bottom.  Each  of  these  is  described 
under  its  respective  title.  The  breast  wheel 
has  the  water  admitted  to  the  floats  at  a  point 
horizontally  opposite  the  axle. 

A  recent  modification  of  the  undershot 
wheel  consists  of  a  small  iron  wheel,  with 
cups  or  buckets  upon  its  circumference  the 
whole  enclosed  in  an  iron  box.  This  is  often 
known  as  the 
impact  wheel  or, 
water  motor.  The 
water  issues 
from  a  small 
nozzle  under 
very  high  pres- 
sure, and  as  it 
strikes  the  box 
it  causes  the 
wheel  to  revolve  BREAST  wheel 

with  great  rapidity.  These  wheels  are  con- 
venient, because  of  their  small  size  and  the 
ease  with  which  they  can  be  placed  in  almost 
any  desired  position,  but  they  are  of  use 
only  in  cities  where  the  waterworks  enable 
a  high  pressure  to  be  obtained.  Another 
form  of  wheel  in  common  use  is  the  turbine. 
See  Turbine  Wheel. 

WATERWORKS,  the  system  of  reser- 
voirs, i)umps  and  mains  arranged  for  sup- 
plying a  community  with  water  for  domestic 
use,  manufacturing  purposes,  fire  protec- 
tion and  street  and  lawn  sprinkling.  The 
water  supply  of  large  cities  is  usually  con- 
ducted from  near-by  lakes  or  rivers;  small 
towns  obtain  their  supply  from  springs  or 
wells.  The  selection  of  a  source  of  supply 
must  be  made  with  great  care,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  free  from  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  and  other  organic  im- 
purities. It  must  also  be  free  from  sewage 
contamination.  Cool  water  is  considered 
better  than  warm,  because  it  is  less  hos- 
pitable to  the  propagation  of  life. 

Where  the  source  of  supply  is  a  long  dis- 
tance from  the  city,  a  reservoir  is  usually 
constructed,  which  is  connected  with  the 
city  by  an  aqueduct  emptying  into  one  or 
more  smaller  reservoirs,  as  in  the  New  York 
City  plant.  From  these  reservoirs  the  water 
is    distributed    through    mains    to    different 


WATSON 


3832 


WATTEAU 


portions  of  the  citj^,  and  from  the  mains 
to  consumers.  When  situated  near  a  suitable 
source  of  supply,  the  water  is  pumped  di- 
rectly thi'ough  the  mains,  as  is  the  case  in 
Chicago,  which  secures  its  water  from  Lake 
Michigan.  Small  cities  commonly  use  stand- 
pipes  for  reservoirs.  These  are  constructed 
of  iron  or  steel,  and  are  mounted  on  founda- 
tions of  masonry. 

WATSON,  wat'son,  John  (1850-1907), 
well  kno^Ti  under  the  pen  name  of  Ian  Mac- 
laren,  an  English  author  and  clergyman,  born 
at  Manningtree,  in  Essex,  of  Scotch  parents. 
He  graduated  in  1870  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  studied  theology  at  New  Col- 
lege, Edinburgh,  and  at  Tubingen.  His  first 
charge  was  at  Logiealmond,  in  Perthshire. 
In  1877  he  became  associate  pastor  of  Saint 
Matthew's  Church,  Glasgow,  and  he  took 
charge  of  the  Sefton  Park  Presbyterian 
Church,  Liverpool,  in  1880.  A  number  of 
sketches  of  humble  Scottish  life,  which  were 
published  in  the  British  Weekly,  were  in 
1894  collected  into  a  little  volume  called  Be- 
side the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush,  and  it  is  by  this 
work  that  he  is  best  known.  Among  his 
other  writings  are  The  Days  of  Auld  Lang 
Syne,  Kate  Carnegie,  The  Mind  of  the  Master 
and  A  Doctor  of  the  Old  School. 

WATSON,  Thomas  E.  (1856-  ),  an 
American  lawyer,  politician  and  journalist, 
born  in  Columbia  County,  Ga.  He  studied 
at  Mercer  College,  Macon,  taught  school  for 
a  time  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1875. 
After  practicing  for  a  time  in  Thompson, 
Ga.,  he  became  a  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature, and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1891 
as  a  Populist.  He  was  defeated  in  the  two 
following  elections.  During  his  term  he 
fought  for  and  secured  the  first  appropria- 
tion for  rural  free  delivery.  In  1896  he  was 
the  Populist  candidate  for  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  1904  was  the 
candidate  of  the  same  party  for  President. 
Though  he  made  an  active  campaign,  he  re- 
ceived no  electoral  votes.  He  edited,  at 
New  York,  Watson's  Jeffersonian  Magazine 
and  The  WeeJdy  Jeffersonian.  Among  his 
published  works  are  Life  of  Napoleon,  Life 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,  The  Story  of  France, 
The  Roman  Catholic  Hierarchy  and  The 
House  of  Haijsliurg. 

WATSON,  William  (1858-  ),  an  Eng- 
lish poet,  author  of  Purple  East,  containing 
his  best  sonnets;  The  Year  of  Shame,  an  in- 
dictment of  England's  policy  in  the  Orient; 


The  Hope  of  the  World;  Studies  in  Poetry 
and  Criticism,  and  other  works. 

WATT,  ivaht,  in  electricity  the  unit  of 
power  or  measure  of  the  rate  of  current,  so 
named  in  recognition  of  James  Watt,  the 
inventor.  It  is  equal  to  the- pressure  of  one 
volt  with  a  flow  of  one  ampere  per  second. 
A  thousand  watts  form  a  kilowatt,  the  meas- 
ure of  power ;  in  most  common  use  746  watts 
equal  one  horse  power. 

WATT,  tvaht,  James  (1736-1819),  a  Scot- 
tish engineer,  celebrated  for  the  improve- 
ments he  made  in  the  steam  engine.  He  was 
born  at  Greenock,  Scotland.  Having  deter- 
mined to  adopt  the 
trade  of  m  a  ki  n  g 
mathematical  in- 
struments. Watt 
went  to  London,  at 
the  age  of  eight- 
een, to  learn  the 
art;  but  ill  health 
compelled  him  to 
return  after  only  a 
year's  apprentice- 
ship. Shortly  after 
his  return  he  was 
appointed  maker 
of  mathematical  in- 
struments for  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
Resigning  this  position  after  a  time,  he 
worked  as  a  civil  engineer,  making  surveys 
for  canals  and  harbors.  In  1764  while  re- 
jDairing  a  Newcomen  engine.  Watt  made  ex- 
periments which  resulted  in  the  improve- 
ments that  have  made  his  name  famous.  In 
partnership  with  Matthew  Boulton,  a  Birm- 
ingham manufacturer,  he  founded,  at  Soho, 
a  factoiy  where,  in  1774,  was  completed  the 
l^rototype,  in  principle,  of  the  steam  engine 
of  to-day. 

Watt  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Societies 
of  London  and  Edinburgh  and  a  member  of 
the  National  Institute  of  France.  Besides 
improving  the  steam  engine,  he  invented  or 
improved  a  variety  of  mechanical  appli- 
ances, including  a  letter-copying  press,  a 
machine  for  reproducing  sculpture  and  a 
fuel-saving  furnace.  See  Steam  Engine. 

WATTEAU,  vah  to',  Jean  Antoine 
(1684-1721),  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
painters  of  the  eighteenth  century,  bom  of 
humble  parents,  in  Flanders.  At  eighteen  lie 
went  to  Paris,  where  after  years  of  struggle 
in  obscurity  he  became  a  court  favorite.  In 
time    his    reputation    extended    throughout 


JAMES  WATT 


WATTERSON 


3833 


WAUKEGAN 


Europe.  His  name  is  chiefly  associated  with 
a  style  characterized  by  ideal  gardens  and 
woodlands  peopled  with  richly  costumed  men 
and  women,  who  disport  themselves  with  all 
the  airs  and  formal  graces  of  the  times.  In 
1717  Watteau  became  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy. He  was  a  favorite  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  to-day  the  finest  collection  of 
Watteaus  in  the  world  is  owned  by  Ger- 
many. 

WATTERSON,  waf  tur  son,  Henry 
(1840-  ),  for  nearly  fiftj'-  years  one  of 

the  most  influential  newspaper  editors  in  the 
United  States.  He  was  born  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  was  privately  educated  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty  joined  the  staff  of  the  Washing- 
ton Star.  He  removed  to  Nashville  in  1861, 
where  he  edited  the  RcpuhUcan  Banner,  and 
during  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the  Con- 
federate anny.  The  Republican  Banner  was 
revived  after  the  close  of  the  war;  and  in 
1867  Watterson  went  to  Louisville,  where 
he  founded  the  Journal,  later  consolidated 
with  the  Courier,  and  then  known  as  the 
Courier-Journal.  He  steadily  refused  office, 
but  in  1876  he  accepted  a  seat  in  Congress, 
serving  with  distinction,  but  declining  re- 
election. From  1872  to  1892  he  was  a  dele- 
gate at  large  to  every  Democratic  national 
convention,  and  he  was  i;ntil  his  retirement 
from  active  service  in  1918  a  power  in  na- 
tional politics,  through  his  editorials  in  the 
Courier-Journal  and  his  strong  personality. 
In  1919  he  published  Looking  Bacl-ward,  a 
series  of  sketches  in  which  he  reviewed  in  a 
personal  vein  his  country's  history  for  five 
decades. 

WATTS,  wots,  George  Frederick  (1817- 
1904),  an  English  artist,  famous  for  his 
portraits,  but  chiefly  for  allegoncal  and  sym- 
bolical pictures  in  which  he  attempted  to 
show  the  power  of  love  and  the  ugliness  of 
greed.  Watts  was  born  in  London,  and  at 
the  age  of  thirty  he  married  the  actress 
Ellen  Terry.  The  marriage  was  soon  an- 
nulled. Among  his  more  important  pictures 
are  Love  and  Death,  now  in  Washington; 
Life's  Illusion,  The  Window  Seat  and  Sir 
Galahad.  He  is  one  of  the  most  subtle  and 
powerful  of  portrait  painters,  among  his 
successful  work  in  this  line  being  portraits 
of  Tennyson,  Millais,  Sir  Frederick  Leigh- 
ton,  Cardinal  Manning  and  Browning. 

More  than  almost  any  other  artist,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  artistic  interests  of 
the  nation,  gratuitously  decorating  the  din- 


ing hall  of  Lincoln's  Inn  and  giving  the  best 
of  his  work  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the 
National  Gallery  of  British  Art.  The  prin- 
ciples of  his  art  are  best  summed  up  in 
his  own  words,  "The  end  of  art  must  be  the 
expression  of  some  weighty  principle  of 
si^iritual  significance,  the  illustration  of 
great  truth." 

WATTS,  Isaac  (1G74-174S),  an  English 
clergj'man  and  writer,  noted  for  his  hj^mns. 
He  was  born  at  Southampton.  After  tutor- 
ing six  years,  he  became  minister  of  the 
Independent  Church  in  Mark  Lane,  in  1702. 
A  severe  illness  ended  this  engagement  and 
Watts  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  with 
Sir  Thomas  Abney,  at  Theobalds.  Among 
his  works  are  Divine  and  Moral  Songs  for 
Children,  Hymns  and  Spiritual  Songs, 
Psalms  of  David  Imitated  and  Horae 
Lyricae,  the  last  three  containing  nearly  five 
hundred  hymns  and  versions.  "When  I 
survey  the  wonderous  cross"  is  said  to  be 
Watts's  finest  hymn,  and  with  Ken's  Morn- 
ing Hymn,  Charles  Wesley's  "Hark,  the 
Herald  Angels"  and  Toplady's  "Rock  of 
Ages,"  it  stands  at  the  head  of  all  hymns  in 
the  English  language. 

WAUKEGAN,  imwke'gon,  III.,  the 
county  seat  of  Lake  County,  thirt5'-five  miles 
north  of  Chicago,  on  Lake  Michigan  and  on 
the  Chicago  &  North  Western  and  the  Elgin, 
Joliet  &  Eastern  railroads.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  with  boat  service  to  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  other  lake  ports,  and  is  the 
center  of  a  large  trade  in  farm  and  dairy 
products.  Industrial  establishments  include 
steel  and  wire  works,  brass  and  iron  found- 
ries, tanning  factories,  a  sugar  refinery  and 
manufactories  of  locks,  boats,  doors,  motors 
and  ladies'  garments.  Notable  features  are 
the  government  harbor  and  piers.  Federal 
building,  courthouse,  Carnegie  Library  and 
Masonic  Temple.  Sheridan  Road,  an  auto- 
mobile boulevard  extending  from  Chicago 
to  Milwaukee,  passes  through  Waukegan ;  on 
this  road  just  north  of  the  city  is  the  Bowen 
Country  Club,  the  summer  camp  of  Hull 
House,  Chicago.  The  Great  Lakes  Naval 
Training  Station  is  located  three  miles  south 
of  the  city. 

Waukegan  was  settled  by  New  England 
and  Southern  frontiersmen  interested  in  es- 
tablishing a  shipping  point  for  grain.  It  is 
said  to  be  older  than  Chicago,  and  at  one 
time  it  promised  to  surpass  the  younger  set- 
tlement.    It  was  incorporated  as  a  village 


WAUKESHA 


3834 


WAXWINC 


in  1849,  became  a  city  in  1859,  and  adopted 
the  commission  form  of  government  in  1911, 
Population,  1910,  16,069;  in  1917,  20,917 
(Federal  estimate). 

WAUKESHA,  waw'  ke  sMw,  Wis.,  the 
county  seat  of  Waukesha  County,  seventeen 
miles  west  of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Fox  River 
and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul, 
the  Chicago  &  North  Western  and  the  Mil- 
waukee, Saint  Paul  &  Saulte  Sainte  Marie 
railroads.  It  has  numerous  mineral  springs, 
and  its  principal  industiy  is  the  bottling  and 
shipping  of  water.  There  are  also  structural 
steel  works,  steel-bridge  and  malleable-iron 
works,  plow  and  motor  works  and  canning 
factories.  Carrol  College  and  the  state  indus- 
trial school  for  boys  are  located  here.  Other 
features  of  interest  are  the  Rest  Haven  sani- 
tarium, the  courthouse,  a  public  library  and 
three  parks.  The  place  was  settled  in  1836, 
and  incorporated  in  1848.  Population,  1910, 
8,740;  in  1917,  9,704. 

WAUSAU,  waw'  saw,  Wis.,  the  county 
seat  of  Marathon  County,  180  miles  north- 
west of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Wisconsin  River 
and  on  the  Chicago  &  North  Western  and  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul  railroads. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  lumbering,  agricul- 
tural and  dairying  section,  which  also  has 
extensive  gi'anite  quai-ries.  The  river  fur- 
nishes good  water  power,  and  the  city  main- 
tains sawmills,  sash  and  blind  factories, 
machine  shops,  box  factories,  canneries  and 
flour  mills  establishments.  A  county  train- 
ing school  for  teachers,  a  county  school  of 
agriculture  and  domestic  science,  an  asylum 
for  the  insane  and  a  tuberculosis  sanitarium 
are  located  here.  The  city  also  has  a  public 
library,  a  hospital,  a  fine  courthouse  and  a 
city  hall.  The  place  was  settled  in  1842,  and 
was  at  first  known  as  Big  Bull  Falls.  It 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1872.  Population, 
1910,  16,560;    in  1917,  19,666. 

WAVES,  wayvz,  disturbances  in  matter, 
which  result  in  carrying  force  from  point  to 
point,  often  to  a  great  distance.  The  most 
familiar  visible  waves  are  those  produced  by 
the  wind  on  the  surface  of  a  body  of  water. 
Invisible  waves  are  those  minute  vibrations 
produced  within  a  body,  by  striking  it  or  by 
some  other  means  of  agitation.  These  waves 
are  manifest  through  their  results,  as  in 
sound,  heat  and  light. 

When  waves  are  produced  by  the  disturb- 
ance of  a  small  quantity  of  liquid,  as  by 
throwing  a  pebble  into  a  pool,  they  appear 


to  advance  from  the  point  where  the  pebble 
strikes,  in  widening,  concentric  circles,  the 
height  of  the  wave  decreasing  gradually  as 
the  circle  enlarges.  There  is,  however,  no 
progressive  motion  of  the  licjuid  itself,  as 
may  be  seen  by  watching  a  body  floating  on 
its  surface.  This  is  true  of  large,  as  well 
as  small,  waves,  and  the  waves  of  the  ocean, 
which  sometimes  reach  a  height  of  forty 
feet  or  more,  do  not  cause  the  water  to  move 
forward.  Breakers  are  caused  by  the  fric- 
tion of  the  water-  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
which  retards  the  motion  at  the  base  of  the 
wave  and  causes  the  crest  to  break  over  it. 
They  never  occur  in  deep  water. 

WAX,  a  solid,  fatty  substance  derived 
from  animal  and  vegetable  sources.  A  by- 
product of  petroleum,  paraffin,  is  a  similar 
product,  having  a  number  of  uses.  The 
chief  kinds  of  animal  wax  are  beeswax  and 
spermaceti.  The  first  is  secreted  by  bees  to 
build  their  cells.  It  is  used  in  the  arts  for 
modeling,  and  in  making  ointments,  plasters 
and  candles.  Spermaceti,  a  constituent  of 
whale  oil,  is  used  for  making  toilet  creams 
and  candles.  A  wax  secreted  bj^  the  pores 
of  sheep  and  extracted  from  the  cut  wool  is 
used  in  dressing  leather.  Myrtle  wax,  palm 
wax  and  Japanese  wax  are  of  vegetable 
origin.  From  myrtle  wax  bayberry  candles 
are  made.  Vegetable  wax  is  the  basis  of 
the  finest  Japanese  lacquers. 

WAX  MYRTLE,  or  WAX  TREE.  See 
Candle-berry. 

WAXWINGr,  a  handsome  singing  bird, 
distinguished  by  its  high,  pointed  crest,  yel- 
low band  across  the  end  of  the  tail  and  red 
spots  on  the 
wings,  which 
have  the  ap- 
pearance of 
sealing  wax. 
The  body 
plumage  is 
reddish- 
brown  above, 
yellowish 
underneath. 
The  cedar 
waxioing  is 
found  in 
nearly  every 
part  of 
North  Ameri- 
ica,  and  may  be  seen  in  summer  as  far  north 
as   Southern   Alaska.     It  feeds  on   insects 


WAXWING 


WAY  BILL 


3835 


WEASEL 


and  fruits,  and  nests  in  trees.  The  eggs  are 
putty-colored,  with  black  specks.  The  Bo- 
hemian  icaxwing,  a  familiar  bird  in  both  east- 
ern and  western  hemispheres,  also  migrates 
to  high  latitudes  in  the  nesting  season,  travel- 
ing, like  the  cedars,  in  small  flocks. 
WAY  BILL.  See  Bill  of  Lading. 
WAY'CROSS,  Ga.,  the  county  seat  of 
Ware  County,  ninety-seven  miles  southwest 
of  Satilla  River  and  on  the  Atlantic  Coast 
Line,  the  Waycross  &  Southern,  the  Way- 
cross  &  Western  and  the  Atlanta  &  Birming- 
ham railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  a  fertile 
section,  in  which  are  gown  cotton,  fniit,  live 
stock,  pecans  and  sugar  cane.  There  is 
abundant  timber,  and  the  city  has  large  saw 
and  planing  mills.  Other  industrial  est-ab- 
lishments  are  railway  shops,  an  overall  fac- 
tory, a  packing  plant,  a  turpentine  plant,  a 
cotton  gin,  a  cold  storage  plant  and  a  fire- 
proof warehouse  for  cotton.  There  are  a 
Federal  building,  a  courthouse,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
Kings  Daughters'  Hospital  and  Baptist  In- 
stitute. Population,  1910,  14,485;  in  1917, 
20,737   (Federal  estimate). 

WAYNE,  xcane,  Anthony  (1745-1796), 
an  American  revolutionary  leader,  called 
"!Mad  Anthony"  WajTie  because  of  his  bril- 
liant ba^'onet  charge  on  Stony  Point  in  1779, 
the  most  daring  feat  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  He  was  bom  at  Easton,  Pa.,  and  was 
prominent  in  the  patriotic  movements  before 
the  Revolution.  He  sei-ved  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania legislature  and  in  1775,  when  the  war 
broke  out,  he  joined  the  army,  was  colonel 
of  a  volunteer  regiment,  and  early  in  1776 
accompanied  the  expedition  to  Canada.  For 
some  time  he  was  in  command  of  a  fort  at 
Ticonderoga,  and  he  afterward  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  BrandjTvine,  Germantown 
and  Monmouth.  He  captured  Stony  Point 
with  a  light  infantry  corps  and  became  a 
popular  idol;  this  was  one  of  the  romantic 
episodes  of  the  war. 

After  the  surrender  of  Comwallis  at  York- 
towTi,  at  which  he  was  present,  he  served  for 
a  time  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  After 
the  close  of  the  war  he  held  a  number  of 
civil  offices  in  Pennsylvania  and  then  re- 
moved to  Georgia.  In  1791  and  1792  he  rep- 
resented Georgia  in  Congress.  In  1792  he 
was  made  general  in  chief  of  the  United 
States  army  and  was  given  command  of  an 
expedition  against  the  Indians  in  the  West. 
He  defeated  them  at  Fallen  Timbers  in 
August,  1794,  and  he  concluded  with  them 


the  Treaty  of  Greenville,  by  wliich  the  United 
States  gained  a  large  tract  of  land. 

WEALTH,  welth,  a  term  used  in  eco- 
nomics to  signify  all  material  goods  that 
have  value.  There  are  three  essential  qual- 
ities for  objects  classified  as  having  value; 
they  must  be  useful,  must  be  limited  in  sup- 
ply, and  must  be  transferable.  Gold,  for 
example,  comes  under  the  categoiy  of 
wealth,  for  it  has  utility,  it  is  produced  in 
limited  quantity,  and  it  can  be  taken  from 
one  place  to  another.  Health,  while  it  is 
of  priceless  value  to  the  possessor,  is  not 
wealth,  for  it  is  not  a  material  thing.  The 
possession  of  health  is  an  aid  to  one  who 
seeks  to  acquire  wealth,  but  is  not  wealth 
itself,  according  to  the  tenninology  of  eco- 
nomics. The  same  statement  can  be  made 
of  intelligence,  physical  strength,  skill,  edu- 
cation, and  other  intangible  possessions  that 
are  in  themselves  of  great  value  to  man. 

Circumstances  alter  the  relative  value  of 
objects  classified  as  wealth.  On  a  desert 
island  a  shipwrecked  sailor  with  a  belt  of 
money  would  consider  food  and  drink  of  far 
gi-eater  value  than  his  gold.  If  he  were 
rescued  and  taken  to  a  country  where  food 
was  plentiful  his  money  would  be  again  clas- 
sified as  wealth.  The  four  phases  of  wealth 
— production,  exchange,  distribution  and 
consumption — are  fimdamental  in  the  con- 
sideration of  the  economic  structure  of  the 
world. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Capital  Profit  Sharing 

Consumption  Socialism 

Credit  Supply  and 

Economics  Demand 

Money  Wages 

WEASEL,  we'zel,  a  small,  carnivorous  ani- 
mal, a  native  of  almost  all  the  temperate  and 
cold  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  The 
body  is  extremely  slender,  the  head  small 
and  flattened,  the  neck  long  and  the  legs  short. 
It  preys  upon  mice,  birds  and  other  small 
animals  and  is  very  destructive  to  poultiy. 
The  weasel  is  usually  nocturnal  in  its  habits. 
It  is  a  fine  hunter,  having  a  very  keen  scent 
and  sharp  sight,  and,  being  unwearj-ing  in 
pursuit  of  its  victim,  it  often  wears  to  ex- 
haustion animals  larger  than  itself.  Several 
species  are  common  in  the  United  States,  and 
others  are  found  in.  most  parts  of  the  tem- 
perate zones.  The  long-tailed,  or  New  York, 
weasel  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  species  in 
North  America.  It  is  dark  brown  above  and 
white  beneath,  and  in  winter  in  cold  climates 


WEATHER  BUREAU 


3836 


WEATHER  BUREAU 


»    "■!U[  f-— ^ 


it  turns  pure  white,  except  for  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  which  is  black. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
ETnine  Polecat 

Ferret  Sable 

EATHER    BUREAU, 

toeth'ur  hu'ro,  a  govern- 
ment bureau  maintained 
by  all  civilized  countries 
for  the  purpose  of 
studying  weather  condi- 
tions and  giving  useful 
information  thereon  to 
the  people.  Mark  Twain 
once  said,  "People  have 
been  talking  about  the 
weather  for  years,  but 
nothing  has  ever  been 
done  about  it."  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  consid- 
erable has  been  done 
about  it  by  the  weather  bureaus.  Nobody  can 
ward  off  a  stoi-m  sure  to  be  destructive  to 
crops,  but  the  approach  of  such  a  storm  can 
be  foretold  and  precautions  may  be  taken  to 
lessen  its  menace.  Warnings  of  floods,  frost 
predictions,  advice  on  rainfall,  recommenda- 
tions as  to  irrigation  needs — these  and  many 
other  practical  suggestions  come  from  the 
weather  bureaus  and  help  to  moderate  the 
tjn^anny  of  the  weather,  which  it  must  be 
confessed,  is  a  force  for  good  and  for  ill  in 
the  life  of  nearly  every  person.  The  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  is  typical  of  those  of 
other  countries,  and  in  efficiency  and  in  the 
practical  service  it  renders  it  is  one  of  the 
best  in  the  world. 

United  States  Weather  Bureau.  Previous 
to  the  Civil  War  several  attempts  to  main- 
tain a  systematic  weather  service  were  made, 
but  on  the  breaking  out  of  that  conflict  all 
these  were  abandoned.  The  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  was  organized  in  1870  as  a 
division  of  the  signal  service  in  the  War 
Department.  The  organization,  was  under 
the  supervision  of  General  Albert  J.  Myer, 
chief  signal  officer  of  the  army,  and  it  was 
adopted  by  Congress  as  a  national  service. 
Under  General  Myer's  management,  signal 
stations,  as  they  were  then  called,  were  es- 
tablished throughout  the  country  and  were 
under  the  direction  of  a  corps  of  trained 
weather  observers.  In  1891  the  weather  de- 
partment of  the  signal  service  was  made  a 
bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  Weather  Bureau  is  or^'anized  into  a 


number  of  divisions,  each  of  which  eames  on 
its  special  line  of  work.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  the  following: 

(1)  The  Forecast  Division,  ■which  receives 
twice  a  day  reports  from  stations  in  the 
United  States,  the  West  Indies,  Europe,  Asia, 
Alaska  and  Hawaii,  and  makes  charts  show- 
ing- the  conditions  embodied  in  these  reports. 
These  charts  are  the  regular  weather  maps 
of  the  bureau  and  include  forecasts  for  the 
entire  northern  hemisphere.  Their  predic- 
tions are  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours. 

(2)  The  Division  of  River  and  Flood  Serv- 
ice, which  obtains  information  concerning 
the  amount  of  rainfall,  ice  and  snow  in  the 
basins  of  the  principal  rivers,  whether  navi- 
gable or  not.  The  information  which  this 
division  gives  is  for  facilitating  commerce 
and  especially  for  protecting  river  valleys 
from  floods,  of  which  it  aims  to  give  ample 
warning. 

(3)  The  Division  of  Climate  and  Crops. 
This  division  maintains  a  staff  of  voluntary 
observers,  who  give  reports  of  the  tempera- 
ture, rainfall  and  other  important  data  per- 
taining to  the  welfare  and  growth  of  crops  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  This  informa- 
tion is  published  in  weekly  and  monthly  crop 
bulletins,  which  are  regarded  as  the  highest 
authority  on  crop  conditions  of  the  country 
and  are  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  agricultural 
interests. 

(4)  Other  Divisions.  These  include  divi- 
sions which  have  charge  of  examining  and 
testing  all  instruments  used,  a  division  of  rec- 
ords and  divisions  of  telegraphy,  publications 
and  supplies. 

The  official  organ  of  the  bureau  is  the 
Monthly  Weather  Reviexc,  each  issue  of  which 
contains  statements  of  the  weather  condi- 
tions, their  influence  on  crops  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  various  other  arti- 
cles pertaining  to  the  work  of  the  bureau  and 
of  general  interest  to  the  public. 

Observing  Stations.  There  are  over  200 
regular  meteorological  stations  in  the  United 
States.  Each  of  these  is  in  charge  of  trained 
observers  and  is  equijDped  with  a  full  set 


^iBl^ 


FIG.  1 

of  instruments.  These  observations  are 
taken  at  7:45  A.  M.  and  7:45  P.  M.  Wash- 
ington time,  and  the  results  are  telegraphed 
to  the  central  station  of  the  district  and  to 
the  office  at  AVashington,  from  each  of  which 
maps  are  issued  and  reports  transmitted  to 
the  eountrj^     These  stations  and  numerous 


WEATHER  BUREAU 


3837 


WEATHER  BUREAU 


other  substations  indicate  the  local  weather 
conditions  by  the  display  of  signals.  A 
white  flag  (1  in  Fig.  1)  indicates  fair  weather. 
A  flag  with  the  upper  half  wliite  and  the 
lower  half  blue  (2  in  Fig.  1)  indicates  local 
rain  or  snow.  A  full  blue  flag  (3  in  Fig. 
1)  indicates  general  rain  or  snow.  A  tri- 
angular blue  flag   (4  in  Fig.  1)   indicates 

j?g  ?g,>, 


triangle  above  indicates  storm  with  wind 
from  the  northeast,  and  with  the  dark  tri- 
angle below,  storm  with  a  wind  from  the 
southeast  (see  Fig.  3).  The  hurricane  waj,.iii- 
ing  consits  of  two  red  flags  with  black  cen- 
ters, one  above  the  other  (see  Fig.  4). 
Forecasts  are  also  displayed.in  post  offices  and 
other  public  places,  and  in  some  sections  of 


UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  MAP 


change  of  temperature.  When  placed  below 
another  flag  it  indicates  colder,  and  when 
placed  above,  warmer.  A  white  flag  with  a 
black  square  in  the  center  (5  in  Fig.  1)  indi- 
cates a  cold  wave,  which  means  a  drop  in 
temperature  of  from  15°  to  20°. 

The  direction  of  winds  is  indicated  by 
triangular  flags,  which  are  generally  used  in 
connection  with 
storm  warnings. 
The  warning 
flag  is  red,  with 
a  black  square 
in  the  center. 
When  this  is  dis- 
played with  a 
triangular  white 
flag  above  it,  it  indicates  a  storm  with  wind 
from  the  northwest.  With  the  white  flag  be- 
low, it  indicates  a  wind  from  the  southwest 
(see  Fig.  2).    The  warning  flag  with  a  dark 


the  countiy  they  are  given  by  a  series  of 
signals  by  the  whistles  of  locomotives. 

Weather     Charts.     Through     telegraphic 
reports  received  from  all  parts  of  the  country 


FIG.  3 


FIG. 


PIG.  2 


twice  each  day  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  constructs,  twice  daily,  weather 
charts  showing  areas  of  high  and  low 
barometric  pressure,  the  former  generally  in- 
dicating centers  of  storm  disturbance;  the 
general  temperature  of  the  different  sections 
of  the  country,  those  of  equal  temperatures 
being  connected  by  lines  called  isotherms; 


WEAVER 


3838 


WEAVING 


the  direction  of  winds  and  the  condition  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  latter  being  denoted  as 
cloudy,  partly  cloudy  or  clear,  and  includ- 
irig  presence  of  rain,  snow  or  thundei-stonns. 
Ly  comparing  the  map  under  construction 
with  previous  maps  and  with  the  latest  re- 
ports from  the  various  stations,  the  fore- 
caster is  able  to'  tell  in  what  directions  the 
areas  of  low  pressure  are  moving,  and  at 
what  speed,  and  can  thus  predict,  with 
reasonable  certainty,  changes  of  weather  in 
all  parts  of  the  country.  As  to  changes  in 
temperature  and  the  velocity  and  the  direc- 
tion of  winds,  information  furnished  by  the 
bureau  is  almost  never  far  wi'ong,  but  so 
many  influences  affect  the  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  that  it  is  more  difi&cult  to  predict 


SOCIABLE  WEAVER  BIRD'S  NEST 

changes  in  this  respect.  The  weather  map 
shown  here  is  an  exact  copy  of  one  furnished 
by  the  government. 

Canadian  Bureau.  In  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  the  Meteorological  Service,  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Department  of  Marine  and  Fish- 
eries, performs  the  same  tasks  as  the  Amer- 
ican Weather  Bureau.  The  superintendent 
of  the  service  has  his  headquarters  at  To- 
ronto, Ont.,  and  acts  also  as  dii'ector  of  the 
Toronto  Magnetic  Observatory. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Climate  Isobars  Rainbow 

Cyclone  Isothermal  Snow 

Frost  Lines  Storms 

Hail  Meteorology  Tornado 

Humidity  Rain  Wind 
Hurricane 

WEAVER,  loe'vur,  James  Bated  (1833- 
1912),  an  American  political  leader,  born  at 
Dayton,  Ohio.  He  graduated  from  the  law 
school  of  Ohio  University  in  1854,  served  in 
the  Civil  War  and  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  at  its  close.     He  removed  to  Iowa, 


entered  journalism,  as  editor  of  the  Iowa 
Tribune,  at  Des  Moines,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1879  and  again  in  1885. 
In  1880  he  was  made  the  Greenback  candi- 
date for  President  of  the  United  States  and 
in  1892  was  the  candidate  of  the  People's  or 
Populist  party,  receiving  twenty-two  elec- 
toral votes. 

WEAVER,   we'ver,  BIRD,   a  small  bird 
resembling  the  finch,  with  pointed  wings,  a 


WEAVER  BIRD 

sharp,  conical  bill  and  unusually  long  claws. 
The  name  has  reference  to  the  bird's  manner 
of  building  its  nest,  which  is  a  wonderful 
structure  of  woven  vegetable  substances. 
The  form  and  workmanship  of  the  nests 
vary  with  the  several  species.  The  yellow 
weaver,  or  baya,  of  India,  builds  a  long, 
bottlelike  nest,  and  hangs  it  from  a  slender 
branch  of  tree  or  shrub,  often  over  the  water, 
where  it  is  impossible  for  anj^thing  but  a 
bird  to  enter.  The  sociable  weaver  birds 
build  a  large 
dome-shaped 
stnicture,  or  roof, 
in  the  forks  of 
branches,  and  un- 
derneath  this 
common  roof 
many  families 
build  their  nests, 
each  with  a  sep- 
arate entrance. 
While  all  mem- 
bers of  the  com- 
munity work  on 
the  roof,  each  pair 
works  alone  on  its 
own  nest.  See 
Bata. 

WEAVING,  we'ving,  the  art  of  making 
cloth  by  means  of  a  loom,  from  threads  or 
yam.  It  is  not  known  when  weaving  was  first 
practiced,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  is  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  arts,  and  it  seems  probable 


BATA'S  NEST 


WEAVING 


3839 


WEBER 


that  hand  looms  were  invented  independent- 
ly by  several  of  the  ancient  nations.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  brought  the  weaving 
art  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Among 
modern  countries  Italy  was  the  first  to  ac- 
quire fame  for  the  manufacture  of  woolen 


"^1  '  ^''a 

JACQUARD  LOOM 

and  cotton  cloths.  France,  England,  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States  later  developed 
extensive  weaving  industries.  Since  the  fib- 
ers of  wool  are  much  more  easily  worked 
than  are  those  of  cotton  or  flax,  woolen  cloth 
has  always  been  made  among  the  more  primi- 
tive peoples  before  they  attempted  fabrics 
of  linen  or  cotton. 

In  weaving,  two  sets  of  threads  are  neces- 
sary, one  mnning  lengthwise  of  the  cloth,  and 
called  the  warp,  the  other  iiinning  crosswise, 
and  called  the  weft,  or  icoof.  The  threads  of 
the  warp  are  arranged  on  the  loom  by  be- 
ing wound  on  a  yarn  beam,  at  the  back,  and 
stretched  evenly  to  the  front,  where  they  are 
fastened  to  another  beam,  upon  which  the 
cloth  is  to  be  wound.  In  passing  from  one 
beam  to  the  other,  the  warp  threads  are  laid 
through  the  heckles  and  also  through  a  comb 
on  the  batten.  In  laying  the  wai*p,  every 
other  thread  passes  through  one  heckle,  and 
the  alternate  thread  passes  through  the  other. 
The  weft  is  wound  upon  bobbins,  which  are 
placed  in  the  shuttle,  by  means  of  which  the 
weft  is  laid  in  position.  Weaving  by  hand 
loom  includes  the  following  steps :  (1)  Press- 
ing a  treadle,  which  is  connected  with  the 
heckles  by  a  cord  that  passes  over  a  pulley 
on  the  top  of  the  loom.     This  spreads  the 


threads  of  the  weft,  raising  one-half  and  low- 
ering the  others,  so  that  they  form  an  angle 
called  the  shed.  (2)  Throwing  the  shuttle 
across  the  warp  and  thus  laying  the  thrfid 
of  tiae  weft  in  position.  (3)  Striking  tl'lis 
thread  with  the  batten,  so  as  to  drive  it  close 
up  against  the  one  previously  laid.  (4) 
Springing,  down  the  opposite  treadle  and 
thus  preparing  the  web  for  the  nest  thread 
of  the  weft. 

Weaving  in  these  times  is  almost  exclusive- 
ly done  by  power  looms,  operated  by  steam 
or  electricity.  Simple  as  the  hand  loom  is, 
it  contains  the  elements  of  all  modern  looms. 
The  complexity  of  the  pattern  may  be  in- 
creased by  placing  more  than  two  frames  in 
the  heckle  and  dividing  the  weft  into  more 
parts,  also  by  inventions  which  raise  certain 
threads  in  the  warp  at  one  time  and  certain 
others  at  another.  An  invention  known  as 
the  Jacquard  loom  operates  upon  this  plan. 
Xny  number  of  cords  can  be  used,  so  that  a 
pattern  of  any  degree  of  comjilexity  is  pos- 
sible, and  since  all  cords  are  tied  together 
in  the  form  of  an  endless  chain,  the  pat- 
tern may  be  repeated  indefinitely. 

WEBB  CITY,  Mo.,  a  city  in  Jasper 
County,  five  miles  northeast  of  Joplin,  on 
the  Frisco  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  railroads. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  zinc  and  lead  mining 
district  of  Southwestern  Missouri.  Mining- 
plants  in  the  vicinity  number  about  two 
hundred,  and  there  are  in  addition  machine 
shops,  foundries,  a  cement  block  factory  and 
a  brick  and  tile  plant.  The  city  has  a  Fed- 
eral building,  a  hospital  and  a  public  library. 
It  was  settled  in  1873  and  incorporated  in 
1876.  Population,  1910,  11,817;  in  1917, 
14,082   (Federal  estimate). 

WEB'ER,  Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst 
voisr  (1786-1826),  a  German  composer,  born 
at  Eutin  in  Holstein.  His  father  was  a  mu- 
sician and  gave  him  a  good  musical  educa- 
tion. At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wrote  an 
opera,  and  in  1803  he  visited  Vienna,  where 
he  became  acquainted  Avith  Haydn.  He  pro- 
cured a  musical  directorship  in  Breslau,  on 
which  he  entered  in  1804,  leaving  it  only  to 
accept,  successively,  several  more  important 
positions.  In  1820,  at  Berlin,  he  produced 
Ber  Freischiltz,  the  most  celebrated  of  his 
compositions.  It  was  performed  in  London 
and  Paris  two  j'^ears  later.  In  1822 
Euryanthe  was  brought  out,  and  in  1826 
Weber  visited  London  to  superintend  the 
production  of   Oberon,  which   he  had  com- 


WEBSTER 


3840 


WEBSTER 


DANIEL  WEBSTER 


posed  for  Covent  Garden  Theater.  Shortly 
after  its  enthusiastic  reception,  the  com- 
poser died  in  London,  Besides  the  operas 
n^iintioned,  Weber  wrote  a  large  number  of 
wai-ks  for  the  piano,  notably  the  Invitation 
to  the  Dance  and  the  E  flat  major  Polonaise. 
He  was  the  forerunner,  in  style,  of  Wag- 
ner, whom  he  strongly  influenced^, 

WEBSTER,  Daniel  (1782-1852),  Amer- 
ican orator  and  stateman,  born  in  the  town- 
ship of  Salisbury,  N.  H.  His  father  was  a 
backwoods  farmer, 
who  had  previously 
been  a  hunter  and 
soldier,  and  Daniel 
owed  his  first  educa- 
tion to  his  mother. 
Later,  in  the  intervals '^^^ 
of  farm  work,  he  at- 
tended village  school, 
and  when  he  had 
reached  the  age  of  fif- 
teen, his  father  made 
some  generous  sacrifices  to  send  him  to  Dart- 
mouth College,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
After  studj'ing  privately  and  in  a  Boston  law 
office,  he  entered  the  law  in  1804,  settled  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  prospered. 

Webster  at  first  took  little  interest  in  poli- 
ties, but  in  1812,  having  already  established 
a  commanding  reputation,  he  was  elected  to 
Congress  by  the  anti-war  party.  He  was 
placed  on  the  committee  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  his  maiden  speech,  delivered  on  June  10, 
1813,  upon  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees, 
took  the  House  and  country  by  surprise  by 
its  display  of  rhetorical  power  and  wealth  of 
historical  knowledge.  His  subsequent 
speeches  on  the  increase  of  the  navy,  which 
he  warmly  recommended,  and  the  repeal  of 
the  embargo,  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of 
debaters. 

In  1816  Webster  retired  for  a  time  from 
political  life,  removing  to  Boston  to  devote 
himself  to  his  profession.  For  nearly  seven 
years  afterward,  with  a  single  exception,  he 
filled  no  public  office,  but  as  an  advocate 
and  counselor  achieved  a  preeminent  posi- 
tion at  the  American  bar.  His  strongest 
powers  were  displayed  in  arguing  points  of 
constitutional  law,  and  his  achievements  in 
this  direction  drew  upon  him  the  attention  of 
the  whole  country.  In  1820,  on  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  bicentenary  of  the  landing  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  he  delivered  an  oration 
which  added  greatly  to  his  fame  as  an  orator, 


and  he  continued  to  gain  in  public  esteem 
through  other  great  addresses,  notably  those 
at  the  laying  of  the  cornerstone  of  Bunker 
Hill  Monument  in  1825  and  at  the  memorial 
service  for  Adams  and  Jefferson  in  1826. 

In  1822  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and 
was  reelected  in  1824  and  1826.  At  the  end 
of  his  last  term  he  was  chosen  Senator  for 
Massachusetts.  In  January,  1830,  he  de- 
livered a  remarkable  speech  in  favor  of  the 
nationalist  view  of  the  Constitution,  in  reply 
to  a  speech  by  Robert  Y.  Hayne  of  South 
Carolina.  The  address  created  a  sensation 
throughout  the  Union  and  probably  was  more 
widely  circulated  throughout  the  country 
than  any  other  in  previous  American  his- 
tory. Webster  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
nullification  movement  of  Calhoun  and  the 
South  Carolina  school,  and  his  eloquence  in 
support  of  Jackson's  energetic  measures  did 
much  to  prevent  secession.  In  1836  he  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Presidency, 
and  from  1841  to  1843  was  Secretary  of 
State  under  Harrison  and  Tyler.  The  chief 
event  of  this  period  was  the  negotiation  of 
the  famous  Webster-Ashburton  treaty  with 
England,  which  was  equally  advantageous 
and  honorable  to  both  parties. 

Webster  generously  supported  Clay's  can- 
didacy for  the  Presidency  in  1844;  and  was 
himself  an  unsuccessful  aspirant  for  the 
Whig  nomination  in  1848.  In  1845  he  was 
reelected  to  the  Senate,  and  in  the  struggle 
over  the  admission  of  Texas  and  California 
he  strongly  favored  the  Northern,  or  anti- 
slavery,  side.  Afterward,  however,  when 
public  excitement  had  reached  a  dangerous 
height,  he  supported  a  policy  of  compromise, 
and  March  7,  1850,  he  made  a  speech  in 
favor  of  obedience  to  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed  a 
second  time  Secretary  of  State,  which  office 
he  held  till  his  death. 

Webster's  guiding  principle  in  politics  was 
the  preservation  of  the  Union,  for  which  he 
was  ready  to  make  all  sacrifices,  opposing  the 
nullifiers,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  aboli- 
tionists, on  the  other.  One  of  his  best  re- 
membered utterances  is  that  from  the  Repli/ 
to  Hayne,  ending  with  the  exclamation, 
"Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one 
and  inseparable!" 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Calhoun,  John  C.  Webster-Ashburton 

Clay,  Henry  Treaty 

Nullification 


WEBSTER 


3841 


WEEDS 


WEBSTER,  Henry  Kitchell  (1875-  ), 
an  American  novelist,  born  at  Evanston,  111., 
and  educated  at  Hamilton  College.  After 
graduation  he  taught  English  for  a  year  in 
Union  College  and  then  began  the  publication 
of  stories  that  soon  gained  for  him  a  place 
as  one  of  the  most  popular  of  American  story 
writers.  Among  the  stories  that  first  brought 
him  into  prominence  were  The  Short  Line 
War,  Comrade  John  and  Calumet  K,  all 
written  in  collaboration  with  Samuel  Mer- 
win.  Novels  of  which  he  is  exclusively  the 
author  are  The  Story  of  a  Corner  in  Land, 
Roger  Drake,  The  Sky  Man,  Tlie  Ghost  Girl, 
The  Butterfly,  Real  Adventure,  The  Thor- 
oughbred, The  Painted  Scene  and  An  Ameri- 
can Family. 

WEBSTER,  NoAii  (1758-1843),  an 
American  lexicographer,  author  of  the  orig- 
inal Webster's  Dictionary  and  of  Webster's 
Spelling  Book.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  and 
prepared  for  the  law,  but  gave  it  up  for 
teaching.  His  experience  in  schools  led  to 
the  composition  of  his  Spelling  Book,  which 
was  published  in  1784,  and  of  which  it  is 
said  that  62,000,000  copies  have  been  sold. 
About  1807  he  began  work  upon  his  Ameri- 
can Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.  In 
preparing  this  woi^k  he  visited  England  and 
worked  for  some  months  at  Cambridge.  The 
first  edition  of  the  dictionary  was  finished  in 
1828,  and  a  second  edition  was  published  by 
Webster  in  1840.  This  work  was  the  basis 
of  the  standard  Webstei-'s  International 
Dictionary. 

WEBSTER-ASHBURTON  TREATY,  a 
treaty  concluded  at  Washington  in  1842  by 
Daniel  Webster,  then  Secretary  of  State,  and 
Lord  Ashburton,  minister  of  Great  Britain 
to  the  United  States.  It  defined  the  north- 
eastern boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  which  for  years  had  been  a 
source  of  in-itation  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. 

WEDGE,  xoej,  one  of  the  so-called  me- 
chanical powers  used  in  the  construction  of 
machines,  formed  of  a  combination  of  two 
inclined  planes.  Wedges  of  wood  or  metal 
are  used  for  splitting  various  substances  or 
for  exerting  strong  pressure  in  a  small  space. 
The  axe,  with  its  thin  and  its  broad  edge, 
is  one  application  of  the  principle  of  the 
•wedge.     See  IMechantcal  Powers. 

WEDGWOOD,  wefjoood,  WARE,  a  supe- 
rior kind  of  glazed  pottery,  capable  of  taking 
the  most  brilliant  and  delicate  coloi-s.    It  is 

241 


usually  decorated  with  classic  designs,  often 
in  relief  upon  a  solid  ground.  It  is  used  not 
only  for  the  table,  but  also  for  ornament; 
and,  owing  to  its  hardness  and  property  of 
resisting  the  action  of  all  corrosive  sub- 
stances, it  is  commonly  used  for  mortars  in 
laboratories.  The  ware  was  named  after  the 
inventor,  Josiali  Wedgwood.     See  Pottery. 

Josiah  Wedgwood  (1730-1795),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  English  j^otters,  was  born  at 
Burslem,  of  a  family  of  successful  potters. 
At  the  age  of  eleven  he  began  making  pot- 
tery on  a  wheel.  The  loss  of  a  leg  compelled 
him  to  give  up  this  work,  and  he  afterwards 
became  head  of  his  own  i:)ottery  works  and 
the  most  famous  of  English  potters.  Wedg- 
wood made  many  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  earthenwares,  and  all  subsequent 
work  in  this  field  has  reflected  his  powerful 
influence. 

WEDNESDAY,  wen/day  (Woden's  day), 
the  fourth  day  of  the  week. 

WEED,  TiiuRLOW  (1797-1882),  an  Ameri- 
can journalist,  born  at  Cairo,  N.  Y.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  began  to  learn  the  print- 
er's trade  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  and  ten  years 
later  he  was  editing.  He  founded  the  Onon- 
daga County  Republican,  and  in  1824  be- 
came editor  and  owner  of  the  Rochester 
Telegraph.  He  was  elected  to  the  legisla- 
ture in  1826,  and  at  the  close  of  his  second 
term  he  established  the  Albany  Evening 
Journ<il,  a  Whig  paper,  which  he  edited  for 
thirty-three  years.  During  the  Civil  War, 
at  the  instance  of  President  Lincoln,  he  was 
sent  to  Europe  on  a  semi-official  mission, 
and  he  did  much  to  remove  the  misappre- 
hensions as  to  the  war,  and  to  induce  foreign 
governments  to  refrain  from  interference. 
In  1867  he  became  editor  of  the  New  York 
Commercial  Advertiser,  which  position  he 
resigned  on  account  of  failing  health.  He 
was  the  author  of  Letters  from  Europe  and 
the  West  Indies  and  an  Autobiograjjhy. 

WEEDS,  a  term  applied  to  plants  growing 
wild  in  uncultivated  grounds  and  in  most 
cases  very  troublesome.  Many  plants  when 
grown  and  cultivated  in  gardens,  as  the  gold- 
enrod  and  the  dandelion,  are  classed  as  flow- 
ers, while  the  same  plants,  running  wild  in 
uncultivated  ground,  are  considered  as  weeds. 
The  chief  ways  in  which  weeds  are  injurious 
are:  (1)  They  increase  the  labor  necessary 
to  cultivate  the  soil;  (2)  they  take  up  food 
from  the  soil,  which  should  go  to  useful 
plants;  (3)  their  foliage  smothers  the  young 


WEEK 


3842 


WEIGHING  SCALE 


plants;  (4)  they  sometimes  are  poisonous  to 
cattle.  Care  should  be  taken  to  eradicate 
them  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  grow.  There 
are  various  ways  ta  prevent  their  growth,  dif- 
ferent weeds  requiring  different  methods. 
Planting  of  pure  seed,  diligent  tillage  of  the 
soil,  rotation  of  crops,  cultivation  of  all 
open  land  with  crops,  are  some  of  the  means 
used.  Some  weeds  while  young  can  be  de- 
strayed  without  injury  to  the  crop,  by  spray- 
ing the  field  with  certain  chemicals,  called 
herbicides.  Weeds  are  often  of  service  to  a 
farmer,  in  aiding  him  to  know  the  needs  of 
his  land,  since  many  kinds  grow  only  where 
the  conditions  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  them. 
See  Herbicides. 

Related  Articles.  On  page  517,  in  the  arti- 
cle Botany,  is  a  further  discussion  of  the 
subject  of  weeds.  For  descriptions  of  the 
common  weeds,  consult  the  following-  titles: 
Abutilon  Dandelion  Mullein 

Agrimony  Dock  Pigweed 

Bindweed  Feverfew  Plantain 

Botany  Fleabane  Ragweed 

Burdock  Goosefoot  Sand  Bur 

Canada  Thistle Gromwell  Sow  Thistle 

Cocklebur  Indian  Mallow  Stramonium 

Cow  Parsnip      Milkweed  Thistle 

WEEK,  a  period  of  seven  days,  one  of  the 
conventional  divisions  of  time,  the  origin  of 
which  is  doubtful.  Among  the  ancient  na- 
tions who  adopted  the  week  as  a  division  of 
time,  are  the  Chinese,  the  Hindus,  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Chaldeans,  the  Jews,  the  Persians 
and  the  Peruvians.  In  some  cases  the  name 
has  been  applied  to  cycles  of  time  other  than 
that  of  seven  days.  The  nations  with  whom 
the  weekly  cycle  has  been  traced  with  cer- 
tainty to  the  greatest  antiquity  are  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  Hebrews.  The  use  of  the  week 
was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Empire  from 
Egypt,  about  the  first  or  second  century  of 
the  Christian  Era,  and  it  had  been  recognized 
independently  of  Christianity  before  the 
Emperor  Constantine  confirmed  it  by  en- 
joining the  observance  of  the  Christian  Sab- 
bath. 

WEEVIL,  we'v'l,  the  name  applied  to  a 
group  of  very  small  beetles,  most  of  which 
have  long  snouts,  slightly  curved  downward. 
They  are  very  destructive  to  the  products 
of  agriculture,  some  of  them  injuring  the 
plants,  others  ruining  the  fruit  or  seed. 
With  the  long  snout  the  insects  of  some 
species  bore  into  nuts,  grain  or  fruit  and 
eat  out  the  interior.  Sometimes  they  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  fruit,  or  seeds,  so  that  the 
larvae  will  have  food  when  hatched.  In  this 
way  weevils  often  hatch  out  in  meal,  flour, 
rice  and  such  food  stuffs,  spoiling  them. 


The  holl  weevil,  which  attacks  the  cotton 
boll,  is  one  of  the  worst  pests  in  the  United 
States,  having  caused  enormous  losses  to 
Southern  farmers.  It  is  a  grayish  weevil 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  It  lies  torpid 
in  winter,  and  when  the  cotton  comes  up 
feeds  on  the  leaves  and  blossoms.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  the  cotton  boll,  which  the 
maggots  destroy.  There  are  four  or  more 
generations  each  summer.  The  alfalfa  weevil 
is  another  species  of  considerable  economic 
importance,  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  has  employed  stringent 
measures  to  have  it  checked.  Peas  and  beans 
are  among  other  crops  subject  to  weevil  at- 
tack. The  insects  breed  in  the  growing  pod 
and  also  in  stored  beans  and  peas.  When 
infested,  the  beans  float  in  water  and  should 
not  be  planted.    See  Boll  Weevil. 

WEIGHING,  wai/ing,  SCALE,  a  me- 
chanical contrivance  for  ascertaining  the 
weights  of  substances.  The  simplest  form 
of  the  weighing  machine  is  the  balance  for- 
merly used  by  grocers.  It  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal beam  jDivoted  in  the  middle  and  having 
at  one  end  a  deep  pan,  in  which  was  placed 
the  article  to  be  weighed,  and  at  the  other 
a  horizontal  disk.  Pieces  of  iron  of 
graduated  size  and  ranging  in  weight  from 
an  ounce  or  less  to  several  pounds  were  used 
on  the  disk  to  balance  the  article  to  be 
weighed.  A  modification  of  this  scale  is  the 
unequal  beam  balance ;  based  on  the  principle 
of  the  lever.  The  horizontal  beam  is  not 
pivoted  at  the  middle  point,  but  near  one 
end;  the  weight  to  be  determined  is  placed 
tipon  the  shorter  end  and  is  balanced  by  a 
much  smaller  weight  at  the  long  end. 
•  The  platform  scale  is  a  typical  example. 
It  consists  of  a  hinged  platform,  set  above 
a  stationary  platform,  which  sinks  under  a 
weight  and  presses  upon  a  lever  underneath. 
The  lever  is  connected  with  a  vertical  rod 
attached  to  the  short  end  of  the  hoiizontally- 
pivoted  beam  already  described.  The  longer 
end,  or  lever,  of  the  beam  is  marked  off  in 
a  graduated  scale.  The  article  to  be  weighed 
is  placed  on  the  platform,  which  sinks  under 
the  weight,  pressing  upon  the  lever,  which 
conveys  the  pull  to  the  vertical  rod  con- 
nected with  the  beam.  The  weight  on  the 
long  end  of  the  beam  is  moved  along  the 
scafe  until  it  balances  with  the  weight  on 
the  platform.  The  weight  of  the  article  on 
the  platform  is  indicated  by  the  mark  m 
pounds  at  which  the  weight  balances.     A 


WEIGHT 


3843 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


weight  of  one  pound  on  the  lever  may  be 
made  to  balance  with  ten,  a  hundred  or  even 
a  thousand  pounds  or  more  on  the  platform. 
Some  of  these  scales  are  even  built  to  weigh 
hea\-y  gims  and  locomotives. 

Among  the  most  recent  inventions  of  scales 
is  a  complicated  device  which  not  only  weighs 
the  goods  but  also  computes  the  price  of  frac- 
tions of  a  pound. 

WEIGHT,  2coyt,  the  measure  of  the  force 
by  which  any  body  or  a  given  portion  of 
any  substance  gravitates  or  is  attracted  to 
the  earth ;  in  a  more  popular  sense,  the  quan- 
tity of  matter  in  a  body,  as  estimated  by  the 
balance,  or  expressed  numerically  with  refer- 
ence to  some  standard  unit.  In  determining 
weight  in  cases  where  very  great  precision  is 
desired,  due  account  must  be  taken  of  tem- 
perature, elevation  and  latitude.  Hence,  in 
fixing  exact  standards  of  weights,  a  par- 
ticular temperature  and  pressure  of  air  must 
be  specified;  thus  the  standard  brass  pound 
of  Great  Britain  is  directed  to  be  used  when 
the  Fahrenheit  thermometer  stands  at  62° 
and  the  barometer  at  thirtj'  inches.  See,  also. 
Gravitation;  Weights  axd  Measures; 
Metric  System. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES,  the 
standards  used  in  measui-ing  quantities.  Most 
of  the  common  standard  units  have  been 
chosen  arbitrarily,  though  efforts  have  al- 
ways been  made  to  have  the  units  conform 
to  some  natural  rule.  Evidences  of  this 
fact  remain  in  the  names  of  both  ancient 
and  modem  units,  such  as  the  cubit  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Hebrews,  which  was  the 
length  of  the  forearm,  and  the  foot  of  the 
Greeks,  which  was  the  length  of  a  man's 
foot. 

The  so-called  English  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  used  in  the  British  Empire 
and  the  United  States,  dates  from  a  law 
passed  in  1266  in  England,  which  provided 
that  an  English  penny  should  equal  in  weight 
32  wheat  corns,  taken  from  the  middle  of  the 
ear;  that  20  pence  should  make  an  ounce, 
12  ounces  a  pound,  8  pounds  a  gallon  of  wine 
and  8  gallons  of  wine  a  London  bushel. 
Before  this  time,  two  pound  units  had  grown 
up;  one,  the  Troy  pound,  introduced  into 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror,  weighed 
considerably  less  than  that  before  used  in 
England,  and  its  introduction  created  such 
dissatisfaction  that  an  average  pound  of 
sixteen  ounces,  now  known  as  the  avoirdu- 
pois  pound,   was   made   the   standard    unit 


for  articles  in  common  trade,  while  the  Troy 
pound,  of  twelve  ounces,  was  retained  as  the 
unit  of  weight  for  gold,  silver,  gems  and 
apothecaries*   supplies. 

The  units  of  length,  capacity,  weight  and 
volimie  have  often  varied  and  are  not  yet 
entirely  uniform,  but  the  common  standards 
of  the  English  system  are  as  follows:  Of 
length,  the  yard,  consisting  of  3  feet,  each 
foot  containing  12  in-ch-es;  5\  yards  equal 
1  rod;  320  rods  equal  1  mile.  In  England, 
the  rod  is  called  a  pole,  or  a  perch.  The  units 
of  square  and  cubic  measure  are  respectively 
the  squares  and  cubes  of  the  linear  units,  as 
square  yard,  cubic  inch,  etc.  The  acre,  used 
in  the  measurement  of  land,  contains  160 
square  rods.  A  square  mile  equals  640 
acres. 

There  are  two  sets  of  measures  of  capacity, 
one  for  liquids  and  one  for  solids.  The 
unit  for  liquid  measure  is  the  gallon  of  231 


THE  "U'ORLD'S  "VTEIGHTS  AXD  MEASURES 

Showing-  the  commanding'  position  of  the 

English  system 

(A)  English    weights    and    measures    estab- 

lished and  fundamental. 

(B)  English  basis  for  linear  measurements. 

(C)  Local  and  English  prevail,  and  are  close- 

ly identical.     Metric  also  used. 

(D)  Metric,  local  and  English. 

(E)  Metric  prevails,  with  mixture  of  old  and 

English. 

cubic  inches.  The  quart,  one-fourth  of  a 
gallon,  contains  57.75  cubic  inches.  The 
quart  is  divided  into  two  pints  and  the  pint 
into  four  gills.  Standard  gallon  measures 
are  maintained  in  England,  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  The  quart  in  dry  measure 
contains  67.2  cubic  inches;  eight  quarts  make 
one  peck  and  four  pecks  one  bushel.  The 
standard  bushel  contains  2130.42  cubic 
inches.  The  metric  sj'stem  (which  see)  is 
used  in  Europe. 

There  are  numerous  terms  in  use  in  spe- 
cial occupations,  such  as  the  hand,  a  unit 
used  in  measuring  the  height  of  an  animal, 
and  equivalent  to  about  4  inches;  the  fathom 
(2  yards),  used  in  measuring  the  depth  of 
water;     the     knot,     or     geographical     mile 


WEIMAR 


3844 


WELLAND  CANAL 


(6088.27  feet),  used  to  designate  distance 
at  sea;  the  chain  (4  rods),  used  in  survey- 
ing; the  furlong  (10  chains) ;  a  link  (.01  of 
a  chain) ;  the  ell  (3|  feet) ;  the  barrel  (Sli 
gallons) ;  the  hogshead  (2  barrels).  In  Eng- 
land the  barrel  equals  36  gallons. 

Making  and  keeping  standards  of  the 
different  units,  weights  and  measures  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  governments  of  the  re- 
spective nations.  Tkei  work  requires  the 
greatest  skill  and  care.  In  the  United 
States  these  standards  are  prepared  and  kept 
by  the  United  States  National  Bureau  of 
Standards.  In  1856  the  British  government 
sent  to  the  United  States  two  standards  of 
length,  which  ai'e  still  preserved.  The  same 
year  the  Treasuiy  Department  sent  a  com- 
plete set  of  weights  and  measures  tO'  the 
governor  of  each  state.  These  sets  are  kept 
at  the  capitals  of  the  respective  states,  and 
may  be  used  for  testing  weights  or  measures 
whose  accuracy  is  in  doubt.  Most  states  ap- 
point inspectors  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
false  weights  and  measures  are  not  used 
by  tradesmen. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Acre                        Furlong  Mile 

Apothecaries'     Gallon  Ohm 

Weight              Gram  Ounce 

Avoirdupois        Hogshead  Pound 

Barrel                    Kilogram  Quart 
Bushel                   Kilogrammeter  Scruple 

Carat                      Kilometer  Ton 

Centimeter          Kilowatt  Troy  Weight 

Chain                     Knot  Volt 

Cubic  Measure  League  Watt 

Drachma               Liter  Weighing 

Fathom                 Mensuration  Scale 
Foot                      Meter 

WEIMAR,  vi'mahr,  Germany,  a  quaint 
old  city  on  the  River  Ilm,  about  fifty  miles 
west-southwest  of  Leipzig,  in  the  former 
grand  duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar.  The  place  is 
associated  in  a  peculiarly  interesting  way 
with  the  new  and  with  the  old  Germany. 
Here,  in  February,  1919,  the  first  national 
assembly  of  the  German  republic  met  to  es- 
tablish a  government  based  on  democracy; 
here,  in  July  of  the  same  year,  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  was  ratified. 

Weimar  is  famous,  too,  for  its  association 
with  the  classical  epoch  of  German  litera- 
ture, and  it  has  been  called  the  "German 
Athens."  Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland  and 
Herder  lived  here,  and  Goethe  and  Schiller 
are  buried  in  the  cemetery  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  town.  Goethe's  house  is  now  the 
Goethe  National  Museum,  and  Schiller's 
house  is  also  the  property  of  the  city  and  is 
open  to  the  public.    The  Goethe-Schiller  mon- 


ument in  bronze  is  in  front  of  the  famous 
court  theater,  in  which  the  national  assembly 
held  its  memorable  sessions.  Another  striking 
building  is  the  grand  ducal  palace,  which  was 
partially  constructed  under  the  supervision 
of  Goethe.  Weimar  has  an  excellent  school 
system,  including  an  art  school,  an  industrial 
school,  a  music  school  and  other  special 
schools.  Stoves,  straw  hats,  leather  and 
cloth  are  manufactured,  and  the  book  trade  is 
considerable.    Population,  about  35,000. 

WELD'ING,  the  process  of  uniting  two 
pieces  of  a  substance  when  softened  by  heat. 
In  the  arts  the  term  is  restricted  to  splicing 
such  metals  as  iron  and  platinum,  though 
glass  and  several  other  substances  can  be 
welded  as  readily  as  these  metals.  The  sim- 
plest method  of  welding  iron  is  that  em- 
ployed in  the  ordinary  blacksmith  shop.  The 
smith  hammers  the  ends  of  the  bars  to  be 
welded  into  a  wedgelike  form,  and  heats  them 
white  hot,  and  just  as  they  begin  to  soften, 
he  covers  them  with  borax  or  some  other 
flux,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  oxide.  The 
hot  ends  are  then  laid  together  and  ham- 
mered, the  soft  surfaces  unite,  and  the  joint 
formed  is  usually  as  strong  as  any  other 
portion  of  the  bar.  In  large  manufactories, 
electricity  is  now  very  generally  used  for 
welding,  a  current  of  sufficient  power  to  heat 
and  soften  the  metals  being  employed.  By 
means  of  this  current,  copper  can  be  welded, 
as  well  as  iron  and  steel. 

WELLAND,  Ont.,  the  county  town  of 
Welland  County,  on  the  Welland  Canal  and 
on  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  Wabash,  the  Pere  Marquette,  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  and  other  railways.  Welland  has 
become  a  railroad  and  manufacturing  cen- 
ter. Especially  important  are  iron  and  steel 
products  of  various  kinds,  agricultural  im- 
plements, cordage,  cotton  goods,  chemicals, 
stoves,  tires,  concrete  and  furniture.  There 
is  an  abundance  of  water  power  and  natural 
gas  in  the  vicinity.  Welland  has  a  wire- 
less station,  two  government  docks,  a  court 
house,  a  registry  office  and  a  park.  Popula- 
tion, 1916,  9,500. 

WEL'LAND  CANAL,  a  canal  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  of  the  Niagara  River,  connecting 
lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  constituting  an 
important  link  in  the  chain  of  canals  ex- 
tending from  Lake  Superior  to  Montreal.  It 
was  opened  in  1833  and  in  1871  was  en- 
larged, the  cost  of  improvements  together 
with  the  original  cost  amounting  to  $29,449,- 


WELL  BORING 


3845 


WELLESLEY 


000.  It  is  263  miles  long,  160  feet  wide  and 
fifteen  feet  deep.  Work  is  now  being  carried 
on   to   increase  the  width   to   200   feet,   the 


A  LOCK  ON  THE   WELLAND   CANAL, 
depth  to  twenty-five  feet  and  to  reduce  the 
number  of  locks  from  twenty-five  to  seven. 


Torcr: 


^ '^- 


yo,-^.  QNTARIO 


*yi 


'  Buffaio 


WELLAND  CANAL 

0      10     20  40  60  80 


WELLAND  CANAL 
1,  New  Canal;  2,  Old  Canal;  3,  Feeders. 

The  estimated  cost  of  these  improvements  is 
$30,000,000. 

WELL  BORING,  a  method  of  sinking 
wells  of  small  diameter,  for  the  pui-pose  of 
obtaining  water,  petroleum  or  natural  gas, 
or  for  discovering  veins  of  ore. 

Well  boring  is  most  frecjuently  done  by 
steam  power.  The  machinery  consists  of  a 
den-ick,  shaped  like  a  square  pyramid,  about 
twenty  feet  across  at  the  base  and  from 
seventy  to  seventy-five  feet  high;  an  engine 
for  operating  the  machinery;  a  windlass  for 
raising   and  lowering   the   drill;    a  walking 


beam,  and  bits  and  drills  of  different  sizes  and 
stj-les.  The  drill  is  attached  to  a  rope,  which 
runs  over  a  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  derrick 
and  down  to  a  drum  on  the  windlass.  A  few 
feet  above  the  surface,  this  rope  is  grasped 
by  a  clamp,  which  is  attached  to  a  screw, 
called  the  temper  screw,  used  to  regulate  the 
motion  of  the  drill.  The  drill  is  attached  to 
one  end  of  the  walking  beam,  which  is  oper- 
ated by  the  engine  and  works  the  drill  for- 
cibly up  and  down.  A  rotarj'  motion  is  given 
the  drill  by  the  operator's  turning  the  handle 
slightly  at  every  stroke.  When  the  drill  has 
descended  the  length  of  the  temper  screw,  it 
is  drawn  out  by  the  windlass.  If  the  well  is 
diy,  water  is  run  into  it,  and  a  bucket,  called 
the  sandpii^e,  is  lowered,  to  draw  out  the 
mud  and  crushed  rock.  This  bucket  is  a 
hollow  cylinder,  about  sixteen  feet  long,  with 
a  bottom  that  opens  upward.  As  it  descends, 
the  bottom  opens  and  allows  the  cylinder  to 
be  filled.  When  the  cylinder  is  drawn  out, 
the  weight  of  the  mud  closes  the  valve,  and 
in  this  way  the  well  is  emptied.  As  fast  as 
the  hole  is  drilled,  it  is  cased  with  a  steel 
tube.  Bored  wells  in  the  oil  regions  vary  in 
size  from  five  feet  to  eight  feet  in  diameter. 
Artesian  wells  are  usually  smaller. 

Wells  may  be  bored  as  deep  as  3,000  or 
4,000  feet.  Difficulty  in  well  boring  increases 
with  the  depth,  and  deep  wells  are  very  ex- 
pensive.   See  Artesian'  Well;  Petroleum:. 

WELLES,  xKelz,  Gideon  (1802-1878),  an 
American  statesman,  born  at  Glastonbui-y, 
Conn.  He  attended  Norwich  t'^nivei'sity,  and 
on  leaving  there  became  editor  of  the  Hart- 
ford Times.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature  from  1827  to  1835,  in  the  latter 
year  becoming  state  comptroller.  From  1846 
to  1849  he  was  chief  of  the  bureau  of  sup- 
plies of  the  United  States  nav^\  He  joined 
the  Republican  party  soon  after  its  organ- 
ization, and  in  1861  was  made  Secretary 
of  the  Na^'y  by  President  Lincoln.  In  this 
post  he  displayed  remarkable  executive  abil- 
ity, managing  the  na\'}'  with  consummate 
skill  and  efficiency  during  the  war.  He  also 
served  throughout  Johnson's  administration. 
In  1872  he  supported  the  Liberal  Republican 
movement,  and  in  1876  he  used  his  influence 
for  Samuel  J.  Tilden. 

WELLESLEY,  welz'hf,  Richard  Collet 
Wellesley,  Marquis  (1760-1842),  a  British 
general  and  statesman,  brother  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
row, Eton  and  Oxford  and  in  1784  entered 


WELLESLEY  COLLEGE 


3846 


WELLINGTON 


the  English  House  of  Commons.  In  1797  he 
was  made  governor-general  of  India,  and 
for  his  suppression  of  the  insurrection  of 
Tippu  Sahib  of  Mysore,  and  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Seringapatam,  he  was  made  Marquis 
"Wellesley  in  the  Irish  peerage.  He  was  also 
successful  in  the  struggle  with  the  Mahrattas 
in  1803-1805.  His  administration  in  India, 
which  ended  in  1805,  was  one  of  the  most 
important  in  the  historj^  of  British  rule  there, 
owing  to  his  financial  refoims  and  his  mil- 
itary victories.  In  1808,  Wellesley  was  made 
minister  to  Spain,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  became  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  chosen  prime  minister  in 
1812,  but  w^as  unsuccessful  in  his  attempts 
to  foi-m  a  cabinet.  From  1821  to  1828  and 
from  1830  to  1834  he  was  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland. 

WELLESLEY  COLLEGE,  an  institution 
for  the  higher  education  of  women,  founded 
in  1875  at  Wellesley,  Mass.  The  courses  are 
largely  elective  and  lead  to  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Master  of  Arts.  The 
college  is  a  contributor  to  the  American 
Schools  of  Classical  Study  at  Rome  and 
Athens,  to  the  zoological  station  at  Naples 
and  to  the  marine  biological  laboratory  at 
Wood's  Hole,  Mass.  The  faculty  includes 
about  140  instructors;  the  attendance  is  about 
1,600,  and  the  library  contains  about  91,000 
volumes. 

Henry  Towle  Durant  (1822-1881),  the 
founder  of  Wellesley  College,  was  bom  at 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  and  educated  at  Harvard. 
After  completing  a  law  course  he  engaged 
in  practice  in  Boston.  Subsequently  he  be- 
came a  layman  preacher.  Durant  contrib- 
uted between  $1,000,000  and  $2,000,000  to 
Wellesley  College. 

WELLINGTON,  Arthur  Wellesley, 
Duke  of  (1769-1852),  a  British  general  and 
statesman,  the  hero  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Mornington, 
and  Avas  educated  at  Eton,  at  Brighton  and 
finally  at  the  Militaiy  College  of  Angers,^  in 
France.  In  1787  he  received  a  commission 
as  ensign  in  the  army,  and  after  a  rapid  series 
of  changes  and  promotions,  he  attained,  by 
1796,  the  rank  of  colonel.  During  1794  and 
1795  he  served  with  his  regiment  under  the 
Duke  of  York  in  Flanders,  and  in  1797  his 
regiment  was  dispatched  to  Bengal.  War 
had  just  been  declared  against  Tippu  Sahib, 
and  Colonel  Wellesley's  regiment  had  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  Battle  of  Malavelly  and 


DUKE  OP 
WELLINGTON 


the  storming  of  Seringapatam.  After  this 
he  was  appointed  to  the  administration  of 
Mysore,  and  in  1803  he  Avas  given  the  com- 
mand of  a  force  engaged  in  a  war  against 
the  Mahrattas.  His  successes  compelled  the 
submission  of  the 
Mahrattas,  and  peace 
was  restored  on  con- 
ditions drawn  up  by 
the  successful  gen- 
eral. 

In  1805  Wellesley 
returned  to  England, 
was  shortly  after- 
ward elected  to  Par- 
liament for  Rye  and 
in  1807  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of 
state  for  Ireland.  In 
August,  1807,  he  re- 
ceived the  command  of  a  division  in  the  ex- 
pedition to  Copenhagen,  and  he  directed  the 
only  land  operation  of  importance.  In  1808 
he  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
and  received  the  command  of  a  force  des- 
tined to  operate  in  the  north  of  Spain  and 
Portugal.  He  was  subsequently  superseded; 
but  before  giving  up  the  command  he  gained 
the  Battle  of  Vimeiro  over  Junot,  the  cam- 
paign being  brought  to  a  close  with  the 
Convention  of  Cintra,  by  which  the  French 
agreed  to  evacuate  Portugal.  In  1809  Wel- 
lesley was  appointed  to  take  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  peninsula,  which  had  been  over- 
run by  the  French.  The  passage  of  the 
Douro,  and  the  defeat  of  Soult,  which  fol- 
lowed, fittingly  oj^ened  this  masterly  cam- 
paign. For  the  victory  at  Talavera  (July 
28),  the  first  of  many  which  he  won  in  the 
peninsula,  tlie  government  raised  Wellesley 
to  the  peerage,  as  Viscount  Wellington. 

Toward  the  end  of  1810  he  fought  the 
Battle  of  Busaeo,  which  was  followed  by  the 
famous  fortification  and  defense  of  the  lines 
of  Toi-res  Vedras.  Before  these  fortifica- 
tions the  French  encamped  for  months,  but 
they  were  finally  compelled,  by  lack  of  sup- 
plies, to  evacuate  Portugal.  A  little  later 
(in  1811)  occurred  the  victory  of  Fuentes 
de  Onoro.  Early  in  1812  Wellington  took 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz  by  storm, 
fought  the  Battle  of  Salamanca,  accounted 
one  of  his  most  famous  victories,  and  in 
August  entered  Madrid.  For  his  brilliant  con- 
duct of  the  campaign,  he  received  the  thanks 
of  Parliament  and  was  raised  to  the  dignity 


WELLINGTON 


3847 


WESLEY 


of  marquis.  Next  followed  the  Battle  of 
Vittoria  (1813),  battles  in  the  Pyrenees,  the 
capture  of  San  Sebastian  and  the  forced  re- 
treat of  Soult. 

In  1814  a  victory  over  Soult  was  gained, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  Battle  of  Toulouse, 
in  which  Soult's  best  troops  were  routed, 
opened  the  way  for  the  British  trooj^s  to  the 
heart  of  France.  Napoleon  abdicated  on 
April  12,  and  a  few  days  later  the  war  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  signing  of  conven- 
tions with  Soult  and  Berthier.  The  trium- 
phant general  was  created  Marquis  of  Douro 
and  Duke  of  Wellington  and  was  given  the 
thanks  of  both  houses  of  Parliament.  In 
July  he  went  as  ambassador  to  France  and 
succeeded  Lord  Castlereagh  as  British  rep- 
resentative in  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and 
when  Xapoleon  returned,  Wellington  took 
command  of  the  army  assembled  in  the  Neth- 
erlands to  oppose  him,  winning  the  great  vic- 
tory of  Waterloo.  On  his  return  to  England, 
after  the  restoration  of  peace,  he  accepted  the 
post  of  master-general  of  the  ordnance,  with 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Liverpool.  In 
1822  he  represented  Great  Britain  in  the 
Congress  of  Verona,  and  six  years  later  he  ac- 
cepted the  premiership,  resigning  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces  to  Lord  Hill.  The  gi-ow- 
ing  discontent  throughout  the  country  on 
the  subject  of  Parliamentary  refoiTu,  which 
Wellington  steadily  opposed,  caused  the  resig- 
nation of  the  government  in  1830.  He  held 
office  under  Sir  Kobert  Peel  as  secretary  of 
state,  and  in  1846  he  helped  to  carry  the  re- 
peal of  the  corn  laws,  which  till  then  he  had 
opposed.  He  died  September  14,  1852,  and 
was  buried  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  See 
Waterloo,  Battle  op. 

WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  dominion  of  New  Zealand,  a  sea- 
port situated  on  Port  Nicholson,  on  North 
Island,  1,280  miles  southeast  of  Sydney,  the 
nearest  Australian  port.  It  has  a  fine  harbor 
and  an  extensive  export  and  import  trade. 
Manufacturing  establishments  include  flour 
mills,  saw  mills,  tanneries,  foundries,  soap 
and  candle  works,  brick  kilns,  etc.  Important 
buildings  are  a  government  building,  a  mu- 
seum, buildings  of  Victoria  University  Col- 
lege, and  the  Wellington  branch  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute.  P^opulation,  1911,  64,372; 
with  suburbs,  70,729. 

WELLS,  Herbert  George  (1866-  ), 
one  of  the  most  forceful  and  original  of  the 
modern  group  of  English  novelists.    He  was 


born  at  Bromley,  Kent,  of  middle-class  par- 
ents, and  was  educated  at  London  University. 
After  teaching  for  several  years  he  began 
writing  for  magazines,  and  in  1895  produced 
a  fantastic  romance  called  The  Time  Ma- 
chine, which  met  with  instantaneous  success. 
Other  stories  of  a  like  character  followed,  in- 
eluding  The  War  of  the  Worlds,  When  the 
Sleeper  Wakes  and  In  the  Days  of  the  Comet. 
In  another  series  of  novels  of  everyday  life 
he  finds  opportunities  to  set  forth  his  belief 
in  Socialism,  as  in  The  Research  Magnifi- 
cent and  The  Passionate  Friends.  Toiw  Buri- 
gay  is  much  admired  for  its  excellent  char- 
acter drawing,  and  History  of  Mr.  Polly  for 
its  niiive  humor.  In  Mr.  Britling  Sees  It 
Through  Wells  produced  one  of  the  out- 
standing books  based  on  the  World  War.  Be- 
cause of  his  versatility-,  his  gift  for  story  tell- 
ing and  his  keen  insight  into  character,  he 
ranks  high  among  contemporary  writers. 

WELSBACH,  vels'bahk,  BURNER,  an  in- 
candescent gas  burner  composed  of  a  cone- 
shaped  cotton-gauze  mantle  of  oxides  of 
thorium  and  cerium.  When  fii'st  lighted  the 
cotton  burns  away,  leaving  a  skeleton  of  the 
oxides.  By  means  of  this  burner  a  strong, 
clear  light  is  obtained  with  the  use  of  a 
minimum  amount  of  gas,  smoke  and  un- 
steadiness of  the  flame  being  eliminated. 

Karl  Welsbach  (1858-  ),  inventor  of 
the  Welsbach  burner,  a  native  of  Austria  and 
pupil  of  Bunsen  at  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg. He  is  the  discoverer  of  the  rare  ele- 
ments praseodj-mium,  neodjTnium  and  lute- 
cium. 

WELWITSCHIA,  toel  wich'e  a,  a  remark- 
able plant,  growing  in  the  dry  regions  of 
southern  Africa.  It  consists  of  a  stem,  which 
foiTDS  a  woody  mass,  i-ising  not  more  than  a 
foot  above  the  ground  and  having  a  diameter 
of  from  four  inches  to  as  many  feet.  From 
this  mass  grow  two  enormous  leaves,  which 
become  dry  and  are  often  split  up  into 
shreds,  but  which  do  not  fall  off.  Every  year 
several  short  flower  stalks  grow  up  from  the 
base  of  these  leaves,  but  no  other  leaves  are 
ever  produced. 

WENTWORTH,  u-enfwurth,  Thomas, 
Earl  of  Strafford.  See  Stratford,  Thomas 
Wextworth,  Earl  of. 

WESLEY,  ices'li,  the  family  name  of  two 
brothers  famous  as  the  founders  of  the  re- 
ligious sect  from  which  the  Methodist  Church 
developed.  John  Wesley,  the  elder,  was  the 
leader  of  the  movement. 


WESLEY 


3848 


WEST 


John  Wesley  (1703-1791)  was  born  at  Ep- 
worth,  England,  June  17,  1703,  a  son  of  the 
•village  rector.  His  mother  was  a  woman  of 
intelligence  and  piety.  The  boy  attended  the 
Charter-House  School  and  later  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  from  which  he  was  gradu- 
ated in  1724.  A  year  after  his  graduation  he 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry,  and  for  a  time 
acted  as  his  father's  curate.  When  in  1729 
he  returned  to  Oxford  he  became  associated 
with  his  brother  Charles  and  a  few  other 
undergraduates  in  what  was  derisively  called 
the  "Holy  Club." 

In  1735  he  and  his  brother  Charles  went 
with  General  Oglethorpe  to  America  and  for 
three  years  the  brothers  did  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians.  John  Wesley's  preach- 
ing was  not  particularly  successful,  but  the 
trip  mai'ked  the  turning  point  in  his  life,  for 
on  the  journey  over  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  some  Moravian  Brethren  whose  simple 
piety  made  a  deep  impression  on  him.  On 
returning  to  London  he  sought  the  Brethren, 
and  from  Peter  Bohler,  one  of  their  preach- 
ers, learned  the  doctrine  of  "saving  faith."  In 
the  summer  of  1738  he  visited  the  Moravian 
leaders  on  the  continent,  and  this  experience 
confirmed  him  in  his  new  faith  in  the  saving 
power  of  Christ.  Returning  to  England  he 
became  associated  with  George  Whitefield, 
and  his  real  life  work  as  an  evangelistic 
preacher  began. 

His  new  methods  aroused  much  opposi- 
tion, and  churches  were  closed  to  him.  He 
then  began  preaching  in  the  open  air,  gaining 
a  large  number  of  followers.  In  1740  an 
important  step  was  taken  when  Wesley  or- 
ganized his  first  society  and  appointed  lay 
preachers,  who  were  communicants  of  the 
Church  of  England,  to  take  charge  of  small 
groups  of  converts.  The  small  meetings  thus 
provided  for  caused  the  movement  to  spread 
rapidly.  In  1744  the  first  conference  of  lay 
preachers  was  held.  These  remained  mem- 
bers of  the  Established  Church;  it  was  not 
until  1784  that  Wesley's  organization  became 
a  new  denomination,  separate  from  the 
Church  of  England.  Wesley  was  a  prodi- 
gious worker,  traveling  long  distances  and 
preaching  three  or  four  times  a  day.  At  the 
same  time  he  produced  a  large  volume  of 
religious  literature.  In  1750  he  was  mar- 
ried to  Mrs.  Vazeille,  a  widow  with  four 
children,  but  incompatibility  soon  led  to  a 
separation.  At  the  time  of  his  death  Wes- 
ley's followers  numbered  120,000. 


A  man  of  much  charm  of  personality, 
kindly  wit  and  humor,  Wesley  was  admired 
even  by  those  who  opposed  his  doctrines.  He 
retained  his  sprightliness  and  interest  in  all 
about  him  to  the  last.     See  Methodists. 

Charles  Wesley  (1707-1788),  a  noted  Eng- 
lish evangelist,  brother  of  John  Wesley, 
aided  his  brother  in  founding  the  Methodist 
Church.  He  was  born  in  Epworth,  England, 
and  was  educated  at  Westminster  School  and 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1735  he  went 
with  his  brother  John  to  America  and 
preached  in  the  Georgia  colony.  His  preach- 
ing was  not  successful,  owing  to  his  extreme 
views ;  and  in  1738,  influenced  by  his  brother, 
he  modified  his  doctrines  and  methods  and 
became  an  itinerant  preacher.  He  then  be- 
gan to  attract  large  audiences.  His  chief 
service  to  the  Methodist  movement,  however, 
was  as  a  writer  of  h3Tnns.  He  produced  about 
6,000,  some  of  which  remain  favorites  in  the 
denomination. 

WESLEYAN  METHODISTS,  an  offshoot 
of  the  original  Methodist  Church,  which  pre- 
serves the  form  of  church  government  origi- 
nated by  John  Wesley.  It  is  chiefiy  repre- 
sented in  the  British  Isles.  The  other  impor- 
tant branch  of  the  denomination,  distributed 
chiefly  in  America,  early  adopted  the  Episco- 
pal form  of  church  organization  and  became 
known  as  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
The  history  of  Methodism  will  be  found  in  the 
article  Methodists.    See  also  Wesley. 

WEST,  Benjamin  (1738-1820),  an  Amer- 
ican painter,  who  made  his  way  up  from  hum- 
ble beginnings  to  a  place  of  highest  distinction 
in  the  world  of  his  day.  Painting  and  draw- 
ing he  taught  himself,  making  his  colors  of 
leaves  and  berries  and  his  brushes  of  hair 
from  his  cat's  tail.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  established  himself  as  a  portrait  painter 
in  Philadelphia.  In  1760  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  his  Cimon  and  Iphigenia  and  Angelica 
and  Medora  received  favorable  comment. 
Three  years  later  he  went  to  England;  and 
so  cordial  was  his  reception  that  he  decided 
to  make  London  his  home.  For  King 
George  III,  his  patron  for  more  than  thirty 
years,  he  executed  a  series  of  historical  and 
religious  paintings  for  Windsor  Castle.  On 
the  death  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  1792, 
he  became  president  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
The  best  of  his  historical  paintings  are  The 
Death  of  General  Wolfe,  Penn's  Treaty  with 
the  Indians,  The  Battle  of  La  Hogiie  and 
The  Black  Prince  at  Poitiers.    Among  his  re- 


WEST  CHESTER 


3849 


WESTFIELD 


ligious  pieces,  the  most  notable  is  Christ 
Healing  the  Sick.  Though  not  a  great  genius, 
West  was  a  talented  and  painstaking  painter, 
and  is  given  credit  for  improvements  he  made 
in  the  manner  of  treating  historical  subjects. 

WEST  CHES'TER,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of 
Chester  County,  twenty  miles  west  of  Phila- 
delphia, on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore  &  Wilmington  railroads. 
It  is  surrounded  by  an  agi'icultural  region, 
and  large  cream  separator  works  and  exten- 
sive nurseries  are  the  most  notable  industries. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  West  Chester  State 
Normal  School,  one  of  the  largest  normal 
schools  in  the  country,  and  of  Darlington 
Seminary  for  young  ladies  and  Saint  An- 
thony's Boys'  College.  The  Battle  of  the 
Brandywine  was  fought  within  four  miles 
of  West  Chester,  and  the  battlefields  of 
Chadd's  Ford  and  Valley  Forge  are  within 
driving  distance.  The  Old  Turk's  Head 
Hotel  dates  from  pre-Revolutionary  days. 
Population,  1910,  11,767;  in  1917,  13,403 
(Federal  estimate). 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA,  a  state  of  the 
Australian  Commonwealth,  occupying  all  of 
that  portion  of  the  continent  west  of  the 
129th  meridian,  east  longitude.  Its  greatest 
extent  from  north  to  south  is  1,480  miles,  and 
from  east  to  west,  1,000  miles.  The  area  is 
estimated  at  975,920  square  miles,  making  it 
the  largest  of  the  Australian  states.  In  tliis 
vast  region  there  are  about  three  inhabitants 
to  the  square  mile,  as  the  population  in 
1917  (official  estimate)  was  only  308,530. 
No  other  state  of  the  Commonwealth  is  so 
sparsely  populated. 

The  interior  is  a  low  plateau,  varying  in 
altitude  from  700  to  1,000  feet  and  occasion- 
ally rising  to  greater  height.  It  is  mostly 
sterile,  with  little  or  no  vegetation.  Most  of 
the  eastern  part  of  this  division  belongs  to 
the  great  Victorian  Desert.  The  western 
coast  line  is  bordered  by  highlands  or  moun- 
tains, which  are  from  50  to  100  miles  from  the 
coast.  These  mountains  also  extend  into  the 
northern  or  Kimberley  division.  They  are 
low,  and  their  highest  summits  do  not  ex- 
ceed 3,580  feet.  The  productive  regions  of 
the  colony  are  in  the  west  and  southwest. 
Here  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to  sustain 
vegetation,  and  extensive  forests  of  eucalyp- 
tus, sandalwood  and  other  Australian  trees 
occur. 

The  lands  are  also  well  suited  to  grazing 
and  agriculture,  and  wheat,  barley,  com,  oats, 


potatoes  and  hay  are  raised  in  paying  quan- 
tities. Apples,  peaches,  oranges,  lemons, 
gi'ai^es  and  other  fruits  are  also  cultivated. 
Considerable  live  stock  is  raised  and  wool 
growing  is  an  important  branch  of  agri- 
cultural industry.  Other  resources  of  the 
state  are  timber,  and  mineral  wealth,  con- 
sisting largely  of  gold. 

The  government  is  similar  to  that  of  other 
Australian  states.  The  governor  is  appointed 
by  the  British  sovereign  and  the  legislature 
consists  of  a  legislative  council  of  thirty  mem- 
bers and  an  assembly  of  fifty  members.  The 
members  of  the  council  are  chosen  for  six 
years,  and  of  the  assembly,  for  three  years. 
Women  vote  on  equal  terms  with  men.  Perth 
is  the  capital.  Population  in  1915,  319,859. 
See  Australia. 

WESTERN  RESERVE.  In  1786,  when 
Connecticut  ceded  to  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment the  western  lands  covered  by  its 
original  charter  of  1GG2,  it  retained  a  strip 
of  land  extending  westward  from  the  Penn- 
sylvania bomidary  120  miles,  and  called  it 
the  Western  Reserve.  Most  of  this  tract 
Avas  sold  in  1795  and  1796  to  the  Connecticut 
Land  Company,  and  the  sum  paid  ($1,200,- 
000)  was  used  for  Connecticut  public  schools. 
The  new  company  surveyed  the  land,  and 
settlers  began  to  take  homesteads  and  to  de- 
velop it.  Later  the  district  became  a  part 
of  the  state  of  Ohio.  The  name  of  the  reser- 
vation disappeared  from  geography,  but  sur- 
vives in  a  university  at  Cleveland,  which  is 
situated  in  the  district  (see  below). 

WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY,  a 
nonsectarian  institution  of  higher  learning, 
founded  in  1826.  It  is  located  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  where  it  occupies  a  beautiful 
parklike  campus  covering  thirty-six  acres. 
The  following  departments  are  maintained: 
Adelbert  College ;  Men's  College ;  the  College 
for  Women;  the  Library  School;  the  School 
of  Applied  Social  Sciences;  schools  of  dentis- 
try and  pharmacy;  the  Department  of  Gradu- 
ate Instruction ;  graduate  schools  of  law  and 
medicine;  the  School  of  Education,  and  the 
summer  session.  The  library  contains  134,000 
bound  volumes.  Including  the  summer  school 
enrollment,  the  student  body  numbers  about 
4,000.  There  are  about  350  members  on  the 
faculty. 

WESTTIELD,  Mass.,  a  town  in  Hampden 
County  surrounded  by  tlie  picturesque  Berk- 
shire Hills,  is  nine  miles  west  of  Springfield, 
on  the  Westfield  River  and  on  the  Boston  & 


WEST  INDIES 


3850 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 


Albany  and  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  railroads.  It  is  especially  noted 
for  its  manufacture  of  whips,  in  which  in- 
dustry it  is  the  leading  city  of  the  United 
States;  heating  apparatus,  bicycles,  motor- 
cycles and  cigars  are  also  manufactured.  A 
state  normal  school  is  located  here,  and  the 
town  has  a  Federal  building,  a  hospital  and 
a  public  library.  Westfield  was  settled  in 
1642,  and  was  known  by  the  Indian  name  of 
Woronoco  until  its  incorporation  in  1669. 
Population,  1910,  16,044;  in  1917,  18,769 
(Federal  estimate). 

WEST  INDIES,  irfdiz,  or  ANTILLES, 
an  til'  leez,  an  archipelago  lying  between 
North  America  and  South  America,  and  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean 
Sea  on  the  west  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  east. 
The  islands  cover  a  total  area  of  about  92,000 
square  miles,  while  their  surface  area  com- 
prises only  about  300  square  miles.  They 
are  believed  to  be  the  summits  of  a  subter- 
ranean mountain  chain.  Most  of  them  are 
high  above  sea  level.  The  climate  is  tropical. 
Cuba,  the  largest  island  of  the  group,  is  in- 
dependent; Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti,  both 
on  the  same  island,  are  self-governed  states 
under  the  financial  supervision  of  the  United 
States.  The  other  islands  are  colonial  posses- 
sions, distributed  among  the  several  govern- 
ments as  follows. 

Great  Britain:  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  Cay- 
mans, Virgin  Gorda,  Tortola,  Anegada,  Som- 
brero, Anguilla,  Barbuda,  Saint  Christopher 
(Saint  Kitts),  Antigua,  Nevis  and  Redonda, 
Montserrat,  Dominica,  Saint  Lucia,  Saint  Vin- 
cent, Barbados,  Grenada  and  the  Grenadines, 
Tobago,    Trinidad. 

United  States:  Porto  Rico,  Saint  Thomas, 
Saint  John,  Santa  Cruz  (Saint  Croix),  the 
last  three  purchased  in  1917  from  Denmark 
and  now  called  the  Virgin  Islands. 

France:  Martinique:  Guadeloupe,  D^si- 
rade.  Saint  Martin  (in  part),  Marie  Galance, 
Saint  Bartholomew,   Les   Saintes. 

Netherlands:     Saint  Martin   (in  part),  Saint 
Eustatius,  Saba,  Curagao,  Aruba,  Buen  Ayre. 
Venezuela:       Margarita,       Tortuga,       TTer- 
manos. 

Independent:  Cuba  and  Isle  of  Pines, 
Haiti.  The  large  islands  and  different  groups 
are  described  under  their  respective  titles. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Bahama  Islands  Porto  Rico 

Barbados  Saint  Christopher 

Cuba  Santo  Domingo 

Dominica  Travels  in  Distant 

Guadeloupe  Lands 

Haiti  Trinidad 

Jamaica  Virgin  Islands 

Leeward  Islands  Windward  Islands 

Martinique 


WEST  INDIES,  Danish.  See  Virgin 
Islands  of  the  United  States. 

WEST'INGHOUSE,  George  (1846-1914), 
an  American  inventor  and  engineer,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  air  brake.  He  was  born  in 
Schoharie  County,  N.  Y.,  and  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  of  Schenectady.  He 
spent  much  time  in  his  father's  machine  shop 
and  invented,  when  but  fifteen  years  of  age,  a 
rotary  engine.  During  1863  and  1864  he 
served  in  the  Union  army,  and  later  he  studied 
in  Union  College.  His  inventions  include 
a  device  for  replacing  railroad  cars  on  the 
track;  the  air  brake,  which  he  invented  in 
1868  and  subsequently  improved,  and  a  num- 
ber of  signaling  devices.  Alternating  euiTcnt 
machinery  was  introduced  in  America  largely 
through  his  efforts.  He  built  the  great  gener- 
ators at  Niagara  Falls  and  those  for  the  ele- 
vated railway  and  the  rapid  transit  system 
in  New  York,  and  he  established  in  Europe 
and  in  the  United  States  large  works  for  the 
manufacture  of  air  brakes  and  other  ma- 
chines.    See  Air  Brake. 

WESTMINCTER  ABBEY,  a  famous 
church  in  London,  called  "Abbey"  because  up 
to  the  time  of  Henry  VIII  it  was  a  Benedic- 
tine monastery,  presided  over  by  an  abbot. 
It  is  situated  near  the  Thames,  adjoining  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  In  1065  a  church  was 
built  on  the  site,  in  the  Norman  style,  by 


WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 

Edward  the  Confessor,  but  the  main  building, 
as  it  now  stands,  was  begun  in  1220  by  Henry 
III  and  was  practically  completed  by  Edward 
I.  Various  additions  were  made  down  to  the 
time  of  Henry  VII,  who  built  the  chapel 
which  bears  his  name.  The  upper  parts  of 
the  two  towers  were  designed  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren.  The  extreme  length  of  the 
church  is  423  feet,  the  roof  is  102  feet  high, 
and  the  towers  are  225  feet.    The  coronation 


WESTMINSTER  HALL 


3851 


WEST  POINT 


of  English  kings  takes  place  in  the  choir  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  "where  the  coronation 
stone  brought  by  Edward  I  from  Scotland,  is 
placed  beside  the  coronation  chairs  of  the 
English  sovereigns. 

Burial  in  the  Abbey  is  one  of  the  great- 
est honors  the  nation  can  bestow,  and  not 
only  sovereigns  but  some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated men  of  science,  soldiers,  statesmen 
and  men  of  letters  are  interred  there.  Some 
of  the  great  men  who  have  not  been  buried 
there  are  honored  with  tablets  or  portrait 
busts.  In  the  Poet's  Corner  are  monuments 
to  most  of  England's  great  poets,  from 
Chaucer  to  Robert  Bro^\^ling,  and  a  memorial 
to  Longfellow,  the  only  American  who  is  rep- 
resented. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL,  the  hall  of  the 
old  palace  of  Westminster,  erected  by  Rich- 
ard TI  on  the  foundations  of  a  stracture  built 
by  "William  Rufus.  It  is  290  feet  long,  sixty- 
eight  feet  wide  and  ninety  feet  high,  and  it 
has  a  fine  porch,  and  a  roof  of  carved  timber 
which  is  considered  the  most  notable  of  its 
kind.  This  building  is  closely  associated  with 
many  stirring  events  in  English  History. 
Here  Chancellor  More,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  the 
Earl  of  Strafford,  King  Charles  I  and  WaiTen 
Hastings  were  brought  to  trial.  The  hall 
was  the  center  of  the  highest  English  courts 
of  law  until  these  were  removed  to  the  new 
buildings  recently  erected  for  their  accom- 
modation. It  escaped  the  fire  of  1834,  and 
to-day  sei-\'es  as  a  vestibule  to  the  Houses  of 
Parliament. 

WEST  ORANGE,  N.  J.    See  Orange. 

WESTPHALIA,  west  fa  It  ah,  a  small 
province  of  Prussia,  mountainous  as  to  its 
surface,  rich  in  iron,  coal,  zinc  and  copper. 
Its  annual  output  of  coal  before  the  World 
War  was  over  53,075,000  tons,  and  of  iron, 
over  1,563,700  tons.  There  is  also  a  large 
stone  and  salt  industry.  Plants  for  the  manu- 
facture of  metal  wares  and  machinery'  abound. 
Westphalia  also  manufactures  quantities  of 
linen,  woolen  and  cotton  goods.  About  forty 
per  cent  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation, 
producing  crops  of  rye,  oats,  flax,  potatoes 
and  wheat.  Miinster  is  the  principle  city 
of  the  province. 

In  the  -transition  of  Gennany  from  an 
empire  to  a  republican  form  of  government, 
the  province  of  Westphalia  will  doubtless 
remain  an  integral  part  of  the  old  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  but  its  exact  relation  may  not  for 
some  time  be  determined. 


WESTPHALIA,  Peace  of,  the  treaty 
which  closed  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Many 
states  had  been  involved  in  this  contest  and 
two  separate  conventions  were  held  to  decide 
upon  tei-ms  of  peace.  The  representatives  of 
the  Empire,  France  and  Spain  and  the 
Catholic  electors  and  princes  of  the  Empire 
met  at  Miinster,  and  the  representatives 
of  Sweden,  the  Empire  and  the  German 
Protestants  at  Osnabriick.  Each  of  these 
conventions  signed  a  treaty  in  1648  and 
in  October  of  that  year  the  general  treaty 
was  signed  at  Westphalia,  by  the  representa- 
tives of  all  the  powei-s. 

One  of  the  important  provisions  of  the 
treaty  was  the  extension  to  the  Calvinists  of 
the  religious  liberty  which  had  by  the  Peace 
of  Augsburg  been  allowed  only  to  the  Luth- 
erans. It  was  provided,  also,  that  all  ten-i- 
tory  which,  in  the  Palatinate,  Wiirttemberg 
and  Baden  in  1618  and  in  the  other  states  in 
1624,  had  been  held  by  Catholics,  was  to 
remain  Catholic,  and  that  all  which  at  that 
time  had  been  held  by  Protestants  was  to 
remain  Protestant,  A  prince  might  make  his 
religion  compulsorj^  with  his  subjects,  but  the 
latter  had  the  right  to  emigi-ate  if  dissatisfied. 
The  Upper  Palatinate  was  added  to  the  duchy 
of  Bavaria ;  the  Lower  Palatinate  was  given 
to  the  son  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  West- 
ern Pomerania  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Bran- 
denburg received  certain  cessions  of  territoiy 
to  make  up  for  the  loss  of  Pomerania ;  France 
was  given  Alsace,  with  Metz,  Toul  and  Ver- 
dun; Spain  recognized  the  independence  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
Austria  recognized  the  independence  of 
Switzerland.    See  Thirty  Years'  War. 

WEST  POINT',  N.  Y.,  a  village  in  Orange 
County,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson, 
fifty-five  miles  north  of  New  York  City,  at  the 
opening  of  the  Highlands.  The  village  is 
beautifully  situated  on  an  elevated  plateau 
and  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  seat  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  which  occupies 
a  site  covering  2,300  acres  (see  Military 
Academy,  United  States). 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country'  West 
Point  was  of  considerable  strategic  impor- 
tance, and  during  the  Revolution  it  was  forti- 
fied under  the  direction  of  the  Polish  engineer 
Kosciusko.  It  was  given  into  the  command 
of  Benedict  Arnold  (see  Arnold,  Benedict), 
who  treacherously  attempted  to  sui-render  it 
to  the  British.  It  was  selected  as  the  site 
of  the  academy  by  Congi-ess  in  1802. 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


3852 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


EST  VIRGINIA,  a  South  Atlantic 
state  of  the  American  Union,  lying  west  of 
Virginia,  of  which  it  was  originally  a  part. 
It  is  in-egularly  oval  in  shape,  with  projec- 
tions on  the  north  and  northeast.  These 
extensions  gave  rise  to  its  popular  name,  the 
Panhandle  State.  West  Virginia  is  one  of 
the  foremost  mining  states,  ranking  next  to 
Pennsylvania   in   value   of   mineral   output. 

Location  and  Size.  The  state  is  the  only 
one  of  the  South  Atlantic  group  which  has 
no  seacoast.  Its  northern  boundary  adjoins 
the  frontiers  of  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and 
Marshland,  and  its  curving  southern  boundary 
follows  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  borders. 
Ohio  and  Kentucky  are  on  the  west.  With 
an  area  of  24,170  square  miles,  West  Virginia 
is  the  fortieth  state  in  size,  being  about  6,800 
square  miles  smaller  than  South  Carolinia, 
the  state  next  larger  in  area.  It  is  almost 
exactly  half  the  size  of  Louisiana,  and  about 
twice  as  large  as  Maryland,  the  forty-first 
state. 

People  and  Cities.  West  Virginia  has  a 
remarkably  high  percentage  of  native-born 
inhabitants,  the  proportion  of  foreign  born 
being  less  than  five  per  cent.  The  total 
population  in  1910  was  1,221,119,  making  the 
state  twenty-eighth  in  rank.  The  average 
density  per  square  mile  was  50.8.  On  July 
1, 1918,  the  population  was  1,439,165,  accord- 
ing to  Federal  estimates.  There  are  more 
than  64,000  of  negro  blood,  and  of  the  foreign 
groups  the  most  prominent  are  Italians,  Aus- 
trians,  Gennans,  Hungarians,  Russians,  Eng- 
lish, Irish  and  Scotch. 

The  Methodists  are  the  largest  religious 
sect.  Others  of  importance  include  the  Bap- 
tists, Roman  Catholics,  Presbyterians,  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  and  Lutherans. 

According  to  Federal  estimates  for  1917 
there  were  in  the  state  that  year  ten  cities 


with  populations  exceeding  10,000.  The  first 
five,  in  order  of  size,  with  1917  estimates, 
are  Huntington  (47,686),  Wheeling,  the  cap- 
ital (43,657),  Charleston  (31,060),  Parkers- 
burg  (21,059),  andBluefield  (16,123). 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  as  a 
whole  is  very  uneven  and  in  the  eastern  por- 
tion it  is  mountainous.  The  mountain  region 
occupies  more  than  one-third  of  the  state, 
and  the  ranges  extend  in  a  northeast-south- 
west direction.  Between  the  mountain  ranges 
on  the  eastern  and  western  sides  are  broad 
valleys,  narrowing  into  ravines  as  they  ap- 
proach the  hill  region.  The  ridges  in  the 
eastern  part  are  cut  by  numerous  transverse 
valleys,  and  in  the  southern  part  these  val- 
leys are  so  numerous  as  to  cut  the  mountain 
ranges  into  broad  domes  with  spurs  running 
in  various  directions,  leaving  but  few  definite 
ridges.  The  average  elevation  of  the  state, 
1,500  feet,  is  the  highest  average  of  any  state 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  highest 
point  is  Spruce  Knob,  in  Pendleton  County, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  4,860  feet,  and 
the  lowest  point  is  Harper's  Ferry,  with  an 
elevation  of  260  feet.  Some  of  the  other 
prominent  peaks  are  Bald  Knob,  4,800  feet, 
and  High  Knob,  4,170  feet.  West  of  the 
mountains  there  is  a  belt  of  broad,  flat  hills, 
ranging  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  in  elevation. 
These  hills  are  followed  by  a  more  gently  roll- 
ing country,  sloping  toward  the  Ohio  River. 

The  Ohio  River  furnishes  steam  navigation 
along  the  whole  western  boundary  and  re- 
ceives all  the  principal  streams  of  the  state, 
except  the  Potomac  and  its  affluents.  The 
largest  rivers  flowing  into  the  Ohio  are  the 
Guyandotte,  the  Kanawha,  the  Little  Ka- 
nawha, the  Big  Sandy  and  the  Monongahela. 
The  chief  streams  flowing  into  the  Potomac 
are  the  North  and  South  branches. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  remarkably  equa- 
ble, with  no  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  at  Morgantown 
is  54°.  The  average  rainfall  in  the  highest 
elevation  is  thirty-five  inches,  and  in  the 
lowest  fifty-five  inches. 

Mineral  Resources.  Coal,  natural  gas  and 
petroleum  are  the  most  valuable  mineral 
products  of  this  richly-endowed  common- 
wealth. Possessing  17,280  square  miles  of 
coal  area.  West  Virginia  surpasses  Pennsyl- 
vania in  extent  of  dejiosits,  though  the  latter 
state  has  a  larger  annual  yield.  The  pro- 
duction in  West  Virginia  has  been  steadily 
increasing  for  many  years,  and  now  approxi- 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


3853 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


WEST  VlRGINlAi 

Tfie  Panfiandle  Siate 


Population  of  Cities 
15,000  to  25.000 
30,000  to  40,000 
Between  40,000  and  50,000 


Coal    Minin 


mates  90,000,000  tons  annually,  whollj^  of  bi- 
tuminous coal. 

In  the  output  of  natural  gas  the  state 
ranks  first  in  the  Union,  with  an  annual  yield 
valued  at  over  $45,000,000.  The  richest  fields 
are  in  Lewis,  Harrison  and  Ritchie  counties, 
hut  there  are  wells  in  at  least  a  score  of 
counties.  West  Virginia  is  the  sixth  state 
in  yield  of  petroleum,  the  yearly  production 
of  'which  is  about  9,000,000  barrels.  Other 
products  found  in  paying  quantities  include 
clays,  glass  sand,  marble,  sandstone,  lime- 
stone and  salt.  The  total  annual  value  of  all 
mineral  products  is  about  $135,000,000. 

Agriculture.  Considering  its  mountainous 
surface  West  Virginia  ranks  well  as  an  ag- 
ricultural state ;  aljout  one-third  of  the  whole 
land  area  is  improved.  The  Ohio  and  the 
northeastern  valleys  are  especially  fertile. 
Cora  is  grown  generally,  and  leads  all  other 
crops  in  acreage,  production  and  value.  The 
annual  harvest  is  about  25,000,000  bushels. 
Other  important  crops  are  wheat,  hay,  oats, 
i:)otatoes,  buckwheat  and  rye.  Sorghum  cane 
and  sugar  beets  also  receive  considerable  at- 
tention, and  fruits  thrive  in  various  sections, 
especially  in  the  panhandle  regions.  Apples, 
including  the  prized  Grimes'  Golden  variety, 


are  the  most  important  orchard  crop,  and 
peaches  are  second.  Market  gardening,  stock 
raising  and  dairying  are  all  profitable  lines 
of  farm  activity. 

Manufacturing.  West  Virginia  has  many 
natural  advantages  conducive  to  the  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing,  such  as  an  abun- 
dance of  fuel,  water  power  and  good  trans- 
portation facilities.  It  ranks  tenth  among 
the  states  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber  and 
lumber  products,  its  most  important  manu- 
facturing industry.  "^Iieeling,  the  principal 
manufacturing  city,  is  the  center  of  the  iron 
and  steel  interests,  representing  the  second 
largest  industry. 

The  state  is  first  in  the  production  of  lamp- 
black, one  of  the  first  ten  in  the  production 
of  tanned  leather  articles,  second  in  the  out- 
put of  galvanized  iron,  third  in  that  of  coke, 
and  second  in  that  of  tin  plate  and  terne- 
plate.  At  Wheeling  and  other  cities  there 
are  extensive  glass  factories,  and  at  Charles- 
ton there  is  one  of  the  largest  ax  factories 
in  the  world.  Oil  refining,  pottery  making 
and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  products  are 
also  can'ied  on. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and    correctional    institutions     include     the 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


3854 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


Items  of  Interest  on  West  Virginia  j  J 

One  of  the  provisions  of  the  state  |:;| 
constitution  makes  it  illegal  for  the  |.| 
commonwealth  to  contract  debts.  In  [J 
July,  1916,  there  was  a  surplus  in  the  |i 
treasury  of  more  than  $2,323,000.  h 

The  important  railway  systems  en-  jj 
tering  the  state  include  the  Pennsyl-  j  j 
vania,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Chesa-  |  j 
peake  &  Ohio,  the  Norfolk  &  Western  |;;| 
and  the  West  Virginian,  Central  &  n 
Pittsburgh.  jj 

The  Ohio  and  its  tributaries  provide  l\ 
some  of  the  cheapest  means  of  trans-  Tl 
porting  coal  in  the  world.  li 

West  Vii'ginia  assumed  its  share  of  |.| 
the  old  state  debt  when  it  separated  |1 
from  Virginia,  but  the  amount  for  jj 
which  the  state  was  liable  was  not  1 1 
definitely  decided  upon  until  1915,  j'j 
when  the  United  States  Supreme  1 1 
Court  placed  the  st-ate's  liability  at  \] 
$12,393,929,  with  interest  reckoned  at  |1 
$8,178,000.  I  j 

There  are  no  lakes  in  the  state,  and  ■  I 
the  water  area,  148  square  miles,  is  \\ 
smaller  than  the  water  surface  of  most  i,  j 
of  the  states.  H 

The  large  tonnage  of  coal,  timber,  lij 
and  ores  makes  transportation  of  ['\ 
freight  a  profitable  business,  most  of  ji 
which  is  handled  by  the  railroads,  ji 
though  large  sums  of  money  have  been  {■  j 
spent  by  the  Federal  government  and  H 
by  the  state  to  improve  river  naviga-  y 
tion.  |;!l 

All  children  between  the  ages  of  six  l\ 
and  twenty-one  are  entitled  to  free  M 
education  in  the  public  schools,  and  all  \\ 
children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  li 
fourteen  are  required  to  attend  school  |  j 
at  least  twenty  weeks  each  year.  !  i 

Questions  on  West  Virginia  j  I 

What  is  the  general  shai:)e  of  West  H 

Virginia?  |J 

What  is  its  area  ?    Population  ?  i;; j 

What  is  the  character  of  the  surface?  i:j 

What  rivers  drain  the  state?  |J 

How  does  West  Virginia  rank  in  the  ji 

production  of  coal?     Petroleum?  Nat-  II 

ural  Gas?     Coke?  i\ 

What  is  Blennerhassett  and  why  is  it  l\ 

famous?  I'l 


Western  State  Hospital,  the  Spencer  State 
Hospital,  the  Huntington  State  Hospital,  the 
State  Tuberculosis  Sanatorium,  the  Welch 
State  Hospital,  No.  1,  MeKendree  Hospital, 
No.  2,  the  Pairmont  Hospital,  No.  3,  the 
West  Virginia  Industrial  School  for  Boys, 
the  West  Virginia  Industrial  Home  for  Girls, 
the  West  Virginia  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Blind,  the  West  Virginia  Colored  Orphans' 
Home,  and  the  West  Virginia  Children's 
Home, 

Transportation.  The  state  secures  water 
communication  through  the  Ohio,  the  Monon- 
gahela,  and  the  Kanawha,  which  are  navi- 
gable for  large  boats.  Lumber  is  floated  down 
the  Little  Kanawha,  Big  Sandy  and  Guyan- 
dotte,  as  well  as  down  the  Ohio,  which  is 
used  extensively  to  transport  coal.  Several 
trunk  lines  of  railway  traverse  the  state  from 
east  to  west,  one  in  the  northern,  another 
in  the  central  and  two  in  the  southern  sec- 
tion. Lines  also  extend  north  and  south, 
connecting  these  in  several  places,  and  there 
are  numerous  cross-lines  and  spurs,  so  that 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  the  state 
are  well  supplied  with  railway  facilities. 
There  are  over  3,900  miles  of  railroad  in  the 
state. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  delegates,  the  former 
having  thirty  members,  and  the  latter,  eighty- 
six.  One-half  of  the  senators  are  elected 
eveiy  two  years,  for  a  four-year  term,  and 
the  delegates  are  elected  for  two  years.  The 
legislature  meets  biennially,  and  the  session 
is  limited  to  forty-five  days.  The  executive 
department  consists  of  a  governor,  a  secre- 
tary of  state,  a  superintendent  of  free  schools, 
a  treasurer  and  an  attorney-general,  each 
elected  for  four  years.  The  courts  consist 
of  one  supreme  court  of  appeals,  twenty-two 
circuit  courts  and  thirty-eight  courts  of  lim- 
ited jurisdiction,  together  with  eoui-ts  of 
county  commissioners,  justices  of  the  peace 
and  city  courts. 

Education.  Separate  schools  are  main- 
tained for  white  and  colored  pupils.  The  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction  is  in  charge  of  a 
superintendent  of  free  schools,  and  school 
attendance  is  compulsory  for  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen.  High 
school  education  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
special  supei-^dsor.  The  higher  institutions 
of  learning  include  the  University  of  West 
Virginia,  at  Morgantown ;  the  normal  schools 
at  Athens,  Fairmont,  Glenville,  Huntington, 


WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY        3855 


WHALE 


Shepherdstown  and  West  Liberty;  Bethany- 
College;  West  Virginia  Wesleyan  College; 
Morris  Harvey  College;  the  West  Virginia 
Colored  Institute  and  Bluefield  Colored  In- 
stitute. 

History.  The  state  of  West  Virginia  was, 
until  1S63,  a  part  of  the  state  of  Virginia. 
(For  early  history,  see  Virgixia,  subhead 
History.)  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War,  many  of  the  counties  in  the  western 
part  of  that  state  had  Union  sympathies, 
while  the  remainder  wished  to  secede  and  join 
the  Confederacy.  Therefore,  in  June,  1861, 
representatives  of  forty  counties  declared 
independence  of  the  state  of  Virginia,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  under 
Francis  H.  Pierpont,  as  governor,  and  a  legis- 
lature elected  representatives  to  Congress  and 
adopted  a  constitution  in  April,  1862.  Mean- 
time, a  "reorganized"  provisional  government 
of  Virginia  had  given  its  consent  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  state,  and  West  Virginia  was 
formally  admitted  June  20,  1863.  It  was 
the  scene  of  some  of  the  earliest  fighting  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  furnished  far  more  than 
its  quota  to  the  Federal  armies.  After  the 
war  there  was  rapid  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  state  and  a  great  increase  in 
population.  It  was  Democratic  in  politics 
from  1872  to  1892,  but  it  has  been  generally 
Republican  since  that  time.  Statewide  pro- 
hibition went  into  effect  July  1,  1914. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Bluefield  Fairmont  ISIorerantown 

Cliarleston  Harper's  Ferry  Parkersburg 

Clarksburg  Hunting-ton         Wheeling 

Martinsburg 

MOUNTAINS    AND    RIVERS 

Alleghany  Cumberland        Ohio 

Blue  Ridge  Kanawha  Potomac 

Monongahela 

WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY,  a  co- 
educational state  imiversity,  established  at 
Morgantown  in  1868,  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  West  Virginia  Agricultural  College, 
Woodbum  Seminary  and  Monongahela 
Academy.  It  includes  colleges  of  arts  and 
sciences,  engineering  and  mechanic  arts,  agri- 
culture, medicine  and  law,  schools  of  music, 
military'  science  and  tactics,  and  commerce, 
and  preparatory  schools  at  Keyser,  Mont- 
gomery and  Morgantown.  There  are  about 
125  instructors  and  about  1,200  students,  in- 
cluding those  in  special  departments  and  in 
the  summer  school. 

WEYLER,  xvay'ler,  Nicolau  Valeriaxo, 
Marquis  of  Teneriffe  (1838-         ) ,  a  Spanish 


general  and  administrator,  born  at  Palma, 
Majorca.  He  received  a  military'  education 
in  Spain,  and  was  a  military  attache  of 
the  Spanish  legation  in  the  United  States  at 
the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  He  fought  in 
Cuba  under  Balmaceda,  from  1868  to  1878, 
and  later  in  Spain  against  the  Carlists. 
Afterwards  he  was  successively  governor  of 
the  Canai-y  and  the  Balearic  islands,  and  in 
1889  he  became  captain-general  of  the  Philip- 
pines. After  later  service  as  provincial 
governor  of  Catalonia,  Spain,  he  became, 
in  1896,  Spanish  governor  of  Cuba.  His 
administration  there  was  marked  by  such 
harshness  and  cruelty  that  the  United  States 
protested,  and  in  1897  he  was  recalled.  After 
the  Spanish- American  War  he  was  for  a  time 
captain-general  of  Madrid. 

WEYMAN,  wi'man,  or  icay^man,  Stanley 
John-  (1855-  ),  an  English  novelist,  born 
at  Ludlow,  Shropshire,  and  educated  at  Ox- 
ford. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1881 
and  practiced  for  eight  years.  His  first 
historical  romance,  The  House  of  the  Wolf, 
is  a  story  of  the  French  occupation  of  Quebec. 
A  Gentleman  of  France  established  his  repu- 
tation in  the  field  of  historical  romance;  it 
has  been  translated  into  many  languages. 
Among  his  other  novels  which  have  brought 
hira  wide  poj^ularity  are  Under  the  Bed  Rohe, 
My  Lady  Botha,  The  Bed  Cockade,  The  Man 
in  Black,  The  Castle  Inn  and  The  Wild  Geese. 

WHALE,  a  large  marine  animal,  some 
species  of  which  are  the  largest  animals  in 
existence.  Though  often  classed  as  a  fish, 
the  whale  bears  only  a  superficial  resemblance 
to  the  fishes.  The  tapering  body  terminating 
in  a  finlike  tail  and  the  fin-shaped  paddle  on 


WHALE 

each  side  of  the  body  are  the  only  points  of 
similarity,  while  the  dissimilarities  are  nu- 
merous and  fundamental. 

The  whale^  fii-st  of  all,  is  a  mammal,  bear- 
ing its  young  alive,  and  suckling  it  in  infancy. 
It  has  well-developed  brain  and  lungs,  and 
warm  blood,  which  circulates  through  veins 


WHALE 


585G 


WHARTON 


and  arteries.  Its  bones,  joints  and  muscles 
are  like  those  of  the  higher  land  mammals. 
The  forelimbs  contain  the  same  bones  as  do 
those  of  other  mannnals.  These  are  pro- 
portionately short,  and,  instead  of  toes,  there 
is  a  paddle,  about  seven  feet  long,  formed  by 
a  continuous  skin;  Avhile  in  the  rear  part 
of  the  body  are  rudimentai-y  bones  which  in- 
dicate the  existence  of  hind  legs  in  remote 
ancestoi's.  The  organ  of  locomotion  is  the  fin- 
shaped  tail,  which  is  also  used  for  purposes 
of  defense.  The  whale  is  a  timid  creature 
and  becomes  combative  only  when  attacked. 
When  aroused  it  can  capsize  a  large  vessel 
with  its  tail,  which  is  from  five  to  six  feet 
long  and  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  broad, 
and  destroy  smaller  craft  by  ramming  it 
with  its  blunt  nose. 

Two  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
whales  are  the  proportionately  large  head, 
which  is  usually  a  third  of  the  entire  length 
of  the  body,  and  the  thick  layer  of  fat  be- 
neath the  skin,  which  protects  the  animal 
from  the  cold.  This  fat,  called  blubber,  is 
cut  from  the  captured  animal  and  reduced  to 
oil.  Before  mineral  oils  came  into  general 
use,  whale  oil  was  burned  in  lamps  in  every 
part  of  the  world. 

The  eyes  of  Avhales  are  small  and  there 
is  usually  only  one  nostril,  frequently  S- 
shaped,  situated  on  top  of  the  head.  It  is 
closed  by  a  pluglike  valve,  opened  only  by 
pressure  from  inside.  When  the  whale  comes 
to  the  surface  it  expels  the  air  from  its  lungs 
with  great  force  through  this  nosti'il;  and 
the  hot,  moisture-laden  breath  condensing  in 
the  cold  air  produces  a  column  of  vapor  sev- 
eral yards  high.  The  notion  that  a  whale 
takes  water  into  its  mouth  and  blows  it  out 
through  this  hole  is  erroneous.  The  whale's 
mouth  is  large,  but  the  throat  is  very  small ; 
however,  a  species  known  as  the  Greenland 
whale  has  a  throat  large  enough  to  admit  a 
man's  body. 

Whales  usually  are. divided  into  two  classes 
— the  whalebone  whales  and  those  having 
teeth.  The  toothless  whales  are  commer- 
cially the  more  important,  and  are  hunted 
for  both  oil  and  whalebone,  which  latter  is 
taken  from  the  animal's  mouth.  ■  The  roof 
of  the  mouth  is  provided  with  veii;ical  horny 
plates,  called  baleen,  about  500  in  number. 
These  plates  hang  from  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  in  a  fringe  ten  or  twelve  feet  long. 
This  equipment  serves  as  a  sieve  for  straining 
out  the  minute  animals  on  which  these  whales 


feed.  The  surface  waters  of  the  ocean  teem 
with  animal  life,  and  whales  in  feeding  swim 
Avith  open  mouth  at  high  speed  near  the  sur- 
face, traveling  in  this  way  until  hunger  is 
satisfied.  The  manufacture  of  cheap  substi- 
tutes for  whalebone  has  greatly  decreased  the 
commercial  importance  of  whalebone  whales. 

The  toothed  whales  are  the  larger,  attaining 
a  length  of  ninety  feet  and  a  weight  of 
seventy  tons.  The  young  when  born  are  from 
ten  to  fourteen  feet  long.  Of  these  the 
sperm  whale  is  the  most  valuable.  The  blub- 
ber produces  sperm  oil,  while  the  oil  of  the 
head  jdelds  spermaceti,  used  in  making  can- 
dles and  cosmetics.  Another  valuable  prod- 
uct of  this  whale  is  ambergris,  found  in  the 
intestines  and  used  in  making  perfumes. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury whaling  was  an  important  industiy,  but 
since  the  discovery  of  petroleum  it  has  rap- 
idly declined.  Modem  whaling  operations 
are  conducted  with  swift  vessels,  and  the 
whales  are'killed  by  harpoons  shot  from  guns. 
On  every  coast  where  whale  fishing  is  con- 
ducted there  are  stations  along  the  shore 
to  which  the  carcasses  are  towed  and  cut  up 
and  prepared  for  market. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information,  as  well  as 
the  article  Mammal: 

Ambergris  Cetacea  Sperm  Whale 

Blubber  Spermaceti  Whalebone 

WHALEBONE,  htoale'bone,  or  BALEEN', 
a  term  applied  to  the  horny  plates  attached 
to  the  palate  of  the  toothless  whale.  They 
are  ai'ranged  in  a  double  row  on  the  upper 
jaw  and  hang  down  parallel  into  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth.  The  length  of  the  plates 
varies  from  a  few  inches  to  twelve  feet,  and 
in  number  there  are  about  200  on  each  side 
of  the  mouth.  The  color  varies  according  to 
the  species,  some  kinds  being  black,  some 
yellowish-white  and  others  gray,  striped  with 
black  or  black  and  white. 

This  whale  has  no  teeth,  and  this  fringe  of 
bony  plates  serves  as  a  sieve  or  strainer  of 
the  animal's  food  which  it  takes  in  through 
wide  jaws  while  traveling  at  high  speed. 
From  its  strength,  lightness  and  flexibility, 
whalebone  has  become  an  important  article 
of  commerce,  being  used  for  many  purposes, 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  corsets,  ribs  for 
umbrellas,  whips  and  surgical  instruments, 
though  in  some  of  these  uses  it  has  been 
largelv   superseded    by    steel. 

WHARTON,  Edith  (1862-  ),  whose 
maiden  name  was  Edith  Newbold  Jones^ 


WHEAT 


3857 


WHEAT 


is  one  of  the  most  important  of  contemporary 
novelists.  She  was  born  in  New  York  City, 
was  privately  educated,  and  in  1885  married 
Edward  Wharton  of  Boston.  She  early 
achieved  distinction  as  a  short-story  writer 
and  in  1899  published  her  first  novel,  The 
Greater  Inclination,  a  study  in  human  mo- 
tives. The  Touchstone,  her  second  novel, 
showed  a  distinct  advance  in  the  author's 
power  of  psychological  analysis,  a  quality 
for  which  she  is  chiefly  distinguished.  With 
The  House  of  Mirth,  in  1906,  she  reached  the 
height  of  her  artistic  achievement.  Also 
notable  are  The  Valley  of  Decision,  The 
Fruit  of  the  Tree  and  Tales  of  Men  and 
Ghosts. 

With  the  exception  of  Ethan  Frame  and 
one  or  two  others,  Mrs.  Wharton's  stories  all 
are  of  the  literary  and  artistic  world  and  of 
the  world  of  fashion,  and  her  characters  are 
tlie  liighly  cultivated  products  of  those  en- 
vironments. Important  books  not  mentioned 
above  are  The  Beef,  The  Ctistom  of  the 
Country,  Italian  Villas  and  Their  Gardens 
and  Italian  Backgrounds.  During  the  Great 
War  she  maintained  a  residence  in  Paris  and 
contributed  invaluable  aid  to  war  sufferers. 
As  a  result  of  this  experience  she  wrote 
Fighting  France,  and  edited  The  Book  of 
the  Homeless,  a  book  prepared  and  sold  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Belgian  refugees. 

WHEAT,  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
widely-known  cereal  crops,  has  constituted 
the  staple  food  of  civilized  nations  for  count- 
less centuries.  It  grows  readily  in  all  cli- 
mates, except  the  hottest  parts  of  tropical 
regions  and  the  extreme  cold  portions  of  the 
frigid  zones.  However,  it  is  best  adapted  to 
the  temperate  regions,  and  within  these 
regions  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  crop  is 
produced.  It  reqiaires  a  rich  clay  soil  or 
heavy  loam,  and  clear,  bright  days  while  it  is 
ripening. 

Wheat  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  West- 
ern Asia,  but  it  has  been  cultivated  so  many 
centuries  that  the  place  of  its  origin  is  not 
fully  known.  It  was  introduced  into  North 
America  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Varieties.  In  accordance  with  their  method 
of  growth  wheats  are  divided  into  bearded 
wiieat  and  bald  wheat.  The  first  has  glumes 
attached  to  the  seeds,  while  the  second  has 
none.  In  regard  to  the  color  of  the  kerael, 
the  varieties  are  divided  into  light-colored 
and  dark-colored,  or  white  and  red  wheats. 
Classified  according  to  the  time  of  planting 

242 


all  wheats  are  grouped  under  ^vinter  wheat 
and  spring  Avheat.  In  each  of  these  classes  we 
find  hard  and  soft  wheats.  The  winter  wheat 
is  planted  in  the  fall  and  is  harvested  early 
the  following  summer.  It  is  well  suited  to 
waiTQ  temperate  climates  that  have  mild 
winters.  The  spring  wheat  is  planted  early 
in  spring  and  matures  the  same  season.  It 
is  adapted  to  the  short  season  of  the  cool 
temperate  regions.  It  is  usually  a  hard 
wheat  and  of  better  quality  than  any  of  the 
varieties  of  winter  wheat. 

Production.  The  United  States  is  the  lead- 
ing w^heat-producing  country  in  the  world, 
and  the  raising  of  this  grain  is  carried  on  in 
Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  some  other  states  on 
an  extensive  scale.  The  wheat  farms  or 
ranches  are  large,  some  of  them  embracing 
more  than  25,000  acres.  These  are  divided 
into  sections,  each  of  which  has  its  stables 
for  teams,  sheds  for  storing  machinery,  and 
other  buildings,  and  each  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  foreman.  In  the  spring-wheat 
region  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  the 
wheat  is  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
condition  of  the  ground  will  admit.  In  the 
winter-wheat  section  the  ground  is  plowed 
as  soon  as  possible  after  the  crop  has  been 
harvested.  The  time  of  planting  depends 
upon  the  location.  In  the  warmest  regions  it 
is  later  than  in  the  cool  portions  of  the  winter 
wheat  belt. 

The  work  of  planting  and  harvesting  is 
done  by  machinery.  The  land  is  prepared  by 
plows,  sometimes  by  gang  plows,  which  on  the 
largest  farms  are  drawn  by  tractors.  The 
seed  is  planted  by  drills,  or  sowing  machines, 
and  the  gi-ain  is  harvested  by  self-binding 
harvesters  and  thrashed  by  machines  operated 
by  steam  engines  of  such  capacity  as  to 
thrash  from  1,200  to  1,500  bushels  in  a  day 
(see  Thr.\shing  Machine). 

The  wheat  is  hauled  directly  from  the 
thrasher  to  the  local  elevators  or  to  cars 
for  shipment.  From  the  local  elevators  it  is 
transported  to  the  great  wheat  centers,  such 
as  Minneapolis,  Duluth,  Chicago  and  Buffalo, 
where  it  is  stored  in  large  elevators,  some  of 
which  have  a  capacity  of  6,000,000  bushels; 
there  it  is  kept  until  needed  for  use. 

The  average  production  in  the  United 
States  is  about  880,000,000  bushels  a  year, 
though  in  1915  the  crop  was  l,025,80i,000 
bushels.  The  leading  states  in  the  production 
of  winter  wheat  are  Kansas,  Ohio,  Oklahoma, 


WHEAT 


3858 


WHEAT 


Indiana  and  Illinois.  The  leading:  spring 
wheat  states  are  Minnesota,  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Washington  and  Montana. 

Spring  Wheat 


Saskatchewan 
122 


Winter 


North  Dakota 
104 


Wheat 


Kansas  W  Nebraska 

\2.5  \  .66 

Figures  Represent  Millions  of  Bushels 

FOUR  LEADERS 

The   figures   represent   the   average    of   three 

years'  crops. 

Canada  has  become  one  of  the  great  wheat 
countries  of  the  world.  In  1915  its  produc- 
tion was  376,000,000  bushels,  more  than  one- 
half  of  which  was  produced  in  Saskatchewan. 
Alberta,  Manitoba  and  Ontario  are  the  other 
important  wheat  producing  provinces.  Win- 
nipeg and  Port 
Arthur  are  the  great 
wheat  centers  of  the 
Dominion. 


United 

States 

669 


'''^Russia 
606 


British  India 
353 


I  Italy 
?    185 


H  France  m  Canada 

^.      326  T      243 

Figures  Represent  Millions  of  Bushels 

COUNTRIES  LEADING  IN  PRODUCTION 

The   figures    represent    the   average   of   three 

years'  crops. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  about 
one-half  of  the  world's  wheat  crop  was  pro- 
duced in  Europe,  and  Russia  was  next  to  the 
United  States  in  Cjuantity  of  production. 
Germany,  France  and  Italy  were  also  im- 
portant wheat  countries.  But  Europe  has  not 
for  many  years  been  able  to  produce  all  the 
wheat  consumed  by  the  people,  and  large 
quantities  have  been  imported  from  the 
United  States  and  other  countries. 

When  the  production  of  European  coun- 
tries was   almost   stojDped  l)v   the  war,   the 


Outline  on  Wheat  || 

I.     General  Description  |i| 

(a)  Plant  as  a  whole  jl-j 

(b)  Stalk  II 

(c)  Leaves  11 
•(d)   Fruit  II 

II.     History  m 

(a)  Where  first  cultivated  i\ 

(b)  Early  cultivation  in  general  |;;; 

(c)  Introduction     into     Europe  vi 

and  the  United  States  M 

III.     Species  || 

(a)  Beardless  11 

(b)  Polish  II 

(c)  Spelt  11 
IV.    Processes  of  Production  || 

(a)  Planting  fi 

(b)  Harvesting  jiii 
(e)   Threshing  |||| 

(d)  Milling                            •  I 
V.    Uses  f\ 

(a)  Food  for  Human  Beings  Hi 

(1)  Flour  11 

(2)  Bran  j| 

(3)  Macaroni  [| 

(4)  Cereals  || 

(b)  Other  Products  fii 

(1)  Feed  for  animals  fll 

(2)  Straw  | 

(3)  Straw-board  li 

(4)  Paper  £ 
VI.    Markets  |[ 

Questions  on  Wheat  I;; 

What  is  the  average  yearly  produc-  || 

tion  of  wheat  in  the  United  States?  f" 

What   are  the  other  leading  wheat  i,., 

jDroducing  countries  in  the  world?  |:|| 

What  proportion  of  the  world's  crop  |::| 

does  the  United  States  produce?  |;i 

What  machines  are  used  in  prepar-  |'!: 

ing  the  soil  for  wheat?  I-; 

Who  invented  the  harvester?  ii: 

With  what  tool  did  our  forefathers  I;!! 

cut  their  grain?  f;-; 

Name  the  different  varieties  of  bread  ?■■! 

that  you  know.  |.| 

Which    do   you   consider   the   best?  rl 

Why?  jlj 

Where  are  the  great  wheat  regions  of  |,| 

Canada?  |:;; 

How  long  has  wheat  been  known ?  fi 

Of  what  region  is  wheat  probably  a  fil 

native  plant?  |;!! 


1,  Harvesting. 

2,  Threshing. 


WHEAT 

3,  Steel  Elevator. 

4,  Interior  of  Flour  Mill. 


5,  Wheat  Plants. 

6,  Products. 


WHEATSTONE 


3859 


WHEEL  AND  AXLE 


demand  upon  the  United  States  for  wheat 
exceeded  its  supply  for  exportation.  The 
Food  Administration  restricted  the  sale  of 
wheat  fiour  in  1918  and  ordered  wheatless 
days  in  hotels,  restavu'ants  and  homes.  To 
encourage  an  increased  production  of  wheat, 
the  government  guaranteed  the  farmers  a 
lirice  of  $2.26  a  bushel  for  the  years  1918 
and  1919.  Canada,  Argentina  and  other 
countries  were  also  drawn  upon  for  the  wheat 
they  could  spare  for  export.  White  wheat 
bread  contains  more  nourishment  per  pound 
than  any  other  article  of  food,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  beans,  and  the  scarcity  of  wheat 
caused  by  the  war  gave  eveiy  one  a  slight 
idea  of  what  a  calamity  a  failui'e  of  the 
wheat  crop  might  bring  upon  the  race. 

Uses.  The  greatest  part  of  the  wheat  crop 
is  manufactured  into  flour  (which  see) .  By- 
products of  this  manufacture  include  hran, 
shorts  and  midcUiugs.  Middlings  are  used 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  breakfast 
foods,  and  bran  and  shorts  are  used  for  feed 
for  stock.  Large  quantities  of  starch  are 
also  made  from  wheat.  The  straw  is  used  for 
fodder,  for  bedding  in  stables,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  straw  board  and  the  cheaper 
grades  of  wi-apping  paper. 

Wheat  Insects.  Among  the  enemies  of 
wheat,  those  most  dreaded  are  the  chinch  bug, 
the  Hessian  fiy  and  the  wheat  midge,  a  small, 
yellowish  insect,  with  a  dark  back,  related  to 
the  Hessian  fly,  but  differing  in  habits.  The 
wheat  midge,  which  is  now  common  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  probably  came  from 
Eui'ope  and  has  occasioned  a  great  deal  of 
damage  to  wheat,  especially  in  warm  and 
moist  seasons.  The  damage  is  done  by  the 
little  orange-yellow  larvae,  which  destroy  the 
embryos  of  the  grain  and  prevent  the  heads 
from  filling.  As  the  larvae  can  live  for  sev- 
eral months  without  either  moisture  or  food, 
they  are  carried  about  in  the  wheat  heads, 
and  so  the  species  is  distributed.  The  chinch 
bug  and  Hessian  fly  are  desciibed  under  their 
titles. 

WHEATSTONE,  Charles,  Sir  (1802- 
1875),  an  English  scientist  and  inventor. 
Early  in  life  he  began  the  business  of  making 
musical  insti-uments,  and  in  his  study  of  the 
scientific  pnnciple  involving  their  construc- 
tion he  made  important  discoveries  in  physics. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ex- 
perimental physics  in  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, and  there  he  made  important  experi- 
ments in  electricity  and,  in  collaboration  with 


an  investigator  named  Cooke,  devised  an 
electric  telegraph.  From  this  apparatus  de- 
veloped the  system  of  electric  telegraphs 
used  in  England  until  1870.  Wheatstone  was 
also  the  inventor  of  several  other  electric  ap- 
pliances, one  of  which  enabled  a  system  of 
clocks  to  be  regulated  from  a  central  clock, 
by  means  of  electro-magnets. 

WHEEL,  an  instrument  of  torture,  em- 
ploj'ed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and  later 
in  Western  Europe.  "Breaking  on  the 
wheel"  was  instituted  in  France  in  1534  and 
was  abolished  m  1789.  Assassins,  highway- 
men, incendiaries  and  pillagere  of  churches 
were  of  the  classes  so  punished.  There  were 
several  modes  of  wheel  torture.  Sometimes 
the  \'ictim's  bones  were  broken,  and  his  body 
was  then  bent  around  a  wheel,  bound  and 
left  until  death  ensued,  perhaps  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  To  terminate  sooner  the  victim's 
sulTerings  the  executioner  sometimes  dealt  him 
two  or  three  heavy  blows,  called  coups  de 
grace  (mercj'  strokes),  on  the  chest  or  stom- 
ach. In  Gennany  the  wheel  was  occasionally 
used  till  the  nineteenth  centuiy. 

WHEEL  AND  AX'LE,  a  continuous  lever 
of  the  first  class  (see  Lever),  consisting  of  a 
wheel  and  axle,  fastened 
to  the  same  axis.  The  ra- 
dius of  the  wheel  is  the 
power  arm,  and  the  radius 
of  the  axle,  the  weight 
arm,  of  the  levei\  The  law 
of  equilibrium  is  that  the 
power  multiplied  by  the 
radius  of  the  wheel  is 
equal  to  the  weight  multi- 
plied by  the  radius  of  the 
axle.  In  the  figure,  A 
represents  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  wheel,  C  is 
the  circumference  of  the 
axle,  B  the  radius  of  the 
wheel,  and  r  the  radius  of  the  axle.  If  the 
wheel  has  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  and  the 
axle  has  a  radius  of  one  foot,  a  power  of  one 
pound  will  balance  a  weight  of  three  pounds. 
In  making  the  computations,  the  same  re- 
sults are  obtained,  whether  the  radius  of  the 
wheel  is  compared  with  the  radius  of  the 
axle,  or  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  with  the 
diameter  of  the  axle.  The  most  common 
use  of  the  wheel  and  axle  is  in  the  windlass, 
for  raising  water.  Here  the  crank  often  takes 
the  place  of  the  wheel,  but  the  device  operates 
on  the  same  principle. 


WHEELER 


38G0 


WHEELING 


BENJAMIN  IDE 
WHEELER 


Combinations  of  the  wheel  and  axle  in 
which  toothed  wheels  mesh  into  one  another 
and  are  driven  by  a  crank  or  an  endless  band, 
occur  in  machinery  where  great  power  is 
required.  Derricks  and  the  shears  used  for 
cutting  iron  bars  and  plates  afford  good  il- 
lustrations of  these  combinations. 

WHEELER,  Benjamin  Ide  (1854-  ), 
an  American  educator,  born  at  Randolph, 
Mass.  He  was  educated  at  Colby  Academy 
and  Brown  Univer- 
sity and  spent  four 
years  of  study  in  the 
universities  of  Leip- 
zig, Heidelberg,  Jena 
and  Berlin.  He 
taught  in  the  Provi- 
dence High  School, 
Brown  University 
and  Harvard  and  in 
1886  became  a  pro- 
fessor in  Cornell 
University,  holding, 
successively,  the 
chairs  of  compara- 
tive philology  and 
Greek. 

From  1899  to  1919  he  was  president  of  the 
University  of  California.  His  written  works 
include  Analogy  and  the  Scope  of  its  Appli- 
cation in  Language,  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  History  of  Language  and  Principles 
of  Language   Growth. 

WHEELER,  Joseph  (1836-1906),  an 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Augusta,  Ga.  He 
was  educated  at  the  West  Point  Militaiy 
academy,  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  cav- 
alry and  served  in  New  Mexico.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out  he 
joined  the  Confederate 
army.  He  was  rapidly 
promoted,  attaining 
the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  took  part  ^ 
in  the  Battle  of  Shiloh,  jf^^ 
rendered  distinguished 
service  a  t  Chicka- 
mauga  and  impeded 
SheiTnan  on  his  march 
through  Georgia  and  ^0^^^^  ^^^^^^^ 
South  Carolina.  After  the  war  he  settled  in 
Alabama,  and  in  1880  he  was  sent  to  Con- 
gress. He  represented  his  district  until  1898, 
when  he  reentered  the  United  States  army  as 
major-general  of  volunteers  to  the  great  de- 
light of  all  America,  with  command  of  the 


cavalry  in  the  Army  of  Santiago.  He  ren- 
dered valiant  service  in  the  battles  of  Las 
Guasimas  and  San  Juan  Hill,  and  he  was 
senior  member  of  the  commission  which  ar- 
ranged for  the  suri-ender  of  Santiago.  Later 
he  served  in  the  Philippines,  until  he  was 
retired  in  1900. 

WHEELER,  William  Almon  (1819- 
1887),  an  American  statesman,  born  at  Ma- 
lone,  Franklin  County,  N.  Y.  He  studied 
for  a  time  at  the  University  of  Vermont, 
studied  law  in  his  native  town  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  Later  he  engaged  in  bank- 
ing. He  was  a  member  of  the  state  legisla- 
ture for  two  terms,  and  in  1860  he  was  sent 
to  Congress,  where  he  served  continuously 
until  1877.  He  was  nominated  for  the  Vice- 
Presidency  by  the  Republican  party  in  1876 
and  was  elected  with  President  Hayes.  He 
returned  to  Malone  at  the  expiration  of  his 
term  in  1881.  Wheeler  rendered  invaluable 
service  to  his  eountrj''  during  reconstruction 
days  by  his  conciliatory  attitude  as  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  Southern  affairs. 

WHEELING,  W.  Va.,  the  second  city  of 
the  state,  county  seat  of  Ohio  County,  sixty- 
three  miles  southwest  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  on 
the  Ohio  River  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the  Wheeling  &  Lake 
Erie  railroads.  One  ward  of  the  city  is  built 
on  Zane's  Island  in  the  river,  the  island  be- 
ing connected  with  the  main  part  of  the 
city  by  bridges,  one  of  them  a  suspension 
bridge  more  than  1,000  feet  long.  There  is 
water  commerce  in  iron  ore,  produce,  fruit, 
cattle  and  poultry.  The  main  manufactures 
are  steel,  glass  and  tobacco  products.  The 
city  has  one  of  the  largest  electric  power 
plants  in  the  world.  A  unique  feature  is 
the  Market-Auditorium,  which  combines  an 
up-to-date  market  and  a  convention  hall. 
There  are  a  Federal  building,  a  courthouse, 
a  public  library  and  four  hospitals.  Educa- 
tional institutions  include  the  Linsly  Insti- 
tute for  boys  and  the  Mount  de  Chantel 
School  for  girls.  A  normal  school  and  Beth- 
any College  are  not  far  distant. 

Wheeling  was  settled  by  Ebenezer  Zane  in 
1770,  and  was  the  first  town  on  the  Ohio 
River.  It  was  incorporated  in  1806,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1836.  Fort  Henry  was 
built  here  in  1774.  The  people  of  Virginia 
who  were  opposed  to  secession  met  here  in 
1861  at  the  Wheeling  Convention  and  es- 
tablished "the  restoi'ed  government  of  Vir- 
ginia."     The    Constitutional    Convention   of 


WHIG 


3861 


WHISKY  INSURRECTION 


West  Virginia  also  met  in  Wheeling,  and  the 
city  was  the  state  capital  from  1863  to  1870 
and  from  1875  to  1885.  The  commission 
form  of  government  was  adopted  in  1917. 
Population,  1910,  41,641;  in  1917,  43,657 
(Federal  estimate). 

WHIG,  in  English  histoiy,  the  name  for- 
merly applied  to  the  political  party  advo- 
cating changes  in  the  constitution  in  the  di- 
rection of  democracy.  The  term  is  of  Scot- 
tish origin,  but  was  early  brought  to  England, 
where  it  was  used  as  the  name  of  the  politi- 
cal party  opposed  to  the  Tories,  or  govern- 
ment party.  The  term  Liberals  is  now  gen- 
ei-ally  applied  to  the  representatives  of  the 
party  formerly  known  as  Whigs. 

The  Whig  party  in  the  United  States  op- 
posed the  Democratic  party  from  about  1835 
to  1856,  when  the  Northern  wing  of  the 
Whigs  was  merged  in  the  new  Republican 
party.  See  Political  Parties  in  the 
United  States. 

WHIPTOORWILL,  a  North  American 
bird  of  the  goatsucker  family.  The  name  is 
an  imitation  of  the  bird's  peculiar  call  of 
three  shrill  notes  ending  in  a  rising  inflection. 


WHIP-POOR-WILL 
This  weird  cry  is  repeated  many  times  in 
close  succession.  The  whippoorwill  makes  its 
home  in  the  midst  of  thick  woods,  rarely 
visiting  the  haunts  of  men.  It  is  active  at 
night,  feeding  on  night  insects,  which  it 
catches  on  the  wing.  During  the  day  it  sits 
lengthwise  on  a  limb,  where,  owing  to  its 
mottled  plumage,  it  is  not  easily  seen. 

WHIRLPOOL,  tchurVpool,  a  body  of  tur- 
bulent water  with  a  spiral  movement  due 
to  the  shape  of  its  channel,  to  meeting  cur- 
rents or  to  the  conflict  of  winds  and  tides. 
Small  whirlpools  occur  in  rivers  and  are 
caused  either  by  the  forcing  of  the  current 
into  a  circular  core  in  the  channel  or  by  an 
opening  in  the  bank  of  the  stream  which 
draws  the  water  down  to  a  lower  level. 
Sometimes  the  position  of  rocks  and  the  di- 


rection of  currents  in  the  sea  cause  large  and 
dangerous  whirlpools.  The  most  noted  of 
these  is  the  Maelstrom,  otf  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way, and  the  Charybdis,  near  Sicily.  The 
most  celebrated  river  whirlpool  is  that  of  the 
Niagara  River,  below  the  falls. 

WHIRL'WIND,  a  sudden  and  swift  spiral 
movement  of  the  free  air  of  the  atmosphere, 
either  the  small  eddy  of  the  city  street  which 
whirls  leaves  and  dust  and  other  light  objects 
about  in  it,  or  the  more  extensive  whirls  of 
the  deserts  and  plains.  Very  powerful  whirl- 
winds are  called  cyclones  or  tornadoes. 
Whirlwinds  are  caused  by  the  meeting  of 
eun'ents  of  air,  or  the  collision  of  currents 
moving  in  opposite  directions,  and  except  in 
the  case  of  the  small  eddies,  they  all  take  the 
same  direction — counter  clockwise  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  clockwise  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  being  governed  by  the 
vast  planetary  movements  of  the  atmos- 
jjhere.     See  Cyclone;  Tornado. 

WHIS'KY,  a  spirituous  liquor,  distilled 
chiefly  from  the  fermented  mash  of  cereal 
grains.  There  are  two  main  varieties  of 
Avhisky,  called  malt  whisky,  in  which  malt 
liredominates,  and  grain  whiskj^,  in  which 
unmalted  grains  predominate.  The  latter 
Avas  formerly  manufactured  almost  exclu- 
sively in  the  United  States,  rye  and  Indian 
com  being  chiefly  employed. 

In  the  making  of  whisky  several  processes 
are  necessary  to  convert  the  starch  of  the 
grain  into  sugar  and  the  sugar  into  alcohol, 
The  grain  is  ground,  and  the  starch  is  cooked 
in  a  steamer  for  several  hours  to  render  it 
soluble.  It  is  then  added  to  the  malt,  and  the 
mixture  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  145°  F. 
for  about  four  hours.  This  saccharine,  in- 
fusion, called  loort,  is  then  drawn  off,  yeast  is 
added,  and  the  wort  is  allowed  to  stand  from 
three  to  nine  days  to  ferment.  The  liquid 
thus  prepared  for  distillation  is  technically 
known  as  mash.  It  is  placed  in"  a  metal 
container  called  a  siiU,  subjected  to  high 
temperature,  and  the  vapors  pass  off  through 
a  spiral  tube  known  as  a  worm  and  are  con- 
densed. Since  September,  1917,  the  manu- 
facture of  whisky,  except  for  medicinal  pui-- 
poses,  has  been  prohibited  in  the  United 
States. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Distillation  Prohibition 

Malt 

WHISKY  INSURRECTION,  the  name 
siven  to  a  revolt  against  the  Federal  govern- 


WHISKY  RING 


3862 


WHIST 


nieiit  in  Western  Pennsylvania  in  1794.  It 
was  the  result  of  the  excise  law  passed  by 
Congress  in  1791,  imposing  a  tax  on  whisky. 
This  tax  was  a  peculiarly  hea\^  burden  to 
the  people  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  most  of 
whom  were  dependent  for  support  largely 
upon  the  manufacture  of  whisky.  They 
successfully  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  collect  the  tax  and  haughtily 
rejected  the  offer  of  amnesty  in  return  for  a 
promise  of  submission.  Finally,  in  October, 
1794,  Washington  sent  15,000  militia  to  the 
scene  of  the  disturbance,  and  the  insurrection- 
ists promptly  subsided.  Two  of  the  leaders 
were  found  guilty  of  treason,  but  President 
Washington  pardoned  them. 

WHISKY  RING,  a  tenn  given  in  American 
history  to  a  combination  of  distillers  and 
Federal  revenue  collectors,  who  in  Grant's 
administration  conspired  to  defraud  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  excise  tax  on  whisky.  This 
*'ring"  began  operations  in  Saint  Louis,  where 
the  revenue  officers,  having  knowledge  of 
technical  violations  of  the  law,  blackmailed 
the  distillers,  under  threats  of  prosecution. 
The  decline  in  the  revenue  receipts  was  im- 
mediately noticeable,  but  all  efforts  at  finding 
the  conspirators  failed,  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  their  friends  in  the  Treasury 
Department  at  Washington.  It  was  only 
after  the  most  thorough  investigation  by 
Benjamin  H.  Bristow,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  that  evidence  sufficient  to  convict 
was  found.  The  disclosures  implicated  the 
chief  clerk  of  the  Treasui-y  Department  and 
0.  E.  Babcock,  President  Grant's  private 
secretary,  but  neither  was  convicted.  About 
two  hundred  forty  distillers  and  revenue 
officers  pleaded  guilty  or  were  convicted  in 
court,  but  most  of  the  leading  ones  were 
pardoned.  The  total  amount  of  which  the 
government  was  defrauded  was  $1,650,000. 
WHIST,  a  well-known  game  at  cards, 
first  clearly  described  by  Edmond  Hoyle,  in 
his  Short  Treatise  on  the  Game  of  Whist 
(1743).  The  game  is  played  with  the  full 
pack  of  fifty-two  cards,  by  four  persons,  two 
being  partners  against  the  other  two,  each 
plaj'er  receiving  thirteen  cards,  dealt  out  one 
by  one  in  rotation.  The  last  card  dealt  is 
turned  face  up  and  is  called  the  trump  card ; 
it  gives  a  special  power  to  the  suit  to  which 
it  belongs.  The  cards  rank  ace  (highest), 
king,  queen,  knave,  and  the  others  rank  ac- 
cording to  their  number  of  spots.  Play  is 
commenced  by  the  person  on  the  left  hand 


of  the  dealer,  who  lays  down  a  card  face  up 
on  the  table;  the  other  players  follow  in 
succession,  with  cards  of  the  same  suit,  if  they 
have  them.  "When  all  have  played,  the  player 
who  has  laid  the  highest  card  takes  the  four 
cards  laid  down,  which  constitute  a  trick. 
The  winner  of  the  trick  then  leads,  as  the 
first  of  a  new  trick,  the  winner  of  which  be- 
comes the  leader,  and  so  on.  When  a  player 
cannot  play  a  card  of  the  same  suit,  he  may 
play  one  of  the  trump  suit  and  take  the  trick, 
or  he  may  lay  one  of  a  different  suit,  which 
gives  him  no  chance  of  winning  the  trick. 
When  the  hand  is  played  out,  the  score  is 
taken  as  follows:  The  partners  who  con- 
jointly gain  the  majority  of  tricks  score  1 
point  for  every  trick  taken  above  six.  The 
ace,  king,  queen  and  knave  of  the  trump 
suit  are  called  honors,  in  some  systems  of 
play,  and  count  1  each  for  the  side  who  holds 
them ;  if  one  side  hold  three  honors,  they  count 
2  by  honors,  as  the  opposite  side  can  have 
but  one  honor;  if  one  side  hold  all  the  honors, 
4  by  honors  is  counted ;  should  the  honors  be 
equally  divided,  neither  side  counts.  In  lo7ig 
whist,  ten  of  these  points  make  a  game.  In 
short  whist,  the  number  has  been  reduced  to 
five,  and  in  this  form  it  is  common  to  count 
by  tricks  alone.  A  rubber  consists  of  a  series 
of  three  games  and  is  won  by  the  side  that 
secures  two  of  them.  In  duplicate  whist  the 
game  is  played  with  as  many  sets  of  cards 
as  desired.  Each  hand,  as  it  is  played,  is  laid 
aside,  and  at  the  close  of  the  series  of  games 
the  hands  are  exchanged,  so  that  each  game 
is  played  a  second  time,  partners  playing  the 
hands  of  their  opponents.  The  side  that 
makes  the  greater  number  of  points  in  the 
series  wins. 

Bridge  Whist,  or,  more  comhionly,  Bridge, 
is  played  in  the  same  manner  as  whist  except 
that  the  dealer  or  his  partner  declares  what 
shall  be  trumps,  and  that  the  dealer's  partner 
takes  no  further  part  in  the  playing  of  that 
particular  hand.  It  the  dealer  feels  that  his 
own  hand  does  not  pennit  a  satisfactory 
declaration  of  trumps,  he  may  "bridge  it"  to 
his  partner,  whose  duty  it  then  is  to  make 
the  trump.  A  hand  may  be  played  without 
trumps  if  the  dealer  or  his  partner  prefer. 
The  dealer's  partner  lays  his  hand  face  up 
on  the  table  after  his  opponent  has  led  his 
first  card. 

Scoring:  If  "no  trumps"  is  the  declara- 
tion, each  trick  over  six  (a  "book")  counts 
twelve  points,  if  hearts,  eight  points;  if  dia- 


WHIST 


3863 


WHITE 


monds,  six  points;  if  clubs,  four  points;  if 
spades,  two  points.  The  side  first  scoring  30 
23oints  wins  a  game. 

The  "honor"  score  is  more  complicated  than 
in  whist.  The  honor  cards  are  the  ace,  king, 
queen,  knave  or  jack  and  ten  of  the  trump 
suit.  If  the  declaration  is  "no  trumps,"  the 
four  aces  are  counted  honoi'S.  The  honor 
score  is  kept  separately  from  the  game  score, 
and  is  only  added  in  at  the  end  of  the  rub- 
ber to  determine  the  winner  of  the  rubber. 
Chicane  occurs  when  a  i^layer  holds  no 
trumps ;  his  side  adds  to  its  honor  score  twice 
the  value  of  a  trick.  When  one  side  takes  all 
13  tricks,  it  makes  a  grand  slam,  which  adds 
40  points  to  the  honor  score;  if  12  tricks  axe 
taken,  it  is  a  little  slam,  and  adds  20  points 
to  the  honor  score. 

In  "no  trumps"  each  honor  counts  ten,  pro- 
vided one  side  holds  at  least  three  aces,  but 
four  aces  held  in  one  hand  count  100.  The 
following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  remain- 
in£r  various  combinations  of  honors : 


Spades 

Clubs 

Dia- 

mouds 

Hearts 

Three      honors,     called 

4 

8 
16 
18 

n 

8 
16 
32 
E6 

40 

12 

24 
48 
54 

60 

16 

Four  honors  (in  2  hands) 
Four  honors   (in  1  hand) 
Five  honors  (i!i2  hand-) 
Five  honors  (in  1  hand> 

32 
64 
72 

81 

Doubling.  A  plaj'er  may  "double"  the 
value  of  a  trick.  A  "double"  means  that  he 
believes  he  can  take  more  tricks  than  the 
dealer  and  his  partner.  The  dealer  or  his 
partner  may  "redouble,"  in  which  case  eax!h 
trick  counts  four  times  the  original  value. 
It  is  customary  to  limit  the  value  of  a  trick 
to  100. 

Boyal  Spades.  This  is  a  common  variety 
of  declaring  trumps.  If  spades  are  trumps 
under  the  ordinaiy  rules,  a  strong  spade  hand 
is  practically  worthless.  The  dealer  only  may 
declare  "royal  spades"  trumps;  in  this  case 
each  trick  counts  ten. 

Auction  Bridge.  This  is  a  variety  of  bridge 
which  has  almost  displaced  ordinary  bridge. 
The  methods  of  play  are  exactly  the  same, 
except  that  each  of  the  players  bids  in  turn, 
for  the  privilege  of  declaring  what  shall  be 
trump.  The  method  of  scoring  is  slightly 
different.  The  rules  for  the  play  of  cards 
in  all  forms  of  bridge  are  so  complex  that 
considerable  study  is  required  to  make  one  a 
pi'oficient  bridge  player.  The  game  requires 
a  good  memory ;  expert  players  can  recall  at 


any  stage  of  the  game  just  which  cards  have 
already  been  played. 

Authoritative  books  on  bridge  have  been 
written  by  Elwell,  Foster  and  Dalton. 

WHISTLER,  whis'lur,  James  Abbott  Mc- 
Neill (1834-1903),  an  American  painter 
and  etcher.  He  was  bom  at  Lowell,  Mass., 
of  a  prominent  family,  his  father  being  a  dis- 
tinguished engineer  in  the  United  States 
army.  The  son  was  sent  to  West  Point  Mili- 
tary'- Academy,  but  after  three  years  of  un- 
congenial study  he  turned  to  art.  He  studied 
in  France  and  England,  and  in  time  estab- 
lished a  reputation  as  an  etcher,  taking  rank 
with  the  greatest  of  etchers,  Rembrandt.  He 
became  famous  also  for  his  paintings,  pastels 
and  lithograph  drawings,  which  were  marked 
by  a  unique  originality.  As  a  draughtsman 
Whistler  was  a  consummate  master,  but  in 
his  pictures  form  was  subordinated  to  color. 

Whistler  called  his  paintings  nocturnes, 
symphonies,  arrangements.  They  were  exe- 
cuted in  one  color  tone  or  two  related  tones, 
always  in  a  subdued  key.  His  London  scenes, 
under  cover  of  the  night  or  fog,  Venetian 
sketches  and  studies  of  the  sea,  are  expres- 
sions of  poetic  moods  rather  than  repre- 
sentations of  actual  scenes.  Whistler's  ec- 
centricities brought  him  into  continual  con- 
flict with  artists  and  critics,  who  learned  to 
fear  his  keen  wit  and  incisive  satire. 

After  1859  Whistler  lived  chiefly  in  London 
and  was  for  a  time  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  British  Artists.  His  best-known 
painting  is  a  portrait  of  his  mother,  in  the 
Luxembourg  gallery,  Paris.  His  etchings  and 
paintings  form  a  part  of  the  permanent  col- 
lections of  all  the  greatest  galleries.  The  best 
collection  of  his  work  is  in  the  National 
Gallerj',  Washington,  D.  C.  The  artist  pos- 
sessed an  unusual  gift  of  literary  expression 
and  wrote,  among  other  things,  Ten  O'clock, 
Baronet  and  Butterfly  and  The  Gentle  Art 
of  MaJcing  Enemies. 

WHITE,  according  to  the  theory  of  color, 
is  that  color  which  is  a  combination  of  all  the 
colors  of  the  solar  spectrum — violet,  indigo, 
blue,  green,  yellow,  orange  and  red.  The 
observer  watching  a  beam  of  sunlight  pass- 
ing through  a  glass  prism  can  see  these  colors, 
and  they  are  also  beautifully  apparent  in 
the  rainbow.  In  practical  usage  a  pure  white 
pigment  cannot  be  obtained  by  mixing  to- 
gether pigments  corresponding  to  the  seven 
spectrum  colors,  for  pure  pigments  cannot 
be  secured.     Though  white  is  called  a  color, 


WHITE 


38G4 


WHITECAPS 


in  reality  it  is  the  presence  of  all  colors.  See 
Color;  Light. 

WHITE,  Andrew  Dicksox  (1832-1918), 
an  American  educator,  author  and  diplomat, 
born  at  Homer,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale,  the  College  of  France  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin.  For  a  time  he  was  professor 
of  history  and  literature  in  the  University 
of  Michigan,  and  when  Cornell  University 
was  founded  he  was  chosen  its  first  president. 
He  retained  the  position  for  eighteen  years, 
and  when  he  resigned  he  bequeathed  to  the 
institution  his  historical  library  of  30,000 
volumes.  In  recognition  of  this  and  other 
bequests,  the  dej^artments  of  history  and 
economics  at  Cornell  were  reorganized  as 
the  White  School  of  History  and  Political 
Science. 

In  the  course  of  his  college  presidency  Dr. 
White  rendered  important  service  to  the 
government.  He  obtained  leave  of  absence 
and  was  United  States  minister  to  Germany 
from  1879  to  1881.  After  he  severed  his 
connection  with  the  university,  he  served  the 
government  in  several  important  diplomatic 
posts,  as  minister  to  Russia,  as  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  investigate  the  Venezuela 
boundary,  for  five  years  as  ambassador  to 
Germany  and  as  president  of  the  United 
States  delegation  to  the  Hague  Peace  Con- 
ference. 

He  is  the  author  of  numerous  works  on 
political  and  diplomatic  subjects  and  of  a 
large  number  of  magazine  articles.  Among 
his  most  important  works  are  The  Warfare 
of  Science  against  Theology,  Studies  in  Gen- 
eral History,  the  New  Germany,  the  Euro- 
pean Schools  of  History,  Chapters  from  My 
Diplomatic  Life  and  Seven  Great  Statesmen. 

WHITE,  Edward  Douglass  (1845-  ), 
an  American  jurist.  Chief  Justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court.  He  was  bom 
at  Lafourche,  La.,  educated  at  Mount  Saint 
Mary's  in  Maryland,  at  the  Jesuit  College  in 
New  Orleans  and  at  Georgetown  (D.  C.)  Col- 
lege. He  served  during  the  Civil  War  in  the 
Confederate  army,  after  the  war  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  entered  politics  and 
was  state  senator  from  1874  to  1878.  From 
the  latter  date  until  1891  he  was  an  associate 
justice  of  the  Louisiana  Supreme  Court. 
After  three  years'  service  as  United  States 
Senator  he  was  appointed  Associate  Justice 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  becom- 
ing Chief  Justice  in  1910,  by  appointment  of 
President  Taft. 


WHITE,  Richard  Grant  (1821-1885),  an 
American  scholar  and  critic.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  law,  but  his  literary  tendencies 
drew  him  from  a  legal  career,  and  his  writ- 
ings on  Shakespeare  soon  made  him  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  Shakes- 
pearean scholars.  Among  his  works  are 
Words  and  Their  Uses,  Everyday  English, 
England  Without  and  Within,  Studies  in 
Shakespeare.  His  Riverside  Edition  of 
Shakespeare  has  had  wide  popularity. 

WHITE,  Stewart  Edward  (1873-  ), 
an  American  novelist,  born  in  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Michigan.  He  spent  his  boyhood  among  the 
rivermen  of  Michigan  and  early  acquired  a 
liking  for  the  forest,  which  he  has  so  vividly 
described  in  The  Forest  and  many  of  his 
other  books.  He  has  written  many  short 
stories,  as  well  as  several  novels.  Among  his 
books  are  The  Blazed  Trail,  Conjuror's 
House,  The  Mountains,  The  Silent  Places, 
The  Rules  of  the  Game,  The  Leopard  Woman 
and  The  Forty-Niners. 

WHITE,  William  Allen  (1868-  ),  an 
American  journalist  and  writer,  born  at  Em- 
poria, Ivans.,  and  educated  at  Emporia  Col- 
lege and  the  University  of  Kansas.  In  1895 
he  became  owner  and  editor  of  the  Emporia 
Gazette,  which  became  under  his  manage- 
ment noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  policies 
and  editorials,  one  of  which,  "What's  the 
Matter  with  Kansas,"  gained  wide  publicity. 
In  1912  White  sei-\'ed  as  chairman  of  pub- 
licity of  the  Progressive  National  Committee. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Letters.  As  a  penetrating  observer 
and  critic  of  the  times  White  holds  a  fore- 
most position.  His  books  are  not  numerous, 
but  are  of  the  very  highest  quality.  Most 
of  them  are  stories  and  sketches  of  life  in 
the  Middle  West,  and  include  The  Real 
Issue,  The  Court  of  Boyville,  Stratagems  and 
Spoils,  In  Our  Toivn,  A  Certain  Rich  Man, 
God's  Puppets,  In  the  Heart  of  a  Fool,  and 
The  Martial  Adventures  of  Henry  and  Me. 
The  Old  Order  Changeth,  a  review  of  chang- 
ing conditions  in  American  polities,  is  re- 
markable for  penetrating  insight." 

WHITE  ANT.    See  Termites. 

WHITECAPS,  in  United  States  history,  a 
name  applied,  because  of  the  manner  of  their 
disguise,  to  a  body  of  men  who  assumed 
the  punishment  of  offenses  against  a  com- 
munity. In  1880  lawless  bands  in  Southern 
Indiana  undertook  to  control  that  section. 


WHITEFIELD 


3865 


WHITE  MOUNTAINS 


At  an  earlier  date  a  band  calling  themselves 
the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle  was  active 
■in  the  same  district.  Whitecaps  adopted  all 
methods,  from  warning  and  intimidation  to 
actual  violence.  The  Whitecaps  were  not 
able  long  to  continue  their  activities.  The 
chief  reason  for  the  rise  of  such  organizations 
is  the  slowness  with  which  the  law  is  often 
administered  and  tlie  injustice  arising  there- 
from. 

WHITEFIELD,  ichit'feeJd,  George  (1714- 
1770),  an  English  evangelist,  founder  of  the 
Calvinistic  ]\Iethodists,  born  at  Gloucester, 
England.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered, 
as  sei-vitoi",  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  There 
he  met  the  "Wesleys,  and  became  active  in 
their  organization,  called  derisively  the  "Holy 
Club."  After  his  ordination  as  deacon  he 
followed  the  Wesleys  to  America,  but  soon 
returned  to  England  to  raise  money  for  an 
orphanage  in  Georgia.  Subsec^uently  he 
made  six  trips  to  America,  preaching  in 
Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  England. 
He  11  reached  in  England,  Scotland  and  Wales, 
and  is  said  to  have  delivered  18,000  sermons. 
His  Calvinistic  doctrines  separated  him  from 
the  Ejiiscopal  Church  and  ultimately  from  the 
Wesleys,  and  in  1743  he  founded  the  Cal- 
vinistic Methodist  Society',  which,  owing  to 
its  loose  organization,  disintegrated  after  the 
founder's  death,  which  occurred  at  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.  The  members  joined  the  follow- 
ers of  Wesley,  from  which  nucleus  grew  the 
denomination  known  as  Methodists.  See 
Wesley. 

WHITETISH,  a  very  important  fresh- 
water food  fish  of  the  salmon  family,  found 
in  northern  waters  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
common  whitefish  has  an  elongated  body,  with 
a  hump  back.  The  head  is  small  and  conical 
and  the  mouth  toothless.  Above,  the  color  is 
bluish  or  olive,  underneath,  silvery.  These 
fish  live  in  deep  water,  feeding  on  mollusks, 
insects  and  lai-\'ae,  but  in  the  spawning 
season  they  migrate  to  shallow  water  in 
shoals.  The  common  whitefish  found  in  the 
Great  Lakes  is  the  most  important  fresh- 
water fish  in  America.  The  yield  of  this  fish 
for  a  single  year  in  that  country  and  Canada 
has  been  more  than  30,000,000  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $1,500,000.  So  important  is  the  in- 
dustiy  that  the  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion has  taken  measures  to  promote  the  prop- 
agation of  these  fish. 

WHITE  HOUSE,  called  also  the  Execu- 
tive Maxsiox,  the  residence  of  the  President 


of  the  United  States,  at  Washington.  It  is 
on  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  near  several  gov- 
ernment administration  buildings,  and  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  fine  park.  The  first  house 
on  the  site  was  occupied  by  President  Adams 
in  1800.  In  1814  the  British  army  burned 
it,  and  the  present  building  was  completed 
in  1829.  Extensive  modifications  have  re- 
cently been  made,  and  the  building  has  been 
finished,  practically  according  to  the  plans 
of  the  architect,  James  Hoban,  who  designed 
it  in  1792.  It  fronts  upon  the  Potomac, 
though  the  entrance  on  Pennsylvania  Avenue 
is  the  one  in  general  use.  The  mansion 
is  of  freestone  painted  white,  and  is  built  in 
the  colonial  st3'le,  Avith  long  wings  and  an 
Ionic  portico.  On  the  second  floor  are  the 
private  apartments  of  the  President  and  his 
family.  Below  are  reception  rooms,  includ- 
ing the  large  East  Room,  in  which  public 
receptions  are  held,  the  Blue  Room,  in  which 
diplomats  making  social  calls  are  received, 
the  Red  Room,  the  Green  Room,  the  State 
dining  room  and  the  conservatory.  An  im- 
portant recent  addition  to  the  building  is  a 
long  wing  containing  the  business  offices  of 
the  President  and  his  secretaries. 

WHITE  LEAD,  a  heavy  white  powder 
consisting  of  seventj^-five  per  cent  white  lead 
and  twenty-five  per  cent  hydrated  lead  oxide. 
It  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
white  paint,  and  is  prepared  bj^  several  proc- 
esses, that  most  generally  emjiloyed  being 
what  is  called  the  Dutch,  or  stack,  process. 
Coils  of  lead  are  placed  in  the  upper  part 
of  an  earthen  pot  containing  acetic  acid. 
These  pots  are  stacked,  covered  with  ferment- 
ing tan  bark  or  manure,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main so  for  two  or  three  months,  in  the  course 
of  which  time  the  metal  is  changed  to  a 
white  powder,  known  as  white  lead.  In  the 
French  process  a  boric  salt  of  lead  is  pre- 
pared, and  from  it  boric  carbonate  is  precip- 
itated by  means  of  carbon  dioxide.  There  are 
several  other  processes,  some  of  them  electric. 
White  lead  is  valuable  as  a  pigment,  because 
it  has  body  and  purity  of  color.  It  dries 
quickly  and  does  not  crack.  Its  poisonous 
quality  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

WHITE  MOUNTAINS,  a  short  range  of 
the  Appalachian  sj'Stem,  situated  in  the 
north-central  part  of  New  Hampshire,  ex- 
tending approximately  northeast  and  south- 
west. Because  of  their  lofty  summits  these 
mountains  are  called  the  "top  of  New  Eng- 
land." 


WHITE  MOUNTAINS 


38G6 


WHITE  RIVER 


The  mountains  rest  upon  a  plateau  about 
forty-five  miles  long,  thirty  miles  wide  and 
1,600  feet  above  sea  level.  Upon  this  eleva- 
tion some  twenty  peaks  rise  to  vai-ying 
heights.  Some  of  these  are  separated  from 
one  another  by  naiTow  valleys,  called 
notches.  The  mountains  are  clustered  in  two 
groups,  of  which  the  eastern  is  generally 
known  as  the  White  Mountains,  and  the 
western,  as  the  Franconia  Mountains.  These 
groups  are  separated  by  a  tableland,  varying 
in  width  from  ten  to  twenty  miles.  The  prin- 
cipal peaks  in  the  Wliite  Mountains  are  in 
the  Presidential  range,  so  named  from  the 
names  of  the  peaks.  Of  these.  Mount  Wash- 
ington, 6,293  feet,  is  the  highest  and  is  also 
the  second  highest  in  the  Api^alachian  sys- 
tem. The  other  important  peaks  are  Adams, 
Jefferson,  Clay,  Monroe,  Madison  and  Boot 
Spur,  all  of  which  exceed  5,000  feet,  while 
Franklin,  Pleasant,  Clinton  and  Webster 
have  altitudes  of  4,000  feet  or  more.  In 
the  Franconia  group  the  most  prominent 
peaks  are  Lafayette,  5,209  feet,  and  Moosi- 
laukee.  Liberty  and  Profile,  all  exceeding 
4,000  feet.  Intermingled  with  these  promi- 
nent peaks  in  each  group  are  numerous  other 
lower  mountains. 

The  White  Mountains  are  traversed  by  the 
famous  Crawford  Notch,  a  nan-ow  defile, 
lined  with  walls  2,000  feet  high,  through 
which  the  Saco  River  wends  its  way  toward 
the  sea.  The  other  objects  of  special  interest 
in  this  group  of  mountains  are  Tuckerman's 
Ravine,  a  deep  gorge  on  the  south  side  of 
Mount  Washington,  which  is  always  partially 
filled  with  snow,  and  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  which  is  reached  both  by  car- 
riage road  and  by  railwa^^  the  first  cog  wheel 
railway  in  the  world.  On  the  summit  are 
a  hotel  and  a  station  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Biireau. 

The  principal  object  of  interest  in  the 
Franconia  ]\Ioimtains  is  the  Profile,  or  Old 
Man  of  the  Momitains.  This  is  a  representa- 
tion of  the  human  face,  formed  by  the  pro- 
jection of  three  rocks  from  the  face  of  a 
nearly  perpendicular  cliff  on  the  east  of 
Cannon  or  Profile  Mountain.  One  rock 
forms  the  forehead ;  the  second,  the  nose  and 
mouth,  and  the  third,  the  chin.  The  profile 
is  about  1,500  feet  above  the  road  from  which 
it  is  seen,  and  it  is  ninety  feet  in  length.  It 
looks  down  upon  a  beautiful  little  lake  known 
as  the  "Old  man's  wash  bowl."  It  was  an 
object  of  worship  by  the  Indians  for  centuries 


before  it  was  known  to  white  men,  and  it  is 
supposed  to  have  given  Hawthorne  the  in- 
spiration which  enabled  him  to  write  hi^ 
beautiful  allegory,  The  Great  Stone  Face. 
Near  by  is  Echo  Lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water,  so  enclosed  by  hills  that  an  ordinary 
tone  of  the  voice  is  repeated  five  times. 

The  summits  of  the  White  Mountains  are 
bare  and  are  composed  of  a  variety  of  rock 
known  as  mica  schist.  The  reflection  of  the 
sunlight  upon  this  rock,  when  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance, gives  the  mountains  the  appearance  of 
being  covered  with  snow ;  hence  the  name, 
White  Mountains  or  White  Hills.  For  a 
century  these  mountains  have  been  the  great 
playground  of  New  England.  Their  bases 
and  sides  are  clothed  with  forests,  among 
which  are  many  winding  roads  and  enticing 
walks.  Clear,  i-ushing  streams  and  sparkling 
cascades  surprise  the  traveler  at  many  a 
turn  in  the  path,  and  summits  easily  reached 
afford  enchanting  views, 

WHITE  PLAINS,  Battle  op.  When 
Washington  evacuated  Long  Island  he  moved 
his  main  force  to  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  on 
October  23,  1776.  An  outpost  of  1,400  men 
was  stationed  on  Chatterton  Hill.  On  this 
outpost  a  British  force  of  4,000  made  attack 
on  October  28,  routing  the  Americans,  who 
withdrew  to  the  main  camp.  This  engage- 
ment is  known  as  the  Battle  of  White  Plains, 

WHITE  RIVER,  the  principal  tributary 
of  the  Wabash  in  Indiana,  It  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  East  and  West  branches, 
which  rise  near  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
state  and  flow  in  a  general  westerly  direction. 
The  two  streams  unite  near  Petersburg,  and 
the  main  stream  then  flows  southwest  for 
fifty  miles  and  joins  the  Wabash  just  above 
Mount  Carmel,  111.  On  the  West  Fork  are 
situated  Indianapolis,  the  state  capital, 
Noblesville,  Anderson  and  Martinsville,  the 
latter  at  the  head  of  navigation.  The  East 
Fork  is  navigable  to  Rockford. 

WHITE  RIVER,  a  river  of  Arkansas, 
which  rises  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
state,  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  where  it  is 
formed  by  several  small  streams,  and  flows 
northeastward  into  Missouri,  returns  into 
Arkansas  and,  after  a  general  southeasterly 
and  southerly  course,  enters  the  Mississippi 
fourteen  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ark- 
ansas. Its  length  is  about  800  miles.  Locks 
and  dams  make  it  navigable  for  river  steam- 
ers about  480  miles.  The  large  towns  on  its 
banks  are  Clarendon,  Batesville  and  Newport. 


WHITE  SEA 


3867 


WHITNEY 


WHITE  SEA,  a  large  ai-m  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  which  penetrates  Northern  Russia 
to  a  distance  of  about  500  miles.  The  width 
ranges  from  thirty-five  to  150  miles.  It  is 
broad  at  the  northern  entrance,  but  near  its 
middle  it  narrows  to  a  strait.  Below  this 
it  spreads  out  in  three  large  branches — 
Kandalak  Bay,  in  the  northwest,  and  Onega 
and  Dwina  bays,  in  the  southeast.  The  chief 
rivers  flowing  into  it  are  the  Onega,  the 
Dwina  and  the  Mezen.  Onega  and  Arch- 
angel are  the  principal  ports.  This  sea  is 
ice-bound  from  September  to  June,  but  it 
has  a  brisk  summer  trade,  being  connected 
by  canals  with  the  Baltic  and  with  the  Black 
and  Caspian  seas. 

WHITLOCK,  Braxd  (1869-  ),  an 
American  diplomat,  municipal  reformer  and 
writer.  He  was  born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  and 
Avas  privately  educated  there.  In  his  early 
years  he  had  much  experience  as  a  newspaper 
reporter  in  Toledo,  Ohio,  and  Chicago,  111. 
He  studied  law,  and  in  1897  established  a 
successful  practice  in  Toledo.  His  books 
describing  corruption  in  politics  and  injustice 
in  business  attracted  much  attention.  In 
1905  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Toledo  and 
three  times  thereafter,  but  declined  a  fifth 
nomination.  In  1913  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Wilson  United  States  minister  to 
Belgium,  and  in  that  position  gained  the 
admiration  of  the  world  at  the  beginning  of 
the  "World  "War  through  the  tact,  energy  and 
efficiency  shown  in  handling  the  difficult 
situation.  In  1919  he  resigned  this  position 
for  a  period  of  rest.  His  wi'itings  include 
The  Happy  Average,  Her  Infinite  Variety, 
The  Fall  Guy,  a  volume  of  short  stories,  On 
the  Enforcement  of  Law  in  Cities,  The  Turn 
of  the  Balance,  The  Gold  Brick,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  a  biography.  Forty  Years  of  It,  an 
autobiography.  In  1918  he  published  Mem- 
ories of  Belgium  Under  the  German  Occupa- 
tion. 

In  1919  it  was  announced  that  he  would 
succeed  Thomas  Nelson  Page  as  ambassador 
to  Italy. 

WHIT'MAN,  Marcus  (1802-1847),  an 
American  physician  and  missionary,  bom 
at  Rushville,  N.  Y.  He  studied  medicine  at 
the  Berkshire  Medical  Institution  at  Pitts- 
field,  Mass.,  practiced  four  years  in  Canada, 
and  in  1836  was  sent  by  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  to 
explore  the  Oregon  country  and  preach  to 
the  Indians.     With  his  wife  and  two  other 


missionaries  he  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains 
in  1836,  taking  the  first  wagon  over  the 
mountains.  Other  missionaries  followed.  Dis- 
sensions among  them  led  the  Board  to  with- 
draw its  support;  Whitman  journeyed  from 
the  settlement,  near  the  site  of  Walla  Walla, 
to  Boston,  traveling  much  of  the  way  on  foot, 
and  prevailed  upon  the  Board  to  alter  its 
decision.  Whitman,  his  wife  and  twelve  com- 
panions were  murdered  by  Indians  in  1847. 

WHITMAN,  Walt  (1819-1892),  an 
American  poet,  born  at  West  Hills,  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.  He  left  the  public  schools  of 
Brooklyn  at  the  age  of  thirteen  and  applied 
himself  to  his  father's  trade,  that  of  car- 
penter. Later  he  worked  as  a  printer,  school 
teacher  and  as  general  writer  for  the  press. 
In  these  early  j^ears,  as  later,  he  sought  with 
characteristic  democracy  the  society  of  work- 
ing men,  and  had  many  friends  among  them. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  gave  splendid  serv- 
ice in  the  hospitals  of  Virginia  and  Wash- 
ington, and  permanently  injured  his  health. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  a  clerk  in 
the  Interior  and  Treasury  departments  at 
Washington,  remaining  until  1874,  when  a 
stroke  of  paralysis  compelled  him  to  resign. 

in  1855  the  first  edition  of  his  Leaves  of 
Grass  had  been  issued,  and  much  of  his  later 
life  was  given  up  to  the  enlargement  of  this 
originally  small  volume.  Whitman's  avowed 
purpose  was  to  be  the  prophet  of  democracy 
and  of  the  common  brotherhood  of  man.  In 
his  desire  to  free  himself  from  all  traditional 
trarmnels  and  to  achieve  naturalism,  he  often 
becomes  tiresome.  Though  his  work  shocks 
many  lovers  of  poetry  by  its  lack  of  rhjone 
and  rhythm,  among  discriminating  critics  it 
takes  high  rank,  and  it  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly popular,  not  only  among  American 
readers,  but  also  in  Europe. 

WHITNEY,  Eli  (1765-1825),  an  Ameri- 
can inventor,  famous  as  the  originator  of 
the  cotton  gin.  He  was  born  at  West- 
borough,  Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  Yale 
College.  After  graduation  he  went  to 
Georgia  as  a  teacher;  later  he  took  up  the 
study  of  law.  His  leisure  moments  he  often 
employed  inventing  useful  devices,  and, 
learning  that  the  cotton  industry  was 
hampered  by  the  difficult  work  of  separating 
the  cotton  fiber  from  the  seeds  by  hand,  he 
set  to  work  to  invent  a  remedy.  He  labored 
\mder  great  disadvantage,  for  be  had  to  make 
his  own  tools,  but  in  time  he  produced  a  ma- 
chine which  would  seed  a  thousand  pounds  in 


WHITNEY 


3808 


WHITTIER 


the  same  time  that  live  could.be  seeded  by 
hand. 

At  this  juncture  his  workshop  was  broken 
into,  and  his  apparatus  was  stolen  before  he 
could  secure  a  patent.  However,  he  and  a 
man  named  Miller 
formed  a  partner- 
ship, and  in  1793 
they  went  to  Con- 
necticut to  manufac- 
ture cotton  gins ;  but 
the  lawsuits  in  de- 
fense of  Whitney's 
rights  took  all  his 
profits,  besides  $50,- 
000  voted  him  by  the 
state  of  South  Caro- 
lina. Finally,  in 
1798,  Whitney  turned 
his  attention  to  the 


ELI  WHITNEY 


manufacture  of  fireanns;  he  established  a 
factory  at  Whitneyville,  Conn.,  received 
large  orders  from  the  government  and 
amassed  a  fortune.  From  his  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  whole  series  of  inventions  connected  with 
the  cotton  industry,  he  reaped  o-nly  belated 
fame.    See  Cotton  Gin. 

WHITNEY,  James  Pliny,  Sir  (1843- 
1914),  a  Canadian  statesman,  born  at  Wil- 
liamsburg, Ont.,  and  educated  at  the  Corn- 
wall grammar  school.  He  began  the  prac- 
tice of  laAV  in  1876,  and  in  1890  was  ap- 
pointed queen's  counsel.  He  was  first  elected 
to  fhe  legislature  of  Ontario  in  1888,  and 
was  returned  at  each  election  up  to  and  in- 
eluding  that  of  1908.  In  1896  he  was  chosen 
leader  of  the  opposition,  and  in  1905  was 
called  upon  to  form  a  new  government.  In  this 
he  became  the  Prime  Minister  and  assumed 
the  office  of  Attorney-General.  Later  he 
relinquished  the  latter  portfolio  and  became 
President  of  the  Council.  The  honor  of 
knighthood  was  conferred  upon  him  by  H. 
R.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales,  in  1908,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  celebration  of  the  Quebec 
Tercentenary.  He  continued  as  Premier  until 
his  death. 

WHITNEY,  Mount,  the  highest  peak  in 
the  United  States  proper,  situated  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  California  Sierra  Ne- 
vadas.  Its  altitude  is  14,502  feet,  and  its 
eastern  slope  rises  steeply  to  a  height  of  near- 
ly 11,000  feet.  Mount  Whitney  was  named 
in  honor  of  the  noted  geologist,  Josiah 
Dwight  Whitney. 


JOHN    GRBENLEAP 
WHITTIER 


WHITTIER,  John  Greenleaf  (1807- 
1892),  one  of  the  foremost  American  poets. 
He  was  born  near  the  town  of  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1807.  His  parents  were 
Quakers,  who  were  always  anxious  to  ad- 
vance the  interests  of  their  children.  The 
farm  house  was  not  far  from  the  Memmac 
River  and  near  it  was  the  brook  whose 
"liquid    lip"    was    companionship    to    them. 

The  young  Whittier  worked  on  his  father's 
farm  and  learned  the  shoemaker's  trade.  H^ 
had  little  early  education,  except  a  fe\i 
tei-ms  in  the  district  school,  and  the  wider 
ti-aining  he  received  from  his  father  and 
mother.  Of  books 
he  had  few  and  those 
not  the  best  adapted 
to  a  c  h  i  1  d.  The 
Bible,  however,  was 
thoroughly  studied 
and  its  literary  treas- 
ures fully  appreci- 
ated. A  volume  of 
Burns  fell  into  his 
hand  and  gave  him 
the  poetic  inspira- 
tion. At  the  age  of 
eighteen  Whittier  began  writing  for  the  press. 
One  of  his  poems  which  appeared  in  the  New- 
buryport  Free  Press  attracted  the  attention 
of  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  its  editor.  Gar-- 
rison  visited  the  3'oung  poet  at  his  home  and 
induced  him  to  give  his  pen  and  his  life  to  the 
cause  of  freedom.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  a  life-long  friendship.  Garrison  urged 
Whittier  to  obtain  a  better  education,  and 
assisted  him  in  securing  it. 

Although  Whittier  had  had  comparatively 
little  schooling,  he  had  read  widely  and  was 
well  fitted  to  become,  as  he  did,  the  chief  poet 
of  the  abolition  movement.  In  1835  and  1836 
he  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, but  ill  health  compelled  him  to 
resign  and  give  up  also  the  editorship  of 
a  paper  which  he  was  managing.  In  1836 
he  moved  to  Amesbury,  and  some  years  later 
he  went  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  edited  the 
Fennsylvania  Freeman,  an  anti-slavery 
paper,  the  office  of  which  was  burned  by  a 
mob  after  he  had  been  at  work  on  it  but  four 
days.  This  did  not  compel  Whittier,  how- 
ever, to  give  up  the  work,  which  he  continued 
for  two  years.  After  his  return  to  Amesbury, 
his  poems  on  freedom  continued  to  appear, 
and  in  1843  a  volume  of  ballads  was  pub- 
lished.    Among  his  notable  poems  of  these 


WHOOPING  COUGH 


3869 


WIDGEON 


years,  which  appeared  in  The  National  Era, 
the  New  England  Magazine  and  the  Atlantic 
Monthly,  were  Songs  of  Labor,  Maud  Midler 
and  Barbara  Frietchie.  Snowbound,  pub- 
lished in  1865,  brought  great  increase  to 
Whittier's  popularity  and  also  an  improve- 
ment in  his  worldly  circumstances.  He  had 
no  family,  however,  and  most  of  his  money 
was  spent  in  charity.  He  died  while  on  a 
visit  to  Hampton  Falls,  N.  H. 

Wliittier's  poems  on  slavery  were  too  thor- 
oughly inspired  by  the  occasion  for  which 
thej''  were  written,  too  much  given  over  to 
argument  on  this  subject,  to  be  pei-manently 
great  poetry,  but  their  energy  and  sincerity 
made  them  most  effective  aids  toward  the 
ends  to  which  they  were  directed.  Among 
his  other  poems.  The  Barefoot  Bog,  Telling 
the  Bees,  Snowbound  and  Among  the  Hills 
are  most  notable.  They  have  a  homely  truth 
to  life,  a  fineness  of  sentiment,  a  freshness 
and  a  quiet  power  which  will  make  them  live, 

WHOOPINCi  COUGH,  hooping  kof,  a 
contagious  disease  that  frequently  becomes 
epidemic  and  usually  affects  children  onlj', 
though  adults  may  have  it.  It  begins  with 
the  symptoms  of  a  severe  cold,  which  after 
a  week  or  ten  days  develops  into  a  peculiar 
cough,  that  ends  with  a  whoop,  caused  by  a 
forcible  indrawing  of  the  breath.  These 
coughing  parox^v'sms  occur  at  ratlier  short 
intervals,  l)ut  between  the  i:»aroxysms  the  per- 
son feels  reasonably  well  and  after  three  or 
four  weeks  the  attacks  occur  less  frequently. 
Within  two  months  they  disappear  entirely. 
The  cause  of  the  disease  is  not  thoroughly 
understood.  It  is  not  usually  attended  with 
fatality,  except  where  other  complications, 
such  as  pneumonia  and  bronchitis,  set  in.  A 
child  suspected  of  having  whooping  cough 
should  be  kept  from  other  children,  for  the 
disease  is  highly  contagious.  The  patient 
should  have  nourishing  food  and  live  in  the 
open  air  as  much  as  possible.  The  sleeping 
room  should  be  well  ventilated,  and  when- 
ever possible  it  is  wise  to  sleep  on  a  porch 
or  in  a  tent. 

WICHITA,  rvich'itaxi',  Kan.,  the  county 
seat  of  Sedgwick  County,  157  miles  south- 
west of  Topeka,  on  the  Arkansas  River  and 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Frisco, 
the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Mexico  &  Orient  and 
the  Midland  Valley  railroads.  It  is  the  cen- 
ter of  an  agricultural  and  stock  raising  dis- 
trict, and  there  is  an  extensive  trade  in  cattle, 


pork,  horses  and  mules,  poultry,  lumber, 
flour  and  alfalfa.  Wichita  is  one  of  the 
largest  broom  com  markets  in  the  world. 
Manufacturing  establishments  are  extensive, 
and  oil  and  gas  wells  are  being  rapidly  de- 
veloped in  the  \ncinity.  The  educational 
institutions  are  Fainnount  College,  Friends* 
University,  All  Hallow's  Academy  and  Lewis 
Academ,v.  Notable  buildings  are  the  Forum, 
with  a  seating  capacitj'  of  8,000,  the  state 
Masonic  Home  and  a  Carnegie  Library. 
There  are  several  hospitals  and  children's 
homes.  Wichita  was  settled  by  Indian  trad- 
ers in  1869  and  named  after  the  Wichita 
tribe.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1872. 
In  1909  it  adopted  the  commission  form  of 
government,  and  in  1917  the  city  manager 
form.  Population,  1910,  52,450;  in  1917, 
73,597   (Federal  estimate). 

WICHITA  FALLS,  Tex.,  the  county  seat 
of  Wichita  County,  114  miles  northwest  of 
Fort  Worth,  on  the  Wichita  River  and  on 
the  Fort  Worth  &  Denver  City,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  &  Texas,  the  Wichita  Falls  &  North- 
western and  the  Wichita  Valley  railroads. 
It  is  an  important  manufacturing  center, 
having  flour  mills,  e^ators.  an  oil  refinery, 
brick  yards,  and  wHefactories  of  automo- 
bile trucks,  windo\^  ^nss,  glass  jars,  brooms, 
stores,  pottery  and  candy.  Educational  in- 
stitutions include  an  academy,  a  business  col- 
lege and  a  college  of  music  and  art.  Wichita 
Falls  "was  settled  in  1882,  and  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1884.  Population,  1910, 
8,200;  in  1917,  12,749  (Federal  estimate).  _ 

WIC'LIF,  John.    See  Wycliffe,  John. 

WIC'OPY,  or  M  0  0  S  E  W  0  0  D.  See 
Leatherwood. 

WIDGEON,  wij'un,  a  wild  duck  found  in 
both  Europe  and  America.  The  American 
widgeon,    which    is    most    abundant    in    the 


WIDGEONS 

South,  is  often  called  the  bald  pate,  from  the 
white  on  the  top  of  its  head.  It  spends  the 
winters  in  Central  and  South  America  and 
nests  in  Canada.     The  eggs,  from  seven  to 


WIESBADEN 


3870 


WILD  CAT 


twelve  in  number,  are  buff-white.  Widgeons 
are  notorious  for  their  trick  of  robbing 
canvasbacks  and  other  diving  ducks  of  the 
plant  food  picked  from  the  beds  of  streams, 
by  snatching  it  from  their  bills  as  they  come 
out  of  the  water. 

WIESBADEN,  vees'bah  den,  Prussia^  a 
celebrated  watering  place  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Salzbach,  about  two  miles  from 
the  Khine  and  sis  miles  northwest  of  Mainz. 
The  town  has  a  beautifvd  location  among 
denselj'-wooded  hills,  that  protect  it  from 
cold  winds.  Mineral  springs  abound.  It 
is  purely  a  residence  town,  with  no  indus- 
tries of  importance.  There  are  in  the  town  a 
number  of  churches  of  historic  interest,  a 
museum,  a  picture  gallery,  a  public  library, 
agricultural  and  industrial  schools  and  an 
institution  for  the  blind.  Population,  1910, 
109,002. 

WIG'GIN,  Kate  Douglas.  See  Riggs, 
Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 

WIGHT,  wite,  Isle  of.  See  Isle  of 
Wight, 

WIG'WAM,  the  conical  tent  of  the  Amer- 
ican Indian.  'To  make  it  he  drives  several 
saplings  into  the  groimd  in  a  circle  and  fas- 
tens them  together  at  the  top.  This  frame- 
work he  covers  with  grass  matting  or  birch 
bark,  leaving  an  opening  at  the  top  for  the 
escape  of  smoke.  A  small  opening  in  the 
side— always  the  side  of  the  rising  sun- 
serves  as  a  door.  This  is  ordinarily  covered 
with  a  flapping  deer-skin  curtain. 

WILBERFORCE,  ivil'bur  fohrs,  S"amlt:l 
(1805-1873),  an  English  elergjonan,  third 
son  of  William  Wilberforce  (see  below), 
was  born  at  Clapham.  He  was  graduated 
from  Oriel  College  in  1826  and  two  years 
later  was  ordained.  He  was  successively 
curate  of  Checkendon  church;  rector  of 
Brightstone,  Isle  of  Wight;  archdeacon 
of  Surrey ;  rector  of  Alverstoke  and  canon  of 
Winchester;  chaplain  to  the  prince,  a  posi- 
tion gained  through  an  anti-slavery  speech; 
dean  of  Westminster  and  bishop  of  Oxford, 
where  he  remained  twenty-four  years.  Wil- 
berforce, because  of  his  cleverness,  self- 
reliance,  fascinating  manner,  persuasive 
power,  facility  and  expediency,  was  able  to 
cope  with  the  difficult  situation  in  the  Church 
at  the  culmination  of  the  Oxford  Movement, 
when  many  of  the  High  Church  party,  in- 
cluding members  of  his  family,  went  over  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Among  his 
writings  are  Letters  and  Journals  of  Henry 


Martyn,  Agathos,  Rocky  Island  and  History 
of  the  American  Church;  with  his  brother  he 
wrote  the  life  of  his  father. 

WILBERFORCE,  William  (1759-1833), 
an  English  statesman  and  philanthropist, 
born  at  Hull,  in  Yorkshire.  After  complet- 
ing his  education  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1780  he  was  elected  member 
of  Parliament.  In  1789  he  brought  for- 
ward in  Parliament  resolutions  condemning 
the  slave  trade.  In  1792  he  succeeded  in 
getting  a  bill  for  the  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery  through  the  House  of  Commons,  but 
it  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords.  Year 
after  year  he  pressed  this  measure,  but  it  was 
always  defeated  until  1807,  when  it  was 
passed,  during  the  short  administration  of 
Fox.  He  then  devoted  his  energies  to  bring- 
ing about  the  total  abolition  of  slavery,  and 
three  days  before  his  death  he  was  informed 
that  the  House  of  Commons  had  passed  a 
bill  which  abolished  slaveiy  in  the  British 
colonies.  Wilberforce  was  a  man  of  re- 
markable versatility  and  personal  attrac- 
tiveness, one  of  the  most  lovable  characters 
in  the  history  of  British  politics. 

WIL'COX,  Ella  Wheeler  (1855-  ), 
an  American  poet  and  essayist.  She  was  born 
in  Wisconsin,  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  and  was  mari'ied  in  1884  to 
Robert  M.  Wilcox.  From  her  girlhood  she 
contributed  freely  to  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, and  some  of  her  writings  have  ac- 
quired considerable  popularity.  Her  volumes 
of  verse  include  Poems  of  Pleasure,  Poems  of 
Passion,  Poems  of  Power  and  Maurine ;  while 
among  her  prose  works  are  An  Ambitious 
Man;  Men,  Women  and  Emotions,  A  Woman 
of  the  World  and  The  Worlds  and  I. 

WILD  CAT,  or  CATAMOUNT,  a  wild 
animal  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the 
domestic  cat,  but  of  larger  size  than  the  latter. 


WILD   CAT 

The  European  wild  cat  once  common,  but 
now  seen  only  in  the  most  isolated  regions, 
has  a  very  long  body  and  legs  and  a  short, 
thick  tail.     Its  fur  is  yellowish-gray,  with 


WILDCAT  BANKS 


3871 


WILHELMINA 


a  dark  marking  down  the  back  and  other 
dark  stripes  on  the  sides  and  rings  on  the 
tail.  In  the  United  States  the  name  is  often 
applied  to  the  lynx  (which  see). 
WILDCAT  BANKS,  unstable  banking  in- 
•  stitutions  under  loose  state  control,  whose 
reckless  issue  of  notes,  followed  by  inability 
to  redeem  the  same,  were  responsible  for  a 
series  of  financial  panics  in  the  United  States 
in  the  generation  preceding  the  Civil  War. 
The  most  disastrous  of  these  panics  was  that 
of  1837.  President  Jacksoa  having  removed 
the  government  deposits  from  the  United 
States  Bank  and  placed  them  in  state  banks, 
wildcat  banks  sprang  up  like  mushrooms. 
Alarmed  by  the  subsequent  wild  speculation, 
the  President  sought  to  coiTeet  the  evil  by 
ordering,  through  his  famous  "Specie  Cir- 
cular," that  only  gold  and  silver  be  received 
in  payment  for  public  lands.  This  preci- 
pitated a  crash,  and  large  numbers  of  wild- 
eat  banks  failed.    See  Jackson,  Andrew. 

WILDE,  Oscar  Fingal  O'Flahertie 
Wills  (1856-1900),  dramatist,  essaA-ist  and 
novelist,  was  born  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  the  son 
of  a  noted  surgeon.  After  graduation  from 
Oxford,  where  he  won  honors  in  literature, 
he  went  to  live  in  London  and  became  lead- 
er of  a  so-called  aesthetic  movement.  His 
affectation  of  long  hair,  velvet  knee  breeches 
and  a  languishing  air  furnished  a  theme  for 
much  witty  satire.  He  was  lampooned  by 
Du  Maurier  in  Punch  and  by  Gilbert  in  his 
opera  Patience. 

In  1881  Wilde  published  a  volume  of 
poems,  and  in  1888  a  collection  of  fairy 
stories  called  The  Happy  Prince  and  Other 
Tales.  These  won  high  praise.  Then  ap- 
peared The  Picture  of  Dorian  Gray,  a  novel ; 
Intentians,  a  volume  of  essaj^s,  and  the  plays 
Lady  Windermere's  Fan,  A  Woman  of  No 
Importance,  The  Ideal  Husband  and  The 
Importance  of  Being  in  Earnest.  His  drama 
Salome  has  been  set  to  music  by  Richard 
Strauss.  In  1895  Wilde  was  convicted  of  a 
serious  offense  against  morality,  and  was 
condemned  to  two  years'  penal  servitude.  In 
prison  he  wi'ote  A  Ballad  of  Beading  Gaol, 
a  poem  of  much  force,  and  Be  Profundis. 
His  last  years  were  spent  in  seclusion  on  the 
Continent. 

WIL'DERNESS,  Battle  of  the,  the  first 
imiDortant  battle  of  Grant's  famous  Virginia 
campaign  in  1864,  between  a  force  of  120,- 
000  men  under  General  Meade,  supported 
by  Warren,  Sedgwick  and  Hancock,  and  with 


General  Grant  in  supreme  command,  and 
the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  under  Lee, 
comprising  about  62,000  men  under  Ewell, 
Hill  and  Longstreet.  The  Federals  were  en- 
camped on  the  northem  bank  of  the  Rapi- 
dan  River,  near  Culpepper  Court  House, 
while  the  Confederates  were  south  of  the 
river,  on  the  edge  of  the  Wilderness,  where 
Lee  had  completely  baffled  Hooker's  army 
after  the  Battle  of  Chancellorsville.  Grant 
began  crossing  the  river  on  May  3,  without  a 
contest,  Lee  being  confident  that  he  could 
defeat  the  Federals  when  they  had  once  be- 
come entangled  in  the  Wilderness,  a  dense 
forest  with  thick  underbi-ush.  In  the  morn- 
ing of  May  5,  General  Warren,  who  was  in 
the  van  of  the  Federal  force,  was  met  by 
General  Ewell,  and  an  all-day  battle  re- 
sulted, with  little  advantage  to  either  con- 
testant. Grant  at  first  believed  that  he  was 
confronting  only  a  part  of  Lee's  army,  but 
soon  ordered  Hancock  to  come  up  from 
Chancellorsville.  Upon  his  an-ival,  he  con- 
fronted General  Hill,  and  another  severe 
battle  ensued,  which  paused  at  nightfall,  only 
to  recommence  at  dawn.  It  ended  in  a 
dra'mi  battle;  Grant  had  failed  to  make  prog- 
ress toward  Richmond;  Lee  had  failed  to 
crush  the  opposing  aimy.  The  losses  of  the 
Union  forces  were  about  18,000 ;  of  the  Con- 
federates, from  10,000  to  12,000.  See  Civil 
War  in  America. 

WILHELMINA,  vilhelme'nah,  (1880- 
),  queen  of  the  Netherlands,  born  at  The 
Hague.  In  1890,  on  the  death  of  her  father, 
William  III,  she  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne, 
her  mother,  who  was 
the  daughter  of 
Prince  Geoi'ge  Vic- 
tor of  Naldeck,  serv- 
ing as  regent  until 
1898.  Wilhelmina 
was  married  in  1901 
to  Henry  Frederick, 
Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Sell  werin.  Her 
daughter,  Juliana, 
heiress  to  the  throne, 
was  bom  in  1909. 
The  general  unrest  in  Europe  which  fol- 
lowed the  World  War  threatened  the  sta- 
bility of  her  throne  for  a  time  in  1919,  but 
she  had  always  held  the  deep  love  of  her 
subjects  and  was  able  to  overcome  the  social- 
ist tendencv  of  the  minority. 


QUEEN 
WILHELMINA 


WILKES 


3872 


WILKINS 


WILKES,  ivilks,  .Charles  (1798-1877), 
an  American  naval  officer  and  explorer,  born 
in  New  York  City.  He  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools,  entered  the  United  States 
nav-y  in  1818  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826. 
In  1838,  in  charge  of  an  expedition  author- 
ized by  Congress  to  exj^lore  the  Southern 
Ocean,  he  visited  many  important  places  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  including  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  Hawaiian  Islands,  New  Zea- 
land, the  Samoan  and  Fiji  groups  and  many 
parts  of  South  America.  The  mass  of  valu- 
able scientific  information  collected  on  his 
voyages  was  published  in  several  volumes. 
"Wilkes  was  made  a  commander  in  1843  and 
became  a  captain  in  1855.  Upon  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  frigate  San  Jacinto.  On  No- 
vember 8,  1861,  he  overtook  the  English  mail 
steamer  Trent  and  arrested  Mason  and 
Slidell,  the  Confederate  commissioners  (see 
Trent  Affair.)  He  was  retired  in  1864, 
and  became  rear-admiral  in  1866, 

WILKESBARRE,  tcUks'hair  re,  Pa.,  the 
county  seat  of  Luzerne  County,  145  miles 
northwest  of  Philadelphia,  on  the  north 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Central 
of  New  Jersey,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  the 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley,  the  New 
York,  Susquehanna  &  Western,  and  the 
Wilkes-Barre  and  Hazleton  railroads.  The 
city  is  unique  in  that  it  is  surrounded  by 
thirty-three  municipalities,  of  which  it  is  the 
exact  center,  all  located  in  an  area  less  in 
extent  than  that  covered  by  the  city  of  Des 
Moines.  It'  is  the  retail  trading  center  for 
this  entire  group  of  towns,  which  have  an 
aggregate  population  of  about  250,000. 
There  is  a  population  of  a  million  and  a  half 
within  a  radius  of  fifty  miles. 

The  city  is  in  the  heart  of  the  anthracite 
region  of  the  Wyoming  Valley,  the  coal  out- 
put of  Luzerne  County  being  greater  in  an- 
nual value  than  the  entire  gold  production  of 
the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Min- 
ing is  the  principal  industry,  but  the  abun- 
dance of  fuel  has  made  the  city  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing  center.  The  silk  and 
lace  mills  are  the  oldest  and  among  the  largest 
in  the  United  States,  and  there  are  besides 
manufactories  of  locomotives,  axles  and 
springs,  wire  rope,  adding  machines,  auto- 
mobiles, cutlery,  flour  and  clothing. 

The   educational   institutions   include    the 
Harry    Hillman    Academy    for    boys,    the 


Wilkesbarre  Institute  for  girls  and  several 
Catholic  schools.  The  well-known  Wyoming 
Seminary  is  at  Kingston,  just  across  the 
river.  The  Boys'  Industrial  Association  is  a 
unique  institution,  of  an  educational  and 
social  nature.  The  Osterhaut  Free  Library 
has  more  than  40,000  volumes,  and  the 
Wyoming  Historical  and  Geological  Society 
has  a  reference  library  and  a  notable  collec- 
tion of  Indian  relics  and  geological  speci- 
mens and  fossils.  There  are  homes  for  chil- 
dren and  aged  women  and  several  well- 
equipped  hospitals.  Important  buildings 
are  a  Federal  building,  a  courthouse,  a  city 
hall,  an  armory,  a  Grand  Army  hall,  a  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  and  the  Irem  Temple,  built  in  Moorish 
style. 

The  city  was  first  settled  in  1769  by  fam- 
ilies from  Connecticut.  It  was  named  in  honor 
of  John  Wilkes  and  Isaac  Barre,  members 
of  the  British  Parliament  who  advocated  the 
cause  of  the  colonists  before  and  during  the 
Revolution.  In  1784,  during  the  controversy 
between  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut  over 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Wyoming  Valley,  the 
settlement  was  burned.  The  Wyoming  Monu- 
ment marks  the  site  of  the  conflict  of  the 
Americans  wnth  the  loyalists  and  Indians, 
July  3,  1778.  W^ilkesbarre  was  made  the 
county  seat  in  1786  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1806.  After  the  Civil  War  it 
grew  rapidly  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1871.  The  commission  form  of  government 
was  adopted  in  1903.  Population,  1910, 
67,105;  in  1917,  78,334  (Federal  estimate), 
making  it  the  fifth  city  in  size. 

WILKIE,  David,  Sir  (1785-1841),  a  cele- 
brated Scottish  painter.  He  received  his 
early  art  training  at  the  Trustee's  Academy, 
Edinburgh,  and  entered  the  schools  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1805.  His  first 
works  were  scenes  from  every-day  life,  in 
which  he  showed  the  influence  of  the  Dutch 
masters.  In  his  later  work,  after  his  visits 
to  Italy  and  Spain,  he  showed  the  influence 
of  Titian  and  Velasquez  and  changed  his 
theme  to  historical  and  portrait  subjects. 
In  1811  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  Among  his  pictures  are  the  Blind 
Fiddler,  Bent  Bay,  The  Village  Festival, 
Penny  Wedding,  Cotter's  Saturday  Night, 
Duncan  Gray,  Blind  Man's  Buff,  John  Knox 
preachiyig  before  the  Lords  of  the  Congre- 
gation and  Wellington  Writing  a  Dispatch. 

WIL'KINS,  Mary  Eleanor.  See  Free- 
man, Mary  E.  Wilkins. 


WILL 


3873 


WILL 


WILL,  that  mental  activity  which  gives 
a  human  being  power  of  choice  and  action. 
Desire  or  feeling  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
will,  and  the  two  are  so  interwoven  that  they 
cannot  be  separated. 

Development  of  the  Will.  A  complete 
act  of  will  includes  four  successive  steps — 
impulse,  desire,  choice  and  action. 

Impulse.  In  the  infant,  will  exists  only 
as  a  possibility.  The  first  actions  of  a  young 
child  are  impulsive  and  instinctive,  and  are 
impelled  without  thought  or  purpose;  yet 
it  is  from  such  actions  that  will  is  developed. 
Every  idea  contains  a  motor  element.  This 
is  readily  seen  in  the  motor  effect  of  such 
ideas  as  that  of  a  worm  or  of  a  mountain. 
The  idea  worm,  when  entertained,  causes  one 
to  cast  the  eye  downward ;  the  idea  mountain 
causes  one  to  look  upward.  One  seldom 
thinks  of  this  element  in  ideas,  but  self-ex- 
amination soon  reveals  it.  It  is  from  this 
motor  element  that  impulse  arises.  The  child, 
from  watching  others,  soon  learns  to  imitate 
their  actions.  At  first  these  imitations  are 
impulsive,  but  when  the  impulse  has  been 
repeated  a  number  of  times  it  leads  to  a  wish 
on  the  part  of  the  child  to  perform  the  act. 

Desire.  This  wish  is  a  desire,  which  has 
been  developed  from  the  impulse  and  is  now 
directed  to  a  definite  end.  The  accomplish- 
ment of  this  desire  calls  for  voluntaiy  action, 
hence  the  will  is  brought  into  play.  But 
the  mind  often  entertains  two  or  more  desires 
at  the  same  time,  and  these  may  be  so  related 
as  to  oppose  each  other.  This  is  readily 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  child  who  is  at 
play  with  a  toy  in  which  he  is  interested.  On 
the  table  in  the  room  is  an  apple  which  he 
desires.  He  cannot  obtain  this  without  climb- 
ing upon  a  chair.  While  he  desires  the  apple, 
he  also  desires  to  continue  playing  with  the 
toy.  He  may  have  been  told  that  he  must 
not  climb  upon  chairs,  and,  possibly,  that  he 
must  not  touch  the  apple.  He  desires  to 
obey  his  mother's  command,  but  he  also  de- 
sires the  apple.  This  he  cannot  obtain,  with- 
out disobeying  bis  mother  and  leaving  his 
toy. 

Choice  and  Action.  The  child's  desires 
are  in  conflict,  and  this  leads  to  deliberation, 
another  step  in  the  development  of  will. 
He  weighs  his  desires:  Shall  he  continue 
playing  with  his  toy,  or  shall  he  get  the 
apple?  During  the  deliberation  he  hesi- 
tates. He  finally  decides  to  get  the  apple, 
and  with  the  acceptance  of  this  desire,  the 

243 


others  are  dropped.  In  making  this  deci- 
sion comes  choice,  the  third  step  in  an  act 
of  will.  The  desire  which  was  chosen  now 
becomes  a  motive,  which  leads  to  action,  the 
final  step.  Without  this,  however  strong 
his  desire,  the  child  would  never  obtain  the 
apple. 

Value  of  Self-Dependence.  These  suc- 
cessive steps — impulse,  desire,  deliberation, 
choice  and  action — are  all  included  in  an 
act  of  will,  but  in  the  mature  mind,  the  most 
common  voluntaiy  acts  have  become  habitual 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  deliberative  phase 
is  scarcely  noticed.  In  choosing  between  de- 
sires, one  holds  in  mind  past  experiences  and 
the  desires  imder  consideration,  and  one  also 
imagines  the  conditions  that  will  arise  from 
the  choice  of  each  of  the  desires  in  conflict. 
This  process  frequently  makes  choice  a  dif- 
ficult step,  and  one  occasionally  calls  upon 
others  to  decide  for  him.  Choosing  a  cer- 
tain course  of  action  is  based  upon  a  desire 
of  a  peculiarly  personal  nature,  and  no  one 
except  the  person  involved  is  likely  to  make 
a  satisfactory  choice.  For  this  reason  each 
one  should  make  his  owti  choices.  The  abil- 
it}"-  to  choose  varies  widely  with  different 
people.  Some  make  right  choices  quickly, 
while  others  after  long  deliberation  make 
unwise  choices.  Still  others  choose  without 
deliberation  and  are  liable  to  spend  consid- 
erable time  in  attempting  to  extricate  them- 
selves from  undesirable   conditions. 

Inhibition.  One  of  the  highest  functions 
of  the  will  is  to  prevent  action.  This  func- 
tion is  known  as  inhibition.  Its  action  de- 
pends upon  conflicting  perceptions.  If  you 
stoop  to  pick  an  apple  from  the  ground,  and, 
as  you  are  about  to  gi'asp  it,  you,  discover 
a  hornet  upon  it,  your  action  is  instantly 
arrested,  because  the  injury  which  you  would 
probably  receive  from  the  hornet  conflicts 
with  the  satisfaction  you  would  obtain  from 
possessing  the  apple.  Action  is  also  ai-rested 
by  the  memory  of  past  experiences.  One  who 
has  been  buraed  by  coming  in  contact  with  a 
flame  or  a  hot  stove  will  not  voluntarily  come 
in  contact  with  such  an  object  again. 
Finally,  the  power  of  inhibition  is  called 
forth  by  the  conflict  of  ideas,  which  neces- 
sitates deliberation  and  choice.  This  prin- 
ciple has  already  been  illustrated,  in  describ- 
ing the  conflict  of  desires. 

Inhibition  is  characteristic  of  a  well- 
trained  will.  It  develops  late,  and  in  chil- 
dreYi  and  uncivilized  people  it  seldom  reaches 


WILL 


3874 


WILLAMETTE 


full  development.  Such  persons  act  upon 
impulse,  while  the  man  with  a  disciplined 
mind  delays  action  until  after  careful  de- 
liberation. One  in  vigorous  health  and  full 
of  energy  is  more  likely  to  act  without  delib- 
eration than  one  whose  physical  conditions 
are  the  opposite.  One  who  is  hopeful  is  more 
likely  to  act  than  one  who  is  doubtful.  Be- 
cause of  their  lack  of  experience,  children 
and  young  people  often  attempt  to  perform 
the  impossible,  and  it  is  only  by  repeated 
failures  that  they  learn  the  value  of  delib- 
eration. 

Training  the  Will.  The  will  is  one  of  the 
most  important  functions  of  the  mind,  and 
upon  its  right  development  depends  one's 
success  or  failure  in  life.  Because  of  this, 
those  having  care  of  young  children  should 
give  the  training  of  the  Avill  careful  attention. 
The  following  principles  will  be  found  help- 
ful in  securing  desired  results  in  will  training. 

(1)  The  power  to  act  lies  within  the  ner- 
vous system.  During  childhood  and  youth 
this  system  is  plastic  and  is  easily  guided  in 
any  line  of  action. 

(2)  The  greatest  function  of  the  will  is  in 
the  formation  of  habits.  Habits  formed  dur- 
ing childhood  are  the  seeds  of  character.  The 
parent  and  teacher  cannot  give  too  careful 
attention  to  habits  formed  in  the  home  and 
the  school. 

(3)  The  child  is  a  bundle  of  impulses  and 
is  filled  to  overflowing  with  nervous  energy. 
He  must  act,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  both  parent 
and  teacher  to  furnish  definite  ends  toward 
which  his  activity  may  be  directed. 

(4)  Ability  to  make  right  choices  is  im- 
portant in  the  formation  of  character.  This 
ability  is  acquired  and  strengthened  by  prac- 
tice, and  children  should  be  led  to  make  right 
choices  as  early  in  life  as  possible  and  to 
continue  the  practice  until  it  becomes  habit- 
ual. 

(5)  Environment  has  much  to  do  with  the 
choices  made  by  both  children  and  adults. 
No  one  likes  to  go  against  the  sentiment  of 
his  community;  hence  the  proper  home  at- 
mosphere and  school  atmosphere  are  impor- 
tant factors  in  training  the  will. 

(6)  Attention  is  a  fundamental  act  of  will. 
The  child's  power  of  attention  should  be 
cultivated  and  strengthened  day  by  day.  See 
Attention. 

(7)  All  right  choices  should  be  acted 
upon.  When  a  choice  is  made,  it  should  be 
carried  out.  Failure  to  act  has  a  disastrous 
effect  upon  the  character,  and  those  who  let 
their  desires  evaporate  without  action  be- 
come the  do-nothings  of  society. 

(8)  Will  is  strengthened  by  effort;  there- 
fore, within  the  limits  of  their  ability,  chil- 
dren should  frequently  be  assigned  difficult 
tasks,  both  at  home  and  at  school.  Without 
this  training  they  will  never  form  the   habit 


of    persistent    effort,    which    is    necessary    to 
success. 

(9)  Stubbornness  is  not  evidence  of  a 
trained  will  or  of  a  strong  will.  One  with  a 
trained  will  decides  after  due  deliberation 
and  in  accordance  with  the  best  judgment 
a  person  can  exercise.  The  stubborn  person 
decides  in  accordance  with  his  feelings  and 
without  deliberation. 

Related     Articles.  Consult     the     following 

titles   for  additional  information: 

Attention  Instinct 
Feeling  Memory 

Habit  Psychology 

WILL,  in  law,  the  legal  declaration  of  a 
person's  wishes  as  to  the  distribution  of 
property  after  his  death.  It  is  an  individ- 
ually-made law,  which,  if  its  intent  is  clear 
beyond  doubt  and  it  does  not  conflict  with 
public  policy,  no  court  can  set  aside.  Tech- 
nically, a  will  can  dispose  only  of  real  prop- 
erty, the  document  relating  to  the  disposal 
of  personal  property  being  called  a  testa- 
ment. 

In  most  states  no  will  or  testament  is  valid 
unless  it  is  in  writing  and  signed  at  the  end 
by  the  maker,  or  testator,  or  by  some  person 
in  his  presence  and  by  his  direction.  This 
signature  must  be  made  and  the  document 
acknowledged  by  the  testator,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  two  or  more  witnesses,  not  bene- 
ficiaries by  the  will,  present  at  the  same  time, 
and  such  witnesses  must  attest  and  sign  the 
will  in  the  presence  of  the  testator.  The 
will  usually  names  one  or  more  persons, 
known  as  executors,  to  direct  the  execution 
of  its  provisions.  If  none  such  is  named, 
or  if  no  will  is  made,  the  court  appoints 
an  administrator  to  the  estate.  In  the  latter 
case  the  property  goes  to  lineal  descendants 
(For  the  rules  for  the  disposal  of  the  estate 
in  the  latter  case,  see  Descent)  .  Any  altera- 
tion in  the  will  must  be  duly  signed  by  the 
testator  and  the  witnesses.  An  addition  to 
the  will  is  known  as  a  codicil.  A  will  may 
be  revoked  by  canceling,  obliteration,  tearing 
or  bui-ning,  by  a  new  will  expressly  revoking 
the  former,  or  by  one  containing  provisions 
inconsistent  with  it.  The  destniction  of  a 
later  will  revives  a  former  will.  At  the 
death  of  the  testator  the  will  is  recorded  in 
the  probate  court,  and  that  court  directs  set- 
tlements.    See  Probate. 

WILLAMETTE,  toil  lah'met,  a  river  of 
Oregon,  250  miles  in  length,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  McKenzie  and  the  Middle 
Fork.  It  rises  in  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
flows  northward  through  a  fertile  valley  and 
into  the  Columbia  River.     It  is  navigable  to 


WILLARD 


3875 


WILLIAM  II 


Portland,  fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth.  A 
lock  canal  enables  small  craft  to  go  around 
Willamette  Falls  and  ascend  150  miles  to 
Eugene. 

WIL'LARD,  Emma  Hart  (1787-1870), 
one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  cause  of  women's 
higher  education  in  America,  and  founder 
of  the  Emma  Willard  School.  She  was  born 
at  Berlin,  Conn.  She  taught  a  number  of 
years,  became  pi'incipal  of  a  girls'  academy 
at  Middlebury,  Vt.,  and  in  1809  mamed 
Dr.  John  Willard.  In  1814  she  wrote  and 
submitted  to  New  York  state  officials  A  Plan 
for  Improving  Female  Edtocation,  with  the 
result  that  she  was  able  to  establish  at  Water- 
ford,  N.  Y.  a  gills'  seminary  partly  sup- 
parted  by  the  state.  This  institution  was 
remroved  to  Troy  and  the  name  afterward 
changed  to  Emma  Willard  School.  Under 
Mrs.  Willard's  management,  it  gained  a  wide 
reputation  and  is  still  one  of  the  leading 
schools  for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
Mi's.  Willard  wrote  a  number  of  text-books, 
and  was  a^so  tlie  author  of  the  famous  poem 
Rocked  in  the  Cradle  of  the  Beep. 

WILLARD,  Frances  Elizabeth  (1839- 
1898),  an  American  educator  and  reformer, 
born  at  Churchville,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at 
Northwestern  Female  College,  Evanston, 
111.  She  taught  school  for  several  years, 
traveled  in  Europe  and 
the  East  and  on  her  re- 
turn became  professor 
of  aesthetics  in  North- 
western University  and 
later  its  dean  of  women. 
She  resigned  in  1874, 
became  secretary  of  the 
Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union  and 
later  its  president,  hold- 
ing the  latter  office 
until  her  death. 

Miss  Willard  gave  her  entire  time  there- 
after to  the  organization,  traveling  througli- 
out  the  country  from  year  to  year,  lecturing 
in  prominent  cities  and  writing  extensively 
for  the  Union  Signal,  the  organization's  pe- 
riodical, which  she  edited  for  six  years.  In 
1892  she  visited  England  and  helped  to  form 
the  World's  Christian  Temperance  Union, 
Her  foi-mer  home,  "Rest  Cottage,"  in  Evan- 
ston, is  yet  the  headquarters  of  the  national 
organization.  In  addition  to  articles  in  pa- 
pers and  periodicals,  she  was  the  author  of 
Nineteen  Beautiful  Years,  Woman  and  Tem- 


FRANCES  E. 
WILLARD 


perancc,  Glimpses  of  Fifty  Years  and  other 
books.  See  W^oman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union. 

WILLIAM  I,  surnamed  The  Conqueror 
(1027-1087),  the  first  Norman  king  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  the  natural  son  of  Robert  II, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  and  as  his  father  died 
M'ithout  a  legitimate  heir,  William  became 
i-uler  and  governed  Normany  with  vigor  and 
ability. 

On  the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor  he 
claimed  the  crown  of  England  as  the  nearest 
in  line  of  succession.  In  1066  he  invaded 
England,  overthrew  Harold,  the  rival  claim- 
ant, and  then  set  about  to  subdue  the  people. 
The  resistance  of  two  powerful  English 
nobles,  Edwin  and  Morcar,  who  had  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  kings  of  Scotland  and 
Denmark  and  with  the  prince  of  North 
Wales,  soon  after  drew  William  to  the  north, 
where  he  obliged  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland, 
to  swear  allegiance.  In  1069  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  the  north,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  English  resumed  arms  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  counties,  only,  however,  to  be  put 
down  mercilessly. 

William  then  established  the  administra- 
tion of  law  and  justice  on  a  firm  basis 
throughout  England,  conferred  numerous 
grants  of  land  on  his  own  followers  and  in- 
troduced the  feudal  system  of  Normandy,  in 
regard  to  land  tenure  and  services.  Toward 
the  end  of  his  reign  he  instituted  that  gen- 
eral survey  of  the  landed  property  of  the 
kingdom,  the  record  of  which  still  exists, 
under  the  title  Domesday  Book.  Although 
the  English  had  been  completely  subdued, 
William  had  to  supjiress  several  formidable 
revolts  of  his  OAvn  vassals,  and  these  he  put 
down  with  an  iron  hand.  Some  of  his 
measui'es  were  extremely  severe,  but  they 
were  in  keeping  with  an  age  of  brutality. 

As  a  man  William  was  not  without  a  cer- 
tain sense  of  equity  and  fair  dealing,  but 
was  willing  to  sacrifice  everything  to  make 
his  kingdom  stal)]e.  Viewed  in  the  per- 
spective of  histors^,  he  is  seen  as  one 
of  the  makers  of  modem  England.  See 
Hastings,  Battle  of;  Domesday  Book. 

WILLIAM  II  (about  1056-1100),  called 
RuFUS  ("the  Red"),  son  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, was  crowned  king  at  his  father's 
death.  The  Nonnan  barons  were  discon- 
tented with  this  an*angement  and  sought  to 
make  his  elder  brother,  Robert,  who  had  re- 
ceived Normandy,  king  of  England,  but  this 


WILLIAM  III 


3876 


WILLIAM  I 


project  was  defeated  by  William,  with  the 
aid  of  the  English  nobles.  Having  repressed 
the  conspiracy,  he  forced  the  Norman  barons 
to  -withdraw  to  Normandy  and  confiscated 
their  English  estates.  On  the  death  of  Lan- 
franc,  he  also  seized  the  estates  connected 
with  the  vacant  bishopries  and  abbeys.  In 
1090  he  sent  an  army  into  Normandy,  to 
punish  his  brother  Robert,  while  he  himself 
ci-ossed  the  Channel  the  following  year.  A 
reconciliation  was  effected  between  the  two 
brothers,  and  in  1096  Robert  mortgaged  Nor- 
mandy to  his  brother,  for  a  sum  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  join  a  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  William  was  shot  while  hunting  in 
the  New  Forest,  whether  accidentally  or 
otherwise  is  not  known. 

WILLIAM  III  (1650-1702),  king  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland  and  Ireland.  He  was  bom 
at  The  Hague,  the  posthumous  son  of  Wil- 
liam II  of  Orange  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charles  I  of  England.  During  his  early  life, 
all  power  in  the  Netherlands  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  grand  pensionary  DeWitt,  but 
when  France  and  England  in  1672  declared 
war  against  the  Netherlands,  there  was  a 
popular  revolt,  in  which  DeWitt  and  his 
brother  were  murdered  and  William  was  de- 
clared captain-general,  grand  admiral  and 
stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces.  In  1678 
William  concluded  with  France  an  honor- 
able treaty  at  Nimeguen. 

Meanwhile,  William  had  married  Mary, 
the  daughter  of  James  II  of  England.  As 
she  was  heir  presumptive  to  the  English 
throne  he  kept  close  watch  upon  the  policy 
of  James  II,  and  in  1688  issued  a  declara- 
tion recapitulating  the  unconstitutional  acts 
of  the  English  king  and  promising  to  secure 
a  free  Parliament  to  the  people.  Being  in- 
vited over  to  England  by  the  leaders  of  the 
English  parties,  he  arrived  suddenly  at  Tor- 
bay  in  November,  1688,  with  an  army.  A 
great  part  of  the  nobility  declared  them- 
selves in  his  favor.  In  December  James  fled 
with  his  family  to  France. 

The  throne  was  then  declared  vacant,  the 
Declaration  of  Rights  was  passed,  and  early 
in  1689  William  and  Maiy  were  crowned. 
Scotland  soon  aftenvards  accepted  the  new 
sovereigns,  but  in  Ireland,  whither  Louis 
XrV  sent  James  with  an  army,  the  majority 
of  the  Catholics  maintained  the  cause  of  the 
deposed  king,  until  they  were  defeated  at 
the  Boyne  (1690).  In  the  war  with  France 
William  was  less  successful;  but  in  spite  of 


several  defeats,  he  finally  comioelled  Louis  to 
acknowledge  him  king  of  England.  In  1701 
James  II  died  and  Louis  XIV  acknowledged 
his  son  as  king  of  England.  England,  Hol- 
land and  the  Emjoire  had  already  combined 
against  Louis,  and  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  was  just  on  the  point  of  begin- 
ning, when  William  died  from  the  effects  of 
a  fall  from  his  horse. 

WILLIAM  IV  (1765-1837),  king  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  the  third  son  of  George 
III,  He  was  educated  for  the  navy,  and  al- 
though he  bad  no  real  ability,  he  was  pro- 
moted through  successive  ranks,  until  he  be- 
came lord  high  admiral.  In  1830  he  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  George  IV  on  the  throne. 
The  great  events  which  render  his  reign 
memorable  are  the  passage  of  the  Reform 
Act,  the  abolition  of  slaveiy  in  the  colonies 
and  the  reform  of  the  poor  laws.  William 
himself  was  mentally  most  unfit  for  ruling, 
but  his  ministers  had  matters  almost  entirely 
in  their  own  control.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  niece,  Victoria,  whose  reigii  was  destined 
to  be  the  longest  and  one  of  the  most  notable 
in  Ens^lish  history. 

WILLIAM  I  (1797-1888),  king  of  Prus- 
sia and  first  emperor  of  Germany,  crowned 
as  such  at  Versailles  in  1871.  He  was  tlie 
son  of  Frederick  William  III  of  Prussia  and 
Queen  Louise.  From  his  earliest  years  he 
received  military  training,  and  as  early  as 
1814^'15  fought  in  the  campaigns  against 
Napoleon.  He  provoked  the  enmity  of  his 
people  by  his  opposition  to  constitutional 
reform,  to  the  extent  of  having  to  flee  from 
the  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolution 
of  1818.  In  1849  he  was  in  command  of  the 
army  which  crushed  the  uprisings  in  the 
Palatinate  and  Baden. 

He  became  king  of  Prussia  in  1861,  and 
with  the  aid  of  his  powerful  minister,  Bis- 
marck, grew  steadily  in  power.  War  against 
Denmark  in  1864  was  followed  by  war 
against  Austria  in  1866  and  against  France 
in  1870.  The  outcome  of  these  conquests,  in 
which  William  himself  led  the  Prussian 
armies,  was  the  consolidation  of  the  German 
states  into  the  empire  whose  aggressions 
forty  years  later  involved  the  whole  world 
in  war  (see  Gkrmany;  World  War).  It  is 
an  interesting  fact  that  in  1919  Geraian  rep- 
resentatives signed  a  drastic  peace  treaty 
within  one  hundred  feet  of  the  spot  where 
William  I  was  crowned  emperor.  See  Ver- 
sailles^ Treaty  of. 


WILLIAM  II 


3877 


WILLIAM  II 


WILLIAM  II 


WILLIAM  II,  in  German,  Wilhelm  II 
(1859-  ) ,  the  last  king  of  Pnissia  and  last 
German  emperor,  a  monarch  who  rose  to 
supreme  heights  of  power  and  influence, 
but  who  became  the  most  hated  man  in  the 
world,  suffering  hu- 
miliation and  dis- 
honor after  a  reign 
in  which  Germany 
became  one  of  the 
great  world  powers. 

The  career  of  this 
last  "William  of  the 
House  of  Hohenzol- 
lern  is  one  of  the 
most  spectacular  and 
one  of  the  most 
tragic  in  history.  He 
ascended  the  throne  on  June  15,  1888,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-nine,  the  successor  of  his 
father,  Frederick  III,  who  had  reigned  only 
three  months.  His  mother  was  Victoria, 
princess  royal  of  Great  Britain,  the  sister  of 
King  Edward  VII.  The  j'oung  emperor 
began  his  reign  with  a  definite  conception 
of  the  dignity  of  liis  office.  Like  his  grand- 
father, "William  I,  whom  he  revered,  he  be- 
lieved in  the  di\'ine  right  of  kings,  and  al- 
most from  the  outset  of  his  imperial  career 
there  was  friction  between  himself  and  his 
strong-willed  Chancellor,  Pi-ince  Bismarck. 
The  resignation  of  the  latter,  in  March,  1890, 
was  the  first  striking  evidence  of  the  de- 
termination of  the  new  ruler  to  exert  his 
authority  as  he  chose. 

Notwithstanding  his  autocratic  habit  of 
mind,  "William  II  did  much  for  Geimany. 
The  empire  became  industrially  the  most 
highly-developed  country  on  the  continent, 
and  its  expansion  as  a  commercial  nation 
was  no  less  striking.  Through  his  efforts 
Germany  secured  important  holdings  in  Af- 
rica, Asia  and  the  Pacific  islands,  and  be- 
came a  great  colonial  power.  At  the  same 
time  it  developed  into  the  greatest  militarist 
nation  in  the  world,  through  a  system  of 
universal  service,  planned  and  earned  out 
with  precision  and  iron  discipline.  The 
kaiser,  as  he  was  commonlj^  called,  took 
the  greatest  pride  and  delight  in  his  finely- 
trained  army,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he 
had  visions  of  its  going  into  action  some 
day  to  give  Germany  its  "place  in  the  sun." 
The  na^7,  too,  was  built  up  and  made  second 
in  strength  to  that  of  Great  Britain.  The 
influence  of  the  kaiser  was  so  manifest  in  all 


of  this  military  and  naval  activity  that  he 
was  called  the  "war  lord  of  Europe."  Ap- 
l^arenth',  however,  he  sought  to  cultivate  only 
the  friendship  of  the  other  nations. 

The  energetic  German  ruler  was  not  with- 
out opposition  in  the  empire,  though  he  was 
very  popular  with  the  people  as  a  whole. 
His  obstinate  hostility  to  electoral  refonn 
and  his  medieval  conception  of  the  kingship 
as  a  divine  institution  antagonized  the  So- 
cial Democrats,  and  between  them  and  the 
emperor  there  developed  a  bitter  feud.  The 
emperor  sought  to  quiet  political  discontent 
by  securing  good  living  conditions  for  the 
working  people,  and  by  such  reforms  as 
health  insurance,  old  age  pensions  and  the 
like.  The  Socialists  refused  to  be  diverted 
from  their  main  issue,  that  of  seciu-ing  po- 
litical equality  for  all,  and  to  his  discontent 
they  greatly  increased  in  numbers. 

The  outbreak  of  the  gi-eat  war  in  1914 
focused  the  attention  of  the  world  on  Ger- 
many's emperor.  The  power  to  declare  a 
defensive  war  was  vested  with  him,  and  he 
insisted  that  it  was  in  defense  of  the  Father- 
land that  he  signed  the  decree  mobilizing 
the  army.  The  course  of  events  subsequent 
to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  tended  to  dis- 
prove this  statement,  and  the  consensus  of 
opinion  later  was  that  he  regarded  the 
Austro-Serbian  episode  as  an  opportunity 
for  Germany  to  expand  ten'itorially  and  com- 
mercially. A  short  victorious  war  restricted 
to  Central  Europe  would  put  down  the  Pan- 
Slavic  agitation,  crush  Serbia,  check  Russia 
and  lay  the  foundation  for  German  suprem- 
acy in  the  Balkan  states  and,  eventually, 
in  Asia.  "William  II's  ambition  ovei-reached 
itself.  In  striving  to  bring  about  German 
world  dominion  he  accomplished  Germany's 
humiliation — the  loss  of  its  colonies,  its  fleet, 
portions  of  its  European  territoiy  and,  most 
serious  of  all,  the  regard  of  the  world.  Just- 
ly or  not,  the  brutalities  practiced  by  the 
GeiTQan  forces  on  land  and  sea  roused  tre- 
mendous feeling  against  the  once-honored 
emperor,  and  he  reaped  a  whirlwind  of  scoiii 
and  hatred. 

"When  the  German  people  found  that  de- 
feat faced  them,  they  revolted  and  demanded 
new  leaders.  On  November  28,  1918,  seven- 
teen days  after  his  annies  had  demanded  an 
armistice  to  save  them  from  annihilation. 
William  II  signed  a  formal  document  of 
abdication,  having  previously  sought  refuge 
in  Holland.     He  was  received  at  the  castle 


WILLIAM  I 


3878 


WILLIAMSBURG 


of  Count  Goddard  Bentinek  at  Amerongen, 
where  be  remained  in  retirement  for  several 
months.  In  the  summer  of  1919  the  allies 
were  discussing  the  possibility  of  bringing 
him  to  trial  before  an  international  tribunal ; 
at  the  same  time  he  purchased  a  Holland 
estate  for  a  permanent  residence.  See  Ger- 
many; World  War. 

WILLIAM  I,  Prince  of  Orange,  Count 
OF  Nassau,  called  The  Silent  (1533-1584), 
founder  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  He  was 
brought  up  in  the  Catholic  religion,  although 
both  his  parents  were  Protestants.  In  1544 
he  inherited  from  his  cousin  the  principality 
of  Orange  and  large  estates  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Under  Charles  V  he  served  as  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Netherlands  and 
governor  of  Holland,  Zealand  and  Utrecht. 
Philip  II  employed  him  in  various  offices, 
without,  however,  really  trusting  him. 

When  the  duke  of  Alva  entered  the  Nether- 
lands, William  withdrew  to  Germany.  His 
first  open  resistance  to  Spain  was  an  invasion 
of  Brabant  in  1568.  This  was  unsuccessful, 
and  a  second  attempt  in  1572  met  with  no 
better  fate.  William  had  been  before  this 
time  chosen  stadtholder  by  Holland,  Utrecht, 
Zealand,  Gelderland  and  Overyssel,  and  in 
1576  he  succeeded  in  bringing  about  the 
"pacification  of  Ghent,"  whereby  the  south- 
ern provinces  united  with  the  northern,  to 
expel  the  Spaniards  and  secure  religious 
liberty.  The  southern  provinces  shortly 
broke  away  from  their  allegiance  to  William, 
but  in  1579,  by  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  the 
seven  northern  provinces,  Holland,  Zealand, 
Gelderland,  Friesland,  Utrecht,  Groningen 
and  Overyssel,  were  formed  into  a  league, 
which  two  years  later  formally  deposed 
Philip  and  declared  itself  a  republic  with 
William  as  hereditary  stadtholder.  A  price 
had  been  set  by  the  king  of  Spain  on  Wil- 
liam's head,  and  several  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  assassinate  him;  a  few 
years  later  he  was  shot  at  Delft. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE,  an 
institution  of  higher  learning  at  Williams- 
burg, Va.,  next  to  Harvard  the  oldest  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  founded  in  1693. 
It  was  named  in  honor  of  the  reigning  king 
and  queen  of  England,  and,  endowed  by  the 
government,  soon  attained  prosperity.  It 
suffered  heavily  during  both  the  Revolution 
and  the  Civil  War,  and  for  a  period  between 
1881  and  1888  it  was  so  crippled  financially 
that  it  had  to  close  its  doors.    But  in  1888  a 


state  appropriation  enabled  it  to  reopen,  and 
an  indemnity  of  $64,000,  granted  it  by  Con- 
gress in  1893,  for  its  losses  in  the  Civil  War, 
put  it  again  on  a  firm  foundation.  The  col- 
lege offers  two  courses,  a  collegiate  and  a 
normal  course.  It  has  about  400  students 
and  about  fifty  instructors.  Women  were 
admitted  to  all  college  courses  for  the  first 
time  in  1918. 

WILLIAMS,  John  Sharp,  (1854-  ), 
an  American  statesman,  bom  at  Memphis, 
Tenn.  He  studied  at  the  Kentucky  Military 
Institute  at  Frankfort,  the  University  of  the 
South,  the  University  of  Virginia  and  the 
University  of  Heidelberg.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  Tennessee  bar  in  1877,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing 3'ear  removed  to  Yazoo  City,  Miss., 
where  he  practiced  law  and  also  became  a 
planter.  Taking  an  active  part  in  Demo- 
cratic polities,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1893  and  served  continuously  for  sixteen 
years,  becoming  the  leader  of  the  Democratic 
party  in  the  House.  In  1911  he  was  elected 
Senator  from  Mississippi  and  was  reelected 
in  1917. 

WILLIAMS,  Roger  (1604-1683),  a  Puri- 
tan divine,  founder  of  the  colony  of  Rhode 
Island,  born  of  Welsh  or  Cornish  parents. 
He  attended  the  Charter  House  School  and 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  Because  of 
his  Puritan  beliefs  he  emigrated  in  1631 
to  New  England.  There  he  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Salem,  but  his  extreme  views 
regarding  the  jurisdiction  of.  the  civil  magis- 
trate caused  him  to  be  banished  from  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts,  and  he  went  with  a 
few  companions  to  Rhode  Island  and 
founded  a  settlement,  which  he  called  Provi- 
dence. Here  he  formed  the  first  Baptist 
church  in  America.  He  was  twice  in  Eng- 
land, in  connection  with  a  charter  for  the 
colon}'',  and  there  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Milton  and  other  prominent  Puritans.  He 
published  A  Key  into  the  Language  of  the 
Indians  of  America,  The  Bloudy  Tenent  of 
Persecution  for  the  Cause  of  Conscience,  The 
Bloudy  Tenent  yet  more  Bloudy  and  George 
Foxe  Digged  out  of  His  Burrowes. 

WIL'LIAMSBURG,  Va.,  the  county  seat 
of  James  City  County,  forty-eight  miles 
southeast  of  Richmond,  on  a  peninsula  be- 
tween the  James  and  York  rivers  and  on 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroad.  The  town 
is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  settled  in  1632,  became  the  capital 
of  Virginia  in  1698,  and  was  the  first  city 


WILLIAMS  COLLEGE 


3879 


WILLOW 


in  the  state  to  receive  a  charter  (1722). 
William  and  Mar>^  College,  the  second  oldest 
college  in  the  United  States,  established  here 
in  1693,  is  still  the  chief  feature  of  the  city. 
There  are  also  the  Eastern  State  Hospital 
for  the  insane,  erected  in  1769,  and  the  Wil- 
liamsburg Female  Institute.  The  courthouse 
dates  from  1769.  During  the  Civil  War  the 
first  important  engagement  of  the  Penin- 
sular campaign  took  place  at  Williamsburg. 
The  city  is  the  center  of  important  fish  and 
oyster  interests  and  has  manufactories  of  knit 
goods,  brick  and  lumber.  Population,  1910, 
2,714. 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE,  a  nonsectarian 
school  for  men  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
which  developed  from  a  free  school  estab- 
lished by  Colonel  E^ihraim  Williams.  The 
funds  donated  by  the  colonel,  who  was  killed 
in  1755,  were  invested  and  not  used  until 
1793,  when  the  school  was  chartered.  The 
college  has  a  faculty  of  over  fifty  members, 
an  average  attendance  of  about  500  and  a 
valuable  library  containing  about  90,000 
bound  volumes  and  17,000  pamphlets.  The 
prosperity  and  high  rank  of  the  institution 
ai-e  largely  due  to  the  work  and  influence 
of  Mark  Hopkins,  who  was  its  president  from 
1836  to  1872.  Among  the  well-known  men 
who  attended  Williams  are  William  CuUen 
Bryant,  President  Gai-field  and  his  son 
Harry  A.  Gai-field.  The  latter  has  been  presi- 
dent of  the  college  since  1908,  except  for  the 
period  of  the  World  War,  when  he  served 
as  fuel   administrator. 

Williamstown  is  in  Berkshire  County,  five 
miles  west  of  North  Adams.  In  1910  it  had 
a  population  of  3,708. 

WIL'LIAMSPOET,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of 
Lycoming  County,  ninetj'-five  miles  northwest 
of  Harrisburg,  on  the  West  Branch  of  the 
Susquehanna  River  and  on  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  and  the  New 
York  Central  railroads.  The  city  is  on  the 
Alleghany  plateau,  in  an  agricultural,  min- 
ing and  lumbering  section.  Its  industries 
include  numerous  lumber  mills,  clothing  fac- 
tories, steel  works,  furniture  factories  and 
manufactories  of  rubber  goods,  motors, 
gasoline  engines,  valvas,  pumps,  dyes,  wire 
rope,  shoes,  silks  and  sewing  machines. 
Among  the  prominent  buildings  are  a  city 
hall,  a  Federal  building,  the  James  V.  Brown 
Library,  a  state  armory,  two  hospitals,  a 
home  for  the  friendless  and  a  Masonic  Tem- 
ple.   The  Dickinson  Seminary  is  located  here. 


The  place  was  settled  in  1779,  was  incor- 
porated as  a  borough  in  1806,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1866.  It  adopted  the  commis- 
sion form  of  government  in  1912.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  31,925;  in  1917,  34,123  (Federal 
estimate). 

WILLIMAN'TIC,  Coxn.,  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  Windham  County,  sixteen 
miles  northwest  of  Non\'ich,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Willimantic  and  the  Natchaug  rivers 
and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford and  the  Central  Vermont  railroads. 
Willimantic  is  popularly  known  as  the 
"Thread  City,"  the  manufacture  of  thread 
being  its  principal  industry.  Other  manu- 
factures are  silk  goods,  cotton  prints  and 
twills,  plumbers'  supplies,  boxes  and  fine 
machinery.  Most  of  the  factories  are  run 
by  water  power.  A  state  normal  school  is 
located  at  Willimantic,  also  a  state  armor3^ 
The  city  has  a  Federal  building  and  two  li- 
braries. It  was  settled  about  1822,  was  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1833,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  Population, 
1910,  11,230;  in  1917,  12,902  (Federal  esti- 
mate). 

WIL'LIS,  Nathaniel  Parker  (1806- 
1867),  an  American  author,  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  educated  at  Andover  and  at 
Yale.  During  his  college  days  he  attracted 
some  attention  with  his  verse,  and  after 
graduation  was  emploj'ed  by  S.  Gr.  Goodrich 
to  edit  The  Legendary  and  The  Token.  The 
Americayi  Monthly  Magazine,  from  its  estab- 
lishment to  its  consolidation  with  the  New 
York  Mirror,  was  under  his  control.  Willis 
traveled  for  some  j^ears  as  coiTespondent  of 
the  Mirror  in  France,  Italy,  Greece,  Turkey, 
Asia  Minor  and  England,  and  of  the  famous 
men  whom  he  met  he  wrote  in  Pencilings  by 
the  Waif.  Many  of  these  articles  caused 
offense  by  their  personal  tone.  After  his  re- 
turn to  America,  he  conducted  several  jour- 
nals, all  of  which  except  the  Home  Journal 
were  short-lived.  His  works  include  poetry, 
travels  and  society  sketches,  in  all  of  which 
he  displays  a  facile  style,  but  no  great  pro- 
funditv  of  thoufflit. 

WILL'-O'-THE-WISP.  See  Ignis 
Fatuus. 

WILLOW,  u'il'o,  a  group  of  trees  and 
shrubs  common  in  the  cold  and  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  with  a 
few  representatives  in  Australia  and  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  Southern  Pacific.  All 
thrive  in  moist  gi'ound,  and  are  most  common 


WILMINGTON 


3880 


WILMOT  PROVISO 


on  the  banks  of  streams  and  ponds  and  in 
marshes.  The  alternate  leaves  are  long,  slen- 
der and  pinnate ;  these  are  preceded  by  flow- 
ers in  the  form  of  catkins.  The  catkins, 
which  are  clothed  with  long,  glossy  hairs,  are 
popularly  known  as  pussy-willows.  On  ac- 
count of  the  flexible  nature  of  the  shoots  of 
many  species  and  the  toughness  of  their  wood 
and  fibers,  they  have  always  been  used  as 
materials  for  weaving  baskets,  hoops  and 
crates.  Baseball  bats,  hoe  handles  and  many 
similar  articles  are  made  from  the  wood 
of  the  white  willow,  and  wooden  shoes,  pegs 
and  other  small  objects  are  constructed  from 
other  species.  The  weeping  willow,  which  is 
a  native  of  China,  is  a  fine  ornamental  tree 
that  is  often  planted  in  parks. 

WIL'MINGTON,  Del.,  the  largest  city  in 
the  state  and  the  county  seat  of  New  Castle 
County,  is  twenty-seven  miles  southwest  of 
Philadelphia,  on  the  Delaware  River,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Christiana  and  the  Brandy- 
wine  rivei's,  and  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the 
Philadelphia  &  Reading  and  the  Philadelphia 
Baltimore  &  Washington  railroads.  The  city 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  hilly  ground  and 
extends  about  four  miles  back  from  the  Dela- 
ware river.  The  falls  of  the  Brandywine 
afford  water  power  which  turns  the  wheels  of 
numerous  iron  and  steel  works,  foundries,  ma- 
chine shops  and  rolling  mills.  There  are  large 
shipbuilding  yards,  railroad  shops  and  brick 
yards.  A  score  of  leather  plants  have  made 
Wilmington  the  center  of  that  industry  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  location,  also,  of 
immense  powder  plants  and  a  large  paper 
making  industry.  The  city  is  an  important 
port  of  entry,  having  a  foreign  trade  amount- 
ing to  about  $24,000,000  a  year. 

Among  the  educational  institutions  are 
the  Friends'  School,  a  military  academy,  the 
Hebbs  School,  Goldey  College,  the  Ursuline 
Academy  and  two  business  colleges.  The 
libraries  include  the  public,  the  law  and  that 
of  the  historical  society.  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  built  by  the  Swedes  in  1698,  is  said 
to  be  the  oldest  church  in  continuous  occupa- 
tion in  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  char- 
itable institutions  are  the  industrial  school 
for  girls;  the  Fen-is  Indust'-ial  School  for 
boys;  the  Delaware  and  the  Homeopathic 
hospitals;  a  home  for  friendless  children; 
Saint  Peter's  Orphanage;  Saint  Joseph's 
Home;  two  homes  for  ae:pd  men  and  w-^men, 
the  state  hospital  for  the  insane  a^A  V^e 
county  almshouse.     Other  prom'ner.t  bu'' cl- 


ings are  the  courthouse,  the  Federal  building, 
the  customhouse  and  the  Auditorium. 

Wilmington  was  first  settled  by  the  Swedes 
under  Peter  Minuit  in  1638.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Dutch  in  1655,  and  they  in  turn  were 
succeeded  by  the  English  in  1664.  Soon  after 
this  the  place  was  brought  under  the  pro- 
prietorship of  William  Penn.  The  town  was 
laid  out  about  1731.  It  was  incorporated  as 
a  borough  in  1739,  and  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1832.  Population,  1910,  87,411;  in 
1917,  95,369. 

WILMINGTON,  N.  C,  the  county  seat  of 
New  Hanover  County,  148  miles  southeast  of 
Raleigh,  on  the  Cape  Fear  River  and  on  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line  and  the  Atlantic  Coast 
Line  railroads.  It  is  about  thirty  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  is  an  important  port  of  entry 
for  a  large  foreign  and  coastwise  trade.  The 
principal  exports  are  cotton,  rice,  turpentine, 
vegetables,  lumber  and  naval  supplies.  There 
are  extensive  manufactories  of  lumber  and 
cotton  products,  dyes,  metal  goods,  hosiery, 
fertilizers,  ice  and  foundry  goods. 

Some  of  the  prominent  structures  of  Wil- 
mington are  a  Federal  building,  a  courthouse, 
a  Masonic  Temple  and  a  public  library.  Im- 
portant institutions  are  Cape  Fear  Academy, 
a  county  hospital.  United  States  Marine  Hos- 
pital, a  house  of  correction  and  a  home  for 
aged  women.  Wrightswood  Beach,  a  popular 
summer  resort,  is  located  on  an  island  eight 
miles  east. 

Wilmington  was  settled  in  1830,  and  was 
called  New  Liverpool  and  later  Newtown.  It 
was  incoi-porated  as  the  town  of  Wilmington 
in  1739,  and  was  the  capital  of  the  province 
after  1743.  Before  the  Revolution  it  was 
one  of  the  first  to  resist  British  authority. 
During  the  Civil  War  the  port  was  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  Southern  states.  Fort 
Fisher,  protecting  the  harbor,  was  captured 
by  Federal  forces  on  January  15,  1865,  and 
the  town  itself  was  entered  by  General  Teny 
on  February  22.  Wilmington  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1866.  It  has  adopted  the  commis- 
sion form  of  government.  Population,  1910, 
25,718;  in  1917,  30,400. 

WILTIOT  PROVISO,  pro  vi'zo,  an  amend- 
ment presented  in  Congress  in  1846  to  a  bill 
providing  for  the  purchase  of  territory  from 
Mexico.  It  was  offered  by  David  Wilmot, 
a  Democrat  from  Pennsylvania,  and  provided 
that  "neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servi- 
tude shall  ever  exist  in  any  part  of  such  terri- 
tory,  except  for   crime   whereof   the  party 


WILSON 


3881 


WILSON 


shall  first  be  duly  convicted."  The  amend- 
ment was  adopted  in  the  House,  but  did  not 
come  to  a  vote  in  the  Senate,  and  in  the  next 
Congress  the  bill  was  finally  passed  without 
the  amendment. 

The  debate  in  Congress  over  the  question 
resulted  in  a  breach  between  Northern  and 
Southern  Democrats,  which  led  to  the  adop- 
tion by  that  party  of  the  doctrine  of  popular 
sovereignty.  This  in  turn  resulted  in  the 
withdrawal  of  many  Northerners,  who  joined 
the  Free-Soilers  and  later  became  prominent 
in  the  Republican  party. 

David  Wilmot  (18l4-1868),  an  American 
politician  and  jurist,  born  at  Bethany,  Pa. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834  and  began 
his  practice  at  Towanda.  He  became  a  prom- 
inent Democrat  and  served  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1845  to  1851.  There 
he  opposed  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
territory  acquired  from  Mexico  and  was  the 
sponsor  for  the  famous  Wilmot  Proviso.  He 
later  joined  the  Republican  party,  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1857,  served  in  the  Senate  for  two 
years  (1861-1863),  and  thereafter  was  judge 
of  the  United  States  court  of  claims. 

WILSON,  Augusta  Evans  (1835-1909), 
an  American  novelist,  born  at  Columbus,  Ga. 
In  1868  she  married  a  Mr.  Wilson  and  after- 
wards lived  at  Mobile,  Ala.  Her  books  are 
sentimental,  but  harmless,  and  make  a  wide 
appeal.  They  have  retained  a  greater  popu- 
larity over  a  longer  period  than  the  collected 
works  of  any  other  American  novelist.  The 
titles  are  Inez,  A  Tale  of  the  Alamo,  Beulah, 
Macaria,  Saint  Elmo,  Vashti,  Inf slice  and  At 
the  Mercii  of  Tiberius. 

WILSON,  Henry  (1812-1875),  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  born  in  Farmington,  N.  H. 
His  original  name  was  Jeremiah  Jones  Col- 
braith,  but  he  abandoned  the  name  upon 
reaching  manhood.  He  was  first  employed  on 
a  farm,  later  he  learned  the  shoemaking  trade, 
earned  money  to  pay  for  an  academic  educa- 
tion and  finally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
shoes  at  Natick,  Mass.  In  1840,  as  the  "Na- 
tick  cobbler,"  he  addressed  political  meetings, 
winning  wide  fame,  and  in  that  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature.  In 
1848  he  began  to  edit  the  Boston  Recorder, 
as  a  Free-Soil  organ.  In  1855  he  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator,  as  a  Free-Soiler  or 
Know-Nothing,  to  succeed  Edward  Everett. 
His  speeches  against  slavery  are  among  the 
most  important  of  the  period.    He  served  for 


a  short  time  on  the  staff  of  General  McClellan 
in  the  Civil  War.  In  1872  he  was  elected 
Vice-President,  on  the  ticket  with  President 
Grant,  but  died  before  completing  his  term. 

WILSON,  James  (1742-1798),  a  native  of 
Scotland,  an  emigrant  to  the  American 
colonies  in  1766,  an  eminent  patriot  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Colonial  and 
Continental  congresses,  and  also  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  1787.  His  speech 
in  the  Pennsylvania  convention  later  secured 
the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  that 
state. 

WILSON,  James  (1835-  ),  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  administrator.  He  was 
born  at  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  and  emigrated  to 
America  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  He  attended 
Iowa  College,  engaged  in  farming  and  later 
entered  the  state  legislature,  of  which  he 
became  speaker.  From  1873  to  1877,  and 
from  1883  to  1885,  he  was  a  member  of 
Congi'ess.  At  different  times  he  was  regent 
of  the  University  of  Iowa,  director  of 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and 
Professor  of  Agriculture  at  the  Iowa 
Agricultural  College.  In  1897  he  became 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  remaining  in  that 
post  sixteen  years,  a  longer  term  than  any 
other  cabinet  member  has  ever  served. 

WILSON,  John  (1785-1854),  a  Scottish 
poet  and  essayist,  better  known  as  "Chris- 
topher North."  He  was  bom  at  Paisley, 
Scotland,  educated  at  Glasgow  University  and 
at  Oxford  and  on  leaving  college  settled  on  an 
estate  on  Lake  Windermere,  where  he  gave 
himself  up  to  literaiy  work.  Wordsworth, 
Southey  and  Coleridge  were  among  his  ac- 
quaintances. His  first  independent  publica- 
tion was  a  poem  called  The  Isle  of  Palms,  and 
this  was  followed  by  The  City  of  the  Plague, 
a  second  book  of  poems.  When  Blackwood's 
Magazine  was  established,  in  1817,  Wilson 
became  one  of  its  contributors,  and  for  many 
years  he  wi'ote  some  of  the  most  notable 
articles  in  that  periodical.  In  1820  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy 
in  Edinburgh  University,  a  position  which 
he  held  for  thirty-one  years. 

Most  famous,  perhaps,  of  the  writings  of 
Wilson  are  the  Noctes  Amhrosianae,  which 
abound  in  graceful  humor  and  sentiment. 
Among  his  other  works  are  three  novels,  The 
Lights  and  Shadoivs  of  Scottish  Life,  The 
Trials  of  Margaret  Lyndsay  and  The  Forest- 
ers. 


WILSON 


3882 


WILSON 


ff'^Vz/rz/U-'^'^^lytrr^ 


ILSON,  [Thomas]  Wood- 
row  (1856-  ),  an 
American  educator, 
writer  and  statesman,  the 
twenty-eighth  President 
of  the  United  States,  and 
the  only  Democrat  to 
serve  two  consecutive 
tenns  since  Andrew  Jack- 
son. His  administrations 
are  linked  with  such  stu- 
pendous changes  in  do- 
mestic and  international 
history,  and  events  and 
prohlems  of  such  vast  import  confronted 
him  almost  from  his  tirst  inauguration,  that  it 
is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  just  estimate  of  his 
place  in  history.  No  man  of  outstanding 
importance  can  be  properly  judged  by  his 
own  generation;  but,  even  though  there  is 
lackmg  the  necessary  perspective  of  time,  it 
is  clear  that  he  ranks  with  the  greatest  of 
American  Presidents.  A  man  of  deep  sym- 
pathy for  the  workers  of  all  nations,  he 
stirred  the  masses  by  his  remarkable  state 
papers  as  no  other  statesman  has  moved 
them,  and  it  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say 
that  his  writings  have  been  read  and  quoted 
more  widely  than  those  of  any  other  public 
leader  of  his  time. 

It  happened  that  the  greater  part  of  his 
administrations  ran  parallel  with  a  terrible 
world  stniggle  in  which  traditions,  laws  and 
organizations  centuries  old  were  swept  away. 
Into  the  tide  of  war  America  was  drawn, 
under  the  leadership  of  Woodrow  Wilson, 
who  had  been  called  pacifist  and  impractical 
idealist  by  those  out  of  sj^mpathy  with  his 
methods  and  policies.  Yet  it  was  this  peace- 
loving  President  who  held  the  nation  almost 
a  unit  through  the  anxious  days  of  the  war, 
who  brought  new  inspiration  to  the  war- 
weary  masses  in  the  allied  countries,  and 
who  broke  down  the  iron  discipline  of  the 
subjects  of  the  German  emperor  by  his  in- 
sistence on  America's  just  aims  in  fighting. 
President  Wilson's  fame  as  the  spokesman 
of  the  allies  and  intei-preter  of  American 
ideals  is  unquestioned.  Whether  the  world 
was  ready  for  the  acceptance  of  his 
principles  and  whether  the  foundations  of 
a  lasting  peace  were  laid  in  the  treaty  he 
helped  to  frame,  time  alone  can  tell,  but  it 
is  certain  that  he  had  a  decisive  part  in 
bringing  the  war  to  a  close.  For  this  achieve- 
ment he  must  remain  a  great  world  figure. 


Early  Life.     Both  of  the  grandfathers  of 
Woodrow  Wilson  were  born  in  the  British 
Isles,     His  mother's  father,  Thomas  Wood- 
row,   was  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  clergyman 
who  at  one  time  preached  in  a  small  church  in 
Carlisle,    England.      Subsequently   he   went 
as  a  missionary  to  Canada,  and  eventually 
held  a  pastorate  in  Chillicothe,   Ohio.     The 
paternal  grandfather,  James  Wilson,  was  an 
Ulsterman  of  County  Down.    He  emigrated 
to  America  in  1807,  and  became  a  successful 
printer  and  newspaper  owner  in  Pennsyl- 
vania.   Joseph  Ruggles  Wilson,  the  youngest 
son  of  James  Wilson  and  the  father  of  the 
future  President,  was  a  well-known  educator 
and  a  distinguished  clergyman  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  South.     He  held  several  pro- 
fessorships in   Southern   colleges,   and  was 
pastor  at  various  times  in  three  different 
states.     While  Dr.  Wilson  was  preaching  in 
Staunton,  Va.,  his  third  child  and  first  son, 
Thomas  Woodrow,  was  born,  on  December 
28,  1856.      The  boy  was  taught  at  home  until 
his  ninth  year,  and  in  1873,  when  a  lad  of 
seventeen,  he  entered  Da%^dson  College,  N.  C. 
Before  the  end  of  the  first  year  he  left  school 
because  of  ill  health,  and  when  he  reentered 
college,  in  1875,  he  registered  at  Princeton. 
Woodrow  Wilson   (the  name  Thomas  he 
never  used)    was   active  in   the   univei'sity 
debating  and  literary  circles,  was  managing 
editor  of  Tlie  Princetonian  in  his  senior  year, 
and  won  other  honors  as  an  undergraduate. 
He  was  graduated  with  the  class  of  1879, 
entered  the  law  school  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  where  he  remained  a  year,  and  in 
1882  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Atlanta, 
Ga.    At  college  he  had  been  keenly  interested 
in  the  study  of  political  science,  and  had  read 
voluminously  on  the  subject.     As  a  young 
lawyer  he  found  that  study  was  more  absorb- 
ing than  the  trying  of  cases,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  year  he  abandoned  his  practice  to  become 
a  postgraduate  student  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University.     Here  he  specialized  in  govern- 
ment and  jurisprudence. 

Career  as  Educator.  In  1885  Wilson  re- 
ceived his  doctor's  degree,  having  submitted 
as  his  thesis  a  book  that  is  now  a  standard 
classic  in  its  field— Cow^rressiojz^Z  Govern- 
ment: A  Study  in  Amerkan  Politics.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  theories  which  the 
young  man  worked  out  in  this  small  volume 
were  consistently  applied  by  him  years  later 
as  Governor  of  New  Jersey  and  as  President 
of  the  United  States.     In  his  thesis  he    de- 


PRESIDENT  WOODROW  WILSON 


WILSON 


3883 


WILSON 


clared  that  the  method  of  preserving'  balance 
in  governmental  functions  by  having  the 
legislative  and  executive  administrations  act 
as  a  check  upon  each  other  was  weak  in  that 
it  did  not  provide  for  effective  leadership. 
His  idea  was  that  the  executive  should 
assume  the  official  leadership  and  since 
government  by  political  parties  had 
become  a  fact,  that  the  President  should 
be  not  only  the  leader  of  the  people  as  a 
whole,,  but  the  head  of  his  own  party. 

It  was  many  years  before  Wilson  had  the 
opportunity  to  put  these  theories  to  a  test. 
For  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  leaving 
Johns  Hopkins  he  rose  steadily  to  distinction 
as  an  educator.  From  1885  to  1888  he  was 
associate  professor  of  history  and  political 
economy  at  Bryn  Mawr  College,  and  from 
1888  to  1890  held  a  similar  position  at 
Wesleyan  Universitj',  Middletown,  Conn. 
While  at  Wesleyan  he  published  The  State, 
another  classic  on  political  science,  an 
analysis  of  the  governments  of  various  na- 
tions. This  book  has  been  widely  used  as 
a  text  in  colleges  and  universities. 

Wilson  was  offered  the  professorship  of 
jurispri;dence  and  political  ecx)nomy  at 
Princeton  in  1890,  and  in  that  year  began  an 
association  with  his  alma  mater  that  was  to 
last  twenty  years.  In  1902  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Francis  L.  Patton  as  president  of  the  uni- 
versity. He  had  been  remarkably  successful 
as  a  teacher,  partly  because  of  his  scholarship 
and  grasp  of  his  subject,  and  partly  because 
of  his  attractive  method  of  presenting  it. 
His  career  as  head  of  the  institution  was  no 
less  successful. 

Among  the  several  refonns  inaugurated  by 
Wilson  as  head  of  the  university,  the  most 
radical  was  the  introduction  of  the  precep- 
torial system.  About  fifty  preceptors  were 
added  to  the  faculty  for  the  purpose  of  bring- 
ing about  a  closer  relationship  between  the 
students  and  the  teaching  force.  New  pro- 
fessors distinguished  in  special  fields  were 
also  brought  to  the  institution,  the  equipment 
was  enlarged  and  improved,  and  large  en- 
dowments for  the  ^-aduate  school  were 
secured.  One  attempted  reform  of  the 
president  met  with  opi^osition  that  defeated 
it — the  plan  of  doing  away  with  the  exclusive 
senior-junior  clubs  in  the  interest  of  greater 
democracy  in  university  life.  On  the  whole, 
however,  Wilson's  record  was  sufficiently 
brilliant  to  make  him  a  prospective  nominee 
for  governor  in  1910. 


In  Politics.  New  Jersey  was  a  Republican 
state,  and  the  president  of  Princeton  was  a 
Democrat,  but  a  long  period  of  "boss"  gov- 
ernment had  created  a  popular  demand  for 
a  higher  type  of  official,  and  when  the  Demo- 
ci-atic  convention  nominated  Wilson  the  lib- 
eral elements  of  all  parties  could  approve 
the  choic^  The  Democratic  candidate  set 
a  new  standard  of  campaigning,  for  he  pre- 
sented a  progressive,  straightfonvard  plat- 
form and  refrained  from  abusive  personal- 
ities. Elected  by  a  plurality  of  49,050,  in  a 
state  that  had  been  Republican  for  sixteen 
preceding  yeai's,  he  carried  out  his  program 
as  he  had  outlined  it. 

As  governor  he  showed  exceptional  qual- 
ities of  leadership,  guiding  through  the  state 
legislature  a  number  of  measures  designed  to 
remedy  various  political  and  economic  evils.) 
When  he  met  with  "machine"  opposition  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  appeal  to  the  people  over 
the  heads  of  the  politicians,  and  in  1911,  by 
a  speaking  tour  through  the  state,  he  de- 
feated the  efforts  of  the  machine  to  override 
the  primary  vote  for  James  E.  Martine,  can- 
didate for  United  States  Senator.  A  record 
like  this  naturally  made  him  a  national  figure 
in  politics,  and  people  began  to  study  his 
career. 

As  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1912  drew 
near  the  progressive  governor  of  New  Jersey 
was  prominently  mentioned  as  a  candidate, 
and  in  the  Democratic  national  convention 
which  met  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  he  was  nom- 
inated after  a  somewhat  protracted  contest. 
His  chief  opponent.  Champ  Clark  of  Mis- 
souri, had  the  backing  of  the  conservative 
elements,  but  the  fight  for  Wilson's  nomina- 
tion was  led  by  William  Jennings  Bryan,  still 
a  powerful  leader,  though  three  times  de- 
feated for  the  Presidency.  Public  opinion 
veered  strongly  in  favor  of  the  New  Jersey 
candidate  in  the  closing  hours  of  the  con- 
vention, and  his  nomination  was  accepted 
with  hearty  approval  by  the  rank  and  file  of 
the  party.  The  Republicans  had  split  into 
two  camps,  which  made  the  election  of  Wilson 
almost  a  foregone  conclusion.  His  campaign, 
however,  strengthened  the  favorable  im- 
pression he  had  made,  especially  as  he  refused 
to  be  drawn  into  personal  arguments.  \  With 
Thomas  R.  Marshall  of  Indiana  as  hi^ run- 
ning mate,  he  carried  forty  states  and  received 
435  electoral  votes.  The  popular  vote  stood 
6,286,214  for  Wilson;  4,126,020  for  Roose- 
velt; 3,383,922  for  Taft. 


WILSON 


3884 


WILSON 


As  President.  During  the  administration 
of  President  Taft,  Wilson's  immediate  prede- 
cessor, popular  feeling  had  run  high  against 
the  Republicans  because  of  their  refusal  to 
"revise  the  tariff  downward."  In  the  Con- 
gressional elections  of  1910  the  Democrats 
had  gained  control  of  the  House,  and  through 
the  Republican  split  of  1912  they  secured  a 
working  majority  in  the  Senate,  besides  in- 
creasing their  strength  in  the  lower  body. 
The  President  therefore  began  his  admin- 
istration with  a  congress  composed  largely 
of  his  own  political  faith.  His  legislative 
program,  among  other  things,  called  for  a 
new  tariff  law,  a  revision  of  the  banking  laws 
and  stricter  regulation  of  private  monopolies. 
The  tariff  was  first  disposed,  of. 

Congress  (the  Sixty-third)  was  called  in 
special  session  on  April  7, 1913,  primarily  for 
the  purpose  of  framing  a  new  tariff  law. 
President  Wilson  excited  much  comment  by 
appearing  personally  before  the  assembly  and 
reading  his  message  himself,  a  practice  which 
had  been  abandoned  after  the  administration 
of  John  Adams.  Representative  Underwood 
of  Alabama  and  Senator  Simmons  of  North 
Carolina  had  charge  of  the  framing  of  the 
bill,  which,  after  weeks  of  debate,  was  signed 
on  October  3  by  the  President,  who  more 
than  once  was  forced  to  exert  pressure  to 
push  it  through.  The  bill  brought  about  a 
general  reduction  of  duties  on  a  long  list  of 
commodities. 

IMeanwhile,  during  the  debate  on  the  tariff, 
important  preliminary  work  was  being  done 
on  the  revision  of  the  banking  laws,  and 
when  the  tariff  was  out  of  the  way  Congress 
took  up  the  debate  of  the  Glass-Owen,  or 
Federal  Reserv^e  Act.  The  foundation  for 
this  legislation  had  been  laid  by  the  Monetary 
Commission  created  in  1008.  The  act  was 
passed  in  December  by  the  regular  session  of 
Congress,  and  received  the  President's  signa- 
ture on  December  23  (1913).  It  was  in 
some  respects  one  of  the  most  important 
pieces  of  domestic  legislation  enacted  since 
the  Civil  War,  and  its  passage  reflected  fav- 
orably on  the  President's  powers  of  leader- 
ship and  his  broad  statesmanship. 

After  the  midwinter  recess  Congress  re- 
assembled on  January  20,  1914,  and  heard 
the  President's  message  on  anti-trust  legis- 
lation. Two  important  laws  followed — the 
Clayton  Anti-Trust  and  the  Trade  Com- 
mission acts.  By  the  foiTaer,  interlocking 
directorates   were  made   illegal;    the   latter 


created  a  commission  with  powers  over  cor- 
porations similar  to  those  exercised  over  the 
railroads  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. Another  important  jjieee  of  legis- 
lation was  the  repeal  of  the  act  exempting 
American  coastwise  shipping  from  paying 
tolls  at  the  Panama  Canal.  The  President 
used  his  influence  in  favor  of  this  repeal 
because  he  held  that  the  act  violated  Amer- 
ican treaty  agreements  with  Great  Britain. 
Meanwhile  vexatious  international  questions 
were  beginning  to  confront  him. 

Trouble  with  Mexico.  Shortly  before 
President  Taft  went  out  of  office,  Madero,  the 
deposed  President  of  Mexico,  was  murdered, 
presumably  by  the  orders  of  Huerta,  who 
had  led  a  revolution  against  him.  Taft  had 
refused  to  recognize  the  Huerta  regime,  and 
this  policy  was  maintained  by  Wilson,  who, 
in  a  special  message  to  Congress  in  December, 
1913,  declared  that  stability  in  Mexico  was 
dependent  upon  the  downfall  of  Huerta.  It 
was  the  general  policy  of  the  Wilson  admin- 
istration to  discourage  revolutions  in  the 
Latin-American  republics  by  refusing  recog- 
nition to  usurpers.  The  Mexican  problem, 
however,  seemed  to  offer  no  solution.  Some 
Americans  favored  active  intei'vention  to 
protect  American  lives  and  property  in  the 
troubled  country,  and  these  bitterly  criticized 
the  President  for  maintaining  a  policy  of 
watchful  waiting.  Wilson,  who  fully  realized 
the  consequences  of  sending  an  army  to"c^ean 
up"  the  country,  and  the  adverse  effect  it 
would  have  on  South  American  republics,  too 
often  suspicious  of  American  motives,  refused 
to  do  more  than  lift  the  embargo  on  the  ship- 
ment of  arms  into  Mexico,  where  a  counter- 
revolution against  Huerta  was  being  carried 
on  by  Carranza  and  Villa.  Circumstances, 
however,  forced  his  hand. 

In  April,  1914,  several  American  marines 
were  arrested  at  Tampico  by  Mexican  officers. 
Rear- Admiral  Mayo,  the  American  command- 
er, demanded  that  the  Americans  be  released 
and  that  Huerta  formally  apologize  and 
order  a  salute  to  the  American  flag.  Compli- 
cations arose  over  Huerta's  refusal  to  salute 
the  flag,  and  the  President  on  April  20  asked 
and  received  from  Congress  authority  to  use 
the  naval  and  military  forces  of  the  United 
States  to  enforce  the  demand.  Vera  Cruz 
was  occupied  by  American  forces,  but  open 
hostilities  were  averted  by  an  offer  of  medi- 
ation on  the  part  of  Argentina,  Brazil  and 
Chile  (the  "A  B  C"  powers  of  South  Amer- 


WILSON 


3885 


WILSON 


iea).  While  an  arbitration  commission  was 
in  session  at  Niagara  Falls,  the  situation  was 
cleared  bj'  the  resignation  of  Huerta. 

After  an  interval  Can-anza  suc<?eeded  in 
setting  up  a  pro-visional  government,  which 
President  Wilson  formally  recognized  on 
October  19,  1915.  Meanwhile,  the  World 
War  in  Europe  had  broken  out  (August, 
1914),  and  Yilla,  who  had  quan-eled  with 
Carranza,  was  increasing  the  state  of  dis- 
order by  bandit  raids  against  Mexicans  and 
Americans  alike.  Matters  came  to  a  climax 
in  March,  1916,  when  the  town  of  Columbus. 
X.  M.,  was  raided  at  night  by  about  1,500 
Villistas.  Property  was  destroyed  and  sev- 
eral Americans  were  killed,  the  news  of 
which  made  the  people  of  the  United  States 
hot  with  indignation. 

President  Wilson  called  out  the  militia  to 
ETuard  the  border,  and  an  expedition  under 
Pershing  advanced  into  Mexico  for  the 
ostensible  purpose  of  getting  Villa,  "dead  or 
alive."  Carranza  maintained  a  hostile  atti- 
tude toward  the  enterprise,  and  the  utmost 
caution  was  preserved  by  the  Americans  to 
prevent  a  clash  between  the  two  governments. 
The  public,  many  months  later,  learned  that 
German  intrigue  was  responsible  for  much  of 
Villa's  activity,  and  the  wisdom  of  the  admin- 
istration's course  was  vindicated.  In  Febini- 
ary,  1917,  the  expedition  returned  home, 
where  a  greater  crisis  was  to  be  met. 

America  and  the  War  in  Europe.  When 
the  great  war  broke  out  in  1914  the  majority 
of  Americans  breathed  a  sigh  of  relief  that 
three  thousand  miles  of  water  lay  between 
them  and  the  scene  of  sti-uggle,  and  the 
President's  proclamation  of  neutrality  was 
generally  accepted  with  approval.  But 
neutrality  was  a  most  diflScult  thing  to  main- 
tain. The  great  majority  of  American  citi- 
zens of  German  blood  found  themselves 
openly  sympathetic  with  Germany,  and  began 
to  resent  the  sliipment  of  supplies  to  the 
allied  nations,  because  allied  control  of  the 
seas  made  like  shipments  to  Germany  im- 
possible. 

On  the  other  hand,  large  numbers  of 
Americans  who  had  no  ties  overseas  began  to 
feel  stiiTings  against  Gennany.  The  in- 
vasion of  Belgium  was  something  that  could 
not  be  talked  away,  and  as  the  war  progressed 
and  appeals  for  help  came  from  the  areas 
devastated  by  German  forces  this  hostile  feel- 
ing deepened.  When  the  liner  Lusitam'-a  was 
sunk  by  a  submarine,  in  May  of  1915,  and  the 


people  read  that  over  one  hundred  American 
lives  were  lost,  there  was  open  talk  of  joining 
the  allies.  The  President,  however,  refused 
to  be  moved  by  the  extremists  on  either  side. 
Instead  of  suggesting  war  he  bent  his  energies 
toward  forcing  Germany  to  keep  its  sub- 
marine warfare  within  the  mles  of  inter- 
national law  and  humanity,  and  he  would  not 
yield  to  the  German  and  pacifist  propaganda 
for  an  embargo  on  supplies  to  the  allies,  as 
he  rightly  held  that  such  a  course  would 
be  a  violation  of  American  neutrality. 

The  Campaign  of  1916.  In  the  summer  of 
1916  President  Wilson  and  Vice-President 
Marshall  were  unanimously  nominated  to 
succeed  themselves  by  the  Democratic  con- 
vention which  met  at  Saint  Louis.  The  Ee- 
publicans  nominated  Charles  Evans  Hughes 
and  Charles  W.  Fairbanks.  The  campaign 
lacked  the  dramatic  elements  of  the  fight  of 
1912.  The  Democrats  asked  for  Wilson's 
reelection  because  of  his  record  for  oonstruc- 
tive  legislation,  and  his  tactful  handling  of 
the  international  problems,  which  had  "kept 
the  country  out  of  war."  The  Repub- 
licans vigorously  attacked  the  domestic  and 
foreign  policies  of  the  administration,  but 
they  failed  to  convince  the  eountiy  that  a 
Republican  regime  would  do  any  better. 

President  Wilson's  personality  bad  made 
a  tremendous  impression.  He  was  criticized 
by  his  enemies  as  being  vacillating  and  incon- 
sistent, but  there  was  a  widespread  feeling 
among  the  people  that  the  man  who  occupied 
the  executive  chair  had  always  acted  from 
high  motives,  had  never  pennitted  dictation 
to  him,  and  coukl  be  trusted  further  1th  the 
affairs  of  the  nation.  The  contest  was  close. 
Though  Wilson  increased  his  popular  vote 
over  that  of  1912  by  nearly  3,000,000,  he  won 
by  an  electoral  vote  of  277,  only  twenty- 
three  more  than  Hughes  received.  The  out- 
come was  not  definitely  known  for  several 
days  after  the  election.  The  Democrats  made 
hea"\'y  inroads  in  normally  Republican  states, 
especially  in  the  West. 

The  Nalion  at  War.  Toward  the  close  of 
1916  President  Wilson  published  a  note  re- 
questing that  the  wairing  countries  of  Europe 
state  the  precise  objects  for  which  they  were 
fiehting.  To  this  suegestion  both  groups  of 
bellisrerents  responded,  the  allied  reply  being 
by  far  the  more  specific.  With  the  allied  and 
German  replies  as  a  basis,  the  President 
addressed  the  Senate  on  Januaiy  22,  1917. 
He  told  his  auditors  that  the  United  States 


WILSON 


3886 


WILSON 


•would  be  forced  to  plaj^  a  part  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  durable  peace,  and  that  such  a 
peace  would  be  based  on  "equality  of  right 
among  great  and  small  nations"  and  upon 
"the  freeing  of  subject  people."  Many  peo- 
ple thought  that  the  President  was  paving 
the  way  for  an  offer  to  mediate  between  the 
two  groups  of  belligerents,  but  all  hopes  for 
peace  were  abandoned  when  the  German 
government  announced,  late  in  Jarwary,  that 
unrestricted  submarine  warfare  would  be 
started  on  February  1. 

This  announcement  meant  that  the  Presi- 
dent's efforts  to  keep  peace  by  diplomacy  had 
failed.  Unhesitatingly  he  broke  off  relations 
with  Germany,  and  on  April  6,  1917,  signed 
the  CongTessional  resolution  that  made  the 
United  States  an  associate  with  the  allies  in 
the  gi-eat  World  War.  (Details  on  the  events 
leading  up  to  this  resolution  and  an  account 
of  the  part  America  played  in  the  war,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  will  be  found  under  the 
headings  United  States  and  World  War.) 

The  unanimity  with  which  the  American 
people  rallied  to  the  support  of  the  admin- 
istration in  this  crisis  surprised  the  most 
.  optimistic.  President  Wilson's  qualities  of 
leadership  never  appeared  to  better  advan- 
tage than  during  the  nation's  participation  in 
the  war.  He  had  the  confidence  of  the  people 
as  a  whole,  regardless  of  party,  and  his  war 
utterances,  magnificent  in  spirit  and  couched 
in  inspiring  language,  stirred  America  to  a 
high  plane  of  patriotism  and  devotion.  His 
message  caught  the  ear  of  the  masses  in 
Europe,  weai-y  and  heartsick  over  the  cruel 
prolongation  of  the  war,  and  gave  them  new 
courage.  Germany  listened,  too. 
r  During  the  period  of  negotiations  in  the  fall 
/  of  1918,  when  Austria  and  Germany  were 
making  proposals  for  peace.  President  Wilson 
\  was  the  spokesman  for  the  allies,  and  at  the 
time  the  armistice  was  signed,  on  November 
11,  he  was  probably  the  most  talked-of  states- 
man in  the  world.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact, 
however,  that  a  week  before  this  supreme 
climax  of  the  war,  the  American  people  had 
elected  a  new  Congress  in  which  the  Demo- 
crats had  been  repudiated  and  Republicans 
were  in  the  majority,  and  had  voted  thus  in 
spite  of  a  direct  appeal  from  the  President 
to  send  Democrats  to  Congress. 

This  appeal  was  widely  misunderstood,  and 
it  had  subjected  Wilson  to  bitter  attacks  from 
his  political  opponents.  It  was  wholly  in 
keeping  with  his  theory  of  the  function  of  the 


executive,  which  anyone  may  read  in  his  thesis 
on  Congressional  Government.  He  conceives 
the  executive  as  having  a  dual  role — that  of 
President  of  the  United  States  and  also  head 
of  the  party  he  represents.  Leadership  should 
be  exercised  by  the  President,  who  must 
interpret  the  wishes  of  the  people  and  be 
responsible  to  them.  Efficiency  is  possible 
only  when  the  President  is  backed  by  a  con- 
gress in  which  his  own  party  is  dominant. 
jSTaturally,  to  the  average  voter  the  appeal 
was  only  an  act  of  partisanship,  and  it  cost 
the  President  something  in  prestige.  The 
Congress  which  was  to  work  with  him  for  the 
rest  of  his  term  was  Republican  by  a  margin 
of  two  in  the  Senate  and  of  forty-three  in 
the  House. 

America  and  World  Peace.  With  his 
usual  disregard  for  precedent,  the  President 
announced  that  he  would  head  the  American 
delegation  to  the  peace  conference.  In  De- 
cember he  sailed  for  Europe,  and  so  for  the 
first  time  in  American  history  a  President 
visited  a  foreign  nation  during  his  term  of 
office.  Like  many  other  acts,  this  one  was 
greeted  with  storms  of  approval  and  of  dis- 
approval, but  through  it  all  the  President 
went  on  his  way,  undisturbed  by  popular 
clamor.  The  other  American  delegates  were 
Secretary  of  State  Lansing,  Henry  White, 
diplomat.  General  Tasker  H.  Bliss,  and 
Edward  M.  House,  confidential  adviser  of  the 
President. 

With  the  exception  of  a  brief  interval 
late  in  February,  when  he  returned  home  to 
sign  bills  passed  by  Congress,  the  President 
remained  in  Europe  until  the  last  of  June. 
On  his  first  trip  he  visited  Italy  and  Eng- 
land, receiving  there  and  in  France  extraor- 
dinary ovations  from  the  people.  He  took 
a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Paris  discussions 
leading  up  to  the  treaty  with  Germany,  signed 
the  treaty  on  June  28  in  the  Hall  of  Mirrors, 
in  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  and  reached  home 
early  in  July.  The  treaty  was  presented  to 
the  Senate  on  July  10,  the  President  at  that 
time  addressing  the  Senators  on  the  subject 
of  the  league  of  nations,  which  had  been 
made  an  integral  part  of  the  treaty. 

During  the  President's  absence  formidable 
opposition  in  the  Senate  had  developed  to 
the  provisions  of  the  league  of  nations  as  for- 
mulated in  Paris.  It  was  argued  that  the 
independence  of  the  United  States  was 
jeopardized,  that  the  right  of  Congress  alone 
to  declare  war  was  imperiled,  that  the  United 


WILSON 


3888 


WILSON 


States  would  be  drawn  into  petty  European 
quarrels,  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  men- 
aced, etc.  A  small  group  of  Senators 
worked  against  anj'  league  whatsoever.  A 
few  administration  spokesmen  asked  for  un- 
conditioned acceptance  of  the  treaty  and 
league.  Many  Republican  Senators  argued 
for  accepting  the  league  with  reservations  or 
amendments  protecting  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
and  America's  sovereignty,  and  granting  the 
right  of  America  to  withdraw  at  any  time 
from  the  league.  It  was  intimated  by  some 
of  the  President's  friends  that  he  might  be 
forced  to  run  for  a  third  tenn  should  the 
Senate  refuse  to  ratify  the  league  covenant. 
Wilson  himself  decided  to  tour  the  country 
to  present  the  case  directly  to  the  people,  in 
the  hope  of  getting  public  opinion  to  sup- 
port him  and  to  bear  pressure  on  the  re- 
luctant Senators.  He  began  the  tour  in 
September. 

Other  Events.  International  affairs  had 
so  prominent  a  place  in  the  Wilson  adminis- 
trations that  they  obscured  many  events  of 
domestic  interest.  Two  amendments  to  the 
Constitution  became  effective,  the  XVIIth 
(1913),  providing  for  the  direct  election  of 
Senators,  and  the  XVIIIth,  making  illegal 
the  sale  and  manufacture  of  alcoholic  liquor. 
The  XlXth  amendment,  enfranchising 
women,  was  adopted  by  Congress  in  1919 
and  submitted  to  the  state  legislatures  for 
ratification ;  by  September,  sixteen  states  had 
ratified  it.  On  July  1,  1919,  the  United 
States  became  temporarily  a  "drv-"  nation, 
in  accordance  with  the  tenns  of  a  war  measure 
designed  to  conserve  foodstuffs.  The  pro- 
hibition era  was  scheduled  to  last  until  the 
army  was  declared  demobilized,  the  pro- 
hibition amendment  not  becoming  effective 
until  January  16,  1920. 

Several  other  experiments  were  tried  by 
the  nation  in  this  remarkable  period  of 
change.  The  government  took  control  of 
the  railroads,  the  telephone  and  telegraph 
systems  and  the  cables,  and  operated  them 
for  var^-ing  inter^^als.  Because  of  unsettled 
conditions  it  was  difficult  to  judge  adequate- 
ly of  the  advisability  of  permanent  govern- 
ment ownership.  Another  innovation  was 
the  establishment  of  daylight  saving  by  mov- 
ing all  the  clocks  forward  one  hour  on  the 
last  Saturday  in  March  and  returning  to 
standard  time  in  October.  The  plan  was 
adopted  in  March,  1918;  it  resulted  in  a 
great  saving  of  fuel  and  was  considered  a 


boon  by  city  dwellers,  who  enjoyed  thereby 
an  extra  hour  of  light  at  the  close  of  day. 
Farmers  opposed  the  system  and  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  repeal  the  law  during 
the  si^ecial  session  of  the  Sixty-sixth  con- 
gress. President  Wilson  vetoed  the  bill  for 
the  repeal;  at  that  time  there  were  not  suffi- 
cient votes  to  ovemde  his  veto,  but  repeal 
was  accomplished  in  August. 

Except  for  a  few  months  after  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War,  the  United  States 
enjoyed  great  prosperity  during  the  Wilson 
administration.  Business  flourished,  crops 
were  large,  and  the  Federal  Reserve  system 
kept  financial  conditions  steady.  To  offset 
these  favorable  items  were  the  high  cost  of 
living  and  unsettled  labor  conditions.  Wages 
were  high  everywhere,  but  prices  were  cor- 
respondingly higher,  and  strikes  for  increases 
to  meet  advanced  costs  became  alarmingly 
frequent  during  and  after  the  war.  The 
activity  of  radical  elements  who  admired  the 
Lenine  regime  in  Russia  also  caused  anxiety. 
Altogether,  President  Wilson  was  confronted 
by  larger  and  more  varied  problems  during 
'  his  two  terms  than  any  other  President  since 
Lincoln.  An  event  which  caused  general 
soiTOw  was  the  sudden  death  of  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  in  January,  1919. 

The  White  House  Family.  President 
Wilson  was  twice  married.  He  and  his  first 
wife,  Ellen  Louise  Axsen,  of  Savannah,  Ga., 
were  married  in  June,  1885,  at  the  close  of 
his  student  days  at  Johns  Hopkins.  She 
died  on  August  6,  1914,  a  few  days  after 
the  World  War  began.  The  second  Mrs. 
Wilson,  who  had  been  Mrs.  Edith  Boiling 
Gait,  became  mistress  of  the  White  House 
on  December  18,  1015.  Mrs.  Wilson  accom- 
panied her  distinguished  husband  to  Europe 
in  1919.  The  three  daughters  of  President 
Wilson  created  much  quiet  interest  among 
Americans.  The  eldest,  ]\Iiss  Margaret,  is  a 
singer  of  note,  and  is  active  in  social  wel- 
fare work.  During  the  war  she  sang  for  the 
soldiers  in  a  number  of  communities  in  Eu- 
rope. Jessie  and  Eleanor  Wilson  were  both 
White  House  brides,  the  former  marrying 
Francis  B.  Sayre,  and  the  latter  William  G. 
McAdoo,  fornier  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Woodrow  V/ibon,  Author.  For  distinc- 
tion of  scholarship  and  charm  of  style  Wil- 
son's writings  have  a  high  place,  though  they 
do  not  show  great  variety  as  to  subject  mat- 
ter. His  Congressional  Government  and  The 
State  have  already  been  mentioned.    In  1893 


WILSON 


3889 


WILSON 


Administration  of  Woodrow  Wilson,  1913-1921 


I.     The  President 

(1)  Ancestry 

(2)  Birth 

(3)  Education 

(4)  Career  as  educator 

(5)  Governor  and  President 

(6)  Character 

(7)  Writings 

II.     Government  Affairs 
(1)   Domestic 

(a)  Undei-wood  Tariff  Law 

(1)  Revised   tariff    down- 

ward 

(2)  Income  tax  provisions 

(b)  Federal  Reserve  Act 

(1)  Twelve   Federal   Re- 

serve banks  created 

(2)  Stabilized       financial 

conditions 

(c)  Clayton  Anti-Trust  Act 

(d)  Trade  Commission  Act 

(e)  Repeal   of   Panama   Tolls 

clause 

(f )  Seventeenth  Amendment 

(1)  Direct      election      of 

Senators 

(2)  In  force,  1913 

(g)  Eighteenth  Amendment 

(1)  Prohibition   of  liquor 

manufacture     and 
sale 

(2)  Effective  January  16, 

1920 
(h)   Nineteenth  Amendment 

(1)  Women  enfranchised 

(2)  Adopted  by  Congress 

in  1919 
(i)  Daylight  saving  adopted 
(2)   Foreign 

(a)  Mexico  problem 

(1)  Refusal    to   recognize 

Huerta 

(2)  Tampico  episode 

(a)  Occupation       o  f 

Vera  Cniz 

(b)  "ABC"  mediators 

(3)  Vira  raid  on  Colum- 

bus, N.  M. 
(a)   Invasion  by  Per- 
shing's troops 


(b)   Withdrawal       of 
troops 

(b)  World  War 

(1)  Neutrality  maintained 

until  1917 

(2)  German      aggressions 

against  America 

(3)  Diplomacy   of   Presi- 

dent 

(4)  Reelection  of  Wilson 

in  1916 

(c)  United    States   enters    the 

war,  April  6,  1917 

(1)  Conscription 

(2)  Army  in  France 

(3)  Liberty     Loans     suc- 

cessfully floated 

(4)  Government       oj^era- 

tion  of  railroads 

(5)  Armistice,    November 

11,  1918 

(d)  Peace  Negotiations 

(1)  President     goes     to 

Paris 

(2)  Treaty   presented    to 

Senate 

(3)  Controversy       over 

league  of  nations 
III.    Miscellaneous  Events 

(1)  Completion  of  Panama  Canal 

(2)  Panama-Pacific  Exposition 
{3)   "War-time"  prohibition  effec- 
tive July  1, 1919 

(4)  Death  of  Theodore  Roosevelt 

Questions  on  Woodrow  Wilson 

Who  were  Woodrow  Wilson's  grand- 
fathers? 

Sketch  his  career  as  educator. 

Why  did  he  not  continue  the  practice  of 
law? 

What  was  there  unusual  about  his  elec- 
tion as  governor  of  New  Jersey  ? 

What  precedents  did  Wilson  ignore 
while    President? 

Vrhat  amendments  were  proposed  or  be- 
came effective  in  his  administrations  ? 

In  what  ways  was  the  Wilson  era  a 
period  of  change? 

How  long  did  he  remain  in  Europe? 


244 


WILSON 


3890 


WIND 


Tariff 

Woman  Suffrage 

World  War 


he  published  Division  and  Beunion,  an  ac- 
count of  American  history  from  1829  to 
1889 ;  the  same  year  he  brought  out  An  Old 
Master  and  Other  Political  Essays  and  Mere 
Literature  and  Other  Essays.  His  History 
of  the  American  People,  in  live  volumes,  was 
published  in  1902,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
readable  nan-atives  of  its  kind.  Of  more 
recent  date  are  The  New  Freedom,  Guar- 
antees of  Peace  and  International  Ideals. 
The  eloquent  war  messages  of  Woodrow  Wil- 
son are  familiar  to  contemporary  readers. 
Undoubtedly  some  of  them  will  have  a  place 
in  American  literary  annals  with  the  utter- 
ances of  Webster  and  Lincoln. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles   for  additional    information: 
Banks  and  Banking       Prohibition 
Lusitania 
Mexico   (history) 
Nations,  League  of 

WILSON,  William 
Lyne  (1843-1900),  an 
American  statesman 
and  educator,  born  in 
Jefferson  County,  Va. 
He  was  graduated]^ 
from  Columbian  Col- 
lege, Washington,  D. 
C,  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia  and 
served  in  the  Confed- 
erate army.  Later  he 
became  professor  of 
Latin  at  Columbian 
College  and  practiced 
law  from  1871  to  1882,  when  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  University  of  West  Virginia. 
In  1883  he  entered  Congress  as  a  Democrat 
and  ser\-ed  twelve  years.  As  chairman  of  the 
Ways  and  Means  Couunittee,  he  led  the 
opposition  to  the  Sherman  silver  purchase 
law  and  was  the  author  of  the  famous  Wilson 
Tariff  Bill  (see  Tariff).  In  1805  he  was 
made  Postmaster-General  by  President  Cleve- 
land, and  at  the  close  of  his  term  became 
president  of  Washington  and  Lee  Universitv. 

WINCHELL,  Alexander  (1824-1891), 
one  of  America's  greatest  geologists,  who  pro- 
duced more  than  twenty  volumes  on  geological 
topics  and  who  tautrht  for  many  year's.  He 
was  born  in  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
graduated  in  Wesleyan  Universitv  in  1847. 
Immediately  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
physics  and  civil  engineering  at  the  Uni- 
.  versity  of  Michigan,  but  was  soon  trans- 
ferred to  the  geological  department.  He  was 
a  founder  of  the  Geological  Society. 


WILLIAM  L. 
WILSON 


'IND,  movements  of  the 
atmosphere  caused  by  un- 
equal heating  and  the  re- 
sultant inequality  of  pres- 
sure on  different  parts  of 
earth's  surface.  The  tem- 
perature is  highest  and 
the  atmospheric  pressure 
is  lightest  at  the  equator, 
while  at  the  poles  the  tem- 
perature is  lowest  and  the 
air  most  dense. 

The  heating  of  the  air 
at  the  equator  produces  an  upward  current, 
which  continues  mitil  the  rising  air  reaches 
layers  of  atmosphere  of  the  same  density, 
when  the  vertical  motion  is  changed  to  a  hori- 
zontal one,  and  currents  set  in  toward  the 
poles.  As  the  warm  air  over  the  equator  rises, 
the  cool  air  on  either  side  moves  in  to  take  its 
place,  so  that  there  are  in  the  equatorial 
regions  two  sets  of  currents,  blowing  towards 
the  equator,  and  an  upper  current  blowing 
towards  the  poles.  When  the  upper  current 
reaches  the  temperate  latitudes  it  becomes  of 
the  same  density  as  the  air  near  the  surface 
and  descends,  mingling  with  the  surface  cur- 
rents. For  this  reason  there  may  exist  areas 
where  for  many  consecutive  days  there  is  no 
wind. 

Were  it  not  for  the  rotation  of  the  earth, 
these  currents  would  blow  directly  north  and 
south.  As  it  is,  each  is  deflected  from  its 
course.  The  wind  blowing  toward  the  equator 
enters  regions  having  a  greater  velocity  of 
rotation  than  those  from  which  it  came.  It 
is  unable  at  once  to  acquire  this  velocity  and, 
as  it  were,  lags  behind,  producing  easterly 
winds. 

Winds  blowing  toward  the  poles  are  con- 
stantly enteiing  regions  having  a  lower 
velocity  of  rotation,  and  their  eastward  mo- 
tion is  greater  than  that  of  the  land;  hence 
they  become  westerly  winds.  In  the  northern 
hemisphere  they  blow  from  the  southwest, 
and  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  from  the 
northwest. 

In  and  near  the  tropics,  these  currents  are 
quite  reg-ular,  but  as  they  approach  the  tem- 
perate latitudes  and  become  nearer  equal  in 
temperature  and  pressure,  they  are  subject 
to  many  local  influences  and  become  very 
irreenlar;  hence  no  theory  of  wind  which 
accounts  for  the  sreneral  circulation  of  the 
atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  pre- 
vailing winds  in  manj'  localities,  and  the  ac- 


WINDERMERE 


3891 


WINDMILL 


counting  for  these  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  with  -which  the  meteorologist  has 
to  contend. 

A  wind  is  named  from  the  direction  from 
which  it  blows;  an  easterly  wind  blows  from 
the  east,  a  westerly  blows  from  the  west.    The 


cylinder,  several  inches  in  diameter,  with  a 
square  hole  at  each  end,  into  which  bars,  called 
handspikes,  can  be  inserted  for  turning  it. 
As  the  roller  is  turned,  it  winds  a  rope  or 
chain,  which  raises  the  weight.  The  windlass 
used  for  raising  buckets  of  water  from  a  well 


force  of  the  wind  depends  upon  its  velocity, 
which  is  determined  by  the  anemometer,  an 
instrument  constructed  of  four  hemispherical 
cups  at  the  ends  of  horizontal  bars,  mounted 
on  a  vertical  axis  and  attached  to  a  register- 
ing system  of  clock  woi-k. 

Related     Articles.     Consult     the     following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Calms,    Regions    of        Sirocco 
Cyclone  Storms 

Khamsin  Tornado 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes   Trade   Winds 
Monsoon  Typhoon 

Norther  Weather  Bureau 

Prevailing  Westerlies   Whirlwind 
Simoom 

WINDERMERE,  xoin'dur  meer,  the  largest 
lake  of  England,  situated  in  Westmoreland 
and  Lancashire  counties,  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  country.  It  is  ten  and  one-half 
miles  long  and  about  a  mile  wide.  It  contains 
seven  islands,  and  has  steep  and  rugged 
shores.  The  beauty  of  its  scenery  inspired 
Southey,  "Wordsworth  and  Coleridge. 

WINDHOVER,  xoind'huv  ur.  See  Kes- 
trel. 

WINDXASS,  a  mechanical  device  for  rais- 
ing weights  with  little  power.  The  windlass 
is  a  modification  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  and 
in  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  mounted 


has  a  winch  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  roller. 
The  lifting  power  of  a  windlass  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  fitting  a  cog  wheel  be- 
tween the  cylinder  and  the  winch.  See  Der- 
rick, 

WIND'MILL,  a  mechanical  device  which 
utilizes  the  energy  of  the  wind  for  pumping 
Avater  from  wells,  for  grinding  grain,  cutting 
fodder  for  stock,  for  running  churns,  and 
many  other  pitrposes  where  a  small  amount  of 
power  is  needed.  The  mill  in  general  use  on 
American  farms  has  a  wind  wheel  with  radi- 
ating wooden  or  metal  slats,  placed  close 
together  and  inclined,  though  not  overlap- 
ping. This  wheel  rotates  on  a  horizontal  bar 
having  at  its  op^DOsite  end  a  vane  which  keeps 
the  wheel  constantly  facing  the  wind.  The 
wheel  is  mounted  on  a  frame  twenty-five  or 
more  feet  in  height,  to  expose  it  to  the  wind's 
action.  The  speed  of  the  mill  is  regulated  by 
a  gearing.  The  amount  of  power  varies  with 
the  machine.  There  are  mills  which,  under 
favorable  conditions,  furnish  as  high  as  four 
or  five  horse  power.  This  type  of  mill  is  a 
distinct  improvement  upon  the  old-fashioned 
Dutch  windmill,  which  has  four  radial  arms 
covered  with  canvas.     The  latter  is  mounted 


WINDOW 


3892 


WINE 


on  a  tower  on  wheels  and  is  turned  by  band 
when  a  change  in  direction  of  the  wind  makes 
it  necessary  to  set  the  sails  to  the  breeze. 

WIN'DOW,  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  a 
building,  to  admit  light  and  air  into  the  inte- 
rior. In  dwelling  houses  in  ancient  times  the 
windows  were  narrow  slits,  and  it  was  not 
until  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  that 
glass  was  generally  used  in  private  houses  in 
England.  In  Egypt  windows  were  in  com- 
mon use  in  domestic  and  military  architecture, 
but  rare  in  the  religious  edifices.  In  Greece 
they  were  in  use  from  ancient  times,  most 
of  them  being  simple  rectangular  openings. 
Amongst  the  Romans,  windows  were  very 
common,  both  in  their  private  dwellings  and 
in  their  temples.  There  was  a  great  variety 
of  foi-m  and  decoration,  and  glass  and  trans- 
l^arent  stones  were  used. 

The  window  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment in  the  Gothic  architecture,  where  it  con- 
stitutes a  distinguishing  and  characteristic 
feature.  In  this  style,  large  pointed  and 
circular  windows  were  used,  decorated  with 
tracery  and  filled  with  beautiful  stained  glass, 
representing  various  designs,  so  as  to  rival 
Avail  paintings.  This  art  of  stained  glass 
prevailed  in  France  most  extensively  and 
also  in  England  and  Germany  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  declined  after  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. It  has  been  revived  in  the  United 
States  by  the  use  of  methods  which  enable 
the  artist  to  excel  even  the  finest  effects  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

In  modern  houses,  windows  are  generally 
closed  with  clear  glass,  set  in  a  frame,  or 
sash,  usually  of  wood  or  metal.  They  are 
often  decorative,  stained  glass  being  used, 
and  axe  made  in  nearly  all  styles.  See 
Stained  Glass. 
WIND'PIPE.  See  Trachea. 
WINDSOR,  win'zur,  Ont.,  in  Essex 
Count}',  on  the  Detroit  River,  directly  op- 
posite Detroit,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
the  Michigan  Central,  the  Grand  Trunk,  the 
Wabash,  and  the  Pere  Marquette  railroads. 
It  is  connected  by  ferry  with  Detroit  and  is 
the  location  of  the  Canadian  branches  of 
many  large  United  States  manufacturers. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  centers  in  Canada 
for  the  manufacture  of  automobiles  and 
drugs,  and  also  has  large  steel  mills,  basket 
factories,  and  a  salt  refinery  that  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  Dominion.  Windsor  was 
first  settled  in  1812.  Population,  1911, 
17,829;  in  1915,  estimated,  25,000. 


WINDSOR  CASTLE,  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  royal  palaces  in  the  world,  sit- 
uated at  Windsor  on  the  Thames,  about 
twenty  miles  from  London.  Windsor  was  the 
residence  of  the  Saxon  kings  before  the  Con- 
quest, 

William  the  Conqueror  first  built  a  royal 
residence  there,  and  succeeding  rulers  have 
added  to,  torn  down  and  rebuilt  it.  The 
present  structure  was  completed  in  the  reign 
of  George  IV.  The  castle  consists  of  buildings 
surrounding  two  great  courts,  between  which 
is  the  round  tower,  or  keep,  the  oldest  part  of 
the  structure,  built  by  Edward  III.  Saint 
George's  chapel,  an  imposing  part  of  the 
castle  is  a  fine  example  of  Gothic  flamboyant 
architecture.  It  has  a  vault,  in  which  are 
buried  many  members  of  the  royal  family, 
among  whom  are  Henry  VI,  Edward  IV, 
Heniy  VIII,  Jane  Seymour,  Charles  I  and 
George  IV.  Adjoining  this  is  the  Albert 
Chapel,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  memorial 
buildings  in  the  world,  built  by  Henry  VII 
as  a  mausoleum.  Under  James  II  it  was  used 
as  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  and  after  this 
it  was  neglected  until  George  III  rebuilt  it  as 
a  royal  tomb. 

It  was  Queen  Victoria  who  finished  it  in 
the  most  sumptuous  manner,  as  a  memorial  to 
her  husband.  Prince  Albert.  Besides  the 
private  rooms  of  the  royal  family,  there  are 
in  the  castle  richly  furnished  state  apart- 
ments, containing  many  art  treasures. 

WIND'WARD  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  is- 
lands of  the  West  Indies  embracing  Saint 
Lucia,  Grenada,  Saint  Vincent  and  a  chain 
of  smaller  islands,  all  under  a  British  gov- 
ernor-in-chief. The  islands  are  so  called  be- 
cause they  are  exposed  on  their  eastern  sides 
to  the  trade  winds.     See  Leeward  Islakds. 

WINE,  the  fermented  juice  of  fniits,  par- 
ticularly of  grapes.  The  grape  sugar  con- 
tained in  grape  juice  is  readily  changed 
through  fermentation  into  alcohol.  The  proc- 
ess of  manufacture  is  simple.  To  separate 
the  juice  the  grapes  are  placed  in  a  crushing 
machine  having  two  corrugated  cylinders 
which  crush  the  grapes  without  crushing  the 
seeds.  The  must,  as  the  resulting  mass  of 
pulp  is  called,  is  then  forced  by  pumps 
through  hose  to  large  wooden  vats  or  tanks, 
where  the  fermentation  takes  place. 

The  feraientation  is  watched  with  tbe 
greatest  care,  for  upon  it  depends  the  quality 
of  the  wine.  It  is  hastened  by  raising  the 
temperature  or  by  placing  in  the  must  a  small 


WINGED  BULL 


3893 


WINNIPEG 


quantity  of  fermeuted  pulp  from  another 
vat.  When  the  fermentation  is  completed, 
the  juice  is  strained  from  the  pulp  and  placed 
in  large  reservoirs,  called  tuns,  where  it  re- 
mains until  the  wine  is  ripe.  It  is  then 
drawn  into  casks  or  bottles  and  is  ready  for 
market. 

Wines  are  known  as  dry  when  complete 
fermentation  takes  place  and  all  the  sugar  is 
converted  into  alcohol.  When  f  eiTnentation  is 
arrested  while  there  is  yet  some  sugar,  the 
result  is  a  sweet  or  fruity  wine.  A  sjiarkling 
wine  is  one  which  effervesces  when  the  bottles 
are  uncorked.  Champagne  is  a  good  illus- 
tration. In  such  wines  f  ennentation  has  been 
arrested  before  all  the  carbonic  acid  has 
escaped.  In  color,  wines  are  known  as  red 
or  white.  Red  wines  are  produced  by  allow- 
ing the  skins  of  the  grapes  to  remain  in  the 
vat  during  fermentation.  The  amount  of 
alcohol  in  wine  varies  from  16  to  25  parts  in 
100.  In  light  wines  it  may  be  from  7  to  12 
parts  in  100. 

Wines  are  manufactured  in  almost  endless 
variety,  and  many  of  them  are  named  from 
the  locality  in  which  they  are  made,  such  as 
Port,  Burgundy,  Bordellais  and  Rhenish 
wines.  The  leading  countries  in  the  world  in 
the  manufacture  of  wine  are  France,  Spain 
and  Italy.  In  the  United  States  wine  has 
been  extensively  manufactured  in  California. 
The  national  prohibition  amendment  (1920) 
dealt  the  industry  a  heavy  blow. 

Relnted  Arfiolesc  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 


Champagne 
Grape 


Port  Wine 
Sherry 

WINGED  BULL,  a  type  figure  of  ancient 
Assyrian  sculpture.  It  was  customary  to 
place  winged  bulls  with  human  heads  before 
the  entrances  of  royal  palaces,  as  it  was  be- 
lieved they  guarded  the  buildings  from 
enemies.  Some  of  the  larger  bulls  were 
seventeen  feet  high.  The  wings  of  the  crea- 
tures Avere  carved  on  huge  plinths  that  covered 
the  wall,  while  the  body  projected  from  the 
wall,  the  head  and  breast  being  outside  the 
arch  of  the  entrance. 

WINGED  LION,  a  famous  piece  of  bronze 
sculpture  representing  a  lion  with  wings.  It 
is  the  emblem  of  Saint  Mark,  and  was  east 
in  1178  for  the  embellishment  of  one  of  the 
two  large  columns  at  the  south  end  of  the 
extension  to  Saint  Mark's  Square,  Venice. 

WINGED  VICTORY,  or  NI'KE  OF 
SAM'OTHRACE,  a  famous  piece  of  antique 
sculpture,  dug  up  in  1862  on  the  island  of 


Samothrace,  in  the  Aegean  Sea,  and  now  in 
the  Louvi-e,  Paris.  Nike,  the  Greek  goddess 
of  victory  and  winged  messenger  of  Zeus  and 
Athene,  is  here  represented  as  standing  on 
the  prow  of  a  ship,  her  transparent  draperies 
whipped-  by  the  breeze.  The  statue,  it  is 
believed,  was  made  to  commemorate  some 
military  victory  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  badly 
mutilated,  but  what  remains  of  it  is  treasured 
for  its  buoyant  vitality,  its  sinuous  grace  and 
the  noble  dignity  of  its  poise.  See  Sculp- 
ture. 

WINKELRIED,  vin'kelreet,  Arnold,  a 
Swiss  patriot,  who,  if  legend  be  true,  brought 
about  the  independence  of  Switzerland.  Ac- 
cording to  the  popular  story,  at  the  Battle  of 
Sempach,  when  the  Swiss  were  fighting  for 
liberty  against  their  Austrian  oppressors, 
Winkelried,  who  was  only  a  poor  peasant, 
conceived  the  idea  of  leading  his  countrymen 
in  close  triangular  formation.  By  deliber- 
ately sacrificing  their  lives  they  drove  a  wedge 
into  the  enemy  and  thus  made  a  breach  which 
opened  the  way  for  a  successful  attack  and 
victory. 

WINNEBA'GO,  an  important  Siouan 
tribe,  now  numbering  about  2,000,  who  live 
in  Wisconsin  and  Northeastern  Nebraska. 
When  the  Jesuits  met  the  Winnebagos,  they 
held  a  broad  tract  in  Central  Wisconsin,  near 
Green  Bay  and  Lake  Winnebago.  They  were 
a  tractable  people,  but  many  of  them  died 
from  the  ravages  of  smallpox,  and  their  num- 
bers greatly  diminished. 

WINNIPEG,  Lake,  a  lake  situated  in  the 
south-central  part  of  Manitoba.  It  has  an 
area  of  9,459  square  miles,  and  is  a  little 
larger  than  the  state  of  Vermont.  The 
southern  half  is  in  the  form  of  a  narrow  arm, 
which  extends  southward  to  within  about 
thirty  miles  of  the  city  of  Winnipeg.  Its 
entire  length  is  260  miles,  its  greatest  width 
about  sixty  miles  and  its  greatest  depth  100 
feet.  It  receives  the  Winnipeg,  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  and  the  Assiniboine  on 
the  south,  and  the  Saskatchewan  on  the  west. 
Its  outlet  is  by  the  Nelson  River,  which,  after 
flowing  through  several  small  lakes,  reaches 
Hudson  Bay.  The  fisheries  are  the  most 
important  in  Manitoba,  yielding  $400,000 
annually. 

WIN'NIPEG,  Manitoba,  the  capital  of  the 
province,  the  county  town  of  Selkirk  County 
and  the  third  largest  city  of  the  dominion,  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Assiniboine 
and  Red  Rivers.    It  is  about  100  miles  north 


WINNIPEG 


3894 


WINONA 


of  the  United  States  bpundary  and  prac- 
tically midway  between  Montreal  and  Van- 
couver. Its  geographic  position  is  unique; 
it  lies  in  a  great  plain,  midway  between  Lake 
Winnipeg  and  the  international  boundary', 
and  is  thus  like  a  spout  through  which  all 
the  trade  between  eastern  and  western  Can- 
ada must  flow.  It  is  entered  by  the  Canadian 
Pacific,  the  Canadian  Northern  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  railways,  and  their  repair 
shops  are  among  the  largest  industries  of 


WINNIPEG  CITY  HALL 

the  city.  The  Great  Northern  and  Northern 
Pacific  lines  give  the  eit}-  direct  communica- 
tion with  Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul  and 
other  important  commercial  centei'S  in  the 
United  States. 

Winnipeg  is  a  great  wholesale  center,  and 
its  manufactures  are  increasing  in  impor- 
tance. It  has  over  500  factories,  whose  total 
annual  output  exceeds  $100,000,000.  The 
wholesale  trade  in  normal  times  averages 
$200,000,000  a  year.  It  has  about  200 
churches  and  missions,  excellent  public  and 
parochial  schools,  and  a  number  of  colleges, 
including  the  University  of  Manitoba,  Saint 
John's  College,  Wesley  College,  Manitoba 
College  and  Manitoba  Medical  College.  The 
city  is  well  hvdlt,  with  wide,  regular  streets 
and  many  beautiful  buildings,  among  which 


are  the  citj'  hall,  the  postofl&ce,  the  parlia- 
ment buildings,  the  courthouse,  Carnegie 
Library',  the  new  Fort  Garrj'  Hotel,  Eaton's 
department  store,  two  great  railroad  stations 
and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  McArthur, 
Sterling  Bank  and  Ideal  buildings. 

The  site  of  Winnipeg,  in  a  rich  river  val- 
ley, early  attracted  settlers.  The  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  in  1812  erected  Fort  Douglas, 
which  protected  the  colonists  sent  out  by  the 
Earl  of  Selkirk;  these  colonists  were  the  first 
real  settlers  in  Manitoba.  Fort  Garry,  built 
in  1822  and  rebuilt  in  1835,  was  for  years 
the  seat  of  government  in  the  Red  River 
Valley.  In  1873  the  city  of  Winnipeg  was 
incorporated.  Its  growth  has  been  rapid,  and 
it  has  enjoyed  great  prosperity. 

In  1918  the  most  serious  strike  in  its  his- 
tory occurred.  Practically  all  of  the  union 
men  stopped  work,  and  for  several  weeks  the 
situation  was  grave.  The  city  government 
called  for  citizen  volunteers  to  act  as  police- 
men, and  they  carried  on  public  activities 
until  the  strike  was  broken.  In  1870  the 
city  had  215  inhabitants ;  in  1901  the  popula- 
tion was  42.340;  in  1911  it  was  136,035,  and 
in  1918,  183,595. 

WINNIPEGO'SIS,  Lake,  a  lake  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  Canadian  province 
of  Manitoba,  Ij'ing  west  of  Lake  Winnipeg 
and  northwest  of  Lake  Manitoba.  It  has 
an  area  of  2,086  square  miles,  and  is  122 
miles  long  and  twenty  miles  in  width  at  the 
widest  part.  Small  boats  can  safely  ply  the 
lake,  but  numerous  shallow  places  prevent 
navigation  of  large  vessels.  Its  waters  are 
stocked  with  whitefish  and  pike,  and  it  is  much 
in  favor  with  anglers.  The  lake  discharges 
into  Lake  Manitoba  through  the  Waterhen 
River. 

WINO'NA,  Minn.,  the  conntj'-  seat  of 
Winona  County,  103  miles  southeast  of  Saint 
Paul,  on  the  Mississippi  River  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  the  Chicago 
&  Northwestern,  the  Chicago  Great  Western, 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul  and  the 
Green  Bay  &  Western  railroads.  The  city 
has  good  water  transportation.  It  eon- 
ducts  a  large  trade  in  grain,  lumber  and  live 
stock.  Its  industries  include  sawmills,  rail- 
road shops,  flour  mills,  wagon  works  and 
manufactories  of  patent  medicine,  flax  fiber, 
faiTQ  implements,  shoes  and  candy. 

A  state  normal  school  is  located  here,  and 
the  city  has  a  seminars^  for  young  women,  a 
business  college  and  a  public  library.    Prom- 


WINSLOW 


3895 


WIRE 


inent  structures  include  a  Federal  building, 
a  courthouse,  a  city  hospital,  Watkins  ad- 
ministration building  and  the  Margaret  Simp- 
son Home.  "Winona  is  partially  surrounded 
by  bluffs  of  peculiar  rock  formation,  Sugar 
Loaf  and  Trempealeau  Mountains  being 
especially  picturesque.  The  place  was  settled 
in  1851,  and  the  city  was  chartered  in  1857. 
Population,  1910, 18,583,  remaining  about  the 
same  to  the  present  time. 

WINSLOW,  John  Ancrum  (1811-1873), 
an  American  naval  officer,  commander  of  the 
Keorsarge  in  the  battle  between  that  vessel 
and  the  Confederate  cruiser,  Alabama,  in 
1864.  The  Alabama  was  sunk,  and  Captain 
TVinslow,  who  had  already  won  distinction  in 
battle,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commo- 
dore. After  the  Civil  TVar  he  commanded 
the  Gulf  squadron  and  later  the  Pacific  squad- 
ron.   He  was  made  rear-admiral  in  1870. 

WDT'STON-SA'LEM,  N.  C,  the  county 
seat  of  Forsyth  County,  110  miles  west  of 
Raleigh,  on  the  Norfolk  &  "Western  and  the 
Winston-Salem  Southbound  railroads.  The 
adjacent  municipalities  of  Winston  and 
Salem  were  consolidated  to  form  the  present 
city  in  1913.  Winston-Salem  has  the  largest 
factory  output  of  tobacco  products  of  any 
city  in  America,  amounting  to  80,000,000 
pounds  per  year  and  valued  at  $15,000,000, 
or  more  than  $1,300  per  capita  for  the 
entire  population.  Other  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  textiles,  hosiery  and  un- 
derwear, furniture,  wagons  and  blankets. 
Prominent  educational  institutions  include 
the  Salem  Female  Academy  and  the  Slater 
Industrial  Academy  and  Normal  School.  A 
Federal  building,  a  Carnegie  Library  and  the 
Salem  Museum  are  among  the  principal 
buildings.  Salem  was  founded  in  1766  by  the 
Moravians,  and  was  governed  for  a  time  as 
a  Church  community.  Population,  1910,  22,- 
891;  in  1017,  33,136*  (Federal  estimate). 

WIN'TER,  the  season  of  the  year  between 
autumn  and  spring,  beginning  with  the  winter 
solstice,  about  December  22,  and  ending  with 
the  vernal  equinox,  about  j\Iarch  21.  In  the 
L^nited  States,  the  months  December,  January 
and  February  are  commonly  regarded  as  the 
winter  months,  although  winter  does  not  begin 
until  December  21  or  22. 

WIN'TERGREEN,  a  small  plant,  several 
inches  high,  which  grows  in  the  woods  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Glossy,  oval  leaves, 
green  all  winter,  grow  on  the  ends  of  reddish 
stems.     Small  white  or  pink  flowers  spring 


from  the  base  of  the  leaf  stems  and  scarlet 
berries  follow  them.  The  leaves  yield  an 
oil  which  is  much  used  for  flavoring  and  for 
medicinal  purposes. 

WINTHROP,  John  (1588-1649),  one  of 
the  early  colonial  governors  in  America,  and 
one  of  the  most  admirable  characters  in  early 
American  history.  He  was  born  at  Edwards- 
ton,  Suffolk,  England,  of  wealthy  parents, 
and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. Puritan  zeal  prompted  him  to  share 
the  fortunes  of  the  colonists,  and  in  1629  he 
sailed  to  America  with  900  emigrants  as  gov- 
ernor of  the  New  England  colony.  From 
then  until  the  time  of  his  death  he  worked 
for  the  spiritual  and  material  interests  of 
his  people. 

Winthrop  helped  to  organize  the  New 
England  Confederation,  and  was  its  first 
president.  His  Journal  is  a  valuable  record 
of  New  England  events  from  1630  to  1649. 

WIRE,  metal  drawn  into  an  even  thread 
or  slender  rod,  usually  cylindrical  in  fonn. 
The  metals  most  commonly  employed  in  the 
making  of  wire  are  gold,  silver,  copper  and 
iron.  The  finest  wire  is  made  from  platinum. 
Wire  was  formerly  produced  by  hammering 
metal  into  plates  which  were  then  cut  into 
strips  and  rounded  by  beating.  In  modem 
wire  manufacture,  steel  or  iron  billets  are 
heated  in  a  furnace  to  white  heat  and  put 
through  several  trains  of  rolls,  emerging  from 
the  last  roll  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  These  rods  are  wound  on  ree'.s 
while  still  hot,  are  coiled,  boiled  in  sulphuric 
acid  for  cleaning,  washed  in  water,  coated  in 
lime,  baked  for  two  hours  at  low  temperature, 
and  then  tunied  over  to  the  wire  drawer. 

In  order  to  draw  these  prepared  rods  into 
wires  of  smaller  diameter,  the  workman 
pulls  them  through  a  series  of  steel  dies  by 
means  of  a  cast-iron  reel.  Very  fine  wires 
may  be  drawn  as  many  as  twenty  times,  each 
time  through  smaller  holes.  As  the  process 
of  drawing  causes  brittleness  in  wire,  it  must 
be  annealed  as  occasion  demands  by  beating 
in  cast-iron  pots,  this  process  always  being 
followed  by  an  acid  bath  for  cleaning.  Wire 
used  for  small  springs  or  nails,  when  hard- 
ness is  an  essential,  is  not  annealed.  For 
drawing  very  fine  wires  of  gold,  silver  or 
platinum,  dies  of  diamonds,  rubies  or  other 
hard  stones  are  used.  Wire  for  outdoor  use 
is  galvanized  to  prevent  rusting. 

The  uses  of  wire  are  innumerable,  from 
the  foi-ming  of  the  gigantic  steel  cable,  with 


WIRE  GLASS 


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a  tensile  strength  of  130  tons  to  the  square 
inch,  to  the  delicate  micrometer  of  the  tele- 
scoiDe,  employing  phitinum  wires  as  fine  as 
■^T.i'crs"  ^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  diameter.  Telephone 
and  telegraph  wires,  trolley  wires,  wire  net- 
tiBg  and  wire  fencing  are  some  of  the  most 
common  uses.  A  sinister  use  during  the  war 
was  that  made  of  barbed  wire  enmeshed  into 
an  impenetrable  network  to  hinder  enemy 
advance.  The  United  States  army  alone  used 
100,000  miles  of  barbed  wire  in  its  campaig-ns 
in  France.  American  factories  sold  over 
2,000,000  miles  of  this  wire  to  the  allied 
nations  from  1915  to  the  date  of  the  armistice 
in  November,  1918. 

WIRE  GLASS,  window  glass  made  with 
an  inside  mat  of  open  mesh  wire.  The  wire  is 
embedded  in  the  molten  glass  at  a  tempera- 
ture sufficiently  high  to  insure  adhesion  of  the 
glass  to  it.  The  surface  of  the  pane  can 
be  finished  in  such  style  as  to  adapt  the  glass 
for  different  uses.  It  may  be  ribbed,  polished 
or  "rough  rolled."  Wire  glass  is  strong,  and 
is  used  for  window  panes  where  ordinary 
glass  is  apt  to  be  broken.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  safeguards  against  fire,  since,  if 
broken  by  heat,  it  does  not  fall.  Two  men 
claim  the  invention  of  wire  glass,  Frank 
Schuman  of  Philadelphia  and  Leon  Appert 
of  France. 

WIRELESS  TEL'EGRAPH.  See  Tele- 
graph, Wireless. 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONE.  See  Tele- 
phone, Wireless. 

WIREWORMS,  wir/wurmz,  a  name  given 
by  farmers  to  the  larvae,  or  grubs,  of  several 
species  of  click  beetles.  The  worms  are  said 
to  live  for  years,  during  all  which  time  they 
are  destructive  to  vegetation.  See  Click 
Bee'^le. 


ISCONSIN,  a  north-central  state  of 
the  American  Union,  one  of  the  foremost 
American  commonwealths  in  educational  and 


political  matters,  and  industrially  one  of  the 
most  prosperous.  Wisconsin  is  popularly 
called  the  Badger  State,  with  reference  to 
the  small  woodland  animal  originally  found 
in  large  numbers  in  its  forests.  The  name 
Wisconsin  is  of  Indian  origin,  and  has  been 
variously  interpreted  to  mean  rushing  river 
and  great  rocks.  The  flower  emblem  of  the 
state  is  the  violet. 

Location,  Area,  Population.  Wisconsin 
lies  north  of  Illinois  and  east  of  Minnesota 
and  Iowa ;  nearly  all  of  the  western  boundary 
is  formed  by  the  Samt  Croix  and  the  Missis- 
sippi rivers.  A  good  portion  of  the  eastern 
boundary  line  lies  in  Lake  Michigan;  the 
state  adjoins  the  state  of  Michigan  on  the 
northeast,  and  at  the  extreme  north  it  follows 
the  shore  line  of  Lake  Superior.  With  a 
maximum  length  of  315  miles  and  a  width 
of  294  miles,  the  state  is  irregularly  oblong 
in  shape  and  has  an  area  of  56,066  square 
miles ;  of  this  total  810  square  miles  are  water. 
Twenty-four  states  surpass  it  in  area,  and 
twelve  in  population.  In  1910  the  popula- 
tion was  2,333,860,  representing  an  average 
density  per  square  mile  of  42.2.  In  July, 
1918,  according  to  Federal  estimates,  the 
population  was  2,553,983.  Wisconsin  has 
about  four  times  as  many  inhabitants  as 
Rhode  Island  the  most  densely-populated 
state,  but  it  is  about  forty-five  times  as  large 
as  that  smallest  commonwealth.  Nevada, 
which  is  twice  the  size  of  Wisconsin,  and  the 
least  populous  of  the  states,  has  about  one- 
twentieth  as  many  inhabitants.  Among  the 
neighboring  states  Iowa  is  nearest  Wisconsin 
in  size,  having  an  area  but  eighty-one  square 
miles  greater.  Illinois  is  about  600  square 
miles  larger. 

People  and  Cities. .  The  state  has  a  large 
percentage  of  foreign-born  inhabitants,  as 
these  make  up  about  one-fourth  of  the  popu- 
lation. Germans  are  the  most  numerous, 
followed  by  Norwegians,  Austrians,  Russians 
and  Swedes.  Less  than  half  the  people  live  in 
cities  or  towns  of  2,500  or  more  inhabitants. 
There  are  eighteen  cities  with  populations 
exceeding  13,000.  ]\Iilwaukee,  the  largest 
city,  with  an  estimated  population  of  445,008 
in  1917,  was  in  that  year  the  thirteenth  city 
in  the  Union  in  size.  The  next  five  cities, 
with  Federal  estimates  for  1917,  are  as  fol- 
lows: Racine  (47,465),  Superior  (47,167), 
Oshkosh  (36,549),  Kenosha  (32,833)  and 
LaCrosse  (31,833).  The  state  capital  is 
Madison  (31,315). 


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About  fifty  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Roman  Catholics,  and  over  one-fourth 
are  Lutherans.  Other  prominent  denomina- 
tions are  the  Methodist,  Congregational, 
Baptist,  Presbyterian,  German  Evangelical 
and  Episcoi^alian. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  of 
Wisconsin  is  generalh"  a  great  rolling  plain. 
A  low  height  of  land  extends  through  the 
state  north  and  south,  a  little  east  of  the 
middle  line,  and  at  a  point  about  thirty  miles 
south  of  Lake  Suj^erior  it  meets  another 
elevation  extending  east  and  vrest.  The  high- 
est altitudes  of  this  ridge  are  about  1,800  feet. 
These  ridges  form  watei-sheds,  from  which  the 
land  slopes  in  all  directions.  There  are  no 
high  mountains,  but  the  rivers  flow  throug!i 
well-worn  valleys  in  some  localities,  and  along 
the  Mississippi  and  other  streams  there  are 
bluffs.  There  is  also  a  considerable  bluff 
along  Green  Bay.  The  lowest  part  of  the 
state  borders  on  Lake  Michigan,  which  is  a 
little  less  than  600  feet  above  sea  level. 

Wisconsin  is  divided  into  three  drainage 
areas.  The  northwestern  jiart  of  the  state 
is  drained  into  Lake  Supei-ior  by  a  few  short 
rivers,  chief  of  which  are  the  American  and 
the  Boise  Brule.  The  portion  east  of  the  wa- 
tershed extending  north  and  south  is  drained 
into  Lake  Michigan,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  Fox,  all  of  the  rivers  in  this  drainage 
area  are  short.  Some  of  the  most  important 
are  the  Menominee,  forming  a  good  part  of 
the  boundaiy  between  Wisconsin  and  the 
northern  peninsula  of  Michigan,  the  Peshtigo 
and  the  Oconto. 

Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  state  is  drained 
into  the  Mississippi  River.  The  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Saint  Croix,  forming  a  part  of 
the  western  boundary,  the  Chippewa,  the 
Black  and  the  Wisconsin,  which  flows  through 
the  central  part  of  the  state  and  is  the  largest 
river  wholly  within  its  boundaries.  Each 
of  these  rivers  has  numerous  tributaries,  but 
none  of  them  is  navigable  for  large  boats. 
Through  a  part  of  its  course  the  Wisconsin 
has  cut  its  way  through  sandstone  bluffs, 
forming  the  Dalles,  noted  for  their  beautiful 
scenery.  In  the  southcastera,  north-central 
and  no'-thern  parts  of  the  state  are  numerous 
lakes,  which  are  favorite  resorts  for  summer 
residence  and  also  for  hunters  and  fishennen. 
The  largest  of  these  is  Lake  Winnebago, 
almost  directly  south  of  Green  Bay.  Lakes 
Geneva  and  Mendota  are  noted  for  their 
beautiful  landscape  setting.     The  former  is 


a  popular  summer  resort ;  on  the  latter  is  the 
cit,v  of  Madison,  seat  of  the  state  university. 

Climate.  The  winters  are  long  and  severe, 
but  of  uniform  temperatiu'e,  with  many  drj', 
clear  days;  the  summers  are  short  and  hot. 
But  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer in  the  eastern  section  are  tempered  by 
the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan.  In  northern 
Wisconsin,  snow  usually  falls  early  in  the 
winter  and  covers  the  ground  until  late  in  the 
spring;  in  the  south  there  is  often  little  snow. 
The  average  rainfall  is  thirty  inches ;  the  mean 
temperatui'e  at  La  Crosse  is  44°.  During  the 
summer  season  thousands  of  visitors  seek  the 
state  to  enjoy  its  attractive  lakes  and  wood- 
lands and  healthful  climate. 

Mineral  Resources.  Though  the  state  de- 
rives a  much  greater  income  from  agriculture 
than  from  mining  operations,  it  has  valuable 
deposits  of  zinc,  building  stone,  iron  ore  and 
clays.  Zinc,  the  most  valuable  product,  occurs 
in  the  southwestern  section,  and  in  the  output 
of  this  mineral  the  state  ranks  fourth  in  the 
Union.  The  value  of  the  yield  increased  from 
$3,173,526  to  $15,223,204  between  1914  and 
1916.  The  most  important  building  stones 
are  granite,  limestone  and  sandstone,  and 
the  annual  value  of  the  output  is  about 
$2,400,000. 

Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  valley  of  the 
Menominee  River  and  along  the  Gogebie 
range  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state.  The 
deposits  are  a  continuation  of  those  in  Michi- 
gan and  Minnesota,  and  the  ores  are  similar 
in  quality.  In  quantity  of  output,  however, 
Wisconsin  is  far  behind  Michigan  and  Minne- 
sota, and  it  produces  only  about  one-third 
as  much  as  Alabama,  the  state  third  in  order. 
The  annual  output  is  valued  at  about  $2  200,- 
000;  pig  iron  valued  at  nearly  $1,000,000 
is  produced.  Clay  suitable  for  making  brick 
and  tiling  is  widely  distributed,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cream-colored  brick  is  one 
of  the  important  industries  of  the  state. 
Other  minerals  of  value  include  lead,  natural 
rock  cement,  graphite  and  mineral  waters. 

Agriculture.  Originally  a  large  jiart  of  the 
state  was  covered  with  forests.  In  the  north 
these  were  pine,  and  the  intervening  regions 
consist  of  marsh  or  land  covered  with  boul- 
ders; hence  this  part  of  the  state  is  not  well 
suited  to  general  agriculture,  but  it  is  well 
adapted  to  daiiwing,  and  that  industiy  has 
been  extensively  developed.  The  midd'e  and 
southern  portions  consist  of  fertile  prairie 
lands.    They  are  supplied  with  an  abimdanee 


WISCONSIN 


3898 


WISCONSIN 


of  moisture,  and  the  temperature  is  suitable 
to  growing  all  crops  produced  in  a  medium  or 
cool  temperate  climate;  hence  all  of  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  part  of  Wisconsin  is  under 
tillage  and  produces  abundant  crops, 

Oats  and  com  are  the  most  important 
grain  crops;  the  annual  har\'est  of  oats  is 
approaching  the  hundred-million  bushel  mark. 
In  this  produce  Wisconsin  is  the  fourth 
state  in  the  Union.  About  4,500,000  tons  of 
hay  are  produced  a  year,  over  2,000,000  acres 
being  devoted  to  this  crop.  Barley  and  rye 
are  also  raised  in  large  quantities,  and  buck- 
wheat is  another  important  product.  In  the 
central  part  of  the  southern  group  of  counties 
is  a  fertile  tobacco  belt,  Wisconsin  ranking 
seventh  among  the  states  in  amount  of  tobacco 
raised.  Sugar  beets,  potatoes,  beans,  peas, 
apples  and  small  fruits  are  other  flourishing 
products.  The  state  is  one  of  the  few  regions 
in  America  producing  cranben-ies  on  a  com- 
mercial scale,  and  it  is  one  of  the  first  five 
states  in  the  production  of  peas  and  beans. 
Dairj'ing  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  lines 
of  agriculture,  and  Wisconsin  produces  more 
butter  than  any  other  state.  New  York  alone 
exceeds  it  in  output  of  milk.  In  January, 
1918,  there  were  1,785,000  milch  cows  and 
1,394,000   other   cattle. 

Manufactures.  According  to  statistics 
compiled  by  enumerators  of  the  Thirteenth 
Census,  Wisconsin  ranks  eighth  among  the 
states  in  manufacturing.  Abundant  water 
power,  proximity  to  good  markets,  excellent 
railroad  facilities  and  a  wealth  of  natural 
resources  have  all  aided  in  the  development  of 
industry.  The  most  important  is  the  making 
of  lumber  and  lumber  products.  While  the 
forest  section  is  in  the  north,  the  mills  are 
widely  distributed,  and  the  annual  output  of 
the  industry  is  valued  at  over  $60,000,000. 
'  Foundry  and  machine-shop  products  are  next 
in  order,  including  agricultural  implements, 
carriages  and  automobiles. 

In  the  cities  along  the  Wisconsin  and  Rock 
rivers  there  are  many  thri\*ing  establishments 
devoted  to  the  making  of  butter,  cheese  and 
condensed  milk,  the  products  third  in  rank. 
Tanning,  flour  and  grist  milling,  slaughtering 
and  meat  packing,  the  canning  of  vegetables, 
paper  making  and  shipbuilding  are  other 
flourishing  industries,  and  before  the  prohi- 
bition era  Milwaukee  was  one  of  the  leading 
cities  in  the  world  in  the  manufacture  of 
beer.  Milwaukee,  Racine,  Kenosha,  Sheboy- 
gan, LaCrosse,  Appleton  and  Superior  are 


the  chief  manufacturing  centers.  At  the 
Thirteenth  Census  Wisconsin  ranked  first  in 
the  making  of  butter,  cheese  and  condensed 
milk,  horse  clothing,  straw  goods  and  enam- 
eled wares.  In  the  manufacture  of  leather 
gloves,  cement,  carriages  and  wagons,  saws 
and  windmills,  it  was  second,  and  it  was  third 
in  output  of  glass,  steam  railway  cars  and 
musical  instrmnents. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  The 
western  part  of  the  state  has  an  outlet 
through  the  Saint  Croix  and  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  northwestern  section,  through  Lake 
Superior,  while  the  estern  portion,  bordering 
its  entire  length  upon  Lake  Michigan,  has 
communication  with  the  Great  Lakes  through 
Racine,  IMilwaukee,  Sheboygan,  Manitowoc, 
Sturgeon  Bay  and  a  number  of  other  points. 
The  state  is  well  supplied  with  railways,  there 
being  about  7,500  miles  of  steam  railroad 
within  its  borders,  besides  about  900  miles 
of  electric  lines.  The  leading  railroads  are 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul,  the 
Chicago  &  North  Western,  the  Wisconsin 
Central,  the  Minnesota,  Saint  Paul  &  Sault 
Sainte  IMarie,  the  Green  Bay  &  Western,  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  and  the  North- 
em  Pacific.  A  canal  connects  the  Fox  and 
Wisconsin  rivers  at' Portage,  and  a  canal  at 
Sturgeon  Bay  connects  Green  Bay  with  Lake 
Michigan.  Wisconsin  has  12,000  miles  of 
surfaced  roads. 

The  commerce  of  the  state  is  extensive. 
Iron,  dairy  products,  live  stock,  lumber  and 
its  manufactured  products,  flour  and  grist 
mill  products,  potatoes  and  other  vegetables 
are  exported  in  large  quantities.  The  im- 
ports consist  of  manufactured  goods  and  ma- 
chinery. Milwaukee  is  the  chief  center  of 
trade  on  Lake  Michigan  and  for  the  state  at 
large,  while  Superior  is  the  chief  commercial 
center  for  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state. 

Government.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  senate  and  a  house  of  representatives,  the 
senate  ha^dng  thirty-three  members,  and  the 
house,  100.  The  members  of  the  assembly 
are  elected  for  two  years;  of  the  senate,  for 
four  years.  The  sessions  are  biennial  and  are 
unlimited  as  to  time.  The  executive  depart- 
ment consists  of  a  governor,  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  a  secretary  of  state,  a  treasurer,  an 
attorney-general  and  an  insurance  commis- 
sioner, each  elected  for  two  years,  and  the 
state  superintendent,  elected  at  a  spring  elec- 
tion for  four  years.  The  courts  consist  of  a 
supreme  court  of  seven  judges,  elected  for  ten 


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WISCONSIN 


years,  and  circuit  courts  in  the  judicial  cir- 
cuits established  by  the  legislature,  each  cir- 
cuit having  one  judge  elected  by  the  people. 
Local  administration  is  by  counties. 

Education.  Wisconsin  expends  over  $13,- 
000,000  annually  on  its  public  schools,  and 
maintains  one  of  the  best  systems  in  the 
Union.  The  state  board  of  education  consists 
of  the  governor,  the  secretaiy  of  state  and  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
The  University  of  Wisconsin  at  Madison  is  at 
the  head  of  the  system,  and  is  directly  affili- 
ated with  the  high  schools  throughout  the 
state.  There  are  also  normal  schools  at  Mil- 
waukee, Oshkosh,  Plattville,  River  Falls, 
Stevens  Point,  Superior,  Whitewater  and  La- 
Crosse.  Wisconsin  was  the  first  state  in  the 
Union  to  establish  a  s^'stem  of  county  train- 
ing schools  for  the  preparation  of  teachers 
for  the  country  schools;  it  was  also  the  first 
to  es-tablish  county  schools  of  agriculture  and 
domestic  economy  for  rural  communities. 
Schools  of  both  types  are  being  established 
from  year  to  year.  In  connection  with  its 
educational  department,  Wisconsin  maintains 
an  excellent  system  of  school  libraries,  which 
are  so  managed  as  to  bring  a  large  list  of  the 
best  books  within  reach  of  every  inhabitant 
of  the  state,  at  practically  no  expense.  The 
traveling  libraries  have  no  connection  with 
the  educational  department,  being  promoted 
by  the  state  library  commission.  The  library 
of  the  historical  society  at  Madison  is  also 
one  of  great  value.  Another  agency  for  ex- 
tending popular  education  is  the  excellent  ex- 
tension system  of  the  state  univei'sity  (see 
Wisconsin,  University  of). 

Important  institutions  of  higher  learning 
not  under  control  of  the  state  include  Beloit 
College  at  Beloit;  Lawrence  University  at 
Appleton;  Ripon  College  at  Ripon,  Milton 
College  at  Milton  and  Milwaukee-Downer 
College  at  Milwaukee. 

Institutions.  The  school  for  the  blind  is 
at  Janesville ;  that  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  is 
at  Delavan ;  the  school  for  the  feeble-minded 
is  at  Chippewa  Falls,  and  the  state  public 
school  for  dependent  children  is  at  Sparta. 
There  are  hospitals  for  the  insane  at  Mendota 
and  Winnebago  and  a  hospital  for  the  crim- 
inal insane  at  Waupun ;  the  incurable  insane 
are  cared  for  in  county  institutions  which 
receive  state  aid.  A  state  tuberculosis  sani- 
tarium was  established  at  Wales  in  1905,  and 
a  home  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic  in 
Racine  Countv  in  1916. 


H  Items  of  Interest  on  Wisconsin  11 
I J  As  Wisconsin  was  the  last  state  made  M 
y  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  it  was  jj 
j':|  given  all  the  area  left,  56,066  square  |::j 
11   miles.  I:j 

jl  Wisconsin's  climate  is  marked  by  rj 
n  much  sunshine  and  high  temperature  I"! 
f  I   in  summer  and  by  clear  sky  with  low   N 

I  j  temperature  in  winter;  the  climate  is  li 
l]  tempered  to  a  limited  degree  by  the  l;ij 
n  large  bodies  of  water  east  and  north.  i;:| 
H  Many  of  the  wild  animals  have  been  li 
i]  killed  off,  but  deer  are  still  plentiful  I'l 
p  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  and  li 
H   wolves,  black  bears  and  foxes  are  oc-  rf 

I I  casionally  seen ;  waterfowl  of  all  kinds  jiil 
\\  is  abundant  and  fishing  is  both  a  great  liij 
1 1  sport  and  an  important  business.  M 
1 1  In  Grant  County  there  is  a  huge  rl 
\\  mound  shaped  like  an  elephant,  with  |j 
W  a  trunk  thirty-one  feet  long.  This  is  I;;! 
II  a  relic  of  the  Mound  Builders  of  pre-  M 
I'll  historic  times.  |j 
l;|  Wisconsin's  many  lakes,  waterfalls  |j 
rl  and  rapids  are  the  result  of  glacial  rl 
P  action.  |;!| 
11  School  attendance  is  compulsory  for  rl 
p  all  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  M 
|i  and  fourteen,  in  cities  for  the  entire  !!'| 
II  school  year,  and  in  towns  and  villages  f j 
p  for  six  months.  I"| 
rf  Before  the  era  of  white  settlement  the  |"| 
11  territory  was  inhabited  by  Pota-  li 
p  watomis.  j-j 
I; I  The  highest  point  in  the  state,  Rib  Ij 
11  Hill,  is  in  Marathon  County.  It  has  |j 
ll  an  altitude  of  1,940  feet.  j| 
p  Questions  on  Wisconsin  M 
jii  Describe  briefly  the  surface  and  J!:! 
r|  drainage  of  Wisconsin.  |;!| 
|i  Name  five  important  agiicultural  |i 
|„|    products  and  four  minerals.                        |  j 

I J  What  can  you  say  about  the  impor-  II 
li    tance  of  daiiying  in  Wisconsin?  n 

\.\  What  is  the  most  important  manu-  li 
y    facturing  industiy?  \\ 

|i  Name  five  other  manufacturing  in-  jj 
W   dustries.  li 

p  Name  five  important  agricultural  |;| 
li    institutions.  p 

I'l  Explain,  as  fully  as  you  can,  Milwau-  |i 
fii!  kee's  importance  in .  commerce  and  \] 
li  manufactures.  !;!i 


iiiiili 


WISCONSIN 


3900 


WISCONSIN  RIVER 


There  is  a  state  soldiers'  home  at  Waupaca 
and  a  national  soldiers'  home  at  Milwaukee. 
The  penal  and  reformatory  institutions  con- 
sist of  a  state  prison  at  Waupun,  a  state  re- 
formatory near  Green  Bay,  an  industrial 
school  for  boys  at  Waukesha,  a  house  of  cor- 
rection and  industrial  school  for  girls  at  Mil- 
waukee, and  an  industrial  home  for  women 
in  Fond  du  Lac  County. 

History.  Probably  the  first  white  man  to 
enter  the  territory  of  Wisconsin  was  Jean 
Nicolet,  who  was  dispatched  in  1634  by 
Champlain  and  traversed  the  southern  part 
^  of  the  state.  Other  traders  and  missionaries 
followed,  including  Radisson  and  Groseilliers, 
Father  Allouez  and  Marquette  and  Joliet. 
Meantime,  several  missions  had  been  estab- 
lished, one  at  La  Pointe  on  Lake  Superior  in 
1065  and  one  at  the  site  of  De  Pere  in  1669. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  the  territory, 
with  all  the  northwest  was  transferred  to 
Great  Britain  and,  after  the  Revolution,  to 
the  United  States,  where  it  formed  a  part  of 
the  NorthAvest  Territory.  However,  the 
French  and  Indians  in  the  region  still  re- 
mained hostile  to  the  United  States  and 
fought  against  it  during  the  War  of  1812. 
The  discovery  of  lead  mines  led  eventually 
to  rapid  influx  into  the  territory,  and  after 
the  defeat  of  Black  Hawk  there  was  a  large 
agricultural  immigration. 

Wisconsin  was  successively  joined  to  Indi- 
ana, Michigan,  Illinois  and  again  to  Michigan 
Territory,  and  it  was  erected  into  a  separate 
ten-itory  in  1836.  In  1847,  the  population  of 
the  state  having  been  vastly  increased,  a 
constitution  was  adopted,  and  Wisconsin 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  the  following 
year.  For  a  time  the  chief  incident  in  the 
political  history  of  the  state  was  the  scandal 
arising  from  the  promiscuous  granting  and 
sale  of  public  lands  to  railroads.  One  of  the 
first  movements  leading  to  the  Republican 
party  was  a  convention  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  in 
1854.  The  state  was  consistently  opposed  to 
slavery,  and  its  supreme  court  declared  that 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  unconstitutional 
in  the  state.  During  the  Civil  War,  Wiscon- 
sin furnished  more  than  its  quota.  Since 
that  time  large  areas  have  twice  been  devas- 
tated by  forest  fires,  but  the  state  has  other- 
wise enjoyed  phenomenal  prosperity.  It  has 
been  almost  consistently  Republican  in 
politics. 

Within  recent  years  many  progressive  laws 
have  been  passed,  including  workmen's  com- 


pensation, mothers'  pension  and  child  labor 
measures  and  a  law  regulating  campaign  con- 
tributions. In  1913  there  was  enacted  a  law 
requiring  a  physical  examination  for  all  men 
who  applied  for  mamage  licenses.  This  was 
subsequentl}'  upheld  by  the  state  supreme 
court.  Women  were  given  Presidential  suf- 
frage in  advance  of  the  passage  through  Con- 
gress of  the  suffrage  amendment. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

CITIES 

Appleton  Kenosha  Racine 

Ashland  La  Crosse  Sheboygan 

Beloit  Madison  Superior 

Eau  Claire  Manitowoc  Waukesha 

Fond  du  Lac  Marinette  Wausaw 

Green   Bay  Milwaukee 

Janesville  Oshkosh 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES 

Dalles  Mississippi   River 

Great  Lakes  Wisconsin  River 

HISTORY 

Black   Hawk  Ordinance   of   1787 

Northwest  Territory 

WISCONSIN,  University  of,  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  progressive  of  the  American 
state  universities,  established  at  Madison  in 
1838. 

The  university  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
educational  system  of  the  state  and  gives 
free  tuition  to  students  who  are  residents 
of  Wisconsin,  in  all  departments,  except  in 
the  summer  term.  Through  an  admirably- 
equipped  and  organized  extension  depart- 
ment thousands  of  persons  unable  to  attend 
regular  university  sessions  are  given  excep- 
tional educational  advantages.  The  univer- 
sity maintains  three  colleges,  five  schools 
and  two  divisions — colleges  of  letters  and 
science,  engineering  and  agriculture;  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  music,  the  graduate  school 
and  the  library  school ;  divisions  of  physical 
education  and  university  extension. 

The  library  building  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  United  States,  and  contains  the  univer- 
sity library  of  215,000  volumes;  the  library 
of  the  Wisconsin  State  Historical  Society, 
192,000  volumes,  and  the  library  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  Arts  and  Letters,  5,000 
volumes,  beside  thousands  of  valuable  docu- 
ments and  pamphlets.  During  the  regular 
session  there  are  about  5,000  students  in  resi- 
dence; the  total  yearly  enrollment  is  nearly 
7,000.  There  is  a  faculty  of  nearly  700.  The 
university  owns  p--'operty  and  equipment 
valued  at  over  $5000.000. 

WISCONSIN  RIVER,  the  principal  river 
of  the  state  whose  name  it  bears.  It  rises 
near  the  boundary  between   Michigan   and 


WISTARIA 


3902 


WITENAGEMOT 


Wisconsin,  flows  southward  to  Portage  City, 
thence  in  a  southwest  direction,  entering  the 
Mississippi  River  four  miles  south  of  Prairie 
du  Chien.  Its  length  is  about  600  miles,  and 
it  is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Portage 
City,  about  200  miles.  Here  a  canal  connects 
it  with  the  Fox  River.  Its  passage  through 
some  deep  gorges  forms  the  celebrated  Dalles, 
near  Kilboum  City. 

WISTA'RIA,  a  climbing  shrub  of  the  pea 
family,  native  to  China  and  North  America. 
Several  varieties  have  been  introduced  into 
England.  When  in  flower  they  are  among  the 
most  ornamental  of  garden  plants.  The  flow- 
ers, shaped  like  pea-blossoms,  are  of  various 
tints  and  shades  of  lavender,  and  hang  in 
clusters  which  sometimes  are  several  feet  long. 
The  Chinese  and  American  species  are  much 
used  in  the  United  States  for  garden  orna- 
ment. 

WIS'TER,  Owen  (1860-  ),  an  American 
novelist  and  story-writer,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia and  educated  at  Harvard.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  after  twO"  years  ga.ve 
up  law  woi'k  for  literature  and  won  wide 
notice  through  his  stories  of  Western  life. 
Of  these  The  Virginian  has  been  most  popu- 
lar. Wister  has  written  biographies  of 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
and  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  he  has  contrib- 
uted to  magazines  both  short  stories  and 
verse.  Among  his  later  books  are  Lady 
Baltimore,  The  Simple  Spelling  Bee,  The 
Seven  Ages  of  Washington,  Members  of  the 
Family  and  The  Pentecost  of  Calamity. 

WITCH'CRAFT  At  all  times  in  the 
world's  history  there  Las  existed  a  belief  that 
some  persons,  in  league  with  powers  of 
darkness,  had  powers  to  cast  "spells"  or  in- 
flict injury  at  a  distance  by  supernormal 
means.  This  belief  became  general  in  the 
fifteenth,  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
and  in  England  and  America  the  use  of  the 
supposed  power  to  harm  through  cooperation 
of  a  demon  was  called  witchcraft,  meaning 
craft  or  practice  of  a  witch. 

Women  were  most  often  accused  of  witch- 
craft, though  men  and  even  children  were 
suspected.  Laws  were  passed  to  deal  with 
them  and  persecutions  were  numerous.  It 
is  estimated  that  in  England,  Germany, 
France,  Spain  and  Italy  100,000  innocent 
persons  perished  under  the  charge  of  witch- 
craft between  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  and 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Various 
tests  were  applied  to  ascertain  whether  or 


not  the  person  was  a  witch,  such  as  pricking 
the  body  of  the  victim  all  over,  to  find  the 
insensitive  spots  protected  by  the  devil,  and 
throwing  witches  into  deep  water,  under  the 
presumption  that  they  would  float  if  pos- 
sessed. 

The  witchcraft  frenzy  broke  out  among 
the  Puritans  of  New  England  in  1648.  In 
Salem,  Mass.,  Cotton  Mather,  a  clergyman 
of  wide  influence  and  great  power  as  a  pulpit 
orator,  wrote  a  work  entitled  Memorable 
Providences  Relating  to  Witchcraft  and  Pos- 
sessions and  another  entitled  Wonders  of  the 
Invisible  World.  By  the  distribution  of  his 
writings  and  his  utterances  in  the  pulpit,  he 
succeeded  in  arousing  the  superstition  to  the 
highest  pitch,  at  a  time  when  it  was  begin- 
ning to  abate  in  Europe. 

Many  of  the  teaching  men  of  the  province 
were  influenced  by  his  writings  and  sermons, 
and,  as  clergmen  in  those  days  constituted 
a  part  of  the  magisterial  authority,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  procuring  the  execution  of  nine- 
teen persons.  The  good  sense  of  the  Puri- 
tans at  last  revolted  against  these  atrocities, 
and  a  reaction  set  in.  Samuel  Parris,  a 
clergyman,  who  was  one  of  the  chief  perse- 
cutors, made  a  confession;  others  also  re- 
lented, and  there  were  no  more  persecutions 
for  witchcraft  in  the  American  colonies.  In 
England  the  last  trial  for  witchcraft  was  in 
1722,  and  it  resulted  in  acquittal. 

WITCH  HA'ZEL,  a  North  American 
shrub  which  is  of  economic  importance  as  the 
source  of  a  healing  lotion  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling the  leaves  in  alcohol.  The  plant  has 
branches  of  a  very  peculiar  appearance,  for 
they  twist  and  curve  in  all  directions.  In 
olden  times  the  witch  hazel  was  believed  to 
have  supernatural  power,  and'  the  forked 
twigs  were  used  as  divining  rods.  The  plant 
does  not  bloom  until  late  in  the  fall,  and  the 
fruits  ripen  the  following  year.  The  yel- 
low flowers  grow  in  showy  clusters.  A  small, 
woody  capsule  encloses  the  seeds. 

WITENAGrEMOT,  wit  e  nah  ge  mote',  in 
English  history,  the  name  given  to  the  old 
Anglo-Saxon  assembly,  which  consisted  of 
theking,  the  ealdormen,  the  higher  eccles- 
iastics and  the  thanes.  This  body  had  pow- 
er to  elect  the  king,  when  a  succession  was  in 
dispute,  or  to  depose  a  king  if  it  saw  fit,  to 
make  treaties,  to  collect  revenue  and  to  enact 
laws.  Under  a  weak  king  it  was  able  to  ex- 
ercise all  of  these  functions,  but  a  strong 
king  might  easily  make  most  of  them  merely 


WITNESS 


3903 


WOLF 


nominal.  The  xsorman  Conquest  put  an  end 
to  this  assembly,  and  the  Parliament  which 
grew  up  later  in  England  was  a  separate 
institution,  though  it  had  its  roots  in  this 
early  body. 

WIT'NESS,  in  law,  (1)  one  who  signs  his 
name  as  affinnation  of  the  genuineness  of 
another's  signature;  (2)  a  person  who  gives 
testimony  under  oath  in  a  judicial  proceeding. 
Any  person  can  be  summoned  before  a  court 
to  give  evidence.  If  he  fails  to  appear  he  is 
liable  to  punishment  for  contempt  (see  Con- 
tempt). The  summons  by  which  he  is  or- 
dered to  appear  is  called  a  subpoena;  if  he 
is  ordered  to  bring  a  document  or  other  thing 
in  his  possession,  he  is  summoned  by  a  sub- 
poena duces  tecum,  meaning  bring  tcith  you 
under  penalty. 

WITTE,  vifte,  Sergei  Yi-lievitch  (1840- 
1915),  a  Russian  statesman  and  diplomat, 
bom  at  Tiflis.  After  his  graduation  from  the 
New  Russian  University  at  Odessa,  he  took 
up  journalism;  later  he  was  engaged  by  the 
government  in  railway  service.  In  the  Rus- 
so-Turkish  War  Witte  had  charge  of  the 
transportation  of  troops  on  the  Odessa  rail- 
way and  so  distinguished  himself  that  at  the 
close  of  the  war  he  was  made  manager  of  the 
Southwestern  Railway  of  Russia.  Two  years 
later  he  became  chief  of  the  Imperial  Rail- 
way department  and  president  of  the  tariff 
commission.  His  next  promotion  was  to  the 
office  of  Minister  of  Finance,  in  1893.  His 
policy  in  this  office  led  to  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing  industries  in  Russia. 
He  introduced  the  gold  standard,  made  the 
sale  of  alcohol  a  government  monopoly,  con- 
cluded several  important  commercial  treaties, 
especially  with  Germany,  and  made  large 
foreign  loans,  whereby  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  could  be  built.  In  1903  a  strong 
opposition  arose  and  Witte  wao  removed  from 
power  and  made  president  of  the  Committee 
of  Ministers.  At  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  at  the  close  of  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  Witte  was  especially  prominent.  When 
be  returned  to  Russia,  the  czar  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  count.  In  1905  he  was  ap- 
pointed Prime  Minister  of  Russia,  but  in 
1906  he  resigned  this  position. 

WITTENBERG,  vit'  ten  berK,  Germany, 
a  town  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  Pnissia, 
situated  on  the  Elbe,  fifty-nine  miles  south- 
west of  Berlin,  of  special  historical  interest 
because  of  its  association  with  Luther  and 
Melanchthon.     It  was  to   the  door  of  the 


Schlosskirche  at  Wittenberg  that  Luther 
nailed  his  celebrated  theses,  and  within  this 
church  both  Luther  and  Melanchthon  are 
buried.  (See  Luther,  Martin;  Reforma- 
tion). The  town  contains  a  number  of  edu- 
cational institutions,  in  one  of  which,  the 
University  of  Wittenberg,  Luther  for  a  time 
was  instructor.  The  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  and  linen  goods, 
hosier^',  machinery,  pottery,  etc.  Popula- 
tion, about  20,000. 

WOAD,  ^vode,  a  group  of  plants  of  the 
mustard  family,  chiefly  natives  of  the  Medi- 
teiTanean  region.  Dyer's  icoad,  a  species 
yielding  a  blue  dye,  was  formerly  much  cul- 
tivated. This  has  been  superseded  by  indigo ; 
but  a  fine  blue  is  still  obtained  by  mixing  the 
two.  The  leaves  Avhen  gathered  are  reduced 
to  a  paste,  fermented  for  two  weeks,  made 
into  balls,  sun-dried,  and  subjected  to  further 
fermentation. 

WODEN,  vo'den.     See  Odin. 

WOLF,  a  carnivorous  animal,  allied  to  the 
dog.  The  common  European  wolf,  found 
almost  everywhere  in  Xorth  America,  also, 
is  yellowish-gray,  with  a  blackish  band,  or 


WOLF 

Streak,  on  the  fore  legs.  The  ears  ai'e  erect 
and  pointed.  The  hair  is  harsh  and  strong, 
the  tail  straight,  bushy  and  drooping.  The 
height  at  the  shoulder  is  about  two  and  a 
half  feet.  The  wolf  is  swift  of  foot  and 
crafty,  a  destructive  enemy  to  sheep  and 
poultry.  It  runs  in  packs,  to  hunt  the  larger 
quadrupeds,  such  as  deer  and  elk.  When 
hard  pressed  with  hunger,  these  packs  have 
been  known  to  attack  isolated  travelers  and 
even  to  enter  villages  and  caiT^'  off  children. 


WOLFE 


3904 


WOLSEY 


In  general,  however,  wolves  are  cowardly 
and  stealthy.  They  are  still  plentiful  in 
some  parts  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
They  probably  ceased  to  exist  in  England 
about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
small  prairie  wolf  or  coyote,  living  on  the 
Avestem  plains  of  the  United  States,  is  a  bur- 
rowing animal. 

WOLFE,  James  (1727-1759),  a  British 
general,  whose  victory  in  the  Battle  of  Que- 
bec, September  13,  1759,  won  Canada  for 
Great  Britain.  Wolfe  was  bom  at  Wester- 
ham,  Kent,  England.  He  entered  the  army 
early  and  served  in  Scotland  and  in  Flan- 
ders. When  it  was  decided,  in  1758,  to  send 
an  expedition  to  Cape  Breton,  Wolfe  was  ap- 
pointed by  Pitt  brigadier-general.  He  ad- 
vised an  attack  on  Quebec  and  was  selected 
to  lead  the  enterprise,  in  which  capacity  he 
showed  wonderful  courage  and  genius.  After 
having  been  driven  back  from  the  fortress, 
he  led  his  men,  by  night,  up  a  steep,  narrow 
path,  to  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  above 
the  city,  and  here  he  met  the  French  under 
Montcalm.  While  leading  a  charge,  he  had 
one  of  his  wrists  shattered  by  a  shot,  but  he 
did  not  stop.  Another  shot  stnack  him,  and 
he  still  advanced,  but  a  third  lodged  in  his 
breast  and  proved  fatal.  His  last  words, 
when  he  was  told  that  the  French  were  re- 
treating, were,  "Now  God  be  praised;  I  die 
in  peace."  A  monument  on  the  battlefield 
bears  a  simple  inscription  in  honor  of  the 
conqueror. 

For  a  biographical  sketch  suitable  for 
school  use,  see  Biography,  pages  440-442. 

WOLF  FISH,  a  savage  fish,  that  has  a 
mouth  armed  with  sharp,  strong  teeth.  When 
captured,  the  fish  is  said  to  bite  the  nets  and 
even  to  attack  the  fishermen.  Around  the 
coasts  of  Great  Britain  it  attains  a  length 
of  six  or  seven  feet,  but  in  more  southern 
seas  it  grows  to  a  still  larger  size.  In  Ice- 
land the  natives  eat  the  flesh  and  make  the 
tough  skin  into  a  sort  of  leather  suitable  for 
purses,  bookeovers  and  the  like. 

WOLSELEY,  woolz'hj,  Garnet  Joseph, 
Sir,  Viscount  (1833-1913),  a  British  general, 
bona  in  Ireland.  He  entered  the  army  as 
ensign  in  1852,  took  part  in  the  second  Bur- 
mese War,  where  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  ser^'ed  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
War.  He  engaged  in  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Lucknow  during  the  Sepoy  Rebellion,  and 
was  in  command  in  1860  in  the  Chinese  War. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  dispatched  to 
Canada,   and  in   1870  he  carried   the  Red 


River  expedition  to  a  successful  issue. 
Three  years  afterward  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  an  expedition  to  punish  the 
king  of  Ashanti,  and  after  a  brief  campaign 
he  entered  Kumassi  and  subdued  the  king. 
He  was  publicly  honored  and  given  a  grant 
by  the  government  of  $125,000. 

He  was  placed  in  command  in  Egypt,  in 
1882,  where  his  forces  successfully  stormed 
the  lines  of  Tel-el-Kebir  and  captured  Arabi 
Pasha.  For  this  he  received  the  thanks  of 
Parliament,  was  created  a  baron  and  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  general.  In  1882 
he  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  rescue  General  Gor- 
don at  Eiartum,  but  arrived  two  days  after 
Gordon  had  been  killed  and  Khartum  had 
fallen.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was 
created  a  viscount.  In  1890  he  was  made 
commander  of  the  troops  in  Ireland,  and  in 
1895  he  was  raised  to  the  supreme  command 
of  the  British  army. 

WOLSEY,  wooVzy,  Thomas,  Cardinal 
(1475?-1530),  an  English  statesman,  for 
many  years  the  most  powerful  man  in  Eng- 
land, below  the  king.  He  was  born  at  Ips- 
wich, the  son  of  a  butcher,  and  was  educated 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took 
his  degree  as  a  scholar  of  distinction.  When 
Henry  VIII  became  king,  the  advancement 
of  Wolsey  was  rapid.  Successively  he  was 
appointed  canon  of  Windsor,  dean  of  York, 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  archbishop  of  York,  lord 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  cardinal  and 
Pope's  legate. 

His  power  and  his  revenues  were  equaled 
only  by  those  of  the  Crown.  Part  of  his 
immense  revenues  he  expended  in  display, 
and  part  for  the  advancement  of  learning. 
He  endowed  the  College  of  Christ's  Church, 
Oxford,  founded  several  lectures  and  built 
the  palace  at  Hampton  Court,  which  he 
presented  to  the  king.  His  preferment  by 
the  king  was  largely  the  result  of  a  remark- 
able series  of  diplomatic  victories,  in  which 
Wolsey  had  been  the  means  of  enabling 
Henry  to  hold  the  balance  between  Francis 
I  and  Emperor  Charles  V. 

In  his  ambitious  career  the  cardinal  had 
made  many  enemies,  who  were  held  in  check 
so  long  as  he  retained  the  favor  of  his  royal 
master.  This  favor  Wolsey  lost  when  he 
failed  to  obtain  from  Pope  Clement  a  decision 
granting  the  king's  divorce  from  Catharine 
of  Aragon.  The  enemies  of  the  fallen  pre- 
late now  succeeded  in  banishing  him  from 
court   and   stripping  him   of  his   dignities. 


WOLVERINE 


3905 


WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 


Finally,  after  a  brief  respite,  during  which 
he  was  I'estored  to  some  of  his  offices  and  had 
returned  to  his  see  of  York,  he  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  On  his  way  to 
London,  as  a  prisoner,  he  died  at  Leicester 
Abbey. 
WOLVERINE,  wool  vnr  een\     See  Glut- 

TOX. 

WOMAN'S  CHRISTIAN  TEMPER- 
ANCE UNION,  The  National,  a  woman's 
organization,  founded  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in 
1874,  for  the  purpose  of  unifjnng  the  work 
of  women  jn  temperance  and  social  reform. 
It  now  has  state,  district,  county  and  local 
societies  in  every  state  and  territory,  and  it 
contains  a  membership  of  over  300,000.  It 
is  the  largest  organization  exclusively  of 
women  that  has  ever  been  effected  and  lias 
over  forty  distinct  lines  of  work,  each  under 
the  management  of  national,  state,  district, 
county  and  local  superintendents.  The  so- 
ciety has  been  insti-umental  in  securing  in 
nearly  every  state  the  enactment  of  laws  re- 
cjuiring  the  public  schools  to  give  instruction 
in  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  on 
the  human  system;  through  their  influence 
many  laws  for  the  better  protection  of  girls 
and  women  have  also  been  passed,  and  indus- 
trial homes  for  girls  and  houses  of  refuge  for 
fallen  Avomen  have  been  established.  The 
official  organ  is  the  Union  Signal,  pub- 
lished at  Chicago.  Headquarters  of  the 
society  are  at  Evanston,  111.,  in  "Rest  Cot- 
tage," the  former  home  of  Miss  Frances  E, 
Willard. 

The  World's  Christian  Temperance  Union 
was  formed  in  1883,  through  the  influence 
of  Miss  Willard.  It  now  has  local  organi- 
zations in  most  Christian  countries.  The 
badge  of  members  eveiyrvhere  is  the  white 
ribbon. 

WOMAN'S  RELIEF  CORPS,  a  patriotic 
organization  founded  in  Denver,  Colo.,  in 
1883,  by  a  group  of  women  desirous  of  act- 
ing in  cooperation  with  the  G.  A.  R.  The 
specific  objects  of  the  society  may  be  stated 
as  follows: 

To  aid  and  assist  the  G.  A.  R.  and  per- 
petuate the  nxemory  of  their  heroic  dead;  to 
find  homes  for  the  Union  Veterans,  their 
widows  and  orphans,  and  to  emulate  the  deeds 
of  our  army  nurses;  to  maintain  true  allegi- 
ance to  the  .United  States  of  America;  to 
inculcate  lessons  of  patriotism  and  love  of 
country  among  our  children  and  in  the  com- 
munities in  which  we  live;  to  encourage  the 
spread  of  universal  liberty  and  equal  rights 
to  all. 
245 


The  organization  has  thirty-six  depart- 
ments, comprising  about  2,640  local  corps, 
and  has  a  total  membership  of  over  160,800. 

WOMAN  SUF'FRAGE,  the  right  of  wo- 
men to  vote  on  an  equality  with  men.  The 
agitation  to  give  women  a  political  status 
equal  to  that  of  men  is  merely  one  phase  of 
the  great  movement  to  recognize  woman  in 
every  possible  way — legally,  socially,  intel- 
lectually, morally,  politically — the  equal  of 
man.  In  the  field  of  business  this  agitation 
for  a  fair  and  equal  opportunity  for  women 
had  m.ade  more  progress  than  in  any  other 
field,  up  to  1919.  In  nearly  all  departments 
of  skilled  labor,  in  clerical  positions,  in  the 
professions,  w^omen  are  efficient  and  success- 
ful workers. 

The  movement  to  secure  woman  suffrage  is 
distinctly  a  product  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, although  many  authors  and  statesmen 
since  Plato  have  discussed  the  position  of 
woman  and  have  urged  equal  rights.  One 
of  the  first  American,  suffragettes  was  Abigail 
Adams,  the  wife  of  John  Adams;  she  wanted 
the  Constitution  to  recognize  women  as 
voters. 

In  nearly  all  civilized  countries  women 
either  have  won  or  are  still  fighting  for  suf- 
frage, and  in  most  of  the  countries  liberated 
from  autocracy  during  or  at  the  close  of  the 
World  War  the  women  were  immediately 
given  political  rights  when  new  governments 
were  set  up.  Thus,  women  vote  in  Czecho- 
slovakia, Finland,  Germany,  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, Poland  and  Russia.  In  all  the  divi- 
sions of  the  United  Kingdom  women  voted  for 
Parliamentary  candidates  for  the  first  time  in 
December,  1918.  New  Zealand,  Australia 
and  South  Africa  are  equal-suffrage  nations, 
and  in  Canada  women  enjoy  provincial  suf- 
frage in  all  the  provinces  except  Quebec. 
Tasmania,  Denmark,  Holland,  Iceland,  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  have  also  enfranchised  their 
women  citizens. 

In  the  United  States.  In  the  United 
States  the  movement  for  woman  suffrage 
really  dates  from  1848,  w'hen  the  first  wo- 
man suffrage  convention  was  held,  in  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  Y.  Among  its  leaders  were  Eliza- 
beth Cady  Stanton  and  Lucretia  Mott.  In 
1869,  through  the  efforts  of  Mrs.  Stanton 
and  Susan  B.  Anthony,  the  National  Wo- 
man's Suffrage  Association  was  formed.  In 
1890  this  organization  united  with  one 
founded  the  same  year  by  Heniy  Ward 
Beecher,  and  the  name  National  American 


WOMBAT 


3906 


WOOD 


Woman's  Suffrage  Association  was  adopted. 
The  organization  in  cooperation  ■with  nu- 
mei'ous  state  societies  worked  tirelessly  for  the 
extension  of  women's  political  rights,  and  in 


WOMAN  SUFFRAGE  MAP 
The  map  shows  the  status  of  women  suf- 
frage on  July  1,  1919.  The  -white  areas  are 
full-suffrage  states;  slanting  lines  indicate 
Presidential  suffrage;  squares,  primary  suf- 
frage; black,  no  suffrage.  A  Consitutional 
amendment  to  grant  -women  suffrage  rights 
to  all  women  of  the  United  States  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives  on  May  21,  1919; 
the  Senate,  June  4. 

1919  a  woman  suffrage  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress. 
When  the  necessary  thirty-six  legislatures 
ratify  it,  this  "nnll  be  the  XlXth  amendment. 
By  referring  to  the  map  the  reader  may  see 
the  progress  of  the  movement. 

WOM'BAT,  a  burrowing  mammal  belong- 
ing to  the  same  order  as  the  kangaroo,  hav- 
ing the  characteristic  pouch  for  ean-j^ing  the 
5'oung  (see  Marsupials).  Wombats  are 
found  only  in  Australia  and  Tasmania.  They 
look  somewhat  like  small  bears,  are  two  to 
three  feet  in  length  and  have  a  coat  of  long, 
coarse  fur,  yellowish-black  or  grayish-brown 
in  color.  The  head  is  broad  and  flat,  the 
eyes  and  ears  are  small,  and  the  tail  is  short. 
The  creatures  feed  on  leaves,  roots  and  vege- 
tables, coming  out  of  their  buiTows  at  night 
in  search  of  food.  Their  flesh  tastes  some- 
what like  pork;  the  fur  is  used  in  making 
rugs  and  mats. 

WOMEN'S  CLUBS.  With  the  increase 
in  facilities  for  the  education  of  women  and 
with  their  growing  share  in  public  life,  came 
the  feeling  of  the  necessity  for  cooperation 
along  lines  in  which  they  were  interested. 
The  first  societies  of  women  were  religious, 
charitable  and  social  organizations.  As 
educational  advantages  were  extended  to 
women,  study  clubs  sprang  up  among  them. 
and  from  these  have  developed  the  highly 
efficient  women's  organizations  of  to-day. 


At  present  there  exist  in  the  United  States 
a  great  number  of  clubs  for  women.  A  great 
many  of  these  clubs  are  departmental,  that 
is,  are  divided  into  groups  interested  respec- 
tively in  literature,  household  economics, 
municipal  improvements,  politics,  and  so  on, 
each  group  cooperating  with  the  others  and 
the  interests  and  activities  often  overlapping. 
Others  are  devoted  exclusively  to  politics,  art, 
travel,  domestic  science,  or  are  made  up  of 
members  of  some  profession. 

Within  recent  j'ears  women's  clubs  have 
brought  about  many  reforms  in  school  ad- 
ministration and  municipal  management. 
They  have  turned  their  attention  systematic- 
ally to  promoting  child  welfare,  improving 
the  condition  of  working  women  and  awaken- 
ing the  public  conscience  generally  to  a  real- 
ization of  the  need  of  reform.  In  many  cities, 
owing  to  their  influence,  vacant  property  has 
been  converted  into  playgrounds  or  into 
kitchen  gardens  for  the  poor.  Prisons,  asy- 
lums, charitable  organizations,  dance  halls 
and  innumerable  other  institutions  have  felt 
their  influence. 

In  1889  an  invitation  was  issued  by  a 
prominent  club  in  ISTew  York  to  different 
clubs  throughout  the  United  States  to  a  gen- 
eral meeting.  In  the  following  year  the  Gen- 
eral Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  was 
formed,  the  membership  consisting  origi- 
nally of  sixty-three  clubs.  At  present  the 
General  Federation  holds  meetings  every  two 
years  in  some  large  city.  The  total  member- 
ship is  about  2,000,000. 

WOOD,  Leonard  (1860-  ),  an  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  administrator  who  was  the 
originator  of  military  camps  for  college 
students  and  citizens'  training  camps,  such 
as  that  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.  He  was  born  at 
Winchester,  N.  H., 
and  educated  at 
Pierce  Academy, 
Middleboro,  and  Har- 
V  a  r  d  University, 
where  he  was  gradu- 
ated in  medicine  in 
1884.  He  joined  the 
medical  staff  of  the 
army,  and  in  1886 
was  the  medical  line 
officer  in  Captain 
(afterwards  Major-General)  Lawton's  cam- 
paign against  the  Apache  Indians.  In  1908 
he  received  the  Congressional  Medal  of 
Honor  for  distinguished  services  in  that  cam- 


LEOXARD    WOOD 


WOOD  ALCOHOL 


3907 


WOOD  CARVING 


paign.  He  was  appointed  assistant  surgeon 
of  the  army  in  1888,  and  in  twelve  years  rose 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish-American 
War,  General  Wood  (then  Colonel)  and 
Theodore  Roosevelt  organized  the  First  Cav- 
alry, known  as  the  "Rough  Riders."  Wood 
was  first  and  Roosevelt  second  in  command 
of  the  regiment  which  is  famous  for  its  gal- 
lant charge  at  San  Juan  Hill, 

General  Wood  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  Cuba  in  1899  and  continued  in 
the  position  until  the  United  States  retired 
from  the  island  in  1902.  He  displayed  rare 
tact  and  administrative  ability,  especially  in 
improving  the  sanitary  conditions  of  Santi- 
ago and  Havana.  Yellow  fever,  a  former 
scoi;rge  of  the  island,  has  been  practically  un- 
known in  Cuba  since  General  Wood's  ad- 
ministration. In  1903  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  a  division  of  the  army  in  the 
Philippines  and  in  the  same  year  was  made  a 
major-general  in  the  regular  army.  In  1908 
he  was  made  chief  of  the  Department  of  the 
East,  with  headquarters  at  New  York.  In 
1910  he  was  special  ambassador  to  Argentina, 
and  the  same  year  was  appointed  chief  of 
staff,  retaining  the  position  until  1914,  when 
he  returned  to  the  command  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  East. 

While  he  was  chief  of  staff,  General  Wood 
inaugurated  railitaiy  training  camps  for  col- 
lege students  and  the  citizens'  training  camps, 
which  later  were  important  agencies  in  train- 
ing officers  for  the  army.  He  has  always 
been  a  strong  advocate  of  military  prepared- 
ness. When  the  United  States  entered  the 
World  War,  General  Wood  was  transferred 
to  the  Department  of  the  South,  with  head- 
quarters at  Charleston,  S.  C.  In  April,  1918, 
he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  89th 
Division  at  Camp  Funston,  Kansas.  The 
Washington  administration  did  not  permit 
him  to  take  a  command  in  France.  From 
Camp  Funston  he  was  transferred  to  the 
command  of  the  Central  Department,  with 
headquai-ters  at  Chicago,  in  1919.  In  this 
position  he  exerted  great  influence  in  secur- 
ing employment  for  soldiers  returning  from 
the  war. 

WOOD  AL'COHOL,  or  METHYLATED 
ALCOHOL,  a  liquid  having  the  appearance 
and  many  of  the  properties  of  pure  alcohol. 
It  is  obtained  from  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood,  and  is  used  as  a  solvent  for 
resin  and  varnishes  and  as  a  fuel  in  the  same 


way  as  ordinary  alcohol.  It  mixes  with  water 
in  all  proportions.  A  mixture  of  seventy- 
five  per  cent  water  and  twenty-five  per  cent 
alcohol  in  an  automobile  radiator  will  pre- 
vent freezing  at  a  temperature  of  five  degrees 
above  zero;  a  mixture  of  fifty  per  cent  each 
will  prevent  freezing  at  twenty  degrees  below 
zero.  Wood  alcohol  should  never  be  used 
medicinally,  either  externally  as  a  liniment 
or  internally,  as  it  is  very  poisonous,  pro- 
ducing vertigo,  coma,  blindness  and  death. 

WOOD'BINE.    See  Honeysuckle. 

WOOD  CARVING,  the  art  of  producing 
sculpture  in  wood.  Wood  carving  was  prob- 
ably the  earliest  form  of  sculpture.  As  far 
as  known,  the  Egj'ptians  were  the  first  wood 
carvers.  Si^ecimens  of  their  work,  made 
more  than  4000  B.  c,  are  still  in  existence, 
and  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  Greeks  ob- 
tained their  first  ideas  of  sculpture  from  the 
wood  carving  of  these  people.  The  Romans 
also  carved  many  of  their  early  statues  from 
wood.  In  the  first  centuiy  of  the  Christian 
era  wood  carving  was  used  in  the  decoration 
of  churches,  and  many  pieces  still  in  exist- 
ence show  the  remarkable  skill  of  the  artists 
and  workmen  of  that  time.  From  the  early 
centuries  of  the  Christian  Era  wood  carving 
fell  into  disuse,  until  about  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, when  it  was  again  revived,  and  used, 
as  before,  in  the  decoration  of  churches. 

Wood  carving  as  practiced  to-day  is  con- 
fined to  the  ornamentation  of  altars,  pulpits 
and  choir  stalls  for  churches ;  to  a  few  articles 
of  the  most  expensive  furniture;  to  the  deco- 
ration of  expensive  interiors  of  dwellings  and 
public  halls,  and  to  ornaments.  Among 
European  nations  the  art  is  practiced  with 
the  greatest  skill  in  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  and 
some  of  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  Germany. 
Among  the  Eastern  nations  the  Persians  are 
remarkably  skilful  in  carving  wood.  The 
work  is  finely  executed,  but  shows  a  tendency 
to  overcrowding,  which  mars  the  general  ef- 
fect. The  Chinese  and  Japanese  also  pro- 
duce wood  ean'ings  of  decided  merit. 

All  the  finest  work  is  done  by  hand,  with 
small  chisels,  shaped  for  the  purpose.  Oak, 
mahogany,  ebony  and  many  of  the  softer 
woods  are  used.  Before  carving,  the  wood 
should  be  thoroughly  seasoned.  The  com- 
pleted work  is  usually  finished  by  rubbin<? 
down  in  oil.  In  the  United  States  but  little 
hand  carving  is  done,  though  in  some  manual 
training  schools  it  is  now  a  part  of  the 
course. 


WOODCHUCK 


3908 


WOODPECKER 


WOOD'CHUCK,  the  popular  name  of  an 
animal  of  the  squiiTel  family,  common  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  woodehuck 
is  the  American  marmot  and  is  often  called 
the  ground  hog.  It  is  of  a  heavy  form,  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  blackish  or 
grizzled  above  and  chestnut  red  below.  It 
feeds  on  vegetables  and  is  very  destnictive 
to  crops  of  red  clover  and  alfalfa.  In  the 
winter  it  hibernates  in  burrows.  There  is  a 
popular  superstition  that  the  woodehuck  first 
comes  out  on  Candlemas  Day  (Febniary  2) ; 
if  it  sees  its  shadow  it  returns  to  sleep,  be- 
cause it  knows  that  six  weeks  of  cold  weather 
will  follow. 

WOOD'COCK,  a  bird  belonging  to  the 
same  family  as  the  snipe,  differing  from  the 
latter  in  having  a  more  bulky  body  and 
shorter  legs.  It  is  widely  distributed  over 
North  America,  Europe,  Northern  Asia  and 
Japan.      It    spends    the    summers    in    pine 


WOODCOCK 
forests  and  the  winters  in  southern  swamps 
and  moist  woodlands,  where  woitqs,  snails 
and  slugs  are  plentiful.  It  is  active  by  night 
and  quiet  during  the  day.  If  discovered  near 
its  nest  it  feigns  injury,  or  it  may  carry  its 
young  away  to  safety,  one  at  a  time,  be- 
tween its  thighs.  The  bird  is  about  twelve 
inches  long.  The  upper  plumage  is  an  in- 
termingling of  ruddy,  yellowish,  and  ash, 
and  is  marked  with  black  spots.  Underneath, 
it  is  yellowish  red  with  zigzag  markings. 
The  eyes  are  large  and  are  set  far  back.  The 
bill,  nearly  half  the  length  of  the  body,  is 
used  with  great  skill  in  digging  woitqs. 

WOOD  ENGRAVING.  See  Engraving, 
subhead   Wood  Engraving. 

WOODEN  HORSE.  See  Mythology, 
Storti  of  the  Wooden  Horse. 

WOODMEN  OF  AMERICA,  Modern,  a 
fraternal  and  insurance  society  founded  in 
1883  at  Lyons,  Iowa,  and  the  following  year 
chartered  under  the  laws  of  Illinois.  It  is 
the  largest  fraternal  benefit  organization  in 
America,  having  a  membership  of  more  than 
a  million.    The  head  officer  is  known  as  head 


consul,  and  the  various  geographical  divi- 
sions, of  which  there  are  more  than  14,000, 
are  called  camps.  From  its  founding  to 
April,  1,  1919,  the  order  had  paid  out  in 
death  claims  more  than  $210,000,000.  One 
of  the  beneficial  features  of  the  society  is  a 
large  and  well-equipped  tuberculosis  sana- 
torium at  Woodman,  Colo. 

WOODMEN  OF  THE  WORLD,  a  frater- 
nal and  insurance  order  founded  in  1890  at 
Omaha,  Nebr.  The  organization  is  divided 
geographically  into  three  main  camps,  one 
of  which  is  the  Sovereign  Camp  of  the 
World,  whose  executive  committee  is  also  the 
governing  body  of  the  entire  order.  The 
Woodman's  Circle,  an  affiliated  organization, 
of  which  Woodmen  may  become  members,  is 
controlled  by  a  body  called  the  Supreme 
Forest.  Woodmen  pay  old-age  benefits  and 
erect  monuments  to  deceased  members.  By 
levying  a  special  assessment  they  were  able 
to  pay  benefits  in  all  cases  of  members 
killed  in  the  World  War.  Since  its  founding 
the  order  has  paid  out  in  benefits  more  than 
$100,000,000.  In  1919  it  had  13,186  subor- 
dinate camps  and  a  membership  of  approxi- 
mately 1,000,000. 

WOODPECKER,  the  name  of  a  large 
group  of  climbing  birds,  of  which  there  are 


YELLOW-BELLIED  SAP   SUCKER 

a  number  of  different  species.  They  have 
long,  straight,  angular  beaks,  adapted  to 
perforating  the  bark  of  trees.  Their  tongues 
are  long,  slender  and  armed  with  a  barbed, 


WOOD  PEWEE 


3909 


WOOL 


homy  tip.  They  can  thrust  theii*  tongues 
far  out  of  their  mouths  and  so  spear  insects 
in  the  depths  of  their  bun-ows.  Their 
tongues  are  also  covered  with  a  sticky,  slimy 
substance,  that  helps  to  hold  their  prey. 
"When  feeding,  they  usually  ascend  the  tree 
spirally,  aided  by  the  spiny  points  which 
terminate  their  tail  feathers.  They  tap  here 
and  there  on  the  tree-trunk,  searching  for 
the  holes  in  which  insects  are  hidden,  and 
often  tear  avraj  large  parts  of  rotten  trees, 
for  the  larvae  concealed  in  them. 

The  sop  Slicker  is  a  species  that  is  fond 
of  the  sap  of  trees  and  bores  round  holes, 
which  it  arranges  with  geometiical  exactness 
in  broad  bands  around  the  tnink  of  a  tree. 
It  especially  favors  the  pines,  and  in  feeding 
it  moves  about  over  the  checkerboard  of 
holes,  taking  the  sap  from  them  regularly,  as 
it  accumulates.  The  ivory-billed  woodpecker 
of  the  southern  United  States  is  a  large  bird, 
about  twentj'-one  inches  long,  bright  black 
and  white  in  color,  the  male  having  a  large 
bright  scarlet  crest.  Like  most  of  the  other 
woodpeckers,  this  one  excavates  its  nest  in 
suitable  dead  trees.  The  red-headed  wood- 
pecker, the  black  and  white  woodpecker,  the 
hairy  looodpecker  and  the  downy  ivood pecker 
are  well  known  in  the  Northern  states.  The 
redheaded  woodpecker  often  lights  on  the 
shingles  of  houses  or  on  a  hollow  branch  and 
strikes  his  bill  in  a  noisy  clatter,  stopping 
now  and  then  to  call  out  his  hoarse,  rough 
note.  The  woodpeckers  are  found  in  almost 
eveiy  temperate  part  of  the  globe,  except 
that  none  ever  existed  in  Australia  and 
Egvpt.     See  Flicker. 

WOOD  PE'WEE,  a  little  bird  of  the  fly- 
catcher family,  related  to  the  phoebe.  It  is 
brown  on  the  back  and  yellowish-white  under- 
neath ;  the  quills  are  brown,  with  light  edges. 
The  spread  of  the  wings  is  about  twelve 
inches.  The  bird  has  a  rapid  flight  and 
catches  insects  with  skill.  Its  low,  plaintive 
little  note,  pee-a-xvee,  may  be  heard  in  the 
woods,  all  through  the  long  summer,  at  early 
dawn  and  during  the  twilight  hours.  The 
birds  spend  the  summer  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  in  winter  they  migrate  to 
South  America.  The  nest  is  a  wonderful 
sti'ucture  of  mud,  grass  and  moss  lined  with 
down  and  other  soft  materials,  and  hangs 
bracketlike  against  a  beam  or  tree.  Two 
broods  are  raised  annually  in  spring  and 
autumn.  See  Phoebe. 
WOOD  SPIRIT.   See  Methylated  Spirit. 


WOODSTOCK,  Ont.,  the  county  town  of 
Oxfoi-d  County,  is  situated  about  midway 
between  Detroit  and  Niagara  Falls,  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Grand  Trunk  rail- 
ways, and  on  a  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk, 
which  runs  from  Port  Dover  on  Lake  Erie 
to  Owen  Sound  and  other  Georgian  Bay 
ports.  It  is  also  connected  with  the  Michigan 
Central  and  Wabash  systems  by  a  branch  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific.  The  city  is  beautifully 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Thames 
River  and  Cedar  Creek.  Its  famous  avenues 
of  trees,  general  attractiveness  and  health- 
fulness  make  the  city  a  favorite  summer 
resort. 

Woodstock  is  an  important  manufacturing 
and  commercial  center.  The  leading  manu- 
factures include  furniture,  pianos  and  or- 
gans, textiles,  wagons  and  sleighs,  harness, 
cereals,  flour,  agricultural  implements,  auto- 
mobiles, stoves  and  furnaces  and  numerous 
other  products.  The  city  has  excellent  hotels, 
a  collegiate  institute  and  a  Y.  W.  C.  A.  It 
is  also  the  seat  of  Woodstock  Collejre.  Popu- 
lation in  1911,  9,320;  in  1918,  about  11,000. 

WOOL  AND  WOOL'EN  MANUFAC- 
TURE. Wool,  the  modified  hair  of  sheep 
and  several  species  of  goats,  is,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  cotton,  the  fiber  mo^t  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth  and  clothing. 
Woolens  afford  warmth  without  great  weight, 
and  are  a  protection  against  extreme  heat  as 
well  as  against  cold.  They  are  soft  and  flexible, 
and  of  them  the  most  healthful  clothing  is 
made. 

Structure  and  Grades.  If  we  draw  a  fiber 
of  wood  through  the  fingers  from  tip  to  base 
it  feels  rough;  if  we  draw  it  from  base  to 
tip,  however,  it  is  smooth  and  soft.  An  ex- 
amination of  wool  through  the  microscope 
shows  the  cause  of  this  difference.  Wool 
fiber  consists  of  minute  scales  or  plates,  which 
overlap  like  the  scales  on  a  fish.  The  differ- 
ence in  quality  of  the  fiber  is  due  to  the  differ- 
ence of  these  scales  in  size  and  shape. 

Wool  is  graded  as  coarse,  medium  and 
fine,  according  to  the  length  and  size  of  the 
fiber.  The  finest  sheep's  wool  is  obtained 
from  the  Merino  sheep  and  varieties  that 
have  been  developed  from  this  breed.  The 
wool  from  which  alpaca  and  mohair  ai-e  made 
is  that  of  the  Cashmere  goat,  from  which  the 
soft,  silken  Persian  shawls  and  rugs  are  made. 
Some  wool  resembles  fur  in  fineness. 

For  purposes  of  manufacture,  wool  is  di- 
vided into  carding  wool,  which  includes  that 


WOOL 


3910 


WOONSOCKET 


of  short,  curly  fibei-s,  and  combing  wool, 
which  includes  the  long  fibers.  The  coarsest 
of  the  long  fiber  •wools  are  known  as  carpet 
and  blanket  loools.  The  quality  of  wool 
varies  in  the  same  fleece,  that  on  the  shoulders 
and  sides  being  the  best  and  that  on  the  back 
the  poorest. 

Production.  Under  normal  conditions, 
the  leading  wool-producing  regions  of  the 
world  are  Australia,  Argentina,  the  United 
States,  the  United  Kingdom  and  South  Af- 
rica. There  are  in  the  United  States  about 
50,000,000  sheep,  and  the  annual  production 
of  wool  is  between  280,000,000  and  290,- 
000,000  pounds.     States  leading  in  the  pro- 


Austral  ia 
64  S 


Araentina 
-^     295 


United 

States 

290 


New 

Zealand 

94 


Belgium 


Union  of 
'^^rW    South  Africa 
189 


C^  Montana  30      ^Wyoming   29 

e?  New  Mexico  19    $t^  Oregon   17 
Figures  Represent  Millions  cff  Pounds 

LEADERS  IN  ■WOOL,  PRODUCTION 

duetion  are  Montana,  Wyoming,  New  Mex- 
ico, Oregon,  Utah  and  Idaho.  About  260,- 
000,000  pounds  are  imported  each  year. 

Manufacture.  The  following  are  the  chief 
processes  employed  in  making  woolen  cloth : 

When  the  wool  is  brought  to  the  factory,  it 
is  carefully  sorted,  and  that  ha\ang  the  same 
grade  of  fiber  is  placed  together.  It  is  then 
thoroughly  cleaned  by  being  dusted,  scoured 
with  soap  or  lye  and  hot  water,  and  then 
rinsed.  After  this,  if  colored  cloth  is  to  be 
made,  the  wool  is  dyed.  It  is  tlien  dried  and 
is  ready  for  the  second  important  step  in  the 
process,  that  of  preparing  it  for  the  loom. 

The  dried  wool  is  first  run  through  a  ma- 
chine, which  removes  any  burs  that  may  have 
adhered  to  the  fiber.  It  is  then  run  through 
the  picker,  which  pulls  all  of  the  little  tufts 
of  wool  apart  and  also  enables  the  manu- 


facturer to  mix  wools  of  different  colors  in 
any  proportion  desired.  By  mixing  white  and 
brown  or  blue  and  black  or  blue  and  gray, 
many  very  pleasing  effects  are  obtained. 
After  picking,  the  wool  passes  through  the 
carding  machines,  of  which  there  are  usually 
three.  Each  of  these  draws  out  the  fiber  and 
straightens  it  and  places  the  wool  in  the  form 
of  a  loose  band,  or  roll.  Each  successive  ma- 
chine straightens  the  fiber  and  reduces  the 
size  of  this  band,  making  it  each  time  pro- 
portionately stronger.  When  the  wool  leaves 
the  third  card,  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  sliver, 
an  untwisted  j^am  a  little  larger  than  the 
heavy  crocheting  yarn.  As  it  comes  from 
this  machine  it  is  wound  upon  large  spools, 
or  bobbins,  and  is  ready  for  spinning. 

The  spinning  is  done  on  the  mule  jenny, 
and  a  large  number  of  threads  are  spun  at  a 
time.  The  size  of  the  thread  and  the  hard- 
ness of  the  twist  depend  upon  the  way  in 
which  the  machine  is  gauged.  For  a  fine 
thread  that  is  bard  twisted,  a  machine  which 
revolves  very  rapidly  and  also  draws  the 
thread  out  rapidly,  is  necessary.  The  spun 
yarn  is  wound  upon  spools  ready  for  being 
placed  in  the  loom.  The  an-angement  for 
this  consists  of  frames  upon  which  these 
spools  are  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the 
thread  unwinds  from  them  directly,  to  make 
the  warp  of  a  width  and  number  of  threads 
desired.  The  woven  cloth  is  finished  in  the 
style  desired,  possibly  re-dyed,  pressed  and 
wound  into  bundles  containing  about  fifty 
yards  each,  in  which  form  it  is  placed  upon 
the  market. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Alpaca  Sheep 
Cashmere  Goat                 Shoddy 
Dveing  Spinning 
Felt  Teasel          "     . 
Fiber  Tweeds 
Flannel  Weaving- 
Mohair  Worsted 

WOOLTLOWER,  Chixese,  an  ornamen- 
tal plant,  which  has  been  introduced  into 
America  from  China  since  1910.  It  is  very 
showy  when  in  bloom,  each  stem  being 
capped  with  a  dense,  ball-like  cluster  of 
deep  red,  woolly  blossoms.  The  plant  is 
hardy  and  bushy  and  attains  heights  under 
three  feet.     It  blossoms  in  July. 

WOON'SOCKET,  R.  I.,  in  Providence 
County,  fifteen  miles  northwest  of  Provi- 
dence, on  the  Blackstone  River  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad. 
It  is  an  important  center  for  the  manufac- 


ORAWN  EXPRESSLY  FOR  THE   NEW  PRACTICAL   REFERENCE   LIBRARY   BY  THE  CHICAGO  SCHOOL  OF    APPLIED   AND   NORMAL   ART 

WOOL 


1,  Shearing  of  sheep.  4,  Combing. 

2,  Sorting  and  grading.  5,  Drawing. 

3,  Carding.  6,  Spinning. 


7,  Weaving. 

8,  Woolen  factory. 

9,  Products. 


WORCESTER 


3011 


WORDSWORTH 


ture  of  cotton  and  worsted  goods,  and  also 
manufactures  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products,  wringei-s,  knit  goods,  hosieiy,  lub- 
ber boots  and  shoes.  The  Sacred  Heart  Col- 
lege for  men,  an  academy  for  girls  and  the 
Han-is  Institute  Library  are  located  here.  A 
magnificent  bridge  crosses  the  river.  The 
present  city  was  incorjiorated  in  18S8.  It 
was  formed  by  the  consolidation  of  several 
factoiy  villages,  but  the  original  village  of 
Woonsocket,  settled  in  16C6,  was  not  in- 
cluded. Population,  1910,  38,125;  in  1917, 
45,365   (Federal  estimate). 

WORCESTER,  woos'ter,  ]Mass.,  the  second 
city  in  size  in  the  state,  one  of  the  county 
seats  of  Worcester  County,  forty-four  miles 
southwest  of  Boston,  on  the  Blaekstone  River, 
and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the  Boston  & 
Maine,  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford and  the  Worcester  &  Providence  rail- 
roads. It  is  one  of  the  most  impoi-tant 
manufacturing  centers  in  New  England  and 
has  the  largest  wire  factory  in  the  world. 
Other  important  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  machine  tools,  corsets,  underwear, 
leather  belting,  automobile  accessories,  cars, 
vacuum  cleaners  and  carpets. 

The  city  is  noted  for  its  large  number  of 
excellent  buildings,  chief  among  which  are 
a  city  hall,  a  courthouse,  a  public  library, 
with  four  branch  Carnegie  libraries,  a  Fed- 
eral building,  the  Bancroft  Hotel,  the  art 
museum,  the  state  armory,  a  state  asylum  for 
the  insane  and  the  buildings  of  the  women's 
club,  the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  the 
Worcester  Society  of  Antiquity  and  the 
Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian 
associations.  The  educational  institutions  in- 
clude Clark  University,  Clark  College,  Col- 
lege of  the  Holy  Cross  (Roman  Catholic), 
the  Worcester  Pol^^iiechnic  Institute,  the  Wor- 
cester Academy  (for  boys),  the  Highland 
Military  Academy  and  a  state  normal  school. 

There  are  a  number  of  pleasant  summer 
resorts  in  the  vicinity,  including  Lake  Quin- 
sigamond  and  ]\Iount  Wachusett,  which  are 
connected  with  Worcester  by  electric  rail- 
way. 

Worcester  was  first  settled  in  1673,  but 
was  abandoned  on  the  outbreak  of  King 
Philip's  War,  two  years  later.  A  second 
attempt  in  1684  was  also  given  up  because 
of  Indian  depredations,  and  the  first  perma- 
nent settlement  was  not  made  until  1713.  In 
1722  Worcester  was  incorporated  as  a  town, 
and  in  1848  was  chartered  as  a  city.    Wor- 


cester is  the  birthplace  of  the  historian 
George  Bancroft.  It  was  at  one  time  one  of 
the  most  important  publishing  centers  in  the 
United  States.  Population,  1910,  145,986; 
in  1917,  166,106  (Federal  estimate). 

WOR'DEN,  John  Lorimer  (1818-1897), 
an  American  naval  officer,  born  in  West- 
chester County,  N.  Y.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1835  and  became  a  lieutenant  eleven  years 
later.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  in  command 
of  the  Monitor  during  the  famous  battle  with 
the  Merrimac,  in  Hampton  Roads.  In  this 
engagement  his  eyesight  was  seriously  im- 
paired by  the  explosion  of  a  shell.  He  was 
able  to  take  subsequent  commands,  however, 
and  sen'ed  with  gallantry  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  In  1870  he  became  head  of  the 
Annapolis  Naval  Academy  and  was  made 
rear-admiral  in  1872.    He  retired  in  1886. 

WORDS VvORTH,  u-urd/tcurth,  William 
(1770-1850),  an  English  poet,  a  leader  in 
the  Romantic  movement  which  transformed 
English  poetry  early 
in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
turJ^  He  was  born  at 
Cockeimouth,  Cum- 
berland. While  at  a 
grammar  school  at 
Ilawkshead,  he  spent 
much  time  in  solitary 
rambles,  and  the  love 
of  nature  manifest 
at  this  time  grew 
throughout  his  life 
and  was  his  most 
prominent  character- 
istic. He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Cambridge  in  1791,  and  later  in  the 
same  year  he  went  to  France.  At  first  he  felt 
the  most  ardent  sympathy  with  the  Revolu- 
tion, but  the  excesses  which  developed  out 
of  it  shocked  him  greatly,  and  as  time  went 
on  he  settled  do-mi  to  a  staid  conservatism. 
Many  of  his  contemporaries,  ardent  repub- 
licans like  Byron  and  Shelley,  condemned 
him  severely  for  the  change.  Shortly  after 
his  return  from  France,  AVordsworth  pub- 
lished his  first  poems.  An  Evening  Walk  and 
Descriptive  Sketches  taken  during  a  Pedes- 
trian Tour  among  the  Alps,  which,  although 
they  were  written  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  Pope,  yet  contained  signs  of  the  new 
poet's  peculiar  genius. 

In  1795,  Wordsworth,  with  bis  sister 
Dorothy,  settled  at  Racedown  in  Dorset, 
where  they  were  visited  by  Coleridge,  who 


WILLIAM 
WORDSWORTH 


WORDSWORTH 


3012 


WORLD'S  EXPOSITION 


induced  them  to  remove  to  Alfoxden,  in  the 
immediate  neig-liborbood  of  liis  OAni  resi- 
dence at  Nether  Stowey,  Here  the  two  poets 
held  daily  intercourse,  and  after  a  twelve- 
month they  published  Lyrical  Ballads,  in  lit- 
eraiy  copartnership.  This  volume  contained 
as  Coleridge's  contribution  The  Ancient 
Mariner,  and  as  Wordsworth's,  among  others. 
We  are  Seven  and  Lines  on  Tintern  Ahhey. 
Although  the  poems  were  received  with  al- 
most complete  public  indifference,  yet  Words- 
worth felt  that  he  had  found  his  mission, 
and  after  a  winter  spent  in  Germany,  he 
and  his  sister  settled  at  Grasmere,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  places  in  England,  where  he 
gave  himself  up  to  literary  work.  Thence- 
forth his  life  was  marked  by  few  incidents. 
Those  worth  noting  are  his  marriage,  in  1802, 
with  Mary  Hutchison;  his  appointment,  in 
1813,  to  an  inspectorship  of  stamps,  and 
his  removal  to  Rydal  Mount;  several  jour- 
neys into  Scotland  and  to  the  continent;  his 
acceptance  of  a  D.  C.  L.  degree,  conferred 
upon  him  in  1839  by  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford, and  his  accession,  in  1843,  to  the  lau- 
reateship,  on  the  death  of  Southey. 

The  public  and  the  critics  were  slow  to 
recognize    Wordsworth's     ability,    refusing 
utterly  to  accept  his  idea  that  poetry  may 
deal  with  simple  and  natui'al  subjects,  pre- 
sented   in    simple    and    natural    language. 
Coleridge,  Lamb,  De  Quineey,  Southey,  Keats 
and  others  were  always  his  admirers,  how- 
ever, and  his  faith  in  his  own  mission  was 
too  strong  to  be  shaken.     His  great  philo- 
sophic poem,  which,  in  his  own  phrase,  was 
to  be  the  Gothic  cathedral  of  his  labor,  re- 
ceived only  a  fragmentary  accomplishment  in 
The  Prehide,  The  Excursion  and  The  Becluse. 
Yet  enough  was  achieved  in  his  smaller  poems 
to  justify  his  own  conception  of  himself  as 
a  "dedicated  spirit,"  and  to  set  him  apart 
among  the  greatest  of  England's  poets.    His 
intense  sympathy  with  nature  and  his  firm 
belief  in  the  brotherhood  of  man  find  expres- 
sion in  all  of  his  poems;  and  his  language, 
although  always  simple,  sometimes  rises  far 
above  what  he  insisted  it  should  be,  the  un- 
adorned language  of  prose.    Among  the  most 
beautiful   of  Wordsworth's   poems   are  the 
Ode  on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality,  Ode 
to  Duty,  the  Solitary  Beaper,  To  a  High- 
land Girl,  I  Wandered  Lonely  as  a  Cloud  and 
Yarrow  Bevisited.     His  sonnets  are  among 
the  finest  ever  produced  by  any  English  poet 
in  any  age. 


WORK,  a  general  term  for  effort  expended 
toward  a  given  end,  but  it  also  implies  motion 
against  a  resisting  force,  that  certain  results 
may  be  obtained,  A  man  who  lifts  a  weight, 
in  labor  or  in  play,  performs  work;  the  re- 
sisting force  he  encounters  is  the  force  of 
gravitation.  The  impulse  which  sends  the 
electric  current  along  a  cojiper  wire  to  light  a 
room  or  run  a  motor  performs  work.  The 
water  which  in  falling  wears  away  solid  rock 
performs  work  just  as  surely  as  does  that 
which  falls  over  a  water-wheel  and  turns  the 
machinery  of  a  mill.  Work  is  accomplished 
whenever  one  body  transfers  its  energy  to 
another  body. 

WORK'HOUSE,  a  name  applied  in  Eng- 
land to  institutions  for  the  maintenance  of 
paui^ers.  In  the  United  States  those  estab- 
lishments where  vagrants,  drunkards  and 
other  such  offenders  are  detained  are  some- 
times called  workhouses,  but  more  properly 
they  are  called  houses  of  correction.  In  these 
institutions  the  inmates  are  put  to  work  ac- 
cording to  their  capacity  and  ability.  Reli- 
gious and  secular  instruction  is  supplied, 
and  habits  of  industiy,  cleanliness  and  order 
are  encouraged.  In  England,  while  the  par- 
liamentary act  of  1722  to  promote  the  work- 
house movement  remained  in  force  pauper- 
ism was  almost  unknown  there. 

WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION 
LAWS.    See  Employer's  Liability. 

WORLD'S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION, 
an  international  exposition  of  arts  and  in- 
dustries, in  commemoration  of  the  four  hun- 
dredth anniversaiy  of  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica by  Columbus.  It  was  built  in  Jackson 
Park,  Chicago,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Mich- 
igan, and  was  open  from  May  1  till  Novem- 
ber 1,  1893.  The  construction  of  the  expo- 
sition occupied  two  years,  besides  the  time 
consumed  in  preparatory  work,  such  as 
study,  investigation  and  advertising.  The 
exposition  was  formally  opened  May  1, 1893, 
Grover  Cleveland,  then  president  of  the 
United  States,  setting  the  intricate  machinery 
in  motion  by  pressing  a  button  connected 
with  electrical  appliances.  His  opening  ad- 
dress was  listened  to  by  an  assemblage  esti- 
mated at  fully  400,000  people.  The  exhibi- 
tion comprised  over  400  buildings,  covering 
fully  200  acres  of  ground.  Fifteen  of  these 
buildings  were  occupied  by  special  classes  of 
exhibits,  of  individuals,  firms,  states  and  na- 
tions, every  important  nation  on  the  globe 
being  represented  in  some  one  or  more  de- 


WORLD'S  EXPOSITION 


3913 


WORLD  WAR 


partments.  The  largest  building  was  the 
Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  Building, 
787  by  1,C87  feet  in  size,  covering  nearly 
forty  acres,  including  the  surrounding  colon- 
nade, and  costing  ,$1,500,000.  Its  enormous 
roof  was  supported  by  the  largest  steel  arches 
ever  used  in  building  construction.  Besides 
the  buildings  used  for  the  exposition  proper, 
nearly  eveiy  state  in  the  Union  and  many 
foreign  nations  erected  buildings  for  social 
and  exhibition  purposes. 

The  architectural  beauty  of  the  whole  ex- 
position was  one  of  its  greatest  triumphs, 
and,  indeed,  it  has  rarely,  if  ever,  been  ex- 
celled. The  center  of  the  main  group  of 
buildings  was  the  Court  of  Honor,  consist- 
ing of  a  wide  jolaza,  with  a  lagoon  in  its 
center,  having  at  one  end  a  beautiful  electric 
fountain,  sculptured  by  McMonnies,  and  ter- 
minated at  the  other  by  a  graceful  semi- 
circular peristyle. 

The  whole  cost  of  the  exposition  to  its 
managers  before  the  opening  was  more  than 
$18,000,000,  the  cost  of  operation  exceeded 
$7,000,000,  while  the  expenditures  by  states 
and  foreign  nations  were  not  less  than  $8,- 
000,000.  Adding  to  this  enormous  sum  the 
expenses  incurred  by  private  exhibitors,  the 
total  cost  of  the  exposition  was  probably 
$40,000,000.  The  attendance  from  the  open- 
ing to  the  closing  day  was  27,539,041,  or 
slightly  less  than  the  attendance  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1889.  The  largest  at- 
tendance upon  any  one  day  was  on  Chicago 
Day,  October  9,  when  716,881  people  passed 
through  its  gates.  One  of  the  most  novel  and 
interesting  features  of  the  exposition  was  the 
Midway  Plaisanee,  a  boulevard  600  feet  wide, 
connecting  Jackson  and  Washington  Parks. 
Along  the  sides  of  this  avenue  was  arranged 
a  motley  collection  of  amusement  enteri^rises, 
the  mo^;t  interesting  consisting  of  representa- 
tive scenes  from  the  life  of  various  peoples 
of  Europe,  Africa  and  the  Orient. 

An  interesting  and  important  feature  of 
this  fair  was  the  World's  Congress  Auxiliary 
consisting  of  special  congresses  on  all  the 
main  topics  of  human  interest,  social,  phj's- 
ical,  industrial,  educational,  philosophical, 
commercial  and  religious.  The  congresses  of 
religion  presented  features  of  peculiar  in- 
terest, being  attended  by  representatives  of 
the  Hindu,  Buddhist,  Shintoo,  Mohammedan, 
Zoroastrian  and  various  other  religions  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  as  well  as  by  the  most 
illustrious  divines  of  Europe  and  America. 


ORLD  WAR  ( 1914-1919 ) , 
the  greatest  war  in 
human  history,  and  the 
only  one  that  drew  into 
its  vortex  nations  of 
eveiy  continent.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the 
Great  War  and  the 
War  of  the  Nations,, 
but  no  name  has  been 
found  or  can  be  sug- 
gested which  can  fit- 
tingly describe  its  mag- 
nitude. 

In  respect  to  number 
of  men  engaged  and 
casualties,  amount  of 
money  lavished,  human 
effort  expended,  number 
of  nations  involved  and  changes  in.  jDolitical 
and  social  structure  resulting  from  it,  the 
World  War  has  no  parallel  among  the 
conflicts  which  men  have  been  fighting  from 
the  daw^n  of  history.  While  it  loosed  all 
the  hatred  and  brutality  inherent  in  human 
nature,  bringing  out  primitive  passions  and 
racial  antipathies  in  all  their  rawness,  this 
war  also  served  as  a  background  for  nobility 
and  courage  almost  divine,  and  it  illuminated 
with  startling  clearness  some  of  those  funda- 
mental conceptions  of  freedom  and  justice 
upon  which  the  future  security  of  humanity 
rests. 

Causes  of  the  War.  These  causes  were 
rooted  deep  in  past  conditions  of  society, 
government,  and  economic  and  political  rela- 
tions. No  one  would  say  that  any  particular 
event  was  in  itself  responsible  for  the  World 
War.  It  was,  indeed,  like  the  breaking  out 
of  a  sore  on  the  sui'face  of  a  world  that  for 
centuries  had  been  harboring  the  germs  of 
hideous  diseases.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  all  nations  engaged  in  the  con- 
flict were  equally  blameworthy.  No  dis- 
cussion of  the  causes  of  the  war  can  ignore 
the  ambitious  plans  of  the  German  imperial- 
ists, to  whom  the  declaration  of  war  was  an 
opportunity  to  cany  out  certain  well-de- 
fined aims  for  German  domination  of  the 
world. 

The  General  Situation  in  1914.  A  gen- 
eral European  war  had  been  foreseen  and 
prophesied  by  many  observers  long  before 
the  actual  crisis.  Prophecies  of  this  nature 
were  based  on  certain  conditions  in  Europe 
which  held  dangerous  possibilities  and  may 


WORLD  WAR 


3914 


WORLD  WAR 


be  regarded  as  underlying  causes  of  the  war. 
Outstanding  elements  in  the  situation  were 
racial  antagonisms  and  the  development  of 
nationalism.  In  1871  Germany  forced  on 
France  a  peace  which  violated  the  principle 
of  national  unity  when  Alsace-Lorraine  was 
forcibly  annexed  to  the  empire.  The  French, 
a  proud,  high-spirited  people,  never  forgave 
or  forgot  this  humiliation,  and  the  two  neigh- 
boring nations  were  friends  only  on  the 
surface. 

In  Austria-Hungary  the  racial  problem 
was  acute.  That  monarchy  was  a  loose  union 
of  many  diverse  peoples,  possessing  no  bond 
of  loyalty  or  of  common  interest.  Among 
these  were  the  Bohemians,  or  Czechs,  mind- 
ful of  their  lost  independence,  and  deter- 
mined to  maintain  their  national  conscious- 
ness; and  the  Southern  Slavs,  in  Bosnia, 
Croatia  and  other  sections,  with  visions  of 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  Slavic 
state.  The  Pan-Slavic  agitation  was  becom- 
ing more  and  more  a  source  of  anxiety  to 
the  Austrian  government,  and  the  situation 
was  complicated  by  the  known  sjTnpathy  of 
Russia,  the  greatest  of  the  Slav  nations,  for 
the  aspirations  of  the  Slavic  people  both  in 
Austria-Hungary  and  in  the  Balkans. 

The  Balkan  states  themselves  presented  a 
baffling  problem.  Here  the  mixture  of  races 
was  so  complicated  that  an  accurate  geo- 
graphic arrangement  of  peoples,  in  conform- 
ance with  the  principle  of  national  unity,  was 
a  hopeless  task.  The  Balkan  wars  of  1912- 
1913  had  nearly  forced  Turkey  out  of  Europe 
and  had  left  Serbia,  Montenegro,  Rumania 
and  Greece  with  increased  territory  and  aug- 
mented national  consciousness.  Rumanians, 
Serbians  and  Greeks  all  had  their  dreams  of 
bringing  under  their  respective  flags  neigh- 
boring territories  peopled  by  their  own  kins- 
men. Bulgaria,  on  the  other  hand,  smarting 
from  its  recent  defeat,  was  nursing  a  sense 
of  injustice  and  hoping  for  a  day  of  re- 
venge. 

Added  to  this  conflict  of  aims  and  hopes 
was  the  antagonism  between  Slav  and  Teuton. 
The  defeat  of  Turkey  in  1912-1913  was  a 
blow  to  both  Gei-many  and  Austria-Hungary, 
for  it  increased  the  prestige  of  the  Slavs, 
and  made  more  real  the  menace  to  the  integ- 
rity of  Austria-Hungary.  Germany  was  no 
less  interested  in  preserving  the  Hapsburg 
monarchy  than  was  the  Austro-Hungarian 
government  itself,  for  a  disrupted  monarchy 
meant  a  check  to  Gennany's  plan  to  dominate 


the  Balkans  and  to  secure  a  gateway  to  the 
East.  It  meant  also  the  collapse  of  Emperor 
William's  Mittel  Europa  (Middle  Europe) 
scheme. 

In  discussions  of  the  background  of  the 
war  much  has  been  said  of  Pan-Germanism, 
which  was  the  spirit  of  national  conscious- 
ness carried  to  the  extreme  limit.  The  Pan- 
Germans,  who  included  not  only  militarists, 
but  historians,  scientists,  educators  and  states- 
men, conceived  the  German  people,  no  matter 
where  they  were  located,  as  permanently  re- 
taining their  nationality.  The  most  ambi- 
tious of  this  group  believed  that  it  was  the 
mission  of  Germans  to  extend  their  kultur 
(culture)  over  the  world,  and  to  accomplish 
this  by  conquest,  if  neeessaiy.  In  this  con- 
nection the  theory  was  advanced  that  the 
German  was  a  superior  being,  destined  to 
dominate  other  peoples,  most  of  whom  were 
thought  of  as  decadent.  While  many  Ger- 
man authorities  denied  that  the  Pan-German 
doctrine  represented  official  Germany,  or  a 
majority  of  the  people,  the  extensive  propa- 
ganda of  its  adherents  certainly  affected  the 
German  nation,  and  the  speeches  and  acts  of 
the  emperor  clearly  pointed  to  his  sympathy 
with  the  theory. 

Military  preparedness  was  a  necessary 
corollary  of  these  national  ambitions  and 
racial  jealousies.  Standing  armies,  huge 
appropriations  for  armaments,  highly-devel- 
oped munition  factories  and  the  other  acces- 
sories of  war  turned  Europe  into  an  armed 
camp;  with  sjonbols  of  war  on  every  hand 
pacifism  waged  a  losing  fight  with  militar- 
ism. Germany's  preparations  for  a  possible 
war  were  more  complete  than  those  of  any 
other  nation,  parth'  because  of  the  splendid 
industrial  organization  of  the  empire,  and 
partly  because  of  the  spirit  of  the  German 
people  themselves.  Bismarck,  who  had 
launched  the  empire  on  its  career  by  a  policy 
of  "blood  and  iron,"  was  the  great  national 
hero,  and  the  necessity  of  militarism  was 
believed  in  by  the  people  as  a  whole.  They 
accepted  burdensome  taxes  as  essential  to 
the  welfare  of  the  Fatherland. 

In  1913  a  new  army  bill  in  Germany  caused 
a  frenzied  increase  in  war  preparations  in 
Europe  generally,  which  did  not  add  to  the 
possibilities  of  peace.  Another  factor  in  the 
situation  was  the  building  up  of  a  great 
German  navy  by  Emperor  William,  a  pro- 
cedure that  England  viewed  with  concern. 
As  a  result,  the  two  nations  engaged  in  a 


WORLD  WAR 


3915 


WORLD  WAR 


race  in  naval  armaments,  with  England  in  the 
lead,  and  GeiTQauy  following  with  the  second 
largest  navy  in  the  world. 

German5's  growth  in  naval  strength  was 
a  contributing  cause  to  the  formation  of  the 
Triple  Entente  by  England,  Russia  and 
France,  one  of  those  military  alliances  that 
were  anotlier  development  of  national  rival- 
ries. In  1882  Italy  had  joined  with  Germany 
and  Austria  in  the  Triple  Alliance,  for  com- 
mon defense.  France  and  Russia,  fearing 
this  strong  combination,  formed  a  Dual  Alli- 
ance in  1895,  and  in  1907  they  were  joined 
by  England,  which  was  disturbed  by  Ger- 
many's naval  policy.  It  may  readily  be  seen 
how  delicately-balanced  was  a  peace  condi- 
tion with  the  great  powers  thus  ranged  against 
each  other.  In  fact,  between  1905  and  1914 
there  were  several  crises,  each  of  which  almost 
brought  on  war. 

Economic  rivalry  also  had  a  part  in  setting 
nation  against  nation.  The. colonial  expan- 
sion of  the  other  nations,  notabl^y  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  the  advantages  resulting  therefrom 
spuiTed  Germany  on  to  securing  its  place  as 
a  great  colonial  power,  and  this  brought  about 
the  inevitable  clash  of  interests  in  the  colon- 
ized and  undeveloped  parts  of  the  world.  In 
England,  Germany's  naval  program  was 
looked  upon  chiefly  as  a  plan  to  overthrow 
British  commercial  supremacy.  In  such 
manner  was  the  stage  set  for  the  great  drama 
of  1914-1919. 

Outbreak  of  the  War.  On  June  18,  1914, 
the  heir  apparent  to  the  Austrian  throne. 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  and  his  wife 
were  assassinated  while  on  a  visit  to  Sarajevo, 
the  capital  of  Bosnia.  The  assassin,  a  young 
Bosnian  named  Gavrilo  PrinciiD,  was  one  of 
the  principals  in  a  scheme  to  incorporate 
Bosnia  in  a  Greater  Serbia.  Bosnia,  includ- 
ing Herzegovina,  was  peopled  by  Serbs  who 
had  never  become  reconciled  to  the  annexation 
of  the  province  by  Austria-Hungary  in  1908. 
Francis  Ferdinand  was  selected  as  a  victim 
because  he  was  friendly  to  the  idea  of  placing 
the  Slavs  of  the  Hapsburg  monarchy  on  an 
equal  footing  with  Germans  and  Magyars 
(Hungarians),  and  the  Serbian  plotters  be- 
lieved that  such  a  plan  would  imperil  their 
own  scheme. 

The  affair  took  on  an  international  aspect 
because  the  Austrian  government  believed 
that  the  crime  was  plotted  in  Belgrade,  the 
capital  of  Serbia,  by  the  Serbian  government 
itself.    The  erection  of  such  a  state  as  Greater 


Serbia  would  disrupt  the  monarchy  by  pa\dng 
the  way  to  other  Slavic  secessions.  Accord- 
ingly, the  Austrian  government  decided  to 
crush  the  Serbian  movement  once  for  all,  and 
to  do  so  by  dealing  directly  with  Belgrade. 
On  July  23  a  stern  ultimatum  was  sent  to 
the  Serbian  government,  ten  demands  being 
submitted,  and  forty-eight  houi's  being  given 
for  a  reply.  These  demands  required  that 
Serbia  should  dissolve  all  societies  engaged 
in  Pan-Serbian  propaganda,  dismiss  all  teach- 
ers or  government  officials  hostile  to  Austria, 
suppress  publications  advancing  the  move- 
ment, take  measures  to  stop  the  smuggling 
of  arms  across  the  border,  permit  Austro- 
Hungarian  agents  to  assist  in  the  suppression 
of  the  movement,  and  Austro-Hungarian  rep- 
resentatives to  take  part  in  the  investigation 
and  punishment  of  persons  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  the  crime.  Serbia's  reply  to  these 
demands  was  conciliatory,  but  Austria  seems 
to  have  made  them  purposely  unacceptable. 
The  demands  that  Austrian  agents  be  per- 
mitted to  help  suppress  the  anti-Austrian 
movement  and  that  Austrian  representatives 
assist  in  the  judicial  proceedings  against  the 
plotters  were  protested  against  as  infringing 
on  the  sovereignty  of  Serbia.  Moreover,  the 
smaller  state  expressed  its  willingness  to  sub- 
mit the  disputed  questions  to  The  Hague 
Tribunal  or  to  the  decision  of  the  great 
powers.  Austria  professed  to  find  the  answer 
unsatisfactory,  and  on  July  28  issued  a 
declaration  of  war. 

The  Flame  Spreads.  The  great  powers 
were  keenly  interested  in  the  outcome  of  the 
Austro-Serbian  controversy.  Germany,  hav- 
ing a  vital  interest  in  the  integrity  of  the 
Hapsburg  monarchy,  supported  Austria's 
attitude  and  was  suspected  in  a  meeting  at 
Potsdam  in  July,  presided  over  by  Emperor 
William,  of  having  urged  its  ally  to  precipi- 
tate a  crisis.  Russia  was  as  vitally  interested 
in  preserving  the  balance  of  power  in  the 
Balkans  and  of  saving  Serbia  from  a  state 
of  vassalage.  Here  again  came  to  the  surface 
the  old  animosity  between  Teuton  and  Slav, 
with  the  German  alliance  eager  to  extend 
German  and  Austrian  influence  in  the  Bal- 
kans, and  Russia  determined  to  play  the  role 
of  "big  brother"  to  the  small  Slavic  states. 
France,  as  an  ally  of  Russia,  naturally  sided 
against  the  Teutonic  states,  but  Italy,  the 
third  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  held 
aloof  from  its  allies  because  they  were  not 
entering  a  war  of  defense. 


WORLD  WAR 


3916 


WORLD  WAR 


The  diplomatic  wires  grew  hot  during  the 
tense  Aveek  following  July  23.  On  the  28th 
Russia  openly  announced  its  intention  of 
mobilizing  its  army  against  Austria  if  troops 
crossed  the  Serbian  border,  and  on  the  29th 
partial  mobilization  was  ordered.  On  the 
same  day  Sir  Edward  Grey,  the  British 
Foreign  Secretary,  who  had  previously  made 
unsuccessful  efforts  to  arrange  a  conference 
of  the  powers  to  settle  the  dispute,  urged  the 
German  government  to  suggest  a  method 
of  preventing  war  between  Russia  and  Aus- 
tria. No  satisfactory  basis  of  agi-eement 
could  be  reached,  however,  and  on  the  31st 
Germany  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Russia,  de- 
manding that  Russia  cease  mobilizing  within 
twelve  hours.  As  the  Russian  government 
declared  that  it  was  impossible  to  stop  the 
process,  Gennany  on  August  1  declared  a 
state  of  war  against  Russia  and  at  the  same 
time  requested  a  statement  from  France  as  to 
its  intentions  in  the  event  of  a  war  between 
Germany  and  Russia.  The  reply  being  un- 
satisfactory, Germany  declared  a  state  of  war 
against  France  on  August  3. 

Germany,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  hop- 
ing that  Great  Britain,  though  in  agreement 
with  Russia  and  France,  would  remain  neu- 
tral, and  had  informed  the  British  government 
that  the  territorial  unity  of  France  would  be 
preserved  if  Great  Britain  kept  out.  It  was 
further  stated  that  no  guarantee  would  be 
made  regarding  French  colonies.  Gi'eat  Brit- 
ain refused  to  promise  its  neutrality,  and  to 
the  last  moment  labored  for  a  compromise.  On 
August  2,  however,  France  was  notified  by 
England  that  its  northern  coast  would  be 
protected  from  attack  by  the  Gennan  fleet. 
This  partial  intervention  was  followed  on 
August  4  by  a  declaration  of  war  against 
Germany  by  Great  Britain  because  of  the 
violation  of  Belgium's  neutrality. 

In  1839  the  great  powers,  including 
Prussia,  had  entered  into  a  treaty  guarantee- 
ing the  independence  and  neutrality  of  Bel- 
gium, and  in  1870,  when  France  and  Germany 
were  at  war,  a  separate  treaty  was  signed 
between  Great  Britain  and  each  of  the  bel- 
ligerents, by  which  Great  Britain  agreed  that 
if  either  nation  should  violate  Belgian  neu- 
trality the  other  could  rely  on  England  as  an 

ally. 

On  July  31,  1914,  the  governments  of  Ger- 
many and  France  were  requested  by  Great 
Britain  to  state  their  attitude  on  the  question 
of  Belgian  neutrality.    France  replied  that  in 


case  of  war  such  neutrality  would  be  re- 
si:)ected.  Germany's  reply  was  evasive,  and 
on  August  2  the  German  Foreign  Minister 
presented  to  the  Belgian  Minister  an  ulti- 
matum demanding  that  the  German  forces  be 
pei-mitted  to  pass  through  the  country  (the 
easiest  way  to  France).  In  case  of  refusal 
Germany  warned  Belgium  it  would  be  treated 
as  an  enemy.  To  its  undying  honor  Belgium 
declined  thus  to  lend  itself  to  the  subjugation 
of  France,  and  refused  the  demand,  at  the 
same  time  appealing  to  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Russia  to  carry  out  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  of  1839. 

On  August  4  Great  Britain  sent  an  ulti- 
matum to  Germany  demanding  a  favorable 
reply  to  its  request  that  Belgium  be  unviolat- 
ed,  giving  the  German  government  until  mid- 
night to  reply.  As  no  reply  was  received, 
England  entered  the  war  on  midnight, 
August  4,  and  thus  on  August  5,  Germany  and 
Austria  found-  themselves  surrounded  by 
enemies.  Italy,  their  ally,  had  declared 
on  August  1  that  it  would  remain  neutral. 
Montenegi'o  elected  to  go  to  the  defense 
of  Serbia  within  a  few  days,  and  Japan, 
Britain's  ally  in  the  Far  East,  entered  the 
struggle  on  August  23.  Turkey  within 
a  few  weeks  became  an  ally  of  the  Teutonic 
powers. 

The  list  of  war  declarations  for  1914  is  as 
follows : 

Austria-Hungary,  on  Serbia July  28 

Germany,   on  Russia    Aug.  1 

Germany,  on  France    Aug.  3 

Germany,  on  Belgium Aug.  4 

Great  Britain,    on   Germany Aug.  4 

France,    on    Germany    Aug.  4 

Austria-Hungary,  on  Russia Aug.  6 

Montenegro,    on   Austria-Hungary ...  .Aug.  7 

Montenegro,    on    Germany '....Aug.  9 

Serbia,    on    Germany Aug.  9 

France,  on  Austria-Hungary Aug.  10 

Great  Britain,   on   Austria-Hungary.  .Aug.  12 

Japan,    on    Germany Aug.  23 

Austria-Hungary,    on    Japan Aug.  27 

Austria-Hungary,  on  Belgium Aug.  28 

Russia,  on   Turkey Nov.  3 

France,  on  Turkey    Nov.  5 

Great  Britain,  on  Turkey Nov.  5 

German  Drives  in  the  West.  Germany  was 
superbly  prepared  for  war,  and  its  mighty 
military  machine  lost  no  time  in  getting  into 
action.  The  military  operations  at  once  re- 
solved themselves  into  two  great  campaigns, 
for  Germany  had  to  meet  enemies  on  its  wide- 
ly separated  eastern  and  western  frontiers. 
Immediately  after  the  war  broke  out  the  Ger- 
man strategy  became  clear.     A  quick,  de- 


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391^ 


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cisive  dash  into  France  was  to  be  followed  by 
the  shifting  of  most  of  the  victorious  troops 
from  the  west  to  meet  the  Russian  millions 
on  the  east.  This  plan  failed  only  by  the  nar- 
rowest of  margins,  partly  because  the  Belgian 
resistance  delayed  the  advance  and  gave  the 
French  time  to  organize,  and  partly  because 
the   Russians   mobilized   more   rapidly   than 


A   TEAR  OF  WAR  IN  THE  WEST 

had  been  expected.  When  the  campaign  in 
France  was  at  a  crisis,  therefore,  the  Ger- 
mans were  compelled  to  weaken  their  of- 
fensive by  sending  thousands  of  soldiers  to 
defend  their  eastern  frontier  against  strong 
forces  of  the  czar. 

In  Belgium..  The  western  campaign  de- 
veloped with  great  rapidity.  The  Germans 
appeared  before  Liege  on  August  5,  and  took 
the  city  on  the  8th.  Before  the  end  of  August 
they  had  taken  jiractically  all  of  Belgium  ex- 
cept Antwerp  and  a  narrow  strip  on  the  coast. 
The  Belgian  army  was  driven  into  Antwerp, 
but  early  in  October  was  driven  out  again 
after  a  ten-days'  bombardment.  A  part  of 
the  Belgian  army  succeeded  in  making  its 
escape  along  the  coast  and  joined  the  French 
forces  south  of  Ostend,  but  about  20,000 
took  refuge  in  Holland  and  laid  down  their 
arms.  The  success  of  the  Germans  in  pound- 
ing their  way  into  Antwerp  and  other  strong- 
ly fortified  towns  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
superiority  of  their  artillery,  particularly 
the  42-eentimeter  Krupp  siege  guns. 


On  the  Marne  and  the  Aisne.  During  the 
last  week  in  August  and  the  first  week  in 
September  there  took  place  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  military  movements  in  all  history. 
The  German  army,  of  probably  1,000,000  men, 
advanced  in  a  wide  sweep  across  France 
almost  to  the  gates  of  Paris  before  its  ad- 
vance was  checked.  In  two  weeks  the  main 
German  army  advanced  over  150  miles.  Op- 
posing them  was  a  large  force  of  French 
soldiers  under  General  Joffi'e,  and  a  con- 
stantly increasing  number  of  British  soldiers 
under  General  Sir  John  French.  After  the 
fall  of  Antweri?  the  extreme  left  of  the  allied 
line  was  held  by  Belgian  troops  led  by  King 
Albert  in  person.  While  the  Gennans  were 
occu^Died  in  Belgium,  the  main  French  armies 
had  made  unsuccessful  attacks  on  Alsace  and 
Lorraine,  chiefly  for  sentimental  reasons. 
It  was  the  German  plan,  therefore,  to  reach 
Paris  before  the  French  line  in  the  north 
could  be  adequately  sti'engthened.  This  plan, 
however,  miscarried.  On  September  2  the 
seat  of  the  French  government  was  moved 
to  Bordeaux,  and  Paris  prepared  for  a  siege. 
The  German  right  under  Von  Kluck,  however, 
swept  to  the  east  of  Paris,  thus  exposing  its 
flank  to  the  attack  of  the  strong  Paris  garri- 
son. For  five  days,  September  6th  to  10th, 
the  Germans  held  their  positions  along  the 
Marne  River.  Here  was  fought  the  greatest 
battle  of  the  war  up  to  that  time  and  one  of 
the  greatest  battles  of  all  history.  The  Marne 
marked  the  high  tide  of  German  invasion. 

By  the  12th  of  September  the  whole  Ger- 
man aimy  was  in  retreat  along  the  lines  over 
which  it  had  advanced.  The  retreat,  however, 
was  masterly,  and  in  spite  of  the  superior 
and  increasing  number  of  the  allied  forces, 
they  were  unable  to  turn  the  defeat  into  a 
rout.  On  the  hills  along  the  River  Aisne  the 
German  retreat  came  to  a  halt.  Here  they 
retired  to  strong  fortified  positions  previously 
prepared  for  them,  positions  so  strong  that 
the  allies  could  not  drive  them  out  by  direct 
attack.  The  allied  right,  too,  found  it  impos- 
sible to  turn  the  GeiTnan  left,  and  there 
remained  only  the  possibility  of  turning  the 
extreme  German  right.  This  attempt  was 
first  made  about  September  15,  but  was  re- 
pulsed after  the  allies  had  penetrated  as  far 
as  Saint  Quentin.  The  next  flanking  move- 
ment came  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cambrai, 
and  the  third  near  An-as;  these  failed  in  turn. 
The  German  line  was  now  vastly  extended 
from  its  original  position,  and  as  the  allies 


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3918 


WORLD  WAR 


moved  northward  the  Germans  kept  pace. 
At  the  end  of  September  the  German  attack 
on  Antwerp  began,  and  the  flanking  move- 
ment of  the  allies  became  in  fact  an  attempt 
to  save  this  fortress  and  the  Belgian  army. 
But  the  allies  were  too  late. 

After  the  capture  of  Antwerp  (October 
10),  the  GeiTQans,  by  taking  Ostend,  placed 
their  right  flank  on  the  sea  coast.  Two  days 
later  the  allied  forces  reached  Dunkirk,  thus 
ending  the  possibility  of  flanking  movements 
by  either  side.  The  battle-front  now  extended 
from  the  English   Channel  to  Switzerland. 

The  Battle  of  Flanders.  In  October  the 
German  army  attempted  to  advance  along 
the  coast  to  Calais,  presumably  with  the 
object  of  establishing  a  base  for  an  invasion 
of  England.  For  five  weeks  the  battle  raged 
along  the  canals  and  the  River  Yser.  No 
other  conflicts  during  the  war  were  so  bloody. 
In  the  region  of  Nieuport,  Dixmude  and 
Ypres,  the  battle  raged  incessantly,  but  to  no 
purpose.  In  spite  of  enormous  masses  hurled 
forward  by  the  Germans,  the  allied  lines  held 
firmly.  At  the  end  of  five  weeks  the  battle- 
line  was  practically  unchanged. 

Deadlock  in  the  West.  From  October, 
1914,  to  August,  1915,  the  battle-front,  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  map,  was  little 
changed.  There  were  occasional  brilliant  suc- 
cesses, but  only  of  local  importance.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  Soissons  the  Germans  made 
a  considerable  gain,  and  at  the  northern  end 
the  allies  made  several  gains  which  straight- 
ened the  line.  In  Alsace  the  French  advanced 
about  10  miles,  but  they  were  unable  to  drive 
the  Germans  out  of  Saint  Mihiel.  On  the 
whole,  the  entire  line,  over  400  miles  long, 
settled  down  to  a  condition  of  siege  imprece- 
dented  in  history.  ■  After  October  the  center 
of  interest  was  transferred  to  the  eastern 
frontier. 

The  Eastern  Campaign.  In  the  east 
Poland  became  the  great  battlefield,  for  the 
chief  objective  of  the  Russians  was  the  con- 
quest of  Galicia,  or  Austrian  Poland,  while  the 
Germans  sought  the  conquest  of  Russian 
Poland.  During  the  first  month  of  war  the 
Russians  mobilized  with  unexpected  rapidity, 
advanced  in  force  through  East  Prussia,  and 
for  a  few  days  threatened  serious  conse- 
quences. On  September  1  the  terrible  rout 
at  Tannenberg  ended  the  danger  from  this 
source,  and  made  Von  Hindenburg  one  of  the 
great  figures  of  the  war.  Gradually  the  Rus- 
sians were  forced  back  to  the  Niemen,  where 


they  took  a  new  hold  and  later  carried  their 
line  back  to  the  German  frontier.  Here  a 
deadlock  arose  like  that  in  the  west. 

Meanwhile,  in  Galicia,  Russia  was  winning 
tremendous  suceess.  Tarnopol  and  Lemberg 
fell,  Przemysl  was  besieged,  and  by  October 
1  the  Austrians  were  driven  back  to  within 
50  miles  of  Cracow.  At  this  point  the  Ger- 
mans launched  a  strong  offensive  movement 
against  the  Russian  center,  which  was  driven 
back  over  100  miles  to  the  permanent  defenses 
of  Ivangorod  and  Novo  Georgievsk.  This 
retreat  of  the  center  compelled  the  Russian 
left  to  retreat  in  Galicia,  but  the  relief  to  the 
Austrians  was  only  tempoi'ary.  The  German 
advance  was  only  seven  miles  from  Warsaw 
when  the  Russians,  by  a  threatened  flanking 
movement,  compelled  a  retreat  to  the  GeiTuan 
border.     Once  again,  in  December,  Januai-y 


Tarnopol 


<«M,^#''-"'''Vwi.    ,>„,,«ie'*(ftDUKLA  PASS  ^  Tarnopol 

.atCe'tf  pSt^H^^  K?  S^'ALUD^ow  PASS       -7         \  r"^ 

M  °^^k%iZ'bW,  PA55  W 

r  H  U  N  G  A  R  ^"^W^  ..    H-. 


H  U  N  G  A  R  y""^-g^        .,     ^ 

National   boundaries  '*'^„"5<  • 

■♦••♦-►+  Farthest  Russian  advance       '"''"  \ 

■■  Line  of  battle  in  August  1915 \ 


A  YEAR   OF  WAR  IN  THE   EAST 
and  February,  the  Germans  slowly  advanced 
on  Warsaw,  but  were  unable  to  take  it.     In 
East  Prussia  the  Russians  advanced  in  force 
in  February,  but  after  the  ten-days'  battle 


WORLD  WAR 


3919 


WORLD  WAR 


of  the  Mazurian  Lakes  they  were  compelled 
to  retire.  In  Galicia  the  Russians  made  them- 
selves masters,  finally  took  Przemysl  on 
March  22,  1915,  seized  all  the  passes  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  and  were  ready  to  ad- 
vance in  force  across  the  plains  of  Hungary. 

New  German  Offensive.  Just  as  an  inva- 
sion of  Hungary  seemed  certain  a  combined 
German  and  Austrian  army  led  by  Von  Mack- 
ensen  routed  the  Russians  and  drove  them  out 
of  Galicia,  forcing  them  back  to  the  position 
they  held  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  By 
the  first  of  August  the  Gennans  were  again 
at  the  gates  of  Warsaw  and  on  the  4th  the 
citj'  was  taken.  By  this  campaign  the  central 
powers  regained  the  lost  territory  and  ren- 
dered a  new  Russian  offensive  impossible  for 
several  months. 

Turkey  in  the  War.  On  October  29, 1914, 
two  German  warships  that  had  been  sold  to 
Turkey,  but  were  still  operated  by  German 
officers  and  crews,  bombarded  Odessa  and 
other  ports  on  the  Black  Sea.  Turkey's 
explanation  of  this  act  was  unsatisfactory 
and  on  November  3  Russia  declared  war  on 
the  Ottoman  Empire.  Great  Britain  and 
France  took  like  action  on  November  5.  The 
Turks  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  invade 
Egypt  and  Russian  Caucasia.  On  Februaiy 
15,  1915,  a  fleet  of  the  allies  attempted  to 
force  an  entrance  into  the  Dardanelles  and 
take  Constantinople.  A  large  army  was 
landed  on  Gallipoli  Peninsula  to  assist  the 
fleet.  The  enterprise  failed,  and  the  troops 
were  withdrawn  at  the  end  of  six  months, 
though  it  was  later  known  that  the  Turks 
were  out  of  ammunition  and  were  ready  to 
capitulate  when  the  allies  withdrew.  The 
Germaxi  emperor  looked  upon  Turkey's  en- 
trance into  the  war  as  a  blow  to  the  integrity 
of  the  British  Empire  and  the  French  colo- 
nial empire,  as  he  expected  the  Moham- 
medans in  these  empires  to  start  a  Holy  War. 
In  this  he  was  completely  disappointed. 

The  War  in  Asia.  Japan,  as  has  been  inti- 
mated, entered  the  waa*  as  the  protector  of 
allied  interests  in  the  Far  East.  On  August 
19,  1914,  an  ultimatum  was  sent  to  the  Ger- 
man Foreign  Office  requesting  Germany  to 
surrender  the  leased  territory  of  Kiao-chau, 
China,  which  the  German  government  had  ac- 
quired in  1897.  Upon  refusal  of  Gei-many 
to  comply,  Japan  declared  war  on  August  23, 
and  shortly  afterwards  began  a  siege  of  the 
port  of  Tsingtau.  On  November  10  all  of 
the  leasehold  was  surrendered. 


With  German  power  in  East  Asia  thus  over- 
whelmed, the  British  could  give  their  attention 
to  an  offensive  against  the  Turks  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, in  order  to  destroy  the  German  threat 
to  Egypt  and  the  Suez  Canal,  and  to  pave 
the  way  for  an  advance  into  Asia  Minor, 
the  heart  of  the  Turkish  Emjoire.  Early  in 
the  war  it  was  apparent  to  the  entente  allies 
that  a  blow  should  be  struck  at  German 
pretensions  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Mittel 
Euro  pa  scheme  of  Germany  had  for  its 
object  the  control  by  the  Germans  of  a  path 
southeast  through  Europe  by  which  Berlin 
could  control  the  entrance  into  Asia  through 
Turkey.  In  Asia  Minor  the  Germans  had 
concessions  which  justified  the  hope  of  ulti- 
mate control  of  a  strip  of  territory  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Their  railroad  already  ex- 
tended to  historic  Bagdad.  If  a  direct  route 
from  Berlin  through  to  the  seas  south  of  Asia 
were  established,  Great  Britain  could  one  day 
be  attacked  in  India  and  North  Africa,  in 
pursuance  of  the  German  dream  of  world 
domination. 

In  November,  1914,  the  British  routed  the 
Turkish  garrison  at  Basra,  sixty  miles  north 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  then  advanced  to 
Kurna,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  rivers.  Moving  steadily  northward 
through  the  spring  and  summer  of  1915,  the 
victorious  troops  defeated  the  enemy  before 
Kut-el  Amara,  on  the  Tigris,  on  September 
28,  and  by  November  had  reached  a  point 
eighteen  miles  from  Bagdad.  Here  the  Brit- 
ish armj,  which  was  commanded  by  Major- 
General  Townshend,  was  defeated  by  a  greatly 
superior  force  and  driven  back  to  Kut-el- 
Amara.  In  Persia  and  Turkish  Armenia  the 
Russians  won  several  victories  over  the  Turks 
in  1915,  and  it  was  hoped  that  at  the  end  of 
the  year  they  might  be  able  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Kut-el- Amara. 

German  Colonies.  Most  of  Germany's 
colonial  empire  was  lost  early  in  the  war. 
On  August  29,  1914,  German  Samoa  surren- 
dered to  an  expeditionary  force  from  New 
Zealand,  and  on  September  11  Australian 
troops  captured  the  cajiital  of  the  Bismarck 
and  Solomon  islands;  German  New  Guinea 
was  occupied  two  weeks  later.  The  Japanese, 
by  the  end  of  October,  had  taken  possession 
of  the  Marshall,  Marianne  and  Caroline 
islands.  In  Africa,  Anglo-French  forces  cap- 
tured Togoland  in  August,  1914,  and  during 
1915  occupied  Gei'man  Southwest  Africa.  In 
December  of  that  year  it  was  announced  that 


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3920 


WORLD  WAR 


a  force  bad  been  raised  in  Soutb  Africa  to 
carry  out  tbe  conquest  of  Geiman  East  Africa. 
Tbis  was  speedily  accomplisbed. 

Campaign  in  the  Balkans.  Serbia,  witb 
tbe  aid  of  a  small  army  of  hardy  Monte- 
negrins, -was  able  to  offer  a  stiff  resistance 
to  invadino-  Austrians,  who  were  driven  out 
of  Belgrade  in  December,  1914,  with  heayj' 
losses.  Austrian  defeat  was  due  in  part  to 
the  Russian  invasion  of  Galicia,  which  forced 
Austria  to  withdraw  large  numbers  of  its 
troops  to  that  theater  of  war.  The  good  for- 
tune of  the  Serbs  was  short-lived,  however. 
The  campaign  left  the  country  impoverished 
and  exhausted,  and  ill  prepared  to  cope  with 
a  new  enemy  on  its  eastern  border. 

In  October,  1915,  after  months  of  delibera- 
tion, the  Bulgars  decided  to  throw  in  their  lot 
with  the  Teutonic  powers,  as  Germany  and 
Austria  were  able  to  promise  them  a  better 
territorial  settlement  than  the  entente  was 
disposed  to  offer.  In  October  a  Bulgarian 
army  joined  the  Austro-German  forces  under 
Field  Marshal  von  Machensen,  and  early 
in  December  Serbia  was  crushed.  King  Peter 
and  his  officials  fled,  and  the  Serbian  govern- 
ment was  set  up  in  Corfu.  Albania  and 
Montenegro  were  brought  under  control  of 
the  Central  powers  early  in  1916,  and  were 
held  by  them  until  November,  1918. 

Situation  in  Greece.  The  king  and  queen 
of  Greece,  the  latter  a  sister  of  the  kaiser, 
maintained  a  pro-Gennan  attitude  in  the  war, 
while  the  majority  in  Parliament,  under  the 
leadership  of  Premier  Venizelos,  wished  to 
join  the  entente.  Greece  was  bound  by  treaty 
to  go  to  the  assistance  of  Serbia  in  case  the 
latter  were  attacked,  but  King  Constantine 
interpreted  this  treaty  to  refer  to  a  Balkan, 
not  a  general  European,  conflict.  Accord- 
ingly, Greece  remained  neutral  for  the  time 
being.  In  December,  1915,  however,  after 
being  defeated  by  the  Bulgars  on  the  Vardar 
River,  the  allies  occupied  the  city  of  Saloniki, 
and  made  it  impregnable,  as  they  interpreted 
the  position  of  Greece  as  one  of  "benevolent 
neutrality."  Venizelos  and  the  allied  sjon- 
pathizers  approved  of  this  attitude;  the  king 
and  his  followers  protested  against  the  "viola- 
tion of  Greek  neutrality." 

War  Declarations  of  1915.  The  entrance 
of  Italy  into  the  war,  as  an  ally  of  the  entente 
powers,  in  May,  1915,  was  the  greatest  diplo- 
matic triumph  of  the  year  for  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Russia.  The  war  declarations  of 
the  vear  are  as  follows : 


Italy,    on    Austria-Hungary May  23 

San  Marino,  on  Austria-Hungary ...  .June  2 

Bulg-aria,  on  Serbia Oct.  13 

Great  Britain,   on   Bulgaria Oct.  15 

France,  on  Bulgaria Oct.  16 

Russia,  on  Bulgaria Oct.  19 

Italy,  on  Bulgaria Oct.  19 

Italy  in  the  War.  Italy  had  helped  save 
France  early  in  the  war  by  announcing  its 
neutrality.  Spared  the  necessit}^  of  guarding 
the  Franco-Italian  frontier,  the  French  had 
been  able  to  concentrate  enough  forces  on 
the  Marne  to  check  the  Germans  in  Septem- 
ber, 1914.  Germany  and  Austria,  however, 
spared  no  pains  to  conciliate  Italy,  and  en- 
tered into  lengthy  negotiations  with  Rome  to 
keei^  the  Italians  from  joining  the  allies. 
In  this  they  were  unsuccessful,  and  Italy 
declared  war  on  Austria  on  May  23,  1915. 
There  were  three  forces  back  of  this  decision : 
traditional  hostility  toward  Austria ;  a  popu- 
lar "iiTedentist"  movement,  aiming  at  the 
liberation  of  those  Austrian  districts  inhabit- 
ed by  Italians;  a  sentiment  against  Austro- 
German  imperialism  and  militarism,  which 
was  threatening  civilization  and  democracy. 
The  Italians  were  able  to  put  a  flnely-trained 
army  into  the  field  at  once,  which  began  an 
invasion  of  Austria  and  gained  some  initial 
successes.  Trent  and  Triest  were  the  objec- 
tive points.  By  the  end  of  1915  Italian  troops 
had  made  a  good  beginning,  but  were  still  far 
from  their  goal. 

Events  of  1916.  The  entente  gained  two 
new  allies  in  1916,  Portugal  and  Rumania. 
During  the  year  there  were  major  offensives 
by  the  Russians,  Anglo-French  forces  and 
Italians,  a  successful  defense  at  Verdun,  a 
great  battle  between  the  German  and  English 
fleets  off  Jutland,  and  an  extension  of  German 
submarine  warfare.  Other  events  are  noted 
below. 

The  New  Belligerents.  War  declarations 
of  1916  were  as  follows : 

Germany,   on  Portugal Mar.     8 

Austria-Hungary,    on   Portugal Mar.   15 

Italy,  on  Germany Aug.  27 

Rumania,   on   Austria Aug.   27 

Germany,    on    Rumania Aug.  28 

Portugal,  whose  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
bound  it  to  furnish  its  ally  with  10,000  troops 
when  they  were  needed,  was  not  asked  to  take 
any  decisive  action  until  February,  1916, 
when  Sir  Edward  Grey  requested  the  Portu- 
guese government  to  take  over  all  Gei-man  and 
Austrian  merchant  vessels  interned  in  Portu- 
guese waters.    On  Portugal's  compliance  with 


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tliis  request  the  two  central  powers  declared 
war  against  Portugal  in  March.  Forty  mer- 
chant ships  were  acquired  by  the  entente 
through  this  move.  Later  Portuguese  troops 
engaged  in  severe  figliting  on  the  western 
front.  Kumania  declared  war  on  Austria  in 
August,  1916,  in  the  hope  of  liberating  from 
Austrian  rule  the  provinces  of  Bukowina 
and  Transylvania,  inhabited  by  large  numbers 
of  Rumanians. 

The  Struggle  for  Verdun.  One  of  the  most 
desperate  campaigns  of  the  war  began  on 
Februaiy  21,  1916,  when  a  GeiTuan  anny 
under  the  command  of  Crown  Prince  Fred- 
erick William  began  an  attack  on  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Yerdun,  a  strongly-fortified  citj^ 
commanding  the  heights  of  the  Meuse.  The 
Germans  hoped  by  a  spectacular  victory  at 
this  point  to  discourage  the  French,  quiet 
political  disconteiit  at  home,  and  relieve  the 
French  threat  at  the  rich  iron  mines  north- 
east of  Yerdun  and  in  German  Lon-aine.  If 
the  French  hold  on  the  Meuse  heights  could  be 
loosened,  their  army  would  never  be  able  to 
conquer  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  the  morale 
of  the  soldiers  would  suffer  a  severe  blow. 
The  great  drive  carried  the  Gennan  troops 
through  the  outlying  defenses  of  the  fortress, 
but  after  months  of  desperate  fighting  the 
French,  commanded  by  General  Petain,  were 
still  holding  the  heart  of  the  salient,  and 
all  resolute,  indomitable  France  Avas  ringing 
with  the  battle  ciy  of  the  soldiers,  "They 
shall  not  pass !" 

From  February  to  July  the  Gei-mans 
gained  130  square  miles  of  territory,  includ- 
ing two  battered  forts  and  about  forty  ruined 
villages.  Then  for  several  weeks  there  was 
a  lull  in  the  fighting,  while  the  French  were 
making  preparations  for  a  eounterstroke. 
It  came  in  October,  when  General  Nivelle,  who 
had  superseded  Petain,  began  an  offensive 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Meuse,  north  of  the 
town.  In  the  first  onrush  Douaumont  village 
and  fort,  Thiaumont  faim  and  redoubt  and 
Haudromont  quarries  were  recaptured.  Other 
successes  followed,  and  in  December  a  renewal 
of  tlie  offensive  brought  about  the  recaptui'e 
of  several  other  strategic  points.  Though  it 
took  another  year  of  fighting  to  bring  the 
French  lines  near  to  their  original  position, 
the  failure  of  the  German  stroke  and  the 
success  of  the  French  counter-attack  made 
the  battle  an  allied  victory'  at  the  end  of  1916. 
Losses  on  both  sides  were  heavj^  with  the 
Germans  suffering  the  more  severely. 

246 


Battles  of  the  Somme.  A  militaiy  con- 
ference of  the  allies  was  held  in  Paris  in 
March,  1916,  at  which  a  plan  for  concerted 
action  was  perfected.  Hitherto  disconnected 
attacks  on  the  various  fronts  had  given  the 
central  powers  the  advantage  because  the 
excellent  railway  system  of  Gennany  enabled 
large  bodies  of  troops  to  be  moved  quickly 
from  one  front  to  another  as  they  were 
needed.  A  large  British  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Douglas  Haig  was  mobilized  in 
France  along  the  Somme,  while  the  German 
Crown  Prince  was  carrying  on  his  campaign 
against  Yerdun. 

In  the  last  days  of  June  the  British,  French 
and  Belgians  began  a  systematic  bombard- 
ment of  the  GeiTuan  defenses  that  extended 
from  Yerdun  all  the  way  to  the  North  Sea. 
This  bombardment  was  especially  violent 
along  the  section  north  and  south  of  the 
Somme,  where  the  British  were  opposite  the 
Gei-man  lines.  The  heaw  artillery  of  the 
British  and  French  demolished  the  works  of 
the  enemy  in  this  section,  and  on  July  1  the 
fonvard  movement  began.  The  allies  cap- 
tured all  the  German  first  line  trenches  over  a 
front  of  twentj'-five  miles.  Within  fifteen 
days  fifteen  villages  and  about  25,000  pris- 
oners Avere  taken. 

After  tlie  first  impetus  of  the  drive  had 
spent  itself  there  was  a  period  of  quiet  with 
both  sides  preparing  for  the  next  phase  of  the 
battle.  On  September  3  the  Anglo-French 
forces  stnick  again,  the  British  at  this  time 
making  use  of  a  new  war  device,  the  armored 
tank.  When  the  battle  died  down,  in  Xovem- 
ber,  the  allies  had  recaptured  about  120  square 
miles  of  territoiy.  The  Germans  are  esti- 
mated to  have  lost  700,000  in  killed,  wounded 
and  prisoners;  the  allies,  675,000.  General 
Haig  asserted  the  battle  was  an  allied  victoi-y 
because  it  had  relieved  the  pressure  on  Ver- 
dun, kept  the  Germans  from  withdrawing 
forces  to  the  east  against  Russia  (see  below) 
and  served  to  diminish  the  German  man- 
power. 

The  Second  Russian  Offensive.  Russia  de- 
voted its  energy  during  the  first  months  of 
1916  to  increasing  and  training  its  armies, 
and  supplj^ng  them  with  anns  and  am- 
munition. There  were  several  engagements 
on  the  southern  part  of  the  line  held  by  the 
Russians  before  June,  and  on  the  third  of  that 
month  the  Russian  forces  under  General 
Brussiloff  began  an  extensive  forward  move- 
ment   which    swept    the    country    from    the 


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Pripet  River  on  the  north  to  Rumania  on  the 
south.  The  crownland  of  Bukowina  was 
occupied,  Lemberg,  in  Galieia,  was  threat- 
ened, and  the  advance  column  of  the  invaders 
reached  the  Carpatliian  Mountains.  Several 
important  towns  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Russians,  and  they  took  a  large  number  of 
prisoners.  The  drive  had  spent  itself  by 
August,  but  it  helped  the  French,  British  and 
Italians  by  keeping  the  Central  Powers  busy 
on  both  the  east  and  the  west  fronts.  Rus- 
sia lost  hundreds  and  thousands  of  its  best 
troops  in  the  fighting  of  191^1916,  and  was 
being  menaced  from  within  by  corrupt  of- 
ficials and  traitors.  The  sequel  to  this  was 
the  betrayal  of  Rumania,  which  entered  the 
Avar  on  August  27  (see  below). 

Italian  Reverses  and  Victories.  In  May 
the  Austrians  began  an  offensive  against  Italy 
for  the  purpose  of  disi-upting  allied  plans 
for  a  summer  campaign,  and  in  the  hope  of 
putting  the  Italians  out  of  the  war  by  a 
conquest  of  Northern  Italy.  After  a  month 
of  strenuous  fighting  the  Austrians  recovered 
270  square  miles  of  their  own  territory  and 
conquered  230  square  miles  of  Italian  soil. 
The  Italians  lost  heavily  in  men  and  material, 
but  they  offered  strong  resistance  and  defin- 
itely checked  the  offensive,  besides  inflicting 
heavy  losses  on  the  enemy.  Russia's  attack 
on  Galieia  and  Bukowina,  which  forced  Aus- 
tria to  withdraw  troops  from  the  Italian 
front,  was  a  great  factor  in  saving  Italy  from 
further  invasion. 

Two  weeks  after  Russia  launched  the  Aus- 
trian campaign,  General  Cadorna,  commander 
of  the  Italians,  began  a  vigorous  counter- 
offensive  with  a  new  army  of  500,000  men. 
During  the  last  week  of  June  the  Austrians 
began  to  retreat  on  the  Trentino  front,  where 
the  Italian  offensive  proceeded  vigorously 
throughout  July.  On  August  4,  five  weeks 
after  the  Anglo-French  attack  on  the  Somme, 
Cadorna  opened  a  vigorous  attack  along  the 
Isonzo  front,  with  the  city  of  Goritz  as  the 
objective  point.  This  place  was  protected  by 
hills  and  mountains  bristling  with  guns,  but 
the  Italians  carried  everything  before  them  in 
their  impetuous  onslaught,  and  on  August  9 
triumphantly  entered  the  city  with  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  at  their  head.  The  tide  of 
battle  then  turned  southward  to  the  Carso 
plateau,  which  lay  a  strong  barrier  between 
the  Italian  army  and  the  coveted  city  of 
Triest.  Here  progress  was  made  only  at  the 
expenditure  of  weU-nigh  superhuman  efforts. 


The  Tragedy  of  Rumania.  The  Rumanians 
began  au  invasion  of  Transylvania  (in  Hun- 
gary) immediately  after  the  declaration  of 
war  against  Austria-Hungary.  During  Sep- 
tember they  conquered  about  one-fourth  of 
Transylvania  and  captured  nearly  7,000 
prisoners.  The  Rumanian  staff  confidently 
expected  that  General  Sarrail,  the  allied 
commander  in  Macedonia,  would  keep  the 
Bulgarians  from  attacking,  and  that  Russia 
would  take  care  of  the  Austro-German  forces 
on  the  Russian  front.  Rumania  itself  was  left 
unprotected,  a  rash  proceeding  that  brought 
about  a  speedy  collapse  of  the  new  ally. 

On  September  2  a  Bulgarian  force  invaded 
the  Rumanian  Dobrudja.  Subsequently,  the 
Germans  under  General  von  Falkenhayn 
trai^ped  the  Rumanian  forces  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Transylvania,  and  invaded  Rumania 
itself,  and  Field  Marshal  von  Mackensen  on 
December  6,  after  a  series  of  brilliant  vic- 
tories, entered  the  city  of  Bucharest.  The 
net  results  of  the  fighting  from  November  15 
to  December  6  were  the  rout  of  the  Rouman- 
ian army,  the  capture  of  80,000  jorisoners  and 
the  conquest  of  the  greater  j^art  of  Wallaehia 
(Southern  Rumania).  Lines  of  communica- 
tion with  Constantinople  were  opened,  and 
large  stores  of  supplies  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Central  Powers,  giving  them  additional 
means  for  carrying  on  the  conflict. 

It  was  subsequently  revealed  that  chief 
blame  for  Rumania's  plight  must  be  placed  on 
several  of  Russia's  government  officials, 
notably  Premier  StiiiTaer,  a  reactionary  and 
a  Pro-German.  He  had  been  instrumental 
in  persuading  Rumania  to  come  into  the 
war  at  a  time  when  Germany  could  best  cope 
with  the  situation,  and  had  kept  back  prom- 
ised Russian  troops  fi'om  Rumania  when 
Bulgaria  took  the  offensive  and  when  Von 
Mackensen  attacked.  Through  his  intrigues 
needed  supplies  had  been  withheld  when  the 
Rumanians  were  sending  desperate  pleas  for 
help,  and  before  any  operations  began 
Rumania's  plans  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
German  officials.  For  these  and  other  crimes 
Stunner  was  indicted  at  the  time  of  the  Rus- 
sian revolution;  he  was  placed  in  prison, 
where  he  died,  in  September,  1917. 

The  War  in  Asia.  In  January,  1916,  a 
Russian  army  under  Grand  Duke  Nicholas 
invaded  Turkish  Aimenia,  drove  back  the 
Turkish  forces  in  disorder,  and  on  February 
16  entered  the  fortified  city  of  Erzerum,  cap- 
turing over  320  guns  and  a  great  store  of 


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3923 


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supplies.  In  the  spring  Trebizond  was  cap- 
tured, and  in  July  the  city  of  Erzingan,-  an 
imioortant  strategic  center,  110  miles  west  of 
Erzerum,  was  taken.  Elsewhere  in  "Western 
Asia,  however,  the  struggle  did  not  go  so  well 
with  the  allies.  General  Townshend's  British 
forces,  besieged  in  Kut-el-Amara  (see  above), 
were  starved  into  submission  and  surrendered 
on  April  28,  1916.  The  force  was  dimin- 
ished by  fighting  and  hardship  to  fewer  than 
9,000  men,  and  the  expedition  was  regarded 
by  the  English  as  a  grave  mistake.  Russian 
expeditions  against  the  Bagdad  Railway  also 
failed. 

Allied  Victories  in  Africa.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  1916  only  two  colonies  remained  to 
Germany,  Kamerun  and  Gennan  East  Africa. 
Kamerun  was  completely  overrun  by  Belgian, 


ITogo      HV^ 
6r\amerun     ^ 

3  German  S.W  Africa^ 

4  German  East  Africa^ 


AFRICAN    COLONIES    LOST    BY    GERMANY 

British  and  French  troops  in  January,  and  in 
Febniary  a  powerful  Boer  anny  from  South 
Africa,  under  the  command  of  Jan  Christian 
Smuts,  invaded  German  East  Africa.  This 
anny,  in  cooperation  with  British  and  Belgian 
troops,  had  conquered  the  greater  part  of  the 
colony  by  the  close  of  the  year. 

The  War  on  the  Sea.  Early  in  the  war 
German  commerce  was  driven  from  the  seas, 
British  naval  supremacy  having  saved  the 
situation  for  the  allies.  The  main  German 
fleets  did  not  attempt  to  disput-e  this  suprem- 
acy, but  remained  at  their  bases  at  Kiel  and 
Wilhelmshaven,  protected  by  great  fields  of 
submarine  mines  and  the  sti'ong  fortifica- 
tions of  Helgoland.   Several  German  cruisers, 


however,  did  great  damage  to  allied  shipping 
before  they  were  destroyed.  Among  these 
were  the  Emclen  and  the  Konigsherg.  The 
former  cruised  the  Indian  and  the  South 
Pacific  oceans  for  three  months,  but  were 
finally  destroyed  near  Java  by  an  Australian 
cruiser,  on  November  9,  1914.  The  Konigs- 
herg also  had  a  successful  career  before  its 
destruction  on  the  coast  of  German  East 
Africa. 

The  German  Far  East  Squadron  of  five 
powerful  cruisers,  after  defeating  a  smaller 
British  fleet  in  November,  off  the  coast  of 
Chile,  was  itself  defeated  on  December  8 
off  the  Falkland  Islands.  Another  important 
engagement  occurred  on  August  28,  in  the 
bight  of  Helgoland,  when  a  British  fleet, 
accompanied  by  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  was 
led  into  action  by  Sir  David  Beatty.  Three 
German  armored  cruisers  and  two  destroyers 
were  sunk.  German  raiders  at  various  times 
bombarded  English  coast  towns,  and  were 
somewhat  successful  in  eluding  the  vigilance 
of  British  warships.  On  the  other  hand, 
GeiTnany's  hope  of  weakening  England  by 
striking  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  civilian 
population  of  these  towns  was  quite  tm- 
successful. 

The  allies  lost  a  good  many  ships  through 
mines  as  the  war  continued,  and  a  few  Ger- 
man cruisers  were  still  menacing  allied  ship- 
ping when  a  new  form  of  naval  warfare, 
the  submarine,  began  to  threaten  the  allies. 
In  February,  1915,  Germany  announced  that 
its  submarines  would  destroy  any  merchant 
vessels  venturing  into  the  waters  surrounding 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Great  Britain 
retaliated  by  declaring  a  virtual  blockade 
of  all  Germany,  and  from  that  time  on  the 
submarine  and  the  blockade  engaged  in  a  des- 
perate fight  to  the  finish.  The  importance  of 
Germany's  decision  to  use  the  vmderseas  boat 
against  merchant  vessels  was  not  at  that  time 
fully  realized.  It  was  destined  to  have  far- 
reaching  effects;  in  fact,  it  brought  about 
Germany's  downfall. 

On  May  31,  1916,  occurred  the  only  battle 
of  the  war  in  which  the  main  fleets  of  Ger- 
many and  England  participated.  It  was 
fought  in  an  arm  of  the  North  Sea — the 
Skaggerak — about  fifty  miles  off  Jutland. 
The  British  fleet  was  in  command  of  Sir  John 
Jellicoe  but  the  division  which  bore  the  brunt 
of  the  battle  was  commanded  by  Vice-Ad- 
miral  Beatty.  The  German  fleet  consisted  of 
five  battle  cruisers,  seventeen  dreadnoughts. 


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3924 


WORLD  WAR 


eight  predreadnougbts  and  several  fast  light 
cruisers  and  destroyer  flotillas.  Li  the  Brit- 
ish fleet  there  were  six  battle  cruisers,  four 
fast  battleships,  several  fast  light  cruisers  and 
destroyers,  and  twenty-flve  dreadnoughts. 
The  Germans  claimed  that  their  high-seas 
fleet  was  cruising  about  in  the  hope  that  it 
might  meet  and  give  battle  to  the  British 
fleet.  The  latter  was  on  one  of  its  periodical 
cruises  in  the  North  Sea. 

In  the  afternoon,  Viee-Admiral  Beatty, 
who  was  in  advance  of  the  main  force  of  the 
grand  fleet,  became  aware  of  the  presence  of 
the  Germans,  and  after  maneuvering  for 
position,  opened  fire  simultaneously  with  the 
enemy.  The  battle  lasted  well  into  the  night, 
without  decisive  results  at  the  time.  Losses 
on  both  sides  were  heavy,  with  the  British 
suffering  the  more  severely  in  number  of 
ships  destroyed.  They  admitted  the  loss  of 
fourteen  vessels  and  5,613  men ;  the  Germans, 
eleven  ships  and  3,966  men.  However,  the 
German  ships  retired  to  their  base  and  the 
main  fleet  did  not  venture  out  again  during 
the  war.  It  was  aftenvards  disclosed  by  a 
German  naval  authority  that  misty  weather 
and  skilfifl  seamanship  alone  saved  the  Ger- 
man fleet  from  overwhelming  defeat,  and 
that  the  battle  convinced  the  German  com- 
mand that  it  was  impossible  to  wrest  from 
the  British  their  control  of  the  sea  through 
battles  of  this  nature.  From  that  stand- 
point the  British  won  a  victory,  though  they 
suffered  heavier  losses  than  their  enemy. 

Effects  of  Submarine  Warfare.  Once  the 
German  submarine  warfare  was  launched, 
complications  with  neutral  nations  devel- 
oped. In  May,  1915,  the  Cunard  liner  Ltisi- 
tania  was  torpedoed  without  warning  off  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  while  on  its  voyage  from 
New  York  to  Liverpool.  About  1,150  persons 
lost  their  lives,  including  114  Americans. 
The  Germans  considered  this  a  justifiable 
act  of  reprisal  because  of  the  blockade,  which 
was  keej^ing  food  and  other  necessities  out 
of  Gei-many,  but  it  was  generally  regarded 
as  a  violation  of  international  law  and  of  the 
laws  of  humanity,  and  aroused  feelings  of 
horror  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

Of  the  neutral  nations,  the  United  States 
was  the  most  powerful  and  the  one  whose 
good  will  was  most  needed  by  the  belliger- 
ents. The  sinking  of  the  Lusitania  bi'ought 
to  a  climax  certain  diplomatic  correspond- 
ence which  had  been  passing  between  the 
United   States   and   Germany  since  the   an- 


nouncement of  the  submarine  campaign,  and 
Avas  the  occasion  of  a  series  of  notes  from 
President  Wilson  in  which  he  insisted  on 
Germany's  respecting  the  rights  of  neutrals 
on  the  seas.  Other  sinkings  followed,  how- 
ever, and  though  the  President  apparently 
secured  from  GeiTnany  a  promise  to  abstain 
from  torpedoing  merchant  vessels  without 
warning,  unrestricted  submarine  Avarfare  was 
announced  as  a  deliberate  policy  early  in  1917 
(see  below).  The  heavy  losses  inflicted  on 
allied  shipping  by  the  submarines  put  naval 
experts  on  their  mettle,  and  a  vigorous  anti- 
submarine campaign  caused  the  destruction 
or  capture  of  large  numbers  of  undersea 
boats. 

Events  of  1917.  The  allies  suffered  a 
tremendous  blow  in  1917  in  the  collapse  of 
Russia,  but  this  was  offset  by  a  great  diplo- 
matic triumph,  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war.  America's  action  pro- 
foundly impressed  the  Central  and  South 
American  nations,  many  of  which  declared 
war  on  Germany  or  broke  off  diplomatic  re- 
lations. Siam  and  China,  in  Asia,  and  Li- 
beria, in  Africa,  also  associated  themselves 
with  the  allies,  as  did  Greece,  in  Europe.  The 
ever-widening  circle  of  German  opponents 
showed  the  extent  of  the  feeling  against  sub- 
marine warfare  and  the  ruthlessness  of  Ger- 
man warfare  on  land.  Heartrending  stories 
of  the  treatment  of  conquered  peoples  and 
reports  of  Turkish  massacres  of  Armenians 
and  Syi'ians  added  fuel  to  the  flames  of  re- 
sentment that  seemed  to  sweep  around  the 
world.  Notwithstanding  the  powerful  coali- 
tion against  the  Central  Powers,  their  armies 
held  their  own  in  the  fateful  year  of  1917, 
and  they  nearly  put  Italy  out  of  the  war. 
War  declarations  of  the  year  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

United  States,  on  Germany Apr.  6 

Cuba,   on  Germany Apr.  8 

Panama,  on  Germany ' Apr.  9 

Greece,  on  Germany    July  22 

Siam,  on  Germany   July  22 

Liberia,  on  Germany   Aug.  7 

China,  on  Germany   Aug.  14 

Brazil,    on    Germany Oct.  26 

ITnited  States,  on  Austria-Hungary.  .  .  .Dec.  7 

Panama,    on    Austria-Hungary Dec.  10 

The  following  nation^  severed  diplomatic 
relations  with  Gennany: 

Bolivia  Honduras 

Costa  Rica  Nicaragua 

Ecuador  Peru 

Guatemala  Santo    Domingo 

Haiti  Uruguay 


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Military  Events  in  the  West.  British  and 
French  Drives.  In  January,  1917,  after  a 
period  of  intensive  preparation,  the  British 
renewed  the  battle  on  the  Somme  front, 
gradually  pushed  the  German  line  back,  and 
by  March  13  had  come  within  artillery  range 
of  Bapaume,  one  of  the  main  objectives  of 
the  Somme  campaign.  About  this  time  indi- 
cations pointed  toward  an  extensive  with- 
drawal of  the  German  forces  to  a  strong 
defensive  position  which  came  to  be  known 
as  the  "Hindenburg  line."  By  March  15  the 
retreat  was  well  under  way,  and  General 
Haig  thereupon  ordered  a  general  advance 
along  the  entire  front  from  Arras  to  Roye. 
At  the  same  time  the  French  began  an  ad- 
vance from  Roye  to  Rheims.  Stiff  fighting 
ensued  for  several  daj's,  the  Germans  coun- 
ter-attacking at  intei-vals,  but  steadily  mov- 
ing back  before  the  violent  onslaughts  of 
British  and  French.  Something  like  1,000 
square  miles  of  desolated  territory  were  re- 
deemed by  the  German  withdrawal. 

On  April  9  a  new  offensive  on  a  gigantic 
scale  was  begun,  with  the  British  stnking  for 
Lens,  the  center  of  the  coal  district,  and  for 
Saint  Quentin.  Among  the  spectacular  feats 
of  this  drive  was  the  capture  of  Vimy  Ridge 
by  the  interpid  Canadians.  This  ridge 
was  the  key  position  to  Lens,  which  was  thus 
placed  in  a  dangerous  "pocket."  The  British 
pushed  their  way  to  within  a  few  hundred 
yards  of  Saint  Quentin,  but  failed  to  take  the 
city.  By  June  the  battle  had  become  a 
deadlock,  but  the  Biitish  had  achieved  one 
of  their  chief  aims,  the  wearing  down  of 
German  man-power  and  material.  In  coun- 
ter-attacks during  the  Battle  of  Arras  the 
Germans  suffered  very  heavy  losses. 

Interest  in  the  progi-ess  of  the.  war  was 
shifted  to  Belgium  in  June,  where  the  British 
line  at  Ypres  needed  attention.  It  was  in 
the  foi-m  of  a  huge  S  written  backwards, 
Ypres  occup^^ng  the  upper  curve.  In  the 
lower  curve  was  Messines  Ridge,  which  was 
held  by  the  Germans.  If  the  Ypres  salient 
were  wrested  from  the  allies  the  way  to 
Calais  would  be  opened  to  the  Gennans,  and 
the  precarious  condition  of  the  Bntisli  line 
was  a  source  of  gi-eat  anxiety.  For  over 
fifteen  months  preparations  to  capture  the 
ridge  were  under  way.  Under  the  heights 
a  series  of  mines  ten  miles  in  extent  was 
placed,  and  these  were  exploded  on  June  7 
by  electric  contact.  The  blast  blew  off  the 
top    of   the   hills  and   destroyed   scores   of 


trenches  and  dugouts,  while  the  artillery 
played  on  the  exposed  positions  with  un- 
paralled  violence.  English,  Irish,  Austral- 
ian and  New  Zealand  infantrj-men  then 
swept  foi-ward,  capturing  the  entire  ridge 
and  assaulting  the  Gei-man  positions  in  the 
rear.  When  this  phase  of  the  battle  ended 
the  British  had  captured  defenses  on  a  front 
five  miles  wide  and  three  deep,  straightened 
their  line,  taken  7,000  prisoners  and  removed 
the  threat  to  Calais. 

Meanwhile,  on  April  16,  the  French,  under 
General  Petain,  began  an  assault  on  the 
Aisne  River,  between  Soissons  and  Rheims. 
Fighting  continued  at  intem^als  until  No- 
vember, when  the  French  held  positions  dom- 
inating the  Aisne  and  Ailette  valleys,  includ- 
ing the  celebrated  Chemin  des  Dames  (Road 
of  the  Ladies),  captui-e  of  which  was  one 
of  the  great  French  exploits  of  the  war. 
Forty  square  miles  of  territory  were  liber- 
ated, and  12,000  prisoners  taken,  besides  im- 
mense quantities  of  war  material. 

Fighting  in  Belgian  Flanders  was  re- 
newed by  the  British  in  July  and  continued 
to  the  end  of  the  year.  They  hoped  to  drive 
the  Germans  from  the  Belgian  coast,  to  force 
them  to  abandon  their  submarine  bases  at 
Ostend  and  Zeebrugge,  and  to  encircle  the 
important  industrial  city  of  Lille.  The  ulti- 
mate objects  of  the  campaign  were  not  real- 
ized, but  the  new  positions  gained  held  out 
promise  of  better  success  for  the  1918  cam- 
paign. Late  in  November  the  French  battle- 
ground came  again  into  prominence  when 
General  Byng  made  a  spectacular  attack  in 
the  direction  of  Cambrai,  and  at  hea^'^'  cost 
approached  within  two  miles  of  that  German- 
held  city.  However,  by  a  quick  counter- 
stroke  Hindenburg's  armies  pushed  their  foe 
back  two  miles,  and  the  effect  of  Byng's  dash 
was  nullified. 

The  Collapse  of  Russia.  In  spite  of  dis- 
organization and  political  upheaval  in  Rus- 
sian official  circles,  a  Russian  army  began 
an  offensive  in  Baltic  Russia,  in  January', 
with  the  captui-e  of  Mitau,  capital  of  Cour- 
land,  the  chief  objective.  The  movement  was 
a  failure,  and  in  March  the  long  threatening 
revolution  broke  out  in  Petrograd.  The  czar 
was  forced  to  abdicate,  and  a  democratic  pro- 
visional government  was  set  up. 

The  revolutionists  declared  their  loyalty 
to  the  allied  cause,  but  were  unable  to  hold 
their  armies  together  as  a  fighting  machine. 
German  propaganda  further  weakened  the 


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3926 


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morale  of  Russia's  troops,  and  it  was  soon 
evident  that  whatever  turn  the  revolution 
took  the  country  was  practically  out  of  the 
war  and  could  not  longer  be  counted  on  for 
support,  even  to  the  extent  of  continuing  to 
menace  Germany  and  keeping  German  regi- 
ments on  the  eastern  front.  Under  Kerensky 
as  Premier  an  attempt  was  made  to  estab- 
lish a  republic  on  a  moderate  Socialistic 
basis,  but  the  radical  elements  rapidly  organ- 
ized, and  in  November,  headed  by  Lenine 
and  Trotzky,  they  overturned  the  Kerensky 
regime.  These  radicals  were  known  as  the 
Bolsheviki,  meaning  those  of  the  majority 
(for  fui-ther  details  see  Russia  and  the  article 
Bolsheviki). 

The  Bolsheviki  promised  the  people  bread 
and  peace,  and  immediately  set  about  nego- 
tiating a  treaty  with  the  Central  Powers 
which  should  put  Russia  out  of  the  war.  The 
peace  envoys  met  at  Brest-Litovsk,  German 
eastern  headquarters,  once  an  important  city 
in  Western  Russia,  but  since  1915  in  ruins. 

Perhaps  never  before  had  the  world  wit- 
nessed so  one-sided  a  peace  conference  be- 
tween nations  which  did  not  meet  as  victor 
and  vanquished.  Geimany,  through  a  leg- 
islative majority,  had  proclaimed  its  desire 
for  peace  without  annexations  or  indem- 
nities. At  the  conference,  however,  the  Ger- 
man military  leaders  declared  that  Russia 
could  not  include  German-occupied  territory 
in  peace  discussions.  This  was  a  vital  point 
in  the  negotiations,  for  during  the  summer 
and  fall,  while  Russia  was  in  political  and 
industrial  chaos,  German  armies  had  taken 
Riga  and  the  provinces  of  Esthonia,  Livonia 
and  Courland,  and  had  gained  triumphs  in 
the  south  where  the  Ukraine  had  declared  for 
self-government. 

Trotzky,  in  charge  of  the  Russian  peace 
delegation,  unable  to  change  the  German 
purpose,  withdrew  his  fellow  members  from 
Brest-Litovsk,  declaring  he  would  make  no 
peace,  yet  would  not  continue  the  war.  Sub- 
sequently, Lenine  signed  a  humiliating  peace, 
which  deprived  Russia  of  all  occupied  terri- 
tory (for  details,  see  Russia).  Even  after 
the  agreement  was  signed  German  armies 
continued  to  push  farther  into  Russia,  and 
Petrograd  was  threatened.  The  Bolshevik 
government  thereupon  moved  to  Moscow. 

Rumania  Crushed.  At  the  close  of  1916 
Southern  Rumania  (Wallaehia)  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Central  Powers,  but  the 
northern    district,    Moldavia,    was    not    yet 


subdued.  In  December  the  Teutonic  forces 
began  an  offensive  to  complete  their  conquest 
of  the  country,  and  by  the  middle  of  Febru- 
ary, 1917,  they  had  under  control  all  but  a 
few  sections  in  the  north.  The  withdrawal 
of  Russia  from  the  war,  later  in  the  year, 
forced  Rumania  to  make  a  reluctant  peace. 
In  March,  1918,  the  humiliating  Treaty  of 
Bucharest  was  signed,  by  which  Rumania 
was  forced  to  cede  the  Dobrudja  as  far  as 
the  Danube  River  to  the  Central  Powers,  and 
to  grant  economic  advantages,  such  as  the 
control  of  railways,  wheat  harvests  and  oil 
wells,  for  an  indefinite  period.  The  treaty 
made  the  country  practically  a  vassal  state 
of  Germany. 

Italy's  Disaster.  The  account  of  the  Ital- 
ian campaign  on  a  preceding  page  stated 
that  the  armies  of  Victor  Emmanuel  cap- 
tured Goritz  in  August,  1916.  In  the  spring 
and  summer  of  1917  they  continued  their  at- 
tacks, winning  brilliant  victories  and  ap- 
proaching to  within  ten  miles  of  Triest.  Then 
in  the  fall  of  1917,  when  the  allies  were  feel- 
ing the  effects  of  the  Russian  collapse,  they 
were  disheartened  by  news  of  disaster  from 
the  Italian  front. 

After  a  campaign  of  subtle  propaganda, 
during  which  Germany  led  several  Italian 
divisions  to  believe  peace  to  be  near,  Austro- 
Hungarian  troops  with  the  aid  of  strong 
German  forces  opened  in  offensive  (October 
21).  Not  only  did  Italy  lose  the  ground 
that  had  been  won  the  year  before,  but  its 
enemy  penetrated  Italy  itself  and  was  not 
stopped  until  the  Piave  River  was  reached. 
About  1,000  square  miles  of  Italian  territory 
were  thus  laid  under  German  domination. 
Venice  was  threatened ;  its  works  of  art  were 
removed,  its  wonderful  buildings  protected 
as  much  as  possible,  and  the  inhabitants  sent 
farther  south.  Had  not  the  lowlands  around 
the  mouth  of  the  Piave  been  flooded  to  ar- 
rest the  progress  of  the  enemy,  the  city  might 
have  been  attacked  successfully. 

Allied  Victories  in  Asia.  Though  allied 
prospects  were  dimmed  by  the  Russian, 
Rumanian  and  Italian  disasters,  the  year 
1917  was  favorable  for  them  in  Asia.  Early 
in  the  year  the  British  began  a  campaign  in 
Mesopotamia  to  offset  the  unsuccessful  ex- 
pedition of  General  Townshend.  Under 
General  Sir  Stanley  Maude  British  troops 
worked  their  way  up  the  Tigris,  forced  the 
Turks  to  abandon  Kut-el-Amara  (February) 
and  in  March  triumphantly  entered  the  city 


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3927 


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of  Bagdad.  The  evacuation  of  the  historic 
city  was  a  blow  to  Turkish  prestige,  and  with 
its  fall  the  valuable  cultivated  fields  of 
Babylonia  came  into  British  control.  By  fall 
the  British  had  advanced  a  hundred  miles 
north  of  Bagdad  and  had  secured  control  of 
the  Bagdad-Samai-a  railway.  In  November 
they  suffered  a  disaster  in  the  death  of  Gen- 
eral Maude. 

Palestine  was  also  the  scene  of  allied  vic- 
tories. Early  in  Februaiy,  1917,  the  British 
under  General  Sir  Edmund  Allenby  cap- 
tured Rafa,  on  the  Sinai  Peninsula,  and  be- 
gan an  advance  on  Gaza  and  Beersheba.  Not 
until  autumn  were  these  towns  captured, 
but  after  the  fall  of  Gaza,  in  November, 
progress  was  rapid.  On  December  10  Jeru- 
salem was  captured,  and  the  Holy  City  was 
in  Christian  hands  for  the  first  time  in  four 
centuries. 

Greece.  Grecian  neutrality  was  aban- 
doned in  June,  1917,  when  the  king  abdi- 
cated, and  the  pro-ally  statesman  Venizelos 
formed  a  new  Ministry.  King  Constantino 
was  succeeded  by  his  second  son,  Alexander, 
as  the  crown  prince  was  suspected  of  pro- 
German  tendencies.  In  this  diplomatic  up- 
heaval the  entente  had  an  active  part.  The 
allied  anny  in  Macedonia  was  now  in  a  posi- 
tion to  advance,  as  there  was  no  longer  dan- 
ger of  an  attack  in  the  rear  on  the  part  of 
Constantine. 

The  United  States  Enters  the  War. 
Throughout  the  year  of  1916  President  Wil- 
son had  been  seeking  by  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence to  persuade  Germany  to  modify 
its  submarine  warfare,  which  the  President 
held  was  in  direct  violation  of  international 
law.  What  he  sought  in  particular  was  Ger- 
many's promise  that  merchant  and  passenger 
vessels  should  not  be  attacked  without  warn- 
ing. The  Germanic  allies  were  the  only 
belligerents  causing  the  death  of  noncom- 
batants  on  the  high  seas,  and  feeling  in  the 
United  States  was  stirred  to  a  high  pitch 
when  sinkings  continued  in  spite  of  apparent 
yielding  to  the  President's  demand.  Then, 
early  in  1917,  came  a  crisis. 

On  January  31  Count  von  Bemstorff,  the 
German  ambassador  at  Washington,  deliv- 
ered a  note  to  the  State  Department  announc- 
ing the  inauguration  of  unrestricted  sub- 
marine warfare  on  the  first  day  of  Februaiy. 
The  note  stated  that  from  that  date  all  neutral 
and  enemy  vessels  encountered  anywhere  on 
the  seas  would  be  sunk  without  warning,  but 


that  the  United  States  would  be  permitted 
weekly  to  send  one  ship  in  each  direction 
across  the  Atlantic,  if  it  were  properly 
marked  for  identification  and  followed  a 
desigiiated  course.  Germany  thus  renounced 
a  former  promise  to  America  to  respect  the 
rights  of  nations  upon  the  high  seas. 

President  Wilson  thereupon  severed  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Germany,  and  on  Febru- 
arj'  3  Bei-nstorff  was  handed  his  passpoi-ts. 
The  two  nations  were  not  officially  at  war 
until  April  6,  but  in  the  meantime  the  United 
Stages  became  an  arrried  belligerent.  On 
February  26  President  Wilson  asked  Con- 
gress for  authority  to  arm  American  mer- 
chant vessels.  The  House  passed  a  bill 
granting  such  authority,  but  a  filibuster  in 
the  Senate  by  a  small  gi'oup  of  opposition 
Senators  prevented  its  passage  before  the 
expiration  of  the  session  of  Congress,  on 
March  4.  The  President,  however,  found 
authority  for  anning  ships  in  an  old  act  of 
1819,  and  so  nullified  the  efforts  of  the  op- 
position. 

On  March  12  the  policy  of  armed  neutral- 
ity was  announced.  Meanwhile  the  country 
had  been  stin'ed  to  increased  indignation  by 
the  publication  of  a  note  from  the  German 
Foreign  Minister  to  the  Gennan  ambassador 
in  Mexico,  directing  the  latter  to  propose  an 
alliance  with  Mexico  against  the  United 
States  should  America  and  Germany  become 
enemies.  A  similar  suggestion  to  Japan  was 
proposed. 

The  policy  of  arming  merchant  vessels  did 
not  meet  the  situation,  and  sinkings  con- 
tinued. A  large  section  of  the  population 
and  press  felt  that  actual  participation  in 
the  war  was  the  only  honorable  course,  a 
feeling  shared  by  the  President,  who  called 
the  Sixty-fifth  Congress  in  special  session  on 
April  2.  Before  a  joint  assembly  of  both 
houses  he  read  an  eloquent  war  message  in 
which  he  asked  that  Congress  recognize  a 
state  of  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Germany.  On  April  4  the  war  resolution 
passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  86  to  6,  and 
on  April  6  it  passed  the  House  by  a  vote 
of  373  to  50.  The  resolution  was  worded  as 
follows : 

Whereas,  the  Imperial  German  Government 
has  committed  repeated  acts  of  war  against 
tlie  Government  and  the  people  of  the  United 
States  of  America:     Therefore  he   it: 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives of  the  United  States  of  America 
in  Congress  assembled: 


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3928 


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TlKit  the  state  of  war  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Imperial  German  Government 
which  has  thus  l)een  thrust  upon  the  United 
States  is  hereby  formally  declared;  and  that 
the  President  be,  and  he  is  thereby,  author- 
ized and  directed  to  employ  the  naval  and 
military  forces  of  the  United  States  and  the 
resources  of  the  Government  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  Imperial  German  Government; 
and  to  bring  the  conflict  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination all  of  the  resources  of  the  country 
are  hereby  pledged  by  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States. 

Chronological    Survey    of    Events.    The 

following  is  a  list  of  events  showing  the  rela- 
tion of  the  United  States  to  the  war  from  its 
outbreak  in  1914  to  the  war  resolution  of 
1917.  It  shows  that  there  were  numerous 
hostile  acts  on  the  part  of  Germany  and  its 
agents  from  an  early  date: 

1914 

Aug.  3 — Congress  appropriates  $250,000  for 
emergency  relief  of  Americans  in  Europe. 

Aug.  4 — America  issues  proclamation  of  neu- 
trality. 

Aug.  5 — President  Wilson  offers  to  mediate 
between  belligerent  nations;  appeals  for 
peace. 

Aug.   5 — German-American  cable  cut. 

Aug.  14 — German  kaiser  tells  United  States 
Ambassador  Gerard  that  he  is  unable  to 
accept  president's  olTer  of  mediation;  says 
neutrality  of  Belgium  had  to  be  violated  on 
strategical  grounds. 

Aug.  15 — Congress  appropriates  $2,500,000  for 
use  of  American  diplomatic  and  consular 
ofRcers  abroad  to  relieve  American  citizens. 

Aug.  16 — United  States  cruisers  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina  arrive  at  Falmouth,  Eng- 
land, with  money  for  relief  of  stranded 
Americans. 

Aug.  18 — President  Wilson  appeals  to  citizens 
of  United  States  to  observe  strict  neutrality 
towards  all  belligerents. 

Aug.  26 — Belgium  protests  to  the  United 
States  against  throwing  of  bombs  from  Ger- 
man aircraft  on  Antwerp. 

Sept.  11 — Congress  appropriates  $1,000,000  for 
expenses  of  American  embassies  and  lega- 
tions abroad  representing  various  belliger- 
ents. 

Sept.  16 — Mission  from  Belgium  appeals  to 
President  Wilson  against  alleged  atrocities 
committed  by  Germans. 

Oct.  22 — American  emergency  war  tax — in- 
crease in  internal  revenue  tax — becomes  a 
law. 

Nov.  1 — Rockefeller  Foundation  announces 
that  it  will  help  Belgium  relief  work. 

Nov.  16 — United  States  launch  from  cruiser 
Tennessee  fired  upon  by  Turks  at  Smyrna. 

Nov.  25 — Allies  ask  United  States  to  help  en- 
force neutrality  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia 
against  German  intrigue. 

Dec.  24 — Admiral  von  Tirpitz,  chief  of  Ger- 
man navy,  outlines  possibilities  of  ruthless 
submarine  war  and  asks:  "What  will  Amer- 
ica say?" 


1915 

Jan.  14 — Buchthorne  plant  of  John  A.  Roeb- 
ling,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  engaged  in  work  for 
allies,  burns;  loss  $1,500,000.  Incendiarism 
suspected. 

Jan.  28 — German  auxiliary  cruiser  Prinz  Eitel 
Priedrich  sinks  American  ship  William  P. 
Frye  and  brings  its  crew  to  American 
port. 

Feb.  2 — Attempt  to  blow  up  international  rail- 
road bridges  between  Vanceboro,  Me.,  and 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  confessed  by  Wer- 
ner Horn,  German  captain. 

Feb.  4 — Germany  proclaims  waters  surround- 
ing Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  be  war 
zone  and  says  that  on  and  after  Feb.  18 
"every  enemy  merchant  ship  found  in  said 
zone  will  be  destroyed,  it  not  always  being 
possible  to  avert  dangers  that  threaten 
crews  and  passengers.  Even  neutral  ships 
are  exposed  to  danger  in  war  zone,  as  in 
View  of  misuse  of  neutral  flags  ordered 
Jan.  31  by  British  government,  and  of  ac- 
cidents of  naval  war  it  cannot  always  be 
avoided  to  strike  even  neutral  ships  in  at- 
tacks that  are  directed  at  enemy  ships." 

Feb.  10 — United  States  replies  to  German 
proclamation,  warning  Germany  the  de- 
struction of  American  vessels  or  loss  of 
American  life  is  an  indefensible  violation 
of  neutral  rights  and  that  the  United  States 
will  hold  Germany  to  strict  accountability 
for  all  such  acts. 

Feb.  16 — Germany  protests  to  the  United 
States  against  British  blockade;  justifies 
its  submarine  campaign  on  ground  of  "star- 
vation methods"  of  allies;  says  it  is  not 
the  intention  of  Germany  to  destroy  neutral 
lives  and   neutral  property. 

Feb.  19 — American  freight  ship  Evelyn,  car- 
rying cotton  from  New  York  to  Bremen, 
strikes  mine  in  North  sea;  one  life  lost. 

Feb.  19 — Great  Britain  explains  that  Ameri- 
can flag  was  raised  on  liner  Lusitania  at 
request  of  American  passengers  and  that 
this  practice  has  been  recognized  heretofore 
as  permissible  in  an  emergency. 

Feb.  20 — United  States  sends  identical  notes 
to  Great  Britain  and  Germany  asking  that 
neutral  vessels  be  not  endangered;  that  no 
floating  mines  be  turned  loose;  that  no 
anchored  mines  be  placed  in  high  seas;  that 
submarines  be  not  used  to  attack  merchant- 
men; that  no  neutral  flag  be  used  on  bel- 
ligerent ships;  that  the  nations  agree  that 
United  States  send  foodstuffs  to  American 
agents  in  Germany  for  distribution  to  non- 
combatants. 

Feb.  22 — American  ship  Carib  sunk  at  mouth 
of  Ems  river,  Germany. 

March  1 — Germany  replies  that  it  would  be 
willing  not  to  use  floating  mines;  refuses 
to  give  up  anchored  mines;  sets  forth  sub- 
marine is  not  to  attack  merchant  ships  ex- 
cept to  visit  and  search;  sets  forth  enemy 
is  not  to  use  neutral  flag  nor  to  arm  its 
merchantmen;  demands  that  raw  material 
be  passed  in  addition  to  foodstuffs,  the 
plan  for  the  distribution  of  which  it  says 
"is   generally   acceptable." 


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3929 


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March  1 — France  and  Great  Britain  announce 
that  in  view  of  indiscriminate  sinking  of 
ships  by  Germany,  allies  will  hold,  detain 
and  take  into  port  ships  carrying-  goods 
of  presumed  enemy  origin,  destination  and 
ownership. 

March  3 — Congress  creates  coast  guard  and 
naval  reserve. 

March  6 — Five  men  killed  in  two  explosions 
in  Du  Pont  powder  plant  at  Haskell,  N.  H., 
manufacturing  for  allies. 

March  8 — Charles  Ruroede  pleads  guilty  in 
New  York  to  obtaining  faL-se  passports  for 
German   reservists. 

March  15 — Great  Britain  replies  to  American 
note  of  Feb.  20  that  it  cannot  consider  act- 
ing on  it  since  Germany  will  not  abandon 
mine  laying  or  submarine  warfare.  It  pro- 
tests against  German  acts  affecting  civil- 
ians in  Belgium  and  northern  France;  mine 
laying  on  high  seas;  mistreatment  of  Brit- 
ish prisoners  of  war;  sinking  of  British 
merchantmen;  bombarding  of  defenseless 
towns,  and  air  raids. 

March  27 — American  merchantman  Falaba, 
3,011  tons  sunk  by  submarine;  one  Ameri- 
can life  lost. 

March  30 — United  States  issues  protest 
against    interference    with    its    trade. 

March  31 — The  United  States  presents  to  Ger- 
many a  claim  for  $228,059  for  sinking  of 
the  William  P.  Frye.  t 

April  1 — Five  men  killed  in  explosion  in 
plant  of  Equitable  Powder  company,  Alton, 
111. 

April  2 — American  ship  Greenbrier  sunk  by  a 
mine  immediately  after  leaving  Bremen  for 
New  York. 

April  4 — Germany  protests  that  food  ship- 
ments are  not  reaching  her;  since  Ameri- 
can war  materials  can  reach  only  one  group 
of  belligerents  she  suggests  an  embargo 
on  all  war  shipments. 

April  5 — Germany  offers  to  put  the  case  of  the 
William  P.  Frye  up  to  prize  court,  to  which 
the   United    States    objects. 

April  21 — United  States  replies  to  German 
protest  against  sending  munitions  that  it 
would  not  be  neutral  if  it  abandoned  trade. 

April  22 — German  embassy  at  Washington 
publishes  warning  in  New  York  newspapers 
against  passengers  sailing  on  Lusitania. 

April  28 — American  oil  tank  steamer  Gushing, 
bound  from  Rotterdam  to  Philadelphia  at- 
tacked near  Antwerp  by  German  aeroplane, 
which  throws  three  bombs. 

May  1 — American  oil  tank  steamer  Gulflight 
torpedoed  by  German  submarine  without 
warning  off  Scilly  islands;  three  Ameri- 
cans dead. 

May  7 — Cunard  liner  Lusitania,  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool,  torpedoed  off  Irish  coast 
by  German  submarine  without  warning; 
114  American  lives  lost. 

May  12 — Guncotton  storehouse  of  Anderson 
Chemical  company,  Wallington,  N.  J., 
wrecked  by  explosion;  three  dead. 

May  13 — United  States  sends  first  protest  to 
Germany  on  sinking  of  Lusitania  as  not 
compatible    with    international    law. 


Maj'  25 — American  ship  Nebraskan,  chartered 
to  British  White  Star  Line,  carrying  coal 
for  United  States  navy,  damaged  by  a  Ger- 
man submarine  near  Ireland. 

May  28 — Germany  defends  sinking  of  Lusi- 
tania, asserting  that  it  carried  munitions 
and  traveled  too  fast  to  be  warned. 

June  9 — United  States  again  asks  Germany, 
in  second  Lusitania  note,  for  assurances 
that  American  lives  and  property  will  be 
safeguarded   in   future. 

June  12 — Bernhard  Dernburg,  German  propa- 
ganda leader  in  America,  who  justified 
sinking  of  Lusitania  in  newspaper  inter- 
view, departs  for  Germany  via  Norway  be- 
cause  of   his   unpopularity. 

June  28 — British  mule  ship  Armenian  sunk 
by  German  submarine;  twenty  Americans 
dead. 

June  29 — Austria  protests  to  the  United  States 
against  shipment  of  munitions  to  allies; 
admits  America's  legal  right,  but  insists 
action  is  not  neutral,  because  part  of  bel- 
ligerents are  cut  off  from  supply. 

July  2 — Frank  Holt  (Erich  Muenter)  tries 
to  blow  up  capitol  at  Washington  as  pro- 
test against  making  munitions;  next  day 
tries  to  kill  J.  P.  Morgan;  commits  suicide 
in  jail,   July  6. 

July  7 — Incendiary  fire  discovered  in  hold  of 
transatlantic   steamer   Minnehaha. 

.Tuly  8 — Germany  promises  that  American 
ships  in  the  prosecution  of  legal  voyages 
will  not  be  hindered;  American  lives  on 
neutral  vessels  shall  not  be  placed  in 
jeopardy. 

July  9 — Cunard  line  steamship  Orduna,  carry- 
ing Americans,   attacked  off  Irish  coast  by- 
submarine    w^ith    torpedo    and    shells    with- 
out warning;  uninjured. 

July  12 — Germany  declares  attack  on  steam- 
er Nebraskan  was  due  to  misunderstanding; 
expresses  regret  and  promises  compensa- 
tion. 

July  13 — Public  disclosures  prove  attempts 
by  German  sympathizers  in  United  States 
to  destroy  by  bombs  the  following  trans- 
atlantic vessels:  Bankdale,  Touraine,  Devon 
City,  Lord  Erne,  Cressington,  Samland,  Lord 
Devonshire,  Kirkoswald  and  Strathtay. 

July  13 — Mixing  building  of  United  Safety 
Powder  corhpany  at  Jefferson,  Ky.,  wrecked; 
three  killed. 

July  21 — United  States,  in  third  Lusitania 
note,  asks  Germany  to  make  reparation  for 
lives  lost  and  disavow  act;  declares  that 
such  another  attack  will  be  considered 
deliberately   unfriendly. 

July  25 — American  ship  Leelanaw,  from  Ar- 
changel to  Belfast,  loaded  with  flax,  torpe- 
doed off  the  Orkneys. 

July  31 — British  steamer  Iberian,  5,223  tons, 
sunk;  three  Americans  killed  by  shell  fire; 
three  wounded. 

Aug.  12 — United  States  replies  to  Austria- 
Hungary  that  it  is  not  violating  neutrality 
in  making  munitions. 

Aug.  16 — Five  killed  in  explosion  of  Sinnama- 
honing  (Pa.)  plant  of  ^tna  Explosives 
company. 


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Aug.  19 — White  Star  liner  Arabic,  15,801  tons. 

torpedoed:  two  Americans  killed. 
Aug.      24 — German      Ambassador      Bernstorff 
gives   out   interview  in  Washing-ton  saying 
loss  of  American  lives  on  Arabic  was  "con- 
trary to  our  intention." 

Aug.  29 — Two  Du  Pont  powder  mills  at  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  destroyed;  two  killed. 

Aug.  30 — Shrapnel  plant  of  E.  J.  Dodd  com- 
pany,  Baltimore,   Md.,   burned. 

Aug.  30 — Through  discovery  of  letters  carried 
by  James  J.  F.  Archibald  and  seized  by 
English  at  Falmouth,  United  States  learns 
that  Dr.  Constantin  T.  Dumba,  ambassador 
of  Austria-Hungary  to  United  States, 
writes  his  superiors  that  he  has  plans  under 
way  to  "disorganize  and  hold  up  for  months, 
if  not  entirely  prevent,  manufacture  of 
munitions  in  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  and  middle 
west,  which,  in  opinion  of  German  attache, 
is  of  great  importance  and  amply  outweighs 
expenditure  of  money  involved."  Other 
disclosures  also  made. 

Sept.  1 — Germany  promises  that  "liners  will 
not  be  sunk  by  our  submarines  without 
warning  and  without  safety  to  lives  of 
noncombatants,  provided  that  liners  do  not 
try  to   escape   or   offer   resistance." 

Sept.  4 — Steamship  Hesperian,  6,124  tons, 
torpedoed:   one  American  killed. 

Sept  9 — President  Wilson  asks  recall  of  Dr. 
Dumba,  Austro-Hungarian  ambassador,  on 
ground   of  Archibald   disclosures. 

Sept.  19 — Germany,  after  negotiation  in  case 
of  the  William  P.  Frye,  agrees  that  amount 
of  damage  shall  be  settled  by  conference  of 
experts  and  says  submarines  have  been 
ordered  not  to  destroy  American  merchant- 
men   carrying    conditional    contraband. 

Sept.    21 — British    house    of    commons    makes 
•  public    thirty-four    letters    and    documents 
found  on  Archibald;   two  from  German  at- 
tache   Boy-Ed,    and    one    from    Von   Papen, 
German  captain. 

Sept.  24 — Austria-Hungary  reiterates  protests 
against    America's     making    of    munitions. 

Oct.  12 — Edith  Cavell,  English  nurse,  execut- 
ed at  Brussels  in  spite  of  protest  of  Ameri- 
can  legation. 

Oct.  24 — United  States  secret  service  men  ar- 
rest Robert  Fay,  lieutenant  in  German 
army,  and  others  in  New  York  on  charge  of 
conspiring  to  destroy  munitions'  ships  by 
bombs;  Fay,  Walter  Scholz  and  Paul  Daeche 
found  guilty  May  8,   1916. 

Nov.  7 — Ancona,  8,210  tons,  sunk  by  Austrian 
submarine;    twenty-four    Americans    killed. 

Nov.  10 — Machine  shop  of  Bethlehem  Steel 
company.  South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  burned 
with  loss  of   ?5, 000, 000. 

Dec.  3 — United  States  asks  Germany  to  re- 
call Capt.  Boy-Ed,  military  attache,  and 
Capt.  Von  Papen  for  "improper  activities  in 
military  and  naval  matters."  Boy-Ed  said  to 
have  handled  $750,000  for  chartering  ships 
to  supply  German  raiders. 

Dec.  3 — United  States  steamer  Communipaw 
sunk. 

Dec.  4 — Karl  Buenz,  Adolf  Hochmeister, 
George  Koetter  and  Joseph  Poppinghaus  of 


the  Hamburg- American  line  convicted  of 
conspiracy  to  deceive  and  defraud  the 
United  States  by  supplying  German  cruisers 
at  sea. 

Dec.  5 — American  oil  tank  ship  Petrolite  at- 
tacked. 

Dec.  6 — United  States  sends  Austria  note  of 
protest   against    sinking   of   Ancona. 

Dec.  7 — President  Wilson  advocates  prepared- 
ness in  message  to  congress. 

Dec.  30 — British  liner  Persia  sunk  by  sub- 
marine; Robert  N.  McXeely,  newly  ap- 
pointed consul  of  United  States  at  Aden, 
Arabia,  killed;  also  Homer  R.  Salisbury, 
American  missionary. 

191C 

Jan.  6 — Brindisi,  Italian  steamship,  strikes 
mine;  one  American   killed. 

Jan.  7 — Germany  in  official  note  promises  sub- 
marine shall  insure  safety  of  crews  and 
passengers;  if  accident  prevents  this,  will 
make  reparation;  offers  to  pay  indemnity 
for  Americans  lost  on  Lusitania. 

Jan.  27 — President  Wilson  begins  speaking 
tour  through  country  to  advocate  large 
volunteer  army  with  reserve  of  500,000. 

Feb.  10 — Austria  and  Germany  announce  to 
United  States  that  after  Feb.  29  they  will 
treat  armed  merchantmen  as  belligerent 
ships. 

Seh.  17 — Lusitania  case  regarded  as  settled; 
Germany  agrees  to  warn  liners,  but  ob- 
jects to   armament. 

Feb.  24 — President  Wilson,  in  letter  to  Sen- 
ator Stone,  declares  rights  of  Americans 
cannot  be  abridged  or  denied  and  that 
order  to  Americans  to  keep  off  armed  mer- 
chantmen -would  be  such   denial. 

March  3 — Gore  resolution  declaring  sinking 
of  armed  merchant  vessel  by  submarine 
with  loss  of  American  lives  cause  foir  war, 
lost   in   senate. 

March  7 — House  refuses  to  consider  Mc- 
Lemore  resolution  to  -warn  all  American 
citizens   against    traveling   in    armed   ships. 

March  9 — One  American  injured  in  torpedoing 
of  Norwegian  bark  Silvius  by  German  sub- 
marine. 

March  16 — Dutch  liner  Tubantia,.with  Ameri- 
cans aboard,  torpedoed  without  warning. 
British  merchantman  Berwindale,  with  four 
Americans  aboard,  torpedoed. 

March  24 — French  channel  steamer  Sussex 
torpedoed  without  warning;  Americans  in- 
jured. British  merchantman  Englishman 
torpedoed;  one  American  killed. 

March  27 — United  States  asks  Germany  if  her 
submarine  sank  the  Sussex. 

March  27 — British  merchantman  Manchester 
Engineer,  with  Americans  aboard,  sunk 
without  warning  by  torpedo. 

March  28 — United  States  asks  Germany  if  her 
submarine  sank  the  Englishman. 

March  29 — United  States  asks  Germany  if  her 
submarine   sank   Manchester   Engineer. 

March  31 — Horst  von  der  Goltz,  alleged  Ger- 
man spy,  discloses  plot  to  invade  Canada, 
destroy  Welland  canal;  admits  enlisting 
Germans    in    Baltimore    and    elsewhere. 


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3931 


WORLD  WAR 


April  1 — United  States  asks  Germany  if  her 
submarine  sank  British  steamer  Eagle 
Point,  with  Americans  aboard  on  March  28. 

April  1 — United  States  aslis  Germany  if  her 
submarine  sank  British  steamer  Berwin- 
dale,   with  Americans   aboard  on   March  16. 

April  11 — Germany  replies  Berwindale  tried 
to  escape  submarine;  Englishman  tried  to 
escape;  Manchester  Engineer  not  estab- 
lished; Eagle  Point  tried  to  escape;  Sussex 
sinking  not  yet  traced  to  submarine. 

April  18 — United  States  furnishes  proof  that 
German  submarine  sank  Sussex;  threatens 
breach  of  diplomatic  relations  if  similar 
sinking  is  repeated. 

April  19 — President  Wilson  goes  before  con- 
gress to  explain  details  of  submarine  con- 
troversy   and    warning    to    break    relations. 

April  19 — Government  officers  in  New  York 
seize  papers  of  Wolf  von  Igel,  former  secre- 
tary to  Capt.  von  Papen;  German  ambas- 
sador asks  for  papers  on  ground  of  diplo- 
matic immunity;  government  offers  to  give 
him  any  that  he  can  identify  as  belonging 
to  embassy. 

May  4 — Germany  announces  submarine  com- 
manders have  received  orders  not  to  sink 
ships  without  warning  and  saving  human 
lives,  unless  they  offer  resistance  or  at- 
tempt to  escape. 

May  9 — Germany  in  detailed  statement  de- 
clares all  ships  encountered  by  submarines  ■ 
will  be  dealt  with  according  to  internation- 
al law;  if  neutral  i.s  damaged  Germany  will 
make  reparation  without  recourse  to  a  prize 
court  or  submit  to  international  arbitration. 

May  13 — New  York  holds  first  preparedness 
demonstration  in  country  with  125,683  men 
in  line. 

May  16 — Batavier  V.,  Dutch  liner,  sunk  by 
mine;  one  American  killed. 

June  3 — Chicago  preparedness  demonstration 
with  130,214  men  in  line. 

June  3 — Chamberlain  army  bill  providing  for 
volunteer  army  and  federalized  national 
guard,  becomes  law. 

June  12 — Congress  appropriates  $200,000,000 
for  training  national  guard. 

July  1 — Act  drafting  national  guard  into 
regular  arroy  becomes  a  law. 

July  31 — Dutch  liner,  Koenigin  Wilhelmina, 
with   American    aboard,    torpedoed. 

Aug.  29 — Act  increasing  navy  becomes  law; 
adds  157  ships;  ten  battle  ships;  six  battle 
cruisers;  ten  scout  cruisers;  fifty  destroy- 
ers; nine  fleet  submarines;  fifty-nine  regu- 
lar submarines. 

Sept.  2 — British  merchantman  Kelvina,  with 
twenty-eight  Americans  aboard,  sunk  by 
mine  or  torpedo. 

Sept.  7 — Shipping  board  to  encourage  naval 
auxiliary   formed. 

Sept.  8 — Emergency  revenue  act  becomes  law; 
provides  for  special  munitions  tax,  etc. 

Oct.  7 — German  war  submarine  U-53  puts  in 
at  Newport,  R.  I.;  on  Oct.  8  it  sinks  Strath- 
dene,  British;  West  Point,  British;  Ste- 
phano,  British;  Bloomersdyk,  Dutch,  and 
Christian  Knudsen,  Norwegian.  United 
States    destroyers    rescue    survivors.      Ste- 


phano  had  many  Americans  abroad,  return- 
ing from  vacation  in  Newfoundland. 

Oct.  19 — Aulania,  British  merchantman,  sunk 
without  warning  in  English  channel; 
twenty-one    Americans    aboard. 

Oct.  28 — American  ship  Lanao  sunk  off  Ports- 
mouth by  submarine. 

Oct.  28 — British  steamer  Marina  sunk  without 
warning  by  German  submarine;  six  Ameri- 
cans killed. 

Nov.  7 — American  steamer  Columbian  shelled 
and  sunk  by  German  submarine  off  Spanish 
coast. 

Nov.  26 — American  merchantman  Chemung 
sunk  off  Andalusia. 

Nov.  26 — Germany  refuses  to  give  United 
States  Consul  Pike  right  to  cross  Germany 
from  Warnemunde   to   Switzerland. 

Nov.  29 — United  States  sends  protest  against 
deportation  of  Belgians  to  Germany. 

Dec.  4 — Italian  steamship  Palermo,  with 
twenty-five  Americans   aboard,   sunk. 

Dec.  14 — British  ship  Russian,  with  seventeen 
Americans  aboard,  sunk. 

1917 

Jan.  11 — Franz  Bopp,  German  consul-general 
at  San  Francisco,  and  Baron  George  W. 
von  Brincken,  convicted  of  conspiring  to 
injure  American  shipping,  munitions,  plants, 
etc.,  and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprison- 
ment. 

Jan.  19 — British  steamer  Yarrowdale  sunk; 
seventy-two  American  seamen  taken  as 
prisoners   to   Germany. 

Jan.  22 — President  Wilson  addresses  senate  on 
a  world  league  for  peace;  proposes  a  peace 
without  victory. 

Jan.  31 — Germany  gives  United  States  Am- 
bassador Gerard  in  Berlin  six  hours'  notice 
of  opening  of  ruthless  submarine  warfare; 
declares  ships  will  be  sunk  within  specified 
zone  around  British  Isles  whether  neutral 
or  not  if  submarine  has  not  time  to  warn 
or  allow  men  to  escape. 

Feb.  3 — In  view  of  Germany's  summary 
breaking  of  pledges  regarding  safety  of 
neutrals  in  submarine  zone  President  Wil- 
son breaks  diplomatic  relations  and  gives 
Ambassador  Bernstorff  his  passports.  The 
latter  was  given  safe  conduct  to  Germany. 

Feb.  3 — American  merchantman  HoiTsatonic 
sunk  by   submarine. 

Feb.  13 — American  merchantman  Lyman  M. 
Law  sunk  by  German  submarine. 

Feb.  21 — Publication  is  made  of  intercepted 
note  from  German  Foreign  Secretary  Zim- 
mermann  to  German  minister  in  Mexico 
City,  dated  Jan.  19,  1917,  proposing  alliance 
between  Mexico,  Japan  and  Germany  and 
suggesting  Mexico  be  paid  by  annexation  of 
American  southwestern  states  for  co-oper- 
ation with  Germany. 

Feb.  25 — Spanish  embassy  in  Berlin  informed 
men  from  Yarrowdale  had  been  released. 
Men  reached  Switzerland  March  11;  com- 
plained of  cruel  treatment  as  prisoners  of 
war. 

Feb.  26 — British  steamer  Laconia  sunk;  five 
Americans  killed. 


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3932 


WORLD  WAR 


March  2 — American  merchantman  Algonquin 
sunlc  by  German  submarine  with  shell  fire 
and  bombs;  crew  escapes. 

March  8 — Dr.  Chakraberty,  prominent  in  In- 
dian independence  movement,  admits  get- 
ting $60,000  in  New  York  from  Wolf  von 
Igel,  German  agent,  to  start  trouble  in 
India. 

March  9 — President  Wilson  orders  navy  de- 
partment to  arm  American  merchant  ves- 
sels. 

March  9 — President  Wilson  calls  congress  to 
meet  in  extraordinary  session  April  16. 

March  12 — United  States  serves  formal  notice 
on  neutrals  of  severance  of  relations  with 
Germany    and    asks    neutral   support. 

March  14 — China  informs  United  States  it  has 
severed  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany. 
American  influence  accomplished  this. 

March  17 — First  armed  American  liner,  St. 
Louis,  leaves  New  York,  carrying  naval  gun 
crew  under  decision  of  president  allowing 
American  ships   to  arm. 

March  18 — Three  American  ships  sunk  by 
submarine — City  of  Memphis,  Illinois  and 
Vigilancia;  fifteen  members  of  Vigilancia 
crew  lost. 

March  21 — President  Wilson  calls  congress  to 
meet  April  2,  instead  of  April  16. 

March  22 — American  oil  ship  Healdton,  with 
cargo  worth  $2,150,000,  sunk  by  submarine; 
seven  Americans  killed. 

March  22 — Immense  mass  meeting  in  New 
York  demands  action  against  Germany; 
12,000  pledge  loyalty. 

March  22 — Capt.  Franz  Rintelen  of  German 
navy  and  two  others  convicted  in  New  York 
of  conspiracy  to  interfere  with  shipment  of 
munitions. 

March  24 — President  Wilson  orders  Brand 
Whitlock,  United  States  minister,  and  all 
consuls  in  Belgium  to  leave. 

March  25 — President  Wilson  signs  bill  to  in- 
crease navy  personnel  by  26,000  men  to 
87,000. 

March  25 — War  department  calls  units  of  na- 
tional guard  in  nine  states  and  District  of 
Columbia;  13,000  men. 

March  26 — War  department  calls   25,000  men. 

March  30 — The  federal  government  calls  on 
all  government  employes,  totaling  500,000, 
to  aid  secret  service  department  in  detect- 
ing spies  and  plots. 

April  1 — American  steamer  Aztec,  3,722  tons, 
value  $500,000,  sunk  off  Brest;  twenty-eight 
men,  including  Boatswain's  Mate  Eopulucci, 
of  United  States  naval  guard,  dead. 

April  2 — Six  Germans  convicted  in  New  York 
of  conspiracy  to  destroy  munitions  ships 
by  bombs,  among  them  the  chief  engineer 
of  the  German  steamship  Friedrich  der 
Grosse,  and  four  assistant  engineers. 

April  2 — The  65th  congress  meets  in  special 
session  and  President  Wilson  asks  it  to  de- 
clare that  a  state  of  war  exists  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany. 

April  4 — American  merchantman  Missourian, 
left  Genoa  April  4,  4,981  tons,  sunk  without 
warning   in    Mediterranean. 

April  4 — Senate  votes  war  resolution. 


April  5 — Disclosures  made  showing  that  an 
office  for  the  issuance  of  fraudulent  Amer- 
ican passports  to  German  reservists  was 
maintained  by  Hans  von  Wedell  and  others 
under  the  supervision  of  Capt.  von  Papen 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Wolf  von  Igel. 

April  5 — Belgian  relief  ship  Trevier,  2,991 
tons,   carrying  food   to  Belgium,   torpedoed. 

April  6 — House  votes  war  resolution. 

April  6 — War  measure  signed  by  President 
Wilson.  Formal  war  proclamation  is 
issued. 

The  Nation  at  War.  AYlien  war  was  im- 
minent the  administration  called  for  volun- 
teers to  join  the  regular  armj^,  the  navy  and 
the  marine  coriDS,  but  the  decision  to  enter 
the  war  on  a  major  scale  brought  with  it  the 
necessity  of  a  new  military  policy.  The 
President  therefore  asked  Congress  to  pass  a 
selective  draft  law.  Such  a  bill  passed  both 
Houses,  and  was  signed  by  the  President  on 
May  18.  On  June  5  about  10,000,000  men 
between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  thirty- 
one  were  registered,  and  selections  for  a  new 
national  army  were  soon  under  way. 

The  government  established  sixteen  train- 
ing camps  for  drilling  the  national  guard 
(state  militia)  units,  sixteen  for  training  the 
army  to  be  selected  from  conscription,  and 
eighteen  great  aviation  fields.  On  Septem- 
ber 2,  the  first  detachments  of  600,000  se- 
lected men  were  sent  to  the  training  grounds; 
in  May,  1918,  the  second  contingent  of  583,- 
000  was  called.  The  regulars  were  mobilized 
earlier. 

In  the  meantime  Major-General  John  J. 
Pershing,  who  had  served  during  the  preced- 
ing year  in  Mexico,  was  appointed  commander 
in  chief  of  American  forces  to  be  sent  to 
France.  On  June  27  the  first  contingent 
reached  French  soil,  and  Pershing  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  general. 

It  was  announced  that  Secretary  of  War 
Baker  was  prepared  to  have  2,000,000 
soldiers  in  France  by  the  autumn  of  1918. 
Secretary  Baker  visited  France  in  March 
and  April,  1918,  to  acquaint  himself  with  the 
actual  conditions.  In  May  Congi'ess  pro- 
vided ample  appropriations  for  an  army  of 
between  3,000,000  and  5,000,000  men,  should 
such  a  host  be  needed. 

First  American  Losses.  In  October,  1917, 
the  American  nation  was  infonned  that  after 
months  of  training  its  first  soldiers  had  been 
sent  to  the  battle  front.  The  location  se- 
lected for  them,  while  requiring  confidence 
and  technical  skill,  was  in  a  comparatively 
quiet  sector  almost  on  the  Franco-German 


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3933 


WORLD  WAR 


border  east'  of  Nancy.  On  November  3  they 
had  a  spirited  encounter  with  German  troops 
in  a  trench-raiding  enterprise,  in  which  the 
latter  were  repulsed.  Three  Americans — 
Privates  Thomas  F.  Enright,  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
James  B.  Gresham,  Evansville,  Ind.,  and 
Merle  D.  Hay,  Glidden,  Iowa — were  killed, 
eleven  Avere  wounded,  and  a  like  number  were 
captured  by  the  enemy.  The  number  of 
Americans  whose  training  was  completed  in- 
creased rapidlj'-  from  that  time,  and  many 
divisions  were  in  the  battle  line  when  the 
great  German  offensive  began  in  March,  1918. 

First  Losfies  at  Sea.  Before  the  end  of 
1917  the  ability  of  the  government  to  send 
soldiers  to  France  was  limited  only  by  the 
transport  service.  In  September  the  United 
States  commandeered  and  placed  in  com- 
mission sixteen  passenger  vessels  belonging 
to  Germany  and  Austria  which  had  been  in- 
terned in  American  waters,  thus  materially 
adding  to  the  allied  overseas  fleet.  Among 
these  was  the  Vaterland,  the  largest  vessel 
afloat ;  this  boat  was  renamed  the  Leviathan. 
The  carrying  capacity  of  the  sixteen  was 
about  50,000  soldiers.  Before  the  end  of  the 
year  troop  movements  were  greatly  acceler- 
ated and  until  February  6  not  an  American 
soldier  had  been  lost  enroute  to  France 
through  submarine-infested  waters.  On  that 
day  the  steamer  Tuscania,  one  of  many  ships 
in  cai'e  of  a  British  convoy,  was  sunk  by  a 
torpedo  off  the  north  coast  of  Ireland.  There 
Avere  2,179  United  States  troops  of  the  32nd 
Division  aboard  and  all  except  171  were 
saved. 

"Liberty"  Loans.  Upon  entry  into  the  Avar 
hitherto  unheard-of  appropriations  of  money 
were  required  to  maintain  a  vast  army  and 
greatly  increased  naA'y.  Before  many  months 
had  elapsed  the  United  States  government 
was  spending  over  $1,000,000,000  per  month, 
including  loans  to  allied  nations.  To  meet 
such  expenditures  income  taxes  were  in- 
creased, many  internal  revenue  taxes  were 
more  than  doubled,  many  special  taxes  were 
levied  and  the  nation  began  to  borrow  money 
from  its  citizens. 

These  bonds  were  appropriately  called 
"Liberty"  bonds.  The  first  loan  was  called 
for  June  15,  1917,  and  $2,000,000,000  was 
solicited.  It  was  more  than  50  per  cent 
oversul)scril)ed,  the  amount  realized  being 
$3,035,226,850;  the  interest  rate  was  3^  per 
cent.  The  second  loan  was  called  for  Octo- 
ber 28,  for  $3,000,000,000.    This,  too,  was  as 


Private  Enright,  Private  Gresham,  Private 
Hay,  Ave  salute  you!  Yours  have  become  im- 
perishable names  upon  the  Roll  of  Honor, 
for  to  you  belongs  the  proud  distinction  of 
having  been  the  first  of  this  nation's  forces 
in  France  to  make  the  supreme  sacrifice. 

While  cannon  boomed  a  grim  accompani- 
ment, the  profound  thanks  of  a  great  sister 
nation  Avent  out  to  you  from  the  lips  of  that 
French  commanding  officer  Avho  officiated  at 
your  simple  burial — 

"In  the  name  of  the  — th  division,  in  the 
name  of  the  French  army,  and  in  the  name  of 
France  I  bid  fareAvell  to  Private  Enright, 
Private  Gresham  and  Private  Hay  of  the 
American  army. 

"Of  their  own  free  will  they  had  left  a 
prosperous  and  happy  country  to  come  over 
here.  They  knew  war  Avas  continuing  in 
Europe;  they  knew  tliat  the  forces  fighting 
for  honor,  love  of  justice,  and  civilization 
were  still  checked  by  the  long-prepared 
forces  serving  the  poAvers  of  brutal  domina- 
tion, oppression  and  barbarity.  They  knew 
that  efforts  were  still  necessary.  They  wished 
to  give  up  their  generous  hearts  and  they  had 
not  forgotten  old  historical  memories,  while 
others  forgot  more  recent  ones.  *  *  *  We  will 
therefore  ask  that  the  mortal  remains  of 
these  young  men  be  left  here,  left  with  us 
foreA'er.  We  inscribe  on  the  tombs,  'Here 
lie  the  first  soldiers  of  the  republic  of  the 
United  States  to  fall  on  the  soil  of  France 
for  liberty  and  justice.'  The  passerby  will 
stop  and  uncover  his  head.  TraA-elers  and 
men  of  heart  will  go  out  of  their  way  to 
come  here  to  pay  their  respectiA'e  tributes. 

"Private  Enright!  Private  Gresham!  Pri- 
vate Hay!  In  the  name  of  Prance,  I  thank 
you.     God  receive  your  souls!     Farewell!" 

heavily  oversubscribed,  the  amount  realized 
being '  .$4,617,532,300 ;  the  interest  rate  was 
4  per  cent.  The  third  loan  was  for  $3,000,- 
000,000,  called  for  Mav  4.  1918.     It  realized 


WORLD  WAR 


3934 


WORLD  WAR 


about  $4,000,000,000,  and  was  one-third  over- 
subscribed. The  interest  was  4i/4  per  cent. 
In  September  the  fourth  loan  of  $6,000,000,- 
000  was  called,  this,  too,  being  oversub- 
scribed. After  hostilities  ceased  a  fifth  loan, 
appropriately  called  the  "Victory  Loan," 
calling  for  $4,500,000,000,  was  oversub- 
scribed. 

In  addition  to  these  major  loans,  the  gov- 
ernment inaugurated  during  the  same  period 
the  sale  of  "thrift"  stamps  of  25  cents  face 
value,  to  be  exchanged  in  quantities  for  $5 
bonds,  called  "baby"  bonds,  tD  mature  in  five 
years. 

Aircraft  Program.  One  of  the  earliest  ap- 
propriations of  Congress  was  for  $640,000,- 
000  to  build  factories  for  the  production  of 
fiying  machines  for  war  purposes  and  to 
manufacture  them  in  large  quantities.  A 
superior  engine  was  produced  and  it  was 
named  the  "Liberty"  motor.  The  public 
was  led  to  expect  production  on  a  large  scale 
by  January,  1918,  but  in  this  department  of 
war  activity  the  results  achieved  in  a  year 
were  exceedingly  disappointing.  Several 
thousand  machines  were  built  during  that 
time  for  students  in  the  national  aviation 
camps,  but  until  the  late  summer  of  1918 
there  were  no  battle,  bombing  or  observation 
'planes  in  Europe.  Hundreds  of  American 
aviators  in  France  were  provided  with  ma- 
chines of  British  and  French  manufacture. 

AVork  of  the  Navy.  Immediately  follow- 
ing the  declaration  of  war  the  American  navy 
was  ready  for  active  duty.  In  May  a  large 
number  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  sub- 
marine chasers  and  vessels  of  larger  size  were 
sent  into  European  waters  to  oppose  with  the 
British  and  French  the  submarine  menace. 
In  command  of  the  American  contingent  was 
Vice- Admiral  Sims.  Between  1914  and  1918 
the  navy  was  increased  over  one  hundred 
per  cent  in  number  of  vessels,  though  not  in 
tonnage,  and  the  personnel  was  more  than 
trebled. 

Early  Campaigns  of  1918.  Germany  pre- 
pared for  a  supreme  offensive  in  the  spring, 
and  the  entente  allies  prepared  for  it  as 
best  they  could,  but  knew  not  at  what  points 
between  the  North  Sea  and  Switzerland  to 
expect  it.  That  it  would  prove  the  supreme 
test  of  the  war  was  deemed  certain,  for  Ger- 
many had  moved  scores  of  divisions  of  troops 
from  the  Russian  front  to  face  its  foes  in 
France.  The  strength  of  the  Central  Powers 
in  France  was  estimated  at  220  divisons,  or 


about  2,500,000  fighting  men,  with  great  re- 
serve forces  to  fill  ranks  thinned  in  battle.  In 
the  approaching  crisis  the  American  General 
Pershing  placed  his  entire  command  and  all 
supplies  he  possessed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
allies.  General  Ferdinand  Foch  of  the 
French  Army  was  placed  in  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  unified  allied  forces,  and  he  was 
given  the  title  of  marshal. 

On  March  21  the  German  offensive  began 
on  a  50-mile  front  in  Northeastern  France, 
of  which  Amiens  was  practically  the  center 
and  one  important  objective.  German  troops 
in  close  formation,  assisted  by  thousands  of 
great  guns,  rolled  in  great  waves  westward 
and  by  April  9th  the  British,  who  had  been 
selected  as  the  first  Teuton  opponents,  were 
pushed  back  in  places  about  twenty-five  miles. 
It  was  the  Gennan.  plan  to  separate  the 
British  and  French  armies,  then  to  render  the 
former  non-effective.  Afterwards  the  French 
could  be  brought  to  terms. 

Early  in  April  the  British  elected  to  make 
a  stand.  They  had  retired  in  good  order  and 
the  armies  were  intact.  The  Germans,  who 
had  advanced  in  solid  formation,  suffered 
immense  losses,  and  were  forced  for  a  time 
to  suspend  their  assaults  to  reform  their 
divisions.  On  April  21,  with  "backs  to  the 
wall,"  the  British  succeeded  in  halting  the 
progress  of  their  enemy  in  a  battle  which  it 
is  said  astounded  the  German  high  command. 
In  Belgium  Hindenburg's  forces  had  taken 
Messines  Ridge  and  Kemmel  Hill,  two  vei-y 
important  heights,  but  they  could  at  the 
time  go  no  farther.  Another  period  of  time 
elapsed  for  a  second  realignment  of  forces. 
Amiens  was  yet  nine  miles  west  of  the  fore- 
most German  lines,  and  Ypres  was  still  three 
miles  within  the  allied  lines. 

On  May  27  the  Germans  renewed  their 
offensive  on  a  scale  nearly  as  ambitious  as 
that  of  March  21,  on  a  front  of  forty-eight 
miles.  Over  800,000  men  were  hurled  against 
the  allies,  with  an  equal  number  in  reserve. 
The  main  offensive  was  directed  towards  Paris ; 
in  four  days  twenty-six  miles  were  gained, 
and  the  Germans  were  again  on  the  Mame 
River  on  June  1,  from  which  they  had  been 
driven  in  1914.  On  June  9  another  offensive 
gained  a  few  more  miles;  it  was  then 
definitely  halted. 

Attack  on  Zeehrugge.  In  April,  1918,  a 
detail  of  ships  from  the  British  navy  made  a 
spectacular  attack  on  the  heavily-protected 
submarine  bases  of  the  Germans  at  Ostend 


WORLD  WAR 


WORLD  WAR 


THE  PINAL  BATTLE  LINE 
The  dotted  line  represents  the  Western  limits  reached  in  the  tremendous  German  drive 
which  began  on  March  21  and  ended  the  middle  of  July.  Thereafter  Marshal  Foch  and  his 
allied  armies  were  masters  of  the  situation  and  their  enemy  forces  were  driven  steadily 
and  persistently  back  toward  Germany.  The  solid,  heavy  line  indicates  the  battle  front 
on  the   day  the  armistice  was   signed.     The  broken  lines  are   territorial  boundary  lines. 


and  Zeebrugge.  At  the  latter  point,  par- 
ticularly, the  Englishmen  scored  heavily. 
They  sank  three  obsolete  vessels  filled  with 
cement  in  the  harbor  entrance,  destroyed  a 
section  of  the  mole  and  severely  damaged  a 
number  of  German  light  war  vessels  and 
much  of  the  military  defenses.  The  defend- 
ers were  completely  surprised.  It  was  the 
most  daring  exploit  of  any  naval  contingent 
in  the  war.  On  May  10,  the  feat  was  re- 
peated at  Ostend,  with  heroism  equally  great; 
an  obsolete  warship  cement  filled,  was  sunk 
in  the  harbor  mouth. 

The  Last  Days.  On  June  1  the  Germans 
were  within  forty-six  miles  of  Paris.  The 
speed  of  their  gigantic  drive  was  slackened, 
and  in  succeeding  efforts  they  gained  a  total 
of  only  fifteen  miles,  which  brought  them 
within  thirty-one  miles  of  the  French  capital. 
At  this  point  the  forces  of  the  United  States 
began  to  make  their  presence  felt.  The  first 
thrilling  move  by  a  wholly  American  con- 
tingent was  at  Belleau  Wood,  where  United 
States  marines  fought  with  such  valor  and 


success  that  the  grateful  French  republic  re- 
named the  spot  the  "Wood  of  the  American 
Marines."  The  encounter  which  finally 
stopped  the  German  advance  and  which 
marked  the  turning  jDoint  of  the  war  was  the 
exploit  of  American  marines,  in  the  second 
Battle  of  the  Marne  on  July  21,  when  they 
threw  back  the  advancing  enemy  at  Chateau 
Tliierry.  Together  the  Americans  and  the 
French  pushed  this  advantage  so  rapidly 
that  before  the  end  of  the  month  the  German 
Crown  Prince  fled  from  the  Marne  salient 
and  withdrew  his  army  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  above  successes  immediately  stiffened 
the  allied  lines,  and  what  had  been  for  three 
months  a  desperate  defense  was  turned  into 
an  offensive  movement  from  the  North  Sea 
to  Switzerland  which  the  German  high  com- 
mand could  not  slacken.  Mile  by  mile,  day 
after  day,  the  German  forces  retreated,  but 
offered  vicious  rear-guard  engagements  in 
which  many  thousand  machine  guns  were 
employed  to  stop  the  advancing  allies. 


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3936 


WORLD  WAR 


In  September  a  new  American  man-power 
bill  became  effective,  the  selective  draft  hav- 
ing been  extended  to  men  from  thirty-one  to 
forty-five.  Foch  knew  that  he  had  unlimited 
resei-v-es  to  fall  back  upon,  and  the  offensive 
asiainst  the  Germans  was  pressed  with  vigor. 
One  by  one  the  cities  of  France  which  had 
been  dominated  by  the  Germans  for  four 
years  were  retaken.  Soissons,  Cambrai, 
Saint  Quentin,  Noyon,  Lens  and  Lille  again 
became  French,  and  the  famous  "Hindenburg 
line"  was  permanently  broken. 

On  September  13  the  American  First 
Army  corps  were  assigned  the  task  of  driv- 
ing the  Gemians  from  the  southern  end  of 
the  battle  line.  In  two  days  they  cleared 
the  Saint  Mihiel  salient  and  later  attempted 
the  most  difficult  task  of  driving  the  foe  from 
the  hilly  Argonne  Forest  region,  north  of 
Verdun."  The  attention  of  the  world  was 
turned  more  particularly  to  the  spectacular 
retreat  of  the  Germans  farther  north,  but 
the  American  task  in  the  Argonne  region, 
one  of  the  stiffest  fighting  problems  of  the 
entire  war,  was  a  highly  important  adven- 
ture. Metz  was  the  objective  of  the  Amer- 
icans, and  had  not  the  sun-ender  of  the 
Germans  occurred  on  November  11,  the 
Americans  would  eventually  have  reached  it. 
On  the  day  before  the  armistice  was  signed 
they  entered  Sedan,  the  historic  city  which 
had  witnessed  the  disastrous  battle  which 
imposed  a  German  peace  upon  France  in 
1871. 

In  Belgium,  meanwhile.  Field  Marshal 
Haig  and  King  Albert  were  driving  the  Ger- 
mans out  of  the  country  that  had  first  felt 
the  brunt  of  the  war.  By  November  9  (see 
accompanying  map),  the  Germans  had  not 
only  abandoned  the  coast,  but  retired  from 
the  whole  country  west  of  Ghent.  Had  not 
the  Germans  secured  an  anuistice  on  No- 
vember 11  their  anuies  would  have  suffered 
an  overwhelming  defeat,  a  fact  the  new  Ger- 
man government  admitted  in  August,  1919. 
Their  position  was  rendered  doubly  pre- 
carious by  the  downfall  of  their  three  allies. 

Collapse  of  Bulgaria.  In  the  middle  of 
September  an  allied  army  made  up  of 
French,  British,  Italian,  Greek,  Serbian, 
Czecho-Slovak  and  Jugo-Slavic  forces  under 
General  Franchet  d'Esperey,  began  a  vigor- 
ous offensive  against  the  Bulgarian  forces  in 
Macedonia.  The  Bulgars  were  soon  in  full 
retreat,  and  when  Sofia  itself  was  threatened 
the  Bulgarian  goveniment  asked  for  an  ar- 


mistice. On  September  30  fighting  ceased, 
the  Bulgars  liaving  suirendered  uncondition- 
ally. The  capitulation  of  Bulgaria  opened 
the  way  for  the  liberation  of  Serbia,  Monte- 
negro and  Rumania,  destroyed  Germany's 
Mittel  Europa  plans,  cut  off  direct  com- 
munication with  Turkey  and  paved  the  Nvay 
for  the  collapse  of  both  Austria  and  Ger- 
many. 

Surrender  of  Turkey.  After  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  at  the  close  of  1917,  General 
Allenby  began  extensive  preparations  for 
a  campaign  to  put  Turkey  out  of  the  war.  In 
the  later  operations  he  was  assisted  by  Arab- 
ian forces,  as  the  kingdom  of  Hedjaz  (see 
Arabia)  had  declared  its  independence  of 
Turkey  in  November,  1916,  and  had  become 
a  valued  member  of  the  entente.  In  Septem- 
ber British  and  Arabs  began  an  advance  in 
Mesopotamia  and  Palestine,  which  came 
rapidly  to  a  climax.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  month  the  British  reached  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  while  the  Arabs  carried  eveiything 
before  them  east  of  the  Jordan.  In  October 
Damascus  fell ;  later  in  the  month  Aleppo, 
the  Turko-German  base  for  the  armies  in 
Asia  Minor,  was  captured,  and  about  the 
same  time  the  Turks  were  completely  de- 
feated along  the  Tigris,  and  communications 
with  Mosul  were  cut. 

In  view  of  the  breakdown  of  their  forces, 
the  Turks  could  no  longer  hold  out,  and  asked 
for  an  armistice.  General  Townshend,  who 
had  been  a  prisoner  since  the  suiTcnder  of 
Kut-el-Amara,  bore  the  note  asking  for 
terms,  which  he  delivered  to  the  allied  com- 
mander of  the  Aegean  fleet.  Negotiations 
were  held  on  the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  terms 
were  signed  on  October  30.  Among  the  ar- 
mistice provisions  was  the  opening  of  the 
Dardanelles  to  the  allies. 

Austria-Hungary  Capitulates.  The  clos- 
ing weeks  of  the  war  saw  Italy  retrieving 
the  gi-eat  disaster  of  1917.  In  June  the  Aus- 
trians  began  an  attack  on  the  Asiago  Plateau 
and  along  the  Piave  River,  but  the  movement 
failed.  On  October  24  the  Italians,  with 
"help  of  a  few  divisions  of  their  allies,  began 
a  major  offensive  against  the  Austrians, 
which  developed  into  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant victories  of  the  war.  Trent,  Udine  and 
Trieste  were  occupied,  and  the  Austro- 
Ilungarian  army  was  routed. 

Austria-Hungary  asked  for  an  armistice  on 
October  31,  and  terms  were  accepted  on  No- 
vember 1.     As  one  of  these  terms  granted 


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WORLD  WAR 


tHe  allies  the  right  to  occupy  any  Austrian 
territorj'  desired,  the  armistice  made  an  in- 
vasion of  Geimany  from  the  south  a  near 
possibility.  The  Gennans,  who  were  losing 
their  own  fight,  saw  the  hopelessness  of  con- 
tinuing the  struggle,  and  they,  too,  accepted 
drastic  armistice  terms. 

Germany  Asks  for  Peace.  As  soon  as  the 
surrender  of  Bulgaria  became  known  in  Ger- 
many there  was  a  political  upheaval,  Chan- 
cellor von  Hertling  resigning,  and  Prince 
Max  of  Baden,  a  moderate  man  of  democratic 
tendencies,  succeeding  him  on  October  2.  A 
coalition  Ministry  was  foimed,  in  which  the 
Social  Democrats  were  represented  by 
Scheidemann  and  Bauer.  On  October  5 
President  Wilson  was  requested  to  take  steps 
for  the  restoration  of  peace.  A  series  of 
notes  between  Germany  and  the  United  States 
followed,  in  which  President  Wilson  obtained 
sweeping  concessions  from  the  German  gov- 
ernment, such  as  promises  to  cease  attacks 
on  merchant  ships,  to  evacuate  all  occupied 
territory  and  to  accept  those  principles 
which  had  been  laid  down  in  various  war  mes- 
sages. On  November  5  the  allied  and  asso- 
ciated governments  authorized  Marshal  Foch 
to  state  the  terms  on  which  they  would  enter 
into  an  ai*mistice.  German  envoys  were  at 
once  sent  to  Fi'ench  headquarters,  and  on 
November  11  they  signed  the  following  allied 
demands : 

Evacuation  within  fourteen  days  of  Bel- 
gium, France,  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Luxem- 
burg. 

Surrender  of  5,000  guns,  half  field  and  half 
artillery;  25,000  machine  guns;  3,000  flame 
throwers,  and  1,500  airplanes. 

Surrender  of  5,000  locomotives,  150,000  cars, 
50,000  wagons  and  10,000  motor  lorries. 

Surrender  of  railways  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
and  stores  of  coal  and  iron  there. 

Immediate  return  of  allied  prisoners,  but 
German  prisoners  not  to  be  returned  before 
peace  was  signed. 

Evacuation  of  west  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the 
allies  to  hold  the  crossing  of  the  river  at 
Coblenz,  Cologne  and  Mayence  for  a  twenty- 
mile  radius. 

The  east  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  become  a 
neutral  zone  and  to  be  evacuated  in  nineteen 
days. 

German  troops  to  retire  at  once  from  any 
occupied  territory  which  before  the  war  be- 
longed to  Russia,  Rumania  and  Turkey. 

The  allied  force  to  have  access  to  this 
evacuated  territory. 

Abrogation  of  Brest-Litovsk  and  Rumanian 
'treaties. 

Evacuation  of  all  German  forces  in  East 
Africa  within   one  month. 

Surrender  of  all  German  submarines. 
247     . 


Surrender  of  seventy-four  warships,  includ- 
ing fifty  destroyers,  ten  battle-ships,  six  bat- 
tle cruisers  and  eight  light  cruisers. 

Restitution  for  damage  done  by  German 
armies  in  invaded  territories. 

Return  of  cash  taken  from  the  national 
bank  of  Belgium. 

Return  of  gold  taken  from  Russia  and 
Rumania. 

Summary  of  the  War.  The  chief  events 
of  the  War  of  the  Nations  are  summarized 
below  for  readj'  reference. 

1914 

June  28 — Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  and 
wife   assassinated   in   Sarajevo,   Bosnia. 

July  28 — Austria-Hungary  declares  war  on 
Serbia. 

Aug.  1 — Germany  declares  war  on  Russia; 
general  mobilization  begun. 

Aug.  4 — State  of  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  Germany  is  declared;  Germany  declares 
war  on  Belgium. 

Aug.  8 — Germans  capture  Liege. 

Aug.  20 — German  troops  enter  Brussels. 

Aug.  23 — Japan  declares  war  on  Germany; 
Russians  victorious  in  East  Prussia. 

Aug.  26 — Large  part  of  Louvain  destroyed  by 
Germans. 

Aug.  28 — British  win  naval  battle  near  Helgo- 
land. 

Aug.  29 — Germans  inflict  heavy  defeat  on  Rus- 
sians at  Allenstein;  Germans  occupy 
Amiens. 

Sept.  1 — Germans  win  decisive  victory  at 
Tannenberg,  East  Prussia;  cross  the  Marne 
in  Prance. 

Sept.  2 — Lemberg  captured  by  Russians;  seat 
of  French  government  transferred  from 
Paris  to  Bordeaux. 

Sept.  5 — England,  France  and  Russia  sign 
compact  not  to  conclude  peace  separately. 

Sept.    6 — Allies   win  battle   of  Marne. 

Sept.  7 — Germans  retreat  from  the  Marne; 
capture  Maubeuge. 

Sept.  7-10 — Germans  retreat  to  the  Aisne. 

Sept.  14 — Battle  of  Aisne  begins;  pursuit  by 
allies  halted. 

Sept.  15 — First  battle  of  Soissons  fought. 

Sept.  18 — Germans  bombard  Reims  and  dam- 
age cathedral. 

Sept.  19 — Battle  of  Aisne  develops  into  con- 
tinuous trench   fighting. 

Sept.  20 — Russians  capture  Jaroslau  and  be- 
gin siege  of  Przemysl. 

Sept.  22 — British  cruisers  Cressy,  Aboukir  and 
Hogue  torpedoed  and  sunk  in  the  North 
sea. 

Oct.  9-10 — Germans  capture  Antwerp. 

Oct.  12. — Germans  capture  Ghent. 

Oct.  20 — Fighting  along  the  Yser  river  begins. 

Oct.  29 — Turkey  begins  war  on  Russia. 

Nov.  1 — British  cruisers  Good  Hope  and  Mon- 
mouth sunk  off  Coast  of  Chile. 

Nov.  7 — Tsingtao  captured  by  Japanese. 

Nov.  9 — German  cruiser  Emden  destroyed. 

Dec.  8 — German  cruisers  sunk  near  Falkland 
islands  by  British  fleet. 

Dec.  9 — French  government  officials  return  to 
Paris. 


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WORLD  WAR 


Dec.  14 — ^Belgrade  recaptured  by  Serbians. 
Dec.   17 — Britain   formally   assumes   a   protec- 
torate over  Egypt. 
Dec.  25 — Italy  occupies  Avlona,  Albania. 

1913 

Jan.    1 — British   battleship   Formidable    sunk. 

Jan.  11 — Heavy  fighting  northeast  of  Sois- 
sons. 

Jan.  24 — British  win  naval  battle  in  North 
sea,  sinking  the  German  cruiser  Bluecher 
and  damaging  two  other  cruisers. 

Feb.  11 — Germans  evacuate  Lodz. 

Feb.  12 — Germans  drive  Russians  from  posi- 
tions in  East  Prussia,  taking  26,000  prison- 
ers. 

Feb.  19 — British  and  French  fleets  bombard 
Dardenelles  forts. 

March  1 — Premier  Asquith  announces  block- 
ade by  allies  of  all  German,  Austrian  and 
Turkish  ports. 

March  10 — Battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle  begins. 

March   14 — German  cruiser  Dresden   sunk. 

March  18 — British  battleships  Irresistible  and 
Ocean  and  French  battleship  Bouvet  sunk 
in   Dardanelles    strait. 

March  22 — rFortress  of  Przemysl  surrenders  to 
Russians. 

April  23 — Germans  force  way  across  Ypres 
canal  at  Steenstraate  and  Het  Sas. 

May  2 — Austro-Hungarian  and  German  forces 
repulse  Russians  along  the  entire  front  of 
Malatow,  Gorlice,  Gromik  and  north  of 
these  places  in  West  Galicia. 

May  7 — Liner  Lusitania  torpedoed  and  sunk 
by  German  submarine. 

May  23 — Italy  formally  declares  war  on  Aus- 
tria and  orders  mobilization  of  army. 

June  3 — Przemysl  recaptured  by  Germans  and 
Austrians. 

June  22 — Germans  and  Austrians  capture 
Lemberg. 

July  3 — Tolmino  falls  into  hands  of  Italians. 

July  29 — Warsaw  evacuated;  Lublin  captured 
by  Austrians. 

Aug.  2 — Germans  occupy  Mitau. 

Aug.   3-9 — Battle  of  Hooge. 

Aug.  4 — Germans  occupy  Warsaw. 

Aug.  5 — Ivangorod  taken  by  Germans. 

Aug.  6 — British  land  at  Suvla  bay,  Gallipoli. 

Aug.  17 — Germans  capture  Kovno. 

Aug.    19-20 — Germans   take  Novo   Georgievsk. 

Aug.  26 — Germans  take  Brest-Litovsk. 

Sept.  2 — Germans  capture  Grodno. 

Sept.  5 — Grand  Duke  Nicholas  sent  to  the 
Caucasus. 

Sept.   8 — Russians  stop  Germans  at  Tarnopol. 

Sept.    19 — Germans   capture  Vilna. 

Sept.  20 — Austrians  and  Germans  begin  drive 
on    Serbia. 

Sept.   25-30 — Battle  of  the  Champagne. 

Oct.  9-10 — Austro-Germans  capture  Belgrade. 

Oct.  12 — Edith  Cavell  executed  by  Germans. 

Oct.  13 — Bulgaria  declares  war  on  Serbia. 

Oct.  22 — Bulgarians  occupy  L^'skub. 

Nov.  7 — ^Italian  liner  Ancona  sunk. 

Nov.  22 — British  victory  near  Bagdad. 

Nov.  30 — Bulgarians  take  Prizrend. 

Dec.  1 — British  retreat  from  Bagdad. 

Dec.  8-9 — Allies  defeated  in  Macedonia. 


Dec.  15 — Sir  John  Douglas  Haig  succeeds  Sir 
John  French. 

Dec.  27-30 — Heavy  Russian  offensive  in  Ga- 
licia and  Bessarabia. 

Dec.  30 — Liner  Persia  sunk  in  Mediterranean. 

191G 

Jan.    6 — Russians  capture  Czartorysk. 

Jan.  8 — British  troops  at  Kut-el-Amara  sur- 
rounded. 

Jan.  9 — British  evacuate  Gallipoli  peninsula. 

Jan.  10 — Austrians  capture  Mount  Loveen  in 
Montenegro;  predreadnought  King  Edward 
VII  sunk. 

Jan.  13 — Cetinje,  capital  of  Montenegro,  cap- 
tured by  Austrians. 

Jan.  23 — Scutari,  capital  of  Albania,  captured 
by  Austrians. 

Feb.   15 — Erzerum  captured   by  the  Russians. 

Feb.  21 — Germans  under  crown  prince  begin 
attack  on  Verdun  defenses. 

Feb.  26 — Germans  capture  Fort  Douaumont; 
French  transport  La  Provence  sunk. 

March  2 — Bitlis  captured  by  Russians. 

March  16 — Admiral  von  Tirpitz  resigns. 

March  24 — Sussex  torpedoed  and  sunk. 

April   5-7 — Battle  of  St.  Eloi. 

April  17 — Trebizond  captured  by  Russians. 

April  18 — President  Wilson  sends  final  note 
to  Germany. 

April  19 — President  Wilson  explains  diplo- 
matic situation  in  speech  before  congress 
in  joint  session. 

April  24 — Insurrection  in  Dublin. 

April  29 — British  force  at  Kut-el-Amara  sur- 
renders  to  the  Turks. 

April  30 — Irish  insurrection  suppressed. 

May  3 — Several  leaders  of  Irish  revolt  exe- 
cuted. 

May  15 — Austrians  begin  offensive  against 
Italians  in  Trentino. 

May  31 — Great  naval  battle  off  Danish  coast. 

June     3 — Germans    assail    British    at    Ypres; 
Russians   under   Gen.   Brussiloff   begin  sue-  - 
cessful  offensive. 

June  5 — Lord  Kitchener  lost  with  cruiser 
Hampshire. 

June  6 — Italians  stop  enemy  in  Trentino. 

June  11 — Russians  capture  Dubno. 

June  18 — Russians  capture  Czerpowitz. 

June  23 — Gen.  Brussiloff's  army  completes 
possession  of  Bukowina. 

July  1 — Battle  of   Somme  begins. 

July  25 — Erzingan  captured  by  the  Russians. 

July  26 — Pozieres  taken  by  British. 

July  27 — British  take  Delville  wood;  Serbs 
begin  attack  on  Bulgars  in  Macedonia. 

Aug.   2 — French  take  Fleury. 

Aug-  3 — Sir  Roger  Casement  executed  for 
treason. 

Aug.  5 — British  win  victory  north  of  Pozieres. 

Aug.   9 — Italians  take  Goritz  by  assault. 

Aug.  15 — Russians  capture  Jablonitza. 

Aug.  18 — Serbs  capture  Fiorina  from  Bulgars. 

Aug.    24 — French   take    Maurepas. 

Aug.  27 — Italy  declares  war  against  Germany. 

Aug.  28 — Roumania  declares  war  against 
Austria-Hungary. 

Aug.  30 — Roumanians  take  Kronstadt  in 
Transylvania:  Bulgars   seize  Drama. 


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Sept.  2 — Roumanians  take  Orsova  and  Her- 
mannstadt. 

Sept.  3 — Allies  take  Guillemont  and  Clery. 

Sept.   7 — Germans  capture  Tutrakan. 

Sept.  9 — French  recapture  Fort  Douaumont. 

Sept.  10 — German-Bulgar  forces  take  Silistria. 

Sept.  15 — British  take  Flers,  Martinpuich  and 
Courcelette;  French  reach  outskirts  of  Ran- 
court. 

Sept.  17 — French  take  Vermandovillers  and 
Berny. 

Sept.  25 — British  capture  Morval  and  Les 
Boeufs. 

Sept.  26 — French  and  British  take  Combles; 
British  take  Thiepval  and  Guedecourt. 

Sept.  28 — Venizelos  proclaims  provisional  gov- 
ernment in  Greece;  to  aid  allies. 

Sept.  30 — Germans  defeat  Roumanians  at 
Hermannstadt. 

Oct.  8 — Germans  recapture  Kronstadt  from 
Roumanians. 

Oct.  11 — Germans  defeat  Roumanians  in  Alt 
valley  and  begin  invasion  of  Roumania. 

Oct.  13 — Italians  win  victory  on  Carso  plateau. 

Oct.  23 — Germans  capture  Constanza. 

Oct.  24 — Germans  take  Predeal. 

Oct.  25 — Germans  capture  Vulcan  pass. 

Nov.   3 — French   reoccupy  Fort  Vaux. 

Nov.  12 — French  take  all  of  Saillisel. 

Nov.  13 — British  win  battle  of  Ancre. 

Nov.  19 — Monastir  taken  by  Serbs,  French  and 
Italians. 

Nov.  24 — Germans  capture  Orsova  and 
Turnu-Severin. 

Nov.  25 — Venizelist  provisional  government  in 
Greece  declares  w^ar  on  Germany. 

Nov.  28 — Seat  of  Roumanian  government  re- 
moved from  Bukharest  to  Jassy. 

Dec.    3 — Battle    of   Argesu   won    by   Germans. 

Dec.  5 — British  cabinet  resigns. 

Dec.  6 — Bukharest  occupied  by  German  forces. 

Dec.  10 — New  British  cabinet  formed  with 
David  Lloyd  George  at  its  head. 

Dec.  11 — Italian  battleship  Regina  Margherita 
sunk. 

Dec.  12 — Germany  proposes  peace  negotia- 
tions. 

Dec.  15 — French  recapture  Vacherauville, 
Louvemont  and  Fort  Hardaumont. 

Dec.  18 — President  Wilson  sends  note  to  bel- 
ligerent nations  asking  them  to  make 
known  their  peace  terms  and  to  neutral 
nations  suggesting  that  they  support  Amer- 
ica's action.  * 

Dec.  28 — Germany  replies  to  President  Wilson 
saying  a  direct  exchange  of  views  would  be 
best  way  to  bring  about  peace — gives  no 
terms. 

Dec.  29 — Scandinavian  countries  express  sym- 
pathy with  President  Wilson's  suggestions. 

Dec.  30 — Allies  make  joint  reply  to  Ger- 
many's peace  proposal,  rejecting  it  as  a 
war  maneuver. 

1917 

Jan.    2 — Germans  complete  conquest  of  Dob- 

rogea. 
Jan.  7 — Russians  take  offensive  along  Sereth 

river. 
Jan.  9 — British   battleship  Cornwallis  sunk. 


Jan.  10 — Allies  make  joint  reply  to  President 
Wilson  and  give  their  peace  terms. 

Jan.  11 — German  government  issues  note  com- 
menting on  entente's  reply  of  Dec.  30. 

Jan.  13 — Arthur  Balfour,  British  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs,  sends  note  commenting 
on  President  Wilson's  peace  suggestions. 

Jan.  14 — Galatz  under  bombardment;  German 
attacks  on  Riga  front  fail. 

Jan.  15 — Germans  defeated  on  the  Sereth 
river. 

Jan.  17 — British  advance  on  both  sides  of 
Ancre  creek. 

Jan.  20 — Germany  defends  deportations  of 
Belgians;  Russians  routed  at  Nanesti. 

Jan.  22 — President  Wilson  addresses  United 
States  senate  on  subject  of  world  peace  and 
the  establishment  of  a  league  of  nations. 

Jan.  23 — Battle  between  British  and  German 
destroyers  in  North  sea. 

Jan.  25-30 — Fighting  on  Hill  304  and  Mort 
Homme   hill   near  Verdun. 

Jan.  28 — Russians  win  battle  of  Monte  Cansci; 
British  auxiliary  steamer  Laurentic  sunk. 

Jan.  31 — Ambassador  Count  von  Bernstorff 
hands  note  to  Secretary  Lansing  in  Wash- 
ington announcing  the  inauguration  by  Ger- 
many of  an  unrestricted  submarine  warfare 
on  Feb.  1;  Germany  proclaims  boundaries 
of  blockade  zones. 

Feb.  1 — Germany  begins  unrestricted  subma- 
rine warfare. 

Feb.  3 — President  Wilson  orders  that  Ambas- 
sador Count  von  Bernstorff  be  handed  his 
passports,  directs  the  withdrawal  of  Am- 
bassador James  W.  Gerard  and  all  Ameri- 
can consuls  from  Germany  and  announces 
his  action  in  a  speech  before  congress;  sug- 
gests to  neutral  countries  that  they  follow 
America's  example. 

Feb.  3 — American  steamer  Housatonic  tor- 
pedoed and  sunk. 

Feb.  5 — President  Wilson  forbids  transfer  of 
American  ships  to  foreign  registry;  Ger- 
man ships  interned  at  Manila  seized. 

Feb.  7 — British  capture  Grandcourt;  German 
ships  interned  in  American  ports  found 
crippled   by  crews. 

Feb.  8 — Germany  detains  Ambassador  Gerard 
in  Berlin;  liner  California  torpedoed  and 
sunk   with   loss   of   forty-one    lives. 

Feb.  13 — Ambassador  Bernstorff  sails  for  Ger- 
many via  Halifax  and  Norway. 

Feb.  14 — Scandinavian  countries  protest 
against   Germany's   sea   warfare. 

Feb.  15 — Germans  under  crown  prince  take  a 
mile  and  a  half  of  French  trenches  between 
Reims  and  Verdun. 

Feb.  17 — British  troops  capture  enemy  posi- 
tions along  a  front  of  two  miles  on  both 
sides  of  the  Ancre. 

Feb.  18 — Entrance  to  New  York  harbor  closed 
by  steel  net. 

Feb.  24 — British  fake  village  of  Petit  Mirau- 
mont  and  advance  on  a  front  of  a  mile; 
Germans    withdraw   under   cover    of   fog. 

Feb.  25 — "Hindenburg  retreat"  from  Somme 
sector  in  full  progress:  British  win  at  San- 
naiyat  on  the  Tigris;  British  take  Serre  and 
Butte   de   Warlencourt. 


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3940 


WORLD  WAR 


Feb.     26 — President    "Wilson    appears    before 
congress  and  asks  authority  to  supply  mer- 
chant ships  with  defensive  arms  and  to  em- 
ploy   other    methods    to    protect    American 
ships  and  citizens;  British  capture  Kut-el- 
Amara. 
Feb.  27 — British  take  Gonnecourt. 
Feb.  28 — The  Associated  Press  reveals  German 
plot  to  bring  Mexico  and  Japan  in  alliance 
against  the  United  States;   letter  from  the 
German    secretary    of    foreign    affairs,    Dr. 
Alfred  Zimmermann,  to  the  German  minis- 
ter   to    Mexico    suggesting   the    plan,    pub- 
lished. 
March  1 — President  Wilson,  at  request  of  sen- 
ate,  confirms   existence   of  German   plot  in 
Mexico;    house    grants    president    power    to 
arm  merchant  ships. 
March  2 — Germany  announces  that  on  March 
1  the  final  limit  of  grace  for  sailing  vessels 
on  the   Atlantic  expired;   Russians  capture 
Hamadan. 
March  3 — Foreign  Secretary  Zimmermann  ad- 
mits authenticity  of  letter  to  German  min- 
ister to  Mexico  suggesting  alliance  against 
the  United   States. 
March   6 — British   invade  Palestine   and  cap- 
ture Hebron;  United  States  supreme  court 
decides  Appam  case  in  favor  of  owners. 
March  8 — Count  Ferdinand  von  Zeppelin  dies; 

French  regain  trenches  in  Champagne. 
March    9 — President    Wilson    calls    a    special 
session  of  congress  for  April  16;  issues  or- 
ders for  the  arming  of  American  merchant 
ships. 
March    10 — Belgian    relief    steamer    Storstad 

torpedoed. 
March    11 — Successful    revolution    in    Russia; 
British    capture    Bagdad;    Ambassador    Ge- 
rard reaches  Havana. 
March  12 — French  capture  Hill  185  in  Cham- 
pagne;   state     department    in    Washington 
gives  formal  notice  of  arming  of  American 
shiTis;    American    steamer    Algonquin    sunk 
■without    warning    by    German    submarine; 
China  breaks  relations  with  Germany. 
March    14 — German    chancellor    promises    re- 
forms to  Prussian  diet. 
March   15 — Czar  Nicholas  II.  of  Russia  abdi- 
cates   throne    for    himself    and    son.      The 
action  was  forced. 
March    16 — Grand    Duke    Michael    Alexandro- 
vitch     renounces     assumption     of     supreme 
power   in    Russia;    British    take    St.    Pierre 
Vaast  wood;    American   steamer  Vigilancia 
torpedoed  with  loss  of  fifteen  lives. 
March     17 — British    take    Bapaume;    French 
take  Roye;  American  ship  City  of  Memphis 
sunk. 
March  18 — British  and  French  take  Peronne, 
Chaulnes,  Nesle  and  Noyon;  make  ten  mile 
gain   on   seventy   mile   front;   Germans   de- 
stroy   everything    in    abandoned    territory; 
American   ship  Illinois  sunk  by  submarine. 
March    19 — American    oil    ship    Healdton    tor- 
pedoed with  loss  of  a  score  of  lives;  French 
battleship   Danton    torpedoed   with    loss    of 
296  men;  British   and  French  continue  ad- 
vance; Germans  say  retreat  is  for  strategic 
purposes. 


March  20 — French  and  British  take  a  score  of 

villages   in   their   advance. 
March  21 — President  Wilson  calls  extra  ses- 
sion   of   congress    to    begin   April    2    instead 
of    April    16;    "state    of    war"    admitted    to 
exist. 
March   22 — America    recognizes   new   govern- 
ment in  Russia. 
March  23 — French  troops  reach  vicinity  of  St. 

Quentin. 
March  24 — Washington  announces  withdrawal 
of  Minister  Brand  Whitlock  and  American 
relief  workers  from  Belgium;  constitution- 
alist  party   in   Russia  votes   for  republican 
form     of     government;     Germany     extends 
barred  zone  to  Russian  arctic  waters. 
March  25 — President  Wilson  calls  part  of  na- 
tional guard  in  the  east  into  the   national 
service  for  policing  purposes. 
March  26 — British  defeat  large  force  of  Turks 
at  Gaza,   Palestine;   President   Wilson  calls 
into    federal    service    20,000    guardsmen    in 
eighteen  central  states. 
March  27 — British  advance  towards  Cambrai; 

French  approach   La  Fere. 
March  29 — Chancellor  von  Bethmann-Hollweg 
makes     speech    in     reichstag    saying    that 
blame  will  be  on  America  if  war  comes. 
March  30 — Foreign  Secretary  Zimmermann,  in 
reichstag,    explains    his    effort    to    embroil 
Mexico  and  Japan  with   the  United  Stafes; 
German    raider    Seeadler    sends    captives   to 
Rio  Janeiro;  President  Wilson  and  cabinet 
decide    hat  war  with  Germany  is  the  only 
honorable     recourse     left     to     the     United 
States. 
March  31 — More  national  guard  units  mobil- 
ized in  the  United  States. 
April     1 — The     Aztec,     an     armed     American 
steamer,    sunk    by   submarine;    Russian    ar- 
mies invade  Turkey  from  Persia. 
April  2 — Special  session  of  American  congress 
opens;  president  in  address  asks  that  exist- 
ence of  a  state  of  war  with  Germany  be  de- 
clared. 
April  3 — Russian  relief  steamer  Trevier  tor- 
pedoed. 
April  4 — Senate  passes  war  resolution;  Amer- 
ican   steamship    Missourian    sunk    in    Medi- 
terranean. 
April  5 — Brazilian  ship  Parana  sunk  by  sub- 
marine; British  and  Russian  armies  in  Mes- 
opotamia. 
April  6 — House  passes  war  resolution;  presi- 
dent signs  resolution  and  issues  war  procla- 
mation;   all    American    naval    forces   mobil- 
ized;   German    vessels    in    American    ports 
seized;    Germans    blow    up    their    auxiliary 
cruiser  Cormoran  at  Guam. 
April    7 — Cuba    declares    war    on    Germany; 
Panama    declares    that    it    will    assist    the 
United  States  in  the  defense  of  the  Panama 
Canal. 
April    8 — Austria-Hungary    announces    break 

in  relations  with  the  United  States. 
April  9 — Canadians  take  Vimy  ridge  in  great 
British  offensive  north  and  south  of  Arras; 
Austrian  ships  interned  in  American  har- 
bors seized;  Chile  announces  it  will  remain 
neutral. 


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April  10 — Brazil  breaks  off  relations  with  Ger- 
many; Argentine  government  says  it  will 
support  the  United  States;  Eddystone  am- 
munition plant  explosion  kills  125   persons. 

April  11 — Costa  Rica  places  its  ports  at  dis- 
posal  of  the  United  States. 

April  12 — Bolivia  breaks  with  Germany;  Ar- 
gentine ship  Monte  Protegido  sunk  by  sub- 
marine. 

April  13 — Barred  defense  zones  around  Amer- 
ican harbors  proclaimed  by  president;  Rus- 
sian and  German  socialists  dickering  on 
peace  terms;  British  drive  Germans  back 
on  twelve-mile  front  near  Loos. 

April  14-^House  of  representatives  passes  $7,- 
000,000,000  war  loan  bill  without  opposi- 
tion; Paraguay  expresses  sympathy  with 
the  United  States  in  the  war  with  Ger- 
many; Uruguay  condemns  German  subma- 
rine warfare  and  expresses  sympathy  with 
the  United  States. 

April  15 — Great  French  offensive  between 
Soissons  and  Reims  begins;  President  Wil- 
son issues  proclamation  warning  traitors; 
British  transports  Cameronia  and  Arcadian 
sunk  with  heavy  loss  of  life. 

April  17 — Senate  passes  war  loan  bill  unani- 
mously; British  hospital  ships  Donegal  and 
Lanfranc  sunk. 

April  18 — Germans  driven  out  of  six  villages 
between  Soissons  and  Reims. 

April  19 — American  liner  Mongolia  sinks  Ger- 
man U-boat;  Nicaragua  indorses  entry  of 
United  States  into  war  with  Germany. 

April  20 — "American  day"  in  Britain;  special 
services  held  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral;  Berlin 
admits  retirement  to  "Hindenburg  line"  in 
face  of  allied  attacks;  two  German  destroy- 
ers sunk  off  Dover. 

April  21 — Turkey  breaks  off  relations  with  the 
United  States;  Balfour  mission  arrives  in 
the  United  States. 

April  22 — British  mission  arrives  in  Wash- 
ington; Americans  closing  missions  in  Tur- 
key; "United  States  day"  celebrated  in 
Paris. 

April  23 — British  begin  new  attack  on  Arras 
front;   British  capture  Samara. 

April  24 — Joffre-Viviani  French  mission  ar- 
rives in  America;  President  Wilson  signs 
big  bond  act. 

April  25 — Joffre-Viviani  mission  given  ova- 
tion in  Washington;  president  appoints 
Elihu  Root  head  of  mission  to  visit  Russia. 

April  26 — Britain  withdraws  shipping  black- 
list so  far  as  concerns  America. 

April  28 — Senate  and  house  pass  army  draft 
bill;  Guatemala  severs  relations  with  Ger- 
many; Secretary  McAdoo  announces  that 
bond  issues  will  be  called  "liberty  loan"  of 
1917. 

April  30 — Argentine  congress  adopts  resolu- 
tion in  favor  of  strict  neutrality. 

May  1 — Strikes  in  munitions  factories  in  Ger- 
many reported. 

May  3 — United  States  begins  making  large 
loans  to  allies. 

May  4 — American  destroyers  arrive  in  Brit- 
ish waters  and  begin  patrol  work;  Russian 
council  of  workmen   and   soldiers    declares 


for  peace  without  annexations  or  indemni- 
ties but  sustains  provisional  government. 
British  transport  Transylvania  sunk  with 
loss  of  413  lives. 

May  5 — Great  Britain  joins  French  in  asking 
that  American  troops  be  sent  to  France  at 
once. 

May  6 — International  socialists  conferring  on 
peace  in  Stockholm. 

May  9 — Liberia  ends  relations  with  Germany. 

May  10 — Secretary  Lansing  says  United  States 
and  allies  will  consider  peace  terms  jointly. 

May  11 — Congress  of  Haiti  refuses  to  declare 
war  on  Germany. 

May  14 — Espionage  bill  passes  senate. 

May  16 — British  government  suggests  two 
plans  for  settling  Irish  question. 

May  17 — First  American  Red  Cross  hospital 
unit  arrives  in  England  for  service  with  the 
British  in  France;  Honduras  severs  rela- 
tions with  Germany. 

May  18 — President  Wilson  orders  the  sending 
of  a  division  of  regulars  to  France  under 
Maj-Gen.  J.  J.  Pershing;  issues  proclama- 
tion fixing  June  5  as  date  for  the  registry 
of  men  eligible  for  army  service  under 
draft  law. 

May  19 — Nicaragua  breaks  off  relations  with 
Germany;  Russian  provisional  government 
reorganized;  President  Wilson  asks  Herbert 
C.  Hoover  to  take  charge  of  food  adminis- 
tration in   America  during  the   war. 

May  20 — German  plot  for  world  domination 
laid  bare  in  Washington;  two  Chicago 
nurses  killed  by  gun  accident  on  ship 
bound  for  Europe. 

May  21 — Italian  war  mission  arrives  in  Amer- 
ica. 

May  22 — ^United  States  protests  against  hold- 
ing of  Americans  in  Germany;  Russian 
peasants  seize  lands  and   burn  houses. 

May  23 — American  medical  unit  received  by 
King  George;  United  States  refuses  pass- 
ports to  Stockholm  socialist  conference; 
house  passes  war  revenue  bill  calling  for 
$1,870,000,000. 

May  24 — Rear-Admiral  Wm.  S.  Sims  appointed 
vice-admiral;  plan  of  raising  $100,000,000 
for  Red  Cross  announced. 

May  25 — German  aircraft  raid  England  kill- 
ing seventy-six  persons  and  injuring  174; 
President  Wilson  designates  June  18-25  as 
Red  Cross  week. 

May  26 — Italians  storm  second  Austrian  line 
on  Carso  plateau. 

May  27-29 — Italian  offensive  on  Carso  plateau 
continues. 

May  28 — Minister  of  Finance  Shingaroff  says 
Russia  faces  financial  ruin  on  account  of 
workingmen's  demands. 

May  29 — Brazilian  deputies  revoke  declaration 
of  neutrality. 

May  31 — Austrian  parliament  convened; 
many  arrests  made  of  persons  opposing 
operation  of  conscription  law;  house  defeats 
press  censorship. 

June  1 — British  airmen  bombard  Zeebrugge 
and  Ostend;  split  in  provisional  government 
in  Russia. 

June   2 — Root  commission  arrives   in  Russia. 


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June  3 — British  socialists  urge  peace  without 
annexations. 

June  5 — Military  registration  day  under  se- 
lective draft  law  in  the  United  States;  ap- 
proximately  10,000,000   men   registered. 

June  6 — Lord  Northcliffe  appointed  to  repre- 
sent Britain  in  America;  British  resume 
operations  on  Arras  front. 

June  7 — British  begin  great  offensive  at  Mes- 
sines,  storming  Wytschaede  ridge  and  ex- 
ploding  great   mines. 

June  8 — Gen.  Pershing  with  staff  and  clerical 
force  reaches  London;  force  of  100  American 
aviators  reach  France;  Austrian  officers  en- 
ter Russian  lines  with  peace  offers;  Ger- 
many breaks  with  republic  of  Haiti. 

June  9 — President  Wilson's  note  to  Russia 
outlining  American  war  aims  made  public. 

June  10 — British  gain  more  ground  around 
Messines  in  Ypres  region. 

June  11 — American  tank  steamer  Petrolite 
torpedoed;  British  take  German  trench  sys- 
tem on   mile   front   east   of  Messines   ridge. 

June  12 — King  Constantine  of  Greece  forced 
to  abdicate  his  throne. 

June  13 — Gen.  Pershing  lands  in  France; 
German  aeroplanes  raid  London,  killing  157 
persons  and  wounding  430. 

June   14 — King  Constantine   leaves   Greece. 

June    15 — Blockade    of    Greece    is    lifted. 

June  16 — Italians  capture  Corno  Cavento  in 
the  Trentino;  Belgian  war  mission  arrives 
in  United  States. 

June  17 — Two  Zeppelins  raid  British  coast; 
one  burned;  Londoners  demand  reprisals 
for  air  raids. 

June  18 — Italians  advance  northeast  of  Jam- 
iano. 

June  19 — Vice-Admiral  Sims  appointed  to  take 
temporary  charge  of  allied  naval  forces  in 
Irish  waters. 

June  20 — Canadians  capture  trenches  before 
Lens. 

June  22 — House  passes  food  control  bill; 
Rumanian  mission  arrives  in  America; 
Elihu  Root  speaks  to  large  gathering  in 
Petrograd. 

June  25 — President  Wilson  appoints  exports 
council;  Canadians  take  German  first  line 
trenches  in  front  of  Lens. 

June  26 — Venizelos  becomes  prime  minister  of 
Greece;  severe  report  on  Mesopotamian  mis- 
sion  issued  in  London. 

June  27 — American  troops  arrive  in  France; 
French  cruiser  Kleber  sunk  by  mine;  con- 
gress of  soldiers'  and  workmen's  delegates 
in  Russia  declare  against  a  separate  peace. 

June  28 — Brazil  revokes  neutrality;  heavy 
British  attacks  near  Lens;  Rumanian  mis- 
sion arrives  in  Washington. 

June  29 — Greece  severs  relations  with  Ger- 
many and  her  allies. 
June  30 — Russians  open  new  offensive  in 
Galicia;  eighty-seven  German  ships  seized 
in  American  ports  turned  over  to  shipping 
board  for  operation. 

July    1 — Russians    attack    on    eighteen-mile 

front  in  Galicia. 
July  2 — President  promulgates  rules   for  ex- 
emptions in  draft;  French  victory  in  Czerny. 


July  3 — Russian  drive  at  Brzezany  begins; 
artillery  battle  in  Ypres  salient. 

July  4 — Germans  offensive  south  of  Laon 
fails;  France  celebrates  July  4;  American 
troops  parade  in  Paris. 

July  5 — British  attack  near  Ypres. 

July  7 — German  air  raid  on  London  kills  and 
wounds  many;  President  Wilson  announces 
export  embargo. 

July  8 — German  attack  on  the  Chemin  des 
Dames  repulsed. 

July  9 — President  Wilson  proclaims  mobili- 
zation of  national  guard. 

July  11 — Germans  drive  back  British  troops 
on  the  Belgian  coast  to  the  Yser,  taking 
1,250  prisoners;  Italians  occupy  Dalino. 

July  12 — Chancellor  von  Bethmann-Hollweg 
resigns. 

July  13 — Reichstag  refuses  to  consider  war 
credits. 

July  14 — George  Michaelis  becomes  German 
chancellor. 

July  17 — French  take  German  first  and  second 
lines  northwest  of  Verdun. 

July  19 — Finnish  diet  declares  for  independ- 
ence. 

July  20 — ^Draft  day  in  the  United^  States; 
mutiny  causes  Russian  defeat  east  of  Lem- 
berg. 

July  22 — Siam  declares  war  on  Germany. 

July  23 — Kerensky  appeals  to  Russian  army 
for  support. 

July  24 — President  Wilson  accepts  resigna- 
tion of  Gen.  Goethals  from  shipping  board; 
many  units  of  Russian  army  refuse  to 
fight,  while  the  Germans  sweep  ahead. 

July  25 — Allied  conference  begins  in  Paris. 

July  26 — Death  penalty  restored  in  Russian 
army;  German  attack  at  Dixmude  repulsed. 

July  27 — German  aeroplanes  raid  Harwich; 
United  States  shipping  board  reorganized; 
Germans  take  Czernowitz  and  Kolomea. 

July  28 — More  American  troops  arrive  in 
France. 

July  30 — Heavy  artillery  duel  in  Flanders; 
Norwegian  mission   arrives  in  Washington. 

July  31 — British  drive  in  Flanders  begun,  ex- 
tending from  Warneton  to  Dixmude. 

Aug.  1 — Russians  begin  offensive  in  Galicia, 
but  retreat  in  south. 

Aug.   2 — Germans   advance   in  Bukowina. 

Aug.  3 — Austrians  take  Czernowitz;  changes 
made  in  Russian  cabinet;  United  States 
shipping  board  decides  to  commandeer  ship- 
ping in  American  yards;  Root  mission  re- 
turns from  Russia;  premier  and  nearly 
whole  of  Russian  cabinet  resign. 

Aug.  5 — Canadians  advance  on  Lens;  Ker- 
ensky returns  to  office. 

Aug.  6 — Kerensky  forms  new  cabinet. 

A.US.  7 — Liberia  declares  war  on  Germany; 
Mackensen  begins  attack  on  Rumanians  in 
Moldavia. 

Aug.  8 — Canadian  senate  approves  conscrip- 
tion; Russians  fall  back  near  the  Sereth 
river. 

Aug.   11 — Henderson  leaves  British  cabinet. 

Aug.  12 — German  aircraft  raid  English  coast. 

Aug.  13 — Japanese  mission  arrives  in  America 
on  war   emergency  business. 


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3943 


WORLD  WAR 


Aug.  14 — China  declares  war  on  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary. 

Aug.  15 — Pope's  peace  appeal  is  published; 
Canadians  capture  Hill  70,  dominating  Lens. 

Aug.  16 — British  and  Frencli  gain  on  nine 
mile  front  east  and  north  of  Ypres. 

Aug.  19 — Germans  wrecking  St.  Quentin; 
Italians  begin  offensive  on  Isonzo. 

Aug.  20 — French  attack  on  both  sides  of 
Meuse  in  Verdun  region,  taking  Avocourt 
wood,  Le  Mort  Homme,  Corbeaux  wood, 
Cumieres,  Talou  ridge,  Hills  240  and  244, 
Mormont  farm  and   4,000  prisoners. 

Aug.  21 — Canadians  take  2,000  yards  of  Ger- 
man  trenches  in  outskirts  of  Lens. 

Aug.  22 — German  aeroplanes  raid  Dover, 
Margate  and  Ramsgate. 

Aug.  23 — Japanese  mission  arrives  in  Wash- 
ington; Russians  evacuate  Riga. 

Aug.  24 — Italians  take  Monte  Santo;  French 
take  Hill  304  near  Verdun. 

Aug.  25 — French  take  fortified  positions  near 
Bethincourt. 

Aug.  26 — French  take  Beaumont  wood  from 
Germans;  Britons  win  east  of  Margicourt. 

Aug.  27 — General  embargo  on  exports  begin- 
ning Aug.  30  proclaimed  by  the  president; 
full  aid  to  Russia  pledged  by  President  Wil- 
son; reply  of  United  States  to  pope's  peace 
note  sent. 

Aug.  28 — Civilians  flee  from  Trieste;  Cana- 
dian conscription  bill  signed. 

Aug.  29 — Italians  gain  complete  control  of 
Bainsizza  plateau. 

Aug.   30 — President  fixes  price   of  wheat. 

Sept.  1 — German  troops  appear  on  Carso 
front. 

Sept.  3 — Riga  captured  by  the  Germans;  Ger- 
man planes  raid  Chatham,  England,  killing 
107'  sailors   and   wounding    ninety-two. 

Sept.  4  and  5 — German  aeroplanes  drop  bombs 
on  American  hospital  camp  in  France,  kill- 
ing five  and  wounding  ten  persons;  Italians 
take  Monte  San  Gabriele. 

Sept.  5 — I.  W.  W.  offices  in  many  cities 
raided;  first  contingents  (5  per  cent)  of 
national  army  go  to  training  camps. 

Sept.   7 — American   liner  Minnehaha   sunk. 

Sept.  8 — State  department  reveals  aid  given 
by  Sweden  in  German  minister's  plot  in 
Buenos  Aires  to  cause  sinking  of  Argentine 
ships;  French  launch  new  offensive  on  right 
bank  of  the  Meuse. 

Sept.  13 — State  department  reveals  secret  aid 
given  by  Swedish  charge  d'affaires  in 
Mexico  to  Germany. 

Sept.  14 — Premier  Kerensky  proclaims  Russia 
a  republic. 

Sept.   15 — British  advance  east  of  Westhoek. 

Sept.  20 — British  advance  along  Ypres-Menin 
road  to  a  depth  of  more  than  a  mile  and  a 
half. 

Sept.  21 — Secretary  Lansing  makes  public 
Bernstorff  note  asking  for  money  with 
which  to  bribe  congress;  replies  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria-Hungary  to  Pope  Bene- 
dict's peace  note  made  public. 

Sept.  24 — Price  of  steel  cut  by  agreement  be- 
tween manufacturers  and  war  industries 
board;  German  aeroplanes  and  Zeppelins 
raid  England. 


Sept.  27-28 — Germans  repulsed  in  counterat- 
tacks east  of  Ypres. 

Sept.  28 — British  occupy  Ramadie  on  the  Eu- 
phrates. 

Oct.  1 — German  air  squadrons  raid  English 
coast   towns. 

Oct.  4 — British  win  on  an  eight  mile  front 
north  of  Langemarck. 

Oct.  5 — French  repulse  attacks  on  the  Aisne. 

Oct.  6 — Extra  session  of  congress  ends. 

Oct.  7 — Uruguay  severs  relations  with  Ger- 
many. 

Oct.  9 — Mutiny  on  German  fleet  made  public. 

Oct.  13-17 — Germans  take  island  of  Oessel. 

Oct.  13 — United  States  destroyer  Cassin  dam- 
aged by  torpedo;  one  life   lost. 

Oct.  17 — United  States  transport  Antilles  sunk; 
German  raiders  sink  two  British  destroyers 
and   eight   merchantmen   in   North   sea. 

Oct.    18 — Germans    capture    Moon    island. 

Oct.  23 — French  capture  Malmaison  fort  and 
four  villages. 

Oct.  24 — Big  Austro-German  drive  against 
Italian  front  begun;  part  of  Bainsizza 
plateau  taken. 

Oct.  26 — Italians  evacuate  Bainsizza  plateau. 

Oct.  27 — Austrian  and  German  troops  advance 
through  Julian  Alps;  2nd  Italian  army  de- 
feated. 

Oct.  28 — German-Austrian  forces  take  Monte 
Santo,  Goritz  and  Cividale;  United  States 
transport  Finland  torpedoed,  but  returns  to 
port;  nine  men  killed. 

Oct.  29 — Whole  Italian  Isonzo  line  falls;  Ital- 
ians retreat  to  the  Tagliamento  river. 

Oct.  30 — Germans  and  Austrians  take  Udine. 

Nov.  1 — Germans  advance  southeastward  from 
Udine;  British  take  Beersheba. 

Nov.  2 — American  steamship  Rochester  torpe- 
doed and  sunk;  Germans  retreat  from  part 
of  the  Chemin  des  Dames;  Italians  abandon 
eastern  bank  of  the  Tagliamento  river. 

Nov.  3 — Three  Americans  killed,  eleven 
wounded  and  eleven  captured  by  German 
trench  raiding  party;   British  attack  Gaza. 

Nov.   4 — British  advance   up   the   Tigris. 

Nov.  5 — Austro-German  forces  cross  the  mid- 
dle Tagliamento  river. 

Nov.  6 — Italians  abandon  the  Tagliamento 
line. 

Nov.  7 — Austro-Germans  reach  the  Livenza 
River;  British  take  Gaza. 

Nov.  8 — Austro-German  forces  cross  the 
Livenza   river   and    outflank    the    Italians. 

Nov.  9 — Gen.  Armando  Diaz  made  commander 
in  chief  of  the  Italian  army  in  place  of 
Gen.  Cadorna;  Italians  make  stand  on  the 
Piave  river;  inter-allied  military  council 
formed. 

Nov.  10 — Italians  yield  the  east  bank  of  the 
Piave  river;  British  complete  conquest  of 
Passchendaele  ridge;  British  take  Askalon. 

Nov.  11 — Austro-Germans  take  Belluno,  the 
Vidor  bridgehead  and  attack  Italian  posi- 
tions in  the  Sette  Comuni  plateau. 

Nov.  12 — Germans  and  Austrians  advance 
down  the  Piave  to  Feltre. 

No.  13 — Austrians    cross    the    Piave   river   at 

*     Zenson. 

Nov.  14 — Americans  ambush  German  patrol  on 


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3944 


WORLD  WAR 


French  front;  Austro-Germans  occupy 
Primoland  and  Feltre. 

Nov.  15 — Italians  hold  their  positions  on  the 
Piave  river;  British  take  junction  of  Beer- 
sheba-Damascus  railway. 

Nov.  16 — Italians  flood  lands  near  Venice  to 
stop  advance  of  enemy. 

Nov.  17-18 — Italians  repulse  attempts  of  en- 
emy to  cross  the  Piave. 

Nov.  18 — British  take  Jaffa. 

Nov.  19 — Italians  attack  on  Asiago  plateau. 

Nov.  20 — Gen.  Haig-  starts  drive  on  Somme 
front. 

Nov.  21 — British  under  Gen.  Byng-  take  Ger- 
mans by  surprise  in  Cambrai  region  ad- 
vancing five  miles  and  taking  thousands  of 
prisoners;  German  attacks  in  Monte  Grappa 
region  stopped  by  Italians. 

Nov.  23 — Battle  of  Cambrai  continues;  Ger- 
man emissaries  sent  to  parley  with  Russian 
peace  faction. 

Nov.  24 — Secret  Russian  treaties  published, 

Nov.  25 — French  attack  near  Verdun. 

Nov.  26 — British  advance  near  Jerusalem; 
French  and  British  infantry  re-enforce- 
ments reach  Italian  lines. 

Nov.  27 — Allied  war  conference  assembles  in 
Paris. 

Nov.  28 — Armistice  negotiations  begun  with 
Germany  by  bolsheviki;  conference  of 
Scandinavian  rulers  held  at  Christiania, 
Norway. 

Nov.  29 — German  reichstag  reassembles. 

Nov.  30 — The  Germans  in  a  determined  "at- 
tack drive  the  British  back  from  their  posi- 
tions for  a  distance  of  about  two  miles, 
nearly  to  the  Bapaume-Cambrai  road;  at 
the  south  end  of  the  new  British  front  the 
Germans  advance  through  Gonnelieu  to 
Gouzeaucourt;  later  the  British  retake 
Gouzeaucourt  and  LaVacquerie. 

Dec.  1 — British  succeed  in  regaining  nearly  a 
mile  of  the  front  lost  near  Gouzeaucourt; 
several  American  engineers  killed  in  Ger- 
man attack. 

Dec.  3 — London  announces  officially  that 
"East  Africa  has  been  completely  cleared 
of  the  enemy;"  every  German  colony  is  now 
occupied  by  allied  forces;  armistice  ar- 
ranged between  Russians  and  Germans. 

Dec.  4 — President  Wilson  asks  congress  to 
declare  war  on  Austria-Hungary;  Gen.  Duk- 
honin  killed  by  bolsheviki  at  Mohilev. 

Dec.  5 — Teutons  launch  new  offensive  on 
Asiago  plateau. 

Dec.  6 — Great  disaster  caused  at  Halifax  by 
explosion  of  munitions  ship;  United  States 
destroyer  Jacob  Jones  torpedoed  and  sunk. 

Dec.  7 — Congress  passes  resolution  declaring 
state  of  war  to  exist  between  United  States 
and  Austria-Hungary;  Austrians  make 
gains  on  the  Asiago  plateau;  Roumania 
forced  to  join  Russia  in  peace  parley. 

Dec.  8 — Government  In  Portugal  overthrown 
by  revolution. 

Dec.  9 — Gen.  Kaledines  begins  revolt  against 
Russian  bolsheviki;  Italians  check  foe  on 
Asiago   plateau. 

Dec.  10 — Capture  of  Jerusalem  by  British  un- 
der Gen.  Allenby  announced. 


Dec.  11 — Gen.  Allenby  formally  enters  Jeru- 
salem; Japanese  troops  occupy  terminal  at 
Vladivostok. 

Dec. -12 — German  mass  attacks  near  Cambrai 
gain   500  yards  of  British  trenches. 

Dec.  14 — Permanent  allied  naval  council 
formed. 

Dec.  15 — Armistice  signed  between  central 
powers  and  bolsheviki  at  Brest-Litovsk. 

Dec.  17 — Conscriptionists  return  to  power  in 
heavy  Canadian  vote. 

Dec.  20 — Premier  Lloyd  George  addresses 
parliament  on  Britain's  peace  terms. 

Dec.  22 — German-Russian  peace  conference 
assembles  at  Brest-Litovsk. 

Dec.  23 — Seventh  German  war  loan  totaled 
over  $3,000,000,000. 

Dec.  25 — At  peace  conference  Germany  pro- 
poses with  Russia  "peace  without  forcible 
annexations  and  indemnities." 

Dec.  26 — Vice-Admiral  Wemyss  appointed 
First  Sea  Lord  of  Britain.  Government 
takes  possession  of  railroads  in  United 
States. 

Dec.  17 — Turkish  army  failed  to  retake  Jeru- 
salem. 

1918 

Jan.  3 — Germany  refused  to  evacuate  Russian 
territory. 

Jan.  7 — Earl  Reading,  Lord  Chief  Justice  of 
England,  appointed  special  ambassador  to 
the  United  States. 

Jan.  8 — President  Wilson  addressed  congress 
on  peace;  specified  fourteen  "rectifications 
of  vs^rong  and  assertions  of  right." 

Jan.  9 — Conscription  defeated  in  Australia. 

Jan.  10 — War  between  Russia  and  Bulgaria 
ended;  Don  Cossacks  proclaim  republic. 

Jan.  12 — Armistice  between  Russia  and  Ger- 
many extended  one  month. 

Jan.  14 — Joseph  Caillaux,  former  prime  min- 
ister of  France,  arrested  for  treason. 

Jan.  16 — Fuel  administrator  ordered  indus- 
tries closed  five  consecutive  days  and  nine 
Mondays  to  save  fuel  and  relieve  railroad 
congestion. 

Jan.  19 — Russian  assembly  dissolved  by 
Lenine  because  of  disagreement  on  peace; 
Prussian  legislature  reaffirms  exclusive 
right    of    Emperor    to    make    w-ar    and    peace. 

Jan.  20 — British  vessels  in  Dardanelles  de- 
stroyed German  cruiser  Breslau  and  drove 
Goeben  ashore. 

Jan.  21 — Economic  condition  in  Austria  leads 
to  strong  effort  to  end  war. 

Jan.  23 — One  hundred  and  sixty  thousand 
Turkish  troops  in  Palestine  desert. 

Jan.  25 — Germany  conditionally  accepts  four 
of  President  Wilson's  war  aims,  rejecting 
ten. 

Jan.  26 — Fires  in  ship  yards  in  Newark  and 
Baltimore  cause  loss  of  $2,000,000. 

Jan.  28 — Revolution  in  Finland  assuming  se- 
rious proportions. 

Jan.  29 — Three-fourths  of  Germany's  troops 
have  been  sent  to  the  western  front  from 
Russia. 

Jan.  30 — Italians  resume  offensive  on  the 
Asiago  front  and  advance  their  lines. 

Jan.  31 — Serious  strike  riots  in  Germany. 


WORLD  WAR 


3945 


WORLD  WAR 


Feb.  2 — Major-General  March  appointed  act- 
ing chief  of  staff  of  American  army. 

Feb.  6 — Banks  of  the  United  States  take  issue 
of  $3,000,000,000  treasury  certificates;  Tus- 
cania  sunk;  carried  2,179  American  troops; 
171  lost. 

Feb.  8 — Germany  announces  3,000,000  men  on 
the  western  front  preparing  for  gigantic 
offensive. 

Feb.  9 — Peace  treaty  between  central  powers 
and  Ukraine  signed. 

Feb.  10 — Bolsheviki  rule  in  Russia  reported 
as  becoming  intolerable. 

Feb.  18 — Regardless  of  peace  negotiations, 
Germany  resumes  hostilities  against  Russia. 

Feb.  21 — Bolsheviki  government  appeals  to 
people  to  resist  German  invasion. 

Feb.  27 — Japan  proposes  joint  military  opera- 
tions in  Siberia. 

March  1 — Official  report  showed  36  per  cent 
of  Canada's  400,000  killed  or  wounded; 
killed  number  40,000.k 

March  3 — Bolsheviki  government  signs  peace 
at  Brest-Litovsk;  Russia  loses  Ukrainia, 
Esthonia,  Livonia,  Finland,  the  Aland  is- 
lands  and  three   Transcaucasian   provinces. 

March  5 — Preliminary  peace  treaty  signed  be- 
tween Roumania  and  the  central  powers. 

March  6 — American  troops  holding  four  and 
a  half  miles  on  battle  front  in  France. 

March  7 — Treaty  of  peace  signed  between 
Germany  and  Finland. 

March  9 — Russian  government  transferred  to 
Moscow. 

March  10 — Secretary  of  War  Baker  reached 
France  on  tour  of  inspection. 

March  13 — German  troops  occupy  Odessa; 
driven  out  five  days  later. 

March  14 — Allies  notify  Holland  of  intention 
to  seize  Dutch  ships  in  allied  ports. 

March  18 — Premiers  of  the  allies  denounce 
"Germany's  political  crime  against  Russia." 

March  20 — Holland's  ships  interned  in  allied 
ports  seized. 

March  21 — Germany's  most  stupendous  offen- 
sive begun  in  France  on  50-mile  front. 

March  23 — Paris  bombarded  from  distance  of 
76  miles. 

March  25 — Germans  in  swift  advance  reach 
Bapaume. 

March  28 — Germans  reach  Montdidier;  Persh- 
ing offers  France  the  entire  American  forces 
in  "the   greatest  battle  in  history." 

IMarch  29 — General  Foch  becomes  supreme 
head  of  allied  forces. 

March  30 — Anti-conscription  riots  in  city  of 
Quebec;  daylight  saving  law'  in  America 
became  effective. 

April  2 — United  States  had  loaned  allies  in 
first  year  of  war  $5,160,600,000. 

April  3 — Forty  thousand  German  troops 
landed  in  Finland. 

April  4 — German  offensive  renewed  east  of 
Amiens;  allied  lines  hold  firm. 

April  5 — American  army  at  end  of  first  year  of 
war  totals  more  than  1,500,000   in  uniform. 

April  9 — German  attack  in  west  shifted  north 
around  Messines  ridge. 

April  13 — German  troops  occupy  Helsingfors, 
Finland. 


April  15 — Count  Czernin,  Austrian  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  resigned. 

April  16 — Germans  capture  Messines  ridge; 
Bolo  Pasha  executed  in  France  for  treason. 

April  17 — Baron  Burian  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs   in  Austria-Hungary. 

April  19 — Italian  army  represented  on  French 
front;  Lord  Milner  becomes  British  secre- 
tary of  war. 

April  21 — Germans  slow  up  western  offen- 
sive to  reform  their  legions;  Japan  agrees 
to  loan  United  States  514,000  tons  of  ship- 
ping. 

April  22 — Ireland  preparing  for  general  strike 
as  protest  against  conscription. 

April  23 — British  naval  raid  against  sub- 
marine  bases   at   Zeebrugge   and   Ostend. 

April  25 — Germany  demands  heavy  conces- 
sions from  Holland;  announced  that  United 
States  expenditures  average  $35,000,000  per 
day. 

April  26 — Germans  capture  Mount  Kemmel, 
southwest  of  Tpres. 

April  27 — Germans  and  Austrians  renew  Ital- 
ian offensive. 

May  4 — Last  day  of  third  Liberty  Loan.  The 
$3,000,000,000  asked  for  was  oversubscribed; 
Germans  resume  offensive  in  Flanders,  with 
success. 

May  7 — British  naval  sortie  against  Germany's 
submarine  base   at  Ostend. 

May  27 — Second  great  German  offensive  of 
1918  begun  on  a  48-mile  front  in  the  Aisne 
region. 

May  29 — Germans  had  advanced  ten  miles 
over  narrow  area  and   taken  twelve  towns. 

May  30 — Soissons  captured  by  Germans; 
Rheims  endangered  again. 

June  1 — Germans  only  forty-six  miles  from 
Paris,  after  gaining  nine  miles  in  one  day. 

June  3 — Five  German  submarines  attack 
United  States  coast  and  sink  eleven  ships. 

June  5 — United  States  marines  fight  on  the 
Marne  near  Chateau  Thierry. 

June  10 — United  States  marines  capture  south 
end  of  Belleau  Wood. 

June  22 — Italians  defeat  Austrians  on  the 
Piave. 

July  18 — General  Foch  launches  allied  offen- 
sive, with  French,  American,  British,  Ital- 
ian and  Belgian  troops. 

July  21 — Americans  and  French  capture 
Chateau  Thierry. 

Aug.  2 — Soissons  recaptured  by  Foch. 

Aug.  5 — American  troops  landed  at  Archangel. 

Sept.  12 — Americans  launch  successful  attack 
in  Saint  Mihiel  salient. 

Sept.  29 — Allies  cross  Hindenburg  line. 

Sept.  30 — Bulgaria  surrenders,  after  success- 
ful allied  campaign  in  Balkans. 

Oct.  6 — Germany  asks  President  Wilson  for 
armistice. 

Oct.  8 — President  Wilson  refuses  armistice. 

Oct.  9 — Allies  capture  Cambrai. 

Oct.  19 — President  Wilson  refuses  Austrian 
peace  plea  and  says  Czecho-Slovak  state 
must  be  considered. 

Oct.  23 — President  Wilson  refuses  latest  Ger- 
man peace  plea. 


WORLD  WAR 


3946 


WORMS 


Oct.  27 — German  government  asks  President 
Wilson  to  state  terms. 

Oct.  29 — Austria  opens  direct  negotiations 
with  Secretary  Lansing. 

Oct.  30 — Italians  inflict  great  defeat  on  Aus- 
tria; capture  33,000;  Austrians  evacuating 
Italian   territory. 

Oct.  31 — Turkey  surrenders;  Austrians  utterly 
routed  by  Italians;  lose  50,000  Austrian  en- 
voys, under  white  flag,   enter  Italian  lines. 

Nov.  3 — Austria  signs  armistice  amounting 
virtually  to  imconditional  surrender. 

Nov.  4 — Allied  terms  are  sent  to   Germany. 

Nov.   7 — Germany's   envoys   enter  allied  lines  ' 
by  arrangement. 

Nov.  9 — Kaiser  Wilhelm  abdicates  and  crown 
prince  renounces  throne. 

Nov.  10 — Former  Kaiser  Wilhelm  and  his 
eldest  son,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  flee  to  Hol- 
land to  escape  widespread  revolution 
throughout  Germany. 

Nov.    11 — Germany    accepts    armistice    terms. 

Some  Interesting  Figures.    America's  part 
in  the  World  War  is  summarized  in  the  fol- 
lowing statement,  given  out  by  the  chief  of 
the  statistical  branch  of  the  General  Staff : 
Total    armed    force,    including    army, 

navy  and  marine  corps 4,800,000 

Total  men  in  the  army 4,000,000 

Men  who  went  overseas   2,086,000 

Men  who  fought  in  France 1,390,000 

Total  registered  in  draft 24,234,021 

Total  draft  inductions 2,810,296 

Cost   of  war  to  April  30,  1919,   $21,850,000,000. 

Battles  fought  by  Americans,  13. 

Amierican  deaths  from  battle  wounds,   48,900. 

American  wounded,  236,000. 

Deaths  from  disease,  56,991. 

Total  deaths  in  army,  112,422. 

During  the  war  7,450,000  men  were  killed, 
the  various  belligerents  suffering  as  follows : 

Russia    1,700,000 

Germany   1,600,000 

France   1,385,000 

Great   Britain    900,000 

Austria    800,000 

Italy     300,000 

Turkey     250,000 

Serbia  and  Montenegro 125,000 

Belgium     102,000 

Rumania 100,000 

Bulgaria    100,000 

United   States        48,900 

Greece    7,000 

Portugal    2,000 

Peace  Negotiations.  The  collapse  of  Ger- 
many as  a  military  power  was  accompanied 
by  a  revolution,  whereby  the  empire  was 
abolished  and  a  republic  was  established. 
Kaiser  William  and  Crown  Prince  Freder- 
ick William  fled  to  Holland,  and  on  Novem- 
ber 28  the  emperoi*  signed  a  formal  document 
of  abdication.  Germany  had  thus  fulfilled 
one  of  President  Wilson's  conditions,  that 
the   allies  could  not  make  peace  with   the 


Hohenzollems:  The  peace  conference  met 
in  Paris  in  January,  1919,  and  German  rep- 
resentatives signed  the  treaty  in  Versailles 
on  June  28.  For  details  of  the  conference 
and  terms  of  the  treaty,  see  Versailles, 
Treaty  of. 

Related  Article.s.  Various  phases  of  the  war 
and  details  connected  with  the  subject  ■which 
could  not  be  treated  in  the  general  article  may 
be  found  in  the  special  articles  listed  below. 
The  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  historical 
sections  of  the  articles  on  the  various  coun- 
tries affected  by  the  war. 

CITIES 

Aleppo  Constantinople  Paris 

Amiens  Damascus  Petrograd 

Antwerp  Fiume  Rheims 

Arras  Jerusalem  Riga 

Bagdad  Lemberg  Saloniki 

Belgrade  Lens  Sofia 

Berlin  Liege  Triest 

Brest  Lille  Venice 

Brest-Litovsk    London  Verdun 

Brussels  Louvain  Vladivostok 

Bucharest  Moscow  Warsaw 

Budapest  Namur  Ypres 

Calais  Ostend 

RECONSTRTJCTED     NATIONS 

Armenia  Hungary 

Austria  Jugo-Slavia 

Czecho-Slovak  Poland 
Republic 

STATESMEN    AND    RULERS 

Albert  I  George,  David  Lloyd 

Balfour,  Arthur  J.  Grey,    Edward,   Sir 

Bernstorff,  Count  Nicholas  II 

Charles  I  Poincare,  Raymond 
Clemenceau,   Georges    Venizelos,  Eleutherios 

Constantine   I  Victor  Emmanuel  III 

Francis   Joseph  I  William    II 

George  V  Wilson,  Woodrow 

MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  COMMANDERS 

Beatty,  David.  Sir  Joffre,  Joseph  J. 

Bullard,  Robert  L.  Kitchener.  Horatio  H. 

Foch,  Ferdinand  Liggett,  Hunter 

French,  John,  Sir  Moltke 

Haig,  Douglas,  Sir  Retain,  Henri 
Hindenburg,   Paul  von  Pershins",  John  J. 

Jellicoe,  John,  Sir  Sims,  William  S. 

INSTRUMENTS    OF    WAR 

Cannon  Poison  Gas 

Explosives  Submarine 

Flying  Machine  Submarine   Mine 

Howitzer  Torpedo 

Machine  Gun  Torpedo  Boat 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Balance  of  Power  Livonia 

Balkan  Wars  Lithuania 

Bolsheviki  Lusitania 

Conscription  Mesopotamia 

Courland  Nations,  League  of 

Dardanelles  Palestine 

Dobruja  Siberia 

Esthonia  Triple  Alliance 

Gallipoli  Triple  Entente 

Kiao-chau  Ukraine 

WORMS,  wurmz,  a  term  loosely  applied 
to  many  small,  rather  long,  creeping  ani- 
mals, lacking  feet  entirely,  or  having  very 
short  ones,  including  such  various  forms  as 
the  earthworm,  the  grabs  of  certain  insects 
and  intestinal  parasites.  The  zoologist,  how- 
ever, confines  the  term  to  animals  belonging 
to  the  branch  known  as  Vermes,  and  accord- 
ingly he  excludes  the  larvae  of  all  insects. 
See  Vermes. 

WORMS,  wormz,  Germany,  situated  on 
the   Rhine,    twenty-six    miles    southeast    of 


WORMWOOD 


3947 


WREN 


Mainz  and  twenty  miles  northwest  of  Heidel- 
berg. It  is  an  old  city  and  contains  many 
objects  which  are  of  interest  because  of  their 
antiquity.  Among  these  is  the  cathedral, 
which  dates  from  the  twelfth  century,  the 
Paulus  Kirche,  of  about  the  same  date,  and 
a  synagogue,  which  is  still  older.  On  Luther 
Platz  is  a  monument  to  Luther,  and  it  was 
in  this  city  that  he  appeared  before  the  diet 
in  1521  and  refused  to  retract  his  theses  (see 
Luther,  Martin).  The  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  textiles,  leather,  machin- 
ery, chemicals  and  chicory.  Population, 
about  46,000. 

WORMWOOD,  wurm'wood,  a  perennial 
herb  native  to  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia, 
which  has  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  erect,  haiiy  stem 
from  two  to  four  feet  high,  bears  coarse  gi*ay 
leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers.  From  the 
plant  is  extracted  a  bitter  oil,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  French  liquor  called  ah- 
sinthe,  and  as  an  ingredient  of  various  medi- 
cines. In  Biblical  and  other  literature  the 
plant  is  a  symbol  of  bitterness. 

WORSTED,  woos'ted,  or  wu/sted,  a  tight- 
ly-twisted woolen  thread  made  from  long-flb- 
ered  wool.  The  name  comes  from  Worsted, 
the  English  village  where  it  was  first  made. 
The  thread  is  used  for  knitting  and  for  weav- 
ing cloth.  See  Wool  and  Woolen  Manu- 
facture. 

WOUNDS,  woondz,  injuries  to  any  of  the 
soft  parts  of  the  body,  occasioned  by  external 
violence  and  attended  by  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  bleeding.  Cuts,  incisions,  stabs 
and  bruises  are  good  illustrations  of  wounds. 

Poisoned  wounds  are  those  complicated 
with  the  introduction  of  some  poison  or 
venom  into  the  part.  If  wounds  are  of  such 
a  nature  that  the  edges  can  be  brought  to- 
gether closely,  and  if  then  bacteria  can  be 
kept  out,  healing  "by  first  intention"  takes 
place  rapidly  and  with  little  inflammation. 
When  wounds  are  deep  and  open,  they  are 
slower  in  healing.  Wounds  poisoned  by 
chemicals  or  by  bacteria  are  likely  to  be 
serious,  and  sometimes  an  apparently  trifling 
injury  of  this  sort  results  in  death. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  the  treatment 
of  any  of  the  wounds  mentioned  above  is  to 
stop  the  bleeding  by  binding  tight  the  artery 
or  vein  which  has  been  opened.  Then 
thoroughly  cleanse  the  wound  with  warm 
water,  removing  all  foreign  matter,  and  wash 
with  some  good  antiseptic,  such  as  boric  acid 


in  saturated  solution,  a  weak  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  or  with  iodine.  Finally,  band- 
age the  wound  with  perfectly  clean  gauze  or 
light  cloth.  These  bandages  should  be  re- 
moved frequently,  and  the  wound  should 
again  be  cleaned,  disinfected  and  redressed. 

A  fluid  known  as  Dakin's  solution  was 
extensively  used  by  French  surgeons  in  the 
World  War  for  irrigating  wounds.  It  is  a 
combination  of  chlorinated  lime,  sodium  car- 
bonate (dry)  and  sodium  bicarbonate,  and 
is  an  excellent  antiseptic.     See  Surgery. 

WREN,  a  vei-y  active  little  bird,  common 
in  America,  Europe  and  Asia.  The  wrens 
are  distinguished  by  their  small  size,  slender 
beaks,  short  rounded  wings,  brown  or  gray 
mottled  plumage  and  erect  tails.  The  com- 
mon house  wren  of  the  United  States  builds 
its  nest  in  boxes  prepared  for  it,  or  crevices, 
wherever  it  can  find  them,  seeming  to  have 
no  fear  of  human  beings  and  never  hesitating 
to  attack  cats,  dogs,  swallows  and  other  tres- 
passers, The  eggs 
are  from  three  to 
nine  in  number  and 
are  white,  dotted 
with  salmon.  The 
song  of  the  wren  is 
melodious  and  flute- 
like, and  its  amusing  ^^ 
waj'S  make  it  a  great 
favorite  everywhere. 
It  destroys  large  numbers  of  noxious  insects ; 
it  is  therefore  a  friend  of  the  farmer  and 
amply  repays  any  care  that  may  be  taken  of 
it.  The  largest  wren  in  the  United  States  is 
the  cactus  wren  of  the  Southwest;  the  small- 
est is  the  winter  wren,  only  four  inches  long. 

WREN,  Christopher,  Sir  (1632-1723), 
one  of  the  greatest  of  English  architects, 
born  in  Knowle,  Wiltshire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Waldham  College,  Oxford,  became  a 
fellow  of  All  Souls  in  1653,  was  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Gresham  College 
later,  and  aftei-^vard  was  elected  Savilian 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford. 

There  were  few  trained  architects  in  Eng- 
land in  his  time,  and  as  a  scientist  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  re- 
store Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  Before  the 
work  of  restoration  began  the  great  London 
fire  of  1666  occurred,  destroying  the  build- 
ing. Wren  had  been  gradually  drawn  by  con- 
sultations deeper  and  deeper  into  the  prob- 
lems of  construction,  and  ultimately  had 
become  an  enthusiastic  student.     Thus  pre- 


WREN 


WRENCH 


3948 


WRESTLING 


pared,  the  labor  of  building  Saint  Paul's  de- 
volved largely  on  him,  and  he  was  occupied 
with  the  work  from  1675  to  1710.  At  the 
same  time  he  made  many  designs  for  other 
public  buildings,  and  in  the  forty  years  fol- 
lowing the  great  conflagration  there  was  not 
an  important  public  building  in  London  that 
was  not  designed  by  him. 

Among  the  notable  buildings  he  designed 
are  the  modem  part  of  the  palace  at  Hamp- 
ton Court;  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  the  hospitals  of  Chelsea  and 
Greenwich;  the  Church  of  Saint  Stephen's, 
Walbrook;  those  of  Saint  Mary-le-bow  and 
Saint  Michael,  Cornhill;  that  of  Saint  Bride, 
Fleet  Street,  and  the  campanile  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1680  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  royal  works,  and  from  1685 
to  1700  he  represented  various  boroughs  in 
Parliament.  Over  the  north  doorway  of 
Saint  Paul's  is  a  memorial  tablet,  on  which 
are  the  well-known  words,  Si  monumentum 
requiris,  drcumspice  (If  thou  seek  his  monu- 
ment, look  about  thee). 

WRENCH,  reneh,  a  tool  designed  for 
gripping  nuts,  bolts,  screws  or  pipes  so  that 
they  may  be  turned.  A  simple  wrench  is 
that  used  by  machinists,  consisting  of  a  flat 
metal  bar  with  angular  openings  at  end  and 
sides.  Another  is  an  alligator  wrench^  made 
of  a  single  piece  of  metal,  at  one  end  a  handle, 
at  the  other  a  pair  of  jaws,  with  wedge- 
shaped  opening,  one  side  of  which  is  toothed. 
The  monkey  wrench  is  more  complicated.  A 
bar  of  metal  equipped  with  a  wooden  handle 
is  fitted  with  a  stationary  jaw  and  a  jaw 
which  can  be  adjusted  to  various  widths  by 
means  of  a  screw. 

WRESTLING-,  wrestling,  a  competitive 
sport  engaged  in  by  two  persons,  each  of 
whom  tries  to  throw  the  other  prone  upon 
the  ground.  Wrestling  brings  into  play  every 
muscle  of  the  body,  and  when  engaged  in 
under  the  proper  restraining  rules  is  one  of 
the  most  beneficial  of  sports.  The  winner 
in  a  wrestling  match  is  usually  the  man  who 
is  the  more  skilful  and  alert;  strength  and 
weight  count,  but  a  quick  eye  and  decision 
of  action  are  even  more  essential. 

Wrestling,  being  the  most  natural  of 
sports,  is  among  the  oldest.  In  all  Greek 
athletic  contests  it  had  a  prominent  part. 
The  Greek  wrestlers  oiled  their  bodies,  sup- 
posedly to  make  them  more  supple.  Grace 
was  insisted  upon,  and  the  most  stringent 
rules  were  enforced.     Roman  wrestling  was 


of  a  rougher  sort,  in  which  participants  were 
not  infrequently  killed.  In  the  Graeco- 
Roman  wrestling  of  modern  France,  the  con- 
testants are  stripped  to  the  waist  and  are  not 
allowed  to  grasp  each  other  anywhere  below 
the  belt  or  to  trip  each  other.  Most  of  the 
struggle  takes  place  after  both  men  are  on 
the  mat,  and  a  fall  is  scored  when  one  of  the 
contestants  forces  both  shoulders  of  his  op- 
ponent to  the  ground. 

The  Irish  method  of  wrestling  is  known  as 
the  collar  and  elbow.  The  wrestlers  wear 
short  jackets  with  stout  collars  and  sleeves, 
to  afford  a  good  grip.  Each  man  seizes  the 
collar  of  the  other  with  his  right  hand  and 
the  sleeves  near  the  elbow  with  his  left  hand. 
If  his  grip  loosens,  he  loses.  A  man  is 
thrown  when  two  shoulders  and  a  hip  or  a 
shoulder  and  two  hips  touch  the  ground. 

In  England  a  good  method  of  wrestling  for 
boys  and  youths  is  known  as  the  black-hold 
catch.  Each  contestant  stands  with  his  chin 
on  the  shoulder  of  the  other,  grasping  the 
other  about  the  body,  the  right  arm  of  each 
under  the  left  arm  of  the  other.  Tripping  is 
allowed,  but  kicking  or  brutality  is  baiTed. 
The  first  step  to  certain  success  is  to  get  the 
right  shoulder  beneath  the  armpit  of  the 
opponent.  If  a  contestant  loses  his  grip  or  if 
his  shoulders  touch  the  floor,  he  loses. 

A  freer  method  of  wrestling,  common  in 
both  England  and  America  is  the  catch-as- 
catch-can  method,  in  which,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, holds  are  taken  at  random.  Tripping 
is  permitted,  but  kicking  and  throttling  are 
barred.  Two  shoulders  on  the  floor  consti- 
tutes a  fall.  When  the  match  is  professional, 
two  falls  in  three  or  three  in  five  are  usually 
required  for  a  decision.  There  are  a  number 
of  recognized  "holds"  which  give  a  wrestler 
great  advantage  over  an  opponent,  such  as 
the  grape-vine  lock,  the  chancery,  the  half- 
Nelson  and  the  hammer-lock. 

The  Japanese  have  a  system  of  wrestling 
known  as  jujutsu,  which  is  a  method  of  self- 
defense  without  the  use  of  weapons.  A 
master  of  jujutsu  can,  by  a  slight,  swift 
movement,  benumb  an  opponent's  brain,  dis- 
locate his  hip  or  shoulder  or  burst  or  twist 
a  tendon.  The  police  force  of  Japan  are  re- 
quired to  attain  a  certain  proficiency  in  ju- 
jutsu,  but  the  system  in  its  entirety  is  taught 
to  only  a  few  men  of  the  highest  character 
and  self-mastery.  None  is  given  the  training 
without  first  taking  oath  not  to  reveal  its 
secrets.    See  Jujutsu. 


WRIGHT 


3949 


WRITING 


WRIGHT,  rite,  Carroll  DA^asiOir  (1840- 
1909),  an  American  economist,  statistician 
and  legislator,  born  at  Dunbarton,  N.  H.  He 
received  an  academic  education,  and  had 
been  admitted  to  the  bar  when  the  Civil  War 
broke  out.  He  enlisted  as  a  private  and  was 
promoted  to  a  colonel's  rank.  After  the 
war  he  was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  sen- 
ate, and  from  1873  to  1885  was  chief  of  the 
state  bureau  of  labor  statistics.  From  1885 
to  1902  as  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Labor  he  was  responsible  for  the  publication 
of  many  valuable  bulletins  and  studies  on 
the  labor  problem. 

In  the  latter  year  he  became  president  of 
the  college  department  of  Clark  University, 
Worcester,  Mass.  At  various  times  he  did 
important  work  for  the  government — in  1890 
in  connection  with  the  census;  in  1902  as  a 
member  of  the  anthracite  coal  commission — 
and  lectured  at  Harvard,  Johns  Hopkins, 
Michigan  and  Northwestern  universities.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  learned  societies  in 
America  and  abroad,  and  was  honored  by 
France  with  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  His  books  include  The  Industrial 
Evolution  of  the  United  States,  Outlines  of 
Practical  Sociology,  Some  Ethical  Phases  of 
the  Labor  Question  and  Battles  of  Labor. 

WRIGHT,  Harold  Bell  (1872-  ),  a 
popular  American  novelist,  born  in  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  and  educated  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment of  Hiram  College,  Ohio.  He  was 
at  various  times  a  painter  and  decorator,  a 
landscape  painter  and  a  minister  in  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  Church,  and  his  first  novel, 
That  Printer  of  Udell's  (1903),  was  writ- 
ten while  he  was  preaching  in  Missouri.  It 
was  followed  by  The  Shepherd  of  the  Hills, 
a  great  popular  success.  In  1908  he  re- 
tired from  the  ministry  to  devote  himself  en- 
tirely to  wi'iting,  producing,  in  rapid  succes- 
sion, The  Calling  of  Dan  Matthews,  The  Un- 
croioned  King,  The  Winning  of  Barbara 
Worth,  Their  Yesterdays,  The  Eyes  of  the 
World  and  When  a  Man's  a  Man.  Some  of 
his  books  have  been  dramatized  for  moving 
pictures. 

WRIGHT,  Grille  (1871-  ),  and  Wil- 
bur (1867-1912),  two  brothers  who  won  un- 
dying fame  as  inventors  of  practical  flying 
machines.  Orville  was  born  in  Dayton,  0., 
and  Wilbur  in  Millville,  Ind.  Both  were 
educated  in  the  public  schools.  They  began 
to  study  aeronautics  in  1896.  At  this  time 
they  had  a  bicj^cle  shop  in  Dayton,  Ohio. 


In  1900  they  began  experiments  in  avia- 
tion with  machines  of  their  own  invention 
and  manufacture,  and  three  years  later  they 
had  produced  a  machine  which  would  remain 
in  the  air  over  a  minute.  In  1905  they  made 
the  first  long-distance  flight,  near  Dayton; 
and  in  1908  Wilbur  made  his  first  public 
flight  in  France.  After  the  brothers  had  won 
gold  medals  and  homage  in  Europe  they  were 
recognized  at  home,  and  their  machine  was 
accepted  by  the  United  States  government 
for  use  in  the  army.  The  Wright  machines 
are  now  in  use  by  every  great  nation.  See 
Flying  Machines. 

WRIT,  in  law,  a  formal  order  issued  by 
a  court  in  the  name  of  a  state  enjoining  the 
person  mentioned  therein  to  perform  some 
specified  act.  It  is  issued  under  seal,  at- 
tested by  the  proper  officer  and  addressed  to 
the  sheriff  or  some  other  oflScer  legally  au- 
thorized to  enforce  its  execution. 

The  following  are  the  writs  in  most  com- 
mon use: 

A  writ  of  summons  commands  an  author- 
ized officer  to  notify  a  person  to  appear  in 
court   to  answer   to  a  complaint. 

A  writ  of  replevin  is  an  order  permitting 
the  recovery  of  goods  which  have  been  ille- 
gally seized. 

A  writ  of  mandamus  is  a  command  to  a 
person  or  corporation  to  something  pertain- 
ing to  his,  or  its,  office  or  duty. 

A  writ  of  quo  warranto  is  a  command  to 
show  by  what  right  an  act  is  performed  or 
an  office  held. 

A  writ  of  error  is  issued  to  remove  an  ac- 
tion to  a  higher  court,  by  reason  of  error  in 
the  proceedings  of  the   inferior  court. 

A  writ  of  certiorari  is  issued  by  a  court  of 
review,  requiring  the  record  of  a  case  to  be 
sent  up  from  an  inferior  court  for  examina- 
tion. 

For  writ  of  subpoena  see  Witness.  See, 
also,  Habeas  Corpus;  Injunction;  Capias. 

WRITING,  signs  or  characters  inscribed 
on  a  sui'face  for  the  purpose  of  recording 
and  commtmicating  thought.  The  earliest 
form  of  writing,  practiced  by  all  primitive 
peoples,  was  that  of  picture  writing,  or  the 
copying  of  objects  direct  from  nature.  After 
this  came  symbolical  writing,  such  as  was 
developed  in  its  highest  form  in  the  eunei- 
fonn  system  of  Western  Asia  and  the  hiero- 
glyphics of  Egypt,  in  which  abbreviated 
pictures  were  used  as  arbitrary  sjTnbols,  first 
of  things  and  later  of  sounds  and  words. 
These  systems  marked  the  transition  from 
ideographic  to  phonetic  writing,  in  which 
signs  represent  either  syllables  or  single 
sounds. 


WRITS  OF  ASSISTANCE 


3950 


WYANDOTTE  CAVE 


Of  systems  of  writing  in  Avliich  signs  rep- 
resent syllables,  the  most  notable  is  the 
Chinese.  As  the  same  sound  may  have  sev- 
eral meanings,  it  is  often  necessaiy  to  add  to 
a  syllable  some  sign  to  indicate  which  mean- 
ing is  intended.  The  Phoenicians,  basing 
their  sj'stem  on  the  Egyptian,  are  said  to  have 
invented  the  first  phonetic  alphabet,  in  which 
signs  represent  single  sounds.  Tradition  has 
it  that  the  Phoenician  system  was  introduced 
into  Greece  bj^  Cadmus  of  Boeotia,  about  the 
seventeenth  century,  b.  c.  The  Greek  forms 
spread  to  Sicily  and  Italy,  being  modified  as 
they  spread. 

Various  systems  of  writing  differ  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  symbols,  Chinese  char- 
acters are  read  in  columns  from  top  to  bot- 
tom. Mexican  picture  wi'iting  is  read  from 
bottom  to  top.  Hebrew  writing,  a  modifica- 
tion of  one  form  of  the  ancient  Egj'ptian,  is 
read  from  right  to  left.  Sanskrit,  Greek, 
Latin  and  all  modern  European  languages 
are  read  from  left  to  right.  In  medieval 
manuscripts  a  variety  of  styles  were  adopted 
in  different  epochs  and  countries. 

Whole  manuscripts  were  written  in  large 
or  small  capitals.  Uncial  letters,  which  pre- 
vailed from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  century, 
were  rounded  capitals,  with  few  hair  strokes. 
Gothic  characters,  fanciful  deviations  from 
the  Roman  types,  became  common  from  the 
thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century.  In  Eng- 
land, in  the  early  Middle  Ages  a  variety  of 
styles  called  Saxon  prevailed;  a  mixed  style 
was  formed  of  a  combination  of  Roman, 
Lombardic  and  Saxon  characters;  the  Nor- 
man stjde  came  in  with  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  the  English  court  hand,  an  adap- 
tation of  Saxon,  prevailed  from  the  sixteenth 
century  to  the  reign  of  George  II. 

There  have  been  various  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  introduce  systems  of  phonetic 
writing,  in  which  each  sound  should  be  repro- 
duced by  one  invariable  sign.  Systems  of 
shorthand  are  generally  phonetic.  See 
Alphabet;  Hieroglyphics;   Shorthand. 

WRITS  OF  ASSISTANCE.  In  Amer- 
ican colonial  days  the  British  customs  officials 
were  provided  with  general  search  warrants 
to  aid  them  in  collecting  import  duties. 
These  warrants  were  called  writs  of  assist- 
ance. These  writs  differed  from  an  ordinary 
search  warrant  in  that  they  did  not  limit  the 
officer's  search  to  a  specified  time  or  place, 
or  to  specified  goods,  but  authorized  him  to 
seize  any  suspected  goods. 


The  first  writ  of  this  kind  was  issued  in 
17G1  and  aroused  much  opposition.  James 
Otis,  advocate-general  of  the  colony  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, resigned  his  office  and  became 
leading  attorney  in  a  case  in  opposition  to  the 
issuance  of  the  writs.  In  his  appeal  to  the 
court  he  uttered  radical  sentiments  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  king  and  Parliament.  The  writ 
was  declared  legal,  but  it  was  rarely,  if  ever, 
used.    See  Warrant. 

WRY'NECK,  a  European  bird  related  to 
the  woodpeckers,  but,  unlike  the  latter,  un- 
able to  climb.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the  natural 
cavities  of  trees,   and   lays  from   seven  to 


WRYNECK 


twelve  shiny,  white  eggs.  It  eats  ants  and 
otlier  ground  insects,  which  it  captures  with 
its  bill  or  with  its  wormlike  tongue.  When 
disturbed,  the  bird  thnists  its  head  out  over 
its  nest  with  an  undulating  movement,  which 
has  given  it  its  name.  Its  habit  of  hissing 
on  such  occasions  has  earned  for  it  the 
sobriquet  snake  bird. 

WURTTEMBERG,  vurt'em  berK,  Ger- 
many, until  1918  a  kingdom  situated  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  former  German  Em- 
pire, bounded  on  the  east  and  south  by  Ba- 
varia and  on  the  southwest  and  north  by 
Baden.  It  has  an  area  of  7,528  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  approximately  two  and 
a  half  million.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  Wiirt- 
temberg  was  a  county.  In  1495  it  was 
erected  into  a  duchy  and  in  1806  became  a 
kingdom.  At  the  foimation  of  the  German 
Empire,  in  1871,  it  became  a  part  of  that 
government.  For  surface,  climate  and  prod- 
ucts, see  Germany. 

WYANDOTTE,  wi' an  dot.     See  Huron. 

WYANDOTTE  CAVE,  wi'  an  dot,  a  nat- 
ural cavern  in  Crawford  County,  Ind.,  five 
miles  northwest  of  Leavenworth.  It  is  next 
to  Mammoth  Cave  in  size  and  has  been  ex- 


WYCLIFFE 


3951 


WYOMING 


plored  for  about  tAA'enty-three  miles.  It  is 
noted  for  its  large  ehambei's,  some  of  which 
are  200  feet  high  and  300  feet  broad.  The 
stalactite  fonnations  in  this  cave  are  of  un- 
usual magnitude  and  beauty.  Those  in  the 
room  known  as  the  Pillared  Palace  are  of 
unusual  interest,  while  Monument  Mountain 
is  a  group  of  stalagmite  columns  175  feet 
high. 

WYCLIFFE,  or  WICUF,  wik'lif,  Johx 
(about  1320-1384),  an  English  refoi-mer, 
born  at  Hipswell,  in  Yorkshire,  England.  Of 
his  early  life  we  know  nothing.  At  sixteen 
he  entered  Oxford,  became  a  fellow  of  Mer- 
ton  College,  and  later  master  of  Balliol  Col- 
lege and  warden  of  Canterbury  Hall.  He 
zealously  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  he  subjected  to  the  most 
critical  analysis,  and  he  early  manifested  a 
skepticism  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  doctrine 
and  discipline. 

Disputes  were  going  on  at  this  period  be- 
tween Edward  III  and  the  Papal  court,  con- 
cerning tribute  exacted  from  King  John,  and 
the  English  Parliament  had  resolved  to  sup- 
port the  sovereign  in  his  refusal  to  submit 
to  the  vassalage.  Wycliffe  took  a  prominent 
part  in  this  affair,  urging  King  Edward  to 
refuse  the  tribute  to  the  Holy  See.  Pope 
Gregory  XT,  on  learning  of  Wycliffe's  de- 
fiant attitude  toward  the  Church  in  regard  to 
this  matter,  wrote  letters  to  the  king,  to  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  University 
of  Oxford,  to  have  him  tried  for  heres,y. 

In  subsequent  seiinons,  Wycliffe  attacked 
the  higher  clergy,  accusing  them  of  having 
assumed  undue  power  and  unbecoming  arro- 
gance. In  Febi-uary,  1378,  he  appeared  be- 
fore Archbishop  Courtenay  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral,  attended  by  John  of  Gaunt  and 
other  friends.  The  people  who  were  present 
became  so  angered  against  "Wj^cliffe  that  he 
and  his  friends  had  to  flee  for  their  lives. 
He  retained  the  favor  of  the  king,  however, 
and  soon  afterward  was  awarded  a  profes- 
sorship of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford. In  1380  he  opposed  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  at  Oxford,  and  two  years 
later  he  was  summoned  to  appear  before  a 
commission  of  bishops  and  doctors  at  Lon- 
don. He  refused  to  attend,  availing  him- 
self of  a  university  prerogative.  The  trial 
was  conducted  without  his  presence.  Ten 
out  of  twenty-four  articles  culled  from  his 
writings  were  condemned  as  heretical,  and 
fourteen  were  declared  to  be  erroneous.    By 


an  order  from  the  crown,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  professorship  and  expelled  from  the 
university.  He  returned  to  Lutterworth,  in 
Leicestershire,  where  Edward  had  given  him 
a  rectory.  Here  he  labored  zealously  and 
unweariedly.  Part  of  his  time  was  spent  in 
translating  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate.  He 
continued  to  write  unceasingly  and  boldly 
against  the  papal  claims,  upholding  the 
Scripture  itself  as  the  highest  explanation 
of  the  divine  law  and  urging  the  importance 
of  teaching  it  to  every  Christian  and  hence 
the  duty  of  gi\nng  it  to  the  world  in  the  com- 
mon tongue  of  the  people.  He  sent  out 
young  men  with  the  Bible,  to  preach  the 
plain,  straighforward  word  of  God.  These 
men  were  known  as  poor  priests,  and  the 
people  heard  them  gladly. 

On  Dec.  28,  1384,  while  hearing  mass,  he 
was  seized  with  paralysis  and  died  a  few  days 
later. 

"Wycliffe's  followers  were  active  in  spread- 
ing his  teachings,  which  for  about  a  genera- 
tion after  his  death  acted  as  a  powerful 
religious  and  political  factor  among  the  Eng- 
lish people.  Before  "Wycliffe's  time  there  had 
been  no  sj'stematic  attempt  to  translate  the 
whole  Bible  into  English,  and  hence  the  vast 
importance  of  the  version  known  as  Wy- 
cliffe's Bible.  Aside  from  its  value  from  a 
theological  point  of  view,  Wycliffe's.  Bible 
was  an  important  contribution  to  English 
prose. 


YOMING,  a  northwestern  state  of 
the  American  Union,  is  located  on  the  great 
Rocky  Mountain  plateau,  and  is  rectangular 
in  form,  its  boundaries  being  formed  by 
meridians  of  longitude  and  parallels  of  lati- 
tude. It  lies  between  Montana  on  the  north 
and  Colorado  on  the  south,  with  South  Da- 
kota and  Nebraska  on  the  east  and  Idaho 
and  Utah  on  the  west.     The  name,  meaning 


WYOMING 


3952 


WYOMING 


large  jjlains,  was  taken  from  that  of  the 
Wj'oming  valley  in  Pennsylvania.  The 
southwest  comer  cuts  into  Utah.  Yellow- 
stone National  Park,  which  with  its  ad- 
joining forest  resen'e  has  an  area  of  5,000 
square  miles,  occupies  the  northwestern 
comer,  extending  over  the  boundary  into 
Idaho  and  Montana.  The  length  of  the  state 
from  east  to  west  is  355  miles,  the  width  from 
north  to  south  is  276  miles,  and  the  area 
97,914  square  miles.  It  is  almost  twice  as 
large  as  New  York  and  a  little  larger  than 
Oregon,  ranking  eighth  among  the  states. 

The  People.  In  1910  Wyoming  had  a 
population  of  145,965;  in  1918,  according  to 
Federal  estimate,  the  nmnber  had  increased 
to  190,380.  About  one-sixth  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  foreigners;  Austrians,  Canadians, 
English,  Germans,  Greeks,  Italians,  Scotch 
and  Swedes  are  the  most  numerous.  There 
are  about  1,000  Chinese  and  Japanese,  most 
of  whom  are  employed  as  laborers  in  the 
mines.  The  Indian  reservation  within  the 
state  covers  an  area  of  960  square  miles,  and 
the  Indian  population  is  about  1,900.  Ne- 
vada is  the  onl}^  state  ha^dng  a  smaller  popu- 
lation. 

Surface  and  Drainage.  The  surface  of 
the  state,  for  the  most  part,  is  composed  of 
mountains  and  plateaus.  The  great  plains 
of  the  Mississippi  valley  slope  away  from 
the  foothills  in  the  east.  The  elevation  varies 
from  3,500  to  14,000  feet.  The  main  axis  of 
the  Rockj'  Mountains,  which  forms  the  Con- 
tinental Divide,  extends  from  north  to  south 
across  the  state.  The  northern  group  of  these 
mountains  finds  here  its  gi'eatest  development 
and  is  noted  for  its  wild  and  rugged  char- 
acter and  for  its  picturesque  scenerj'.  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park,  3,600  square  miles 
in  area,  occupies  the  northwestern  corner  of 
the  state.  In  the  west  central  part  are  the 
Wind  River  Mountains;  in  the  north  central 
part,  the  Big  Horn  Mountains,  and  in  the  ex- 
treme northeast,  the  Black  Hills,  extending 
into  South  Dakota;  in  the  southeast  is  the 
Laramie  range;  in  the  south,  the  Medicine 
Bow  Mountains,  and  in  the  west  the  Teton, 
Gros  Ventre  and  Shoshone  ranges.  The  south- 
western portion  of  the  state  slopes  towards 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  forms  a  part  of  the 
Grand  River  Valley.  From  the  eastern  and 
western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  sev- 
eral rivers  take  their  rise,  among  them  the 
North  Platte,  the  Green,  the  Snake,  the  Lara- 
mie and  the  Shoshone. 


Climate.  Wyoming  has  the  typical 
climate  of  the  mountainous  region  of  the 
northwest.  The  air  is  pure  and  dry,  clear 
weather  prevails  and  the  high  altitude  is  for 
many  healthful.  The  average  annual  tem- 
perature is  45.5° ;  the  mean  annual  rainfall, 
12.98  mches. 

Mineral  Resources.  In  every  mountain 
range  of  Wyoming,  gold,  silver,  lead  and 
copper  ores  are  to  be  found,  but  as  yet  the 
resources  have  not  been  largely  developed. 
Coal  mining  is  most  important,  the  annual 
output  being  about  8,000,000  tons,  and  there 
are  over  20,000  square  miles  of  coal  lands, 
from  which  a  steadily-increasing  tonnage  is 
being  mined.  Valuable  iron  deposits  are 
found  in  various  localities  in  the  state. 
Petroleum  occurs  in  Fremont  and  Natrona 
counties,  and  its  production  is  next  to  that 
of  coal  in  importance;  in  1916  this  amounted 
to  6,234,137  barrels.  Extensive  phosphate 
beds  are  found  in  Uinta  County.  The  stats 
also  possesses  extensive  deposits  of  soda  and 
an  abundance  of  valuable  building  stone. 
Gold,  silver  and  copper  are  mined  in  paj'ing 
quantities. 

Agriculture.  Below  the  timber  line,  the 
mountains  are  covered  with  forests  of  conif- 
erous trees.  Between  the  mountain  ranges 
are  broad  plateaus,  with  arable  soils,  which 
by  means  of  proper  irrigation  yield  prolific 
crops.  On  account  of  the  slight  rainfall  it 
has  been  supposed  that  only  a  small  part  of 
the  state  was  capable  of  cultivation.  How- 
ever, modern  methods  of  moisture  conserva- 
tion have  brought  vast  areas  under  cultiva- 
tion. IrnTation  ditches  also  have  been  car- 
ried long  distances  from  the  source  of  water 
supply.  The  result  has  been  an  immense  in- 
crease in  the  tillable  area.  The  raising  of 
livestock  is  the  most  important  agi'icultural 
industry.  The  nutritive  grasses  which  so 
abundantly  cover  the  great  ranges  of  the  pas- 
turage support  many  thousands  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  Oats,  potatoes,  wheat  and  hay  are  the 
principal  crops. 

Irrigation  is  being  largely  extended.  The 
Shoshone  project,  the  greatest  in  the  state,  in- 
cludes a  remarkable  dam,  328  feet  high, 
across  a  narrow  canyon.  The  dam  is  only 
85  feet  long  at  the  bottom  and  200  feet  at  the 
top.  A  smaller  dam  diverts  the  waters  of 
the  Shoshone  River,  through  a  tunnel  31^4 
miles  long,  into  a  canal  which  for  40  miles 
passes  only  the  upper  edge  of  a  broad  and 
fertile  valley  containing  150,000  acres.   Near 


WYOMING 


3953 


WYOMING 


Douglas,  in  Converse  County,  and  in  John- 
son and  Sheridan  counties  there  are  large 
inigated  areas. 

Manufactures.  As  Wyoming  is  an  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  state  and  still  in  the 
first  steps  of  material  development,  it  has  no 
distinctive  manufacturing  interests.  The 
most  important  manufacturing  industry  is 
car  constniction  and  railway  repair,  and  next 
in  importance  is  the  manufacture  of  lum- 
ber and  timber  products. 

Transportation.  The  principal  railroads 
are  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton &  Quincy  and  the  Chicago  &  North  West- 
ern. The  total  operative  mileage  is  over 
2,000. 

Government.  The  legislature  is  composed 
of  a  senate  of  twenty-eight  members  and  a 
lower  house  of  fifty-six  members,  elected  for 
two  years.  The  sessions  are  biennial,  and  are 
limited  to  forty  days.  The  executive  depart- 
ment consists  of  a  governor,  a  secretary  of 
state,  an  auditor,  a  treasurer  and  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  each  elected  for 
four  years.  The  courts  consist  of  a  supreme 
court,  consisting  of  a  chief  justice  and  tAvo 
associates,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the 
legislature  may  establish. 

Education.  The  University  of  Wyoming, 
chartered  in  1886,  is  situated  at  Laramie  and 
is  the  leading  educational  institution.  The 
expenses  of  the  public  school  system  are 
provided  for  in  part  by  the  rental  of  gov- 
ernment lands  which  are  set  aside  for  school 
purposes.  The  total  extent  of  lands  which 
may  be  so  used  is  3,600,000  acres. 

The  state  school  system  is  in  charge  of  a 
State  Board  of  Education,  with  a  commis- 
sioner, elected  by  the  board,  as  the  executive 
officer.  There  is  a  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  who  is  a  member  of  this 
board,  but  his  relation  is  chiefly  advisory. 

Institutions.  There  is  a  soldiers'  home  at 
Buffalo,  a  hospital  for  the  insane  at  Evans- 
ton,  a  school  for  defectives  at  Lander,  an 
industrial  institute  at  Worland  and  a  state 
hospital  at  Rock  Springs.  The  penitentiaiy 
is  at  Rawlins.  At  Thermopolis  there  is  the  Big 
Horn  Hot  Springs  Reserve. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  are  Cheyenne,  the 
capital;  Laramie  and  Sheridan.  All  are 
under  15,000  in  population. 

History.  Wyoming  was  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory included'  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of 
1803,  with  the  exception  of  the  southwest 
comer,  which  was  a  part  of  the  territory  ae- 

248 


4f3'^Q 


Hall  of  Languages, 

University   of  Wyoming 


Narrow- 
leaved 
ndlan 
Paintbrush, 
State 
Flower 


Canyon    of  the  Yellowstone 


WYOMING 


3954      WYOMING  VALLEY  MASSACRE 


II  Items  of  Interest  on  Wyoming 
\\  Wyoming  is  governed  under  a  con- 
i  i  stitution  adopted  in  1889. 
iJ  Amendments  if  agreed  to  by  two- 
M  tliirds  of  the  members  of  each  branch 
H  of  the  legislature  are  submitted  to  the 
|1  electors  of  the  state  at  the  next  gen- 
ii eral  election. 

M  About  one-eighth  of  the  land  area  is 

[J  devoted   to   farms,   but   the   improved 

j1  land  is  only  two  per  cent  of  the  total 

1 1  area.     Wyoming  has  over  30,900,000 

II  acres  of  unreser\'ed  land. 

11  There  are  two  soda  lakes  in  the  state. 

M  In  the  sununer  the  soda  hardens  and  is 

llil  cut  into  blocks  three  or  four  feet  thick. 

lill  Wyoming's    rivers    are    much    fre- 

M  quented  by  anglers  in  search  of  rain- 

I'il  bow  trout.     Specimens  weighing  from 

i]|  eight  to  ten  pounds  are  found  in  the 

llll  Big  Laramie  Kiver. 

liil  The  Yellowstone  region  is  described 

lill  in  Washington  Irving's  Captain  Bon- 

H  neville,  the  hero  being  one  of  the  early 

|..|  traders. 

I!!l  Wyoming  abolished  capital  punish- 
Ill  ment  in  1915.  It  has  enacted  work- 
|ii|  men's  compensation,  child  labor  and 
ji  mothers'  pension  laws. 

W  Questions  on  Wyoming 

fill       What  is  the  peculiar  feature  of  the 

liil   boundaries  of  Wyoming?  Do  the  boun- 

i  j    daries  of  any  other  state  have  a  similar 

11   feature? 

I'J       What     does     the     name     Wyoming 

f\  mean?      Is   the   name   appropriate  to 

1-1   the  state? 

!!!!       What  great  river  systems  have  trib- 

jl   utaries  in  Wyoming? 

|1       What  region  within  the  state  has  a 

iJ   world-wide   reputation  because  of  its 

|i   scenery  ? 

1 1       What  part  of  the  state  has  the  larg- 

l;l   est  number  of  inhabitants?    Why? 

11       Locate   the   Indian   reservations    on 

!  I   the  map.    How  many  are  there  ? 

W       Why  is  Wyoming  one  of  the  lead- 

\\   ing  wool-producing  states? 

I  \       What  are  the  most  important  min- 

.jiil   eral  productions? 

iyl        Why  is  the  mining  industry  not  more 

ill   fully  developed? 

liij        Why  are  there  not  more  railroads  ? 


quired  from  Mexico  in  1848.  The  first  white 
man  known  to  have  visited  the  region  was 
Sieur  do  la  Verendrye,  in  1734.  He  was 
seeking  sites  for  fur-trading  posts.  White 
hunters  visited  the  Yellowstone  region  in 
1807,  and  from  that  time  hunters  began  to 
traverse  the  tenntory. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made 
at  Fort  Laramie  in  1834.  Most  of  the  immi- 
gration to  California  and  Oregon  passed 
through  the  territory,  but  not  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  in  1866 
were  settlers  attracted  to  the  countiy.  The 
Indians  were  hostile,  and  long  before  the 
construction  of  the  railroad  the  government 
had  built  a  chain  of  forts  for  the  protection 
of  immigrants.  The  discovery  of  gold  in 
18G7  increased  the  number  of  settlers,  and  in 
1869  Wyoming  became  an  organized  terri- 
tory. Yellowstone  National  Park  (which  see) 
was  created  in  1872.  Wyoming  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  the  forty-fourth 
state  on  July  10,  1890.  From  the  organiza- 
tion of  its  first  government  the  state  has 
given  women  equal  suffrage  with  men.  From 
this  practice  it  received  its  popular  name. 
The  Equality  State. 

Related    Articles.  Consult     the     following 

titles  for  additional  information: 

Bighorn  River  Sheridan 

Black  Hills  Snake   River 

Cheyenne  Yellowstone  Na- 
Laraniie  tional  Park 

Rocky   Mountains  Y'ellowstone  River 

WYOMING,  Ukiversity  op,  a  coeduca- 
tional state  institution,  founded  at  Laramie 
in  1886.  It  comprises  colleges  of  liberal  arts, 
agriculture,  engineering  and  education,  de- 
partments of  music,  home  economies,  conl- 
merce  and  university  extension,  a  teachers' 
training  high  school  and  a  summer  school. 
The  Wyoming  state  nonnal  school  is  main- 
tained as  a  part  of  the  college  of  education, 
and  the  agricultural  experiment  station  is 
operated  in  connection  with  the  agricultural 
departments.  There  is  a  faculty  of  about 
sixty,  and  a  student  enrollment  of  about  500. 
The  libi-ary  contains  40,000  volumes. 

WYOMING  VALLEY  MAS'SACRE,  a 
fearful  massacre  in  Wyoming  Valley,  Pa.,  on 
J^^ly  3  and  4,  1778,  perpetrated  by  an  Eng- 
lish and  Indian  force  against  the  American 
settlers  of  the  valley.  A  vast  majority  of 
the  inhabitants,  including  women  and  chil- 
dren, were  slain  in  the  course  of  two  days' 
slaughter,  and  the  rest  fled  eastward  to  the 
nearest  settlements.  The  valley  was  not  set- 
tled again  for  several  years. 


X,  the  twenty-fourth  letter  of  the  alphabet 
and  the  representative  of  what  might  as  well 
be  denoted  by  ks  or  gs.  The  letter  x  was 
until  a  late  date  the  last  in  the  Roman  alpha- 
bet, but  tf  and  z  were  finally  added  from  the 
Greek.  As  an  initial  letter,  it  is  pronounced 
like  z,  as  in  ^enophon. 

In  algebra,  x  is  the  usual  sjTnbol  for  the 
unknown  quantity.  In  Roman  numerals  X 
signifies  ten,  perhaps  from  the  fact  that  it 
represents  a  V  standing  upon  a  second  V 
inverted. 

XANTHIPPE,  zantltip'pe,  the  scolding 
wife  of  the  philosopher  Socrates,  whose  for- 
bearance with  her  quarrelsome  tamper  was 
a  salient  trait  in  his  character.  The  name 
has  become  proverbial  as  that  of  a  scolding 
shrew. 

XAVIER,  zav'e  er,  Francisco  De  (1506- 
1552),  better  known  as  Saint  Francis 
Xavier,  was  a  Jesuit  missionary  in  Asiatic 
countries,  earning  the  title  "Apostle  of  the 
Indies."  He  was  a  native  of  Northern  Spain, 
the  son  of  a  nobleman  whose  family  seat  was 
Xavier.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  to  be  educated, 
and  with  Loyola  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  In  the  early  part  of  1540,  he  was 
chosen  for  the  mission  to  India.  From  Goa, 
where  he  arrived  in  IMay,  1542,  he  extended 
his  labors  southward  to  Ceylon,  ^Malacca  and 
Celebes.  He  spent  two  years  in  Japan  and 
returned  to  Goa  to  organize  a  mission  to 
China,  but  before  he  could  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulties in  his  waj',  he  died.  Xavier  was 
canonized  in  1022. 

XENTA,  ze'ne  ah,  Ohio,  the  coimty  seat 
of  Greene  County,  fifty-five  miles  southwest 
of  Columbus,  on  the  Little  Miami  River  and 
on  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  &  Dayton,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  railroads.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  productive  farming  region. 
There  are  extensive  cordage  works,  shoe  fac- 
tories, fuse  and  powder  mills,  machine  shops 


and  automobile,  rubber  and  candy  factories. 
The  Xenia  Theological  Seminary  and  the 
Ohio  soldiei-s'  and  sailors'  orphans'  home  are 
located  here.  A  courthouse,  a  Carnegie  Li- 
brary and  a  Federal  building  are  prominent 
features.  "Wilberf orce  University  for  colored 
students  is  located  three  miles  north.  There 
are  interesting  Indian  mounds  and  relics  in 
the  vicinity.  Xenia  was  settled  in  1803,  and 
was  incorporated  five  7reai-s  later.  Popula- 
tion, 1910,  8,706;  in  1917,  8,713  (Federal 
estimate). 

XENOPHON,  zeno  fon  (about  434-about 
355  B.  c),  an  Athenian  historian  and  gen- 
eral, a  pupil  of  Socrates,  "^hen  about  forty 
yeai*s  of  age,  he  joined  the  expedition  of 
Cyrus  against  Artaxerxes.  Cyrus  was  killed 
in  the  Battle  of  Cuifaxa,  and  the  Greek  gen- 
erals were  put  to  death.  The  ten  thousand 
mercenaries  then  chose  Xenophon  as  their 
leader,  and  he  brought  them  out  of  the  strange 
country  to  the  Black  Sea.  On  his  return 
to  Greece  he  fought  with  Sparta  against 
Athens. 

Xenophon  wrote  numerous  works,  and  all 
of  these,  it  would  seem,  have  come  down  to 
us.  The  chief  are  a  famous  work  called  the 
Anabasis,  which  describes  the  expedition  of 
Cyrus  already  referred  to,  especially  the  re- 
treat of  the  Ten  Thousand;  the  Memorabilia, 
a  record  of  the  life  and  teachings  of  Socrates ; 
the  TIellenica,  which  gives  a  somewhat  dull 
account  of  forty-eight  years  of  Greek  bistort' 
and  is  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Thucy- 
dides,  and  several  minor  works.  Xenophon's 
writings  are  clear  and  accurate,  and  are 
among  the  best  sources  of  information  re- 
garding some  of  the  most  important  events 
that  have  ever  happened,  but  his  style  is 
often  commonplace  and  monotonous. 

XERXES,  zurk'zeez,  the  name  borne  by 
three  kings  of  Persia,  the  most  celebrated  of 
whom  was  Xei^es  I. 


3955 


XERXES 


395G 


X  Y  Z  CORRESPONDENCE 


Xerxes  I,  the  son  of  Darius  I,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Pei-sia  on  bis  father's  death, 
in  485  B.  C.  After  suppressing  a  revolt  in 
Egj'pt,  he  began  to  make  plans  for  the  in- 
vasion of  Gi-eeee,  the  preparations  for  which 
bad  been  begun  by  his  father.  These  prep- 
arations were  on  the  most  enormous  scale. 
Provisions  were  stored  up  on  the  intended 
route  for  three  years,  a  transport  fleet  was 
collected,  the  engineering  skill  of  the  day  was 
exerted  to  remove  land  obstacles  and  the  re- 
sources of  the  vast  Persian  Empire  were 
taxed  to  the  utmost  to  produce  an  armament 
suflacient  to  crush  Greece.  According  to  an- 
cient computation,  the  invading  army  num- 
bered over  two  million,  and  although  this, 
possibly,  is  an  exaggeration,  it  must  have 
been  numerically  the  greatest  army  on  record. 

At  the  head  of  his  enormous  host,  Xerxes 
advanced  unopposed  till  he  came  to  Ther- 
mopylae, but  here  his  fleet  was  seriously  dam- 
aged' by  a  storm,  while  the  narrow  pass 
was  effectually  held  by  Leonidas,  at  the  head 
of  a  determined,  though  small,  band  of 
Spartans.  At  last  the  passage  was  effected 
through  treachery,  and  Xerxes  marched  on 
through  Phocis  and  Boeotia  to  Athens,  which 
he  entered  without  opposition.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Persian  fleet  had  met  with  several 
mishaps.  In  two  engagements  with  the  Greek 
ships  at  Artemisium,  it  had  suffered  consider- 
able damage,  and  a  stoi-m  which  occurred  be- 
tAveen  the  two  conflicts  was  the  cause  of  still 
greater  loss.  Finally,  at  Salamis  (480  B.  c.) 
a  naval  battle  was  fought,  one  of  the  most 
decisive  in  the  history  of  the  world,  in  which 
the  Persians  were  defeated  with  terrible  loss. 
Xerxes,  who  from  a  lofty  eminence  had 
watched  the  destruction  of  his  fleet,  fled 
panic-stricken  to  Sardis,  leaving  in  command 
of  his  army,  Mardonius,  who  was  defeated  the 
following  year  at  Plataea.  He  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  obscurity  and  was  mui'dered  by 
Artabanus,  the  commander  of  his  bodyguard, 
who  was  plottuig  to  make  himself  king  of 
Persia.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Arta- 
xerxes  I. 


Xerxes  II  was  the  son  of  Artaxerxes  I. 
He  was  born  about  450  b.  c.  and  lived  twenty- 
five  years.  On  the  assassination  of  his  parents 
he  ascended  the  thi-one  but  was  murdered 
about  a  month  later. 

The  third  Persian  niler  of  this  name,  who 
was  also  called  Oarses,  ruled  about  337  b.  c. 

X-RAY.     See  Roentgen  Rats. 

XYLOPHONE,  zi'lofone,  a  musical  in- 
stniment.     Small  bars  of  wood,  selected  for 


XYLOPHONE 

their  sounding  quality,  or  pieces  of  metal 
of  graduated  length  are  fastened  upon  a 
horizontal  frame  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  the  chromatic  scale.  The  performer 
plays  with  two  small  mallets,  one  in  each 
hand. 

X  Y  Z  CORRESPON'DENCE,  the  name 
given  to  the  dispatches  sent  in  1797-1798  to 
the  United  States  government  by  its  commis- 
sioners, Charles  Pincknej'',  John  Marshall  and 
Elbridge  Gerry,  in  Paris.  These  men  were 
sent  to  France  to  settle  certain  difficulties 
with  that  government.  On  their  arrival  they 
were  not  received  officially,  but  were  com- 
pelled to  communicate  with  the  government 
through  three  agents,  who  informed  them 
that  the  first  step  toward  negotiation  would 
be  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
the  Directory,  which  was  then  in  control  of 
French  affairs.  The  American  commissioners, 
with  the  exception  of  Gerry,  promptly  with- 
drew and  transmitted  the  coirespondence  to 
President  Adams,  who,  in  turn,  laid  it  be- 
fore Congress,  substituting  for  the  names  of 
the  French  commissioners  the  letters  X  Y  Z. 
The  correspondence  aroused  the  bitterest  feel- 
ing in  the  United  States,  and  a  naval  war 
with  France  was  actually  begun,  but  the 
French  government  receded  from  its  posi- 
tion and  thus  averted  a  struggle.  See  Adams, 
John". 


Y,  the  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  resembling  in  its  form  the  Greek 
upsilon.  It  is,  like  w,  both  a  consonant  and 
a  vowel,  but  it  differs  from  w  in  that  it  is 
often  used  by  itself  as  a  vowel,  as  in  by,  deny, 
pony.  In  this  use  it  is  superfluous,  as  it 
might  be  replaced  by  i. 

In  algebra,  y  stands  for  the  second  of  the 
unknown  quantities. 

YABLONOI,  yah  bio  noi',  MOUNTAINS, 
a  Siberian  range  extending  from  Korthem 
^longolia  in  a  northeasterly  direction  about 
1,000  miles  and  merging  with  the  Stanovoi. 
The  highest  peaks,  at  the  southeni  end  of  the 
range,  attain  an  altitude  of  more  than  8,000 
feet.    Manv  other  peaks  are  6,000  feet  high. 

yacht!  yot,  AND  YACHTING,  ijof  ing. 
A  sailing  boat,  used  for  pleasure,  for  travel- 
ing or  for  racing,  is  known  as  a  yacht.  There 
are  three  principal  rigs  for  sailing  yachts — 
cutter,  schooner  and  5-awl.  A  cutter  has  one 
mast  and  a  running  bowsprit  and  usually 
carries  four  sails,  name!}',  mainsail,  gaff- 
topsail,  foresail  and  jib.  A  square  sail  is  also 
frequently  set  by  the  larger  vessels  of  this 
class.  A  schooner  has  two  masts,  mainmast 
and  foremast,  a  standing  bowsprit  and  jib- 
boom,  or  not  infrequentl}',  instead  of  these, 
a  running  bowsprit,  like  that  of  a  cutter. 
A  yaicl  is  rigged  exactlj-  like  a  cutter,  with 
the  addition  of  a  small  niizzenmast.  It  is 
a  very  convenient  cruising  rig  and  is  becom- 
ing common  for  3*achts  of  over  50  tons.  Steam 
yachts  are  common,  and  in  many  localities 
they  are  put  to  practical  uses  by  their  owners. 
The  speed  attained  by  some  is  remarkable. 

The  history  of  yachting  is  the  histor^^  of 
yacht  racing,  inasmuch  as  competition  im- 
proved yachts,  just  as  horse  racing  improved 
the  breed  of  horses.  Ver^'  arbitrary  i-ules 
obtain  with  reference  to  the  building  of 
yachts  for  racing  purposes.  The  first  inter- 
national contest  between  the  United  States 


and  England  took  place  in  1851,  when  the 
America  defeated  fifteen  English  yachts  in 
their  own  watere,  and  won  the  $500  cup  of- 
fered by  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron.  The 
tro^Dhy  has  remained  ever  since  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club,  though 
several  English  yachts  have  tried  to  win  it 
back.  In  1870  the  Cambria  was  defeated.  In 
1885  the  Genesta  was  defeated  by  the  Puri- 
tan, and  a  year  later  the  Galatea  by  the  May- 
flower. The  Volioitcer,  the  Defender,  the  Re- 
liance are  yachts  that  have  more  recently 
been  successful  in  keeping  the  cup  still  in 
American  hands. 

The  principal  competitors  have  been  vessels 
constructed  for  the  purpose  by  Sir  Thomas 
Lipton  and  named  the  Shamrock  I,  II  and 
III.  The  races  are  usually  sailed  off  Sandy 
Hook,  In  1914  Sir  Thomas  sent  the  Sha)n- 
rock  IV  to  America  for  a  race,  but  the  out- 
break of  the  "World  War  prevented  the 
contest.  During  the  war  most  of  the  better 
yachts-  in  America  were  loaned  to  the  gov- 
ernment for  coast-patrol  service.  See  Sail- 
boat AXD  Sailtxg. 

YAK,  an  animal  of  the  ox  tribe,  found  only 
in  Tibet,  Asia.  It  is  found  wild  and  is  the 
ordinary  domestic  animal  of  the  inhabitants 
of  that  region,  supplying  milk,  food  and 
raiment,  as  well  as  sei-ving  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  The  size  is  that  of  a  small  ox.  The 
horns  are  long,  nearly  cylindrical,  smooth  and 
pointed  at  the  ends,  and  they  have  a  peculiar 
and  characteristic  cun-e.  Some  of  the 
domestic  yaks  are  hornless.  Their  most  re- 
markable external  characteristic  is  the  ex- 
cessive growth  and  peculiar  distribution  of 
the  hair. 

The  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  sides  are 
clothed  with  thick,  soft,  woolly  hair,  more 
fully  developed  alone:  the  middle  of  the  back, 
especially  on  the  shoulders,  where  it  forms  a 
great  bunch.    From  the  upper  parts  of  the 


3957 


YAKIMA 


3958 


YALU  RIVER 


limbs  and  the  -whole  of  the  lower  sui'face  of 
the  body  hangs  a  thick  gi-owth  of  long, 
straight  hair,  in  old  animals  sweeping  the 
ground  and  almost  concealing  the  somewhat 
short  legs.  The  tail  is  profusely  covered 
with  a  thick  mass  of  such  hairs.  The  wild 
animals  are  nearh'  uniformly  black ;  the 
domestic  yaks  ai-e  often  quite  white.  The 
silky  and  tough  hair  and  the  skins  are  often 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  caps,  coats, 
blankets  and  ropes. 

YAKIMA,  yak'he  mall,  an  Indian  tribe, 
formerly  living  on  both  sides  of  the  Columbia 
River  and  on  the  northerly  branches  of  the 
Yakima  in  Washington.  They  were  men- 
tioned by  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1806.  In  1855 
the  United  States  made  a  treaty  with  the 
Yakima  and  thirteen  other  tribes  whereby 
they  were  required  to  cede  valuable  lands  to 
the  government  and  confine  themselves  to  the 
Yakima  reservation.  The  Indians  resorted 
to  war,  and  it  was  not  till  1859  that  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty  could  be  carried  out. 

YAKIMA,  Wash.,  the  county  seat  of  Yak- 
ima Countj^,  is  on  the  Yakima  River  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  the  Oregon-Wash- 
ington Railroad  &  Navigation  Company  line 
and  an  interurban  road,  and  is  about  200 
miles  southwest  of  Spokane.  It  is  a  distribut- 
ing center  for  a  large  surrounding  territoiy. 
It  has  extensive  fruit  canneries,  flour  mills, 
sawmills,  other  wood-Avorking  factories  and 
warehouses.  There  is  a  fine  Federal  building, 
a  Carnegie  Libraiy  and  a  hospital.  The  com- 
mission form  of  government  was  adopted  in 
1912.  The  name  was  changed  from  North 
Yakima  in  1917.  Population,  1910,  14,082; 
in  1917,  22,058  (Federal  estimate). 

YALE  UNIVERSITY,  a  foremost  Amer- 
ican institution  of  higher  learning,  and  the 
third  in  point  of  age,  as  its  establishment  fol- 
lowed the  founding  of  Hai'vard  and  of  Wil- 
liam and  Mar3^  It  is  located  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  and  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  small  college 
founded  in  1701  at  Sa^-brook  by  ten  ministers 
of  the  colony  of  Connecticut.  In  1716  it  was 
removed  to  New  Haven,  where  it  was  perma- 
nently located,  and  two  years  later  it  was 
given  the  name  of  Yale  College  in  honor  of 
Elihu  Yale,  who  bestowed  upon  it  a  sum  of 
money. 

The  beginning  of  the  present  organization 
dates  from,  the  administration  of  Timothy 
Dwight,  who  was  president  from  1795  to  1817. 
During  this  time,  permanent  professorships 
were  established,  the  college  grounds  were 


extended  and  professional  schools  were 
planned,  but  only  the  medical  school  was 
established.  President  Dwight's  successors 
continued  his  plan  and  the  other  professional 
schools  were  organized  as  rapidly  as  funds 
could  be  provided  for  their  maintenance. 
In  1887  the  state  legislature  authorized  the 
adoption  of  the  name  Yale  University. 

As  now  organized,  Yale  has  nine  depart- 
ments of  instruction,  each  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  special  faculty.  They  are  the 
College,  which  confers  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts;  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  giving 
both  graduate  and  undergraduate  courses; 
the  Graduate  School,  conferring  the  degrees 
of  Ph.  D.  and  M.  A.;  the  Medical  School; 
the  School  of  Religion  (undenominational)  ; 
the  School  of  Law;  the  School  of  Fine  Arts; 
the  School  of  Music;  and  the  School  of 
Forestry,  a  graduate  department  giving  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Forestry.  At  Keene, 
N.  H.,  there  is  a  school  forest  of  1,000  acres. 

The  university  is  not  coeducational, 
and  it  lost  heavily  because  of  enlistments 
after  America  entered  the  World  War. 
Ordinarily  there  are  over  3,250  students  and 
about  500  instructors.  There  are  about 
1,000,000  volumes  in  the  libraries.  Among 
the  notable  structures  are  the  observatory 
buildings,  the  g3Tnnasium,  and  the  Yale 
"Bowl,"  one  of  the  largest  football  amphi- 
theaters in  the  world.  Many  eminent  men  are 
among  the  alumni  of  Yale,  including  Nathan 
Hale,  Jonathan  Edwards,  Lyman  Beecher, 
James  Kent,  John  C.  Calhoun,  Eli  Whitney, 
Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  Noah  Webster  and 
William  H.  Taft. 

Elihu  Yale  (1648-1721),  an  English  mer- 
chant and  i^hilanthropist,  was  born  near  Bos- 
ton. His  father  was  one  of  the  original 
settlers  of  New  Haven,  Conn.  The  son  was 
educated  in  England  and  began  his  career  as 
a  merchant,  engaging  in  trade  in  India.  From 
1687  to  1692  he  was  governor  of  the  East 
India  Company's  fort  at  Madras.  He  then 
retm-ned  to  England.  Mr.  Yale  became  in- 
terested in  the  schools  founded  at  Saybrook 
and  afterwards  located  at  New  Haven,  Con- 
neticut.  During  his  life  he  made  several  be- 
quests to  this  institution,  and  in  1718  he 
announced  a  large  gift.  The  tinistees  then 
honored  him  by  naming  the  school  Yale  Col- 
lege. 

YALU,  t/ah  loo',  RIVER,  a  river  of  Eastern 
Asia,  which  rises  on  the  eastern  borders  of 
China  and  flows  southwestward  and  south- 


YAM 


3959 


YANKEE 


ward,  forming  during  its  entire  eoui'se  a  part 
of  the  boundaiy  between  China  and  Chosen 
(Korea).  Its  length  is  about  300  miles,  and 
it  is  navigable  for  about  thirty  miles.  At  the 
mouth  of  this  river  a  famous  naval  battle  was 
fought  in  1894,  during  which  the  Japanese 
destroyed  the  Chinese  fleet.  The  forcing  of 
the  passage  of  this  river  at  its  mouth  by  the 
Japanese  in  1904  was  the  first  movement  in 
the  land  operations  of  the  Eusso-Japanese 
War.  Since  the  Japanese  annexed  Chosen 
they  have  called  the  river  Oryoku  (o  n  o'ku) . 
See  Rrsso- Japanese  War. 

YAM,  a  plant  having  edible  roots  much  like 
the  sweet  potato.  It  is  found  m  the  temperate 
and  subtropical  parts  of  America,  in  China 


YAM 

and  in  the  islands  of  the  Southern  Pacific. 
In  Australia  and  China  a  species  known  as 
xcinged  yam  produces  edible  tubers  from  one 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  long  which  sometimes 
weigh  thirty  pounds.  The  skin  is  dark  brown 
and  the  reddish  flesh  is  sweet  and  juicy  and 
very  palatable  when  baked.  A  large  yam  is 
also  found  in  India,  though  there  the  small 
white  yam  is  more  in  demand  for  food. 

The  yam  has  become  an  important  vege- 
table in  the  United  States.  While  it  contains 
less  starch  than  the  Irish  potato,  it  contains 
more  nitrogen  and  a  high  percentage  of 
sugar. 


YANCEY,  yan'sxj,  William  Lowndes 
(1814-1863),  an  American  publicist  and 
orator,  bom  in  Georgia.  He  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834  and  practiced 
law,  at  the  same  time  editing  a  Unionist 
paper.  He  removed  to  Alabama  in  1836, 
became  prominent  as  a  lawyer  and  Whig 
orator  and  entered  the  legislature.  Elected 
to  Congress  in  1844,  he  espoused  the  Southern 
cause,  and  after  his  retirement  two  years 
later  he  became  the  recognized  leader  and 
orator  of  the  radical  element  in  the  South. 

In  the  convention  which  met  at  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  January  7,  1861,  he  reported 
the  ordinance  of  secession.  He  went  as  a 
Confederate  cormnissioner  to  seek  European 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  Con- 
federacy, but  was  unsuccessful.  After  his 
return  he  sen-ed  in  the  Confederate  Senate 
until  his  death.  Yancey,  though  he  held 
office  for  only  two  brief  periods,  was  one  of 
the  most  influential  orators  of  the  Civil-War 
period  and  did  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
man  to  strengthen  among  Southerners  the 
desire  for  secession. 

YANG-TSE-KIANGr,  yahng' tse  kijahng', 
one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Asia.  It  rises  in 
the  south-central  part  of  the  continent,  in  the 
plateau  of  Tibet,  flows  northeastward,  then 
southeastward,  then  northeastward;  after  an 
irregular  course,  it  enters  the  Yellow  Sea 
through  an  estuaiy  about  thirty  miles  wide. 
Its  length  is  about  3,000  miles.  The  upper 
part  of  the  course  is  between  mountains,  and 
the  channel  is  narrow  and  the  stream  rapid, 
often  interrupted  by  rapids  and  falls.  The 
tide  ascends  the  river  for  450  miles,  and  it 
is  navigable  for  600  miles. 

The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Han,  from  the 
north,  and  the  Wu,  the  Heng  and  the  Kan, 
from  the  south.  Some  of  these  are  navigable 
for  considerable  distances.  The  Yang-tse- 
Kiang  brings  down  large  quantities  of  sedi- 
ment, and  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount 
deposited  each  year  is  equal  to  about  five- 
sixths  of  the  amount  deposited  by  the  Missis- 
sippi. It  is  connected  with  the  Hoang-ho  by 
the  Grand  Canal,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  waterways  in  the  Chinese  Empire. 

YANK'EE,  in  America,  the  popular  name 
for  a  New  Englander;  in  Great  Britain  it  is 
often  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  whole 
population  of  the  United  States,  and  during 
the  World  War  it  was  the  conmion  designa- 
tion of  the  American  soldier,  regardless  of  his 
state.    In  its  origin  it  was  a  corruption  of  the 


YANKEE  DOODLE 


3960 


YARN 


word  English  as  pronounced  by  the  Indians. 
It  seems  to  have  been  first  applied  about  1775 
by  the  British  soldiers  as  a  tenn  of  reproach 
to  tlie  New  Englanders,  who  themselves  after- 
ward adopted  it.  Since  the  Civil  War  the 
Southern  people  have  applied  it  to  all  people 
of  the  North. 

YANKEE  DOODLE,  a  national  song  of 
the  United  States,  sung  to  a  very  old  tune, 
which  dates  from  the  tenth  eentur5^  The 
words,  which  are  mere  doggerel,  were  prob- 
ably written  at  the  time  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War  by  an  English  army  surgeon. 
Dr.  Eiehard  Schuckburgh,  in  derision  of  the 
ill-trained  continental  troops.  Notwithstand- 
ing its  mockery,  it  was  taken  up  by  the 
•'Yankee"  soldiers  and  became  widely  popular. 

YANK'TON,  S.  D.,  the  county  seat  of 
Yankton  County,  sixty-five  miles  southwest  of 
Sioux  Falls,  on  the  Missouri  River  and  on 
the  Great  Northern,  the  Chicago,  &  North 
Western  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint 
Paul  railroads.  The  city  is  the  center  of  a 
large  agricultural  and  stock-raising  district. 
Its  manufactures  include  flour,  cement,  bricks 
and  cigars.  There  are  two  nurseries.  The 
Yankton  College  (Congregational)  is  located 
here;  also  the  state  hospital  for  the  insane. 
Other  notable  institutions  and  buildings  are 
the  Sacred  Heart  Hospital,  a  Federal  build- 
ing and  a  Carnegie  Library. 

Yankton  is  the  oldest  settled  community  in 
the  Dakotas.  It  was  settled  in  1858  and  was 
the  capital  of  Dakota  Territory  until  1883. 
It  adopted  the  commission  fonn  of  govern- 
ment in  1910.  Population,  1910,  3,787;  in 
1915,  4,771  (state  census). 

YAQUI,  yah'ke,  INDIANS,  a  native  tribe 
of  the  Mexican  state  of  Sonora,  numbering 
about  20,000  and  representing  a  well-devel- 
oped type  of  civilization.  They  are  said  to 
be  the' only  Indian  tribe  that  has  never  been 
fully  subdued  by  the  white  man.  They  made 
a  treaty  with  the  Spaniards  in  1610,  but  their 
histoi-y  from  1740  down  to  the  present  has 
been  a  series  of  revolts.  In  1906  the  Mexican 
government  took  the  extreme  measure  of 
attempting  to  subdue  them  by  deportation  to 
Yucatan.  The  industries  of  the  Yaquis  are 
agriculture,  cattle  raising  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs.  They  also 
make  hats  of  palm  leaves  and  baskets  of  reed. 
Many  are  employed  as  laborers  in  fields  and 
mines. 

YARKAND,  yahr  Tcalmdf,  a  city  situated 
in  the  chief  oasis  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  100 


miles  southeast  of  Kashgar.  It  is  at  an  ele- 
vation of  over  3,800  feet,  is  enclosed  by  a 
wall  and  surrounded  by  a  moat.  The  build- 
ings are  constructed  of  stone  and  clay,  and 
most  of  them  are  of  one  story.  The  city 
has  numerous  bazaars,  mosques  and  caravan- 
saries. It  is  also  the  seat  of  some  Moham- 
medan colleges.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  region  and  carries 
on  a  trade  in  silk,  dyes,  leather,  wool,  tea 
and  sugar.  Yarkand  is  not  so  important  a 
commercial  center  as  formerly,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  railway  lines  elsewhere  have  di- 
verted much  of  its  caravan  trade.  Popula- 
tion, about  70,000. 

YARMOUTH,  yaWmufh,  Nova  Scotia, 
the  county  seat  of  Yarmouth  County  and  an 
important  seaport,  situated  on  a  small  bay 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  205  miles  southwest 
of  Halifax.  It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Halifax  &  South- 
western railroads,  and  has  steamship  connec- 
tion with  Boston,  Halifax  and  Saint  John. 
Its  commercial  prestige  is  due  largely  to  its 
fisheries  and  fish  preserving  industries  and  its 
lumber  trade.  It  has  also  a  woodworking 
factor^'-,  a  steel  shipbuilding  and  boiler  plant, 
a  shoe  factory  and  a  cotton  mill  for  the  manu- 
facture of  duck  and  sailcloth.  Yarmouth 
Avas  founded  in  1861,  and  was  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1890.  It  is  a  city  of  beautiful 
homes,  fine  streets  and  attractive  sun-ound- 
ings.  Population,  1911,  6,600;  in  1916,  esti- 
mated, 7.000. 

YARMOUTH,  or  GREAT  YARMOUTH, 
England,  a  seaport  and  watering  place  situ- 
ated on  the  east  coast,  nineteen  miles  east  of 
Norwich.  The  town  occupies  a  narrow  penin- 
sula between  the  Yare  River  and  the  North 
Sea,  and  is  connected  by  bridges  with  Suffolk 
and  other  places  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Yare.  The  river  is  lined  with  extensive  piers. 
Y'armouth  is  an  important  conunercial  port, 
and  is  the  chief  center  of  the  herring  fisheries 
of  England.  Other  industries  include  ship- 
building and  the  manufactiu-e  of  ropes,  nets 
and  sails.  Dickens  has  described  the  salty, 
fishy  air  of  Yannouth  and  the  charm  of  its 
seafaring  folk  in  his  novel,  David  Copperfield. 
Population,  about  60,000. 

YARN,  thread  made  by  twisting  the  fiber  of 
wool,  cotton,  fiax,  silk,  hemp  or  other  mate- 
rials. The  yarns  are  woven  into  fabrics,  or 
used  in  knitting,  embroidering  and  sewing. 
For  the  process  of  making  yam,  see  Spin- 
ning. 


YATES 


3961 


YELLOW  FEVER 


YATES,  Richard  (1818-1873),  an  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  born  in  Warsaw,  Ky.,  but 
taken  in  childhood  to  Springfield,  111.  He 
graduated  at  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville, 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Springfield, 
where  he  became  a  prominent  Whig.  He  was 
elected  to  the  state  legislature,  sei'ving  from 
1842  to  1849,  and  he  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1851  to  1855.  He  became  a  Re- 
publican at  the  organization  of  the  party 
and  was  elected  governor  of  Illinois  in  1860. 
During  five  years'  service,  he  gained  fame 
as  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  war  governors 
and  was  a  close  friend  and  adviser  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln.  In  1865  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  where  he  served  one 
tenn.  His  son,  Richard  Yates  (bom  1860), 
was  governor  of  Illinois  from  1901  to  1905, 
and  in  1918  was  elected  a  member  of  Congress 
from  Illinois. 

YAZ'OO,  a  river  of  Mississippi,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  t!ie  Tallahatchie  and  the 
Yalabusha.  It  has  a  winding  course  to  the 
south  and  southwest  and  enters  the  Missis- 
sippi about  five  miles  above  Vieksburg.  Its 
length  is  300  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  throughout  its  course.  The  name 
is  an  Indian  word  meaning  river  of  death. 
YEAR,  the  period  of  time  during  which 
the  earth  makes  one  complete  revolution  in 
its  orbit,  or  the  period  which  elapses  between 
the  sun's  leaving  either  equinoctial  point,  or 
either  tropic,  and  its  return  to  the  same.  This 
is  the  tropical,  or  solar,  year,  which  is  the 
year  in  the  strict  and  proper  sense  of  the 
word.  This  period  comprehends  what  are 
called  the  twelve  calendar  months,  and  it  is 
usually  considered  to  commence  on  January 
1,  and  to  end  on  December  31.  It  is  not  quite 
uniform,  but  its  mean  length  is  365  days,  5 
hours,  48  minutes  and  46  seconds.  In  popular 
usage,  however,  the  year  consists  of  365  days, 
and  every  fourth  year  of  366.  The  extra 
day  is  always  added  to  February,  and  the 
fourth  year  is  called  leap  year.  The  sidereal 
year  consisting  of  365  days,  6  hours,  9  min- 
utes and  9  seconds,  is  that  used  in  astronom- 
ical calculations. 

Related  Articles.  Consult  the  following 
titles  for  additional  information: 

Calendar  Precession  of 

Kriuinox  the  Equinoxes 

Leap  Year  Seasons 

YEAST,  yecst,  the  ferment  used  in  bread- 
making  and  in  brewing,  composed  of  a  mass 
of  small  one-celled  yeast  plants.  These  cells 
are  so  small  that  3,000  of  them,  laid  end  to 


end,  would  scarcely  measure  an  inch.  Under 
favorable  conditions  they  multiply  very 
rapidly,  breaking  up  the  sugar  in  the  sub- 
stance upon  which  they  feed,  setting  free 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  forming  alcohol.  Yeast 
manufactured  for  commercial  purposes  may 
be  liquid,  dry  or  compressed  in  form. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following- 
titles  for   additional  information: 
Bread  *  Fermentation 

Brewing 

YEATS,  yeets,  William  Butler  (1865- 
),  an  Irish  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in 
Dublin,  the  son  of  a  distinguished  artist.  At 
an  early  age  he  turned  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture, and  became  a  leading  figure  in  the  Irish 
literary  revival.  With  Lady  Gregory  he 
helped  to  establish  the  Irish  Literary  Theater, 
from  which  the  Irish  National  Theater  Society 
developed.  He  made  lecture  tours  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  in  1903  and  1914. 
Yeats'  peculiar  gifts  as  a  dramatist  are  con- 
spicuous in  Cathleen  niHoolilian,  The  Pot  of 
Broth,  The  Hour  Glass,  Deirdre  and  The 
Land  cf  Heart's  Desire.  His  verse  is  of  the 
highest  IjTical  quality,  and  possesses  the 
same  sort  of  elusive  charm  that  is  found  in 
his  essays  and  plays. 

YED'DO,  Japan.     See  Tokyo. 

YELLOW,  one  of  the  three  primary  colors. 
Lemon  and  canary  yellow  may  be  taken  as 
pure  yellows.  Chrome  yellow  has  a  slight 
orange  tint.  A  peculiarity  of  yellow  is  that 
an  increase  of  light  seems  to  strengthen  the 
color;  and  that  the  color  is  also  gi-eatly  inten- 
sified when  placed  beside  its  complementary 
color,  blue.  Moreover,  it  reciprocally  intensi- 
fies the  blue.  Yellow  is  the  national  color  of 
China. 

YELTiOWBIRD.  See  American  Gold- 
finch. 

YELLOW  FEVER,  an  infectious  and 
highly  fatal  disease  of  the  wann  regions  of 
America  and  Africa,  communicated  to  the 
human  S3'stem  by  the  bite  of  a  species  of  house 
mosquito.  The  disease  was  first  recognized 
in  1647  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1691  there 
was  a  disastrous  epidemic  of  it  in  Barbados. 
In  1878  a  severe  visitation  of  the  disease  in 
the  lower  Misissippi  valley  killed  about  five 
thousand  persons  in  New  Orleans  and  Mem- 
phis alone.  Since  the  occupation  of  Cuba 
and  the  Canal  Zone  by  the  United  States,  the 
disease  has  been  practically  stamped  out  in 
those  regions.  Proper  sewerage,  disposal  of 
garbage,  isolation  of  patients  and  their  pro- 
tection by  screens  from  mosquito  bites,  dis- 


YELLOW-HAMMER 


3962    YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 


infection  of  buildings  in  wliieh  eases  occur 
and  the  destruction  of  the  breeding  places 
of  the  naosquitoes  themselves  have  proved 
effective  methods  of  combating  the  disease. 

Yellow  fever  is  so  called  because  the  skin 
of  its  victims  takes  on  a  yellow  hue  owing  to 
jaundice  which  spreads  over  the  whole  of 
the  body.  The  onset  of  the  disease  takes 
place  three  or  four  daj's  after  infection,  and 
is  usually  characterized  by  severe  chills  or 
rigors.  Temperature  rises  rapidly,  and  may 
reach  105°  or  even  higher.  In  favorable  cases 
the  fever  abates  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  day, 
and  with  rest  and  careful  feeding  recovery 
may  be  complete  in  two  or  three  weeks. 
In  severe  cases  blood  may  be  discharged  from 
the  bowels  and  there  may  be  bleeding  of 
the  nose  or  gums.  Delirium  sets  in,  and 
the  patient  lapses  into  unconsciousness. 
Death  is  due  to  hemorrhage,  heart  depression, 
suppression  of  the  urine  or  the  direct  action 
of  poisons  upon  the  vital  centers.  See  Mos- 
quito. 

YEL'LOW-HAMMER,  one  of  the  numer- 
ous names  of  the  American  golden-winged 
woodpecker,  or  flicker.  In  England  the  name 
is  applied  to  the  yellow  bunting.  This  bird 
is  bright  yellow,  with  patches  of  brown.  The 
wings  are  black,  bordered  with  gold.  The 
bird  builds  in  hedge-rows;  the  eggs  are 
spotted  with  red.    See  Flicker. 

YELLOW  JACKET,  the  common  name  for 
any  wasp  whose  body  is  marked  with  yellow. 
See  Wasp. 

YELTjOWLEG-S,  an  American  snipe  found 
in  marshes  and  along  shores.  It  is  black  and 
white  on  head,  breast  and  back,  and  light 
underneath.  It  nests  in  Canada  as  far  north 
as  the  Arctic  Circle,  laying  three  or  four 
buff-colored  eggs  in  a  depression  of  the 
ground.  In  winter  the  birds  migi'ate  as  far 
south  as  Argentina,  traveling  a  distance  of 
eight  thousand  miles  twice  yearly — the  longest 
migratory  flight  made  by  any  bird. 

YELLOW  RACE.  See  Mongolian  Race. 

YELLOW  SEA,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  invading  the  continent  of  Asia  600 
miles,  between  China  and  Chosen  (Korea). 
It  is  connected  with  the  Japan  Sea  by  the 
Chosen  Strait.  Its  greatest  width  is  300 
miles ;  its  greatest  depth,  300  feet.  The  north- 
ern projections  form  the  Chosen,  Liao-tung 
and  Pe-chi-li  gulfs.  Of  the  rivers  flowing 
into  it  the  largest  are  the  Hoang-ho,  the  Liao 
and  the  Yalu,  the  latter  now  known  as  the 
Oryoku.    The  large  quantities  of  yellow  mud 


dei:)osited  in  it  by   inflowing  streams  have 
given  this  sea  its  color  and  its  name. 

EL'LOWSTONE  NA- 
TIONAL PARK,  Amer- 
ica's most  celebrated 
wonderland,  containing 
the  greatest  geyser  re- 
gion in  the  world,  is  situ- 
ated in  the  northwestern 
corner  of  Wyoming,  ex- 
tending over  the  western 
and  northern  boundaries 
a  distance  into  Idaho 
and  Montana.  The  park 
was  set  apart  in  1872  for  "the  benefit  and  en- 
joyment of  all  the  people,"  and  it  was  the  first 
region  thus  dedicated  by  the  government. 
It  has  a  length  from  north  to  south  of  sixty- 
two  miles  and  a  width  from  east  to  west  of 
sixty-four  miles,  and  its  area  of  3,300  square 
miles  makes  it  about  two-thirds  the  size 
of  'Connecticut.  On  the  north  and  west  it 
includes  narrow  strips  of  land  from  Montana 
and  Idaho,  respectively.  In  1891  a  forest 
reserve,  lying  to  the  south  and  east  of  the 
park,  was  created  by  Presidential  i^roclama- 
tion  and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  park 
authorities.  The  total  area  of  the  two  reser- 
vations is  about  5,500  square  miles. 

Surface.  The  central  portion  of  the  park 
consists  of  a  broad  plateau,  ranging  in  alti- 
tude from  7,000  to  8,500  feet.  This  plateau  is 
bordered  by  a  number  of  mountain  ranges, 
in  which  peaks  rise  to  a  height  of  11,000 
to  12,000  feet.  Of  these  the  most  important 
ranges  are  Absarokas,  on  the  east ;  the  Snowy 
Mountains,  on  the  northeast;  the  Gallatin 
Eange,  on  the  north  and  M'est,  and  the  Tetons, 
on  the  south.  The  loftiest  mountain  in  the 
park  is  Electric  Peak,  which  has  an  altitude 
of  11,155  feet.  The  heighest  land  in  the 
vicinity  is  Mount  Hayden,  more  commonly 
known  as  the  Grand  Teton,  the  highest  peak 
of  the  Teton  Range,  having  an  altitude  of 
13,671  feet.  This  stands  on  the  south  of  the 
park,  just  a  few  miles  beyond  the  boundary. 
The  mountains  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  broad  plateaus  or  valleys,  and 
the  intermingling  of  these  features  gives  a 
diversity  to  the  scenery  which  is  remarkably 
pleasing.  The  great  valleys  are  Junction 
Valley,  on  the  east,  which,  with  its  branches, 
includes  the  Yellowstone  and  the  Lamar 
rivers;  Hayden  Valley,  occupying  an  impor- 
tant tract  along  the  Yellowstone  River  be- 
tween Yellowstone  Lake  and  the  Great  Fall ; 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK    3963    YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 


the  Madison  Valley  and  its  extensions, 
through  which  flow  the  Firehole  and  Gibbon 
rivers,  and  in  which  are  located  the  geyser 
regions;  Swan  Lake  Flats,  Willow  Park,  the 
Shoshone  and  the  Paul's  Eiver  basins. 

Rivers.  The  Yellowstone  National  Park 
is  drained  into  three  river  systems,  the  Yel- 
lowstone, the  Missouri  and  the  Snake.  The 
first  two  find  an  outlet  on  the  Atlantic  slope, 
while  the  third  reaches  the  Pacific.  The  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Missoui'i  are  the  Madison, 
formed  by  the  Gibbon  and  the  Firehole,  and 
the  Gallatin.  These  drain  the  northwest  and 
west  central  portions  of  the  park.  The 
southwestern  and  most  of  the  south  central 
portions  are  drained  into  the  Snake  River, 
and  thence  into  the  Columbia.  The  eastern 
and  southeastern  portions  are  drained  into 
the  Yellowstone,  and  thence  into  the  Missouri. 
Between  these  river  systems  the  Continental 
Divide  passes  in  an  irregular  line,  entering 
the  park  near  the  southeastern  corner  and 
extending  in  a  general  northwesterly  direc- 
tion, leaving  the  western  boundary  near  its 
middle  point.  This  divide  is  a  plateau,  vary- 
ing in  altitude  from  7,000  to  8,500  feet.  In 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  park  is  the  Two 
Ocean  Plateau,  so  named  because  rivers  hav- 
ing their  source  in  it  flow  respectively  to  the 
Atlantic  and  to  the  Pacific.  In  one  locality 
these  rivers  come  so  near  each  other  that 
during  high  water  streams  flowing  in  both 
directions  are  fed  from  the  same  source. 

Canyons.  The  rivers  are  characterized  by 
their  clear  water,  swift  current,  deep  canyons 
and  beautiful  cascades.  Among  the  minor 
canyons  worthy  of  mention  are  the  Golden 
Gate,  the  Canyon  of  the  Gibbon  and  the 
Canyon  of  the  Gardiner.  But  surpassing  all 
of  these  in  beauty  and  grandeur  is  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone,  a  gorge  nearly 
twenty  miles  in  length  and  in  places  over 
1,400  feet  deep.  The  upper  part  of  this 
canyon,  for  about  five  miles,  consists  of  bare 
rocks,  noted  for  the  variation  and  bright- 
ness of  their  coloring.  Prominent,  among 
the  colors  are  red,  terra  cotta,  yellow  and 
gray.  At  the  head  of  this  gorge  is  the 
Great  Fall  of  the  Yellowstone,  where  the 
stream  makes  a  perpendicular  descent  of 
310  feet.  While  other  canyons  are  larger, 
it  is  generally  conceded  by  travelers  that 
nowhere  else  in  the  Avorld  has  there  been 
found  a  natural  gorge  which,  for  beauty 
and  grandeur  combined,  equals  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Yellowstone. 


Falls.  There  are  over  thirty  waterfalls 
in  the  park.  Some  of  these  are  small  cas- 
cades, scarcely  worthy  of  notice,  while  others 
are  cataracts  seldom  surpassed  for  their 
beauty  and  grandeur.  Among  the  falls 
worthy  of  mention  are  Gibbon  Falls,  eighty 
feet  in  height ;  Firehole  Falls,  upon  Firehole 
River,  sixty  feet;  Kepler  Cascade,  eighty 
feet;  the  Osprey  Falls,  150  feet;  Tower 
Falls,  132  feet,  and  the  Falls  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, the  upper  fall  of  112  feet  and  the  lower 
of  310  feet.  The  last  are  the  largest  and  by 
far  the  grandest  falls  of  the  park. 

Lakes.  Foremost  among  the  bodies  of 
water  in  the  park  is  Yellowstone  Laka  This 
sheet  of  water  has  an  altitude  of  7,741  feet 
and  is  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the 
countiy  at  so  great  an  altitude.  Its  area  is 
139  square  miles,  its  maximum  depth,  300 
feet,  and  its  shore  line  about  100  miles.  Its 
waters  are  cold  and  swarm  with  fish.  On  the 
shore  of  the  western  projection,  known  as 
The  Thumb,  is  seen  the  peculiar  proximity 
of  hot  and  cold  water  for  which  this  region 
is  noted.  Here  are  several  hot  springs,  whose 
cones  have  been  built  up  within  the  lake,  so 
that  they  are  surrounded  by  cold  water,  and 
one  can  easily  catch  fish  from  the  lake  and, 
without  moving  from  his  tracks,  immerse 
them  in  a  sirring  hot  enough  to  cook  them. 
Other  lakes  of  imi:)ortance  are  Shoshone,  to 
the  south  and  west  of  Yellowstone;  Louis 
Lake,  south  of  SJioshone,  and  Jackson  Lake, 
just  across  the  southern  boundary. 

Hot  Springs.  Within  the  boundaries  of 
the  park  are  found  no  fewer  than  4,000  hot 
springs  and  100  geysers,  whose  tempera- 
tures vary  from  60°  to  175°.  Many  of  the 
springs  boil  and,  to  a  casual  observer,  would 
appear  to  have  the  temperature  of  ordinary 
boiling  water;  however,  much  of  the  ebulli- 
tion is  due  to  the  escape  of  gas.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  springs  are  the  Mammoth 
Hot  Springs,  situated  about  five  miles  from 
the  Gardiner  entrance  and  near  Fort  Yellow- 
stone, which  is  the  administrative  headquar- 
ters. These  springs  are  noted  for  the  beau- 
tiful terraces  Avhich  they  have  formed,  cov- 
ering in  all  an  area  of  nearly  200  acres,  and 
varying  in  altitude  from  a  few  feet  to  nearly 
350  feet.  These  terraces  have  been  formed 
by  the  overflow  of  the  water,  which  is  charged 
with  limestone,  that  is,  held  in  solution  while 
the  water  is  hot;  as  the  water  overflows  and 
runs  do^Ti  the  side  of  the  crater  it  evaporates 
and  deposits  minute  particles  of  the  solidified 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK    3964    YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 


lime.  Thus,  as  the  years  go  by,  the  spring 
builds  up  its  crater,  raising  the  level  of  the 
water  higher  and  higher  and  increasing  the 
height  and  extent  of  the  walls  which  enclose 
it.  These  terraces  are  objects  of  rare  beauty, 
because  of  their  great  variety  of  coloring. 
Some  are  bright  yellow;  others  of  a  terra 
cotta  hue,  while  others  are  nearly  white; 
many  have  a  variety  of  colors.  The  water 
in  the  springs  is  remai'kably  clear,  and  be- 


quiescent  pools  and  are  of  interest  because  of 
the  beauty  of  their  coloring.  The  contrast  in 
coloring  is  remarkable  and  is  due  entirely  to 
the  reflection  of  light  from  the  crater  of  the 
spring,  since  in  all  cases  the  water  taken 
from  them  is  transparent.  Among  these 
springs  of  special  Bote  are  the  Turquoise 
Spring,  in  the  Middle  Geyser  Basin;  Pris- 
matic Lake,  a  pool  of  hot  water  over  150  feet 
across,  under  ordinaiy  conditions  reflecting 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 


cause  of  the  reflection  from  the  crater  it  has 
a  peculiar  blue  color,  seen  nowhere  else. 

Aside  from  the  Mammoth  Hot  Springs,  the 
smaller  springs  are  quite  generally  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  park,  though  they  are 
the  most  numerous  in  three  localities,  where 
they  intermingle  with  the  geysers.  These  lo- 
calities are  the  Norris  Geyser  Basin,  the 
Lower  Geyser  Basin  and  the  Upper  Geyser 
Basin.    Most  of  the  hot  springs  are  merely 


all  the  tints  of  the  rainbow;  the  Morning 
Glory  Spring,  Emerald  Pool ;  Sapphire  Pool, 
and  the  Punch  Bowl,  so  named  because  of  the 
form  of  its  crater. 

Geysers.  There  aye  two  classes  of  geysers 
— the  geysers  proper  and  those  known  as 
fountains,  which  are  distinguished  by  an 
eruption  in  which  all  of  the  water  in  the 
crater  is  thrown  out  in  the  form  of  a  great 
fountain,   leaving   the   crater   empty.      The 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK    3965 


YEMEN 


eruption  of  a  fountain  geyser  lasts  but  a  few 
moments;  and  -will  not  be  repeated  until  the 
crater  is  refilled.  The  most  remarkable 
geysers  of  this  type  are  the  Fountain  and  the 
Great  Fountain,  both  in  the  Lower  Geyser 
Basin.  Of  the  true  geysers,  Old  Faithful, 
which  has  an  eruption  every  seventy  minutes 
and  throws  a  jet  of  water  varying  from  75 
to  125  feet  high;  the  Beehive;  the  Giant; 
the  Giantess;  the  Castle,  and  the  Riverside 
are  the  most  noted".  The  Giant,  when  in  erup- 
tion, expels  a  column  of  water  five  feet  in 
diameter  to  a  height  of  nearly  250  feet  and 
continues  in  operation  for  an  hour  and  a 
half.  The  Giantess  is  even  larger,  but  the 
emptions  are  much  less  frequent.  In  gen- 
eral, the  larger  the  geyser  the  longer  the  in- 
terval between  periods  of  eruption.  Most  of 
the  interesting  geysers  are  found  in  the 
Upper  Geyser  Basin,  where,  within  an  area 
less  than  a  mile  square,  nearly  all  of  the  large 
geysers  are  located.  Intei-spersed  among 
the  large  geysers  are  numei'ous  small  ones, 
some  of  whicli  erupt  every  few  minutes. 

Other  Objects  of  Interest.  The  greater 
part  of  the  park  is  covered  with  beautiful 
forests  of  pine,'  through  which  the  tourist 
passes  on  his  way  from  one  point  of  inter- 
est to  another.  The  Park  is  a  game  preserve. 
Hunting  is  strictly  prohibited,  and  the  for- 
ests now  abound  in  large  game,  including 
bears,  elk  and  antelopes.  There  are  also  a 
few  wild  buffalo,  and  their  number  is  in- 
creasing every  year.  The  care  taken  of  these 
animals  has  removed  the  timidity  which  gen- 
erally characterizes  them,  and  they  are  fre- 
quently seen  by  tourists,  while  the  bears  in 
many  instances  become  very  tame.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  more  striking  features  described 
above,  there  are  many  minor  objects  of  in- 
terest, such  as  Obsidian  Cliff,  a  mountain 
of  volcanic  glass  from  250  to  300  feet  in 
height;  the  Paint  Pots,  which  are  really  hot 
springs,  expelling  colored  clay  from  their 
craters,  and  mud  geysers  and  volcanoes,  dif- 
fering from  the  other  geysers  in  ejecting  tur- 
bid water.  Roaring  Mountain  is  a  hill  several 
hundred  feet  high,  from  the  openings  in 
whose  sides  issue  jets  of  steam  with  such 
force  that  they  can  be  heard  at  quite  a  dis- 
tance. In  each  of  the  hot  spring  regions  are 
also  found  vents,  known  as  fumeroles, 
through  which  steam  escapes  with  a  terrifio 
force. 

Tours  through  the  Park.  Yellowstone 
Katinnal   Park  belongs   tn   the  people,   and 


anyone  can  visit  it  and  make  a  tour  to  suit 
his  pleasure.  He  is  bound  only  by  such  re- 
strictions as  are  necessary  to  preserve  the 
natural  beauty  of  the  region  and  to  protect 
the  wild  animals.  Guns  are  not  allowed,  and 
visitors  cannot  cut  growing  timber.  If  they 
make  camp  fires,  they  are  required  to  see 
that  such  fires  are  carefully  extinguished 
before  they  break  camp.  Marking  or  defac- 
ing the  formations  about  the  geysers  in  any 
way  is  strictly  forbidden,  and  one  ti-ans- 
gressing  in  this  respect  is  subject  to  heavy 
fine,  if  caught. 

The  roads  through  the  park  are  not  ex- 
celled anywhere  in  the  country.  Automobiles 
were  admitted  for  the  first  time  in  1915,  and 
now  they  are  used  for  all  transiDortation. 
Large  hotels,  with  an  equipment  equal  to 
those  in  the  largest  cities,  have  been  opened 
at  Mammoth  Hot  Springs,  the  Upper  Geyser 
Basin,  at  the  Fountain  and  at  the  Canyon, 
and  tourists  who  desire  these  accommoda- 
tions can  make  a  trip  through  the  park  as 
comfortably  as  they  can  travel  the  same 
number  of  miles  in  any  other  region  in 
the  world. 

Transportation  companies  operating  per- 
manent camps  provide  equally  enjoyable  and 
less  expensive  accommodations,  or  parties 
may  travel  with  their  own  outfit  and  set  up 
their  camps  at  their  pleasure.  However, 
after  their  store  of  provisions  has  been 
raided  by  bears  two  or  three  nights  in  suc- 
cession, they  will  probably  place  themselves 
in  care  of  one  of  the  transportation  com- 
panies. The  park  is  entered  by  three  gate- 
ways— Gardiner  on  the  north,  Cody  on  the 
east,  and  Yellowstone  on  the  west.  The 
Gardiner  gateway  is  the  most  convenient, 
because  it  is  on  the  boundarj^  and  nearest 
to  the  hot  springs  and  geysers.  The  regular 
trip  includes  a  ride  of  about  150  miles  and 
should  take  five  or  six  davs. 

YELLOWSTONE  KIVER,  a  river  of  the 
United  States,  the  largest  tributary  of  the 
Missouri,  It  rises  in  Northwestern  Wyom- 
ing, in  the  Continental  Divide,  flows  north- 
east through  Montana  and  into  the  Missouri 
a  short  distance  beyond  the  boundary  of 
North  Dakota.  Its  length  is  about  1,100 
miles.  Throughout  most  of  its  course  the 
river  is  followed  by  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad. 

YE'MEN,  a  territory  of  Southwestern 
Arabia,  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  em- 
braces an  area  of  about  73,800  square  miles, 


YEN 


3966 


YONGE 


and  is  a  region  of  mountains  and  plateaus, 
from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  in  altitude.  The 
coast  lands  are  arid,  but  the  valleys  are  gar- 
dens of  tropical  vegetation.  Excellent  coffee 
is  gi'own.  The  people,  numbering  about 
750,000,  are  engaged  chiefly  in  stock  raising. 
There  are  no  railroads,  but  there  are  sev- 
eral caravan  routes  from  the  interior  to  the 
coast.  Hodeida  is  the  principal  port.  At 
the  close  of  the  World  War  there  was  under 
Avay  a  movement  to  have  Yemen  included  in 
a  united  Arabian  state  free  from  Turkish 
control.    See  Arabia;  Turkey. 

YEN,  the  monetary  unit  of  Japan,  equiva- 
lent to  about  fifty  cents  of  United  States 
money.  The  yen  was  formerly  coined  in  both 
gold  and  silver,  but  in  1897  Japan  adopted  a 
gold  standard,  and  since  that  time  no  single 
gold  yens  have  been  coined,  but  two-yen, 
five-yen,  ten-yen  and  twenty-yen  pieces  are 
in  common  use.  The  smaller  denomination 
in  Japanese  money  is  the  sen,  equivalent  to 
a  half  cent.  The  5-sen  is  coined  in  nickel; 
10-sen,  20-sen  and  50-sen  pieces,  in  silver. 

YENISEI,  yen  e  say'e,  a  river  of  Asia, 
one  of  the  longest  in  the  world.  From  its 
sources  in  the  Sayansky  Mountains,  in 
Northwestern  Mongolia,  it  flows  in  a  general 
northwesterly  direction  and  enters  the  Arctic 
Ocean  near  the  Gulf  of  Ob,  through  an 
estuary  about  500  miles  long.  Above  the 
estuary  its  length  is  2,500  miles.  An  area 
of  1,000,000  square  miles  is  drained  by  it. 
South  of  Krasnoyarsk,  near  which  it  is 
crossed  by  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  it  is 
ice-free  half  the  year,  and  it  is  navigable  to 
Minusinsk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Angara  River. 
With  its  navigable  tributaries  and  canal  con- 
nections the  Yenisei  is  of  the  greatest  com- 
mercial importance  to  Western  Siberia. 

YER'KES  OBSER'VATORY,  an  astro- 
nomical observatory  situated  at  Williams 
Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Geneva,  Wisconsin.  It 
is  owned  by  the  University  of  Chicago,  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Charles  Tyson  Yerkes, 
who  donated  the  money  for  buildings  and  in- 
struments. The  refracting  telescope  of  this 
observatory  is  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the 
world,  having  a  diameter  of  forty  indies. 
See  Telescope. 

YEW,  yu,  an  evergreen  tree  of  the  pine 
family,  with  dense,  spreading  branches, 
thickly  covered  with  very  dark  green  linear 
leaves.  The  common  yew  of  Europe  is  very 
long-lived,  and  in  England  it  is  planted  in 
cemeteries  and  is  considered  an  emblem  of 


immortality.  The  leaves  and  seeds  are  poi- 
sonous, but  the  red  bei-ries  are  not.  The  tough, 
elastic  wood  was  used  for  making  bows  in  the 
days  before  fireanns  were  invented.  The 
American  yew  is  commonly  known  as  ground 
hemlock,  and  is  a  low  shrub,  with  straggling 
branches,  common  in  dense  forests. 

YGGDRASIL,  ic/dra  sil,  in  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  enonnous  ash-tree  which  binds  to- 
gether heaven,  earth  and  the  underworld.  It 
was  the  tree  of  life,  fate,  time  and  space. 

YIDDISH,  the  dialect  spoken  by  the  Jews 
of  Eastern  Europe,  used  by  more  people  than 
any  other  Hebrew  form  of  speech.  It  repre- 
sents a  combination  of  various  languages, 
notably  Hebrew,  German,  Aramaic  and 
Slavic,  and  has  been  carried  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  In  the  United  States  Yiddish  is 
widely  used  as  a  newspaper  language,  and 
has  been  the  vehicle  of  many  noted  Jewish 
writers. 

YOKOHAMA,  yo  ho  Tmh'mah,  Japan^  the 
chief  commercial  center  of  ,the  empire,  is 
situated  on  the  east  coast  of  Hondo,  on  the 
Bay  of  Tokyo,  seven  miles  southwest  of  the 
latter  city,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  It  is  on  a  large  harbor,  which  is 
protected  by  brealovaters.  The  city  is  well 
planned  and  has  a  number  of  excellent  pub- 
lic buildings.  Most  important  of  these  are 
the  customliouse,  the  postofflce,  the  court- 
house and  the  railway  station.  The  city  has 
a  number  of  modern  churches  and  in  most 
respects  resembles  a  European  town.  The 
harbor  is  lined  with  massive  docks,  and  the 
surrounding  heights  are  occupied  by  fine 
residences.  It  is  the  port  through  which 
most  visitors  enter  Japan.  The  city  is  the 
center  of  a  large  silk  industry,  as  well  as  of 
extensive  foreign  trade,  for  it  is  in  direct 
communication  with  all  of  the  leading  ports 
of  the  world.     Population,  1916,  428,663. 

YONGE,  yung,  Charlotte  Mary  (1823- 
1901),  a  novelist  and  essayist,  bom  at  Otter- 
bourne,  England.  She  was  an  exceedingly 
prolific  writer,  and  j^roduced  in  all  about 
125  volumes,  including  novels,  short  stories, 
(Assays,  biographies,  histories  and  school 
books.  Her  best-known  novels  are  The  Heir 
of  Bedclyffe,  The  Daisy  Chain,  The  Dove  in 
the  Eagle's  Nest,  and  a  life  of  Hannah  More. 
Her  historical  works  include  Cameos  of  Eng- 
lish History,  English  Church  History  and 
Landmarks  of  History.  She  gave  large  sums 
to  schools  and  to  church  and  missionary  work 
throughout  the  world. 


YONKERS 


3967 


YOKKTOWN 


YON'KERS,  N.  Y.,  in  Westchester  County, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  River  and  on 
the  New  York  .Central  Railroad,  fifteen  miles 
from  the  New  York  City  terminal.  It  is 
beautifully  located  on  graduallj'-rising" 
ground,  opposite  the  Palisades,  and  its  resi- 
dence section  has  many  beautiful  homes  of 
New  York  business  men.  It  is  an  important 
industrial  and  commercial  center,  with  foun- 
dries and  machine  shojDS,  shipyards,  wire 
works,  patent  medicine  and  chemical  fac- 
tories, grain  elevators,  sugar  refineries  and 
manufactories  of  hats,  carpets  and  rug's. 
Prominent  buildings  are  a  city  hall,  a  Car- 
negie Library,  Saint  Joseph's  Seminary,  the 
Woman's  Institute,  the  Holljns'ood  Inn  for 
workingmen,  the  Hebrew  Home  for  the  Aged 
and  Infirm  and  several  charitable  institu- 
tions and  hospitals.  The  Philipse  Manor 
House,  now  a  museum,  dates  from  1682. 
There  is  a  steel  recreation  pavilion  on  the 
water  front. 

Yonkers  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  about 
1650.  After  1672  it  was  part  of  Philii^se 
Manor,  until  the  township  of  Yonkers  was  or- 
ganized in  1788.  The  settlement  itself  was 
called  Philii:)sburg  until  its  incorporation 
into  the  village  of  Yonkers  in  1855.  In  1872 
the  northern  part  of  the  township  was  char- 
tered as  the  city  of  Yonkers,  and  the  southern 
part  was  later  annexed  to  New  York  City. 
Population,  1910,  80,475;  in  1917,  103,066 
(Federal  estimate). 

YORK,  England,  county  town  of  York- 
shire, situated  on  the  River  Ouse  at  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Foss,  175  miles  northwest 
of  London.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  York 
Cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  structures 
in  the  world,  and  has  many  relies  and  re- 
minders of  early  and  medieval  English  his- 
tory. The  old  city  is  surrounded  by  massive 
stone  walls,  and  has  narrow,  irregular  streets. 
A  beautiful  modern  suburb  has  been  built  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  Foss.  The  city's  in- 
dustries include  flax  spinning  and  the  weav- 
ing of  linen,  iron  founding,  construction  of 
railway  ears,  and  the  manufacture  of  gloves, 
combs,  glass,  etc.  There  is  a  thri\-ing  river 
trade.  The  raihvay  station  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Great  Britain.  Population,  1911, 
82.282;  in  1914,  estimated,  83,380. 

YORK,  Pa.,  the  county  seat  of  York 
County,  ninety-six  miles  west  of  Phila- 
delphia, on  Codoi-us  Creek  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Western  Maryland  and  the 
Maryland  &  Pennsylvania  railroads.     It  is 


situated  in  a  rich  and  beautiful  agricultural 
valley  and  has  manufactures  of  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  bricks,  cement,  lime, 
farm  implements,  wire,  chains,  nails,  wagons, 
automobiles,  pianos,  furniture,  wall  paper, 
silk,  flour  and  cigars.  Institutions  located 
here  are  the  York  Collegiate  Institute,  the 
York  County  Academy,  a  children's  home, 
a  county  almshouse,  a  tuberculosis  dispensary 
and  several  hospitals.  There  are  a  Federal 
building  and  two  public  libraries. 

York  was  settled  by  Germans  in  1734,  and 
the  town  was  laid  out  in  1741.  The  Con- 
tinental Congress  met  here  from  September, 
1777,  to  June,  1778,  when  it  was  driven  from 
Philadelphia  by  the  approach  of  Howe's 
army.  The  borough  was  incorporated  in 
1787,  and  the  city  was  chartered  in  1887.  It 
adopted  the  commission  form  of  government 
in  1913.  Population,  1910,  44,750;  in  1917, 
52,770  (Federal  estimate). 

YORK,  House  of,  a  royal  family  of  Eng- 
land, which  attempted  in  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  to  wrest  the  crown  from  the  Lancas- 
trian House,  as  represented  by  the  king, 
Henry  YI  (see  Roses,  Wars  of  the).  The 
Yorkists  had,  indeed,  the  superior  claim,  as 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  was  descended  from 
a  third  son  of  Edward  III,  while  Heniy  VI 
was  descended  from  a  fourth  son.  Richard 
died  in  1400,  and  his  son  continued  the 
sti'uggle;  after  a  short  time  he  was  crowned 
king  as  Edward  IV.  With  the  exception  of 
a  short  interval,  Edward  was  king  until  1483, 
and  after  his  death  his  son  was  crowned  king 
as  Edward  V.  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  brother  of  Edward  IV,  killed  his  royal 
nephew  and  was  made  king,  but  was  over- 
thrown by  Henry  Tudor  (Henry  VII),  Earl 
of  Richmond,  the  head  of  the  Lancastrian 
House,  who  united  the  claims  of  the  two 
families  bv  marrying  Elizabeth,  the  daughter 
of  Edward  IV. 

YORKTOWN,  Va.,  the  county  seat  of 
York  County,  seventy  miles  southeast  of 
Richmond.  It  has  filled  large  space  in  Amer- 
ican history  on  two  occasions.  In  1781,  in 
the  Revolutionary  War,  it  was  fortified  by 
Cornwallis  and  was  cajitured  by  American 
aims  only  after  a  siege  lasting  from  Aug-ust 
to  October.  On  April  5,  1862,  in  the  Civil 
War,  McClellan,  in  command  of  95,000  Fed- 
eral soldiers,  began  a  siege  of  the  place,  then 
strongly  held  by  55,000  Confederates.  It 
capitulated  on  May  4.  In  1881  the  Corn- 
wallis sui-render  was  celebrated. 


yOSEMITE  NATIONAL  PARK 


3968 


YOUNG 


YOSEMITE,  yo  sem'  e  te, 
NATIONAL  PARK 
AND  VALLEY,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent 
scenic  areas  of  the  Amer- 
ican Continent. 

Yosemite  National 
Park,  a  section  of  the 
■world's  "enchanted 
lands,"  lies  in  the  central 
part  of  California,  just 
west  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada Mountains.  It  has 
an  area  of  a  little  over  1,100  square  miles, 
and  includes  the  famous  Yosemite  Valley, 
the  Tuolumne  Valley  and  three  groves  of 
sequoias,  or  California  Big  Trees. 

Yosemite  Valley.  This  valley,  which  has 
been  aptly  described  as  a  "mere  crack  in  the 
rocks,"  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
world's  regions.  The  valley  was  formed  by 
the  Merced  River  and  by  glacial  action.  It 
is  seven  miles  long,  and  from  one-fourth 
of  a  mile  to  a  mile  wide.  The  floor  of  the 
valley  is  a  flat  meadow  carpeted  with  flowers, 
and  from  its  sides  rise  vertical  cliffs  to 
heights  varying  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet. 
The  most  widely-known  of  the  great  summits 
guarding  the  valley  are  Cathedral  Rocks, 
2,500  feet;  El  Capitan,  3,600  feet;  Sentinel 
Dome,  4,100  feet;  Half  Dome,  4,900  feet, 
and  Cloud's  Rest,  6,000  feet. 

Over  the  sides  of  these  cliffs  numerous 
rivers  rush  headlong  to  the  valley  below, 
forming  some  of  the  highest  and  most  beau- 
tiful waterfalls  in  the  world.  Among  them 
are  Yosemite  Falls,  which  drop  1,430  feet 
in  a  single  fall ;  Lower  Yosemite,  immediately 
below,  with  a  fall  of  320  feet;  Vernal,  320 
feet;  Nevada  Falls,  600  feet;  the  celebrated 
Bridal  Veil,  620  feet,  and  the  Ribbon  Falls, 
1,612  feet.  This  is  one  of  the  highest  single 
falls  in  the  world.  These  falls  are  at  their 
best  in  May  and  June,  when  the  winter  snows 
are  melting.  Mirror  Lake,  in  whose  waters 
a  remarkable  reflection  of  the  sun*ounding 
mountains  may  be  seen,  is  another  attractive 
feature  of  the  valley. 

Yosemite  Valley  is  about  150  miles  nearly 
east  of  San  Francisco,  and  may  be  reached 
from  Merced  on  the  Santa  Fe  and  Southern 
Pacific  railroads,  and  by  the  Yosemite  Valley 
Railroad,  which  extends  to  the  western  bor- 
der of  the  park.  From  the  railway  terminus 
stages  take  tourists  through  the  valley.  The 
roads  are  good,  and  during  the  tourist  sea- 


son, from  May  1  to  November  1,  hotel  and 
camp  accommodations  are  ample.  The  park 
is  free  to  all,  and  anyone  is  at  liberty  to  pro- 
vide his  own  transportation  and  to  travel 
at  his  pleasure,  subject  to  such  rules  as  are 
necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  scenery. 
From  Yosemite  Valley  roads  lead  to  Mari- 
posa and  other  groves  of  Big  Trees  and  to 
Tuolumne  Valle}^ 

Yosemite  Valley  was  discovered  in  1851 
by  a  party  in  pursuit  of  a  band  of  Indians, 
who  made  it  their  hiding  place,  supposing  it 
to  be  inaccessible  to  white  men.  In  1864,  by 
act  of  Congress,  it  was  granted  to  California 
for  a  state  park,  upon  condition  that  it  should 
be  kept  for  the  use  of  the  public  and  that 
its  scenery  should  never  be  injured.  The 
Mariposa  grove  of  big  trees,  adjoining  the 
valley,  was  also  granted  the  state  at  the  same 
time.  Since  18C0  it  has  been  known  as  the 
Yosemite  National  Park.  The  most  desirable 
months  in  which  to  visit  the  valley  are  June, 
July  and  the  early  part  of  August.  Later  in 
the  season  a  number  of  the  streams  become 
dry,  and  their  falls  disappear. 

VOSHIEITO,  yoshihe'toh,  Hakunomia 
(1879-  ),  emperor  of  Japan,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Mutsuhito,  July  29,  1912.  He  was  educated 
at  Tokyo,  and  speaks  fluently  French,  Eng- 
lish and  German.  He  is  simple  and  direct 
in  his  manner  and  speech,  and  his  policy  is 
progressive.  Much  tact  and  discretion  have 
been  shown  by  Mm  as  a  harmonizing  influence 
between  the  traditions  and  ideals  of  old  Japan 
and  the  up-to-date  ideas  of  the  Western 
world,  with  which  Japan  must  keep  abreast 
to  maintain  its  position  as  a  world  power. 
The  emperor's  personal  taste  inclines  toward 
outdoor  sports,  and  he  is  a  lover  of  dogs 
and  horses.  In  1900  he  married  his  cousin. 
Princess  Sada-Ko,  and  has  three  children, 
the  oldest,  Hirohito,  being  the  heir  apparent 
to  the  throne. 

YOUNG,  yung,  Brigham  (1801-1877), 
the  sucessor  of  Joseph  Smith  as  president 
of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day 
Saints.  His  father  was  a  Vermont  farmer, 
and  he  himself  learned  the  trades  of  painter, 
and  glazier.  Early  in  life  he  joined  the 
Baptists,  but  was  converted  to  Mormonism 
and  joined  the  sect  at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  in 
1832.  In  1835  he  was  ordained  one  of  the 
Council  of  Twelve  Apostles.  When  the  sect 
began  to  be  persecuted  Young  and  Smith 
selected  Nauvoo,  111.,  as  the  site  for  a  new 


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YOUNG 


3969 


"Y.  M.  C.  A. 


colony.  On  the  death  of  Joseph  Smith,  in 
1844,  Young  was  unanimously  chosen  presi- 
dent. 

When  the  Mormons  were  expelled  from 
Nauvoo  he  led  them  through  toils  and  dan- 
gers over  the  plains  and  tablelands  to  the 
splendid  valley  where,  between  the  Wasatches 
and  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  he  founded,  in 
July,  1847,  the  settlement  which  became  Salt 
Lake  City.  The  Mormons  organized  their 
territory  into  a  state,  and  Young  became 
governor.  Later,  difficulties  arose  with  the 
Federal  government  and  President  Buchanan 
appointed  a  territorial  governor  to  succeed 
Young.  He  continued  ruler  of  his  sect  until 
his  death  in  1877.  He  was  a  man  of  strong 
character,  remarkable  foresight  and  imusual 
executive  ability. 

YOUNG,  Charles  Augustus  (1834- 
1907),  an  American  astronomer,  who  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  in  1853  and  after  teach- 
ing at  Phillips  Academj',  Andover,  in  1856 
became  professor  of  natural  philosopy  and 
mathematics  in  the  Western  Reserve  College, 
Ohio.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  astronomy  and  natural  philosophy  at 
Princeton,  after  serving  in  the  same  capacity 
at  Dartmouth.  Young  made  the  first  obser- 
vation of  the  spectrum  of  the  solar  corona 
(the  luminous  envelopes  of  the  sun)  in  Aug- 
ust, 1869,  and  later  he  made  many  other  im- 
portant observations.  He  gave  his  assist- 
ance to  the  eclipse  observ^ations  in  Iowa  in 
1869,  in  Spain  in  1870,  in  Denver  in  1878, 
and  was  one  of  the  party  who  studied  the 
transit  of  Venus  at  Peking  in  1874.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  authorities  on  the  sub- 
ject of  spectra.  The  Sun,  General  Astron- 
omy, Elements  in  Astronomy  and  Lessons  in 
Astronomy  are  among  his  publications,  which 
include  also  textbooks  and  papers  on  mis- 
cellaneous scientific  subjects. 

YOUNG,  Edward  (1683-1765),  an  Eng- 
lish poet,  born  at  Upham,  Hampshire.  His 
earliest  large  work  was  Busiris,  a  tragedy 
written  in  1719.  This  was  followed  by 
Bevenge  and  a  group  of  satires  entitled  The 
Love  of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion.  He 
took  holy  orders,  and  in  1730  became  rector 
of  a  church  at  Welwyn  in  Hertfordshire. 
Young  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  Night 
Thoughts  of  Life,  Death  and  Immortality, 
a  religious  poem  containing  numerous  pointed 
verses  which  have  become  axiomatic. 

YOUNG,  Ella  Flagg  (1845-1918),  a 
prominent  American  educator.     Mrs.  Young 

249 


was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  Chi- 
cago, graduating  from  a  Chicago  high  school 
and  from  the  Chicago  Nonnal  School.  In 
1900  she  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  from 
the  L^iversity  of  Chicago.  She  began  teach- 
ing in  1862,  making  rapid  advancement  in  her 
profession.  From  1887  until  1899  she  was 
district  superintendent  of  the  schools  in 
Chicago,  and  from  1899  until  1905,  she  held 
a  professorship  in  the  University  of  Chicago 
in  the  department  of  education.  In  1905  she 
was  chosen  principal  of  the  Chicago  Normal 
School,  and  was  one  of  the  most  efficient 
principals  that  institution  ever  had.  In  1909 
she  was  maanimously  elected  superintendent 
of  schools  in  Chicago,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant educational  positions  in  the  United 
States.  Her  work  as  superintendent  of 
schools  was  such  as  to  command  the  highest 
admiration.  In  1910  Mrs.  Young  was 
honored  with  election  to  the  presidency  of 
the  National  Education  Association,  the  first 
woman  to  hold  that  position.  In  the  same 
year  she  was  also  elected  president  of  the 
Illinois  State  Teachers'  Association. 

YOUNG  ITALY,  a  societj^  founded  by 
Mazzini  in  1831  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
Italy  from  Austrian  rule  and  uniting  the 
different  states  as  a  republic.  The  first  open 
movement,  the  invasion  of  Savoy  in  1834, 
failed,  and  this  fact  lessened  the  influence 
of  the  society.  Its  work  was  not  entirely 
vain,  however,  as  it  contributed  greatly  to  the 
growth  of  the  patriotism  which  resulted  later 
in  the  unification  of  Italv. 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSO- 
CIATION, or  the  "Y.  M.  C.  A.,"  is  an  or- 
ganization for  the  promotion  of  spiritual, 
intellectual,  physical  and  social  welfare 
among  men.  Its  purpose  is  not  to  supplant 
the  work  of  the  Church,  but  to  cooperate  with 
all  churches  in  the  promotion  of  welfare 
work  among  men  and  boys.  The  object  of 
the  organization  at  its  beginning  was  the 
conversion  of  men  to  Christianity^  and  the 
strengthening  of  the  Christian  life  of  its  mem- 
bers, but  its  scope  has  broadened  to  include 
the  union  of  Christians  of  all  denominations 
in  lines  of  work  that  can  be  promoted  by 
united  action ;  to  carry  the  gospel  among  the 
railroad  and  other  workers;  to  unite  college 
students  for  active  Christian  work;  to  co- 
operate with  foreign  Christian  young  men 
for  the  salvation  of  their  fellows;  to  bring 
together  in  sj-mpathy  and  companionship  for 
Christian  work  the  young  men  of  every  sec- 


"Y.  M.  C.  A." 


3970 


"Y.  M.  C.  A." 


tion  of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  to 
secure  the  sen'ices  of,  and  financial  aid  from, 
Christian  laymen  in  spreading  the  gospel, 
and  generally  to  promote  the  common  cause 
and  extend  religion  among  all  orders  and 
conditions  of  men.  In  pursuit  of  the  accom- 
plishment of  these  objects,  the  association  has 
founded  missions,  secured  positions  for 
young  men,  strangers  and  penniless  in  cities 
and  in  the  countiy;  acted  in  capacities  of 
nurses  and  humanitarians ;  secured  legislation 
against  the  publication  and  circulation  of  ob- 
scene literature;  officiated  as  almoners  for 
the  distribution  of  funds,  food  and  clothing 
among  the  deserving  poor;  established 
schools,  libraries  and  lectures,  and  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  for  the  general  good. 

The  association  has  established  comfort- 
able homes  and  hotels  in  large  cities,  and 
any  young  man  for  a  nominal  membership 
fee  is  admitted  to  the  privileges  which  these 
buildings  afford.  The  general  buildings  are 
equipped  with  reading  rooms,  libraries,  gym- 
nasiums and  recreation  rooms,  and  many  of 
them  are  provided  with  swimming  pools  that 
are  open  the  year  round.  In  the  largest 
centers  Bible  classes,  lectures  and  social  en- 
tertainments are  provided,  and  in  Chicago, 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Los  Angeles,  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  practically  all  lines  of  edu- 
cational work,  from  that  in  the  elementary 
schools  to  that  of  college  grade,  are  offered. 

There  are  special  branches  for  railroad 
men,  college  students,  soldiers  and  sailors, 
Indians  and  negroes,  and  the  field  work  has 
been  extended  to  many  rural  communities. 
A  boys'  department  is  a  large  and  important 
feature  of  the  organization,  and  branches 
of  this  department  are  found  in  nearly  all 
city  and  count}'  organizations.  Secretaries 
who  are  especially  trained  devote  all  their 
time  to  the  boys'  work.  Classes  and  sepa- 
rate rooms  are  provided  for  their  use,  and 
many  summer  camps  are  maintained  under 
the  direction  of  the  secretaries. 

The  executive  officers  have  the  title  of  sec- 
retary-; most  of  them  are  university  men, 
or  men  who  have  received  special  training 
in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  colleges,  at  Chicago  or 
Springfield,  Mass.  Special  simimer  schools 
are  also  maintained  at  Lake  George,  N.  Y., 
and  at  Lake  Geneva,  Wis.  In  1918  there 
were  in  America  2,193  associations,  674,000 
members  and  4,963  employed  secretaries  and 
other  officers.  The  students  in  the  educa- 
tional classes  numbered  82,000,  and  the  mem- 


bership in  the  boys'  department  was  over 
152,000.  The  net  property  of  the  association 
and  fusds  amounted  to  $i07,707,200.  Mem- 
bership is  open  to  men  without  regard  to 
creed,  race  or  color,  but  only  those  who  are 
members  of  evangelical  churches  can  vote  on 
constitutional  questions  and  hold  office. 

Work  in  the  World  War.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War  the  British  associa- 
tions began  work  among  the  troops  in  prac- 
tically every  training  camp  and  at  the  front, 
and  over  700  centers  containing  reading  and 
recreation  rooms  were  established.  When 
the  United  States  entered  the  war,  the  asso- 
ciation offered  its  services  to  the  govern- 
ment, and  immediately  started  a  campaign 
to  raise  funds  for  establishing  centers  at  the 
various  training  camps  for  the  regular  army. 
The  sum  of  $50,000,000  was  secured,  and  ad- 
ditional funds  were  raised  for  carrying  on  the 
work  in  Europe.  On  January  1,  1918,  the 
association  had  sent  800  workers  to  France, 
including  150  women,  who  served  in  the 
canteens. 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  centers  at  the  front, 
known  as  huts,  included  a  canteen  room,  or 
restaurant,  small  rooms  for  classes  and  other 
gatherings  and  a  lectui'e  hall.  Before  the 
close  of  the  war  there  were  4,557  secre- 
taries ser\ang  the  soldiers  in  camps  at  home 
and  7,000  with  the  expeditionary  forces  in 
France.  At  the  earnest  request  of  the  gov- 
ernments of  France,  Italy  and  Russia, 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  representatives  were  sent  among 
their  armies.  The  work  was  costing  the  asso- 
ciation over  $7,000,000  a  month  when  the  ar- 
mistice was  signed. 

The  work  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  armies;  it  relieved 
homesickness,  provided  recreation,  strength- 
ened the  morale  of  the  troops  and  offered 
religious  teaching  and  classes  in  various  lines 
of  educational  work.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
work  among  prisoners  of  war  resulted  in 
relief  from  much  suffering. 

History.  The  first  Y.  M.  C.  A.  association 
was  fonned  during  1845,  when  George  Wil- 
liams of  London,  England,  a  clerk  sixteen 
years  of  age,  persuaded  his  fellow  clerks  to 
meet  for  prayer  and  Bible  study.  But  sim- 
ilar movements  had  existed  in  England  from 
1632.  The  first  American  Association  was 
formed  in  Boston  in  December,  1851.  Since 
that  date,  associations»have  been  organized  in 
nearly  every  city,  town  and  village  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 


YOUNGSTOWN 


3971 


YPSILANTI 


The  associations  are  organized  into  city, 
county  and  state  groups.  Many  of  the  asso- 
ciations have  become  incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  the  several  states  wherein  they  are 
domiciled  and  are  clothed  with  powers  and 
privileges  of  corporate  bodies.  In  1883  the 
international  committee,  composed  of  twenty- 
seven  members,  was  incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  1888 
delegates  from  the  United  States  were  in  at- 
tendance upon  the  international  convention 
held  at  Stockholm,  Sweden.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  central  international  committee 
are  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and  the  com- 
•mittee  is  composed  of  representatives  from 
America,  Australia,  Austria-Hungary,  Bel- 
gium, Denmark,  England,  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Russia,  Spain, 
Sweden,  Switzerland  and  other  countries. 

YOUNGS'TOWN,  Ohio,  the  county  seat 
of  Mahoning  County,  sixty-seven  miles 
southeast  of  Cleveland,  on  the  Mahoning 
River  and  on  the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Mahoning  Vallej^,  the 
New  York  Central,  the.  Pittsburgh  &  Lake 
Erie  and  the  Lake  Erie  &  Eastern  railroads. 
The  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  is  the  most 
important  industiy,  and  there  are  also  lum- 
ber mills,  bridge  works,  and  furniture,  en- 
gine, automobile,  wagon  and  other  factories. 
Youngstown  is  the  seat  of  a  number  of 
charitable  institutions  and  hospitals,  and  has 
a  Federal  building  and  the  McMillan  Free 
Library.  Mill  Creek  Park,  482  acres  in  ex- 
tent, is  regarded  as  the  most  beautiful  nat- 
ural park  in  the  state  of  Ohio.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  by  John  Young  on  a 
tract  of  land  purchased  from  the  Connecti- 
cut Land  Company  in  1797.  It  became  the 
county  seat  in  1876,  and  was  incorporated  as 
a  citv  in  1848.  Population,  1910,  79,066; 
in  1917,  112,282  (Federal  estimate). 

YOUNG  TURKS,  the  name  applied  to  a 
reform  partj'  which  forced  the  abdication  of 
Sultan  Abd-ul-Hamid  in  1909.  It  was 
thought  by  obsei-vers  in  other  countries  that 
the  revolt  foreshadowed  a  new  era  of 
democracy  in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  but  this 
was  a  mistaken  idea.  The  strengthening  of 
Turkish  power  in  various  sections  of  the 
empire  seemed  to  be  the  chief  object  of  the 
Young  Turks,  and  no  material  political  re- 
forms resulted.    See  Turkey. 

YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSO- 
CIATION, an  international  association  of 
women  operated  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of 


the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  its 
purpose  being  to  promote  the  welfare  of 
young  women,  chiefly  women  in  business 
everywhere.  Organized  in  1894,  it  to-day 
embraces  eighteen  national  organizations 
scattered  throughout  the  world,  and  has  a 
total  membership  of  800,000.  The  head- 
quarters are  in  London. 

The  American  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  formed  in  1906, 
was  an  outgrowth  of  the  Ladies'  Christian 
Association,  a  society  which  had  been  organ- 
ized in  1858  in  New  York  and  which  had 
established  many  branches  in  the  fifty  years 
of  its  growth.  At  present  there  are  about 
1,000  associations  in  the  United  States,  with  a 
total  membership  of  350,000.  An  annual 
Tear  Book  is  published,  showing  what  has 
been  accomplished  in  the  twelve  months  im- 
mediately preceding.  In  Canada  there  are 
about  seventy-five  affiliated  bodies,  with  a 
total  membership  of  18,000.  The  Association 
Monthly  is  the  official  organ  of  the  inter- 
national association. 

YPRES,  e'pr',  Belgium,  a  ruined  city 
which  was  the  center  of  desperate  fighting 
throughout  the  World  War.  It  was  the 
capital  of  West  Flanders,  and  was  situated 
thirty-five  miles  south  of  Ostend,  on  the 
Yperlee  River.  On  October  3,  1914,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Germans,  who  were  driven 
out  by  the  British  a  few  weeks  later.  The 
allied  forces  continued  to  hold  the  Ypres  line, 
but  at  the  cost  of  much  sanguinary  fighting. 
In  the  spring  of  1915  a  new  attack  was  deliv- 
ered by  the  Germans,  in  which  they  used 
poison  gas  for  the  first  time.  Only  the  heroic 
resistance  of  the  Canadians  saved  the  day  for 
the  allies,  who  managed  to  hold  the  town 
after  suffering  great  losses.  Even  as  late  as 
the  spring  of  1918  the  salient  was  the  scene 
of  most  desperate  struggles,  but  the  ruins 
of  the  city  remained  in  allied  hands.  Before 
the  war  Ypres  had  a  population  of  17,000, 
and  was  a  center  of  the  lace  and  linen  trade. 
It  had  many  fine  buildings,  including  the 
beautiful  cathedral  of  Saint  Martin,  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  century.  The  soldiers 
called  the  place  "Wipers."    See  World  War. 

YPSILANTI,  ip  se  lan'te,  Mich.,  in  Wash- 
tenaw County,  thirty  miles  southwest  of 
Detroit,  on  the  Huron  River  and  on  the 
Michigan  Central  and  the  New  York  Central 
(Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern)  railroads. 
Interurban  lines  connect  it  with  Detroit  and 
Ann  Arbor.  It  is  the  business  center  for  a 
considerable  agricultural  region,  and  is  con- 


YSAYE 


3972 


YUKON  RIVER 


nected  by  several  electric  railways  with  other 
cities.  The  principal  manufactures  are  flour, 
paper,  knit  goods,  dairj^  i^roducts  and  agri- 
cultural implements.  The  Michigan  State 
Normal  College,  the  first  nonnal  school  to  be 
established  west  of  Massachusetts,  is  located 
here,  and  the  city  has  parks,  two  banks,  a 
business  college,  public  and  school  libraries 
and  a  Federal  building.  The  town  was  laid 
out  in  1825  on  the  site  of  an  Indian  trading 
post.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1858. 
Population,  1910,  6,230. 

YSAYE,  ezah'tje,  Eugene  (1858-  ), 
a  Belgian  violinist,  born  at  Liege.  He  was 
taught  by  his  father,  an  able  violinist,  who  in 
time  sent  him  to  the  Liege  conservatory. 
Subsequently  he  studied  under  great  masters 
of  the  violin.  He  showed  such  promise  that 
the  state  helped  him  to  complete  his  studies  at 
Paris.  In  1881  he  began  the  concert  tours 
which  were  to  reveal  him  to  the  world  as  one 
of  its  foremost  violinists.  Five  years  later 
he  became  director  of  the  violin  department 
of  the  Brussels  conservatory,  where  he  organ- 
ized the  famous  Ysaye  quartet.  He  retired  in 
1898  to  devote  all  his  time  to  concert  work. 
Ysaye's  playing  is  characterized  by  a  sound 
and  brilliant  technique  and  a  rich,  full  tone 
having  an  infinite  variety  of  shading.  He 
has  written  a  number  of  compositions  for  the 
violin;  among  them  are  six  concertos. 

YUAN  SHI  KAI  (1858-1916),  Chinese 
statesman,  first  President  of  China.  As  a 
young  man  his  fondness  for  military  life  led 
him  to  active  service  in  Korea,  where  his.  work 
attracted  the  notice  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  and 
brought  him  the  office  of  resident-commis- 
sioner of  trade.  His  rise  was  rapid,  and 
during  the  Boxer  rebellion  he  gained  an 
international  reputation  for  his  efforts  to 
protect  foreigners.  Though  a  supporter  of 
'  the  monarchy,  Yuan  Shi  Kai  was  a  reformer. 
His  innovations  finally  led  to  his  dismissal 
from  power  in  1908,  but  in  1911  he  was 
recalled  to  the  office  of  Premier.  He  tried  to 
bring  about  a  compromise  between  the  Man- 
chus,  the  constitutional  reformers  and  the 
revolutionists.  After  the  abdication  of  the 
emperor  in  1912,  Yuan  Shi  Kai,  "the  strong 
man  of  China,"  became  the  first  regular 
President  of  the  Chinese  Republic.  Yuan, 
however,  soon  showed  a  disposition  to  take 
the  government  into  his  own  hands  and  by 
1914  he  was  exercising  the  power  of  dictator. 
Late  in  1915  it  was  announced  that  the 
Presidency  would  thereafter  be  hereditary  in 


Yuan's  family,  and  in  December  he  was 
proclaimed  emperor.  Before  it  was  possible 
to  have  a  coronation  ceremony,  mutinies, 
revolts  and  intervention  by  the  powers  caused 
a  restoration  of  the  republic.  In  June,  1916, 
Yuan  died,  by  poisoning,  according  to  re- 
ports.    See  China^  subhead  History. 

YUCATAN,  yoo  kali  tahn',  a  peninsula 
constituting  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of 
Mexico  and  embracing  the  states  of  Cam- 
peachy  and  Yucatan.  It  projects  northward 
between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  and  is  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  state 
of  Iowa.  There  are  extensive  coral  forma- 
tions in  the  sliallow  waters  along  its  shores. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  humid,  and  the  prin- 
cipal iDroduct  is  sisal  hemp,  the  world's 
chief  supply,  200,000,000  pounds  annually 
coming  from  this  source.  The  population  is 
made  up  of  natives,  chiefly  Yaqui  Indians, 
and  Spaniards.  The  natives  are  intelligent 
and  dependable  laborers.  Within  the  penin- 
sula are  interesting  remains  of  the  ancient 
race  of  Maya  Indians.    See  Mexico. 

YUCCA,  a  genus. of  plants  belonging  to 
the  lily  family,  native  of  North  America. 
Yuccas  are  common  in  Mexico.  A  species 
known  as  Adam's  needle  is  characterized  by 
a  profusion  of  beautiful,  bell-shaped  flowers 
and  long  evergreen  leaves.  The  Tucca 
gloriosa  has  a  two-foot  stem,  on  the  end  of 
which  grows  a  cluster  of  leaves  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  leaf -cluster  a  flower  stalk  bear- 
ing numerous  drooping  bells,  striped  with 
purple.  The  Yucca  glauca  of  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  has  a  fiber  suitable 
for  making  cordage  and  baskets.  The  Mexi- 
can Yucca  tree  bears  a  juicy  fniit. 

YUKON  RIVER,  one  of 'the  largest  rivers 
of  North  America.  It  rises  in  the  west  central 
part  of  the  District  of  Yukon,  Canada,  flows 
northward  and  northwestward  into  Alaska, 
then  westward  and  southwestward,  entering 
Bering  Sea  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Michael. 
Its  total  length  is  about  2,200  miles.  It  is 
fed  by  numerous  streams  which  are  the  out- 
lets of  marshes  and  lakes.  In  some  places 
the  current  is  swift  and  the  river  is  obstructed 
by  rapids.  Small  steamers  have  descended 
all  these  rapids,  but  those  at  White  Horse 
form  an  impassable  barrier  to  up-river 
steamers,  so  that  the  river  is  divided  into  two 
navigable  sections,  which  are  now  connected 
by  railwaj^  The  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
Klondike  region  and  along  the  banks  of  the 
Yukon  has  brought  this  stream  into  special 


YUKON  TERRITORY 


3973 


YUMA 


prominence  since  1896.  During  the  open 
season  steamers  make  regular  trips  as  far  as 
White  Horse,  and  smaller  boats  go  to  Daw- 
son, in  the  Canadian  Yukon  Territory. 

YUKON  TERRITORY,  a  political  division 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  popularly  called 
The  Yukon.  It  is  located  in  the  extreme 
northwest,  between  the  North  West  Ten-ito- 
ries  on  the  east  and  Alaska  on  the  west. 
British  Columbia  bounds  the  territory  on  the 
south,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  on  the  north. 
The  sixtieth  parallel  foi-ms  the  dividing  line 
between  the  Yukon  and  British  Columbia, 
and  the  141st  meridian  ( W.)  the  line  between 
the  territory  and  Alaska.  The  North  West 
Territories  and  the  Yukon  are  separated  by 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Having  an  area  of  207,076  square  miles, 
the  Yukon  is  about  one-half  the  size  of 
Ontario,  one-sixth  the  size  of  the  North  West 
Territories,  and  lacks  about  59,000  square 
miles  of  being  as  large  as  Texas.  It  is 
almost  exactly  twice  the  size  of  Colorado. 
Of  the  total  area,  649  square  miles  are  water. 
The  territory  is  irregularly  triangular  in 
shape,  the  broadest  portion  being  the  southern 
boundary,  and  the  narrowest  the  Arctic  shore 
line.  It  is  sparsely  populated,  the  census  of 
1911  showing  8,512  inhabitants.  In  1901, 
during  the  gold-mining  boom,  the  population 
was  27,219.  Dawson,  the  capital,  is  the 
chief  town.  It  has  a  population  of  about 
4,000. 

.  Physical  Features.  In  general  the  surface 
of  the  territory  is  a  rolling  plain  diversified 
by  mountains  and  river  valleys.  The  average 
elevation  is  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  but  in 
the  extreme  southwest,  near  the  Alaska 
border,  Mount  Logan  towers  19,539  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  the  highest  peak  in  Canada, 
and  next  to  Mount  McKinley  is  the  highest 
in  North  America.  There  are  several  other 
peaks  in  this  region  which  are  from  15,000 
to  18,000  feet  in  altitude.  Branches  of  the 
Yukon  River  traverse  the  territoiy  over  most 
of  its  area,  but  the  southeastern  comer  is 
drained  by  the  Liard  River,  which  belongs  to 
the  Mackenzie  River  system. 

Resources  and  Industries.  Gold  is  by  far 
the  most  valuable  resource  of  the  Yukon.  In 
1896   rich  deposits  were   discovered  in  the 


Klondike,  near  the  Alaska  boundary,  and 
when  the  fact  became  known  thousands  of 
prospectors  flocked  to  the  district  to  make 
their  fortunes.  In  1900,  when  the  boom  was 
at  its  height,  gold  to  the  value  of  $22,275,000 
was  taken  from  the  mines.  After  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  placer  deposits,  more  expensive 
methods  of  mining  were  introduced,  which 
caused  a  marked  decline  in  yield  and  in  the 
population  of  the  region.  The  yearly  output 
is  now  valued  at  about  $5,000,000. 

There  are  no  other  industries  of  impor- 
tance, though  home  requirements  are  partial- 
ly met  by  farming  and  manufacturing,  car- 
ried on  in  a  small  way.  Small  crops  of  rye, 
barley  and  garden  vegetables  are  produced. 
The  summers  are  very  short  and  frosts  occur 
throughout  the  year,  but  these  disadvantages 
are  somewhat  offset  by  the  long  summer  days. 
At  Dawson  the  longest  days  have  about 
twenty  hours  of  daylight. 

Government.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold 
in  the  Yukon,  the  territory  was  inhabited 
only  by  a  few  Indians,  but  the  sensational 
finds  in  the  Klondike  brought  large  numbers 
of  settlers  into  the  region.  Parliament  then 
organized  a  government  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  population.  The  territory  is 
now  governed  by  a  commissioner  appointed 
by  the  governor-general  in  council,  and  a 
territorial  council.  Any  voter  may  be  a 
councillor,  but  the  qualifications  of  voters  are 
determined  by  the  commissioner  and  his  coun- 
cil. To  be  eligible  to  vote  a  man  must  be 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  must  have 
resided  in  the  district  for  at  least  twelve 
months  previous  to  the  election. 

Related    Articles.      Consult    the    following: 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Alaska  Klondike 

Dawson  Yukon  River 

YU'MA,  a  small  tribe  of  Indians,  formerly 
residing  on  both  sides  of  the  Rio  Coloi'ado 
about  fifty  or  sixty  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  and  now  confined  to  a  reservation 
in  Southeastern  California.  They  are  a  fine 
tribe  physically,  and  are  in  no  sense  nomadic, 
seldom  leaving  their  villages,  where  they 
practice  a  rude  form  of  agriculture,  raising 
corn,  beans,  pumpkins  and  melons.  They 
number  about  800. 


Z,  the  twenty-sixth  and  last  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet,  occupying  the  same  posi- 
tion as  in  Latin.  It  is  derived,  through  the 
Greek  and  Latin,  from  the  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet, in  which,  however,  it  was  the  seventh 
character.  In  English  z  was  little  used 
before  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  properly 
a  double  consonant,  compounded  of  d  and  s, 
but  it  has  acquired  the  pronunciation  of  the 
hard  terminal  s.  S  or  ss  is,  indeed,  frequently 
used  in  place  of  z,  as  in  choose,  dissolve. 

ZAMBE'ZI,  a  river  of  Southern  Africa, 
which  rises  in  the  eastern  part  of  Angola, 
where  it  is  fonned  by  the  union  of  several 
smaller  streams,  generally  known  as  the 
Seven  Springs.  It  flows  southward,  east- 
ward, northeastward  and  then  southeastward, 
finally  entering  the  Mozambique  Channel 
through  a  number  of  delta  arms.  For  a  part 
of  its  course  it  forms  the  boundary  between 
Rhodesia  and  German  Southwest  Africa. 
Its  upper  course  is  through  an  expanse  of 
country  clothed  with  grass  and  forest.  After 
entering  Rhodesia  it  plunges  over  a  precipice 
nearly  400  feet  high,  forming  the  celebrated 
Victoria  Falls  (see  Victoria  Falls).  Below 
the  falls  the  river  has  a  winding  course  of 
about  eighty  miles  through  a  deep  canyon, 
with  almost  perpendicular  banks.  In  its 
lower  course  it  flows  through  a  low,  open 
country. 

Its  entire  length  is  about  1,650  miles.  It  is 
navigable  for  large  steamers  to  the  first 
series  of  rapids,  400  miles  from  the  sea. 
Above  this  point  another  section  is  navigable 
to  Zumbo,  on  the  western  border  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa.  Several  lines  of  steamers 
ply  regularly  upon  the  river,  and  the  Cape- 
to-Cairo  railway  crosses  it  on  a  magnificent 
steel  bridge  erected  just  below  Victoria  Falls. 
The  Zambezi  is  the  fourth  river  in  Africa  in 
size  and,  together  with  its  tributaries,  exceeds 
4,000  miles  in  length.    The  first  European  to 


see  the  river  was  Livingstone,  who  reached 
it  in  1854. 

ZANESVILLE,  zaynz'vil,  Ohio,  the  county 
seat  of  Muskingum  County,  sixty  miles  east 
of  Columbus,  on  the  Muskingum  River,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Licking,  and  on  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Wabash,  the 
New  York  Central,  the  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie 
and  the  Ohio  River  &  Western  railroads. 
The  surrounding  country  is  a  fanning  region, 
and  it  also  contains  deposits  of  limestone, 
clay  and  coal.  The  rivers  furnish  good 
water  power,  and  there  are  potteries,  terra 
eotta  works,  paving  block  plants,  tube  mill 
and  sheet  mill  plants,  railroad  shops,  imple- 
ment and  wagon  works,  flour  mills  and  other 
factories.  The  tile  plant  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  in  the  world.  The  city  has  a  Federal 
building,  a  courthouse,  a  Carnegie  Library, 
a  Masonic  Temple,  an  Odd  Fellows'  Hall  and 
a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Memorial  Hall.  A 
city  market  supplies  provisions  to  the  popu- 
lation at  low  cost.  The  town  was  founded 
by  Jonathan  Zane  and  John  Mclntire  in 
1799.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  state  from 
1810  to  1812,  and  was  incorporated  in  1814. 
Population,  1910,  28,026;  in  1917,  31,320 
(Federal  estimate) . 

ZANG'WILL,  Israel  (1864-  ),  a  Brit- 
ish miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  London,  of 
Jewish  parentage.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Jews'  Free  School,  Spitalflelds,  London. 
His  lectures  in  England,  Ireland  and  the 
United  States  brought  him  prominently  be- 
fore the  public,  and  he  became  a  leader  in 
the  Zionist  Movement  (which  see).  His 
writings  include  essays,  dramas,  novels  and 
humorous  sketches;  he  is  particularly  clever 
in  depicting  Jewish  life  and  character.  Early 
Jewish  studies  are  Children  of  the  Ghetto 
and  Ghetto  Tragedies.  Dreamers  of  the 
Ghetto  contains  sketches  of  great  Jewish 
thinkers.     The  Mantle  of  Elijah,  They  That 


3974 


ZANZIBAR 


3975 


ZEMSTVO 


Walk  in  Darkness  and  Ghetto  Comedies  are 
among-  his  other  writings.  His  most  success- 
ful plan's  are  Merely  Mary  Ann  and  The 
Melting  Pot. 

ZANZIBAR,  2ahn  ze  hah/,  an  island  off 
the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  forming  a  part 
of  the  British  protectorate  of  Zanzibar.  Its 
area  is  640  square  miles,  and  it  is  mostly  low, 
the  highest  point  being  only  1,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  island  is  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated. Cloves,  copra,  tobacco,  vanilla,  cocoa- 
nuts  and  other  crops  are  grown.  Fishing  and 
cattle  raising  are  important  industries.  The 
population,  numbering  about  197,000,  in- 
cludes Arabs,  Persians  and  representatives  of 
most  of  the  native  tribes  of  Eastern  Africa. 
There  are  only  a  few  Europeans.  Moham- 
medanism is  the  chief  religion. 

Zanzibar,  the  capital  and  chief  town  of  the 
island,  contains  the  palaces  of  the  sultan,  the 
barracks,  the  fort,  hospitals  and  a  number  of 
mission  stations.  It  is  an  important  port  in 
the  Eastern  trade  and  has  some  manufac- 
tories.   The  population  is  35,262. 

The  nominal  head  of  the  government  is  a 
native  sultan,  born  in  1907.  The  island  is 
administered  by  a  British  consul  general. 

ZEALAND,  ze'land,  the  largest  and  most 
easterly  island  belonging  to  Denmark,  con- 
taining Copenhagen,  the  capital  and  largest 
city  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  situated  between 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and  Sweden,  and  its 
outline  is  very  irregular.  The  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south  is  eighty  miles,  its  great- 
est breadth  is  sixty-five  miles,  and  the  area 
is  2,680  square  miles.  Most  of  the  island  is 
low,  the  greatest  elevation  not  exceeding  400 
feet.  The  land  is  covered  with  forests  or 
fertile  fields.    Population,  1911,  1,096,897. 

ZE'BRA,  a  wild  animal  of  South  Africa, 
closely  related  to  the  wild  ass  and  the  horse, 
and  having  habits  similar  to  those  of  the 
latter.  It  is  gray- 
ish or  cream-white 
in  color,  and  is  con- 
spicuously marked 
with  dark  stripes 
on  head,  legs  and 
body.  In  Africa 
zebra-hunting  is  a 
popular  sport.  The. 
natives  eat  the  fiesh 
and  use  the  hides 
for  leather  and  as 
rugs.  Until  comparatively  recent  times  great 
herds  of  zebras  were  common  in  Southern 


Africa;  to-day  the  animals  are  rare.  The 
zebra  most  frequently  seen  in  Africa  and  in 
menageries  is  Burchell's  zebra,  whose  native 
heath  is  the  central  plains.    See  Quagga. 

ZE'BU,  a  species  of  ox,  a  native  of  India, 
whence  it  has  spread  into  Persia,  Arabia  and 
Eastern  Africa.  It  is  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  for  plowing  and  hauling.  The  animal 
is  remarkable  for  a  convex  forehead,  short 
horns,  large  drooping  ears  and  a  fatty  hump 
on  the  back.     It  is  very  gentle  and  doeile. 


ZEBRA 


ZEBU 


Zebus  vary  greatly  in  size,  the  smallest  being 
no  larger  than  a  large  dog,  while  others  are 
the  size  of  a  large  ox.  The  colors  vary.  The 
white  zebu  bulls  are  regarded  as  sacred  among 
the  Hindus  (who  call  them  hrahmany)  and 
are  allowed  a  free  range.  Zebus  have  been 
imported  to  Jamaica  and  Central  America 
for  use  on  farms. 

ZEB'ULUN,  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel,  named,  according  to  Genesis  XXX, 
20,  after  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah. 
The  name  was  also  given  to  a  country  in 
Northern  Palestine. 

ZECHARIAH,  zek  a  ri'ah,  son  of  Ber- 
echiah,  son  of  Iddo,  appeared  as  a  prophet 
in  Jerusalem,  along  with  Haggai,  in  the 
second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspes  (520  B.  c), 
encouraging  the  Jews  to  commence  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple. 

ZEDEKI'AH,  last  king  of  Judah,  the  son 
of  Josiah,  and  successor  of  Jehoiachim.  He 
broke  his  oath  of  allegiance  to  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  united  with  Egypt  against  him. 
He  was  made  captive  when  Nebuchadnezzar 
conquered  Jerusalem  in  586  B.  C,  his  sons 
were  killed  in  his  presence,  and  he  was 
taken  a  prisoner  to  Babylon,  where  he  died. 
The  name  was  borne  also  by  two  false 
prophets. 

ZEISLER,  Fanny  Bloompield.  See 
Bloomfield-Zeisler,  Fanny. 

ZEMST'VO,  the  governing  body  of  a  prov- 
ince or  district  in  Russia  before  the  revolution 


ZENANA 


3976 


ZEUXIS 


of  1917.  It  was  composed  of  representatives 
chosen  by  the  peasants,  the  householders  of 
the  towns  and  the  landed  proprietors.  This 
body  was  presided  over  by  the  president  of 
the  nobility  of  the  district  or  province,  and 
it  was  charged  with  the  administration  of 
economic  affairs.  The  executive  power  of 
the  zemstvo  was  entrusted  to  an  upraha, 
elected  by  the  assembly.    See  Russia, 

ZENANA,  zenah'nah,  among  the  Hindus 
that  part  of  the  house  set  apart  for  women. 
In  Bengal  the  women  occupy  a  separate 
building  behind  that  of  the  men ;  the  rooms 
open  upon  an  inner  court,  and  the  inmates 
are  entirely  separated  from  the  outside  world. 
In  1855  Protestant  missionaries  organized  the 
Zenana  Mission  for  the  purpose  of  alleviating 
the  conditions  of  zenana  inmates. 

ZEND-AVES'TA,  the  sacred  book  of  the 
Parsees,  a  religious  sect  of  India,  followers 
of  Zoroaster.  It  contains  songs  of  praise, 
prayers,  the  liturgy  and  a  priestly  code.  It 
was'  first  translated  in  1771  by  Anquetil- 
Duperron,  a  French  scientist. 

ZE'NITH,  a  term  used  in  astronomy  to 
indicate  the  point  in  the  heavens  directly 
overhead.  It  is  opposite  of  nadir  (which 
see). 

ZE'NO,  the  founder  of  the  Stoic  school  of 
philosophy,  was  born  of  a  merchant  family 
of  Citium,  in  Cyprus,  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  B.  c,  and  is  said  to  have  lived 
about  eighty  years.  According  to  tradition, 
he  was  shipwrecked  and  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  fii'st  read  the  works  of  Socrates' 
disciples.  He  studied  Cynic  doctrine,  then 
turned  to  Stilpo,  later  to  the  teachings  of 
Xenocrates  and  of  Polemo.  He  then  founded 
at  Athens  a  school  of  philosophy  in  what  was 
called  the  "Painted  Porch,"  where  he  is  said 
to  have  taught  fifty-eight  years.  He  practiced 
and  taught  temperance  and  virtue  and  was 
much  esteemed  by  his  fellow  citizens,  who 
erected  a  bronze  monument  to  his  memory 
after  his  death.    See  Stoicism. 

ZENO'BIA,  queen  of  PalmjTa,  Arabia,  who 
succeeded  to  the  throne  as  regent  for  her 
son,  on  the  murder  of  her  husband,  Odena- 
thus,  in  A.  D.  267.  She  aimed  at  a  dominion 
which  should  include  Egypt,  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  should  make  good  her  title  of 
"Queen  of  the  East."  Her  ambitions  clashed 
with  Rome,  and  in  272  her  armies  were 
defeated  by  those  of  Aurelian.  She  was  taken 
captive  to  Rome,  but  the  emperor  was  so 
impressed  with  her  beauty  and  elevation  of 


character  that  he  gave  her  a  villa  on  the 
Tiber,  and  Zenobia's  daughters  were  married 
into  noble  Roman  families. 

ZEPHANIAH,  zefani'ah,  a  Hebrew 
prophet,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  600  B.  C.  His  book  of  three  chapters, 
the  ninth  of  the  Minor  Prophets,  predicts 
the  desolation  of  Judea,  as  a  punishment  for 
idolatiy  and  worldliness. 

ZEPPELIN,  tsepeleen',  Count  Ferdi- 
nand (1838-1917),  a  celebrated  aeronaut, 
bom  in  Constance,  Germany.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Polytechnical  School  in  Stuttgart 
and  at  the  military  school  at  Ludwigsburg. 
In  the  Franeo-Gemian  War  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  After 
many  experiments  with  dirigible  balloons,  of 
which  he  was  the  inventor,  he  made  his  first 
flight  from  Berae  to  Lucerne  in  1892.  After 
this  he  made  numerous  models  and  improve- 
ments and  in  1913  constructed  a  passenger 
airship  which  traveled  from  Baden-Baden 
to  Vienna  in  eight  hours,  half  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  trip  by  train.  A  Zeppelin 
designed  for  trans-oceanic  travel  exploded  in 
mid-air  in  1913,  destroying  all  on  board. 
Zeppelins  were  much  used  in  the  World  War, 
but  did  not  fulfill  the  expectations  of  their 
makers  as  vehicles  for  bombing  or  scouting 
expeditions,  being  outstripped  for  war  pur- 
poses by  the  lighter  and  swifter  aeroplane. 
See  Flying  Machine. 

ZE'RO,  in  mathematics,  a  symbol  (0)  de- 
noting the  absence  of  quantity  or  value ;  also, 
the  symbol  of  an  infinitesimal  quantity.  The 
same  term  is  used  to  represent  the  point  from 
which  measurement  is  recorded  on  a  scale. 
It  is  also  used  on  thermometers.  In  this 
connection,  however,  zero  does  not  denote 
temperature.  On  centigrade  thermometers 
it  indicates  the  freezing  point  of  water;  on 
the  Fahrenheit  scale  it  indicates  32°  below 
the  freezing  point.  Entire  absence  of  heat, 
scientists  agree,  is  represented  by  a  tempera- 
ture of  273  degrees  (C.)  below  zero.  See 
Thermometer. 

ZEUS,  zuse.    See  Jupiter. 

ZEUXIS,  zuke'sis,  a  famous  Greek  painter, 
probably  born  at  Heraclea,  on  the  Euxine, 
about  450  b.  c.  Time  has  effaced  his  master- 
pieces— Hercules  Strangling  the  Serpent, 
Jupiter  among  the  Gods,  Marsyas  Bound, 
Pan  and  Helen — which  were  the  admiration 
of  ancient'  critics.  Zeuxis  was  a  contempo- 
rary of  the  celebrated  painter  Parrhasius. 
See  Painting. 


ZINC 


3977 


ZIONIST  MOVEMENT 


ZINC,  zink,  or  SPEL'TER,  a  metallic  ele- 
ment, in  appearance  resembling  lead  but 
much  harder  than  the  latter  metal  and  about 
one-third  as  heavy.  At  212°  it  becomes  mal- 
leable, at  302°  it  can  be  drawn  out  into  fine 
wire.  It  is  obtained  from  ores,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  metals  known.  The 
principal  zinc  ores  are  the  carbonate,  or 
Smithsonite;  the  oxide,  or  zincite;  the 
hydrated  silicate,  or  calamine;  and  the  sul- 
phide, or  sphalerite,  commonly  called  zinc 
blende.  From  the  last  most  of  the  zinc  of 
commerce  is  obtained.  Deposits  of  zinc  ore 
occur  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe; 
in  the  United  States  the  ores  are  found 
chiefly  in  Missouri,  Kansas,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Tennessee  and 
Arkansas.  British  Columbia  is  a  source  of 
supply.  The  Missouri  and  Kansas  mines  are 
the  most  important  in  America,  producing 
about  sixty  per  cent  of  the  counti-y's  total 
annual  output  of  600,000  tons.  Zinc  is  known 
in  the  trade  as  spelter. 

Commercial  zinc  is  produced  chiefly  by  a 
smelting  process.  The  ore  is  roasted;  the 
oxide  thus  set  free  is  heated  with  charcoal 
in  earthen  pipes,  and  the  powder  is  reduced 
to  a  liquid  in  iron  crucibles.  Zinc  is  mar- 
keted in  the  fonn  of  sheets  and  small  bars. 
It  is  employed  in  the  arts,  especially  in  the 
manufacture  of  brass,  German  silver  and 
other  alloys,  and  in  making  printing  plates 
for  etchings.  It  is  also  used  in  making  the 
positive  plates  for  electric  batteries,  in  gal- 
vanizing iron  sheets  for  roofing  and  iron 
wire  for  telegraphs;  in  lining  tanks  and  in 
protecting  woodwork  from  the  heat  of  stoves. 

Among  the  most  important  commercially 
of  the  compounds  of  zinc  are  zinc  chloride, 
a  compound  of  zinc  and  chlorine,  used  in 
medicine  as  a  caustic,  a  disinfectant  and  a 
deodorizer.  It  is  a  preservative  of  timber, 
the  chloride  solution  being  forced  under  pres- 
sure into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  Railway 
ties  are  treated  in  this  way.  The  same  com- 
pound is  also  used  to  add  weight  to  cotton 
goods.  Zinc  sulphate,  formerly  known  as 
ivhite  vitriol,  is  a  white  powder  used  in  dye- 
ing and  calico  printing,  in  the  manufacture 
of  varnishes  and  drying  oils,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  zinc  white  (used  in  making 
white  paint  for  interiors)  and  other  zinc 
compounds. 

ZINC  ETCHING,  a  plate  for  the  repro- 
duction in  printing  of  drawings  or  lettering 
in  ink;  also  the  process  by  which  it  is  made, 


sometimes  called  the  line-cut  process.  A 
photograph  on  glass  is  made  of  the  draw- 
ing, and  the  negative,  reversed,  is  clamped  to 
a  highly-polished  plate  of  zinc  which  has 
been  coated  with  wax  or  some  other  sub- 
stance to  protect  it  fi^om  the  action  of  acid. 
The  zinc  plate  is  then  subjected  to  electric 
light  or  to  sunlight  till  the  drawing  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  sensitized  surface,  the  lines 
are  etched  by  means  of  a  corrosive  acid,  and 
the  plate  is  nailed  to  a  block  to  make  it  the 
same  height  as  type.  Zinc  etchings  are 
quickly  and  inexpensively  made,  and  for  this 
reason  are  commonly  used  in  the  illustration 
of  newspajoers  and  many  books.  For  the 
reproduction  of  photographs  and  other  pic- 
tures, in  which  it  is  necessary  to  preserve  the 
shading,  the  more  complex  halftone  process 
must  be  used.  See  Halftone;  Photog- 
raphy. 

ZIN'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  family  Compositae.  There  are  sixteen 
species,  native  to  Mexico  and  the  Southwest- 
ern United  States.  Zinnias  bloom  freely  all 
summer,  and  thrive  best  in  a  rich  loam  with 
sunny  exposure.  The  garden  zinnia,  with 
single  and  double  flowers  of  many  shades  of 
red  and  yellow,  is  the  best-known  species. 
The  stem  is  stiff  and  hairy,  and  grows  to  a 
height  of  one  to  two  feet.  Each  of  the  sev- 
eral branches  is  topped  by  a  single  flower 
head  made  up  of  many  florets.  When  suc- 
cessfully cultivated,  the  zinnia  is  a  showy 
plant  with  vivid  scarlet,  crimson,  yellow  and 
other  hues.  It  does  not  always  turn  out  well, 
however,  as  the  colors  sometimes  are  muddy. 
The  flowers  lack  pleasing  fragrance. 

ZrON.    See  Jerusalem. 

ZrONIST  MOVEMENT,  or  ZI'ONISM, 
a  recent  widespread  movement  among  the 
Jews  resulting  chiefly  from  persecutions  of 
them  in  various  countries  and  having  as  its 
object  the  reestablishment  of  a  Jewish  state 
in  Palestine.  Ever  since  Jerusalem  was 
wrested  from  the  Jews  by  Rome  (see  Jerusa- 
lem), the  Hebrew  people  have  hoped  to  re- 
cover this  land  of  their  early  fathers,  and 
at  various  times  Zionist  agitations  have  been 
set  on  foot. 

By  far  the  most  significant  of  these  was 
started  in  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Unlike  earlier  Zionist  movements 
which  sought  primarily  to  gain  possession 
of  the  Holy  City,  the  idea  behind  this  one 
was  practical  and  political,  as  well  as  reli- 
gious,   and   was    an   attempt   to    solve   the 


ZIONIST  MOVEMENT 


3978 


ZODIACAL  LIGHT 


problem  of  persecuted  Jews  in  many  lands 
by  finding  a  home  for  them  where  they  might 
enjoy  some  form  of  self-government.  This 
idea  found  expression  in  a  pamphlet  written 
in  1896  by  Dr.  Theodore  Herzl,  a  Vienna 
journalist.  Interest  in  the  movement  led 
to  an  international  Zionist  congress  at  Basel, 
Switzerland,  in  the  following  year. 

The  congress  discussed  means  for  obtain- 
ing governmental  grants  as  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  establishing  settlements  of  Jews 
in  Palestine.  Subsequent  congresses  pro- 
vided for  the  establishment  of  a  national 
fund,  and  about  $2,000,000  was  collected 
from  Jews  throughout  the  world  to  promote 
the  project.  Negotiations  were  started  with 
a  view  to  making  Palestine  a  tribute-paying 
state  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey,  and 
when  the  plan  failed  an  attempt  was  made  to 
secure  a  gi-ant  of  territory  from  Great  Bri- 
tain in  the  vicinity  of  the  Holy  Land.  This 
also  was  without  fruition,  and  the  offer  by 
Great  Britain  in  1913,  of  the  East  Africa 
Protectorate  as  a  site  for  a  Jewish  colony, 
was  wrathfully  rejected  by  the  Jews,  who  re- 
fused to  accept  any  nationalist  plan  which 
did  not  embrace  the  traditional  idea  of  Pales- 
tine regained. 

Within  recent  years  the  Zionist  leaders 
have  been  chiefly  interested  in  developing  the 
physical  resources  of  Palestine  and  in 
ameliorating  the  condition  of  Jews  already 
there.  This  has  resulted  in  the  emigration  of 
many  Russian  and  Rumanian  Jews  to  Pales- 
tine and  the  establishment  of  self-governing 
colonies  there.  The  way  has  been  opened  to 
promote  agriculture  and  the  trades.  Schools 
and  banking  systems  have  been  established, 
and  the  Hebrew  language  has  been  revived. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  there 
were  about  forty  colonies,  each  with  a  popu- 
lation ranging  from  a  few  families  to  2,000 
persons. 

The  outcome  of  the  World  War  made  the 
establishment  of  a  Jewish  state  in  Palestine 
a  near  possibility.  In  December,  1917,  the 
British  captured  Jeinisalem,  and  before 
the  close  of  the  war  all  Palestine  had  been 
freed  from  Turkish  rule.  In  considering  the 
reconstruction  of  Turkey  it  was  generally 
agreed  that  Palestine  should  be  an  autono- 
mous state,  and  the  friends  of  Zionism  enthu- 
siastically united  to  carry  out  their  long-cher- 
ished  plans. 

Early  in  1918  a  Zionist  commission  was 
sent  from  England  to  Palestine,  the  Amer- 


ican Zionist  organization  providing  most  of 

the  funds  for  its  activities.  A  legion  of  Jew- 
ish young  men  from  various  countries  was 
formed  to  aid  the  movement,  all  being  vol- 
unteers. Membei-ship  and  financial  cam- 
paigns are  being  vigorously  pushed.  Judge 
Brandeis  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
is  a  prominent  Zionist,  as  is  Nathan  Straus, 
New  York  merchant  and  philanthropist.  The 
latter  has  devoted  years  of  his  life  to  the 
upbuilding  of  Palestine,  and  it  is  his  dream 
to  end  his  days  as  mayor  of  Jerusalem. 

ZIRCOTTIUM,  a  metallic  element  occur- 
ring either  in  the  form  of  a  black  powder  or 
as  gray  crystals.  It  was  discovered  in  1789 
by  Klaproth,  in  combination  with  silica,  in 
the  mineral  known  as  zircon.  Its  use  is  very 
limited.  The  powder  combined  with  oxygen 
forms  the  dioxide  known  as  zirconia,  used 
in  making  mantles  of  Welsbach  lights  and 
Nerst  lamps. 

ZITH'ER,  a  common,  stringed  musical  in- 
stinament,  especially  popular  in  Germany  and 
the  Tyrol.  About  thirty  gut  and  wirebound 
silk  strings  are 
arranged  horizon- 
tally on  a  frame 
over  a  wooden 
sounding  board. 
The  instrument  is 
placed  on  a  table 
or  on  the  knees. 
The  strings  are 
plucked  by  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  and 
with  the  thumb  the  latter  capped  with  a  me- 
tallic plectrum. 

ZODIAC,  the  zone  or  belt  of  the  celes- 
tial sphere  extending  eight  degrees  on  each 
side  of  the  ecliptic,  or  plane  of  the  sun's 
center  containing  the  earth's  orbit.  It  was 
divided  by  early  astronomers  into  twelve  sec- 
tions of  thirty  degrees  each,  and  the  con- 
stellations within  the  respective  sections 
came  to  be  designated,  for  brevity's  sake, 
by  certain  signs. 
'  The  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  are  Aries 
(T),  the  Ram;  Taurus  (  a  ),  the  Bull; 
■  Gemini  (  n  ),  the  Twins;  Cancer  (  s  ),  the 
Crab;  Leo  (^),  the  Lion;  Virgo  (itP),  the 
Virgin;  Libra  {^),  the  Balance;  Scorpio 
iX^),  the  Scorpion;  Sagittarius  (/),  the 
Archer ;  Capricornus  (  v3  ) ,  the  Goat ;  Aqua- 
rius («^  ),  the  Watei-man;  Pisces  (  >£  ),  the 

Pishes. 

ZODI'ACAL    LIGHT,    a    nebulous    light 
which  appears  in  the  west  after  sunset  and 


ZITHER 


ZOLA 


3979 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEN 


EMILE  ZOLA 


in  the  east  before  sunrise.  It  is  triangular 
in  shape,  with  base  resting  on  the  horizon 
and  apex  at  varying  heights.  In  the  tropics 
it  is  visible  the  year  round  and  is  as  distinct 
as  the  Milky  Way.  In  middle  latitudes  it 
is  seen  in  the  winter  and  spring  in  the  even- 
ing, and  at  dawn  from  September  to  spring. 
It  is  believed  by  some  astronomers  to  be  the 
reflection  from  a  multitude  of  meteorites  re- 
volving about  the  sun. 

ZOLA,  zo  lah%  Emile  (1840-1902),  a  noted 
French  author.  He  had  published  several 
novels  and  won  considerable  notice  before 
beginning,  in  1869,  his  great  series  in  twenty 
volumes,  recounting 
the  complete  story  of 
an  imaginary  French 
family  under  the 
Second  Empire.  The 
entire  work  is  known 
as  The  Chronicle  of 
the  Rougon  -  Mac- 
quart  Family.  These 
books,  like  so  many 
of  Zola's  other 
works,  deal  largely 
with  the  dark  side  of 
life,  with  crime  and  vice,  and  picture  vividly 
and  accurately  certain  phases  of  Parisian 
Society.  Some  of  the  titles  in  the  series 
are  The  Fortune  of  Rougon,  The  Curie,  The 
Conquest  of  Plassans,  the  Ahbe  Mouret, 
Eugene  Rougon  and  His  Excellency.  Of  his 
later  works  the  most  important  were  the  two 
series,  Lourdes,  Rome,  Paris,  and  Fruitful- 
ness,  Labor,  Truth  and  Justice,  this  last  un- 
finished at  his  death. 

Zola  championed  the  cause  of  Captain 
Dreyfus,  an  officer  in  the  French  army  un- 
justly accused  of  selling  military  secrets  to 
Germany.  He  was  forced  to  flee  the  coun- 
try, but  in  1899,  after  the  acquittal  of  Drey- 
fus, he  returned,  and  he  died  at  Paris  three 
years  later. 

ZOLLVEREIN,  tsoW ferine,  a  German 
word  meaning  customs-union,  was  a  German 
commercial  union  formed  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Prussia,  in  1818.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century  what  is  now  GeiToany 
was  made  up  of  numerous  small  independent 
states,  each  with  its  own  tariff  regulations. 
This  complicated  system  restricted  commerce, 
and  in  1818  an  agreement  was  reached 
whereby  internal  customs  were  abolished. 
All  import  duties  were  collected  on  a  com- 
mon frontier,  and  the  revenue  thus  received 


was  divided  among  the  several  states  accord- 
ing to  population.  Three  unions  were 
formed,  the  North  German,  the  IVIiddle  Ger- 
man and  the  South  Gennan  unions,  and  in 
1834  these  were  merged  in  a  single  union, 
or  ZoUverein.  In  1871,  when  the  German 
Empire  was  formed,  the  constitution  pro- 
vided that  the  Zollverein  was  to  include  the 
entire  empire,  with  the  exception  of  the  free 
cities  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg.  Later  these, 
too,  with  the  exception  of  a  part  of  Hamburg, 
were  included. 

ZONE,  in  geography,  one  of  the  five  great 
divisions  of  the  earth,  bounded  by  imaginary 
circles,  which  are  parallel  to  the  equator. 
The  zones  are  named  according  to  the  pre- 
vailing temperatm-e  in  each.  The  toi-rid 
zone  extends  23°  30'  north  and  23°  30'  south 
of  the  equator,  thus  being  47°  wide.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tropic  of  Can- 
cer and  on  the  south  by  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. The  north  temperate  zone  extends 
from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Arctic 
Circle  and  is  43  °  wide.  The  south  temperate 
zone  extends  from  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn 
to  the  Antarctic  Circle  and  is  of  the  same 
width  as  the  north  temperate  zone.  The 
north  frigid  zone  extends  from  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  North  Pole,  and  the  south  frigid 
zone  from  the  Antarctic  Circle  to  the  South 
Pole.  While  the  parallels  named  mark  the 
arbitrary  boundaries  of  these  zones,  the  cli- 
mate of  each  merges  so  gradually  into  that 
of  the  zones  adjoining  upon  either  side,  that 
no  distinct  climatic  boundary  exists  between 
them. 

Related    Articles.  Consult    the    following 

titles  for  additional  information: 
Antarctic  Circle  Equator 

Arctic  Circle  Geog-raphy 

Climate  Tropics 

ZOOLOGICAL,  zoolofical,  GARDEN, 
a  park  or  other  large  enclosure  where  live 
animals  are  kept  for  exhibition.  The  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  in  Paris,  founded  in  1804,  was 
the  first  of  such  establishments,  and  the  num- 
ber has  increased  steadily,  until  at  present 
many  of  the  large  cities  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States  maintain  zoological  collections 
of  some  sort.  The  gardens  at  London,  Ant- 
werp, Berlin,  Vienna  and  Amsterdam  are 
among  the  best  in  Europe.  Most  of  the 
European  collections  are  maintained  by  so- 
cieties or  corporations,  the  city  merely  fur- 
nishing the  land.  In  the  United  States  many 
cities  have  municipal  "zoos,"  that  at  Bronx 
Park,  New  York  City,  being  the  largest  and 


ZOOLOGY 


3980 


ZOOLOGY 


finest  in  the  world.  The  zoos  of  Lincoln 
Park,  Chicago,  and  Highland  Park,  Pitts- 
burgh, are  also  important,  and  Philadelphia, 
Cincinnati  and  Washington  have  well- 
equipped  zoological  gardens.  The  National 
Zoological  Park  at  Washington  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and 
is  suppoi-ted  by  the  government. 

'OOLOGY,  zooVojij.  We 
are  all  interested  in  ani- 
mals, and  like,  to  watch 
them  and  to  learn  about 
their  habits;  but  it  does 
not  often  occur  to  us 
that  such  an  interest 
has  any  connection  with 
a  science  with  so  forbid- 
ding a  name  as  zoology. 
And  indeed  zoology  is 
much  more  than  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  looks  and 
the  habits  of  animals ;  in 
its  various  branches  it 
j^  Vf!3E  \  considers  the  form  and 
^^  'K^^^  C.  stnicture  of  organ- 
isms, their  activities 
and  their  relations  to 
one  another  and  to  their  sun-oundings. 
To  be  sure,  one  may  be  happy  and  pros- 
perous and  fairly  well  equipped  mentally  if 
zoology  be  never  studied,  but  certain  facts 
relating  to  this  science  should  be  known  by 
everyone.  An.  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
subject  will  save  one  from  frequent  embar- 
rassment. For  instance,  if  the  statement 
be  made  that  a  whale  and  a  man  belong  to 
the  same  class  of  animals,  the  uninformed 
person  may  be  tempted  to  deny  the  fact. 
The  household  eat  and  the  lion,  king  of  beasts, 
are  related,  and  onh"  a  little  study  is  required 
to  trace  the  relationship  and  to  learn  why 
scientists  so  classify  them. 

The  fact  of  these  relationships  has  not  al- 
ways been  known  even  to  scientists;  indeed, 
it  is  only  in  comparatively  recent  times  that 
exact  classifications  of  animal  life  have  been 
made.  Far  back  in  ancient  times,  Aristotle 
made  studies  of  animal  life,  dissected  speci- 
mens, and  made  a  certain  classification,  and 
his  work  stood  for  the  most  part  unques- 
tioned until  after  the  Middle  Ages.  Some 
of  it  is  accepted  to-day,  modern  scientific  in- 
vestigation having  confirmed  the  theories  of 
the  old  Greek  scholar. 

Plants  and  Animals.  The  word  biology 
means  science  of  life,   and  the   science  of 


biology  treats  of  all  forms  of  life,  plant  and 
animal.  The  fact  that  this  one  science  of  life 
is  composed  of  two  distinct  sciences,  one  of 
which — botany — treats  of  plants,  while  the 
other — zoology — treats  of  animals,  indicates 
that  the  two  forms  of  life  are  distinct.  In- 
deed, it  seems  to  be  a  very  simple  matter 
to  distinguish  members  of  the  plant  world 
from  animals.  Usually  it  is  easy;  a  bee  on 
a  flower,  an  ox  grazing  in  a  field  of  gi'ass,  a 
moth  fluttering  on  a  blossom  are  instantly 
classified.  But  there  are  among  plants  some 
with  very  simple  organisms  and  among  the 
lowest  species  of  animals  some  whose  organ- 
isms are  not  in  the  least  complex;  to  tell 
which  is  plant  and  which  is  animal  is  difl&eult 
indeed.  One  may  say  that  the  animal  is  alive 
and  can  move,  while  the  plant,  though  alive, 
has  no  power  of  motion.  This  is  an  error, 
as  witness  the  sudden  closing  of  the  Yenus's 
fly-trap  (which  see),  when  it  entraps  its 
food,  the  turning  of  some  flowers  so  they 
will  continually  face  the  sun,  and  the  twining 
of  tendrils  around  sticks  and  strings.  Most 
gi'een  plants  live  on  inorganic  matter — on 
carbon  and  carbonic  acid  gas — and  this  is 
what  gives  them  their  greenness.  But  some 
plants,  the  fungi,  live  on  organic  matter  and 
are  not  green,  and  exist  because  they  are 
able  in  a  wonderful  manner  to  change  the 
organic  matter  they  select  for  food  into  in- 
organic substance.  When  a  plant  substance 
is  single-celled  and  has  cell  walls  in  many 
respects  like  those  of  single-celled  animals, 
it  is  impossible  for  the  wisest  scientist  to  tell 
them  apart. 

What  All  Animals  Need.  A  fish  that  has 
been  taken  from  the  water  and  left  high  and 
dry  on  the  shore  will  not  live  long;  a  cat  or 
a  bird  or  a  man  will  die  in  even  shorter  time 
if  held  under  water.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  a  fish  and  a  land  animal  breathe 
different  substances — that  one  breathes  water 
and  the  other  breathes  air.  They  both  re- 
quire the  same  substance,  and  cannot  live 
without  it;  that  substance  is  air.  But  a  fish 
is  so  formed  that  it  draws  the  air  it  needs 
from  the  water,  which  a  land  animal  cannot 
do.  No  animal,  from  the  lowest  to  the  high- 
est, can  live  without  air,  or  rather  without 
that  element  of  air  which  is  called  oxygen. 

Relationships.  Earlier  in  this  discussion 
brief  reference  was  made  to  some  of  the  odd 
relationships  that  exist  in  the  animal  world. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  topics  with 
which  zoology  deals.    The  word  cat  ordinarily 


ZOOLOGY 


3981 


ZOOLOGY 


HriHAINE:5- 


THK   DOG   FAMILY 
1.  Saint  Bernard.     2.  Fox  terrier.      3.  Fox.      4.  Coyote.      5.  Wolf. 


means  to  us  the  little  animal,  gray  or  white 
or  black,  which  plays  about  our  homes;  but 
after  we  have  made  the  acquaintance  of  this 
science,  the  word  cat  gains  a  new  meaning. 
It  means  the  powerful  lion,  the  lithe  tiger, 
the  graceful  leopard,  the  sharp-eyed  lynx — 
all  wild,  ferocious  beasts  that  seem  as  dif- 
ferent as  possible  from  the  household  pet 
which  we  are  used  to  thinking  of  as  the  most 
domestic  of  the  animals.  (See  illustration, 
page  721). 

The  dog  family  is  not  so  surprising.  The 
wolf,  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  coyote  look  much 
alike,  despite  their  numerous  points  of  differ- 
ence. If  we  can  imagine  ourselves  as  never 
having  seen  any  of  the  animals  before  and 
then  as  being  shown  a  wolf,  a  collie  and  a 
little  black-and-tan,  we  will  admit  that  we 


should  be  likely  to  assume  that  the  wolf  and 
the  collie  were  more  closely  related  than  the 
collie  and  the  little  terrier.  We  have  all 
watched  cattle  and  sheep  grazing  in  a  field, 
but  it  has  probably  never  occui-red  to  any  of 
us  to  think  of  them  as  belonging  to  the  same 
famih'.  And  yet  a  study  of  the  picture  of 
the  dog  famil}',  shown  in  this  article,  proves 
not  only  these  animals  belong  to  the  ox  fam- 
ily, but  the  goats,  buffalo  and  the  bison  of  our 
western  plains  as  well. 

The  bobwhite  is  a  plain  little  bird,  dressed 
in  quiet  colors.  Who  would  ever  suspect 
for  a  moment  that  he  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  great  bronze  turkey  or  the 
gorgeous  peacock?  He  may,  however,  claim 
such  a  relationship ;  and  the  guinea  fowl,  the 
partridge  and  our  barnyard  hens  and  roosters 


ZOOLOGY 


3982 


ZOOLOGY 


are  members  of  the  same  family,  together 
with  the  bird  which  has  given  its  name  to 
the  whole  group — the  pheasant. 

Resemblance.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing of  the  many  wonderful  facts  about  the 
animal  world  with  which  zoology  acquaints 
us  is  what  is  known  as  resemblance  or 
mimicry.  We  have  perhaps  looked,  in  a 
zoological  garden,  at  the  bears — the  grizzly 
bear,  the  cinnamon  bear^  the  polar  bear ;  and 


he  ever  be  able  to  come  close  to  his  prey 
unobserved?  But  the  polar  bear  harmonizes 
with  his  surroundings,  and  is  almost  un- 
noticeable  against  the  white  background.  Li 
the  forest  regions  or  mountain  regions  a 
white  bear  could  be  seen  a  long  way  off,  while 
the  darker-haired  animals  are  much  less  con- 
spicuous. The  foxes  and  hares  of  the  polar 
regions  are  pure  white  also,  while  a  certain 
kind  of  weasel  which  lives  in  a  region  where 


J.\   •  '''ft"' 


THE    OX    FAMILY 
1.  Cow.         2.  Head    of    antelope.         3.  Rocky   Mountain      Goat.        4. 
buffalo.        6.      Bison,      or     American      buffalo. 


Sheep. 


5.      African 


we  have  known  that  the  polar  bear  came  from 
the  arctic  regions  where  snow  covers  the 
ground  during  most  of  the  year,  while  the 
other  bears  come  from  more  temperate  re- 
gions— regions  of  forest  and  rock  and  moun- 
tain. But  probably  it  never  occurred  to  us 
that  there  was  any  particular  reason  for  the 
differences  in  color. 

Let  us  imagine,  in  the  region  of  perpetual 
snow,  a  bear  creeping  upon  his  prey.  He  is 
a  huge  bear,  and  stands  out  with  startling 
distinctness  against  the  white  ground.  Would 


snow  covers  the  ground  during  only  a  part  of 
the  year  changes  from  its  summer  coat  of  red- 
dish brown  to  a  winter  coat  of  white.  See 
Fur  akd  Fur  Trade. 

There  is  one  example  of  this  changing  of 
colors  with  which  we  are  all  familiar;  that  is 
in  the  little  lizard  which  we  call  the  chame- 
leon. Its  ability  to  make  its  color  match  that 
of  its  surroundings  is  commonly  overesti- 
mated— it  cannot  change  to  any  or  every 
color;  but  it  does  grade  through  various 
shades  of  brown  and  green. 


ZOOLOGY 


3983 


ZOOLOGY 


jilj                 Questions  on  Zoology  j  j 

l!!l       Note — For  additional  questions  on  |;:j 

|;1   animal  life  refer  to  Nature  Study.    In  \i 

I'l   that  department  will  also  be  found  in-  l\ 

|!;|    teresting   outlines    on    animals,    birds,  j;:l 

Ij  fish,  insects,  etc.  jij 

|::j       What  is  zoology?  I;!! 

jiil       What  is  the  derivation  of  the  term  11 

I J  zoolog}^  ?  h\ 

II  What  does  "cold-blooded"  signify  I!;} 
i'ij  when  applied  to  animals?  Tj 
ri       What  are  the  difficulties  of  classifica-  \\ 

III  tion  in  the  case  of  the  lowest  forms  of  |:J 
IJ  animal  life?  i\ 
\i  What  are  the  causes  of  the  migratory  j  | 
|::|  habit  of  animals?  [j 
M  Which  are  the  more  abundant,  the  |!] 
jiil  higher  or  lower  forms  of  life  ?  Why  ?  M 
rl  What  animal  is  born  without  a  cov-  jl 
j:|  ering?  Why?  I:| 
lil  What  are  the  most  useful  animals  rj 
rl  to  man  for  domestic  purposes?  {■■| 
l"|  What  animals  are  known  as  rumi-  jiil 
|ii|  nants?  |ii| 
*!  What  parts  of  the  deer  are  of  com-  |  j 
M  mereial  value?  !ii! 
iij  How  are  flesh-eating  animals  hi 
jiil  equipped  to  eat  their  food?  To  obtain  rf 
l::|  it?  They  are  satisfied  with  one  meal  |ii| 
M  at  a  time,  eaten  rapidly;  why?  l\ 
jiil  Why  does  live  stock  have  to  graze  so  M 
ji  continuously?  jiil 
if  What  is  the  difference  between  an  j;! 
jiil  animal  and  a  plant?  I'l 
|j  Name  some  of  the  many  ways  in  |m| 
I'l  which  nature  has  provided  for  the  |;i| 
ji'l  safety  and  preservation  of  wild  ani-  h\ 
jiil  mals?  II 
|:|  What  animals  produce  the  most  ex-  jiij 
jj  pensive  furs?  |i 
liil  What  do  you  mean  by  vertebrates?  \\ 
If  In  general,  what  one  part  of  wild  jiij 
|;|  animals  is  of  commercial  value?  ji 
liii  Name  the  domestic  animals  in  what  I'l 
If  you  think  to  be  the  order  of  their  use-  jiil 
i"|   fulness.  li 


Perhaps  the  most  wonderful  of  these  re- 
semblances are  shown  among  the  insects. 
There  is  the  insect  known  as  the  walking- 
stick,  which,  with  its  long,  slender  wingless 
body  and  its  dull  color  looks  so  like  a  dead 
twig  that  when  at  rest  it  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  the  twigs  to  which  it  attaches 


itself;  there  is  the  greenleaf  insect,  which 
has  broad,  leaf-green  wings,  which  show  the 
veins,  the  markings  and  even  the  discolor- 
ations  of  leaves;  and  most  wonderful  of  all, 
there  is  the  huge  dead-leaf  butterfiy.  The 
upper  side  of  this  remarkable  butterfly's 
wings  are  dark,  with  orange  and  purple 
markings ;  but  when  it  settles  on  a  branch  to 
rest  it  folds  its  wings  close  over  its  back, 
hides  its  head,  and  looks  so  exactly  like  a 
withered  leaf  that  even  close  scnitiny  cannot 
always  distinguish  it.  The  dead-leaf  color 
is  there,  the  short  tail  which  looks  exactly 
like  a  leaf  stalk,  the  midrib,  the  veins,  and 
even  the  two  colorless  spots  which  resemble 
holes  eaten  out  by  insects. 

There  is  one  other  type  of  resemblance  or 
mimicr5^  This  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the 
harmless,  non-poisonous  insects  which  imi- 
tate exactly  in  their  color  and  markings  cer- 
tain poisonous  insects  which  really  differ 
from  them  widely.  By  this  mimicry  the 
harmless  insects  are  saved  from  the  birds 
which  would  otherwise  devour  them. 

Protective  Coloration  and  Mimicry. 
When  we  use  the  words  mimicry  and  resem- 
blance, we  must  constantly  bear  in  mind  one 
fact:  that  is,  that  there  is  no  consciousness, 
no  intention  on  the  part  of  the  mimic.  The 
insect  or  animal  does  not  voluntarily  imitate. 

The  Struggle  for  Existence.  If  all  the 
animals  that  are  born  were  to  live,  in  a  very 
short  time  tlie  earth  would  be  crowded  to 
suffocation.  For  instance,  it  is  stated  that 
if  all  the  eggs  laid  by  the  conger-eel  were 
hatched,  and  every  little  eel  grew  and  repro- 
duced itself,  it  would  take  less  than  ten  years 
for  the  sea  to  become  solidly  full  of  conger- 
eels.  It  is  clear  that  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  animals  born  survive.  So  fierce,  in- 
deed, is  the  struggle,  that  it  is  usually  only 
by  means  of  superior  strength,  cunning  or 
agility  or  by  means  of  some  special  pro- 
tective device,  such  as  the  mimicry  spoken 
of  in  the  last  paragraph  or  poisonous  secre- 
tions, that  animals  can  live  and  thrive.  First 
there  is  the  struggle  within  the  species — fox 
fights  against  fox,  and  the  stronger  wins. 
Then  there  is  the  struggle  with  animals  of 
other  species,  and  finally  with  the  conditions 
of  life,  or  forces  of  nature.  If  in  any  given 
locality,  only  enough  food  exists  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  animals,  all  above  that  num- 
ber must  starve  or  migrate.  Innumerable 
birds,  insects,  fish,  animals  of  all  species  die 
of  starvation ;  many  die  from  climatic  condi- 


ZOOLOGY 


3984 


ZOOLOGY 


HMHAINES 


1.  Peacock.         2..  Turkey. 

tions;  in  settled  parts  of  the  country  many 
are  killed  by  man.  By  all  of  these  means  the 
animal  population  of  the  world  is  kept  down. 
In  most  districts  which  are  uninhabited,  the 
number  of  a  certain  species  of  animals  re- 
mains nearly  constant;  where  man  joins  his 
destructive  forces  with  those  of  Nature,  the 
forms  of  wild  life  diminish  rapidly. 

Related    Articles.       Consult    the    following 
titles  for  additional  information: 
Amphibians  (with  listjlnvertebrates 


THE    PHEASANT    FAMILY 
3.  Domestic    hen    ard  rooster.     4.  Partridge.     5.     Guinea  fowl. 
6.  Bob  white.        7.   Golden  pheasant. 

Outline  on  Zoology.  The  following  out- 
line contains  the  classification  of  animals 
generally  accepted  bj'  the  leading  authorities 
during  the  past  half  centurj^,  or  thereabouts. 
It  has  divided  the  animal  kingdom  into  seven 
subkingdoms;  each  of  these  is  divided  into 
families ;  the  families  are  divided  into  genera 
and  the  genera  into  species.  The  subking- 
doms are  distinguished  by  bold-faced  type 
and  Roman  numerals. 


Animal 

Animal    Intelligence 

Arachnida 

Arthropoda 

Birds   (with  list) 

Carnivora 

Cell 

Cephalopoda 

(with  list) 
Cetacea   (with  list) 
Chiroptera 
(joelenterata 
Crustacea   (with  list) 
Cuvier,  George  L. 
Darwin,    Charles 
Echinoderms 
Edentata  (with  list) 
Egg 

Evolution 
Feathers 
Fish  and  Fisheries 

(with  list) 
Hemiptera 
Hibernation 
Horn 
Infusoria 
Insectivora 
Insects  (with  list) 


Lamarck,    Jean 

Baptiste 
Linne,  or  Linnaeus 
Larva 

Mammals   (with  list) 
Marsupials 

(with  list) 
Metamorphosis 
Mollusca    (with  list) 
Molting 
Myriapoda 
Neuroptera 
Orthoptera 
Primates   (with  list) 
Protective  Coloration 

and  Mimicry 
Protoplasm 
Protozoa 
Radiolaria 
Reptiles    (with   list) 
Rodents 
Ruminants 
Scales 
Ungulates 
Vertebrata 
Vorticella 
Worms 
Zoological  Garden 


II. 


Protozoa   (first  animals)" 

(1)  Monera   (single  -|-  substance) 

(2)  Rhizopoda    (from   two  Greek  words 

meaning  "root"  and  "foot") 

(3)  Foraminifera    (having    an    opening 

or  orifice) 

(4)  Radiolaria  (so  called  because  of  the 

spiny    projections    which    radiate 
from  the  center  of  the  body) 

(5)  Infusoria    (so  called   because  found 

in   infusions  after  even  brief  ex- 
posure to   air) 
Coelenterata  (hollow  intestines) 

(1)  Medusae    (so  called   because   of  the 

fringe   supposed  to    resemble  Me- 
dusa's  locks) 

(2)  Polyp      (polypus     meaning     many- 

footed) 

(a)  Sponge 

(b)  Coral 

(c)  Sea  anemone 


ZOOLOGY 


3985 


ZOOLOGY 


III.  Worms 

(1)  Platyhelminthes   (flat  +  worm) 

(a)  Flat-worm 

(b)  Tape-worm 

(c)  Fluke-worm 

(2)  Nematelminthes   (thread  +  worm) 

(3)  Star-worms 

(4)  Annulata   (so  called  because  of  the 

ringed  markings) 

(a)  Leech 

(b)  Earth-worm 

(c)  Sea-worm 

IV.  Echinodennata   (spring  skinned) 

(1)  Crinoidea  (lily  -|-  like) 

(2)  Star-fish 

(3)  Sea   urchin 

(4)  Sea  cucumber 

V.  MoUusca   (soft  body-red  animals) 

(1)  Bivalves 

(a)  Oyster 

(b)  Clam 

(c)  Mussel 

(d)  Scallop 

(2)  Cephalophora    (head   +   to   bear) 

(a)  Whelk 

(b)  Snail 

(3)  Cephalopoda  (head  +  feet) 

(a)  Squid 

(b)  Cuttle-fish 

(c)  Nautilus 

(d)  Octopus 

VI.  Arthropoda    ( jointed-foot    animals) 

(1)  Crustacea 

(a)  "Water-flea 

(b)  Shrimp 

(c)  Lobster 

(d)  Crab 

(e)  Barnacle 

(2)  Myriopoda  (numberless  feet) 

(a)  Millipede  (thousand  feet) 

(b)  Centipede   (hundred  feet) 

(3)  Arachnida    (from    the    Greek    word 

for  spider) 

(a)  Spider 

(b)  Scorpion 

(c)  Mite 

(d)  Tick 

(4)  Insects 

(a)  Thysanura    (fringe   tail) 

(b)  Dermaptera    (skin   -1-  wings) 

(c)  Orthoptera   (straight  wings) 

(1)  Grasshopper 

(2)  Locust 

(3)  Cricket 

(4)  Katydid 

(5)  Cockroach 

(d)  Platyptera  (flat  +  wing) 

(1)  White  ant 

(2)  Bird-lice 

(3)  Bookworm 

(e)  Hemiptera     or     bugs     half     or 

semi  +  wing) 

(1)  Louse 

(2)  Squash   bug 

(3)  Chinch  bug 

(4)  Locust 

(5)  Cochineal    (from    the   Latin 

word  for  scarlet) 

(f)  Neuroptera    and    allied    groups 

'nerve  4-  wing:> 
260 


(1)  Dragon  fly 

(2)  May  fly 

(3)  Scorpion   fly 

(4)  Caddis  fly 
(g)   Beetles 

(h)   Fleas 

(i)   Diptera  (two  wings) 

(1)  Fly 

(2)  Mosquito 

(j)   Lepidoptera   (scaly   wings) 

(1)  Butterfly 

(2)  Moth 

(k)   Hymenoptera       (membrane      + 
wing) 

(1)  Bees 

(2)  Wasps 

(3)  Ants 

(4)  Gall-flies 

VJI.  Vertebrata  (animals  having  vertebrae  or 
backbone) 

(1)  Fishes 

(2)  Amphibians    (from   the   Greek  word 

meaning  "double  life") 

(a)  Salamander 

(b)  Frog 

(c)  Toad 

(d)  Blindworm 

(3)  Reptiles 

(a)  Lizards 

(b)  Snakes 

(c)  Turtles 

(d)  Crocodiles 

(4)  Birds 

(See  detailed  outline,  page  455) 

(5)  Mammals 

(a)  Duck-billed  platypus 

(b)  Marsupialia  (having  a  pouch) 

(1)  Opossum 

(2)  Kangaroo 

(c)  Edentata    ("without   teeth,"   but 

the     term     is    misleading,     as 
most    of   them   have   teeth) 

(1)  Sloth 

(2)  Ant-eater 

(3)  Armadillo 

(d)  Rodentia    (gnawing) 

(1)  Rat 

(2)  Mouse 

(3)  Squirrel 

(4)  Porcupine 

(5)  Beaver 

(6)  Hare 

(e)  Insectivora  (insect  +  to  devour) 

(1)  Mole 

(2)  Shrew 

(f)  Chiroptera  or  bats  (from  words 

meaning  hand  and  wing) 

(g)  Cetacea    (from   the  Latin  word 

for  whale) 

(1)  Whale 

(2)  Porpoise 

(h)  Sirenia  (i.  e.,  sirens) 

(1)  Manatee 

(2)  Dugong  (Malay  word) 

(i)   Proboscidia    or    Elephants    (be- 
fore +  to  feed  or  graze) 
(j)  Ungulata  (from  ungula,  a  hoof) 
(1)  Odd  number  of  toes 
(a)  Horse,  ass,  zebra 
'b)   Rhinoceros 


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ZORN 


3987 


ZUIDEE  ZEE 


(2)   Even  number  of  toes 

(a)  Tapir 

(b)  Peccary 

(c)  Pig 

(d)  Hippopotamus 

(e)  Deer 

(f)  Sheep 

(g)  Ox  and  bison 
(h)   Camel 

(k)    Carnivora  (flesh  +  to  devour) 

(1)  Aquatic 

(a)  Walrus 

(b)  Seal 

(c)  Sea  lion 

(2)  Land 

(a)  Bear  and  racoon 

(b)  Mustelidae    (from  mus- 

lela,    the    Latin    word 
for  weasel) 

(1)  Otter 

(2)  Skunk 

(3)  Weasel 

(4)  Badger 

(5)  Mink 

(c)  Dog  family 

(1)  Fox 

(2)  Wolf 

(3)  Dog 

(d)  Cat  family 

(1)  Hyena 

(2)  Lynx 

(3)  Panther 

(4)  Leopard 

(5)  Tiger 

(6)  Lion 

(1)   Primates    (from    the    Latin    pri- 
mus, meaning  first  or  highest) 

(1)  Lemur 

(2)  Marmoset 

(3)  Monkey 

(4)  Ape 

(5)  Man 

ZORN,  tsorn,  Anders  Leonhard  (1860- 
),  a  Swedish  artist,  famed  as  a  land- 
scape and  portrait  painter,  et-eher  and 
sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Mora,  of  peasant 
parents.  Zorn  expected  at  first  to  devote 
himself  wholly  to  sculpture,  and  to  that 
end  studied  in  Stockholm  for  six  years; 
subsequently  he  took  up  etching  and  water 
color  painting  in  London.  His  first  oil  paint- 
ing. Fisherman  from  Saint  Ives,  was  pur- 
chased for  the  Luxembourg  Museum  in  1888. 
Zorn's  fame  steadily  increased  with  time,  as 
he  showed  genius  in  all  phases  of  art  which 
he  undertook.  He  became  a  foremost  por- 
traitist, showed  a  mastery  of  the  technique 
of  sculpture,  and  won  equal  fame  as  an 
etcher.  His  portraits  include  King  Charles 
of  Sweden,  a  study  of  himself  (in  the  Uf- 
fizi),  Maja  and  The  Toast.  Among  his 
etchings  is  a  remarkable  series  of  portraits, 
including  studies  of  Renan,  Strindberg, 
France,  Rodin  and  other  celebrities.  Notable 


pieces  of  sculpture  include  a  statue  of  Gus- 
tavus  Yasa,  Faun  and  Nymph  and  Grand- 
mother. 

ZOROASTER,  zo  ro  as'tcr,  a  teacher  and 
reformer  of  ancient  Persia,  who  formulated 
one  of  the  chief  religious  systems  of  the 
world.  It  is  not  definitely  known  when  he 
lived,  but  it  was  probably  between  660  and 
583  B.  c.  Legend  associates  with  his  life 
such  supernormal  phenomena  as  miracles, 
sjTnbolic  dreams,  visions  and  temptations 
by  an  evil  sjiirit.  His  teachings  are  em- 
bodied in  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  sacred  book 
of  the  Parsis  and  Guebers,  his  followers  at 
the  present  time.  They  embrace  the  idea  of 
conflicting  forces  of  good  and  evil  in  the 
world,  and  man's  power  to  choose  between 
them.  Good  thoughts,  good  words  and  good 
deeds  form  the  watchAvord  of  the  faith. 

ZOUAVES,  zvcahvz,  or  zoo  ahvz',  origin- 
ally a  body  of  troops  in  the  French  army. 
It  derived  its  name  from  a  tribe  of  Kabyles 
inhabiting  the  mountain  of  Jurjura,  in  the 
Algerian  province  of  Constantine.  General 
Clausel,  of  the  French  army  in  Algiers, 
created,  in  1830,  two  battalions  of  Zouaves, 
in  which  each  company  consisted  of  French 
and  Zouaves  in  certain  proportions,  officers, 
subalterns  and  soldiers  being  selected  from 
both.  The  zouaves,  though  retaining  their 
Moorish  dress,  were  armed  and  disciplined 
after  the  European  fashion,  and  the  bat- 
talions were  recruited  by  voluntary  enlist- 
ment. 

The  mixing  of  soldiers  proved  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  after  1839  no  more  natives  were 
recruited,  though  regiments  of  Algerian 
sharpshooters  were  formed  of  men  of  ex- 
ceptional physique  and  courage.  These  regi- 
ments became  an  integral  part  of  the  French 
army,  and  won  distinction  not  only  in  Africa, 
but  also  in  the  Crimea,  Italy,  Mexico,  Tunis 
and  Tongking.  The  Zouaves  now  in  the 
French  army  are  organized  in  three  regi- 
ments of  five  battalions  each,  and  are  among 
the  finest  soldiers  in  Europe.  A  large  force 
of  these  Turcos,  as  they  are  called,  fought  in 
the  great  war  from  1914  to  1918. 

In  the  United  States  during  the  Civil  "War 
some  Northern  regiments  adopted  the  Zouave 
uniforms  and  were  known  as  Zouaves.  Most 
famous  of  these  was  a  New  York  regiment, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Ellsworth. 

ZUIDER  ZEE,  zi'derze'.  a  large,  shallow 
arm  of  the  North  Sea,  extending  into  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  Netherlands.     The 


ZULUS 


3988 


ZWINGLI 


reclamation  of  the  land  under  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  its  transformation  into  a  fertile 
province  is  one  of  the  immediate  projects  of 
the  Netherlands  (see  Netherlands,  pages 
2512-'13).  The  inlet  consists  of  an  oval  inner 
portion,  a  horn-shaped  outer  portion  and 
a  narrow  strait  connecting  the  two.  The 
area  is  about  2,000  square  miles.  Originally 
the  inner  portion  was  a  lake,  situated  in  a 
region  of  fens  and  marshes.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  severe  stoims  caused  an  inundation 
of  the  North  Sea  and  the  submergence  of 
large  sections  of  land. 

ZULUS,  zoo'looz,  a  warlike  people  of 
Bantu  stock,  inhabiting  parts  of  South  Af- 
rica. They  support  themselves  chiefly  by 
raising  millet  and  breeding  cattle.  They  live 
in  thatched  and  plastered  houses,  supported 
by  poles,  which  are  beehive  in  fonn  and  ar- 
ranged in  large  circles,  enclosing  the  cattle 
pens.  These  communities,  or  villages,  are 
called  kraals.  Pottery  making,  basket  weav- 
ing, iron  smelting  and  hide  tanning  are  en- 
gaged in  to  a  certain  extent.  The  principal 
weapons  are  the  assegai  and  the  knobkirri. 
Polygamy  and  wife  purchase  are  customary. 
Chaka,  the  chief  ruler  during  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  nineteenth  century,  dominated 
South  Africa  from  the  Zambezi  to  Cape  Col- 
ony. Cetewayo  reigned  from  1874  to  1878, 
and  by  his  depredations  he  embroiled  his 
people  in  war  with  England.  Dinizulu,  his 
son,  was  crushed  in  1879,  but,  as  he  continued 
to  incite  the  natives  to  fighting,  he  was  ban- 
ished. The  Zulus  are  gi-adually  becoming 
civilized. 

Zululand,  zoo'loo  land,  a  region  of  South- 
eastern Africa,  fonning  a  part  of  the  Brit- 
ish province  of  Natal,  to  which  it  was  an- 
nexed in  1897.  Its  area  is  about  10,450 
square  miles,  and  its  population  is  about 
230,000,  the  most  of  whom  are  natives.  See 
Natal. 

ZUNI,  zoo'nyee,  the  popular  name  of  a 
Pueblo  Indian  tribe  which  inhabits  four 
pueblos,  or  villages,  in  New  Mexico.  The 
most  important  of  these  villages  is  also  called 
Zuni.  The  Zuni,  or  Ashiwi,  as  they  call  them- 
selves, have  lived  in  the  same  locality  for 
centuries;  the  Spanish  explorers  discovered 
them  there  in  1539,  and  missions  were  estab- 
lished later  among  them. 

Zuni  is  built  about  a  central  court,  sur- 
rounded by  a  continuous  high  wall  which  is 
sealed  by  ladders  on  both  sides,  intended 
originally  for  defense.    The  entrances  to  the 


houses  are  on  the  roofs;  and  these  also  are 
reached  by  ladders  inside  and  out.  The  peo- 
ple number  about  1,G  JO.  They  support  them- 
selves by  cultivating  the  soil  and  raising 
stock. 

ZURICH,  zoo'riK,  Switzerland,  capital 
of  the  canton  of  Zurich  and  the  largest  city 
of  the  republic.  It  is  on  the  Limmat,  at  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Zurich,  sixty  miles 
northeast  of  Bern.  The  city  is  divided  by  the 
Limmat  into  two  parts,  known  respectively 
as  the  Little  City  and  the  Great  City.  The 
old  historical  quarter  of  Zurich  is  picturesque, 
with  its  steep,  narrow  streets  and  quaint, 
dark  houses,  but  the  newer  part  of  the  city  has 
handsome  buildings  and  wide,  attractive 
streets.  Among  the  more  noteworthy  build- 
ings are  the  old  Wasserkirche,  which  now 
houses  the  municipal  librarj^;  the  old  church 
known  as  the  Grossmiinster,  of  which  Zwingli 
was  pastor;  the  townhall,  the  university 
buildings  and  the  Swiss  national  museum, 
the  largest  museum  in  Switzerland. 

The  educational  institutions  of  the  town 
include  the  university,  with  about  800  stu- 
dents, and  the  Federal  Polytechnic,  which 
has  about  1,100  regular  students,  besides 
special  students  who  attend  lectures.  Com- 
mercially and  industrially,  Zurich  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  The  silk  industry  is 
large,  and  cotton,  paper  and  machinery  are 
also  manufactured.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  town  of  Zurich  was  prosperous  and  im- 
portant. It  was  the  scene  of  the  beginning 
of  Zwingli's  reformation.  Population,  1910, 
189,088 ;  in  1918,  estimated,  213,900. 

ZURICH,  Lake,  a  lake  of  Switzerland, 
lying  mostly  within  the  canton  of  Zurich,  but 
extending  for  a  short  distance  into  Schwyz 
and  Saint  Gall.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles 
in  length  and  from  one-half  to  two  and  one- 
half  miles  in  width,  and  is  somewhat  in  the 
shape  of  a  crescent.  Its  scenery  is  pictur- 
esque and  charming,  although  not  so  impos- 
ing as  that  of  some  of  the  other  lakes  of 
Switzerland. 

ZUYDER  ZEE,  zi'der  ze'.    See  Zuider  Zee. 

ZWINGLI,  tsvincflee,  Ulric  or  Huldreich 
(1484-1531),  an  illustrious  Swiss  reformer. 
In  1506  he  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of 
Constance,  becoming  in  the  same  year  pastor 
of  the  large  parish  of  Glarus.  His  studies  in 
the  New  Testament  gradually  led  him  to 
question  many  of  the  doctrines  in  which  he 
had  been  trained,  and  by  degrees  he  became 
known  as  an  ardent  reformer,  as  weU  as  a 


ZWINGLI 


3989 


ZWINGLI 


prominent  patriot.  He  had  no  communica- 
tion with  Luther,  but  by  1516  he  had  begun 
a  work  in  Switzerland  very  similar  to  that 
which  had  been  started  by  the  great  German 
reformer.  In  1522  he  demanded  of  the 
bishop  of  Constance  and  all  the  governments 
of  the  confederation  the  abolition  of  the  law 
imposing  celibacy  upon  the  priests,  and  his 
suggestions  for  one  reform  after  another 
widened  his  breach  with  the  Church. 

In  1529  he  went  to  Marburg,  to  confer 
with  Luther  and  the  other  German  reform- 
ers, upon  the  possibility  of  uniting  the  re- 


form movements,  that  a  stronger  resistance 
might  be  made  to  their  opponents.  Zwingli 
was  willing  to  make  concessions,  but  Luther 
objected  to  the  fact  that  the  religious  move- 
ment in  Switzerland  was  allied  with  a  move- 
ment for  civil  reform,  and  this,  together 
with  their  differing  views  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, prevented  cooperation.  In  1531,  when 
open  war  broke  out  between  the  Catholic 
and  the  Protestant  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
Zwingli  accompanied  the  Zurich  regiment  as 
chaplain  and  was  killed  at  the  Battle  of 
Kappel. 


Ill  m 

m  ill 

••■•  Ess 

Inl  lif 

Hi  ^ 


In  the  pages  which  follow  there  is  printed 
a  carefully  compiled  Index  of  all  topics  which  are 
treated  in  this  set  of  books. 

In  the  minds  of  many  people  information 
regarding  various  phases  of  knowledge  is  con- 
tained only  in  special  articles  bearing  black- 
face capital-letter  headings.  The  general  plan  of 
The  Educator  volumes  provides  the  usual  and 
familiar  alphabetical  arrangement  of  such  titles. 
Every  article  bears  such  a  heading,  but  there  is 
a  vast  array  of  facts  which,  while  of  value,  are 
not  of  themselves  of  sufficient  moment  to  demand 
treatment  in  separate  articles.  Such  bits  of 
information  are  found  in  the  body  of  discussions 
of  thousands  of  related  subjects,  but  they  are  not 
accessible  on  a  moment 's  notice.  There  is  needed, 
therefore,  a  system  of  reference  which  will  dis- 
close their  positions  in  the  volumes. 

The  present  Index  presents  these  very  numer- 
ous subjects  by  page  numbers,  and  points  to  the 
column  where  information  regarding  them  will 
be  found.  The  letter  a  after  a  number  indicates 
the  location  of  a  fact  in  the  first  column  of  the 
page ;  the  letter  h  locates  it  in  the  second  column. 


COMPLETE  INDEX  I 


8991 


COMPLETE  INDEX 


A,  la,  2681b. 

A,  (in  music),  la. 

Al,  Aal  and  AAl,  la, 

Aachen,  ]a,  56a, 

Aard-varl<,  la. 

Aard-wolf  lb. 

Aaron,    lb. 

Abacus.  2a, 

Abalone,  2a. 

Abbey,  2a. 

Abbey,   Edwin  Austin,   2b. 

Abbot,  2b. 

Abbotsford  2b,  3227a. 

Abbot,  Jacob,  2b. 

Abbott,  Johin  Josepli  Caldwell, 
3a. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  3a, 

Abbreviations,  3b. 

Abdication,  5a. 

Abdomen,  5a. 

Abd-ul-Hamid  II,   5b. 

Abel,   6a. 

Abelard,  Pierre,  6a. 

Abercrombie,  James,  6a. 

Aberdeen,  Jolin  Campbell  Gor- 
don, 6a. 

Aberdeen,  Scotland,  6b. 

Aberdeen,  S.  D.,  6b. 

Aberdeen,  Wash.,  6b. 

Aberdeen-Angus  Cattle,  728b. 

Aberration,  7a. 

Abigail,    7a. 

Abilene.   Tex.,  7a. 

Abiogenesis,   3390a,   . 

Abolitionists,  7b. 

Abomey,  7b. 

Abominations,  Tariff  of,  3516a. 

Aborigines,  288b. 

Aboukir.   7b. 

Abraham,   7b,  406a. 

Abrasives,  8a. 

Abruzzi,  Prince  Luigi  Amadeo, 
8a. 

Absalom,  8a. 

Absalom  and  Achitophel,  1147a. 

Abscess,  8a. 

Absinthe,  8b,  3947a. 

Absolute  Moanrchy,  2382a. 

Absolution,   8b. 

Absorbents,  8b. 

Absorption.  8b. 

Abstraction,  9a. 

Abu-Abdul-lah,  479b. 

Abu-bekr,   9a,   155b,  2376b. 

Abukir,   7b. 

Abutilon.  9a. 

Abydos    (Asia  Minor),  9a. 

Abydos  (Egypt),  9a, 

Abyssinia,   9b. 

Acacia,  11a. 

Acacia  Seyal,  3286b. 

Academus,   11a. 

Academy.  11a. 

Acadia,  lib,  1279a,  2616a. 

Acanthus,  lib. 

Accent,  lib,  2683b. 

Acclimatization,  12a, 

Accolade,   808b. 

Accordion,    12a. 

Accounting,  12b. 

Acetanilid,  13a. 

Acetates,  13a. 

Acetic  Acid,  13a. 

Acetylene,  13a, 

Achaeans,  13b. 

Achates,    14a. 

Achilles,  14a,  1763b. 


Achroite,  3602b. 

Acid,  14a. 

Aclinic  Line,  14b. 

Aconcagua,  14b. 

Aconite,  14b. 

Acoustics,   14b. 

Acre,  14b. 

Acropolis,  15a, 

Acrostic,  15a. 

Actaeon,  15a. 

Actinism,   15b. 

Action,  3873a. 

Actium,   15b. 

Act  of  Union,  3669a. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  15b. 

Adam  and  Eve,  15b. 

Adam   Bede,  1213b. 

Adam's  Apple    2061a. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  16a. 

Adams,    Charles    Francis,    Jr., 

16a. 
Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  16a. 
Adams,  Henry,  16a. 
Adams,  John,  16b. 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  16b. 
Adams,  Mass.,  22a. 
Adams,   Maud   Kiskadden,   22a. 
Adam's  Needle,  3972b. 
Adams,  Samuel,  22a. 
Adams,  William  Taylor    22b. 
Addams  Jane,   22b,  1734b. 
Addax,  23a. 
Adder,   23a. 

Adding  Machines,  635b. 
Addis  Abeba,   23b. 
Addison,  Josepli    23b. 
Addition  at  Sight,  179a. 
Address,  Forms  of,  23b. 
Ade,  George.  24a. 
Adelaide,  South  Australia,  24b. 
Aden,   24b. 
Aden,  Gulf  of,  24b. 
Adenoids,  24b. 
Adepts,  75b. 
Adhesion,  25a, 
Adipose  Tissue,  921b. 
Adirondack  Mountains,  25a. 
Adjective,  25b,  2050b. 
Adjutant    (bird),   25b. 
Adjutant    (military),   25b. 
Adjutant-General,  25b,   225b. 
Adler,  Felix,  26a, 
Admetus,   26a,  75b. 
Administrative  Law,  2067a. 
Administrator,   26b. 
Admirable  Crichton,  987a. 
Admiral,  26b. 

Admiral  of  the  Navy,  1068a. 
Admiralty,   27a. 
Admiralty    Court    of    Canada, 

27  a. 
Adobe,  27a. 
Adolescence.  27b. 
Adonais,  1934a, 
Adonis  (botany),  27b. 
Adonis   (mythology),   27b. 
Adoption,   28a. 
Adrian   (Popes),  28a. 
Adrian,  Mich.,  28a. 
Adrianople,  Peace  of,  3652b. 
Adrianople,  Turkey.  28a, 
Adriatic  Sea,  28b. 
Adulteration,   28b. 
Ad  valorem  Duties,  1011b. 
Adventists,  29a, 
Adverb,  29b. 
Advertising,  29b. 
Adventures  of  Sherlock 

Holmes,  1110a. 
Adz,  30a. 


Aegean  Sea,  30a. 

Aegis,  30a. 

Aeneas,  30a. 

Aeneid,  30b,  3756a, 

Aeolus,  31a. 

Aerial  Bridge,  557a. 

Aerostatic  Press,  31a. 

Aeschines,   31a. 

Aeschulapius,  31b. 

Aeschylus,  31b. 

Aesir,  2461b. 

Aesop,  32a, 

Aetna,  1265a. 

Affidavit,  32a. 

Affinity  (chemistry),  32a. 

Affinity   (relationship),  3045a. 

Affirmation,  2627b. 

Afghanistan,   32b. 

■Afghan  War,  1784a, 

Africa,  33b 

African  Methodist  Kpiscopal 
Church,  42b. 

Agamemnon,  42b,  1763a,  1829a, 
2458a. 

Agaric,  42b. 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  42b. 

Agassiz,  Louis  John  Rudolph, 
43a. 

Agassiz,  Mount,  43a. 

Agassiz  Association,  43b. 

Agate,  43b. 

Agave,  43b. 

Age  (law),  43b. 

Agent,  44a. 

Age  of  Ice,  1514b. 

Age  of  Man,  44a. 

Age  of  Pericles,  271a. 

Age  of  Reason,  2701a. 

Agincourt,  44b. 

Aglaia,  1543b. 

Agnomen,  2467a. 

Agnosticism,  44b. 

Agnostics,  1527b. 

Agnus  Del,  44b. 

Agouti,  44b. 

Agra,  4  5a. 

Agraphia,  144a. 

Agrarian  Laws,  45a. 

Agricola,  Gnaeus  Julius,  45a, 
3497a. 

Agriculture,  45b. 

Agriculture,  Department  of, 
50b. 

Agricultural   College,   51b. 

Agricultural  Colleges,  Cana- 
dian. 51b. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tions. 52a. 

Agriculture  in  the  IJnited 
States,  3682a. 

Agrimony,  52a. 

Agrippina,   2507a. 

Agua.  9b,  2229a. 

Aguadiente,  2896b. 

Aguas  Calientes.  Mexico,  52b. 

Aguinaldo.   Emilio,   52b,  2819a. 

Agulhas,  Cape,  53a. 

Ahab,  53a,  419a. 

Ahasuerus,  53a,  424a. 

Ahaz,    53a. 

Ahaziah.  53a. 

Ahmed  Mirza,   2796a. 

Aida,  53a,  3755a. 

Aid-de-Camp,  53a. 

Ainmlller,  Max  Emanuel,  53b. 

Aino.    53b. 

Air,  53b. 

Air,    Dephlcgisticated.   2695b. 

Air  Brake,   64a. 

Air  Cells,  54b. 


The  letter  a«  after  a  number,  Indicates  colunui  1{  the  letter  b,  coliuun  2. 

.399.3 


Air  Compressor 

Air  Compressor,  54b. 

Airedale,  54b. 

Air  Engine,  55a. 

Air   Gun,    55a. 

Air  Plants,  55a. 

Air  Pump,  55a. 

Aisne,     Battles     of     the,     56a, 

3915b,  3917b. 
Aisne  River,  56a. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,    Congress    of, 

56b. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Germany,  56a. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,    Treaties    of, 

56b. 
Ajaccio,   Corsica,   966b. 
Ajax,  56b. 
Akka,  57a. 
Akri,    15b. 
Akron,    Ohio,   57a. 
Alabama,   57b. 
Alabama,  The,  62a. 
Alabama,    University   of,    62b. 
Alabama    River,    62a. 
Alabaster,  62b. 
Aladdin,   62b. 
Alameda,  Calif.,  63a. 
Alamo,   The,    63a,    3183a. 
Aland  Islands,  63b. 
Alaric  I.  63b,  1540a. 
Alaric  II,  63b. 
Alaska,  64a.  3044b. 
Alaska  Sable,  3320b. 
Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposi- 
tion, 68b. 
Albacore,   3645a. 
Albania,  69a. 
Albany,    Ga.,    69a. 
Albany,  N.  Y.,   69b. 
Albany  Convention,  70a. 
Albatross,  70b. 
Albemarle    Sound,    71a. 
Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  74b. 
Albert  I,  71a. 
Albert   Nyanza,   74b. 
Alberta,  71b. 
Albigenses,  74b. 
Albinos,   74b. 
Albion,    744b. 
Albumen,   74b. 
Albuminoids,    1096b. 
Albuquerque,    N.   M.,   75a. 
Alburnum,  75a. 
Alcazar,  3263b. 
Alcestis,  75b. 
Alchemy,  75b. 
Alcibiades.  75b. 
Alcohol.  76a,  139a. 
Alcoholism.   76b. 
Alcoran, 1993b. 
Alcott,  Amos  Bronson.  77a. 
Alcott,  Louisa  May,  77a,  3026a. 
Alcyone,  2872b. 
Alden,    Henry    Mills,    77a. 
Alden,  Isabella  McDonald,  77b. 
Alden,  John,  77b,  976b. 
Alder.  77b. 
Alderman  (politics),  77b,  829a, 

2434a. 
Alderman,     Edwin     Anderson, 

78a. 
Alderney,  78a. 
Aldershot.  Eng.,  78a. 
Alder  Tannin,    3512a. 
Aldrich,  Nelson  Wilmarth,  78a. 
Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  78b. 
Ale.  78b. 
Aleppo,  78b. 
Aleutian  Islands,  78b. 
Aleuts,    79a. 
Alewife,  79a. 
Alexander   (Popes),  79a. 
Alexander,      Prince      (Serbia), 

3258b. 
Alexander     (Scottish     kings), 

79b. 
Alexander  I.  79b. 
Alexander  II,  79b,  3143a. 
Alexander  III,   80a,   3143a. 
Alexander  the  Great,  80a. 
Alexandra    (Queen),    81b. 
Alexandria,  Egypt,  82a. 


3994 

Alexandria,  La.,  82b. 

Alexandria,    Va.,    82b. 

Alexandrian  Age,  82b. 

Alexandrian    Library,    83a. 

Alfalfa,    83a. 

Alfalfa   Weevil,    3842b. 

Alfleri,  Vittorio,  84b. 

Alfilaria,    1491a. 

Alfonso  XIII,  84b,  3374b. 

Alfred  the  Great,  85a. 

Algae,  85b. 

Algarrobin,  1158b. 

Algebra.  85b. 

Algeciras,   93a. 

Alger,   Horatio,  93a. 

Algeria,   93a. 

Algiers,    Algeria,   94a. 

Algoa  Bay,   94a. 

Algol,  94a. 

Algonkian  System,  94b. 

Algonquian  Indians,  94b. 

Algonquin  Park,  94b. 

Alhambra,  The,  95a,  1846a. 

Alias,  95a. 

Alice's  Adventures  in  "Wonder- 
land,  95a,  1088b. 

Alien,    95a. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  95b. 

Alimentary  Canal,   95b. 

Alimony,    1086a. 

Alizarin,  95b. 

Alkali,    95b. 

Alkaloid,  96a. 

Allah,  96a. 

Allah,  The  Garden  of,  1683a. 

Allahabad,  India,   96a. 

Allan,  Hugh  Montagu,   96b. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  96b. 

Allegheny  River,   96b. 

Allegory.  97a. 

Allen,  Ethan,  97a,  3579a. 

Allen,  Grant,   97b. 

Allen  James  Lane,  97b. 

Allentown,  Pa.,  97b. 

Alliance,  O..   98a. 

Alligator,   98a. 

Alligator  Pear,  98a, 

Alligator-snapper,  3331b. 

Allison,    William   Boyd,    98b. 

Alliteration,  99a. 

Allopathy,  99a. 

Allotropy,   99a. 

Alloy,  99b. 

Alloys  of  steel,  3418b. 

All-Saints'  Day,  99b. 

All-Souls'  Day,  99b. 

Allspice,  99b,  2853b. 

Allston,  Washington,  100a, 

Alto.    3311b. 

Alluvial  Plain,  2864b. 

Alluvium,   100a. 

Alma  Mater,  100a, 

Almanac,   100a. 

Almandine,  100b. 

Alma-Tadema,  Lawrence,  101a. 

Almond,   101a. 

Aloe,  101a. 

Aloes  Wood,  101b. 

Alpaca,  102a. 

Alpena,  Mich.,  102a. 

Alpha  and  Omega,  102a. 

Alphabet,  102b. 

Alps  Mountains,  103a. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  103b,  1390a. 

Alsike.   860b. 

Altai  Mountains,  104b. 

Altdorf,  Switzerland,  104b. 

Altgeld,  John  Peter,  104b. 

Alton,  111.,  105a. 

Altona.  Germany,  105a. 

Altoona.  Pa.,  105a. 

Alto  Relief,  1219b. 

Alto-Relievo.  105b. 

Altruism,  105b,  1186b. 

Alum.  105b. 

Alumina,  105b. 

Aluminum,  106a,  767b. 

Aluminum  Bronze,  570a. 

Alum  Root.  106b. 

Alva,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  de 
Toledo,  106b. 


Anchovy 

Alverstone,  Lord,  107a. 

Amadis  of  Gaul,  3371b. 

Amalgam,  107a. 

Amana  Society,  107a. 

Amaranth,  107b. 

Amarillo,  Tex.,  107b. 

Amaryllis   Family,    107b. 

Amati  Family,  107b. 

Amazon    River,    108a. 

Amazons,   108b. 

Ambassador,   108b. 

Amber,  109a. 

Ambergris,  109a.  3856b. 

Amber  Mica,   2661b. 

Ambrogio  di  Bon  Doni,  1513b. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  109a. 

Ambrosia,  109a. 

Ambulance.   109b. 

Amendment,  109b. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion, 933a. 

America,  110a. 

America  (hymn),  110a. 

American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science, 
110b. 

American  Beauty,  110b. 

American  Fabius.   129  0a. 

American  Flag,  Story  of  the 
(outline),   3558b. 

American  Goldfinch,   110b. 

Americanisms,  Ilia. 

American  Lion,  2726b. 

American  Literature,  2l2lb. 

American  Party.   2890a. 

American  Rugby,  1368b. 

American  Red  Cross,  3035b. 

American  University,  112a. 

Americus,  Ga.,  112a. 

Americus  Vespucius,   112a. 

Amesbury,  Mass.,  112b. 

Amethyst,  112b,  461a. 

Amharic,  9b. 

Amherst,  Nova  Scotia,  112b. 

Amherst  College,  112b. 

Amiens,  France,  113a. 

Ammon,  113b. 

Ammonia,  113b,  139a. 

Ammonite,  113b. 

Ammonium,   113b. 

Ammunition,  113b. 

Amnesty,  114a. 

Amnon,   113b. 

Amoeba,  114a. 

Amos,  114b. 

Amoy,  China,  114b. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie,  114b. 

Amphibians,  114b,  1419b. 

Amphibole,   1720a    2506a. 

Amphibrachic  Meter,  2311b. 

Amphictyonic  Council,  115a. 

Amphion,    115a. 

Amphitheater,  115a. 

Amputation,  115b. 

Amritsar,  India,  115b. 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  115b. 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  116a. 

Amulet,  116a. 

Amundsen,  Roald,  116b,  2606a, 
3366b. 

Amu  River,  116a. 

Amur  River,   116b. 

Amylopsin,  2725b. 

Anabaptists,   117a. 

Anabasis,  3955b. 

Anaconda,  117a. 

Anaconda,  Mont.,  117a. 

Anacreon,  117a. 

Anacreon  in  Heaven,  3407a. 

Anaemia,  117a. 

Anagram,  117b. 

Analysis,   117b,  2280a. 

Analytical  Geometry,  2280a. 

Ananias,   118a. 

Anarchism,  3335a. 

Anarchists,  118a. 

Anatolia,  3650a. 

Anatomy,  118a. 

Ancestor  Worship,  118b. 

Anchor.   118b. 

Anchovy,  119a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Ancient  History 


3995 


Aristides 


Ancient  History,  1694a. 
Ancient  Mariner,  Rime  of  the, 

71a,  119a,  878b. 
Ancient  Order  of  United  "Work- 
men,  119a. 
Ancient  Rome,  3096a. 
Ancient  Tlieaters,  3555b. 
Andalusia,   3741a. 
Andamans,  119b. 
Andersen,       Hans       Christian, 

119b. 
Anderson.  Ind.,  120a. 
Anderson,     Marie     Antoinette, 

120a. 
Anderson,  Robert,  120a. 
Anderson,  S.  C,  120a. 
Andersonville,  Ga.,   120b. 
Andes  Mountains,  120b. 
Andorra,  Republic  of,   I21a. 
Andover,  Mass..   121b. 
Andre,  John,   121b. 
Andree,  Salomon  August,  121b. 
Andrew,  122a. 
Andrews,      Elisha      Benjamin, 

122a. 
Andromache,  122a. 
Andromeda,   122a. 
Andros,  Edmond,   122b.   757b. 
Androscoggin   River,   122b. 
Anemograph,  122b. 
Anemometer,  122b. 
Anemone,  123a. 
Aneroid   Barometer,  345a. 
Anesthetic,    123a. 
Angel,    123b. 
Angel  FislT,  123b. 
Angelico,  Pra,  124a. 
Angell,  James  Burrill,  124a. 
Angelus    124b,  2341b,  2707b. 
Angina  Pectoris,   124b. 
Angiosperms,   124b,   517a,  518b. 
Angle,  125a. 
Angler,   125a. 
Angles.  125b. 

Angleworm.    1169b.    1467b. 
Anglican   Church.   125b. 
Anglin.  Margaret,   125b. 
Angling,    1334b. 
Anglo-Saxon  Conquest.  3223b. 
Anglo-Saxons,   126a,  1236b. 
Angola.  Africa.    126a. 
Angora      Goat,      126a,      1527a, 

2375a. 
Anhalt,  126a. 
Anhydrite,   1603b. 
Aniline,  126a. 
Animal,    126b.    3339a. 
Animal    Charcoal.    499a. 
Animal    Industry,    Bureau    of, 

51a,   3766a. 
Animal  Intelligence.  5 27b. 
Animal  Magnetism,  2307b. 
Animalcule.  Bell,  3791a. 
Animals  as  Companions,  1977a. 
Anise.  128a. 
Anna     (coin).     3134b. 
Anna  Karenina.  3592a. 
Annam,  128a. 
Annapolis,  Md.,   128b. 
Annapolis  Royal,  N.  S.,  128b. 
Ann   Arbor,    Mich.,    128b. 
Annatto.    129a. 
Anne,  Queen,   129a. 
Annealing,    129b. 
Anne  of  Cleves,   1672a. 
Annexation,  129b. 
Annie  Laurie.   129b. 
Annisfon,    Ala..    130a. 
Annuals,   130a,    428b,    2788a. 
Annuity,  130b. 

Annunzio.  Gabrielle  d",  130b. 
Anode,  131a,  1206b. 
Anomalistic  Month,   2404b. 
Anopheles      Mo'squito,       2229a. 

2421b. 
Anorthite,  1307b. 
Ansonia.  Conn.,  131a. 
Ant,    131a. 
Ant,  White.  3545a. 
Antaeus.  136a. 
Antaklyeh.  141a. 


Antananarivo,   136a. 
Antarctic  Circle,  136b. 
Antarctic  Ocean,  136b. 
Ant-eater,    136b. 
Antelope,  137a. 
Antennae,   137b. 
Anther,   1354a. 
Anthology,    137b. 
Anthony,    Saint,     2382b. 
Anthony,       Susan       Brownell, 

138a,  3905b. 
Anthracite,    862b. 
Anthrax,  138a. 
Anthropology,   138b. 
Antichrist,    138b. 
Anti-Cigarette  League,  138b. 
Anticosti  Island,   139a,  2983a. 
Anticyclone,  1013a. 
Antidote,   139a. 
Antietam,   Battle   of,    140a. 
Anti-Federalist     Party,     140a, 

3052a,   3707b. 
Antigone,    140b. 
Antilles,  140b,  3850a. 
Antilles,    Among    the    Lesser, 

3619b. 
Anti-Masonic    Party,    2890a. 
Antimony,    140b. 
Antimony  Glance,  3424a. 
Antioch,    Syria.    140b. 
Antiochus  of  Syria,  1890a. 
Antipodes,   141a. 
Antipope,  141a. 
Antipyrene,  141a. 
Anti-Saloon   League,   141a. 
Antiseptic,  141a. 
Antitoxin,    141b. 
Anti-Trust  Laws,  141b. 
Ant-lion,   141b. 
Antofagasta,  Chile,  142a. 
Antoinette,  Marie,  1659b. 
Antony.  Mark,  142a,  285a,  848b, 

3102b. 
Antwerp,  Belgium,  142b. 
Anubis,  143a. 
Anvil.  143a. 
Aorta,  5b,  143a. 
Apache.    143a. 
Ape.   143b. 
Apelles.    144a. 
Apennines,   The,   144a. 
Aphasia.  144a. 
Aphemia,   144a. 
Aphides,  144b. 
Aphrodite,  144b,  3753a. 
Aphrodite   at   the   Bath,   2930a. 
Apia,   Samoa,    144b. 
Apiary,  144b. 
Apis,  144b. 

Apocalypse,  145a,  3053b. 
Apocrypha.  145a.  403b. 
Apollo.  145a.  2452b.  2463a. 
Apollo  Belvedere,  145a,  3232a. 
Apollonius  of  Perga,   83a. 
Apoplexy,  145a. 
Apostles.  145b. 
Apostles'  Creed.  984b. 
Apostolic    Succession,    145b. 
Apothecaries'     Weight,      146a, 

2927b. 
Apothecary,  146a. 
Apotheosis,    146a. 
Appalachian  Mountains.  146a. 
Appalachicola  River,  146b. 
Appeal,  146b. 
Appendicitis.  146b. 
Apperception,   147a. 
Applan  Way,  147b,  3096b. 
Apple.  148a. 
Apple  of  Discord.  150b. 
Apple  of  Sodom,  3338a. 
Appleton.  Wis..  150b. 
Annie-Tree   Borer,    379a. 
Appomattox       Court       House, 

150b. 
Anr'cot,  150b. 
Anril.  151a. 
Apse,   151b. 
Apsides.   151b. 
Antervx,  152a. 
Aqua  Fortis.  152a,  2576a. 


Aquamarine.  152a,  461a. 

Aquarium,   152a. 

Aquarius,    152b. 

Aquatic   Plants,    152b. 

Aqueduct,  152b. 

Aqueous   Ammonia.   113b. 

Aqueous  Humor,  1287b. 

Aquilo,  31a. 

Aquinas,  Saint  Thomas,  153b. 

Arabat-el-Madfun,  9a. 

Arabia,   153b. 

Arabian  Nights'  Entertain- 
ment, The,  154b,  341b,  1638b, 
3085b. 

Arabian  Sea,  155a. 

Arabi   Pasha,   155a. 

Arabs,   155a. 

Arachne,  155b. 

Arachne,  The  Story  of,  2451b. 

Arachnida,  155b. 

Arachnoid  Membrane,  542a. 

Arafat,   155b. 

Aragon,   156a.  3373b. 

Aragon  and  Castile,  3373b. 

Araguay.    156a. 

Aral,  156a. 

Aramaic.  156a. 

Arango,  Doroteo,  3772a. 

Arapaho  Indians.   156a. 

Ararat,  Mount,   156a.  2577a. 

Araucanian,    156b,    793b. 

Araucaria.   156b. 

Arbela.  Turkey.  156b,  1319b. 

Arbitration,  156b. 

Arbor  Day.  157a.  2419b. 

Arbor  Vitae.   157a. 

Arbutus,  157b. 

Arcade,  157b. 

Arcadia.  157b. 

Arch.  157b. 

Archaeological  Ages,  44a. 

Archaeology.    158b. 

Archaeopteryx.  158b. 

Archangel,  Russia,  158b. 

Archbishop.    159a. 

Archean   System,  159a. 

Archer-flsh.   159b. 

Archery,  159b. 

Archibald,  Adams  George.  160a. 

Archibald.  Robert  W.,  1775b. 

Archimedean   Screw,   160a. 

Archimedes,  160b. 

Archipelago,   1847b. 

Architecture,    160b. 

Architecture.  Three  Orders  of, 
895b. 

Architrave    895b,  1238a. 

Arch  of  Trajan,  3607b. 

Arch  of  Triumph.  166b. 

Archon,  167a.  271b. 

Arc  Light.   1203a. 

Arctic  Circle.  167a. 

Arctic  Ocean   and  Lands,   167a. 

Arcturus.  167b. 

Arden,  Mary.  3267b. 

Ardmore.  Okla.,   167b. 

Areas,  Study  in.  1463b. 

Areas  of  Continents,  Compara- 
tive, 34a. 

Areca,  167b. 

Arecibo,  P.  R.,  168a. 

Areopagus.   168a. 

Argenta,  Ark..  168a. 

Argentina,  168a. 

Argol,  3517b. 

Argon,  171a. 

Argonauts.  171a. 

Argus,  171b. 

Argyll.  George  John  Douglas 
Campbell.   171b. 

Argyll,  John  Douglas  Suther- 
land Campbell,  171b. 

Ariadne.  171b,  3565a. 

Arid  Region,   172a, 

Ariel,  1456b. 

Aries,  17?a. 

Arion,  172a. 

Ariosto.  Ludovico,  172b. 

Ariovistus.    1497b. 

Arista    Mariano,   172b. 

Aristides,  172b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Aristocles 


3996 


Authors,  Hidden  Names 


Aristocles,   2871a. 

Aristocracy,  173a,  1542b. 

Aristophanes,   173a. 

Aristotle.  173a. 

Arithmetic.   174a,  2280a. 

Arizona,   210a. 

Arizona,  University  of,  213b. 

Ark.   214a. 

Arkansas,  214a. 

Arkansas,  University  of,  218b. 

Arkansas  River,  218a. 

Arkwright,   Richard,   218b. 

Arlington   National    Cemetery, 

218b. 
Arm,  219a. 
Armada   219a,  1319b. 
Armadillo,  219b. 
Armageddon,  219b. 
Armature,   219b,  1160a,  2219b. 
Armed   Neutrality,   2518b. 
Armenia,  220a. 
Arminius,  221b,  1319b. 
Armistice,  221b,  3802b. 
Armor,   222b. 
Armored  Tank,  3511a. 
Armour  Family,  221b. 
Armour  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, 222a. 
Arms,  222a. 

Armstrong,  George  B.,   2920b. 
Armstrong,    Samuel    Chapman, 

223b. 
Armstrong,     William     George, 

224a. 
Armstrong  Gun,  224a. 
Army,  224a. 
Army  Worm,  230a. 
Arnica,  230a. 
Arnold,  Benedict,  230b. 
Arnold.  Edwin,  231a. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  231a. 
Arnold,   Thomas,   231b. 
Arnold  Winkelried,  The  Story 

of,  3441b. 
Aromatic   Plants,    231b. 
Around   the    World    in    Eighty 

Days,  3761a. 
Arrack,  871a,  3068b. 
Arras,  France,  232a. 
Arrest,    232a. 
Arrondissement,     383a,     1061a, 

2738b. 
Arrowrock  Dam,   1759b,   1843a. 
Arrowroot,  232a. 
Arsenal,   232b. 
Arsenic,   139a,   232b. 
Arsenic   Solution,   1806a, 
Arson,  233a. 
Art  and  the  Arts,  233a. 
Aptaxerxes,   233a. 
Artemis,  15a,  1070b. 
Arteries,  233b,  2842b,   3218b. 
Arteries,     Hardening    of    the, 

3218b. 
Arteries  of  the  Face  and  Neck, 

2509a. 
Artesian  Well,  233b. 
Arthropoda,  234a. 
Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  234a. 
Arthur,  Julia,  236b. 
Arthur,  King,  236b,  1281b. 
Artichoke,  237a. 
Article    (grammar),   237a. 
Articles,       The       Thirty-nine 

237a. 
Articles       of       Confederation, 

3704b. 
Articulata,  234a. 
Articulation,  237a. 
Artificial  Leather,   2073a. 
Artificial  Limbs,   237b. 
Artificial  Magnets,   2219a. 
Artificial   Silk,   3306a. 
Artillery,  238a. 
Arts  and  Crafts,   239a. 
Arum,  239a. 

Aryan,  239a,  1780a,  2995a. 
Aryan    Group    of    Languages, 

2821b. 
Arytenoid  Cartilage,  2061a. 


Asafetida,   239b. 
Asbestos,  239b,  2983b. 
Asbjornsen,      Peter     Christen, 

240a. 
Asbury,  Francis,  240a. 
Asbury  Park,  N.  J.,  240a. 
Ascending  Colon,  5b. 
Ascension,  Right  of,  240a. 
Ascension   Day,   240b. 
Asceticism,  240b. 
Ascidians,  3242b. 
Asgard,   240b. 
Ash,   240b. 
Ashanti,   241a. 
Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring, 

241a. 
Ashes,  240b. 
Asheville,  N.  C,   241a. 
Ashiwi  Indians,  3988a. 
Ashland,   Ky.,   241b. 
Ashland,  Wis.,  241b. 
Ashlar  Masonry,  2269a. 
Ashtabula,  Ohio,  241b. 
Ash  Wednesday,  242a. 
Asia,  242a. 
Asia  Minor,  250b, 
Asiatic  Cholera,  810b. 
Asp,  23a,  250b. 
Asparagus,  251a. 
Aspasia,  251a. 
Aspen,  251a,  2904a. 
Asphalt,  251a,  463a,  2759b. 
Asphalt  Pavement,  2759b. 
Asphodel,  252a. 
Asphyxiation,  252a. 
Aspirates,  2C83a, 
Aspirator,  252a. 
Asquith,  Herbert  Henry,  252b. 
Ass,  252b. 
Assam,  253a. 
Assassins,  253a. 
Assault  and  Battery,  253a. 
Assaying,   253b. 
Assembly,  254a. 
Assignment,  254a. 
Assimilation,  254a. 
Assiniboia,    254a. 
Assiniboin,    254a. 
Assiniboine  River,  254a. 
Assistance,  Writs  of,  3950a. 
Assiut,   3315a. 
Associated  Press,  254b. 
Associates   (ethics),   1261a. 
Association      Football,       254b, 

1371b. 
Association  of  Ideas,  255b. 
Assuan,   Egypt,   255b. 
Assuan  Dam,  1845b. 
Assumpsit,  255b. 
Assumption,      Feast      of      the, 

255b. 
Assumption     of     the     Virgin, 

770a. 
Assurbanipal,  257a,  3196a. 
Assyria,  256a. 
Assyrian  Sculpture,  3230b. 
Astarte,  2824a. 
Aster,  257a. 
Asteroids,  257a,  2865a. 
Asthma,  257b. 
Astigmatism,  258a. 
Astor  (family),  258a. 
Astoria,   Ore.,    258b. 
Astragalus,  259a. 
Astrakhan  (fur),  259a. 
Astrakhan,   Russia,   259a. 
Astringent,   259a. 
Astrology,    259a. 
Astronomy,   259b. 
Astro-Photography,  269a. 
Asuncion,  Paraguay,  269b. 
Atahualpa.   269b,   1776b. 
Atalanta,  269b. 

Atalanta,  The  Story  of,  2456a. 
Atchafalaya.  269b 
Atchison,  Kan.,   269b. 
Athabaska,  270a. 
Athabaska  Lake,  270a. 
Athabaska  River,   270a. 
Athapascan  Indians,  270a. 
Atheism,  270a,  1527b. 


Athelstan,  270b. 

Athenaeum,    270b. 

Athene  Nike,  Temple  of,  2573b. 

Athens,  Ga.,  272b. 

Athens,  Greece,  270b. 

Atherton,    Gerirude    Franklin, 

272b. 
Athletics,  273a. 
Athos.  Mount,  275a. 
Atkinson,   Edward,  275b. 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  275b. 
Atlantic  Cables,  626b. 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  276a. 
Atlantic  Ocean,  276b. 
Atlantis,  277a. 
Atlas,  277a. 

Atlas  Mountains,  277a. 
Atmosphere,  277b,  1466b,  3338b. 
Atoll,  278a. 
Atom,   278a,  766a. 
Atomic  Theory,  278a. 
Atomic  Weights,  278a. 
Atonement,   278b. 
Atrium,  279a. 
Atrophy,  279a. 
Atropos,  1302a. 
Attache,  1078a. 
Attachment,    279a. 
Attainder,  279b. 
Attainder,  Bill  of,  431b. 
Attar    279b. 

Attention,   279b,   2767a,   2961b. 
Attica,   281a. 
Attila,  281a,  3104b. 
Attorney,  Power  of,  44a. 
Attribute  Complement,  2048a. 
Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit, 

281a. 
Auburn,  Me.,  281b. 
Auburn,  N.  Y.,  281b. 
Aucite,    2975b. 

Auckland,  New  Zealand,  281b. 
Auction,  281b. 
Auction  Bridge,  3863a. 
Audiphone,  282a. 
Audubon,  John  James,   282a. 
Audobun   Society,   The,   282a. 
Augean  Stables,  282b. 
Augeas,  282b. 
Augite.  282b. 
Augsburg,  Bavaria,   282b. 
Augsburg  Confession,  283a. 
Augsburg,  Peace  of,  3566b. 
Augurs,  283a. 
August,  283a. 
Augusta,  Ga.,  284a. 
Augusta,  Me.,  284b. 
Augusta  Bridge,  2484a. 
Augustan  Age,  284b. 
Augustine,     Aurelius      Augus- 

tinus.  Saint,  284b,  285a. 
Augustus,  285a. 
Augustus  I,  Frederick,  285b. 
Augustus  II,  Frederick,  285b. 
Auk,    285b. 

Auld  Lang  Syne,  286a. 
Aurelian,  Lucius  Domitius  Au- 

relianus,   286b. 
Aurelius,     Marcus,    286b. 
Aureola,   1617b. 
Auricle,  1656a. 
Aurora    (mythology),    287a. 
Aurora,  The,   2708b. 
Aurora,    111.,    287a. 
Aurora  Borealis,  287a. 
Aurora  Leigh,   573b. 
Ausgleich,  300a. 
Austen,  Jane,  287b. 
Austerlitz,  Battle  of,  287b. 
Austin,  Alfred,  287b. 
Austin,  Stephen  Fuller,  288a. 
Austin.  Tex.,  288a,  3552b. 
Australasia,  2632a. 
Australia,  288b. 
Australian  Alps,   3769a. 
Australian   Ballot,    294b. 
Australian  Current,   2630b.    . 
Austria,  295a,  3763b. 
Austria-Hungary,   296a. 
Austrian    Succession,    War    of 

the,    3459a. 
Authors,  Hidden  Names,  1242b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Authors,  Study  of 


3997 


Authors,  Study  of,  3015a. 
Autocrat      of      the      Breakfast 

Table,  301b,  1708b. 
Autog-raph,  302a. 
Automatic  Telephone.  3534a. 
Automobile,  302a,  3687a. 
Automobile  Racing,  2b94a. 
Autonomy,   305a. 
Autoplasty,   3319b. 
Autumn,   305b. 
Autumnal      Equinox,       1035a, 

3242b. 
Autumn  Fires,  2026a. 
Avahis,    2083a. 
Avalanche,  305b. 
Ave    Maria,    305b. 
Avernus,  305b. 
Aviary,   306a. 

Avig-non,  France,  306a,  2901b. 
Avocado  Pear,  98a. 
Avocet,   306a. 
Avog-adro's  Law,  306b. 
Avoirdupois       Weight,       306b, 

2927a,   3843a. 
Avon,    306b. 
Ax,  306b. 

Axial  Skeleton,  3317a. 
Axiom,    306b,    1481b. 
Axis.    306b. 
Axolotl,    307a. 
Aye-aye,   307a. 
Aymaras,  491a. 
Ayr,  Scotland,  307a. 
Ayrshire  Cattle,  729a. 
Azalea,   307b. 
Azincourt,   44b. 
Azoic  Era.   307b. 
Azores.    307b. 
Azov.   Sea  of,   308a. 
Aztec,  308b. 
Aztecs,   308b.  2321b. 
Azurite,   308b. 


B 


B,  309a. 

Baal,  309a,  2824a. 

Babbitt  Metal,  309a. 

Babcock,  O.  E.,  3862a. 

Babcock  Test,  2339a. 

Babel.  Tower  of,  309a. 

Bab-el-Mandeb,  Strait  of,  309b. 

Babirussa,  309b. 

Baboon,  310a. 

Babylon,  310b. 

Babylonia.    310b. 

Bacchanalia,   311b. 

Bacchus,    311b. 

Bach,  Johann   Sebastian,   312a. 

Bacheller,  Irving-,   312a. 

Bachelor's  Button,  312a,  962b. 

Bachelor's  Deg:ree,  312a. 

Bacillus,    312b,   314a. 

Backgammon,    312b. 

Bacon,   313a. 

Bacon,  Francis.  313a. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel.  313b. 

Bacon.  Roger,  313b. 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  313b. 

Bacteria  and  Bacteriology, 
314a. 

Baden,   315a. 

Baden,  Austria,   315b. 

Baden-Powell,  Robert  Steven- 
son  Smyth,    315b,    536b. 

Badger.   316a. 

Badger  State,  3896b. 

Bad  Lands.  316a,  3363a. 

Baeda.  372b. 

Baedeker  Tourist  Guides,  316b. 

Baffin,  William,  316b. 

Baffin's  Bav,   316b. 

Bagatelle,  316b. 

Bagdad,   316b. 

Bagpipe,    317a. 

Baguio,  P.  I..  3616b. 

Bahama  Islands,  317b. 

Bahia,    Brazil,    317b. 

Bahia  Blanca,  Argentina,  317b. 

Baikal,   Lake,    318a. 


Bail,  318a. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde,  318a. 

Bailiff.  318a. 

Bainbridge,  William,  318b. 

Baker,  Ray  Stannard,  318b. 

Bakersfield,   Calif.,   3l8b. 

Baking  Powder,   31Sb. 

Baku,    Russia,    319a. 

Balaam,  319a. 

Balaklava,  Russia,  319a. 

Balance  of  Power,  319a. 

Balance  of  Trade,  319b. 

Balas,    3324a. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  320a. 

Bald  Buzzard,  1334a. 

Bald  Cypress,  1014a. 

Balder,    320a. 

Baldness,  320b. 

Bald  Pate,  3869b. 

Baldwin,  Robert,  320b. 

Baldwin  of  Flanders,  997b, 

Balearic  Isles,  321a. 

Baleen,  3856a. 

Balfe,  Michael  William,  321a. 

Balfour,  Arthur  James,  321a. 

Baliol,   John  de,   321b,  3224a. 

Balkan  Mountains,  321b. 

Balkan  Wars,  322a,  596b. 

Balkash,  Lake,  323a. 

Ballad,  323b. 

Ball  and  Socket  Joint,  1906b. 

Ballarat,  Australia,  324a. 

Ballet,   324a. 

Balloon,  324b. 

Ballot,   32Cb. 

Ball's  Bluff,  Battle  of,  325b. 

Balm,  325b. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  325b,  2904a. 

Balsam,    325b. 

Balthasar,   2217b. 

Baltic  Sea,  32Ca. 

Baltimore.      George      Calvert, 

32Ga,  2265a. 
Baltimore,   ]Md.,   326b. 
Baltimore  Oriole,   328a. 
Baluchistan,   328a. 
Balzac,  Honore  de,  328b. 
Bamboo,  32Sb. 
Banana,  329a. 
Bancroft,  George,  330a. 
Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  320b. 
Band,  320b. 
Bandage,   331b. 
Banderillero,  598b. 
Bandicoot,   331b. 
Banff,   Alberta,    331b. 
Bangalore,.  India,  332a. 
Bangkok,  Siam,  332a. 
Bangor,  'Me.,  332a. 
Bangs,  John  Kendrick,  332b. 
Bangweolo,      Congo      District, 

332b. 
Banishment,  332b. 
Banjo,   332b. 
Bank  Discount.  1079b. 
Bank  Draft,  1111a. 
Bankers'   Method.   205b. 
Bank  Legals,  2386b. 
Bank  of  England,  335b. 
Bank  of  France,   335b. 
Bank    of    the    United    States, 

333a. 
Bankrupt,  333a. 
Banks  and  Banking,  333b. 
Bannockburn,  336b. 
Banns  of  Marriage,  336b. 
Banshees,    1294a. 
Bantu,   337a. 
Banyan,  337a. 
Baptism,   337a. 
Baptists.    337b. 
Baptist  Young  People's  Union, 

337b. 
Baranof  Island,  65a. 
Barbados  Islands.  337b. 
Barbados  Leg,  1211  a. 
Barbara.   Saint.   338a. 
Barbara  Frietchie,  3869a. 
Barbarian.    338a. 
Barbary,   338a. 
Barbecue,  338b. 


Basswood 

Barbel,   338b. 

Barber,   338b. 

Barberry,  339a. 

Barber's   Itch,    339a. 

Barbizon  Painters,   339b. 

Barcelona,    Spain,    339b. 

Bard,  340a. 

Barebones     Parliament,     340a, 

992a. 
Barefoot  Boy,  The,  3869a. 
Bareilly,  India,   340a. 
Barge  Canal,  New  York  State, 

2561b. 
Bar  Harbor,  Me.,  340a. 
Bari,  Italy,  340b. 
Barium,  340b. 
Bark,   340b,   3626b. 
Bark  Louse,   3208b. 
Barker's  Mill,  341a. 
Barley,  341a. 
Barmecide's  Feast,  341b. 
Barmen,   Germany,   341b. 
Barnabas,   342a. 
Barnacle,    342a. 
Barnacle  Goose,  342b. 
Barnard,    Frederick   Augustus 

Porter,    343a. 
Barnard,  George  Grey,   342b. 
Barnard,   Henry,   343a. 
Barnard  College,  343a. 
Barnburners,    343a,    2S87b. 
Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor,  343b. 
Baroda,  British  India,  344a. 
Barometer,  344a. 
Baron,  345b. 

Barr,    Amelia  Edith   Huddles- 
ton  345b. 
Barr,  Robert,   345b. 
Barracks      Emperors,       3263a, 

3732b. 
Barranquilla,    Colombia,    346a. 
Barras,     Paul     Francois     Jean 

Nicholas,  346a. 
Barre,  Vt.,  346a. 
Barrel,   346a. 
Barrett,   John,   2725a. 
Barrett,  Lawrence,  346b. 
Barrie,    James    Matthew,    346b. 
Barrie,  Ont.,   347a. 
Barrier    Reef,    347a. 
Barrister,  347a. 
Barrow  Point,   64a. 
Barry  (family),  347b. 
Barry,    Madame    du,    2172a. 
Barrymore   (family),   347b. 
Barter  and  Sale,  34Sa. 
Bartholdi,    Frederic    Auguste, 

348a. 
Bartholomew,  348a. 
Bartholomew's      Day,      Saint, 

348a. 
Bartlett,  Paul  Wayland,  348b. 
Bartolommeo,  Fra,  348b. 
Barton,  Clara,  349a. 
Baryta,    349a. 
Basal,  349b. 
Bascom,  John,  349b. 
Bascule  Bridge,  349b. 
Base,  349b. 
Baseball,  350a. 
Basel,  Council   of,   353a. 
Basel,  Switzerland,  353a. 
Basilar  Membrane,  1163b. 
Basilica,   353b. 
Basilisk,   353b. 
Basil  the  Great,  353b. 
Basin,  354a. 

Basin  of  Minas.  2344a,  2525a. 
Basket  and  Basketry,  354a. 
Basket   Ball,   356a. 
Basket  Ball    (theme),   3559b. 
Basque,  358a. 
Bass    (fish).   358a. 
Bass   (music),  3311b. 
Basse-Terre,     B.  W.  I.,     358b, 

3621a. 
Bassoon,  359a. 
Bas-relief,  358a.  1219b. 
Bass  Strait.  359a. 
Bass  Viol,  359a. 
Basswood,  359a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Bastien-Lepage,  Jules 


3998 


Big  Bend  State 


Bastien-Lepag-e,  Jules,  359b. 

Bastille,  359b. 

Basutoland,  359b. 

Bat,   360a. 

Batangras,  P.  I.,  360a. 

Batavia,  D.  E.  I,  360b. 

Batavia,  N  Y.,  360b. 

Bath,  360b. 

Bath,  Eng-..  361b. 

Bath,  Me.,  3C2a. 

Bathing-,  275a. 

Baths  of  Caracalla,  699a. 

Baton  Rouire,  La.,  362a. 

Batrachians,  362a. 

Battalion,  226b,  3C2a. 

Battenberg,  House  of,  362b. 

Battering-ram,  362b. 

Battery,   362b. 

Battery,  How  to  make  a,  1196b. 

Battle,  Trial  by,  36Sa. 

Battle  above  the  Clouds,  759b, 

1716a. 
Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  363a. 
.Battlefields      National      Park, 

2743a. 
Battleford,  Sask.,  3G3a. 
Battle  Hvmn  of  the  Republic, 

363b.  1728a. 
Battle  of  Chickamauga,  781a. 
Battle  of  the  Marne.  225Ga. 
Battle  of  the  Nations.  2472b. 
Battle  of  Verdun,  3755b. 
Battles,   Edward,  1319a. 
Battleship,   2497a. 
Batum,  Russia,  363b. 
Baucis  and  Pliilemon,  364a. 
Bauxite,   364a. 
Bavaria,  364a. 
Bavarian    Succession,    "War    of 

the,  3460a. 
Baxter,  Richard,  365a. 
Bay,  365a. 
Baya,   365a,  3838b. 
Bayard,     Pierre     du      Terrail, 

365b. 
Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  365b. 
Bay  City,  Mich.,  365b. 
Bayeux  Tapestry,  366a,   1219b. 

3513a. 
Bayonet,  366a. 
Bayonne,  N.  J.,  366a. 
Bayreuth,  Bavaria,  366a. 
Bay  Rum,  366b. 
Bay  "Window,  366b. 
Bazaine,       Francois       Achille, 

366b. 
Bazar,  366b. 
Beach,  Rex,  367a. 
Beagle,  367a. 
Beam,  367a, 
Bean,  367a. 

Beanbag  Game,  182a,  1439b. 
Bean  Bag  Race,  1440b. 
Bear,  367b. 
Bear,  Great.  368b. 
Bear  and  Bull,  369a. 
Bearberry,  369a. 
Beard,  369a. 
Beard,     Daniel     Carter,     369b, 

536b,  3261a, 
Bearded  Vulture,  2009b. 
Bear  State,   The,   214a, 
Beast,    Bird    or    Fish    (game), 

1441b. 
Beatrice,  Neb.,  369b. 
Beatrice  Portinari.  370a. 
Beatty,   David,   370a,    3924a. 
Beaumarclials,    Pierre    Augus- 

tin  Caron   de,   370a. 
Beaumont,  Francis,  370b. 
Beaumont,   Tex.,   370b. 
Beauregard,     Pierre     Gustave 

Toutant,  370b. 
Beaver,  371a. 
Beaver  State,  2672b. 
Bebel,  Ferdinand  August,  371b. 
Bechuana,  371b. 
Becket,  Thomas  k,  371b. 
Becky  Sharp,  372a. 
Bed,  372a. 


Bed   (geology).  372b. 

Bedbug,  372b. 

Bedbug  Poison,  139a. 

Bede,  The  Venerable,  372b. 

Bedford,   Ind.,  372b. 

Bedlam,   373a. 

Bedloe's  Island,  373a. 

Bedouins,  373a, 

Bee,  373b. 

Beech,  376a. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  376a. 

Beechcr,  Lyman,  376b. 

Beef,  377a,  1099b. 

Beef,  Extract  of,  377a. 

Beef  Cattle,  728b. 

Beelzebub,  377b. 

Beer,  377b. 

Beersheba,  377b. 

Beeswax,  378a,  3834b. 

Beet,  378a. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  378b. 

Beetle,  378b. 

Beet  Sugar,  3463a. 

Begin,  Louis  Nazaire,  379b. 

Begonia,  379b. 

Behring,  Emil  Adolf,  380a. 

Beirut,  Asiatic  Turkey,   380a. 

Bel,  309a. 

Belasco,  David,  380a, 

Belem,  Brazil,  273Ca. 

Belfast.  Ireland.  380b. 

Belgian  Congo,  912a. 

Belgian  Hare,  2992b. 

Belgium,  380b,  3917a, 

Belgrade,  Serbia.  384a, 

Belial,  3S4a. 

Belisarius,  384a. 

Belize,  British  Honduras,  384b, 

566b. 
Belknap,  William  W.,  1775b. 
Bell,   384b. 
Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  385a, 

1823a 
Bell,  John,  385b. 
Bell,  Robert,  385b. 
Belladonna,  385b. 
Belladonna  Lily,  386a. 
Bellaire,  O.,  38Ga. 
Bellamy,  Edward,  386a. 
Bellbird,  386a. 
Bell-crank,  386b. 
Belleau  Wood,   2253a, 
Belles-Lettres,   386b. 
Belle  Isle,  Strait  of.  386b. 
Bellerophon,  386b. 
Belleville,  111.,  387a. 
Belleville,  Ont.,  387a. 
Belligerent.  387a. 
Bellingham,  Wash.,  387a. 
Bellini,  Giovanni,  387b. 
Bellini,  Vincenzo,  387b. 
Bellona,  387b. 
Bellows,  387b. 
Bell  Metal,  570a. 
Bellows  Fish,  388a. 
Bell-Smith,  Frederick  Marlett, 

O  Q  go 

Belmont  (family),  388a. 
Beloit,  Wis.,  388b. 
Belshazzar,  38Sb,  422a. 
Belt,  388b. 

Belt,  The  Great,  389a. 
Beluga,  389a,  3453a. 
Benares,  India,  389a. 
Benedict,  Saint,   2382b. 
Benedict  XV,  389b. 
Benedictine,  390a. 
Benedictines,  390a. 
Benefit  of  Clergy,  390a. 
Bengal,  390a. 
Bengal,  Bay  of,  391a. 
Bengali,  391a. 

Bengough,   John  Wilson,   391a. 
Benguela,      Portuguese     West 

Africa,  391a. 
Benguela  Current,  2630a. 
Ben-Hur,   391b,   3789a. 
Benjamin,  391b. 
Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  391b. 
Ben  Lomond,  391b. 


Bennett,  [Enoch]  Arnold,  392b. 
Bennett,  James  Gordon,  392a. 
Ben  Nevis,  392b. 
Bennington,    Vt.,    392b. 
Bennington,  Battle  of,   393a. 
Bennington  Battle  Monument, 

3759a. 
Bentinck,        Count       Goddard, 

3878a 
Benton,'    Thomas    Hart,     393a, 

2366a. 
Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  393b. 
Benzene,     393b. 
Benzine,   393b. 
Benzoate  of  Soda,  28b,  393b. 
Benzol,  393b. 
Beowulf,  394a,  2120b. 
Berber,  394a. 

Beresford,  Lord  Charles,  394a. 
Bergamot,   394a. 
Bergen,  Norway,   394b. 
Bergh,  Henry,  996b. 
Bergson,  Henri  Louis,  394b. 
Bering,   Vitus,    395a. 
Bering  Island,   395a. 
Bering  Sea,   395a. 
Bering  Sea  Controversy,  395a. 
Bering  Strait,   395b. 
Berkeley,    Calif.,    395b. 
Berkeley,  William,  395b,  3799b. 
Berkshire    Hills,    396a. 
Berlin,  Congress  of,  396a. 
Berlin,    Germany,   396b. 
Berlin,  N.  H.,  398a. 
Berlin,  Treaty  of  3652b. 
Berlin,  University  of,  398a. 
Berliner,    Emile,    3506a. 

Berlioz,  Hector,  398a. 
Bermuda  Cedar,  733a. 
Bermuda  Grass,  398b. 

Bermuda  Islands.   398a. 
Bern,  Switzerland,  398b. 

Bernard,  Saint,  399a. 

Bernhardt,  Rosine,  399a. 

Bernini,      Giovanni      Lorenzo, 
399b,    3234a. 

Bernstorff,        Count        Johann 
Heinrich  von,  399b,  3927a. 

Bersaglieri,  400a. 

Bertillon  System,  400a. 

Bertrand.  Count,  706b. 

Beryl,  400b. 

Besant,  Annie,  3562a. 

Besant,  Walter,  400b. 

Bessarabia,  400b. 

Bessemer,  Ala.,  401a. 

Bessemer,  Henry,  401a. 

Bessemer  Converter,  3418a. 

Bessemer  Steel,  3418a. 

Bet,   3793b. 

Betel,  401a. 

Bethany,   402a. 

Bethel,  402a. 

Bethesda,  402a. 

Bethlehem,  402a. 

Bethlehem,   Pa.,  402a. 

Bethmann-Holweg,      Theobald 
Theodore  von,  402b. 

Beveridge,     Albert     Jeremiah, 
402b. 

Beyrout,  Asiatic  Turkey,  380a. 

Bhutan,  India,  402b. 

Bible,  403a. 

Bible  Schools,  3472a. 

Bible  Stories,  405b. 

Bibliography,  427a. 

Bibliomania,    427a. 

Bibliotheque    Nationale,    427a, 
2738a. 

Biceps,  427a. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury,  965b. 

Bicols,    2818a. 

Bicvcle,    427b. 

Biddeford,  Me.,  428a. 

Biela's  Comet,    898a. 

Biennials,    428a,   522a,    2788a. 

Bienville,     Jean     Baptiste     le 

Moyne,   428b. 
Bierstadt,  Albert,  428b. 
Bigamy,  428b. 
Big   Bend    State,    3538b. 


Tlie  letter  a,  alter  a  number,  indicates  colamn  1;  tlie  letter  b,  column  2. 


Big  Dipper 


3999 


Bonaparte,  Joseph 


Big-   Dipper.    368b. 
Bigelow,  Poultney,  429a. 

Bighorn,  429a,  3274b. 

Bighorn  River,  429b. 

Biglow    Papers,    429b. 

Bignonia,   429b. 

Big  Sandy  River,  429b. 

Big-  Trees,  325Ca. 

Bilbao.    Spain,    430a. 

Bile,  430a. 

Bile  Duct,  1433b. 

Bill.  43T)a. 

Bill   (legislative),  915b. 

Billiard   Balls,   431a. 

Billiards,  430b. 

Billings,  Mont.,  431b. 

Billingsgate,    431b. 

Bill  of  Attainder.  431b. 

Bill  of  Costs,   432a. 

Bill  of  Exchange.  432a. 

Bill  of  Health,  432a. 

Bill  of  Lading,  432a. 

Bill  of  Rights.  432b. 

Bill  of  Sale.  432b. 

Biloxi.  Miss.,  432b. 

Bimetallism,  433a. 

Binder  Twine.  433a. 

Bindweed.    433a. 

Bingen,    Germany,    433b. 

Bingen  on   the  Rhine,   434a. 

Binghamton.   N.   Y.,   434a. 

Binocular,  434a. 

Binomial,  434a. 

Binomial   Theorem,   434a. 

Biogenesis,    434a. 

Biography,    434b. 

Biological   Survey,   Bureau   of, 
51a. 

Biology,  449a,  3980a. 

Biplane,   The,    1362b. 

Birch.  449a. 

Bird,  449b.  2487a. 

Bird  Books,  458a. 

Bird  Day,  455b. 

Bird  Laws,  455b. 

Bird  Migration.   2334a. 

Bird  Reservations,  455a. 

Birds'    Christmas    Carol,    The, 
2138a. 

Bird's-eye  Maple,  2489a. 

Birds   of  Paradise.   458b. 

Birds  of  Prey.   459a. 

Birkenhead,  Eng.,  459a. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  459a. 

Birmingham,  Eng.,  460a. 

Birnam  Wood,  460a. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie,   460b, 
2894a. 

Births.  Deaths,  and  Marriages, 
Registration  of,  460b,  3043b. 

Birthstones,  461a. 

Bisbee,  Arizona,  461a. 

Biscay.  Bay  of,  461a. 

Bishop,   461a. 

Bismarck.  N.  D..   461b. 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  461b. 

Bismarck-Schonhausen.      Karl 
Otto  Bduard  Leopold,  462a. 

Bismuth.  462b. 

Bison.  590b. 

Bithynia.   Asia  Minor,  462b. 

Bitter  Ash,   2980a. 

Bittern,  463a. 

Bitternut,  463a. 

Bitterroot.    463a. 

Bitter  Spar,  1092b. 

Bitterweed.  2998a. 

Bitumen,  463a. 

Bituminous  Coal,  863a. 

Bituminous   Shale,   463b. 

Bivalves.   2380b. 

Bizet,    Alexandre    Cesar    Leo- 
pold, 463b. 

Bjornson.   Bjornstjerne,   463b. 

Black,   464a. 

Black,  William.  464a. 

Black  Art,  2502b 

Black  Beetle,  3826a. 

Blackberry,  464a. 

Blackbird,  464b. 

Blackburn,  Eng-.,  464b. 


Black-Capped  Chickadee, 

3586b. 
Black  Crabs,  2011b. 
Black  Death.  464b,  2864a. 
Black-eyed  Susan,  464b. 
Blackfish.   465a. 
Blackfoot  Indians,   465a. 
Black  Forest.  465a. 
Black  Friars,  1105a. 
Black  Friday,   1541a. 
Black  Grouper,  1894a, 
Black  Gum.   465a. 
Black  Hawk,  465a. 
Black  Hills,  465b,  3365a. 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  465b. 
Blacking-,  466a. 
Black  Lead.  2771b. 
Blacklist,   466a. 
Black  Locust,  1714a. 
Blackmail.  466a. 
Black  Man   (game),   1440a. 
Black  Monday,  2383b. 
Blackmore,       Richard       Dodd- 
ridge.  466a. 
Black  Mountains,   466b. 
Black  Sea,  466b. 
Blacksnake,    466b. 
Blackstone,  William.  467a. 
Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  467a. 
Blackwell's  Island,  467a. 
Bladderwort,   467b. 
Blaine,  Jarnes  Gillespie,  467b. 
Blair  (family),  468a. 
Blake,   Edward,  468b. 
Blake,  Robert.   468b. 
Blanc-mange,   468b. 
Blancos,  3723b. 
Bland,  Richard  Parks,  469a. 
Bland-Allison  Bill,  3712b. 
Blank  Verse,  469a. 
Blarney  Stone.  469a. 
Blashfield,     Edwin     Rowland, 

469b. 
Blast-furnace,  469b,  3416b. 
Blasting-.  469b. 
Blavatsky,     Helena    Petrovna, 

470a,    3562a. 
Bleaching.  470a. 
Bleak  House,    1072b. 
Bleeding  Heart,  470b. 
Blende,   470b. 
Blenheim,  470b,  1319b. 
Blennerhassett,  Harman,  471a. 
Blesbok,  471a. 

Blessed  Damosel,  The,  3120b. 
Blest  Be  the  Tie   That  Binds, 

1750b. 
Blight,   471a. 
Blindfish,  471a, 
Blindness,  471a. 
Blind  Spot,  1287b. 
Blindworm,  472b. 
Bliss,  Philip  Paul,  472b. 
Bliss,  Tasker  Howard,  472b. 
Blister,   473a. 
Blister  Pearls,  2765a. 
Blizzard,  473a. 
Blockade.  473a. 
Block  and  Tackle,  473b. 
Blockhouse.  474a. 
Bloemfontein,      (Drange      Free 

State,  474a. 
Blondel,  474a. 
Blood,  474b,  2842b. 
Blood,  Avenger  of,  475a. 
Blood,      Circulation      of      the, 

2842a. 
Blood.  Transfusion  of,  3608a. 
Bloodhound,  475a. 
Blood-money,  475a. 
Bloodroot,  475a. 
Bloodstone,  461a,  1665a. 
Bloody  Assizes,   475b. 
Bloomer   Costume,    475b. 
Bloomfleld-Zeisler,  Fanny, 

475b. 
Bloomington,  111.,   475b. 
Bloomington,  Ind.,  475b. 
Blossoms  and   Fruit.   3627b. 
Blount,  William,  1775a. 


Blowfly,   476a. 

Blowing-  Machine,  476a. 

Blowpipe,  476b. 

Blubber,  476b.  3240a. 

Blucher,     Gebhard     Leberecht 

von,  476b. 
Blue,  477a. 
Blue  Beach, 1720a. 
Bluebeard,  477a, 
Bluebell,  654b,  477a. 
Bluebird,  477a. 
Blue  Books,  477b. 
Bluebuck,   137a. 
Bluefield.  W.  Va.,  477b. 
Blueflelds,  Nicaragua,  477b. 
Bluefish,   478a. 
Blue  Grass,  478a. 
Blue  Grass  State,  1936b. 
Blue  Gum,   1266b. 
Blue  Hen   State.    1050b. 
Blue  Heron,  1679a. 
Blue  Laws,  478a. 
Blue  Mountains,  478b. 
Blue  Mondav.  2383b. 
Blue  Print,  478b. 
Blue  Racer,  466b. 
Blue  Ridge.  478b. 
Blue  Sky  Laws,  479a. 
Blue  Vitriol,   479a,  3467b. 
Blunderbuss,  479a. 
Blushing.  479b. 
Boa,  479b. 
Boabdil,  479b. 
Boar,  480a. 

Board  of  Aldermen,  77b,  829b. 
Board  of  Trade,  480a, 
Boat,  481b. 
Boatbill,  485a. 
Boatswain,  485a,  3637b. 
Bobolink,  485a. 
Bobwhite,  2978a. 
Boccaccio,  Giovanni,   485b. 
Bochum,  Germany.   486a. 
Bodleian  Library,  486a. 
Boehmeria.    486b. 
Boeotia.   486b. 
Boers,   486b,  3349b,  3610a. 
Bog,  486b. 
Bog  Asphodel.  252a. 
Bog  Bean,  585a. 
Bog  Oak,  486b. 
Bogota,  Colombia,  487a. 
Bohemia,  487a. 
Bohemian  Girl,  The,  321a. 
Bohlen,  Gustav  von,  1996a. 
Boies.  Horace,  487b. 
Boil.  488a. 
Boiler,  488a. 

Boiling  (cookery),  1100a. 
Boiling      Point,      488b.     2837a, 

3563b. 
Bois  de  Boulogne,  489a. 
Boise,  Ida.,  489a. 
Bok,  Edwin  W.,  489b. 
Bokhara,   489b. 
Bokhara  Rugs,  3130a. 
Boleyn,  Anne,  490a,  725b,  1671b. 
Bolingbroke,        Henry        Saint 

John,   490b. 
Bolivar,     Simon,     490b,     492b, 

3750b. 
Bolivia.    491a. 
Boll   Weevil.   492b.   3842b. 
Bologna,  Italy,  493a. 
Bolsheviki      and      Bolshevism, 

493b,      1326a,     3137b,     3138b, 

3145b,     3293a,    3377b,     3493a 

3638a,  3926a. 
Bolton,  494a. 
Bomb,  494a. 

Bombardier  Beetle,  494b. 
Bombardment,    494b. 
Bombay  (city),  495b. 
Bombay  (Presidency),  494b. 
Bombazine,  496a. 
Bona  Fide    496a. 
Bonanza,  496a. 
Bonaparte    (family),    496a. 
Bonaparte,  Charles,  2470b. 
Bonaparte,   Joseph,   2472a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Bond 


4000 


Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett 


Bond,  497b. 

Bonded  Warehouses,  1011b. 

Bone,  498b. 

Boneblack,  499a. 

Boneset,  499a. 

Bonheur,  Marie  Rosa,  499a. 

Bon     Homme     Richard,     499a, 

3057a. 
Boniface  (Popes),  499b. 
Boniface,  Saint,  499b. 
Bonito,  499b. 
Bonn,  Germany,  500a. 
Bonnet-rouge,  500a,  2095b. 
Bonspiel,    1009b. 
Bonus,  500a. 
Bony  Fish,  2298a. 
Booby,  500a. 
Book,   500b. 
Bookbinding,   501b. 
Bookkeeping,   502b. 
Book  of  Mormon,  2413a. 
Bookplate,  503b. 
Books   for  Young   People   and 

Adults,    3012b. 
Bookworm,  504a. 
Boomerang,  504a. 
Boomer  State,  2646a. 
Boone,    Daniel,    504a,    1941a. 
Boone,  Iowa,  504b. 
Booth    (family),   504a,   3179b. 
Booth,  John  Wilkes,  2113b. 
Booth-Tucker,  Frederick,  505b. 
Boots  and  Shoes,  506a. 
Borage,  507a. 
Borax,  507a. 
Bordeaux,  France,  507b. 
Bordeaux  Mixture,  1806b. 
Borden,  Robert  Laird,   507b. 
Bore,  508a. 
Boreas,   508a. 
Borghese   (family),  508a. 
Borghese   Palace,    508a. 
Borgia   (family),  508b. 
Borglum,  Gutzen,  508b,  3428a. 
Boric  Acid,   509a. 
Boring  Machines,  509a. 
Borneo,    509b. 
Boron,  510a. 
Bosnia,   510a. 
Bosporus.  510b. 
Boston,  Mass.,  510b. 
Boston  Massacre,   515a. 
Boston  Tea  Party,  515a. 
Boston   University,    515a. 
Boswell,  James.  515a. 
Bosworth     Field,     Battle     of, 

515b. 
Botanic  Garden,  515b. 
Botany,  516a. 
Botany  Bay,  529a. 
Botfly,  529a. 
Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  529a. 
Bothwell,       James       Hepburn, 

Earl  of,    529a. 
Botticelli.  Sandro,  529b,  2704a. 
Bottle,  529b. 
Bottle-tree,  530a. 
Boucicault,  Dion,    530a. 
Boughton,  George  Henry.  530a. 
Boulanger,      Georges      Ernest 

Jean  Marie  530a. 
Boulder,  530b. 
Boulder,   Col.,   530b. 
Boulogne,  France,   530b. 
Bounty,   531a. 
Bouquetin,  1753b. 
Bourbon,  531a. 
Bourbon.   He  de.   3053b. 
Bourgeoisie,   532a. 
Bourget,  Paul,   532a. 
Bourinot,  John  George,  532a. 
Bow,    532b. 

Bowdoin,   James,   532h. 
Bowdoin    College,    532b. 
Bowell,  Mackenzie,  533a. 
Bower-bird,    533a. 
Bowery,   The,    533b. 
Bowie,    James,    63a. 
Bowling,    533b. 
Bowling   Green,    Ky.,    534a. 
Box-elder,    534b. 


Boxer  Rebellion,  534b. 

Boxing,   534b. 

Boxing  the  Compass,  535a. 

Box  Kite,   1987a. 

Box  Tortoise,  535a, 

Box  Tree,  535b. 

Boycotting,    535b. 

Boy  Kite,   1987b. 

Boyle's  Law,  535b, 

Boyne,    Battle    of   the,    535b. 

Boys  and  Girls   Clubs,  536a. 

Boy  Scouts,  536b,  3261a. 

Boy      Scouts'      Signal      Code, 

3301a. 
Boy's  Song,  A,  2034b. 
Bozeman,    Mont.,    537a. 
Bozzaris,   Marco,  537a. 
Brabant,     537b. 
Braddock,    Edward,    537b. 
Braddock,    Pa.,    538a. 
Bradford,    Eng.,    538a. 
Bradford,    Pa.,    538a. 
Bradford,    William,    538b. 
Bradley,    Joseph    Philo,    538b. 
Bradstreet,    Anne,    538b. 
Brady,  Cyrus  Townsend,  539a. 
Bragg,   Braxton.    539a. 
Brahe,  Tycho,  539b. 
Brahma,   539b. 
Brahmanism,    539b. 
Brahmaputra,    540b. 
Brahms.  Johannps.  541a. 
Braille  System,  472a. 
Brain,  541a. 
Brain,     Development     of     the 

2963a. 
Brake,    (mechanics),   542a. 
Brake,    (plant),   542b. 
Bramante,   Donate,    542b. 
Bramble,    542b. 
Bran.   542b.   1353b. 
Brandeis,       Lewis       Demblitz, 

542b. 
Brandenburg,  Prussia,  543a. 
Brnndes,   Georg  Morris  Cohen, 

543a. 
iBrandon,  Man.,   543b. 
Brandy,    543b. 
Brandywine,     Battle     of     the, 

54  3b. 
Brangwyn,  Frank,  543b. 
Brant,  Joseph,  544a,  2657b. 
Brant   Goose,    551a. 
Brantford,   Ont.,   544a. 
Brass,    544a. 
Brazen   Serpent,    544b. 
Brazil,   Ind.,   544b. 
Brazil,    The  United   States   of, 

545a. 
Brazilian    Current,    2630a. 
Brazil    Nut,    547b. 
Brazilwood,   547b. 
Brazos  River,   547b. 
Breach  of  Promise,   548a. 
Breach  of  the  Peace,   2761a. 
Bread,    548a,   2491b. 
Breadfruit,   548b. 
Breakspear,  Nicholas,  28a. 
Breakwater,   549a. 
Breathing,    549b. 
Breathing  Exercises,  2835a. 
Breckenridge,      John      Cabell, 

550a. 
Breeches  Bible,  404b. 
Breeding,   550a. 
Bremen,    Germany,    550b. 
Bremerhaven,  Germany,  551a. 
Brent  Goose,   551a. 
Brescia,  Italy,  551a. 
Breslnu.   Germany,   551a. 
Brest-Litovsk,  Russia,  551b. 
Brest,  France,  551b. 
Bretagne,  or  Brittany,   5'^8a. 
Breton,  Jules  Adolph,  552a. 
Brevet,    552a. 
Breviary,  552a. 
Brewer.   David   Josiah,    552a. 
Brewing,    5.'i2b. 
Brewster,   David,   553a.   1359a. 
Brewster,    William.    553a. 
Briand,  Aristide,  553a. 


Bribery,    553b. 
Brick  and  Bricklaying,  553b. 
Brick  Pavement,  2759b. 
Bridge,  555a. 
Bridge    (game),   3862b. 
Bridge  of  Sighs,   557b,    3751b. 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,   557b. 
Bridges,  Robert,   558a. 
Bridge    Whist,    3862b. 
Bridgman.  Laura  Dewey,  558a. 
Brigade,  227a,  558b. 
Brigandage,  558b. 
Bright,  John.   558b. 
Brighton,  Eng.,  559a. 
Bright's  Disease,  559a. 
Brimstone,  559a,   3467a. 
Briquettes,  1422a. 
Brisbane,  Arthur,   559b. 
Brisbane,    Australia,    559b. 
Bristles,   559b. 
Bristol,  Conn.,  559b. 
Bristol,  Eng.,  560a. 
Bristol,  R.  I.,  560a. 
Bristol,  Tenn,  560a. 
Bristol,  Va.,  560a. 
Bristol  Board,  702b. 
Bristol  Channel,   560b. 
Bristow,  Benjamin  H.,  3862a. 
British  Almanac,  100b. 
British  America,   560b. 
British     Association     for     the 

Advancement      of      Science, 

560b. 
British  Cabinet,  624a. 
British  Colonies,  883b. 
British  Columb'a,   561a. 
British  East  Africa,  565a. 
British  Empire,  565a. 
British  Guiara,  566a. 
British  Honduras,  566b. 
British  Isles,   567a. 
British  Museum,  567a. 
British     North     America     Act, 

567b,  2986b. 
British   Somaliland,   3344b. 
British  West  Indies,   567b. 
Britannia   Secunda,    3796a. 
Brittany,  568a. 
Broad   Church,   1235b. 
Broadway,  2556a. 
Brocade,  568a. 
Brock,  Isaac,  568b. 
Brockton,  Mass.,  568b. 
Brockville,  Ont.,   568b. 
Brodeur,  Louis  Philippe,   569a. 
Broiling  (cooking),   1099b. 
Broken  Wind,  1659b. 
Broker,  569a. 
Bromides,  569b. 
Bromine,  569b. 
Bronchial  Tubes,  569b. 
Bronchitis,  569b. 
Bronte,  Charlotte,  570a. 
Bronze,  570a. 
Bronze  Age,  570b. 
Brook  Farm,  570b. 
Brookline,  Mass.,  570b. 
Brooklvn,  N.  Y.,  571a. 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  557a,  3090b. 
Brooks,  Phillips,  571a. 
Brooks,  Preston  Smith,  571b. 
Broom  Corn,  571b. 
Broom  Grass,  571b. 
Brother  Jonathan,  571b,  3640a. 
Brough,  Frances,  2255a. 
Broussa,   577b. 
Brown,  572a. 
Brown,       Charles       Brockden, 

572a. 
Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth,  572a. 
Brown,  George,   572a. 
Brown,  Jacob,  3805b. 
Brown,  John  (American),  572b. 
Brown,      John       (Scotchman), 

572b. 
Brown,   John  George,   573a. 
Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  573a. 
Brownies,  The,   573a,  979b. 
Browning,    Elizabeth    Barrett, 

573b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Browning,  Robert 


4001 


Browning,  Robert,  574a. 
Browning  Gun,  2203a,  3074a. 
Brownstone,  594b. 
Brownsville,  Tex..  574b. 
Browntail  Moth,  575a,  3656b. 
Brown  Thrasher,  575a,  3576a. 
Brown  Thrush,    The,   2027a. 
Brown  University,  575a. 
Bruce,   Robert,   575b,   3224a. 
Bruges,  Belgium,  575b. 
Brummell,  George  Bryan,  576a. 
Brunelleschi,  Filippo,  576a. 
Brunhilde,  3302a. 
Brunn,  Austria,   576a. 
Brunswick    (family),    576b. 
Brunswick      (former     duchy), 

576b. 
Brunswick,  Ga.,  577a. 
Brunswick,  Germany,   577a. 
Brunswick  Black,  577b. 
Brusa,   577b. 
Brush,  577b. 

Brush,  Charles  Francis,  577b. 
Brussels,  Belgium,  578a. 
Brussels  Rug,  3130b. 
Brussels  Sprouts,  578b. 
Brutus,  Decimus  Junius,   578b. 
Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  578b. 
Bryan,  William  Jennings,  579a, 

3713a 
Brvant,"  William  Cullen,   580a, 

3022a. 
Bryce,  George,   580b. 
Bryce,  James,   581a. 
Bryn  Mawr  College,  581a. 
Bryophytes,    516b,    518a,    581a, 

2144a. 
Bubastis,   581b. 
Bubonic   Plague,   2864a. 
Buccaneers,   581b,   2411b. 
Bucentaur,   581b. 
Bucephalus,  581b. 
Buchanan,  James,  583a. 
Buchanan,      Robert      William, 

583b. 
Bucharest,  Peace  of,  3652b. 
Bucharest,  Rumania,  585a. 
Buck,  Dudley,  585a. 
Buck  Bean,   585a. 
Buckboard,  585b. 
Bucket  Shop,  585b. 
Buckeye,  585b,  2637a. 
Buckingham,    George    Villiers, 

585b. 
Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  586a. 
Buckler,  3280a. 

Buckner,  Simon  Bolivar,  586a. 
Buckskin,   586a,   1048a, 
Buckthorn,   586b. 
Bucolics,  3756a. 
Buckwheat,  586b. 
Bud,   587a. 

Budapest,   Hungary,    587a. 
Buddha,  588a. 
Buddhism,  588a. 
Budding,   1544a. 
Budget,  589a. 

Budget,    The    (Canada),    2747a. 
Buds  and  Branches,  3626a. 
Buell,  Don  Carlos,  589a. 
Buena  Vista,  Battle  of.  589b. 
Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  589b. 
Buffalo,  590a. 
Buffalo,  N.  y.,  591a. 
Buffalo  Bill,   872b. 
Buffalo  Grass,  592a. 
Buffalo  Park,  2743a. 
Bug,   592a. 
Buggy,  592b. 
Bugle,  592b. 
Building,  593a. 
Building  Laws,  594a. 
Building-stone,  594b,  3678b. 
Bukharest,    Rumania,    585a. 
Bukowina,  594b. 
Bulb,  595a. 

Bulgaria,  595b,  3764a. 
Bull,  597b. 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann,   597b. 
Bullard,  Robert  Lee,  597b. 


Bulldog,  598a. 

Buller,  Redvers,  3350a. 

Bullet,  598a. 

Bullfighting,  598a, 

Bullfinch,   598b. 

Bullfrog,  598b. 

Bullion,  599a. 

Bullion  State,  2366a. 

Bullock,   William,  2546b. 

Bull  Run,  Battles  of,  599a, 

Bulls  and  Bears,  369a. 

Bull's-eye,  599b,  3515a. 

Bulow,  Bernhard  Heinrich, 
599b. 

Bulow,  Hans  Guido  von,  599b. 

Bulrush,   600a. 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Edward  George 
Earle,  600a. 

Bulyea,  George  Headley  Vick- 
ers,  600a. 

Bumblebee,  600a. 

Bundesrat,  600b. 

Bundes-Versammlung,  3488a. 

Bungalow,  161a.  600b. 

Bunion,    601a. 

Bunker,  2298a. 

Bunker  Hill,  Battle  of,  601a. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm  Eber- 
ard,   601b. 

Bunsen's  Battery,  601b. 

Bunsen's  Burner,  601b. 

Bunt,  601b. 

Bunting,   601b. 

Bunyan,   602a. 

Buoy,   602a. 

Burbank,  Luther,  464a,  602b. 

Burbank  Potato,  2923b. 

Burbot,  604b. 

Burdette,  Robert  Jones,  604b. 

Burdock,  605a. 

Bureau,  605a. 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnog- 
raphy, 1265a. 

Bureau  of  American  Repub- 
lics, 2725a. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
3766a. 

Bureau  of  Corporations,  1305a. 

Burgesses,  House   of,   1871a. 

Burglary,   605a. 

Burgomaster,   605b. 

Burgoyne,   John,   605b. 

Bur  Grass,  3184a. 

Burgundy,  605b. 

Burgundy  Wines,  605b. 

Burial,  605b. 

Burke,  Edmund,  606a. 

Burlap,  606b. 

Burlesque,  606b,  1115a. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  606b. 

Burlington,  la.,  607a. 

Burlington,  N.  J.,   607a. 

Burlington,  Vt.,  607a. 

Burma,   607b. 

Burne-Jones,  Edward,  608a. 

Burnett,  Frances  Eliza  Hodg- 
son, 608a. 

Burnham,  Daniel  Hudson,  608b. 

Burnham,  Sherburne  Wesley, 
608b. 

Burning,  896b. 

Burning  Glass,  609a,  2084b. 

Burnley,  Eng.,  609a. 

Burns,  John.  609a. 

Burns,  Robert,  609b. 

Burns  and   Scalds,   610b. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett, 
610b. 

Burnt  Offering,   3153a. 

Burr,  Aaron,  611a. 

Burroughs.  John,  611b. 

Burying  Beetle,  611b. 

Bury  the  Hatchet,  3592b. 

Bushbuck,    137a. 

Bushel.   612a. 

Bushmen,  612a. 

Bushnell,  David,  1823a. 

Business  College,  612a. 

Bust,  612b. 

Bustard,  612b. 


Calcimine 

Butcher  Bird,  3290b. 

Butler,  Benjamin  F.,  612b. 

Butler,  Ellis  Parker,  613a. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  613a. 

Butler,  Pa.,   613b. 

Butler  College,  613b. 

Butte,  613b. 

Butte,  Mont.,  613b. 

Butter,  614a. 

Buttercup,  614b. 

Buttercup  Family,  524a. 

Butter  Faciory,  983a. 

Butterfly,  615a. 

Butterfly  Kite,  1987b. 

Butterine,  2653b. 

Butternut,  618a. 

Butterweed,  1345b. 

Butterwort,  618a. 

Butterworth,  Hezekiah,  618a. 

Buttons,  618b. 

Buttress,  619a. 

Butyric  Acid,  619a. 

Buzzard,   619a. 

Buzzard's  Bay,  619a. 

By-law,  619a. 

Byrom,  John,  3287b. 

Byron,    George    Noel    Gordon, 

619b. 
Byzantine  Art,  620b. 
Byzantine  Empire,  621a. 
Byzantine  Architecture,  164b. 
Byzantium,  622b,  925b. 


C.  623a. 
Caaba,   1922a. 
Cabal,   623a. 
Cabbage,  623a. 
Cabbage  Palm,  623b. 
Cabbage  Rose,  623b. 
Cabinet  (British),  1560a. 
Cabinet,  Coalition,  865b. 
Cabinet  Making,  625b. 
Caliinet  of  the  President,  624a. 
Cabin  John  Bridge,    158a. 
Cal'le,      George      Washington. 

625b. 
Cable,  Submarine,  626a. 
Cabot   (family),  .627b. 
Cabot,  Sebastian,  3779b. 
Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez.  628a. 
Cabul,  Afghanistan.  1922a. 
Cadorna,  General,  3922a. 
Caecum,   1822a. 
Cacao.   628a. 
Cactus,  628b. 
Caddice  Fly,  629b. 
Caddoan  Indians,  629b. 
Cadillac,  Mich.,  629b. 
Cadiz,  Spain,  629b. 
Cadmium.  630a. 
Cadmus,  630a,  2450b. 
CJaduceus,  630a. 
Caedmon,  630b. 
Caesar,  630b. 
Caesar,     Caius     Julius,     630b, 

848b. 
Caesium,  632a. 
Caffeine,  632a,  873a. 
Caffetannic  Acid,  3512a. 
Cagliari,  632b. 
Caiaphas.  632b. 
Cain,  632b. 
Caine,     Thomas     Henry    Hall, 

632b. 
Cairn,  633a. 
Cairo,  Egypt,  633a. 
Cairo.  111..   633b. 
Caisson  (artillery),  634a. 
Caisson      (engineering),     633b, 

1088a. 
Calabar  Bean.  634a. 
Calabash,  634b. 
Calais.  France,  634b. 
Calamint.  634b. 
Calamus.   635a. 
Calceolaria.  635a. 
Calcimine,  635a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nnmber,  Indicates  colnnm  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Calcination 

Calcination,  635a. 
Calcite,  635b. 
Calcium,  635b. 
Calcium  Carbide,  635b. 
Calculating  Machines,  635b. 
Calculus  (mathematics),  636a. 
Calculus  (medicine),  636b. 
Calcutta,   British   India,   636b. 
Caledonia,  637a,  3219b. 
Caledonian  Canal,  637a. 
Calendar,  637a. 
Calends,  1923b. 
Calgary,  Alberta,  638a. 
Calhoun,  John   Caldwell,   638b. 
Calico,  639b. 
Calico  Bush,  1923b. 
California,  640a. 
California,  Gulf  of,  645a. 
California,  University  of,  645a. 
California   Current,    2630b. 
Calig-ula,  Gaius  Caesar  Augus- 
tus  Germanicus,    645b. 
Calipers,  645b. 
Caliph,  645b. 
Calipha,  2414b. 
Calisthenics,  646a. 
Calixtus  (Popes),  646a. 
Calking,  646a. 
Calla,  646a. 
Callao,  Peru,  646a. 
Calling  Hare,  2852a. 
Calliope,  646b. 

Calliope    (mythology).    2438b. 
Calms,  Regions  of,  646b. 
Calmucks,    1924a. 
Calomel,  646b. 
•  Calorie,  646b,  1367a,  3564a. 
Calorimeter,  647a. 
Calory,   646b. 
Calumet,  647a. 
Calumet      and      Hecla      Mine, 

2346b. 
Calvary,  647a. 
Calve,  Emma,  647a. 
Calvin  and  Calvinism,  647a. 
Calycanthus,  648a. 
Calypso,  648a. 
Calyx,  519a,  648a,  1354a. 
Cam,  648a. 

Camaguey,  Cuba,  648a. 
Cambodia,  Indo-China,  648b. 
Cambodia  River,   2293b. 
Cambon,  Jules  Martin,  648b. 
Cambrai,  France,  648b. 
Cambrian  Period,  649a. 
Cambrian  System,  649a. 
Cambric,  649a. 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  649a. 
Cambridge,  O.,  649b. 
Cambridge,       University       of, 

649b. 
Cambyses,  649b,  1190b. 

Camden,  Battles  of,  650a. 

Camden,  N.  J.,  650a. 

Camel,  650b. 

Camel  Bird,  2688a. 

Camellia,  651a. 

Camelopard,  1513b. 

Cameo,  651a,  2931a. 

Camera,  651b. 

Camera  Lucida,   652b. 

Camera  Obscura,  652b. 

Cameron,  Simon,  652b. 

Camille,   653a,  1153a. 

Camoes,  Luis  de,  653a. 

Camomile,   748a. 

Camorra,  653a. 

Camouflage,   238a,  653b. 

Camp,  Walter,  653b. 

Campagna  di  Roma,  654a. 

Campanile,  384b,  654a. 

Campanini,  Cleofonte,  654a. 

Campanula,  654b. 

Campbell,    Alexander,   654b. 

Campbell     Alexander     (Cana- 
dian). 654b. 

Campbell,  Colin,  655a. 

Campbell.  Thomas,  655a. 

Campbell-Bannerman,     Henry 
655b. 


4002 

Campeachy,  655b. 
Camp-Pire  Girls,  655b. 
Camphor,  656b. 
Campo-Formio,       Treaty       of, 

1853b. 
Campo  Santo,  657a. 
Camps  and  Camping,  657a. 
Campus  Martius,  660a. 
Canaan,  411a. 
Canaanites,  660a. 
Canada,  Dominion  of,  660b. 
Canada,     Supreme     Court     of, 

3475b. 
Canada  and   the   World   War, 

665b. 
Canada  Balsam,  676a. 
Canada  East,  2984b. 
Canada  Goose,  676a. 
Canada  Thistle,  676b. 
Canada  West,   2658a. 
Canadian      Agricultural   Col- 
leges, 51b. 
Canadian  Banks,  336b. 
Canadian  Cabinet,  624b. 
Canadian  Civil  Service,  836b. 
Canadian  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 51b. 
Canadian    Experiment    Farms 

and  Stations,  52a. 
Canadian  Hemp,   1091a. 
Canadian    Northern    Railway, 

3002b. 
Canadian   Northwest,    3134b. 
Canadian      Pacific      Railroad, 

3002b. 
Canadian  River,  676b. 
Canadian        Rockies,  .      3088b, 

3089a. 
Canadian  Rugby,  1371a. 
Canadian      Weather      Bureau. 

3838a 
Canadian  Universities,  3720b. 
Canal,  676b. 

Canals  of  Canada,  678a. 
Canal   Zone,    2722b. 
Canary,  679b. 
Canary  Current,  2630a. 
Canary  Islands,  680a. 
Canary  Seed,  680a. 
Cancellation,  680b. 
Cancer       (astronomy),       681a, 

3638a. 
Cancer  (medical),  680b. 
Candahar,  Afghanistan,  1924b. 
Candle,  681b. 
Candleberry,  681b. 
Candlefish,  681b. 
Candlemas.  681b,  3908a. 
Candy,  681b. 
Candytuft,  682b. 
Cane,  682b. 
Canella,  683a. 
Cane   Sugar,   3462b. 
Canine  Tooth,  3527a. 
Canis  Major,  683a. 
Canker,  683a. 
Cankerworm,  683a. 
Cannae,  Italy,  683a. 
Cannel  Coal,  863a. 
Cannibal,  683b. 
Canning,  683b. 
Canning,  George,  1562b. 
Canning  Clubs,  685a. 
Cannon.  685b. 

Cannon,   Joseph  Gurney,   686b 
Canoe,  687a. 
(Z;anon  Law,  687b. 
Canonization,   687b. 
Canova.  Antonio,  687b,  3234b. 
Cantabrian  Mountains,  688a. 
Cantaloupe,  2444a. 
Cantata,  688a. 
Canterbury,  Eng.,   688a. 
Canterbury  Tales,   688b,  760b, 

2121a. 
Canticles,  3343a. 
Cantilever  Bridge,  556a. 
Canton  (district).  1061a. 
,    Canton,  China,  688b. 
Canton,  111.,  689a. 


Carbonic  Acid 

Canton,  O.,  689a. 

Cantonment,  689a. 

Canute,   689b. 

Canvas,   689b. 

Canvasback,  690a,  1150a. 

Canyon,   690a,   3079b. 

Canyons    of    the    Yellowstone, 

3963a. 
Caoutchouc,  3128a. 
Cap,  690a. 

Capacity,   Measures    of,    2300a. 
Cape  Ann,  690a. 
Cape  Barrow,  690a. 
Cape  Blanco,  690a. 
Cape  Breton,  690b. 
Cape  Charles,  690b. 
Cape  Clear,  690b. 
Cape  Cod,  690b. 
Cape  Cod  Canal,  691a. 
Cape  Comorin,  691a. 
Cape  Fear,  691a. 
Cape  Flattery,  691b. 
Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  691b. 
Cape  Hatteras,  691b. 
Cape  Henlopen,  691b. 
Cape  Henry,  691b. 
Cape  Horn,  691b. 
Cape  Jasmine,   1878b. 
Cape  Lookout,  691b. 
Cape  May,  N.  J.,  692a. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  692a. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Province 

of  the,  692a. 
Caper,  693a. 
Capercailzie,  693b. 
Capernaum,  693b. 
Cape  Sable,  693b. 
Cape  Saint  Vincent,  693b. 
Capetian  Dynasty,  693b. 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railway,   693b. 
Cape  Town,  So.  Africa,  694b. 
Cape  Verde,  695a. 
Cape   Verde  Islands,    695a. 
Cape  Wrath,  695a. 
Capias,  695a. 
Capillaries,  695b. 
Capillarity,   695b. 
Capital   (architecture),  696b. 
Capital    (economics),   696a. 
Capital  Letters,  "696b. 
Capital  Punishment,  696b. 
Capital  Punishment  Should  be 

Abolished    (theme),    3560b. 
Capitals  of  the  United  States, 

697a. 
Capital  Stock,  3424b. 

Capitol,  697a. 

Cap  of  Liberty,  500a. 

Cappadocia,  697b. 

Capricorn,  Tropic  of,  3638a. 

Capricornus,  697b. 

Caprification,  1320b. 

Caprivi,  George  Leo,  697b. 

Capsicum,  697b. 

Capsule,  697b. 

Capua,  Italy,  698a. 

Capuchins,  698a. 

Capybara,  698b. 

Carabao,    698b. 

Caracal,  698b. 

Caracalla,  698b. 

Caracalla.  Baths  of,  3096b. 

Caracas,  699a. 

Caramel,  699a. 

Carat,  699a. 

Caravaggio,  Michelangelo 

Amerigi  Merisi  da,  699b. 

Caravan,  699b,  3156b. 

Caravel,  699b. 

Caraway,  700a. 

Carbohydrate,       700a,       1096b, 
1367a. 

Carbolic  Acid,  139a,  700a. 

Carbon,  700a. 

Carbonate   Ore,    1837b. 

Carbonates,   700b. 

Carbondale,   Pa.,   700b. 

Carbon  Dioxide,  701a. 

Carbon  Disulphide,  700b,  3467b, 

Carbonic  Acid,  767a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  h,  column  2. 


Carbonic  Acid  Gas 


4003 


Certiorari 


Carbonic  Acid  Gas.  139a,  701a. 
Carbonic  Oxide,  139b,  701a. 
Carboniferous  Period,  701b. 
Carboniferous   System,   701b. 
Carbon  Monoxide,  701a. 
Carborundum,  701b. 
Carbuncle,  100b,  702a. 
Carburetor,   702a. 
Cardemom,  702b. 
Cardboard,  702b. 
Cardenas,   703a. 
Cardiff,  Wales,  703a. 
Cardinal,  703a. 
Cardinal  Bird,  703a. 
Cardinal  Flower,  703b. 
Cardinals,  College  of,  3152b. 
Cards,  Playing.  703b. 
Caret.  1646b. 
Carey,  Henry,  703b. 
Carey  Act,   1842a. 
Caribbean  Sea,  703b. 
Caribou,  704a. 
Caribs,  3621b. 
Caricature,  704a,  714b. 
Carleton,  Guy,  704a. 
Carleton,  Will,  704b. 
Carlisle.  Pa.,  704b. 
Carlos  I,  704b. 
Carlsbad,  Bohemia,  705a. 
Carlsruhe,  Germany,  705a. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  705a. 
Carman,  Albert,  706a. 
Carman,  (William)  Bliss,  706a. 
Carmel,  706b 
Carmelites,  706b. 
Carmen,  463b.  558b,  706b,  2306b. 
Carmine,  706b. 
Carnation,   707a. 
Carneg'ie,   Andrew.   707a. 
Carnegie    Foundation    for    the 
Advancement    of    Teaching, 
707b. 
Carnegie  Hero  Fund,  707b. 
Carnegie  Institution,  707b. 
Carnegie  Libraries.   708a. 
Carnegie  Peace  Fund.  708a. 
Carnelian,  708a. 
Carnivorous  Animals.  708b. 
Carnivorous  Plants,  708b. 
Carnot,    Marie    Francois    Sadi, 

708b. 
Carolina  Jasmine,  1879a. 
Carolingians,  709a. 
Carotid  Arteries,  709a. 
Carp,  709a. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  709b. 
Carpenter,  Frank  George,  709b. 
Carpenter-bee,  709b. 
Carpet,  709b. 

Carpetbaggers,  710a,  3711b. 
Carpet  Beetle,  710a. 
Carpet  Sweeper,  710b. 
Carpus,   3318b. 
Carracci.  710b. 
Carrageen.  1836a. 
Carranza,      Venustiano,      710b, 

2322b,  3884b. 
Carrara  Marble,  710b,  2249a. 
Carrel,  Alexis,  711a,  2577b. 
Carriage,  711a. 
Carrier  Pigeon,  711b. 
Carroll,  Charles,  711b. 
Carrot,  712a. 

Carson,  Christopher,  712a. 
Carson,  Edward  Henry,  712a. 
Carson  City,  Nev.,  712b. 
Cartagena,  Colombia,  712b. 
Cartagena,  Spain,   712b. 
Carte  Blanche,  713a. 
Oarteret,  George,  713a. 
Carthage,  713a. 
Carthage,  Mo.,  713b. 
Carthusians,   714a. 
Cartier,  Georges  Etienne,  714a. 
Cartier,  Jacques,  714a. 
Cartilage  Gristle,  714b. 
Cartilaginous  Tissue,  921b 
Cartoon,  714b. 
Cartouche,  714b. 


Cartridge,  715a. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  715a. 

Caruso,  Enrico,  715a. 

Carver,  John,  715b. 

Carving,  715b. 

Cary,  Alice  and  Phoebe,  715b. 

Caryatides.  716a,  1249b. 

Casaba  Melon,  716a. 

Casablanca,  716a. 

Casa  Grande  Ruin,  2742a. 

Cascade,  723a. 

Cascade  Range,  716a. 

Cascade  Tunnel,  716b. 

Cascara,  716b. 

Cascarilla,  716b. 

Casco  Bay,  716b. 

Casein,  716b. 

Cashmere,  1932b. 

Cashmere  Goat,  717a. 

Cash  Register,  717a. 

Casimir-Perier,       Jean       Paul 
Pierre,  717a. 

Caspian  Sea,  717b. 

Cass,  Lewis,  717b. 

Cassandra,  717b. 

Cassava,  718a. 

Cassell,  Germany,  718a. 

Cassia,  718a. 

Cassino,  718a. 

Cassiopeia,   718b. 

Cassiterite,  718b,  3583b. 

Cassowary,  719a. 

Cast.  719a. 

Castanets,  719a. 

Caste,  719b. 

Castile,  719b. 

Castile  Soap,  3334a. 

Castilloa  Tree,  3127a. 

Castle,  719b. 

Castle,    Edgerton    and    Agnes, 
720a. 

Castle  Garden,  720b. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  720b. 

Castor  Oil,  720b. 

Cat,  721a. 

Catacombs,  721b. 

Catalepsy,  722a. 

Catalina  Island,  722a. 

Catalpa,   722b. 

Catamount,  722b.  3870b. 

Cat  and  Mouse   (game),  1440a. 

Catania,  722b. 

Catapult,  722b. 
Cataract,  723a. 

Cataract  (eye),  722b. 

Catarrh,  723a. 
Catawba  Indians.  723b. 

Catawba  River,  723b. 
Catbird,  723b. 
Catechism,  723b. 
Catechu,  11a,  724a. 
Caterpillar,  724a,  2491a. 
Caterpillar  Tractor,  3605b. 
Catesby,  Robert,  1596b. 
Catfish,   724b. 
Catgut,  724b. 
Catherine  I,  725a. 
Catharine  II,  725a,  3095a,  3142b. 
Catharine  de'  Medici,  725a. 
Catharine     of     Aragon,     725b, 

1671b. 
Catharine  Wheel,  3119a. 
Cathay,  725b. 
Cathedral.   725b. 
Cathode,  1206b. 
Cathode  Rays,  726a. 
Catholic  Church,  726b. 
Catholic   University  of  Amer- 
ica, 726b. 
Catiline,  726b. 
Catkin,  727a. 
Catnip.  727a. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  727a. 
Cato  the  Elder,  727b. 
Cafs-eye,  727b,  817b. 
Catskill  Mountains,  728a. 
Cat's  Tail,  3583a. 
Cat-Stitch  (game),  1439b. 
Catsup,  1942b. 
Catt,  Carrie  Chapman,  728a. 


Cat-tail,  728a. 

Cattegat,  728b. 

Cattle,  728b,  3222a. 

Cattle  Plague,  3076a. 

Caucasian  Rugs,  3130a, 

Caucus,   729b. 

Caucasus,   729b. 

Cauliflower,  729b. 

Caustic,  729b. 

Caustic  Potash,  139b. 

Caustic  Soda,  3337b. 

Cavalieri,  Lina,  729b. 

Cavaliers,  730a. 

Cavalleria      Rusticana,      730a, 

2267a. 
Cavalry,  226a,  730a. 
Cave,  730b. 
Caveat,  731a. 
Cave  Dwellers,  731a. 
Caviar,  731a. 
Cavite,  P.  I.,  731a. 
Cavour,   Count  Camillo   Benso 

di,  731b. 
Cawnpore,  India,  731b. 
Caxton,  William,  732a,  2942a. 
Cayenne,  French  Guiana,  732a. 
Caymans,  98a. 
Cayuga  Indians.  732a. 
Cayuga  Lake,  732a. 
Cebu,   732b. 
Cecil,  William,  732b. 
Cecilia,  Saint,  732b. 
Cecropia,  732b. 
Cecrops,  271b,  733a. 
Cedar,  733a. 

Cedar  Creek,  Battle  of,  733a. 
Cedar     Mountain,     Battle     of. 

733b. 
Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  733b. 
Celaeno,  2872b. 
Celebes  Island,  733b. 
Celery,  734a. 

Celestial  Equator.  1248b. 
Celestial  Globe,  1523a. 
Celestine  (Popes).  734a. 
Celibacy,  734b,  3093b. 
Cell,  734b. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  735a. 
Cello,  3775a. 
Celluloid,  735a. 
Cellulose,  735a. 
Celts.   735b. 
Cements,  735b,  2776b. 
Cemetery,  736a. 
Cenci,  Beatrice,  736b. 
Cenis,  Mont,  736b. 
Cenozoic  Era,  737a. 
Censer,   737a. 
Censors,  737a. 
Censorship,   737a. 
Census,  737b. 
Cent,  737b. 
Centaur,   738a. 
Centaurus,  738a. 
Centennial  Exposition,  738a. 
Centennial  State,  The.  885a. 
Center  of  Gravity,  738b,  1556a. 
Centigrade,  3563b. 
Centimeter,   738b. 
Centipede,  739a. 
Central  America,  739a. 
Central  Falls,  R.  I.,  739b. 
Centralia,  111.,  739b. 
Centralia,   Wash.,   739b. 
Central  Park,  N.  Y.,  2556b. 
Centrifugal  Force,  739b,  1372b. 
Centrifugal  Pump,  2970a. 
Centripetal  Force,  740a,  1372b. 
Cephalopoda,  740a. 
Cephalothorax,  3218b. 
Cerberus,  740a,  2875a. 
Cereals,  3684a. 
Cerebellum,  541b,  740a. 
Gerebro-Spinal   Svstem,    2508a. 
Cerebrum,  541b.  740b. 
Ceres,  741a,  2454b,  2950a. 
Cereus,  741a. 
Cerium.  741b. 

Cerro  Gordo,  Battle  of,   741b. 
Certiorari,  3949b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  Indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de 


4004 


Christian  Catholic  Church 


Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel 
de,  741b. 

Cervera  y  Topete,  742a. 

Cervin,  Mont,  2281b. 

Cetacea,  742a. 

Cession,  129b. 

Cettinje,   742b. 

Cevennes,  742b. 

Ceylon,  742b. 

C.  G.  S.  Unit,  2381b. 

Chacma,  310a. 

Chad,  Lake,  743a. 

Chadwick,  George  Whitfield, 
743b. 

Chaffinch.  743b. 

Chagres  River,  743b. 

Chain,  743b. 

Chain  (surveying),  744a. 

Chain-mail,   223b. 

Chain  Pump,  2970a. 

Clialcedony,  744a. 

Chaldea,   744a. 

Clialdean-Assyrian  Architec- 
ture, 163b. 

Chaldee  Language,  744a. 

Chaleurs  Bay,  744b. 

Chalice,  744b. 

Chalk,  744b. 

Chalk  System,  986a. 

Challenger  Expedition,  746a. 

Chalons.  Battle  of,  746a,  1319b. 

Chamberlain    (family),    746a. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  746b. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the 
U.  S.,  746b. 

Chambers,  Robert  W.,  747a. 

Chambersburg,  Pa.,  747a. 

Chambly-Lake  Champlain  Ca- 
nal, 679a. 

Chameleon,  747a,  2490a. 

Chaminade,  Cecile  Louise  Ste- 
phanie, 747b. 

Chamois,  747b. 

Chamomile,  748a. 

Champagne,  748a. 

C^hampaign,  111.,  748a. 

Champ  de  Mars,  74  8a. 

Champlain,  Lake,  748b. 

Champlain.  Samuel  de,  748b. 

Champs  Elysees,   748b,   2737a. 

Chancel,  749a. 

Chancellor,  749a. 

Chancellorsville,  Battle  of, 
749a. 

Chang-Chow,  China.  749b. 

Change  of  Venue,   3753a. 

Channel  Islands.  749b. 

Channing,  William  Ellery, 
749b. 

Chantecler,  3120b. 

Chanute,  Kans.,  750a. 

Chaparral,  750a. 

Chaparral  Cock,  3081a. 

Chaplain,  750a. 

Chapleau,  Joseph  Adolphe, 
750a. 

Chapman,  George,  750a. 

Chapultepec,  Battle  of,  750b. 

Charade,  750b. 

Charades,  Acting,  1239b,  1442a. 

Charcoal,  750b,  767b. 

Chard,  751a. 

Charge  d'  Affaires,  751a. 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade, 
751a. 

Chariot,  751a. 

Charity,  Bureaus  of,   2759a. 

Charity,  Sisters  of,  751b. 

Charity  and  Charities,  751b. 

Charlemagne,   752a,  1853a. 

Charles  I  (Austria-Hungary), 
753a. 

Charles  I  (England),  753b, 
3052b. 

Charles  II  (England),  753b. 

Charles  VI  (France),  754a. 

Charles  VII  (France),  754a. 

Charles  IX  (France),  754a. 

Charles  X  (Prance),  754b. 


Charles  V  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror),  754b. 

Charles  VI  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror),  755a. 

Charles  XII   (Sweden),  755a. 

Charles  XIV  John  (Sweden), 
755b. 

Charles  Martel,  755b,  1394b. 

Charles  the  Bald,  709a. 

Charles  the  Bold,  756a. 

Charles  the  Fat,   1394b. 

Charles  the  Great,  752a. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  756a. 

Charleston,  W.  Va.,  756b. 

Charlotte,  N.  C,  756b. 

Charlotte  Adelgonde  (Prin- 
cess), 2191b. 

Charlotte  Amalie,  V.  I.,  3776a. 

Charlottenburg,   Prussia,   757a. 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I.,  757a. 

Charon,  757b. 

Chart,  757b. 

Charter,  757b,  829b. 

Charter  Oak,  757b. 

Chartism,  758a. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  758a. 

Chase,  Samuel,  1775a. 

Chat,  758a,  3803b. 

Chatham,  N.  B.,  758b. 

Chatham,  Ont.,  758b. 

Chattahoochee  River,  759a. 

Chattanooga,   Battles  of,   759a. 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  759b. 

Chattel,  760a. 

Chattel  Mortgage,  2418b. 

Chatterton,  Thomas,  760a. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  760a. 

Chaudiere  River,  760b. 

Chauffeur,  760b. 

Chautauqua  Assembly,  3773b. 

Chautauqua  Institution,  760b. 

Check,  761b. 

Checkers,  762a. 

Cheese,  762b. 

Cheese  Insects,  763a. 

Cheetah,  763a. 

Chemistry,  763a. 

Chemistry,  Bureau  of,  51a. 

Chemnitz,  Germany,  769a. 

Chenille,  769a. 

Cheops,  769a,  2973b. 

Cherbourg,  France,  769a. 

Cherokee  Indians,  769b. 

Cherry,  769b. 

Cherry  Laurel,  770a. 

Cherry  Valley  Massacre,  770a. 

Cherub,  770a. 

Chesapeake,  The,  770a,  3806a. 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal, 
770b. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  770b. 

Chess,  770b. 

Chest,  772a. 

Chester,  Eng.,  772b. 

Chester,  George  Randolph, 
772b. 

Chester,  Pa.,  773a. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer 
Stanhope,  773a. 

Chesterton,  Gilbert  Keith,  773a, 

Chestnut,  773b. 

Chevalier  Bayard,  365b. 

Cheviot  Hills,  773b,   3220b. 

Chevron,  773b. 

Chewing  Gum,  773b. 

Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  774a. 

Cheyenne  Indians,  774a. 

Chicago,  111.,  774b. 

Chicago,  University  of,  780b. 

Chickadee,  3586b. 

Chickahominy  River,  781a. 

Chickamauga,  Battle  of,  781a. 

Chickamauga  National  Park, 
781a. 

Chickasaw  Indians.  781b. 

Chickasha,  Okla.,  781b. 

Chicken  Hawk,  1669b. 

Chicken  of  the  Sea,  3645a. 

Chicken-Pox,  781b,  784a. 

Chicle,  782a. 


Chicopee,  Mass.,  782a. 

Chicory,  782a. 

Chicoutimi,  Que.,  782a. 

Chiffon,   782b. 

Chigger,  1896b. 

Chigoe,  1896b. 

Chihuahua,  Mex.,  782b. 

Chilblain,   782b. 

Child  and  Parent,  2734b. 

Childe     Harold's     Pilgrimage, 

619b. 
Child  Labor,  782b. 
Children,  Reading  for,  3014a. 
Children,  Societies  for,  783b. 
Children's  Bureau,  783b. 
Children's  Crusade,  999a. 
Children's  Diseases,  783b. 
Children's  Hour,  The,  2033b. 
Children's  Thinking,   3570b. 
Childs,  George  William,  786a. 
Child  Study,  786a,  2961a. 
Child  Training,   787a. 
Child  Training  Chart,  791a. 
Chile,  793b. 

Chile  Con  Carne,  795b. 
Chillicothe,  O.,  795b. 
Chillon,  795b. 
Chills  and  Fever,  2229a. 
Chimborazo,  Mount,  795b. 
Chimera,  795b. 
Chimes,  795b. 
Chimney,  796a. 
Chimpanzee,  796a. 
China.  796b. 
China  Painting,  805b. 
Chinatown,  3186a. 
Chinaware,  2906a,  2925b. 
Chinch  Bug,  806a. 
Chinchilla,  806b. 
(Ilhinese  Immigration,  806b. 
Chinese-Japanese  War,  807a. 
Chinese  Rugs,  3130a. 
Chinese  Turkestan,  3648b. 
Chinese  Woolflower,  3910b. 
Chinook  (wind),  807b. 
Chinook  Indians,  807b. 
Chios,   30a. 

Chipmunk,   807b,   3396a. 
Chippendale,  Thomas,  1427b. 
Chippev/a  Falls,  Wis.,  807b. 
Chippy,  808a. 
Chiromancy,  2715b. 
Chiron,  31b,  808a. 
Chiropractic  Healing,  808a. 
Chiroptera,  808a. 
Chitons,  808b,  1143b. 
Chivalry,  808b. 
Chlamys,  1143b. 
Chloral,  139b,  809a. 
Chlorate,  809a. 
Chloride  of  Sodium,  3175b. 
Chlorine,  809a. 
Chlorite  Schist,  809b. 
Chloroform,  809b. 
Chlorophyll,,809b,  1265a,  2074a. 
Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  809b. 
Chocolate,  810a. 
Choctaw  Indians,  810a. 
Choice,  3873a. 

Choice  of  Good  Reading,  3012b, 
Choke  Damp,  810b. 
Cholera,  810b. 
Cholera  Infantum,  810b. 
Cholera  Morbus,   810b. 
Chopin,      Frederic      Francois, 

811a. 
Chord,  811a. 
Chorea,  3170b. 
Choroid,    1287a. 
Chorus,   811b. 
Chosen,  811b. 
Chowchow,    2847a. 
Christ,   813b. 

Christchurch,  N.  Zealand,  813b, 
Christian  IV,  3566b. 
Christian  IX,  813b. 
Christian  X,  813b. 
Christian      Catholic      Church, 

1110a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  tlie  letter  b,  column  2. 


Christian  Endeavor,  The  United  Society  of  4005 


Christian         Endeavor,         The 

United   Society   of,    814a. 
Christian  Era,  814a. 
Christiania,  Norway,   814a. 
Christianity,   814b. 
Christians.  1079a. 
Christian  Science,  814b.    ■ 
Christiansted,    Virgin    Islands, 

36?0b. 
Christmas,  815b. 
Christ  of  the  Andes,  121a,  170b. 
Christy,      Howard      Chandler, 

815b. 
Chromatic,  816b. 
Chromatic  Aberration,   7a. 
Chromatic  Scale,  3208b. 
Chromic  Iron  Ore,  816b. 
Chromite,  816b. 
Chromium,  816b. 
Chromosphere,  3470b. 
Chronicles.  Books  of,  816b. 
Chronology,  817a. 
Chronometer,   817a. 
Chrysalis,  616a,  817a. 
Chrysanthemum,  817b. 
Chrysoberyl,   817b. 
Chrysolite,  817b. 
Chrvsoprase,  817b. 
Chub,  818a. 

Chuquisaca,  Bolivia,  3460a. 
Church,  818a. 
Church,       Frederick       Edwin. 

818a. 
Churchill,  Winston,  818a. 
Churchill,     Winston     Leonard 

Spencer,  818b. 
Churchill  River,  819a. 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Lat- 
ter Day  Saints,  2413a. 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher, 

1889a. 
Church     of     the     Latter     Day 

Saints,  3327b. 
Churn,  819a. 
Churning,  614a. 
Churubusco,  Battle  of,  819a. 
Chyle,  819a,  1076a. 
Chyme,  819b,  1075b. 
Cicada,  819b. 
Cicely,  820a. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  820a. 
Cid,  The,  962a,  820b,  3371b. 
Cider,  821a. 

Cienfuegos,  Cuba,  821a. 
Cigar,  821a,  3588b. 
Cigarette,  821a. 
Cilia.  822a. 
Cimbri,  822a. 

Cimmerian  Bosporus,  510b. 
Cinchona,  822a.  2990a. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.  822b. 
Cincinnati,  Society  of  the,  824a. 
Cincinnati,  University  of.  824a. 
Cincinnatus,    Lucius    Quintius, 

824b. 
Cincinnatus  of  the  West,  824b. 
Cinderella,  824b,  2791a. 
Cineraria,  825a. 
Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius,  825a. 
Cinnabar,  825a. 
Cinnamon,  825a. 
Cintra,  Convention  of,  3846b. 
Circassia,  825b. 
Circe,  825b. 

Circle,  208b,  825b,  2299a. 
Circuit  Court  of  Appeals,  975a. 
Circulation  of  the  Blood,  826a, 

2842a. 
Circumference,  825b. 
Circus,  826b. 
Circus  Maximus,  3096b. 
Cirrhosis,   828a,   3218b. 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  1455a. 
Cisalpine  Republic,  828a. 
Cistercians,   828a. 
Cistern,  828b. 

Cities,  Growth  of,  2905a,  3690b. 
Cities  of  Canada,  Largest,  830b. 
Cities  of  Refuge,  828b. 


Cities    of    the    United    States, 

Largest,  830a. 
Cities  of  the   World,   Largest, 

829b. 
Citizen,  828b. 
Citric  Acid,  829a. 
Citron,  829a. 
Citrus,  829a. 
City,  829a. 
City  Council,  77b. 
City  Manager,  830b. 
City  of  Brotherly  Love,  2810b. 
City  of  David,  1889b. 
City  of  Homes,  2810b. 
City  of  Magnificent  Distances, 

3813a. 
City  Planning,  831a. 
Ciudad  Juarez,  Mex.,  832a. 
Civet,  832a. 
Civil  Death,  832a. 
Civil  Engineer,  1225b. 
Civil  Government,  832b. 
Civil  Law,  834a. 
Civil  List,  834a. 
Civil  Service,  834b. 
Civil  Service  in  Canada,  836b. 
Civil    War    in    America,    837a, 

3710b. 
Claiborne's  Rebellion,  841b. 
Clairvoyance,  841b. 
Clam,  841b. 
Clan,  842a. 

Clarendon.  Edward  Hyde,  842b 
Claret,  842b. 
Clarinet,  842b. 
Clark,  Champ,  843a. 
Clark,  Francis  Edward,  843a. 
Clark,  George  Rocers,  843b. 
Clark,  William,  843b. 
Clarksburg,  W.  Va.,  843b. 
Clark  University,  844a. 
Classification,  844a. 
Claudius,  814a. 
Clavicle,  3317b. 
Claxton,    Philander    Priestley, 

844a. 
Clay,  844b,  2924b. 
Clay,  Henry,  844b. 
Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  845b. 
Cleanliness,  1101b. 
Clearing  House,  845b. 
Cleavage,  84Ca. 
Cleaveland,  Moses,  2642a. 
Cleburne,  Tex.,  8!Gb. 
Cleft  Grafting,  1544b. 
Clematis,  846b. 

Clemenceau,     Georges     Benja- 
min Eugene,  846b. 
Clemens,    Samuel    Langhorne, 

847b. 
Clement   (Popes),  848a. 
Cleopatra,  848b. 
Cleopatra's       Needles,        847a, 

2556b. 
Clermont,  The,  1424a,  3282b. 
Cleveland     (Stephen)     Grover, 

849b. 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  853a. 
Click  Beetle,   854b,   3896a. 
Cliff  Dwellers,  855a. 
Climate,  855b. 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  856a. 
Clinton,  George,  856b. 
Clinton,  Henry,  856b. 
Clinton,  la.,  857a. 
Clisthenes,  271b,  857a. 
Clive,  Robert,  857a. 
Cloaca  Maxima,  555a,  857b. 
Clock,  857b. 
Closed  Shop,  858b. 
Clotbur,  870a. 
Cloth,  858b. 
Clothes  Moth,  859a. 
Clotho,  859a,  1302a. 
Cloud,  859a. 
Cloud-burst,   860b. 
Clover,  860b. 
Cloves,  860b. 
Clovis.  861a,  1394b. 


Collins,  William 

Club.  861a. 

Cluny  Lace,  861b. 

Clyde  River,  861b. 

Clymene,  2452b. 

Clytemnestra,  862a. 

Coaitia,  2388b. 

Coal,  862a,  1479a,  2776b,  3677b. 

Coal  Gas,  139b. 

Coalition  Cabinet,  865b. 

Coal  Tar,  865b. 

Coastal  Plain,  866a.  2864b. 

Coast    and     Geodetic     Survey, 

United  States,  866a. 
Coast  Artillery,  226b. 
Coast  Defense,  238b. 
Coast  Guard,  866b. 
Coasting,   8C7a. 
Coast  Range,  867b. 
Coati,  867b. 
Cobalt  (metal),  86713. 
Cobalt,  Ont.,  868a. 
Cobb,  Irwin  Shrewsbury,  868a. 
Cobden,  Richard,  8G8a. 
Cobequid  Mountains,  2614a. 
Coblenz,  Germany,  868b. 
Cobless  Corn,  951a. 
Cobourg,  Ont.,  868b. 
Cobra,  8G8b. 
Cobwebs,  8G9a. 
Cocaine,  139b,  869a. 
Coccus,  8C9a. 
Cochin-China,  869a. 
Cochineal,  8C9b. 
Cochlea,  llCSb. 
Cockatoo,  8C9b. 
Cockburn  Island,  2241b. 
Cockchafer,  870a. 
Cockfighting,  870a. 
Cockle,  870a. 
Cocklebur,  870a. 
Cock  of  the  Wood,  693b. 
Cockroach,  870a. 
Cocoa,  628a,  869a. 
Cocoanut,  870b. 
Cocoons,  724b. 
Cod,  871a. 

Code  Napoleon,  871b,  2471a. 
Code  of  Signals,  International, 

3300a. 
Code  Writing,  871b. 
Codicil,  3874b. 
Codling  Moth,  872a. 
Cod-liver  Oil,  872a. 
Cody,  William  Frederick,  872b. 
Coeducation,   8T2b. 
Coelenterata,   872b. 
Coeur  d'  Alene,  Ida.,  873a. 
Coffee,  873a. 
Cofferdam,  874b. 
Coffeyville,  Kans.,  874b. 
Coffin,  875a. 
Cognomen,  2467a. 
Cohan,  Georre  Michael,  875a. 
Coherer,  3522a. 
Cohesion,  875a,  3537b. 
Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  875b. 
Cohorts,  2928b. 
Coining,  875b. 
Coins,  Foreign,  876a. 
Coir,  877a. 

Coit,  Dr.  Stanton,  3336a. 
Coke,   877a,   2776b. 
Coke,  Edward,  877a. 
Colchicum,  877b. 
Cold  Harbor,   Battles  of,  877b. 
Cold  Storage,  877b. 
Cold  Wave,  878a. 
Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  878a. 
Coleridge-Taylor,  Samuel. 

878b. 
Colfax,  Schuyler,  879a. 
Colic.  879a. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de,  879a. 
Collateral,   879a. 
College,  879b,  3720a. 
College  of  Cardinals,  3152b. 
Collegiate  Institute,  879b. 
Collie,  879b,  10S9b. 
Collingwood,  Ont.,  880a. 
Collins,  William,  880a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  tlie  letter  li.  column  2. 


Collins,  [William]  Wilkie 


4006 


Collins,     [William]    Wilkie, 

880a 
Collodion,  880a. 
Colocasia,  880b. 
Colog-ne,   880b. 
Colombia,  Republic  of,  881a. 
Colombo,  Ceylon,  882a. 
Colon,  882a. 

Colon   (physiology),  882b. 
Colonel,  882b. 
Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville, 

3326b. 
Colonial  Period,  3689a. 
Colonies       and       Colonization, 

882b,  3701a. 
Color,  884b. 
Colorado,  885a. 

Colorado,  University  of,  888b. 
Colorado  Beetle,  2923b. 
Colorado  River,  889a. 
Colorados,  3723b. 
Colorado  Springs,  Col.,  889a. 
Color  Blindness,   889b. 
Colored  Pencils,  2772a. 
Color  Lithography,  2141b. 
Color  Photography,  2827b. 
Color  Printing,  2941b. 
Colosseum,  889b. 
Colossus,  890a. 
Colossus  of  Rhodes,  890a. 
Colt,  Samuel,  3057b. 
Colt's  Tail,  1345b. 
Columbia,  Mo.,  890b. 
Columbia,  Pa.,  890b. 
Columbia,  S.  C,  890b. 
Columbia  River,  891a. 
Columbia  River  Highway,  891a 
Columbia  University,  891b. 
Columbine,  892a. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  892a. 
Columbus,  Ga.,  894b. 
Columbus,  Ind.,  894b. 
Columbus,  Miss.,  894b. 
Columbus,  Ohio,  894b. 
Columbus  Day,  2633b. 
Column,  895a. 
Columns,  Hall  of,  3260b. 
Comanche  Indians,  896b. 
Combustion,  896b,  2695b. 
Comedy,  897a,  1115a. 
Comenius,  John  Amos,  897a. 
Comets,  897a. 
Comic  Opera,  898a. 
Comitia,  898a. 
Commander,   898b. 
Commencement,  898b. 
Commentaries     on     American 

Law,  1936a. 
Commerce,  898b. 
Commerce,  Chamber  of,  746b. 
Commerce,      Department      of, 

899a. 
Commerce       in       the      United 

States,   3688a. 
Commercial  Agency,   899a. 

Commercial  Geography,  1462a. 

Commercial  Law,  899b. 

Commissioned  Officers,  228a. 

Commissioner     of     Education, 
1183a. 

Commission  Form   of   Govern- 
ment,  899b. 

Committees  of  Congress,  915b. 

Committees      of      Correspond- 
ence, 899b. 

Committees       of       Parliament 
(Canada),  2746b. 

Committees   of   Public   Safety, 
1416b. 

Commodore,  900a. 

Commodus,  3104a. 

Common  Carrier,  900a. 

Common  Council,  829b,  900b. 

Common  Law,  900b,  2066b. 

Common  Schools,  900b. 

Commonwealth     of     England, 
902a,  3052b. 

Commune,  902a,  1061a. 

Commune  of  Paris,  902a. 

Communism,  902b,   3335a. 


Community  Center,  902b. 
Commutator,  1160a. 
Como,  Italy,  903a. 
Como,  Lake,  903a. 
Comoro  Islands,  903b. 
Company,  226b. 
Comparative  Philology,  2820a. 
Compass,  903b. 
Compasses,  904a. 
Compass  Plant,  904a. 
Compleat  Angler,  The,  3801a. 
Complement  (grammar), 

2048a. 
Complemental  Air,  549b. 
Complementary  Colors,  885a. 
Composite  Family,  904b. 
Composite  Order,  895b. 
Composition  (art),  1118a. 
Composition  of  Forces,  905a. 
Compositions,  2036b. 
Composition        Work,        2032b, 

2045a,  2047a,  2051a,  2056a. 
Compound  Engine,  3414b. 
Compounds,   Chemical,   764b. 
Compressed  Air,  905a. 
Compromise  of  1850,  905a. 
Comptroller,  905b. 
Compulsory  Education,  905b. 
Comte,    Augusta,    906a,    1165a, 

3336b. 
Concentrate,  2309a,  3309a. 
Conception,  Chile,  906b. 
Concept,  906b. 
Concertina,  907a. 
Conch,  907a. 
Concha,  1163a. 
Conclave,  907b. 
Concord,  Mass.,  907b. 
Concord,  N.  H.,  907b. 
Concordance,  907b. 
Concordat,   908a. 
Concrete,  908a. 
Concrete  Bridge,  557b. 
Condensation,  908b. 
Condensed   Milk,  2339a. 
Condor,  908b. 
Conduction,  1657a. 
Conductors,  1201a. 
Conduit  System.  1206a. 
Cone,  909a. 

Conemaugh  Lake,  2779a. 
Coney  Island,  909a. 
Confederacy,     United     Daugh- 
ters of  the,  903b. 
Confederacy  of  Delos,  272a. 
Confederate  States  of  America, 

909b. 
Confederate  Veterans,  United, 

911a. 
Confederate   Veterans,   United 

Sons  of,  911a. 
Confederation,      Articles      of, 
911b,  3704b. 

Confederation    of    the    Rhine, 
911b. 

Confessions     of     an     English 
Opium  Eater,  1061b. 

Confucius,  912a. 

Conglomerate,  911b. 

Congo,  912b. 

Congo  Free  State,  1413a. 

Congo  River,  913a. 

Congregationalists,   The,   913a. 

Congregation     of     the     Index, 
1779a. 

Congress,  913b. 

Congressional  Record,  914a. 

Congressman-at-large,   914a. 

Congress  of  Mothers,  National, 
914a. 

Congress  of  the  United  States, 
914b, 

Congress  of  Vienna,  3771b. 

Congreve,  William,  916b. 

Coniferae,  916b. 

Conjunction  (astronomy), 917a. 

Conjunction   (grammar),  917a. 

Conjunctivitis,  917a. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  917b. 


Copy-hold 

Connaught,     Arthur     William 

Patrick  Albert,   917b. 
Conneaut,  Ohio,  918a. 
Connecticut,   918a. 
Connecticut  River,  921b. 
Connective  Tissue,  921b. 
Connellsville,  Pa.,  922a. 
Consanguinity,  3045a. 
Conscription,  922a. 
CTonservation,  923a. 
Conservative,  923b. 
Conservatory,  515b,  923b. 
Console.  923b. 

Consolidated  Schools,  3214a. 
Consonant,  923b,  2683a. 
Consort,   924a. 
Conspiracy,  924a. 
Constable,  924a. 
Constance,  Council  of,  3299b. 
Constance,  Lake,  924a. 
Constantine,  Arch  of,  924b. 
Constantine,     Caius      Flavius, 

924b. 
Constantine  I,  924b. 
Constantinople,  Turkey,  925a. 
Constellations,   926a. 
Constipation,  926b. 
Constitution,  92Gb. 
Constitution,  Adoption  of  the, 

3706a. 
Constitution,  The,  927a. 
Constitutional  Law,  2067a. 
Constitutional     Union     Party, 

927b,  2888a,  2890b. 
Constitution     of     the     United 

States,  109b,  927b. 
Consul,   935b. 
Consumption  (economics), 

936a. 
Contagious  Diseases,  936a. 
Contempt,  936a. 
Contiguity,  The  Law  of,  2295b. 
Continental  Islands,  1847b. 
Continental  Shelf,  2592b. 
Continental  System,  936a. 
Continuation      Schools,      936b, 

3785b. 
Contraband  of  War,  936b. 
Contract,  937a. 
Contract  Labor  Law,  937b. 
Contradiction,  Law. of,  3570b. 
Contralto,  3311b. 
Convection,   1657a. 
Converter,  3418a. 
Convict  Labor,  938a. 
Convolvulus,  938a. 
(Zlonvulsion,  938b. 
(ionway,   Thomas,  939a. 
Conway,  Cabal,  938b. 
Cony,  2852a. 

Cook,  Frederick  A..  2604b. 
Cook,  James,  939a,  1645a, 3366b. 
Cookery,  939a. 
Cook's  Expedition,  2604b. 
Cooley,       Thomas       Mclntyre, 

939b. 
Coon,  2993a. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  939b. 
Cooper,  Peter,  940a. 
Cooperage,  940b. 
Cooperation,   941a. 
Cooper  Union,  941b. 
Coosa  River,  941b. 
Coot,  941b. 
Copal,  941b. 

Copenhagen,  Denmark,  942a. 
Copernicus,  Nicholas,  942b. 
Copley,  John  Singleton,  942b. 
Copper,  942b,  3678b. 
Copperas,  943b,  3467b. 
Copper     Carbonate      Solution., 

1806b. 
Copper  Glance,  943b. 
Copperhead,   943b. 
Coppermine  River,  944a. 
Copper  River,  66a. 
Copper  Sulphate,  3467b. 
Copra,  944a. 
Copts,  944a. 
Copy-hold,  3772b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  3. 


Copying  Devices 


4007 


Crystalline  Rocks 


Copying  Devices,  944a. 

Copyright.  94 oa. 

Coquelln    (family),   946a. 

Coral,  946a. 

Corbel,  947a. 

Corcoran,       William      Wilson, 

947a. 
Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  947a. 
Cordage,  3116a. 
Corday  d'Armont,  Marie  Anne 

Charlotte,  947b. 
Cordillera.  947b,  2584a,  3088b. 
Cordite.  947b,  3329a. 
Cordoba.  Argentina,  947b. 
Cordovan,  2073a. 
Corduroy.  948a. 
Corea,  948a. 
Corelli,  Marie,  948a. 
Coriander,  948a. 
Corinth,  Greece,  948a. 
Corinth.  Miss.,  948b. 
Corinthian  Order,  895b. 
Corinthians,    Epistles    to    the, 

948b. 
Coriolanus,  949a. 
Cork,  949a,  2489b,   2862a. 
Cork,  Ireland,  949b. 
Corliss,  George  Henry,  949b. 
Corm,  950a. 
Cormorant,  950a. 
Corn,  9.'^0b.  2488a. 
Corn-Adonis,  27b. 
Corn  Clubs,  953b. 
Corn  Crake,  2998a. 
Cornea,   1287a. 
Corneille,  Pierre,  962a. 
Cornelian.   708a. 
Cornell,  Ezra,  962a. 
Cornell  University,  962a. 
Cornet,  962b. 
Cornflower,  962b. 
Cornice,  1238a. 
Corning,  N.  Y.,  962b. 
Corn  Laws,  962b. 
Corn  Marigold,  817b. 
Corns,  963a. 
Corn  Song,  The.  2034a. 
Cornucopia.  963a. 
Cornwall,  Ont.,  963a. 
Cornwallis.  Charles,  963b. 
Coralla,  519a,  963b.  1354a. 
Corona,  963b,   1617b,  3470b. 
Coronado,  Francisco,  963b. 
Coroner,  964a. 
Coronet,  964a. 
Corot,   Jean   Baptlste   Camille, 

964a. 
Corporal.  964b. 
Corporal  Punishment,  964b. 
Corporation.   964b. 
Corporations.  Holding.  3641b. 
Corpus  Christi,  Tex.,  965h. 
Corpuscles,  Tactile.   3602a. 
Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  1920b. 
Correggio.      Antonio      Allegri, 

965b,  2704b. 
Correlation,  965b. 
Correspondence  Schools,  3214a. 
Corrosive       Sublimate,       139b, 

965b. 
Corrupt  Practice  Acts,  966a. 
Corset,  966a. 
Corsica,  966a. 
Corsiciana,   Tex.,  966b. 
Cortes,  3372b. 
Cortez,  Hernando.  966b. 
Cortland,  N.  Y.,  967a. 
Corundum,  967a. 
Corns,  31a. 

Coshocton,  Ohio,  967a. 
Cosmetics,  967a. 
Cosmos.  967b. 
Cossacks,   967b. 
Costa  Rica,  968a. 
Coster,  Laurens.  2942a. 
Costs.  Bill  of,  432a. 
Costume,   1143a. 
Cotes,  Sarah  Jeannette,  968b. 
Cotillion,  1025a. 


Cotopaxi,  968b. 
Cotton,  968b,  3684b. 
Cotton,  John,  971b. 
Cotton  Gin,  972a,  1823a. 
Cottonseed  Products.  972a. 
Cotton  State,  The,  57b. 
Cottonwood,  972b,  2904a. 
Cotyledon,  972b.  1503b. 
Cougar,  2726b,  2969a. 
Cough,  973a. 
Coulee,  1687a. 
Council,  City,  2434a. 
Council  Bluffs,  la.,  973a. 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  2900b. 
Council  of  Trent,  3631b. 
Count  (title),  973a. 
Counterfeiting,  973a. 
Counterpoint,  973b. 
Counter-Reformation,  973b. 
Countersign,  974b. 
Countess,  1165a. 
Counting,  2619b. 
Count   of  Monte   Cristo,   2400b. 
County,  974b,  3695a. 
County  Agent,   1299a. 
County  Attornev.  1083a. 
Coup  de  Grace,  3859b. 
Coupon  Bonds,  498a. 
Courland.  974b. 
Court,  975a. 

Court  Fool,  976a,  1890b. 
Court-martial,  976a. 
Court  of  Claims,  975a,  976b. 
Court-plaster,  976b. 
Courtship    of    Miles    Standish, 

77b,  976b,  2432a,  3403a. 
Covenant,  977a. 
Coventers,  977a. 
Coventry,  Eng.,  977a. 
Coverdale,  Miles,  977b. 
Coverley,  Roger  de.  23b. 
Covington,  Ky.,  977b. 
Cow,  1019b. 
Cowage,  978a. 
Cowbird,  977b. 
Cowdery,  Oliver,  2413a. 
Cowitch,  978a. 
Cow  Parsnip,  978a. 
Cowpea,  978a. 

Cowpens,  Battle  of  the,  978a. 
Cowper,  William,  978b. 
Cowpox,  979a,  3731a. 
Cowrie,  979a. 
Cowslip,  979a. 
Cox,  Palmer,  979a. 
Coyote,  979b. 
Crab,  979b. 
Crab  Apple,  979b. 
Crab  Spider,  3384a. 
Cracow,  980a. 

Craigie,  Pearl  Richards.  980a. 
Craddock,       Charles       Egbert, 

2436a. 
Cradle    of    American    Liberty, 

1297a. 
Cradle  of  New  France,  2985a. 
Craik,    Dinah    Maria    Mulock, 

980b. 
Cranberrv,  980b. 
Crane  (bird).  981a. 
Crane    (machine).   980b. 
Crane,  Stephen,  981b. 
Crane,   Walter,   981b. 
Crane    Express,    The     (story), 

1961b. 
Crane's  Bill,  1491a. 
Cranford,  1453a. 
Cranial  Nerves,  2507b. 
Cranmer,  Thomas,  981b,  1671b. 
Crannog,  2008a. 
Cranston,  R.  I.,  982a. 
Crantara,  1319a. 
Crape,  982a. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius,  982a. 
Crater    Lake     National     Park, 

2742a. 
Crawfish,  982a. 
Crawford,      Francis      Marion, 

982b. 


Crawford,  Thomas,  982b. 
Crawford  Notch,  3866a. 
Crawfordsville,  Ind.,   982b. 
Crayfish,  982a. 
Crayons,  983a. 
Creamery,  983a. 
Cream  of  Tartar,  983b. 
Cream  Separator,  983b. 
Creasy,       Edward       Shepherd. 

9S3b. 
Crecy,  France,  983b. 
Credit,  984a. 

Credit  Mobilier,  984b,  3711b. 
Creed,  984b. 
Cree  Indians,  984b. 
Creek  Indians,  985a. 
Creeper,  985a. 
Crefeld,  Germany,  1994b. 
Cremation,  985b. 
Creole,  985b. 
Creole  State.  The,  2173a. 
Creosote.  985b. 
Crepe,  982a. 
Crescent,   985b. 
Crescent  City,  986a,  2542a. 
Cress,  986a. 

Cretaceous  System.  986a. 
Crete  Island  of,  986a. 
Cretonne,  986b. 
Cribbage,  986b. 
Crichton,  James,  987a. 
Cricket    (athletics).   987b. 
Cricket    (insect),   987a,   2488b. 
Crime,  988a. 
Crimea,  988b. 
Crimean  War,  988b. 
Criminology,  988a. 
Crinoidea,  989b. 
Crinoline,  989b. 
Cripple  Creek,  Col.,  989b. 
Crittenden,  John  Jordon,  990a. 
Crittenden  Compromise,  989b. 
Croatia,  990a. 

Crockett,   David,    63a,    990b. 
Crocodile,  990b. 
Crocodile  Bird,  991a. 
Crocus,  991a. 
Croesus,  991a. 
Croix  de  Guerre,  991a. 
Cromwell,  Oliver,   991b. 
Cromwell,  Thomas,  992b. 
Cronstadt,  Russia,  1995a. 
Crookes,  William,  992b. 
Crookes  Tubes,  993a. 
Crops,  Measures  for,  2302a, 
Croquet,  993a. 
Crore,  3134b. 
Crosby,  Fanny,  993b. 
Cross,  993b. 
Crossbill,  994a. 
Cross  Fertilization,  994a. 
Crossing  (botany),  603b. 
Croton,  994b. 
Croton  Aqueduct,  995a. 
Croup,  9y5a. 
Crow,  995b. 
Crow  Blackbird,  996a. 
Crowfoot,  614b. 
Crow  Indians,  996a. 
Crown  (coin),  996a. 
Crown  (of  royalty),  996a. 
Crown  (IJolony,  565b. 
Crown  Grafting,  1544b. 
Crown  Point  N.  Y.,  996a. 
Crow's  Nest  Pass.  73a,  561a. 
Crucible  Steel.  3417b. 
Cruciferae,  2445b. 
Crucifixion,  The,  996b. 
Cruelty  to  Animals,  996b. 
Cruelty  to  Children,  997a. 
Cruiser,  2497a. 
Crusades,  997a,  2803b. 
Crustacea.  999b. 
Cryolite,    999b. 
Crypt,  999b. 

Cryptogamous   Plants,    1000a. 
Cryptogams,  516b,  518a,  2808a. 
Crystalline  Lens,  1287b. 
Crystalline  Rocks,   1000a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicate.s  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Crystallization 

Crystallization,  1000a. 

Ctesiphon.  31a. 

Cuba,  1000b. 

Cube,  1004b. 

CubeUs.   1004b. 

Cube  Root,  1005a. 

Cubic  Measure,  1006a,  231'5b. 

Cubist     School     of     Painting-, 

1006a. 
Cubit,  1006b. 
Cuckoo,  1006b. 
Cucumber,  1007a. 
Cucumber  Tree,  2220b. 
Cufic,  1007a. 

Cullom,   Shelby  Moore,  1007a. 
Cumberland,   Md.,   1007a. 
Cumberland  Mountains.   1007b. 
Cumberland  River,  1007b. 
Cumberland  Road,   1007b. 
Cummins,  Albert  Baird,  1007b. 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  1008a. 
Cupellation,  1531a. 
Cupid,  1005b,  2958a. 
Cupola,  1008b,  1093a. 
Curassow,  1008b. 
Curculio,  1008b. 
Curfew,  1009a. 
Curie,  Pierre  and  Marie  Sklo- 

dowska,  1009a. 
Curlew,  1009a. 
Curling-,  1009a. 
Currant,  1009b. 
Currency  Law  of  1913.   334b. 
Currie,  Arthur  W.,  1009b. 
Curtis,  Georg-e  "William,  1010a. 
Curtiss,        Glenn        Hammond, 

1010a,  1361b. 
Curve,  1010b. 
Curzon,       George       Nathaniel, 

1010b. 
Cush,  10b. 
Cushman,  Charlotte  Saunders, 

1011a. 
Custer,      George      Armstrong, 

1011a. 
Custis,  Martha,   3818b. 
Customs  Duties,  1011a. 
Cut  Glass.  1522b. 
Cu  icle,  3319a. 
CuLis,  3319b. 

Cutler,  Manasseh,  2043b. 
Cutlery,  1011b. 
Cuttlefish,  1012a,  3254b. 
Cutworm,  1012a. 
Cuvier,  Georg:e  Leopold  Chre- 
tien      Frederic       Dagobert, 
1012a. 
Cyanide  Process,  2309a. 

Cyanogen,  1012b. 
Cycads,  1012b. 

Cyaxares,  311b. 

Cyclades,  1012b. 

Cyclamen,  1012b. 
Cyclometer,  3380b. 

Cyclone,  1012b.  3596a. 

Cyclopedia,  1224a. 

Cyclops,  1013a. 

Cylinder,  1013a,   2299b. 

Cylinder   (art),  1138b. 

Cylinder  Press.  2943a. 

Cymri,  1013b. 

Cynics,  1013b. 

Cynic    School    of    Philosophy, 
1013b. 

Cypress,  1014a. 

Cyprus.  1014b. 

Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  3120b. 

Cyrus,  423b. 

Cyrus   (the  Younger),   1015a. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  1014b,  2795a. 

Cystic  Duct,  1433b. 

Czar,  1015a,  3095a. 

Czech,  1015a. 

Czecho-Slovak  Republic,  301b, 
1015b. 

Czecho-Slovaks,  2995a. 

Czernn,  Count,  300b. 

Czernowitz,  1016a. 

Czolgosz,  Leon,  2208a. 


4008 

D 

D,  1017a. 

Dabchick,  1017a. 

Dace,  818a,  1017a. 

Dachshund,  1017a. 

Dactylic  Meter,  2311b. 

Daddy-long-legs,  1017a. 

Daedalus,  1017b. 

Daffodil,  1017b,  2474a. 

Daffy     Dilly,     Adventures     of, 

1243b. 
Dago  Island,  1017b. 
Daguerre,  Louis  Jacques  Man- 

de,  1018a. 
Daguerreotype,  1017b,  2417b. 
Dahlgren,  John  Adolph,  1018a. 
Dahlia,  1018b. 
Dahomey,  1018b. 
Dairy     and     Dairying,      729a, 

1019a. 
Dairy  Cattle,  729a. 
Daisy,  517b,  1021a. 
Dakin's  Solution,   3947b. 
Dakota  Indians,  3313a. 
Dallas,   George  Mifilin,   1021b. 
Dallas,   Tex.,   1021b,   3552b. 
Dalles,   1022a. 

Dalles,  The,  Oregon,  1022a. 
Dalmatia,  1022a. 
Dalmores,  Charles,  1022b. 
Dam,  1022b. 
Damages,  1023a. 
Damascus,   SjTia,   1023a. 
Damascus  Seel,  102ob. 
Damask,  1023b. 
Damaskeening,  1023b. 
Damocles,  102ub. 
Damon  and  Pythias,  1023b. 
Damrosch,  Leopold,   1024a. 
Damrosch,    Walter    Johannes, 

1024a. 
Dan,  1024a. 

Dana,  Charles  Anderson,  t024b. 
Dana,  James  Dwight,   1024b. 
Dana,      Richard     Henry,      Jr., 

1024b. 
Danbury,  Conn.,  1024b. 
Dancing,  1025a. 
Dandelion,   1025b,   1357b. 
Dandruff,  1025b. 
Dandy  Horse,  4  27b. 
Dane,  Great,  15C5a. 
Danelagh.  The.   85a. 
Daniel,  421a,   102Ca. 
Daniell  Battery,  1026a. 
Danish     "West     Indies,     1026a, 

377Ca. 
Dante  Alighieri,  r70a,  1026a. 
Danton,        Georges       Jacques, 

1027a. 
Dantzic,   (city),  1027b. 
Danube  River,  1027a. 
Danville,  111.,   1027b. 
Danville,  Va.,   1027b. 
Danzig  (city),  1027b. 
Daphne,  1028a,  2463a. 
Dardanelles,  1028a. 
Dare  Base  (game),  1440a. 
Darien,  Gulf  of,  1028b. 
Darien  Scheme,   1029a. 
Darius,  423a,   1029a,  2795a. 
Darius  III,  1029a. 
Dark  Ages,  1029b. 
Dark  Continent,  33b. 
Darling,  Grace  Horsley,  1029b. 
Darmsiadt.  Germany,  1029b. 
Darnel,   1029b. 

Darnley,   Henry  Stuart,   1030a. 
Darter,  1030a. 
Dartmouth,  N.  S.,  1030a. 
Dartmouth  College,   1030a. 
Dartmouth        College        Case, 

1030b. 
Darwin.  Charles  Robert,  1030b. 
Date,  1031a. 
Date  Plum.  2796b. 
Daudet,   Alphonse,   1031b. 


Delaware,  Lord 

Daughters     of    the    American 

Revolution,  1032a. 
Dauphin.  1032a. 
Davenport,  Fanny  Lily  Gipsy, 

1032a. 
Davenport,  la.,  1032a. 
David,   417a,    1032b. 
David        Copperfield,        1072a, 

2133a. 
Davies,  Louis  Henry,  1032b. 
Davis,  David,   1033a. 
Davis,  Jefferson,   1033a. 
Davis,  Rebecca  Harding,  1033b. 
Davis,  Richard  Harding,  1033b. 
Davis  Strait,  1034a. 
Davitt,  Michael,  1034a. 
Davy,  Humphry,  1034a. 
Dawson,  George  Mercer,  1034a. 
Dawson,  John  William,   1034b. 
Dawson,  Yukon  District,  1034b. 
Day,  1034b,  146Ca. 
Day,  William  Rufus,  1035b. 
Day  Fly,  22S4b. 
Day  Is  Done,  The,  2026b. 
Daylight  Saving,  1035b. 
Day  Lily,  1035b. 
Days  of  (jrace,  1543b. 
Dayton,  Alston,   1775b. 
Dayton,  Ohio,  1035b. 
De,  1036a. 
Deaconess,  1036b. 
Dead-Letter  Office,  1036b, 
Dead  Reckoning,  1037a. 
Dead  Sea,  1037a. 
Deadwood,  S.  D  ,  1037a. 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  1037a. 
Dearborn.  Henry,  1039a. 
Death,  1039a. 
Death  Adder,  3775b. 
Death's-head  Moth,  1039a. 
Death  Valley,  507b,  1039a. 
Debate,  1039b. 
Debenture  Bonds,  497b. 
Deborah,  1041a. 
Debs,  Eugene  Victor,  1041a. 
Debt,   1041b. 

Debussy,  Claude  Achille,  1041b. 
Decalogue,  1042a. 
Decatur,  111.,  1042a. 
Decatur,  Stephen,  1042a. 
Deccan,  1042b. 
December,  1042b. 
Decemvirs,  1043a. 
Deciduous  Trees,  1043a. 
Declaration,  1043a. 
Declaration    of    Independence, 

1043b. 
Declaration  of  War,  3802b. 
Declination,  1045b. 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 

Empire,  1509b. 
Decomposition,   1045b,  2972a. 
Decorative  Design,  1125a. 
Decoy,   1046a. 
Deduction,  1046a. 
Deductive   Method,  1046a. 
Deductive   Philosophy,   2823a. 
Deep-sea  Fishes,  1331a. 
Dee  River,  1046b. 
Deed,  1046b. 
Deer,   1047b. 
Deer  Mouse,  1887a. 
De  Facto,  1048a. 
Defoe,  Daniel,   1048a. 
Degeneration,    1048b. 
Deglutition,  3479a. 
Degree,  1048b. 
Degree,  Bachelor's,  312a. 
Deianira,  1676b. 
Deification,  146a. 
De  Jure,    1049a. 
DeKalb,  111.,  1049a. 
DeKalb,  Johann,  Baron,  1049b. 
DeKoven,  Reginald,   1049b. 
Delagoa  Bay,  1049b. 
Deland,       Margaretta       Wade 

Campbell,  1050a 
Delaroche,  Paul,   1050a. 
Delaware,  1050a. 
Delaware,  Lord,  1052a,  3779b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  colunin  li  the  letter  b,  coliuun  2. 


Delaware,  Ohio 

Delaware,  Ohio,  1052b. 

Delaware  Bay,  1053a. 

Delaware  Indians,  1052b. 

Delaware  River,  1053a. 

Delaware  Water  Gap,  1053a. 

Delcassg,  Theophile,  1053a. 

Delft,  Netherlands,  1053a. 

Delhi,  India.  1053b. 

Delian  League,  272a. 

Deliberation,  3873a. 

Delilah,  1054a,  3182a. 

Delirium,  1054a. 

Delirium  Tremens.  1054a. 

Deliverance     of    Saint     Peter, 
2705a. 

Delos,  1054a. 

Delphi,  1054a. 

Delsarte,   Frangois  Alexandre, 
1054b. 

Delta,  1054b,  3080a. 

Deluge,    1055a. 

Demarcation,  Line  of,  1055a. 

Dementia,  1805b. 

De  Mille,  James.  1055a. 

Democracy,   1542a. 

Democratic  Donkey,  2476a. 

Democratic        Party,         1055b, 
2887a. 

Democratic-Republican  Party, 
2887a,  3052a,  3706b. 

Demosthenes,  1056a. 

Demotic  Writing-,   1684a. 

Demurrer.  1056a. 
Denarius,  1056a.  2781a. 

Denatured  Alcohol.  76a. 
Denison,  Tex.,  1056b. 
Denmark,   1056b. 
Denmark's  Colonies,  884b. 
Density,  1059a. 
Dental  Schools.  1059a. 
Dentiphone,  282a. 
Dentistry,  1059b. 
Denver,  Colo.,  1060a. 
Denver,  University  of,  1061a. 
Department,  1061a. 
Department      of      the      Navy, 

2497b. 
Department  of  State,  3410a. 
Department  of  War,  3803a. 
De  Pauw  University,  1061a. 
Depew,      Chauncey      Mitchell, 

1061a. 
Depth  of  Oceans,  2631b. 
DeQuincey,    Thomas,   1061a. 
Derby,  Eng.,  1061b. 
Dermis.  3319b. 
Der     Ring     des     Nibelungen, 

3795a. 
De  Reszke   (family),  1061b. 
Derrick,  1062a. 
Dervish,  10G2a. 
Descartes,  Rene,  1062b. 
Descending  Colon,  5b. 
Descent  from  the  Cross,,  The, 

3074a,  3128a. 
Deseret,  3725a. 
Desert,  1062b. 
Deserted  Village,   1533b. 
Desire,  3873a. 
Des  Moines,   la.,   1063a. 
Des  Moines  Plan,  1063a. 
Des  Moines  River,  1063b. 
DeSoto.  Fernando,  1063b. 
Destinn.  Emmy,  1063b. 
Detector,  3532a. 
Determinism,    1301b. 
Detroit,  Mich.,  1064a. 
Detroit  River,  1065b. 
Deucalion,  1066a. 
Deuteronomv,  1066a. 
Deutsch,  1493b. 
Devil,  1066a. 
Devil  Fish,  1066b. 
Devil's  Darning  Needle,  1111a. 
Devil's  Horse,  3797b. 
Devils  Lake,  N.  D.,  1066h. 
Devil   Worship,    1066b. 
Devonian  Period,  1066b. 
Devonian  System,  1067a. 


4009 

Devonshire,    Victor    Christian 

William  Cavendish,  1067a. 
Dew,  1067b. 
Dewey,  George,  1068a. 
Dewey,  John,  1068b. 
Dewey,  Melvil,  1068b. 
Dextrin,  1068b. 
Diabase,   1068b. 
Diabetis,  1069a. 
Diacritical   Marks,    2681a. 
Diagonal  Scale,  1069a. 
Dialect,  1069b. 
Diameter,  825b. 
Diamond,  461a,  767b,  1069b. 
Diamond  Head,  3617a. 
Diana,  1070b. 
Diaphragm,  1071a. 
Dias,  Bartholomeu,  1071a. 
Diatom,  1071a. 
Diatonic  Scale,  3208a. 
Diaz,  Porflrio,  1071a,  2322a. 
Dibasic  Acid,  14a. 
Dice,  1071b. 

Dickcissel.  1071b,  3376b. 
Dickens,  Charles,  435a.  1072a. 
Dicotyledons,   517a,  518b,  972b. 
Dictator,  1073a. 
Dictionary,  1073a. 
Dictograph,   1074a. 
Didactic  Poetry,  1074a. 
Dido,  30b,  1074a. 
Die,  1074b. 
Dielectric,  1074b. 
Die-sinking,  1074b. 
Diet,  1075a. 
Diet  (meeting),  1075a. 
Diet  of  Worms,  3040a. 
Diffraction.  1075a. 
Diffusion,  1075b. 
Digestion,  1075b,  1367b. 
Digit,  1076a,  3318b. 
Digitalis,  1388a. 
Dike,  1076a. 
Dillon,  John,  1076a. 
Dime,  1076b. 

Dimeter  (in  poetry),  2311b. 
Dimity,  107Cb. 
Dingley  Bill,   1076b,  3516b. 
Dingo,  1076b. 
Dinosauria,  1076b. 
Dinwiddle,  Robert,  1077a. 
Diocletian,  1077a. 
Diogenes,  1077a. 
Diomedes,  1077a. 
Dionaea,  3753b. 
Dionysius,  the  Elder,  1077b. 
Dip,  1077b. 

Diphtheria,  784a,  1077b. 
Diphthong,  1078a  2682b. 
Diplodocus,  1077a. 
Diplomacv,  1078a. 
Dipper,  1078b. 
Dipping  Needle,  1078b. 
Dipsomania.  1079a. 
Diptera.  1360a. 
Directory,  1079a. 
Dirigible  Balloons,  1364b. 
Disarmament,  229b. 
Disciples  of  Christ,  1079a. 
Discipline,   791a. 
Discobolus,  1079b,  3230b. 
Discount,  1079b. 
Discus,     Throwing    the,     274b, 

1079b,  3231a. 
Disease,  1079b. 
Diseases  of  Plants.  1080a. 
Disinfectants.  1080b. 
Dispensary,  1081a. 
Dispensation,  1081a. 
Displacement,  3283a. 
Disraeli,  Benjamin,  1081a. 
Dist^emper  (disease),   1081b. 
Distillation,  1081b. 
Distilled  Liquors,   10S2b. 
Distinguished     Service     Cross, 

1082b. 
Distinguished    Service    Medal, 

1083a. 
District  Attornev,  1083a. 
District  of  Columbia,   1083b. 


Dory 

Diver,  1084a. 

Divide,  1084b,  3830b. 

Dividers,  904a. 

Dividend,  1084b. 

Divination,  1085a. 

Divine  Comedy,  The,  1026b. 

Divine  Right  of  Kings,   1085a. 

Diving,  1085a,  3486a. 

Diving  Beetle,  3226a. 

Divining  Rod,  1085b. 

Division  (army),  227a. 

Divorce,  1085b. 

Dixie,  10S6a. 

Dixie  Highway,  1086a. 

Dixon,  Thomas,  1087a. 

Dnieper,  1087a. 

Dniester,  1087a. 

Dobrudja,  1087a. 

Dock.  1087b. 

Dockyards,  1088a. 

Dodder,  520b,  1088a. 

Dodgson,     Charles     Lutwidge, 

1088b. 
Dodo,  1088b. 

Dog,  1089a,  2489b,  2490a,  3981a. 
Dogbane,  1091a. 
Dog  Days,  1091b. 
Doge,  1091b,  3752a. 
Dogfish,  1091b. 
Doggerbank,  1091b. 
Dogma,  1091b. 
Dog  of  the  Forest,  2083b. 
Dogstar,  1089a. 
Dog-tooth  Violet,  1092a. 
Dogwatch,  1092a. 
Dolci,  Giovanni  de,  3314b. 
Doldrums,  1092a. 
Dole,    Sanford    Ballard,    1092a, 

164€b. 
Doll,  1092a. 
Doll,  A  Discarded,  Speaks  on  a 

Christmas  Day,  3558b. 
Dollar,  1092b. 
Dollar  Diplomacy,  3502b. 
Dolomite,   1092b. 
Dolphin,  1093a. 
Dombey  &  Son,  2384a. 
Dome,  1093a. 
Domenichino.  1093b. 
Dome     of     the     Rock,     1889a, 

3537b. 
Domesday  Book,   1093b. 
Domestic  Commerce,   3688a. 
Domestic  Science,   1094a. 
Dominica,   1104b.  3621b. 
Dominicans,  1105a. 
Dominion  Day,   1105a,  1915b. 
Dominion  Lands,  2014b. 
Dominion  Notes,  2376a. 
Dominion     of     Newfoundland, 

2527b. 
Dominion     of     New     Zealand, 

2562b. 
Dominion   Parliament,   2744a. 
Dominoes,  1105a. 
Domitian,  1105b. 
Dom  Pedro  II,  547a. 
Donatello.  1105b. 
Donati's  Comet,  898a. 
Donato,    1105b. 
Don  Cesar  de  Bazan,  2277b. 
Don  Cossacks,  967b. 
Dongola.  1106a. 
Donizetti,  Gaetano,  llOGa. 
Don  Juan,  620a,  1106a. 
Donkey    in    the    Lion's    Skin, 

The.  34  32b. 
Donnelly.  Ignatius,  1106a. 
Don  Quixote,  606b,  1106b,  742a. 
Don  River,  1105b. 
Dooley,  Mr.,  1155a. 
Dorcas,  1456b. 
Dorg,  Paul  Gustave,  1106b. 
Dorians,  1106b. 
Doric  Order.  895b. 
Dormer  Widow,  1106b. 
Dormouse.  1106b. 
Dorr's  Rebellion,  1107a. 
Dortmund.  Germany,  1107a. 
Dory,  2852a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Dou,  Gerard 


4010 


Eglantine 


Dou,  Gerard,  1107a. 
Douai  Bible,  1107b. 
Double  Acrostic.  15a. 
Double  Stars,  1107b. 
Doublet,  1144a. 
Doug-hfaces,  3007b. 
Douglas,  Arizona,  1107b. 
Douglas,        Stephen        Arnold, 

1107b,  3395b. 
Douglas,  William,  129b. 
Douglas  Fir,  2675a. 
Doum  Palm,  1108b. 
Douma,   1152b. 
Douro  River,  1108b. 
Dove,  1108b. 
Dover,  Del.,  1109a. 
Dover,  Eng.,  1109a. 
Dover,  N.  H.,  1109a. 
Dover,  Strait  of,  1109b. 
Dow,  Neal  1109b. 
Dowager  Queen,  2987a. 
Dowden,  Edward,   1109b. 
Dower,  1109b. 

Dowie,  John  Alexander,  1109b. 
Doyle,  Arthur  Conan,  1110a. 
Drachma,  1110a,  3505a. 
Draco,  271b,  1110b. 
Draft       (commercial      paper), 

1110b. 
Drafting,  922a. 
Dragon,  1110b. 
Dragon  Fly,  1111a. 
Drainage,   1101a,   1111a. 
Drainage  Canal,  1112a. 
Drainage  Tubes,  1112b. 
Draisine,  427b. 
Drake,  Francis,  1112b. 
Drakensberg  Mountains,  1113a, 

3610a. 
Drama,  1113a. 

Draper,  Andrew  Sloan,  1116a. 
Drave,  1116b. 
Dravidians,  1116b,  1780a. 
Drawbridge,  557a. 
Drawing,  1116b. 
Dreadnaught,  2496b. 
Dream,  1142a. 
Dream  Life,  2372a. 
Dredging,  1142a. 
Dred  Scott  Decision,  1142a. 
Dresden,  Germany,  1142b. 
Dresden  China,  1143a. 
Dress,  1143a. 
Drew,  John,  1144a. 
Drexel,  Anthony  Joseph,  1144b. 
Drexel  Institute,  1144b. 
Dreyfus,  Alfred,  1144b,  3979a. 
Drift,  1145a. 

Drill  (agriculture),  3369a. 
Dromedary,  1145a. 
Dropsy,  1145a. 
Dropwort,  3386b. 
Drowned  Valley,  3734a. 
Drowning,       Rescuing      from, 

1145a.  3486a. 
Druggist,  146a. 
Druids,  1145b. 
Drum,  1146a. 

Drummond,  Henry,  1146b. 
Drummond,     William     Henry, 

1146b. 
Drummond  Island,   2241b. 
Drunkenness,  76b. 
Druses,  1146b. 
Dryads,  1147a,  2625b. 
Dry  Battery,  1196a. 
Dryden,  John,  1147a. 
Dry  Docks,  1088a. 
Dry  Farming,  1147b. 
Dry  Rot,  1148a. 
Dry  Tortugas,  1148a. 
Dual  Alliance,   3636a. 
DuBarry,  Marie  Jeanne   Becu, 

1148a. 
Dublin,  Ireland,  1148a. 
Dublin,  University  of,  1148b. 
Dubois,  Pa.,  1148b. 
Dubuque,  la.,  1149a. 
Ducat,  1149a. 
Duchess,  1151b. 


Duchy,   1149a. 

Duck,  1149b. 

Duck-billed  Platypus,  1150a. 

Ducking   Stool,    1150b. 

Duckling,  The  Ugly,  2025a. 

Ductility,   1150b. 

Duel,  1150b. 

Dufferin  and  Ava,  Frederick 
Temple  Hamilton  Black- 
wood, 1151a. 

Dugong,  1151a. 

Duisburg,  Germany,  1151b. 

Duke,  1151b. 

Dukhobors,  1151b. 

Dulcimer,  1151b. 

Duluth,  Minn.,   1152a. 

Duma,  1152b. 

Dumas   (family),  1152b,  1153a. 

Du  Maurier,  George  Louis 
Palmella  Busson,  1153a. 

Dumb-bells,   1153a,  1602a. 

Dumdum  Bullets,  598a. 

Dunaburg,   1153b. 

Dunbar,  Paul  Laurence,  1153b. 

Duncan,  King,   3223b. 

Duncan,  Norman,  1153b. 

Dundas,  Ont.,  1153b. 

Dundee,  Scotland,  1154a. 

Dune,   1154a,   1480a. 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand,   1154a. 

Dunkers,  1154b. 

Dunkirk,  France,  1154b. 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  llo4b. 

Dunmore,   Pa.,   1156a. 

Dunne,  Finley  Peter,  1155a. 

Duns  Scotus,  John,  1155a. 

Duodenum,  5b,  1822a. 

Dupin,  Armantine  Lucile 
Aurore,  3183b. 

Duquesne,  Pa.,  1155a. 

Dura  Mater,  542a. 

Durango,  Mex.,  1155a. 

Durant,  Henry  Fowle,  3846a. 

Durban,  South  Africa,  1155b. 

Durbar,  1155b. 

Durer,  Albrecht,  1155b. 

Duress,  1155b. 

Durham,  John  George  Lamb- 
ton,  1155b. 

Durham,  N.  C,  1156a. 

Durhams,  728b. 

Duse,  Eleanora,  1156a. 

Dusseldorf,  Germany.  1156b. 

Dust,  1156b. 

Dutch  Colonies,  883a. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  1157a. 

Dutch  Guiana,  1157a. 

Dutch  Metal,  1157a. 

Dvina  River,  1157b. 

Dvinsk,  Russia,  1153b. 

Dvorak,  Antonin,  1157b. 

Dwarf,  1157b,  1293b. 

Dwarf  Birch,  449a. 

Dwarfing,  1158a. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  1158a. 

Dyaks,  1158a. 

Dyeing,  1158a. 

Dynamics,   1159a,  2289b,   3401b. 

Dynamite,  1159b. 

Dynamo,  1159b,  1205a. 

Dynamometer,  1160a. 

Dyne,   1159a,  1160b. 

Dysodile,  1160b. 

Dyspepsia,  1160b. 


E,  1161a,  2682a. 

Eads,  James  Buchanan,  1161a, 

1893a. 
Eagle  (bird),  1161b. 
Eagle   (coin),  1162b. 
Eagle  (standard),  1162b. 
Eagle  Wood,  101b. 
Eames,  Emma,  1162b. 
Ear,  1163a. 
Earl,  1165a. 

Early,  Jubal  Anderson,   1165a. 
Earring,  1165b. 


Ear  Shell,  2a. 

Earth,  1165b,  1479a,  1480b. 

Earth,  Origin  of  the,  1476b. 

Earth  Currents,  1168a. 

Earthenware,  2924b,  2925b. 

Earthquake,  1168a. 

Earths,  1169a. 

Earth  Shine,  1169a. 

Earthworm,  1169b. 

Earwig,  1169b. 

Easement,  1169b. 

Easter,  1170a. 

Easter  Lily,  1170a. 

Eastern  Question,  1170a. 

Eastern  Republic  of  Uruguay, 

3723b. 
East  Flanders.  1344a. 
East  India  Company,  1170b. 
East  Indies,  1170b. 
East  Liverpool.  Ohio,   1170b. 
Easton,  Pa.,  1171a. 
East  Orange,  N.  J.,  2668a. 
East  River,  1171a. 
East  Saint  Louis,  111.,  1171a. 
Eau  Claire,  Wis.,  1171b. 
Eau  de  Cologne,  1171b. 
Ebenezer,  1171b. 
Ebers,  George  Moritz,  1171b. 
Ebert,  Friedrich,  1172a,  1502b. 
Ebony,  1172a, 
Eccentric,  1172b. 
Ecclesiastes,   1172b. 
Echidna,  1172b. 
Echinoderms,  1173a,  3405a. 
Echinus,  3244a. 
Echo        (mythology),        1173a, 

2463b. 
Echo  (physics),  1173a. 
Eck,  Johann  Maier  von,  1173b. 
Eclectics,  1173b. 
Eclectic    School    of    Medicine, 

1173b. 
Eclectic  System,  2822b. 
Eclipse,  1174a. 
Ecliptic,  1166b,  1174b. 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  1174b. 
Eclogues,  3756a. 
Ecology,  1175a. 
Economics,  1175a. 
Ecuador,   1176a. 
Eczema,  1177b. 
Edda,  1178a. 
Eddy,  Clarence,  1178a. 
Eddy,  Mary  Baker,  814b,  1178a. 
Eden,  1178b. 
Edentata,  1178b. 
Edgar  Atheling,  1179a. 
Edict  of  Nantes,  2469a. 
Edinburgh,    Scotland,    1179a. 
Edinburgh,       University       of, 

1180a. 
Edison,    Thomas    Alva,    1180a, 

1823a,  3530a. 
Edmonton,  Alberta,  1180b. 
Edom,  1181a. 
Education,  1181a. 
Education,    Bureau    of,    1182b. 
Education,  Pre-Vocational, 

3785b. 
Education  Association,  Nation- 
al, 1183a. 
Education  in  the  United  States, 

3699a. 
Edward  the  Confessor,  1183b. 
Edward,     The     Black     Prince, 

1183b. 
Edward  I,  1183b. 
Edward  II,  1183b. 
Edward  III,  1184a. 
Edward  IV,  1184a. 
Edward  V,  1184b. 
Edward  VI,   1184b. 
Edward  VIL  1184b. 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  1185a. 
Eel,  1185a. 
Egbert,   1185a. 
Egg,  1098a,  1185a. 
Eggleston,  Edward,  1186a. 
Eggplant,  1186a. 
Eglantine,  1186b,  3484a. 


The  letter  a,  alter  a  nuinber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Egmont,  Lamoral 


4011 


Egmont,  Lamoral,  1186b. 

Eg-oism,  1186b. 

Egret,  1186b. 

Egypt,  1187a. 

Egyptian   Architecture,    163b. 

Egyptian  Cotton,  969a. 

Egyptian  Lotus,  3827a. 

Egyptian  Mythology,  24  64b. 

Egyptian  Sculpture,  32.?0a. 

Eider  Duck,  1150a,  1192a. 

Eiffel,  Gustave,   1192b. 

Eiffel  Tower,  The,  1192a. 

Eight  Bells,  384b. 

Ekaterina,  Russia,  1192b. 

Eland,  1192b. 

Elasticity,  1193a,  1346a. 

Elba,  1193a. 

Elbe  River,  1193b. 

Elberfeld,  Germany,  1193b. 

Elburz  Mountains,   1193b. 

El  Caney,  Battle  of,  1193b. 

Elder,  1193b. 

Elder  Edda,  2567a,  2611a. 

El  Dorado,  1194a. 

Elecampane,   1194a. 

Election,  1194a. 

Elective    Studies,    1194b. 

Electoral  College,  1195a,  2934a. 

Electoral    Commission,     1195b, 
3582a. 

Electoral    Districts    (Canada), 
2745a. 

Electors,      German      Imperial, 
1195b. 

Electra,   1195b,  2872b. 

Electrical  Engineer,  1225b. 

Electrical  Fish,  1195b. 

Electric  Battery.  1196a. 

Electric  Bell,  1198b. 
Electric  Car,  304a. 
Electric  Clock,  1199a. 

Electric      Current,      Unit      of, 

3670b. 
Electric  Heating,  1199b. 
Electricity,  1199b. 
Electric  Light,   1202b,  1823a. 
Electric  Locomotives,  2151a. 
Electric  Machine,   1204a. 
Electric  Meter,  1204b. 
Electric  Motor,  1205a. 
Electric  Peak,   3962b. 
Electric  Railway.  1205b. 
Electric  Ray,  3599a. 
Electric  Telephone,  3533b. 
Electro-chemistry,   1206b. 
Electrocution,   1206b. 
Electrodes,  1196a,  1206b. 
Electrolysis,  1206b. 
Electrolyte,   1206b. 
Electro-magnet,  1207a. 
Electro-magnetic,     Theory     of 

Light,  1207b. 
Electro-magnetism.   1207b. 
Electrometer,  1208a. 
Electro-motive  Force.  1208a. 
Electron  Theory.  1200b. 
Electrophorus,   1208b. 
Electroplating,  1208b. 
Electroscope,    1208b. 
Electrotherapy,   1209a. 
Electrotyping,   1209a. 
Elegy,  1209b. 
Elegy    Written    in    a    Country 

Chuchyard,  1557a. 
Elements,  Chemical,  766b. 
Elephant,  1210a. 
Elephantiasis,   1211a. 
Elephant  Seal,  1211a. 
Elephant's  Ear,  379b. 
Eleusinian  Mysteries,   1211a. 
Elevated  Railway,  1211b. 
Elevator,  1211b. 
Elgar,  Edward  William,  1211b. 
Elgin,  111.,  1212a. 
Elgin,  James  Bruce,  1212a. 
Elgin  Marbles,  1212b. 
Eli,  415a,  1212b. 
Elijah,  419a,  1212b. 
Elimelech,  414a. 
Eliot,  Charles  William,  1212b. 


Eliot,  George,  1213a. 
Eliot,  John.  1213b. 
Elisha,  1213b. 
Elixir,  1214a. 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  1214b. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  1214a. 
Elizabeth  City,  N.  C,  1215a. 
Elk,  1215a. 
Elkhart,  Ind.,  1215b. 
Elk  Island  Park,  2743a. 
Elks,  Benevolent  and  Protec- 
tive Order  of,  1215b. 
Ell,   3844a. 

Ellesmere  Land,  1216a. 
Elliott,  Maxine,  1216a. 
Ellipse,  1216a. 
Ellis  Island,  1216a. 
Ellsworth,    Annie,    3528b. 
Ellsworth,      Ephraim      Elmer, 

1216b. 
Ellsworth,  Oliver,  1216b. 
Elm,   1216b. 
Elman,  Mischa,  1217a. 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1217a. 
El  Paso,  Tex.,  1217b,  3552b. 
Elsmere,  Robert,  3803b. 
Elves,  1293b. 
Elwood,  Ind.,  1217b. 
Ely,  Richard  Theodore,  1218a. 
Elyria,  Ohio,  1218a. 
Elysium  Fields,  1218a. 
Elzevir,  1218a. 
Emancipation      Proclamation, 

1218b. 
Embalming,  1218b. 
Embargo,  1218b. 
Embargo  Act,  1219a,  3707b. 
Embassy,  1219a. 
Embezzlement,  1219a. 
Embossing,  1219b. 
Embroidery,  1219b. 
Embryo       and       Embryology, 

1220a,  1503b. 
Emden,  The,  3923b. 
Emerald,   461a,   1220a. 
Emerald  Isle,  1220a. 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  1220a. 
Emery,  1220b. 
Emetic,   1220b. 
Emetine,  1829a. 
Emigration   and   Immigration, 

1773a. 
Emigres,  1221a. 
Emile,  3124b. 
Eminent  Domain,  1221a. 
Emin  Pasha,   1221a. 
Emir,  645b. 

Emmet,    Robert,    1221b. 
Emotions,  1221b. 
Emperor,  1222a. 
Empire     Day,      1222a,      1915b, 

2283b. 
Empire    State    of    the    South, 

1485b. 
Employer's   Liability,    1222a. 
Employment  Bureau,  1222b. 
Emporia,  Kan.,  1223a. 
Ems,  Germany,  1223a. 
Emu.  457b,   1223a. 
Emulsion,  1223b. 
Enamel,  1223b. 
Encke's  Comet,  898a. 
Encyclopedia,   1224a. 
Endicott,  John,  1224b. 
Endive,  1224b. 
Endless  Screw,  1224b. 
Endocardium,   1656a. 
Endothermic  Energy,  13a. 
Endymion,  1224b. 
Enemy,  1225a. 
Energy,  1225a.  - 
Enfleurage,  1286b,  2788b. 
Engine,  1453a,  3412b. 
Engineer  Corps,  226a. 
Engineering,  1225a. 
England,  1226a. 
England,  Church  of,  1235b. 
English  Channel,  1236a. 
English   Colonies   in   America, 
3701a. 


Esquire 

English  Language,  123eb. 

English  Measurements,   2315b. 

English  Sculpture,  3235a. 

English  Skylark,  2060b. 

English   Universities,   3720b. 

Engraving,  1237a. 

Enid,  Okla.,  1238a. 

Enoch  Arden,  3543b. 

Ensign,  1238a. 

Ensilage,  3307b. 

Entablature,   895b,   1238a. 

Entertaining,  Suggestions  for, 
1238b. 

Entomology,  Bureau  of,   51a. 

Entry,  Port  of,  2911a. 

Envelope,  1244b. 

Environment,   1244b,   1262a. 

Envoy  Extraordinary,  1244b. 

Eocene  Epoch,  1245a. 

Epaminondas,  1245a. 

Ephesians,      Epistle      to      the, 
1245b. 

Ephesus,  1245b. 

Ephraim,  1245b, 

Epic,  1245b. 

Epictetus,  1245b. 

Epicureanism,  1246a. 

Epicurus,  1246a. 

Epidemic,   1246a. 

Epidermis,  3319a. 

Epiglottis,  541b,  2061a. 

Epigram,  1246b. 

Epimetheus,  2725b. 

Epilepsy,  1247a. 

Epiphany,  1247a. 

Epirus,  1247b. 

Epiphytes,  55a. 

Episcopal   Church,   1247b. 

Epistle  to  Titus,  3587a. 

Epitaph,  1247b. 

Epithalamium,  3382b. 

E  Pluribus  Unum,  1248a. 

Epoch,  1248a. 

Epsom  Salts,  1248a. 

Epworth  League,  1248b. 

Equator,  1248b. 

Equatorial  Current,  2630a. 

Equilibrium,  2091a. 

Equinoctial,  1248b. 

Equinoctial  Line,  1035a. 

Equinox,   1249a. 

Equisetum,  1722b. 

Equity,   1249a,  2066b. 

Era    of   Good    Feeling,    1249a, 

3708a. 
Erasmus,  Desiderius,   1249a. 
Erato,  2438b. 
Erebus,  1249b. 
Erebus  and  Terror,   3119b. 
Erechtheum,  1249b. 
Erfurt,  Germany,   1249b. 
Ergot,  1250a. 
Ericson,  Lief,  3774b. 
Ericsson,  John,  1250a,  1823a. 
Eric  the  Red,  1250a. 
Erie,  Battle  of  Lake,  1250b. 
Erie,  Lake,  1250b. 
Erie,  Pa.,  1250b. 
Erie  Canal,  1251a. 
Eris,  1251b.  2457b. 
Ermine,  1252a. 
Erosion,  1252a. 
Erratics,  1252b. 
Error,  Writ  of,  3949b. 
Errors,  Correction  of,  2045b. 
Erysipelas,  1253a. 
Erzerum,  1253a. 
Esau,  408a,  1253a. 
Escanaba,"  Mich.,  1253a. 
Eschenbach,  Wolfram,  2751a. 
Escorial,  1253b. 
Escrow,  1253b. 
Esdras,  Books  of.  1253b. 
Eskimo,  1254a,  2994b. 
Eskimo  Dog,  1089b,  1254b. 
Esophagus,   541b. 
Esparto,   1255a. 
Esperanto.  1255a. 
Esquimault,  B.  C,  1255b. 
Esquire,  24a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nninber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Essay 

Essay,  1255b. 

Essays  of  Elia,  2009b. 

Essays  on  Corn,  954a. 

Essed  Pasha,  69a. 

Essen,  Germany,  1256a. 

Estate,  1256a. 

Esther,  Queen,  424a,  1256b. 

Esthetics,  1256b. 

Esthonia,  1256b. 

Estuary,  1257a,  3080a. 

Estufa,  855a. 

Etching-,  1257a. 

Etesian  Winds,  1257b. 

Ethelwulf,  85a,  1257b. 

Ether,  1257b. 

Ether  (in  medicine),  1257b. 

Ethical  Training-,  1263a. 

Ethics,  1258a. 

Ethiopia,  1264b. 

Ethiopian,  2994b. 

Ethnography,  1265a. 

Ethnology,  1265a. 

Ethyl  Alcohol,  76a. 

Etiolation,  1265a. 

Etna,  1265a. 

Eton  College,  1265b. 

Etruria,  1265b. 

Etruscan   Vases,   1266a. 

Etymology,  1266a,  1546a. 

Euboea,  30a. 

Eucalyptus,  1266a. 

Eucharist,  1266b. 

Euchre,  1266b. 

Euclid,  1267a. 

Euclid,  47th  Problem  in,  2976a. 

Eugene,  Ore.,  1267a. 

Eugenics,  1267a. 

Eugenia-Marie     ^de      Montijo, 

1267b. 
Euphorbiaceae,  3394a. 
Euphrates,   1268a. 
Euphrosyne,  1543b. 
Eurasians,  1268a. 
Eureka,  Calif.,  1268a. 
Eureka  Springs,  Ark.,  1268b. 
Euripides,  1268b. 
Europa,  1268b. 
Europa,  Story  of,  2450a. 
Europe,  1269a. 
Europe,  Races  of,  2994b. 
Eurus,  31a. 
Eurydice,  1278a. 
Eustachian  Tubes,  1278a. 
Bustachio,  Bartolommeo,  1278a. 
Euta-w      Springs,      Battle      of, 

1278a 
Euterpe,  1278b,  2438b. 
Evangelical   Alliance,   1278b. 
Evangelical  Association,  1278b. 
Evangeline,  469a,  1279a,  1548b. 
Evans,       Robley       Dunglison, 

1279a. 
Evanston,  111.,   1279a. 
Evansville,  Ind..   1279b. 
Evaporation,   1279b,  2837b. 
Evarts,       William       Maxwell, 

1280a. 
Evening  Schools,  1280a. 
Evening  Star,  1280b. 
Everest,  Mount,  1280b. 
Everett,  Edward,  1280b. 
Everett,  Wash.,  1280b. 
Everglades,  1281a. 
Evergreen,  1281a. 
Evergreen  State,  3808a. 
Everlasting       Flower,.      107b, 

1281a 
Evolution,  1281b,  3382a. 
Exaltation,  146a. 
Excalibur,   1281b. 
Ex  Cathedra,  2902b. 
Excavations  in  Ancient  Lands, 

1282a. 
Excellency,  24a. 
Exchange,  1282b. 
Exchange,  Bill  of,  432a. 
Exchequer,  Chancellor  of  the, 

1282b. 
Exchequer    Court    of    Canada, 
1282b. 


4012 


Federal  Reserve  Notes 


Excise  Tax,  1283a. 

Excluded  Middle,  Law  of, 
3570b. 

Executive  Council  (Canada), 
1283a. 

Executive  Department,  1283b, 
3693b. 

Executive  Mansion,  3865a. 

Executor,  1283b. 

Exercise,  2830a,  2842b. 

Exergue,  2621b. 

Exeter,  1283b. 

Exile,  1284a. 

Exodus,  1284a. 

Exogenous  Plants,  1284a. 

Exorcism.  1284a. 

Exotic,  1284a. 

Expansion,    1284b. 

Expansion,  Territorial,  of  the 
United   States,    3699b. 

Expectation,  1284b. 

Experiment  Farms  and  Sta- 
tions, Canadian,  52a. 

Expiration,  549b. 

Explorations,  2603b,  3366b. 

Explosives,  1284b. 

Exposition,  Industrial,   1285a. 

Ex  Post  Facto  Law,  1285b. 

Express  Company,   1285b. 

Express   Money  Orders,   2387a. 

Express   Train    (game),   1439a. 

Extension,  1286a. 

Exterritoriality,    1286a. 

Extract  of  Beef,  377a. 

Extractives,  1096b. 

Extracts,  1286b. 

Extradition,  1286b. 

Extrados,  158a. 

Extrajudicial  Oath,   2627b. 

Extreme  Unction    3666b. 

Eyck  (family),  1286b. 

Eye,  1287a. 

Ezekiel,  1289b. 

Ezra,  1289b. 


F,  1290a. 

Fabius,  1290a. 

Fabius  the  Delayer,  1290a. 

Fable,   1290a,  2022a,  2029a. 

Facade,  1290b. 

Face,  The,   1290b. 

Faces,  False,  1291a. 

Factor,  1291a. 

Factory  Legislation,  1291b. 

Faerie  Queene,  3383a. 

Fafnir,   3302a. 

Fahrenheit,      Gabriel     Daniel, 

1292b 
Fahrenheit  Scale,  3563b. 
Faience,  1292b. 
Fainting,  1292b. 
Fair,  1292b. 

Fairbanks,  Alaska,  1293a. 
Fairbanks,     Charles     Warren, 
1293a. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,   1293a. 

Fair  God,  The,  3798a. 

Fairies,  1293b. 

Fairmont,  W.  Va.,  1294a. 

Fair  Oaks,  Battle  of,  1294a. 

Fairweather,  Mount,  1294b. 

Faith  Cure,  1294b. 

Fakirs,  1294b. 

Falcon,   1294b. 

Falconio,    Diomede,    1295a. 

Falkland  Islands,  1295b. 

Fallen     Timbers,     Battle     of, 
2643a. 

Falli&res,      Clement     Armand, 
1295b. 

Falling  Bodies,  1295b,  2836a. 

Falling  Sickness,  1247a. 

Fall  River.  Mass.  1296a. 

False  Grape,  3782b. 

False  Imprisonment,  1296b. 

False  Pretenses,  1296b. 


Fame,  Temple  of,  3796b. 
Family  (biology),  1296b. 
Famine,  1297a. 
Fandango,   1297a. 
Faneuil  Hall,  1297a. 
Fantails,  2851b. 
P'araday,  Michael,  1297b. 
Faradism,  1209a. 
Farallone  Islands,  1298a. 
Farce,  1298a. 
Farcy,  1518b. 

Far  Eastern  Question,  1298a. 
Fargo,  N.  D.,  1298b. 
Faribault,  Minn.,  1298b. 
Farley,  John  Murphy,  1298b. 
Farm  Credits,  3134b. 
Farmers'  Institute,  1299a. 
Farm   Loan   Associations,   Na- 
tional, 3135a. 
Farm    Loan    Board,    Federal, 

3134b. 
Farm  Sewerage,   3264b. 
Farms  in  Canada,  50a. 
Fame  Islands,  1299a. 
Farnese   (family),  1299b. 
Farnese  Bull,  1299b. 
Farnese  Hercules  1299b,  3233b. 
Farnese  Palace,  1299b. 
Faroe  Islands,  1299b. 
Farragut,       David       Glasgow, 

1300a. 
Farrar,      Frederick      William, 

1300b. 
Farrar,  Geraldine,  1300b. 
Farthing,  1300b. 
Fasces,  1300b,  2098b. 
Fashion,  1300b. 
Fasts  and  Fasting-,1301a. 
Fat,  1301a. 
Fatalism,  1301b. 
Fata  Morgana,  1301b. 
Fat-Back.  2298a. 
Fates,  1301b. 
Father,  1302a. 
Father-lasher,   1302a. 
Father  of  Angling,  1302a. 
Father  of  Comedy,  1302a. 
Father     of     English     History, 

1302a. 
Father     of     English     Poetry, 

760a. 
Father      of      English      Prose, 

2121a. 
Father  of  Epic  Poetry,  1302a. 
Father     of     Greek      Tragedy, 

1302a. 
Father  of  His  Country,  1302a, 

3817a 
Father  of  History,  1302a,  1678b. 

Father  of  Lies,  1302a. 

Father  of  Medicine,  1302a. 

Father  of  Modern  Philosophy. 
1062b. 

Father  of  the  Faithful,  1302a. 

Father  of  Water,  1302a. 

Father  Tiber,-  3577b. 

Fathom,  1302a,  3843b. 

Fatigue,  1302a,  2843b. 

Fatima,  477a. 

Fats,  1367a. 

Fatty  Degeneration,  1302b. 

Fault,  1302b. 

Faun,  1303a. 

Fauna,  1303a. 

Faure,  Franqois  F§lix,  1303a. 

Faust,  Johann,  1303a. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  1596b. 

Feasts,  1312a. 

Feathers,  1303b. 

February,  1304a. 

Federal     Farm     Loan     Board, 
3134b. 

Federal  Hall,  1304b. 

Federalist,  The,  1304b. 

Federal  Land   Banks,   3135a. 

Federal    Party,     1305a,    2886b, 
3706b. 

Federal  Reserve  Banks,  334b. 

Federal  Reserve  Board,  335a. 

Federal  Reserve  Notes,  2386a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Federal  Trade  Commission 


4013 


Football  Association 


Federal      Trade      Commission, 

1305a. 
Federated  Malay  States,  1305a. 
Feeble-minded,    Education    of, 

1305b. 
Feeling-,  2959a. 
Fee      Simple,      1256a,      1306a, 

1307b. 
Fee  Tail,  1256a. 
Feldspar,  1307b. 
Fellah,  1187b,  1307b. 
Fellowship,  1308a. 
Felony.  1308a. 
Felt,  1308a. 
Femur,  1308a,  3318b. 
Fencing-,   1308a. 
F6n§lon,  Frangois  de  Salignac, 

1308b. 
Fenians,  1308b. 
Fennel,  1309a. 
Fer-de-lance,  1309a. 
Ferdinand,    Archhduke   Franz, 

1400a.  3915a. 
Ferdinand  I   (Bulgaria),  1309a. 
Ferdinand  I  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror), 1309b. 
Ferdinand  II       (Holy      Roman 

Emperor),  1309b. 
Ferdinand  II     (Two     Sicilies), 

1309b. 
Ferdinand  IV     (Two    Sicilies), 

1309b. 
Ferdinand  V   (Aragon),    1310a, 

3373b. 
Fermentation,  1310a. 
Fermented  Liquors,  1310b. 
Fern,  1310b. 
Fern  Islands,  1299a. 
Ferrara,  Italy,  1311a. 
Ferrero,  Guglielmo,  1311a. 
Ferret,  1311a. 
Ferris  Wheel,  1311b. 
Ferrous  Sulphate,  3467b. 
Fertilization,  Cross,  994a. 
Fertilization    of    Plants,    994a, 

2894b. 
Fertilizers,  1311b. 
Fessenden,     Mrs.     Clementina, 

1222a. 
Festivals,  1312a. 
Fetish,  1312b. 
Feud,  3748a. 
Feudal  System,  1312b. 
Fever,  1314a,  2229a. 
Feverfew,  1314b. 
Fez,  1314b. 
Fez,  Morocco,  1314b. 
Fezzan,  1314b. 
Fiat  Money,  1315a. 
Fiber,  1315a. 
Fibrin,  1315a. 
Fibula,  3318b. 

Fichte.  Johann  Gottlieb,  1315b. 
Fiction,  1315b. 
Fiddler  Crab,  1317a. 
Fief,  1314a. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  1317a. 
Field,  Eugene,   1317b. 
Field,  Marshall,  1318a. 
Field,  Stephen  Johnson,  1318a. 
Field  Artillery,  226b. 
Field       Columbian       Museum, 

1318b. 
Field  Glass,  1318b. 
Fielding,  Henry.  1318b. 
Field  Magnet,  1160a. 
Field  Marshal,  1319a. 
Field    of    the    Cloth    of    Gold, 

1319a. 
Fiery  Cross,  1319a. 
Fife.  1319a. 

Fifteen  Decisive  Battles,  1319a. 
Fifty-four     Forty     or     Fight, 

2894a. 
Fig,  1320a. 
Figaro,   1320b. 
Fighting       Temeraire,       The, 

3654a. 
Figures,      Learning     to      use, 

2620a. 


Figures      of      Speech,      1320b, 

2462b. 
Figurines.  1857b. 
Fiji  Islands,  1321a. 
Filament,  1354a. 
File,  1321b. 
Filefish,  1321b. 
Filibusters,  1321b. 
Filipepi,  Alessandro,  529b. 
Filipino,  2817b. 
Fillmore,  Millard,  1322a. 
Filter,  1324a. 
Finch,  1324b. 
Findlay,  Ohio,  1324b. 
Fine,  1325a. 
Fine  Arts.  1325a. 
Fingal's  Cave,  1325a. 
Finger      Print      Identification, 

1325a. 
Finland, 1325b. 
Finland,  Gulf  of,  1326a. 
Finley,  John  H.,  1326b. 
Finnan  Haddie,  1607a. 
Finns,  1326b. 
Fins,  132fib. 

Finsen,  Niels  Ryberg,  1327a. 
Fiord, 1327a. 
Fir,  1327a. 
Fire,  1327b. 
Fire  Alarm,  1327b. 
Firebird,  328a. 
Fire  Clay,  1328a. 
Firecrackers,  1328a. 
Fire  Damp,  1328b,  2311b,  3153b. 
Fire  Department,   1328b. 
Fire  Engine,  1328b. 
Fire  Escape,  1329a. 
Fire  Extinguisher,  1329a. 
Firefly,  1329b. 
Fire  Insurance,   1814a. 
Fireless  Cooker,  1329b. 
Fire  on  the  Mountains  (game), 

1441a. 
Fire  Opal,  2663a. 
Fireprooflng,  1329b. 
Fireworks,  1330a. 
Fire  Worship,  1330a. 
First  Aid  to  the  Injured,  1330a. 
First    In,    First    Out,    (game), 

1440b. 
First   Lord   of   the   Admiralty, 

27a 
FirstTriumvirate,   2898a. 
Fish,  1330b,  1467a,  2489a,  2490a, 

3682a,  3826a. 
Fish        Commission,        United 

States,  1333b. 
Fish  Crow,  995b. 
Fish  Culture,  1333b. 
Fisher,  Harrison,  1333b. 
Fisher,  Irving,  1334a. 
Fisheries  in  Canada,  665a. 
Fish  Hawk,  1334a. 
Fishing,  1334b. 
Fishing  Eagle,  1334a. 
Fishing-frog,  125a. 
Fishing  Laws,  1437b. 
Fiske,  John,  1336a. 
Fiske,  Minnie  Maddern,  1336a. 
Fisk  University,   1336b. 
Fitch,  John  1336b,  3282b. 
Fitch,   (William)   Clyde,  1336b. 
Fitchburg,  Mass.,  1337a. 
Fitz,  2467b. 

Fitzgerald,  Edward,  1337a. 
Fiume,  1337a. 

Five  Civilized  Tribes,  1337b. 
Five  Classics.  802a. 
Five  Forks.  Battle  of,  1337b. 
Five  Nations,  The,  1338a. 
Fixed  Stars,  1338a. 
Fjord, 1327a. 
Flag,  1338b. 
Flag,     Development     of     the, 

3965b. 
Flag,     United     States,     1339b, 

3119b. 
Flageolet.  1341b. 
Flagg,      James      Montgomery, 

1341b. 


Flag  Officer,   1341b. 

Flag  of  the  Governor-General, 

1342b. 
Flag  of  the  Phrophet,   1341b. 
Flags  of  the   British   Empire, 

1341b. 
Flamboyant,  1343a. 
Flame,  1343a. 
Flamingo,  1343a. 
Flaminian   Way,    1343b,    3096b. 
Flammarion.  Camille,  1344a. 
Flanders,  1344a. 
Flanders,  Battle  of,  3918a. 
Flannel,  1344a. 
Flatfish,   1344b. 
Flathead, 1344b. 
Flax, 1344b. 
Flea,  1345a. 
Pleabane,  1345b. 
Flemings,  382b. 
Flemish  Language,   1345b. 
Fletcher,  Frank  Friday,  1345b. 
Fletcher,  John,  370b. 
Fletcherizing,    1345b. 
Fleur-de-lis,   1346a,  1836a, 
Flexibility.  1340a. 
Flexner,  Simon,  1346a. 
Flicker,   1346a,   3962a. 
Floating  Mines,  3457a. 
Flint,   1346b. 
Flint,  Mich.,  1346b. 
Flint  Glass,  1522a. 
Flintlock.  1346b. 
Flodden  Field,  Battle  of,  3224b. 
Flood,  1346b. 
Flood  Plain,  1347b. 
Flora,   1303a,  1347b. 
Florence,  Ala.,  1348a. 
Florence,  Italy,  1348a. 
Florentine  School  of  Painting, 

1348b. 
Floriculture.  1348b. 
Florida,  1349a. 
Florida  Keys,  1353a. 
Florin,  1353a. 

Flotow,    Friedrich   von,    1353a. 
Flounder,  1353a.  . 
Flour,  1353b. 
Flowering  Moss,  2976b. 
Flowers,  1354a. 

Flowers,   Hidden   Names,    1239. 
Floyd,  John  Buchanan,  1358b. 
Fluid,  1358b. 
Fluorescence,  1359a. 
Fluorides,  1359b. 
Fluorine,  1359b. 
Fluorite,  1359b. 
Fluor  Spar,  1359b. 
Flute,  1359b. 
Fly,  1360a,  1809b.  1810a. 
Flycatcher,  1361a. 
Flying  Buttress,  619a. 
Flying  Cat,  1365b. 
Flying  Dutchman,  The,  1361a, 

3794b. 
Flying  Fish,  1361a. 
Flying  Lizard,  1110b. 
Flying  Machine,    1361b,    1823a. 
Flying  Marmot,  1365b. 
Flying  Squirrel,  1365a. 
Flywheel,  1365b. 
Foch,  Ferdinand,  1365b,  3934b. 
Foehn,   807b. 
Fog,    1366a,   1468b. 
Folkething,   1057b. 
Folklore,   1366a. 
Follow     the    Leader     (game), 

1439b. 
Fomentation,  1366a. 
Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.,   1366a. 
Fontainebleau,   France,    1366b. 
Food,   1366b. 

Food,  Wise  Selection  of,  2834a. 
Foodstuffs,  1095a. 
Fools,  Feast  of,  1367b. 
Foot  (measure),  1368a. 
Foot,  The,  1368a. 
Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  1368b. 
Football,  1368b. 
Football,  Association,  254b. 


Tlie  letter  a.  after  a  number,  indicates  column   1:  tlie  letter  b.  column 


Foote,  Andrew  Hull 


4014 


Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  1371b. 
Foote,  Arthur,  1372a. 
Foote.  Marv  Hallock,   1372a. 
Foot  Pound,  1372a,  3670b. 
Foot  Rot,   1372a. 
Foraminifera,   1372a. 
Forbes-Robertson,       Johnston, 

1372b. 
Forbidden  City.  The,  2769a, 
Force,  1372b. 
Force  Bills.  1373a. 
Forceps,  1373a. 
Force  Pump,   2969b. 
Forcing  House,  1580b. 
Ford,  Henry,  1373a. 
Ford,  Paul  Leicester,  1373b, 
Foreclosure,  876a,  2418b. 
Foreign  Commerce.  3688b. 
Foreign  Phrases,  1373b. 
Foreordination,   1374b. 
Foreshortening,  1375a. 
Foresters,    Ancient    Order    of, 

1375a. 
Foresters,    Independent    Order 

of,   1375a. 
Foresters  of  America,  1375a. 
Forest  Reserves,  1379a. 
Forest    Reserves     in    Canada, 

1379a. 
Forestry  Branch,  1379b. 
Forests  and  Forestry,  1375b. 
Forests  of  Canada,  664a. 
Forest  Service,  1377b. 
Forgery,  1380a. 
Forget,     Amadee     Emmanuel, 

1380a. 
Forget-me-not,  1380a. 
Formaldehyde,   1380b. 
Formation,    372b. 
Formic  Acid,  1380b. 
Formicarium,   132b. 
Formosa,   1380b. 
Forrest,  Edwin,  1380b. 
Fort   Collins,   Colo.,   1381a. 
Fort  Dearborn,    1381a. 
Fort  de  France,  3621b. 
Fort  Dodge,  Iowa,  1381a. 
Fort  Duquesne, '1381b. 
Fort,  2442a. 
Forth,  1381b. 
Forth  Bridge,  1381b. 
Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson, 

1381b. 
Fort  Howe  Park,  2743a. 
Fortification,   1382a. 
Fortissimo,  2442a. 
Fort  Madison,  la.,  1382b. 
Fort  Mims,  Massacre  of,  1383a. 
Fort  Moultrie,  1383a. 
Fort  Niagara,  1383a. 
Fort  Pitt,  2862h. 
Fortress  Monroe,  1383a. 
Fort  Scott,  Kans.,  1383b. 
Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  1383b. 
Fort  Sumter,   1383b. 
Fortuna,  1384a. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  1384a. 
Fort  William,  Ont.,  1384b. 
Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  1384b,  3552b, 
Forty-two  Articles,   3041b. 
Forum      Romanorum,       1385a. 

3096a. 
Fossil,  1385a,  1479a. 
Fossil-flax,  239b. 
Fossil   Ore,    1837a. 
Fossil-paper,  239b. 
Foster,  George  Eulas,  1385b. 
Foster,  Stephen  Collins.  1385b. 
Fostoria,  Ohio,  1386a. 
Foucault,  Jean  Bernard  Leon, 

1386a. 
Founding,  1386a. 
Fountain,  1386b. 
Fountain  of  Youth,  1386b. 
Four  Books,  802a. 
Four  O'clock,  1387a. 
Fourth  of  July,  1778b. 
Fowl,  1387a. 
Fox,  1387a. 
Fox,  Charles  James.  1388a. 


Fox.  George.  1388a,  2978a. 
Fox,  John,  Jr.,  1388a. 
Fox  and  the  Crow.  The,  2022b. 
Foxglove,   1388a. 
Foxhound,  1388b. 
Fox  Indians,  1387b. 
Foxtail  Grass,  1388b. 
Fox  Terrier,  1388b. 
Fox  Trot.  1025b. 
Fraction,  1389a. 
Fraction   Chart,    185b. 
Fra  Diavolo.  1389a. 
Fram,  The,    116b.  2468b.   336Gb. 
Franc.   1389a. 
France,  1389b. 
Francesca  da  Rimini,  131a. 
Franchise,  1399a. 
Francis   I    (Holy   Roman   Em- 
peror). 1399b. 
Francis  II   (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror). 1399b. 
Franciscans.  1399b. 
Francis   Joseph,   299b,   1399b. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  Saint,  1400b. 
Franck,    Cesar    Auguste    Jean 

Guillaume,  1400b. 
Franco-German     War.     1400b, 

3374a. 
Francois  of  Lorraine.  1593a. 
•Francolin.  1401b. 
Franconia  Mountains.  3866a. 
Frankfort,  Ind..  1401b. 
Franfort.  Ky..  1401b. 
Frankfort  -  on  -  the  -  Main, 

Germany.    1402a. 
Franking,  1402b. 
Frankland,  1402b. 
Franklin  (Canada),  1402b. 
Franklin.  Battle  of,  1402b. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  1403a. 
Franklin,   John.    1404a.   2605b. 
Franklin,  Pa.,  1404a. 
Franks,  The,  1404a. 
Franz-Joseph  Land,  1404b. 
Frazer  River,   1404b. 
Fraternal  Societies,  1404b. 
Fraternities,  College.  1405a. 
Fraud,  1405b. 
Frau  Holle.  3433a. 
Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von,  1405b, 

3380a. 
Fraxitannic  Acid.  3512a. 
Frechette,        Louis        Honore, 

1406a. 
Freckles.  1406a. 
Frederick,  Md.,   1406a. 
Frederick  I   (Prussia),  1406b. 
Frederick  II    (Prussia).    1406b. 
Frederick  III  (Prussia).  1407a. 
Frederick  I,  Barbarossa,  997b, 

1407a. 
Frederick  II  (Sicily).  1407a. 
Frederick  VIII,   1407b. 
Fredericksburg,       Battle       of, 

1407b. 
Frederick     the     Great,     1406b, 

2957a,  3819a. 
Frederick  William,  1407b. 
Frederick    William    I,     1408a, 

2956b. 
Frederick  William  III,  1408a. 
Frederick  William  IV.  1408a. 
Frederick       William,       Crown 

Prince,  3946a. 
Fredericton,  N.  B..  1408a. 
Frederiksted,    Virgin    Islands, 

3620b. 
Free  Cities,  1408b. 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  1408b. 
Free-Hand  Drawing,  1117b. 
■Freeholds,  1256a. 
Freeman,     Mary    E.    Wilkins, 

1408b. 
Free  Masonry,  2268b. 
Free  Methodist  Church,  1409a, 

2312a. 
Freeport,  111.,  1409a. 
Free-soil  Party,  1409a,  2887b. 
Freethinkers.  1409b. 
Freetown,  1409b. 


Fur  Farming 

Free  Trade,  1409b.  3515a, 
Free  Will.  1410a. 
Freezing,  1410a,  2294b. 
Freezing  Point,  3563b. 
Fremont,  John  Charles,   1410b. 
Fremont,  Nebr.,  1410b. 
Fremont,  Ohio,  1411a. 
Fremsted,  Olive,  1411a. 
French,  Alice,  1411a. 
French,  Daniel  Chester,  1411b, 

3236a. 
French,  John,  1411b,  3917b. 
French  Academy.  11a. 
French      and      Indian      Wars. 

1412a. 
French  Canadians.  2980b. 
French  Chalk,  3505a. 
French  Colonies,  884a. 
French  Congo,  1413a. 
French       Equatorial       Africa, 

913a,  1413a. 
French  Guiana,  1413b. 
French  Indo-China,   1414a. 
French  Language,  1414a. 
French  Literature,  2122b. 
French  Revolution,  359b,  1414b. 
French  Sculpture,  3234b. 
French  Somaliland,  3344b. 
Frenchtown,  Battle  of,  3005a. 
French  Universities,  3720b. 
French  West  Africa,  1417a. 
Fresco  Painting,  1417a. 
Fresh-Water  Polyp,  1744a. 
Fresno,  Calif.,  1417b. 
Frey,  1417b. 
Freya,  1417b. 
Friar,  2382b. 
Friction.  1418a. 
Friday,   1418a. 
Friendly  Islands,   3593b. 
Friendly  Societies,  1404b. 
Frieze,  1238a. 
Frigate,  1418b. 
Frigate  Bird,  1418b. 
Frigga,  1419a. 
Frobisher,  Martin,  1419a. 
Froebel,      Friedrich     Wilhelm 

August,  1419a. 
Frog,   1419b. 

Frog  and  the  Ox.  The,  3432b. 
Frog  Fish,   125a. 
Frog    in    the    Middle    (game). 

1440b. 
Frohman  (family),  1420a. 
Froissart,  Jean.  1420a. 
Fronde.   1420b. 
Frontenac,     Louis     de     Baude, 

1420b. 
Frost.   1420b. 

Frost,  Sarah  Frances.  2255a. 
Frostbite.   1421a. 
Froude,  James  Anthony,  1421a 
Frou-Frou,  1613b. 
Fruits.  1421b,  3684b. 
Frying  (cookery),   1100a. 
Fu-chow,  China,  1421b. 
Fuchsia,   1422a. 
Fuel,  1422a. 

Fugitive  Slave  Laws,  1422b. 
Fijiyama,  1422b,  3614b. 
Fulgurite,    1422b. 
Fuller.  Margaret,   2687a. 
Fuller,  Melville  Weston,  1423a. 
Fuller's  Earth,  1423a. 
Fulmar,  1423a. 
Fulmination.    1423b. 
Fulton.  N.Y.,  1423b. 
Fulton,    Robert.    1423b.    1823a. 
Fumeroles,  3965a. 
Fumigation,  1424a. 
Fundamental    Orders    of    Con- 
necticut, 3701b. 
Fundy,  Bay  of,  1424a, 
Funeral  March,  811a. 
Fungi.  1080a.  1424a. 
Fungicides,  1806a. 
Funston.  Frederick.  1424b. 
Fur    and    Fur    Trade.     1425a, 

3682a. 
Fur  Farming.   1426a.  2940a. 


Tlie  letter  a^  after  a  uamber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Furies 


4015 


Gibraltar,  Strait  of 


Furies,  1426b. 

Furlong-,  1426b,  3844a. 

Furnace,  1426b. 

Furness,       Horace        Howard, 

1427a. 
Furniture,  1427a. 
Fur  Seal,  3240b. 
Fuse,    1427b. 
Fusel  Oil,  1428a. 
Fusing  Point,  1428a. 
Fusion,  1428b. 
Fust,  Johann,  1303b. 


G,  1429a. 

Gabers,   1507a. 

Gable,  1429a. 

Gabr.el,  1429a. 

Gadfly.   1429a. 

Gadsden,   Ala.,    1429b. 

Gadsden  Purchase,  1429b. 

Gadshill,   1073a. 

Gadski,   Johanna,    1429b. 

Gadwall,   1150a,   1430a. 

Gael,  1430a. 

Gaelic,  3222b. 

Gag-e,    1455a. 

Gage,  Thomas,  1430a. 

Gainsborough,   Thomas,    1430b. 

Galahad,    Sir,    1430b,    3547a. 

Galapagos  Islands,  1430b. 

Galatia,  1430b. 

Galaxy,  2340a. 

Galba,        Servius        Sulpicius, 

1431a. 
Galen,  1431a. 
Galena,    1431a. 
Galena,  111.,   1431a. 
Galesburg,  111.,  1431b. 
Galicia,   1431b. 
Galilee,   1432a. 
Galilee,   Sea  of,   1432b. 
Galileo,  1432b,  1823a. 
Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  1433a. 
Gallatin,   Albert,    1433a. 
Gall  Bladder.  1433b. 
Galley,    1433b. 

Galli-Curci,  Amelita,  1434a. 
Gallinule,    1434a. 
Gallipoli,  1434a. 
Gallium,  1434b. 
Gallon,  1434b. 
Galloways,  729a. 
Galls,  1434b. 
Galop,  1025a. 
Galsworthy,  John.  1434b. 
Gait,  Alexander  Tilloch,  1435a. 
Gait,  Ont.,  1435a. 
Galton,  Francis,  1435b. 
Galvani,   Luigi,    1435b. 
Galvanic  Battery,  1196a. 
Galvanism,   1209a,  1435b. 
Galvanized  Iron,   1435b. 
Galvanometer,    1436a. 
Galveston,    Tex.,    1436a,    3552b. 
Galveston  Plan,  899b. 
Gama,  Vasco  Da,  1436b. 
Gama  Grass,  1436b. 
Gamaliel,   1437a. 
Gambetta,  Leon,  1437a. 
Gambling,    1437a. 
Game,  1437b. 
Game  Laws,  1437b. 
Game  Preserves,  1438a. 
Game  Reservations,  1438a. 
Games,  1438b. 
Games  for  Primary  Teachers, 

1979a. 
Ganges  Canals,  1442b. 
Ganges  River,  1442a. 
Ganglion,  1442b. 
Gangrene,    1442b. 
Gannet,  1442b. 
Ganymede.   1442b. 
Gapes,  1443a. 
Gar,  1443a. 
Garage,   1443a. 
Garbage,  1443a. 


Garcia      y      Iniguez.      Calixto, 

1443b. 
Garda,  Lake,  1444a. 
Garden,  Mary,  1444a. 
Gardenia,   1444a. 
Gardening,  1444b. 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  1445a. 
Gardiner,       Samuel       Rawson, 

1445a. 
Garfield,       Harry       Augustus, 

1445b,  3879a. 
Garfield,  James  Abram,  1445b. 
Garget,  2882b. 
Gargle,  1447b. 
Gargoyle,  1447b. 
Garibaldi,   Guiseppe.    1447b. 
Garland.  Hamlin,  1448a. 
Garlic,   1448a. 
Garnet,  461a,  1448b. 
Garnishment,  1448b. 
Garonne   River,   1448b. 
Garrick,   David,   1449a. 
Garrison,        William        Lloyd, 

1449a. 
Garrotte,  1449a. 
Garter,  Order  of  the,  2671a. 
Garter  Snake,  1449b. 
Gary,   Elbert  Henry,   1449b. 
Gary,  Ind.,  1449b. 
Gary  School  Plan,  1450a. 
Gas,  1450a. 

Gas,   Illuminating,   1451a. 
Gas,  Natural,  1452b,  3678a. 
Gas.  Poison,  2881a. 
Gascony,   1453a. 
Gas  Engine,   1453a,  1823a. 
Gaskell,    Elizabeth    Cleghorn, 

1453b. 
Gasoline,  1453b. 
Gasoline  Motor,  304a. 
Caspar,  2217b. 
Gas  Tar,  865b. 
Gastric  Juice,  1454a. 
Gastritis,  1454a. 
Gastropod,   1454b. 
Gates,  Horatio,  1454b. 
Gath,  1454b. 
Gatineau  River.  1454b. 
Gatling,         Richard         Jordan, 

1454b,    1823a. 
Gatling  Gun,  1823a. 
Gauge,  1455a. 
Gaul,    1394a.    1455a. 
Gauntlet,  1455b. 
Gauze,  1455b. 
Gavial.  1455b. 
Gavotte,   1456a. 
Gawa  River,   1873b. 
Gay-Lussac,       Louis       Joseph, 

1456a. 
Gaza,  Syria,  1456a. 
Gazelle,  1456a. 
Gearing,  1456b. 
Gecko.  1456b. 
Gehenna,   1456b,  1666a. 
Geibel,  Emanuel.  1457a. 
Geikie,  Archibald.  1457a. 
Geissler  Tubes,  993a,   1457a. 
Gelatin,   1457b. 
Gelatinoids,  1096b. 
Gelee,   Claude,    1457b. 
Gelsemium,   1457b. 
Gemara,  3508a. 
Gemini,   1457b. 

Gem  of  the  Mountains,  1758a. 
Gems,  2930b. 
Gems,  Artificial,  1457b. 
Gendarmes,  1458a. 
Genealogy,   1458a. 
General    (military).   1458b. 
General       Education       Board, 

1458b. 
General  Grant  National  Park, 

2742a. 
General  Officers.   228a. 
General  Staff.  225b,   1458b. 
Genesis,   1458b. 
Genet,    Edmon    Charles   Edou- 

ard,  1459a,   3820b. 
Geneva,  Lake,  1459a. 


Geneva,  N.Y.,  1459a. 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1459b, 
2483b. 

Geneva  Arbitration,  1459b. 

Geneva  Convention,  1459b. 

Genghis  Khan,  1460a. 

Genii,  1460a. 

Gennesaret,  Lake  of,  1432b. 

Genoa,  Italy,  1460a. 

Genre    Painting,    1460b,    2702a. 

Gentain,  1460b. 

Gentiles,   1461a. 

Genus.  1461a. 

Geographical  Mile,  3843b. 

Geography,  1461a. 

Geography,  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing, 1470b. 

Geological  Survey  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,   1473b. 

Geology,  1474a. 

Geometry,  1481a,  2280b. 

George,  David  Llovd.  1482a. 

George,  Henry,  1484b,  3312a. 

George,  Lake,  1483a. 

George,  Saint,  1484b. 

George  I  (England),  1483a. 

George  I   (Greece).  1484b. 

George  II  (England),  1483a, 
3262b. 

George  III    (England),   1483b. 

George  IV    (England),   1483b. 

George  V  (England),  1483b. 

George  Eliot,   1213a. 

George  Junior  Republic,  1484a. 

George  Peabodv  College  for 
Teachers,  2760b. 

Georgetown,  British  Guiana, 
1485a. 

George  Washington  Univers- 
ity, The,  1485a. 

Georgia,   1485b. 

Georgia  (Transcaucasia), 
1488b. 

Georgia,  Strait  of,  1488b. 

Georgia,    University  of,    1488b. 

Georgian  Bay,   1488b. 

Georgian  Bay  Ship  Canal, 
1491a. 

Georgics,    1074a,    3756b. 

Geranium,  1491a. 

Gerard,   James  Watson,   1491a. 

Germania,  3497a. 

German  Colonies,  3919b. 

German  East  Africa,  1491b. 

German   Language,    1491b. 

German  Literature,   2123a. 

German  Measles,  784a. 

German   Sculpture,   3235a. 

German  Silver,  1492a,  2570b. 

German  Southwest  Africa, 
1492b. 

Germantown,  Battle  of,   1492b. 

Germany,    1493a,    3763a,    3937a. 

Germination,  1503a. 

Germs.   1504a. 

Germ  Theory  of  Disease,  1504a. 

Gerome,  Jean  Leon,  1505a. 

Geronimo,    1505a. 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  1505a. 

Gerrymander,    1505a. 

Gethsemane,   1505b. 

Gettysburg,  Battle  of,  1505b.. 

Gettysburg  Address,   1506a. 

Geyser,  1506b. 

Geysers  of  Yellowstone.  3964b. 

Ghauts  Mountains,  1506b. 

Ghebers.   1507a. 

Ghent.  Belgium,  1507a. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  1507b,  3806a. 

Ghetto,  1507b. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo,  1507b. 

Ghost,  1508a. 

Giant,  1508a. 

Giant  Cactus,  741a. 

Giants'  Causeway,   1508b. 

Gibbon,   1509a. 

Gibbon.  Edward.  1509a. 

Gibbons.  James.  1509b. 

Gibraltar.  1510a. 

Gibraltar,    Strait   of,    1510b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Gibraltar  of  America 


4016 


Gibraltar  of  America,  2985a. 
Gibraltar  of  the  East,  24b. 
Gibraltar  of  the  West  Indies, 

3621b. 
Gibson,  Charles  Dana,  1510b. 
Gideon.   1510b. 
Gideon's  Band,  1510b. 
Gifts    the   Dwarfs   Made,    The, 

3439b. 
Gila  River,  1511a. 
Gila  Monster,   1511a. 
Gilbert,  Humphrey,  1511a. 
Gilbert,       William       Schwenk, 

1511a. 
Gilding-,  1511b. 
Gilead,  1511b. 
Gill,  1512a. 
Gillett,  Frederick  Huntington, 

1512a. 
Gillette,        William        Hooker, 

1512a. 
Gilman,   Daniel  Coit,   1512b. 
Gilmore,  Patrick  S.,  331a. 
Gin.  1512b. 
Ginger,   1512b. 
Gingham.  1512b. 
Ginko,   1513a. 
Ginseng,  1513a. 
Giorgione,   1513a. 
Giotto,  1513b. 
Gipsy,   1603a. 
Giraffe,  1513b. 
Girard,   Stephen,   1514a. 
Girard  College,   1514a. 
Girasol,  1514b. 
Girondists,  1514b. 
Given  Meridian,  2165a. 
Gizzard,   1514b. 
Glace  Bay,  N.  S.,  1514b. 
Glacial  Acetic  Acid,  13a. 
Glacial  Period,  1514b. 
Glacier,   1468a,   1516a. 
Glacier   National   Park,    1515b, 

2743a. 
Gladiator,  1517a,  3377b. 
Gladiolus,  1517a. 
Gladstone,      William      Ewart, 

1517b. 
Glance,  1518a. 
Gland,  1518b. 
Glanders,   1518b. 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  1519a. 
Glasgow,  University  of,  1520a. 
Glass,  1520a,  3398a. 
Glass  Snake,  1522b. 
Glauber's  .Salt.  1523a. 
Glazing,  2924b,  2925a. 
Gleaners,  The,  2707b. 
Glenns  Falls,  N.Y.,  1523a. 
Gliding  Joint,  1906b. 
Globe,  1523a. 
Globe,  Ariz.,  1523a. 
Globe  Amaranth,  107b. 
Glorification,  146a. 

Gloucester,   Eng.,   1523b. 

Gloucester,  Mass.,  1523b. 

Glove,  1523b. 

Gloversville,  N.Y.,  1524a. 

Glowworm,  1329b. 

Gloxinia,  1524a. 

Gluck,  Alma,  1524a. 

Gluck,       Christop       Willibald, 
1524b. 

Glucose,  29a,  1524b. 

Glue,    1525a. 

Gluten,  1525a. 

Glutton,  1525b. 

Glycerine,  1525b. 

Glycogen,  2143b. 

Glyn,  Elinor,  1525b. 

Gnat,  1526a. 

Gneiss,   1526a. 

Gnomes,  1293b,  1526a. 

Gnu,    1526a. 

Goat,  1526b. 

Goat  Island,  2565b. 

Goatsucker,  1527a. 

Gobelin  Tapestry,  3513a. 

Gobi,  Desert  of,  1527a. 

God,  1527a. 


Goddess  of  Liberty,  2555b. 
Goderich,  Ont.,  1527b. 
Godfrey   de    Bouillon,    1527b. 
Godiva,  Lady,  1528a. 
God  Save  the  King,  1528a. 
Godwin,  Mary,   3276b. 
Goethals        George    Washing- 
ton,  1528b,  2722b. 
Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von, 

1528b. 
Goiter,  1529b. 
Golconda,  1530a. 
Gold,  1530a,  2385a,  3678a,  3973a. 
Gold-beating,  1531a. 
Gold   Certificates,   2386a. 
Gold  Coast,   1531b. 
Golden  Age,  1532a. 
Golden  Bull,  1532a. 
Golden  Fleece,  1532a. 
Golden  Gate,  1532a. 
Golden  Horn,   1532a. 
Golden  Lily,  3827a. 
Golden  Robin,  328a. 
Goldenrod,  1532b. 
Golden  State,  The,  640a. 
Golden-winged       Woodpecker, 

1346a,    3962a. 
Goldfinch,  1532b. 
Goldfish,  1532b. 
Gold  Lace,   1533a. 
Goldsboro,    N.   C,    1533a. 
Goldschmidt,      Madame      Otto, 

2115a. 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  1533a. 
Golf,   1533b. 
Goliath,  417b,  1535a. 
Gomez  y  Baez,  IMaximo,  1535a. 
Gompers,  Samuel,   1535a. 
Gondola,    1535b. 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  Gonzalo 
Hernandex  y  Aguilar,  1535b. 
Goober,  2764a. 
Good  Feeling,  Era  of,  3708a. 
Good  Friday,  1536a. 
Good  Health  (theme),  3559b. 
Good  Roads  Movement,  3082a, 

3688a. 
Good    Templars,    Independent 

Order  of,  1536a. 
Good  Will,  1536a. 
Goodwin,        Nathaniel        Carl, 

1536a. 
Goodyear,        Charles,        1536b, 

1823a,  3127b. 
Goose,  1536b. 
Gooseberry,  1536b. 
Goose-fish,  125a. 
Goose  Flesh,  2438a. 
Goosefoot,  1537a. 
Goose    That    Laid    the    Golden 
Egg,  The,  2030a. 

Gopher,  1537a. 

Goramy,   1537a. 

Gordian  Knot,  1537a. 

Gordon,  Charles  George,  1537b. 

Gordon,        Charles        William, 
1537b. 

Gorgas,      William      Crawford, 
1538a,  2723a. 

Gorges,   Fernando,   2227a. 

Gorgons,   1538a,   2293a. 

Gorilla,  1538b. 

Gorky,  Maxim,  1539a. 

Goshawk,  1539a. 

Goshen,  1539a. 

Goshen,  Ind.,  1539a. 

Gosnold,    Bartholomew,    1539b, 

Gospels,  1539b. 

Gossamer,  1539b. 

Gotham,   1539b. 

Gothic  Architecture,  156a. 

Gothenburg,  Sweden,  1540a. 

Goths,  1540a. 

Gotterdammerung,  3795a. 

Gough,      John      Bartholomew, 
1540b. 

Gould,  George  Jay,  1540b. 

Gould,  Helen  Miller,  3277a. 

Gould,  Jay,  1540b. 


Great  Lakes 

Gounod,      Charles      Francois, 

1541a. 
Gourami,  1537a. 
Gourd,  1541a. 
Gout,  1541b. 
Government,  1541b. 
Government,    Organization    ot 

the  National,  3706b. 
Government    Annuities.    2652b. 
Government  Bonds,  498a. 
Government  of  Canada,  667a. 
Government     of     the     United 

States,  3692b. 
Governor    (machinery),    1542b. 
Governor-General,  1542b. 
Governor's   Island,   1543b. 
Gracchus,  1543b. 
Grace,   Days  of,  1543b. 
Graces,  1543b. 
Grackle,  1544a. 

Grady,  Henry  Woodfln,   1544a. 
Grafting,  1544a. 
Graham  Land,    1545a. 
Grail,  The  Holy,  1545a. 
Grain  Elevator,  1545b. 
Grains,  1545b. 
Gram,  1546a,  2315b. 
Grammar,  1546a,  2038b. 
Gramophone,  3506a. 
Grampian  Hills,  1546a. 
Grampus,  1546b. 
Granada   (kingdom),  1546b. 
CJranada,  Spain,  1546b. 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic, 

1547a. 
Grand  Banks,  1333a,  1547a. 
Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado, 

1547a. 
Grand  Duchy,  1149a. 
Grandfather's  Clause,   1548a. 
Grand  Forks,  N.D.,  1548a. 
Grand  Island,  Neb.,  1548a. 
Grand  Jury,   1919b. 
Grand   Mufti,    3275a. 
Grand  Pre,  N.S.,  1548a. 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  1548b. 
Grand  Remonstrance,  1548b. 
Grands  Boulevards,   2737a. 
Grand   Trunk   Railway,    3002a. 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway, 

3003a. 
Granite,  594b,  1549a. 
Granite  City,  Illinois,  1549a. 
Granite  State,  The,  2529b. 
Grant,   Frederick   Dent,    1549b. 
Grant,  George  Monro,  1549b. 

Grant,  Robert,  1549b. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  838a, 

839b,  1550a. 
Granular  Conjunctivitis,  1553b. 

Granulation,   1553b. 

Grape,  1553b. 

Grapefruit,  1554a. 

Graphite,  767b,  1554b. 

Graphophone,  35'05a. 

Grasses,  1554b. 

Grasshopper,  1555a,  2152a. 

Gratz,  1555b. 

Gravitation,  1555b. 

Gravity,  Center  of,  738b. 

Gravity,  Specific,  1556a. 

Graj',  Asa,  1556b. 

Gray,  Elisha,  1556b. 

Gray,  George,  1557a. 

Gray,  Thomas,  1557a. 

Gray  Book,  477b. 

Grayling,  1557a. 

Gray's  Harbor,  Wash.,  6b. 

Graz,  Hungary,   1555b. 

Great  American  Desert,  3725b. 

Great  Bear  Lake,  1557b. 

Great  Britain,  1557b. 

Great  Charter,   2218b. 

Great  Circle,  3383a. 

Great  Dane,  1565a. 

Great  Eastern,  627a,  1317b. 

Great  Expectations,  1072b. 

Great   Falls,   Mont.,   1565a. 

Great  Lakes,  1565b. 


The  letter  a.  after  a  number,  indit-.atf.s  onlumn  1:  the  letter  b.  coliuun  2. 


Great  Lakes  Naval  Training  Station      4017 


Hamilcar  Barca 


Great    Lakes    Naval    Training 
Station,  2494a. 

Great  Pedee  River,  1566a. 

Great   Pyramid,   2973b. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  1566a. 

Great      Seal      of      the      United 
States,  3692a. 

Great  Slave  Lake,  1566b. 

Great  Stone  Face,   The,   2530a, 
3866b. 

Great  Wall  of  China.  1566b. 

Great  White  Way,  2556a. 

Great   Yarmouth,   Eng.,   3960b. 

Grebe,   1566b. 

Grecian  Mythology,  2448b. 

Greece,  1567a. 

Greece,  in  World  War,  3920a. 

Greek  Architecture,  164a. 

Greek  Church,   1577b. 

Greek  Cross,  994a. 

Greek  Fire,   1578a. 

Greek  Language,  1578a. 

Greek  Literature,  212 -a. 

Greek  Sculpture,  32"   b. 

Greeley,  Colo.,  1578b. 

Greeley,  Horace,  1578b. 

Greeley,     Adolphus    Washing- 
ton, 1579a. 

Green  (color),  1579a. 

Green,  Anna  Katharine,  3092a. 

Green,  Hetty.    1579b. 

Green,  John  Richard,  1579b. 

Greenaway.  Kate,  1579b. 

Greenback  Party,  1579b,  2890b. 

Greenbacks,  1580a. 

Green  Bay.  Wis.,  1580a. 

Green  Book,   477b. 

Green  Brier,   1580a. 

Greene,   Nathaniel,   1580b. 

Greenhouse,  1580b. 

Greenland,   1580b. 

Green    Mountain    Boys,    1581a, 

3579a. 
Green  ISIountains,  1581a. 
Green  Mountain  State,  3757a. 
Green  Racer,  466b. 
Green  River.  1581a. 
Greensboro,  N.C.,  1581a. 
Greensburg.  Pa.,   1581b. 
Greenville,  Miss,   1581b. 
Greenville.  S.  C,   1581b. 
Greenville,  Tex.,  1581b. 
Green  Vitriol,  3467b. 
Greenwich,  Eng.,  1582a. 
Greenwich  Observatory,  1582a. 
Gregorian       Calendar,        637b, 

1582a. 
Gregory   (Popes),   1582a. 
Grenada,  1583a. 
Grenade,  1583a. 
Grenadier,   1583a. 
Grenfell,     Wilfred    Thomasen, 

1583a. 
Gresham's  Law,  1583b. 
Gretna  Green,  1583b. 
Grevy,  Jules,  1583b. 
Grey.    Albert    Henry    George, 

1584a. 
Grey,  Charles,  1584a. 
Grey,  Edward,  1584b. 
Grey.  Lady  Jane,  1584b. 
Greyhound,  1089b,  1585a. 
Greylock  Mountain.  22a. 
Grieg,  Edvard  Hagerup,  158'a. 
Grimm,   Jakob    Ludwig.    1585a. 
Grimm,  Wilhelm  Karl.  15S5a. 
Grimm's  Fairy  Tales,  1585b. 
Grindstone,    1585b. 
Grippe,    785a,   1586a,   1801a. 
Griqualand    (East   and   West), 

1586a. 
Gris-nez  Cape,  1586a. 
Gromwell,  1586a. 
Grosbeak,  1586a. 
Grotius,  Hugo.  1586b. 
Ground  Cuckoo,  3081a. 
Ground  Hog.  3908a. 
Ground  Ivy,  1586b.  1858b. 
Ground  Squirrel,   1586b. 
Grouse.   1586b. 


Grub.   1587a. 
Grunters,   1596b. 
G.  S.  System,  3670b. 
Guadalajara,  Mex.,   1587a. 
Guadalquivir  River,  1587b. 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  of, 

1587b,    2318b. 
Guadeloupe  Islands,  1587b. 
Guadiana  River,  1588a. 
Guam,  1588a. 
Guan,  1588b. 
Guanaco,  1588b. 
Guanajuato.   Mex.,   1588b. 
Guano,  1588b. 
Guarani.    3723b. 
Guarantee,  1589a. 
Guardian,   1589a. 
Guasa,  1894a. 
Guatemala  (city).  1589b. 
Guatemala   (republic),  1589a. 
Guava.  15S9b. 
Guayule  Plant,  3127a. 
Guayaquil,  Ecuador,    1590a. 
Gudgeon,   1590a. 
Guelder     Rose,     1590b,     3332b. 
Guelph,  Ont.,  1590b. 
Guelphs        and        Ghibellines, 

1590b. 
Guerin.  Jules.  1590b. 
Guernsey    (Island).    1591a. 
Guernsey  Cattle,  729a. 
Guess  Again  (game),  1442a. 
Guessing       Contests,        1240b, 

1243b. 
Guevi,  137a. 
Guido  Reni,  1591a. 
Guild,    1591a. 
Guilder.  1591b. 
Guilford   Court   House,   Battle 

of.   1591b. 
Guillemot,  1591b. 
Guillotine.   1592a. 
Guilt  Offering,  3153a. 
Guinea   (Africa),   1592a. 
Guinea  (coin),  ]5P2b. 
Guinea  Fowl.   1592b. 
Guinea  Pig,  1592b. 
Guiscard,  Robert,  2470a. 
Guise,  1593a. 
Guise,  Duke  of,  1733b. 
Guitar,  1593a. 
Guiteau,  Charles,  1447a. 
Guizot,   Francois   Pierre    Guil- 

laume,  1593b. 
Gulden,  1591b. 
Gulf  Stream,  1593b,  2630a. 
Gulick,    Luther    Halsey,    655b, 

1594b. 
Gull,   1595a. 
Gullet.  2636a. 
Gulliver's        Travels,        1594b, 

3485a. 
Gum,  1595a. 
Gum  Arabic.   1595b. 
Gumbo,   1595b. 
Gumboil,  1595b. 
Gum  Resins.  1595b. 
Gunboat,   1596a. 
Guncotton,  1596a. 
Gun  Metal,  570a. 
Gunpowder,   1596a. 
Gunpowder  Plot,  1596b. 
Gunther,   3302a. 
Gurnard,   1596b. 
Gustatory  Nerve,   3519b. 
Gustave  V,  1596b. 
Gustavus  I.  1597a. 
Gustavus   II,   Adolphus,    1597a, 

3567a. 
Gustavus  III,  1597b. 
Gustavus  IV,  Adolphus,  1597b. 
Gustavus    Vasa,    1597a. 
Gutenberg,     Johannes.     1597b. 

1823a,  2942a. 
Guthrie,  Okla.,  1598a. 
Gutta-percha,    1598b- 
Gymnasia,  1494a. 
Gvmnasium,  1599a. 
Gymnastics,  1602b. 


Gymnosperms,        517a,        518b. 

1602b. 
Gypsies.  1603a. 
Gypsum,    1603a. 
Gypsy  Moth.   1603b,   3656b. 
Gyroscope,  1604b. 


H 


H,  160Ga. 

Haakon  VIT.  1605a. 
Haarlem,  1605a. 
Habakkuk.  1605b. 
Habeas  Corpus,  1605b. 
Habib  Ullah  Khan,  32b. 
Habit,   1606a,  1950b.  2962a. 
Hackberry,  1607a,  2517a. 
Hackett,        James        Keteltas 

1607a. 
Hackmatack,  3508a. 
Haddock,    1607a. 
Hades.  1607a,  1666a. 
Hadj.   1607a. 
Hadji,   2376b. 
Hadley,        Arthur        Twining. 

1607b. 
Hadrian,  1607b. 
Hadrian's  Tomb,  1607b. 
Haeckel.  Ernst,   1608a. 
Haemoglobin,   1608a. 
Haff,  1495a. 
Hagar,  1608a. 
Hagerstown.  Md.,   1608a. 
Hagfish,  1608a. 
Haggai,  1608b. 

Haggard,   Henry  Rider,   1608b. 
Hague,  The,  1608b. 
Hague        Peace        Conference, 

27Gla. 
Hahnemann,  Samuel  Christian, 

1609a, 1711a. 
Haig,  Douglas,  1609b,  3921b. 
Hail,  1609b. 
Hail  Columbia,  1610a. 
Hainan,  1610a. 
Hair,  1610a,  2843a. 
Hair  Dressing,  1610b. 
Hair  Dye.  1611b. 
Hairless  Dog.  1611b. 
Hair  Worm.  16Hb. 
Haiti,  1611b. 
Hake,  1612b. 
Hakodate,  1613a. 
Halcyon,  1613a. 
Hale,  Edward  Everett,  1613a. 
Hale,  Nathan,  1613b. 
Haleakala,  3618b. 
Halevy,  Ludovic,  1613b. 
Halftone,  1614a. 
Haliburton,  Thomas  Chandler, 

1614b. 
Halibut,  1614b. 
Halifax,   Eng.,   1614b. 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  1615a. 
Halite,  3175b. 
Hall,  Asaph,  1615a. 
Hall,  Granville  Stanley,  1615b. 
Hallam.  Henry,   1615b. 
Halle,  Germany.  1616a. 
Halleck.  Fitz-Greene,  1616a. 
Hallelujah,  1616a. 
Hailet,  Stephen  H.,  3814b. 
Halley,  Edmund,  1616b. 
Halley's  Cornet^  897b. 
Hall  of  Columns.  3260b. 
Hall  of  Fame,  1616b. 
Hallowe'en,  1617a.  2633b. 
Hallucination,   1617a. 
Halo,  1617b. 
Halogens,    1617b. 
Hals,  Frans,  1618a. 
Ham  (Bible),  1618a. 
Ham  (food),  1618a. 
Hamadryad   (animal),   310a. 
Hamadryads    (mythology). 

2625b. 
Haman,  424b,  1618a. 
Hamburg.   Germany.   161Sa. 
Hamilcar  Barca,  1618b. 


The   Ipttor   n.   after   n    niinilier.   indicates   eolnnin    I;    the   letter  b.   coInniD   2. 


Hamilton,  Alexander 


4018 


Henry,  Patrick 


Hamilton,     Alexander,     1618b, 

3621a. 
Hamilton,  Ohio,   1619a. 
Hamilton,   Ont.,   1619b. 
Hamlet,   1619b. 
Hamlin,  Hannibal,  1620a. 
Hammer,  1620a. 
Hammer,  Throwing  the,   274a, 

1620a. 
Hammerfest,  Norway,  1620a. 
Hammerhead  Shark,   1620b. 
Hammond  (family),  1620b. 
Hammond,  Ind.,   1620b. 
Hammurabi,  311a. 
Hampden,  John,  1621a. 
Hamp.shire  Grants,  3760b. 
Hampton,  Wade,  1621a. 
Hampton    Normal    and    Agri- 
cultural  Institute,    1621b. 
Hampton     Roads     Conference, 

1622a. 
Hamster,  1622a. 
Hancock,  John,  1622a. 
Hancock,  Mich.,  1622b. 
Hancock,        Winfield         Scott, 

1622b. 
Hand.  1622b. 
Handball,  1622b. 
Handel,       George       Frederick, 

1623b. 
Handicap,  1623b. 
Hand  Lead,  3349b. 
Hand  Organ.  1740b. 
Hangbird,  328a. 
Hang-chow,  1624a. 
Hanging,  1624a. 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon, 

1624a,  3251a. 
Hankow,  China,  1624b. 
Hanks,  Nancy,   2109a. 
Hanna,   Marcus   Alonzo,    1624b. 
Hannibal,  1624b. 
Hannibal.  Mo.,  1625b. 
Hanoi,  Indo-China,  1625b. 
Hanover  (province),  1625b. 
Hanover,  Germany,  1626a. 
Hanseatic  League,  1626a. 
Hansel  and  Gretel,  1736b. 
Hansen,   Gerhard,   1626b. 
Hanson,  Ole,  3244a. 
Hapsburg,      House      of,      298a, 

1626b. 
Hara-kiri,   1627a. 
Hardecanute,  1627a. 
Hardening     of     the     Arteries, 

3218b. 
Hardback,  3386b. 
Harding,  Chester,  2723a. 
Hardness,   1627a. 
Hardy,  Thomas,  1627b. 
Hare,  1627b. 
Hare    and    the    Tortoise,    The, 

2022b. 
Harebell,  654h. 
Harebell.  1628a. 
Harem,  1628a. 
Hargreaves,       James,       1628b, 

3386a. 
Harlan,  John  Marshall,   1628b. 
Harlequin,  1628b. 
Harmonica,   1629a. 
Harmonics,  1629a. 
Harmonium.  2678a. 
Harmony,  1629a,  2442a. 
Harmony      of      the      Spheres, 

1629b. 
Harmsworth.     Alfred    Charles 

William,  2598a. 
Harness,  1629b. 
Harness  Antelope,  137a. 
Harold   (England),  1230b. 
Harold  II  (England).  1630a. 
Harold    (Norway"*.    1629b. 
Harold  III  (Norway),  1630a. 
Harp,  1630a. 
Harper,        William        Rainey, 

1630b. 
Harper's  Ferry,  W.  Va.,  1630b. 
Harpies,    1631a. 
Harpoon,  1631a. 


Harpy,   1631a. 

Harraden,  Beatrice,   1631a. 

Harrar,  Abyssinia,   10a. 

Harrier,  2260a. 

Harriman,       Edward       Henry, 

1631b. 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  1631b. 
Harris,  William  Torrey,  1632a. 
Harrisburg,   Pa.,   1632a. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  1632b. 
Harrison,      Benjamin      (Presi- 
dent), 1632b. 
Harrison,       Francis       Burton, 

1635b,  2819b. 
Harrison,        William        Henry, 

1636a,  3584b. 
Harrcd,  James,  1941a. 
Harrow,  1637a. 

Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,   1637a. 
Harte,  Francis  Bret,  1637b. 
Hartebeest,   1638a. 
Hartford,  Conn.,  1638a. 
Hartford  Convention,  1638b. 
Harthacnut,   1627a. 
Hartshorn,  113b,   1638b. 
Harun-al-Rashid,  163Sb. 
Harvard,  John,  1639b. 
Harvard  University,    1639a. 
Harvester,  The  Modern,  3030b. 
Harvest  Fish,  2897a. 
Harvest  Fly,  819b. 
Harvestman,  1017a. 
Harvest  Moon,  1639b. 
Harvey,  George,  1640a. 
Harvey,  William,  1640a. 
Harz  Mountains,   1640a. 
Hasdrubal,  1640b. 
Hashish,  1640b. 
Hashishim,    253a. 
Hastings,      Battle      of,      1319b, 

1640b. 
Hastings,  Nebr.,  1640b. 
Hastings,         Warren,         1641a, 

1784a. 
Hat,  1641a. 

Hathaway,  Anne,  3267b. 
Hattiesburg,    Miss.,    1641b. 
Haunches,    158a. 
Hauptmann,  Gerhart,  1641b. 
Havana,  Cuba,   1642a. 
Havelock,  Henry,  1642b. 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  1642b. 
Havre,  France,  1643a. 
Hawaii,  1643a,  3617a. 
Hawaii   National    Park,    1644b, 

2742a,  3618a. 
Hawk,  1646a. 

Hawk  and  Hen  (game).  1440a. 
Hawkeye  State,  The  1825a. 
H.av/king,  1295a. 
Hawkins,        Anthony        Hope, 

1646a. 
Hawksbill,  1646b. 
Hawkweed,  1646b. 
Hawthorn,  1646b. 
Hawthorne,  Julian,  1646b. 
Hawthorne,    Nathaniel,    1646b, 

3027a. 
Hay,  1647b. 
Hay,  John,  1648a. 
Haydn,  Josef.   1648b. 
Hayes,    Rutherford    Birchard, 

1649a. 
Hay  Fever,  1652a. 
Hayne,  Robert  Young,  1652a. 
Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  1652b. 
Hays,   Charles   Melville.    1652b. 
Havwood,  William  D.  1653a. 
Haze,   1653a. 
Hazel,  1653b. 
Hazen,        William        Babcock, 

1653b,  3300a. 
Hazing,  1653b. 
Hazleton,  Pa.,  1653b. 
Headache,  1654a. 
Headache  Powders,  13a. 
Health,    1654a. 
Health,  Bill  of,  432a. 
Health,  Boards  of.  1654b. 
Health  of  the  Child,  793a. 


Health  Thrift,   3574b. 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,   1654b. 

Hearst   (family),   1654b. 

Heart,  1655b. 

Hearts(  card  game),  1656a. 

Heart  Spasm,  124b. 

Heat,   1656b,  3563a. 

Heat,  Unit  of,  3670b. 

Heath,  1657b. 

Heath  Family,  525a. 

Heating  and  Ventilation, 
1658a. 

Heat  Prostration,   3473a. 

Heaven,  1659b. 

Heaves.  1659b. 

Heavy  Earth,  349a. 

Heavy  Spar,  349b. 

Hebe,  1659b. 

Hobert,  Jacques  Rene,  1659b. 

Hebrew  Language  and  Litera- 
ture, 1660a. 

Hebrews,  The  Epistle  to  the, 
1660b. 

Hebrides,  1661a. 

Hebron,  1661a. 

Hecate,  1661a. 

Heria,  1661a. 

Hectograph,  944b. 

Hector,  1661b.  2458b. 

Hecuba,  1661b. 

Hedge  Bindweed,  433b. 

Hedgehog,    1661b. 

Hedin,  Sven  Anders,  1662a. 

Hedjaz,    154a,    1662a,    3649b. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Fried- 
rich,  1662a. 

Hegira,  l-662b,  2375b. 

Heidelberg,  Germany,   1662b. 

Heidelberg  University,  1663a. 

Height  of  Land,  662b.  2584b. 

Hpilprin.  Angelo,  1663a. 

Heimdall,  1663a. 

Heine,  Heinrich,   1663a. 

Heir,  166;:b. 

Heir  Apparent,  1663b. 

Heir  Presumptive,  1663b. 

Hel,  1663b. 

Helena,  Ark.,  1664a. 

Helena,  Mont.,  1664a. 

Helena  of  IVIontenegro,  3767b. 

Helen  of  Troy,  1664a,  1763a, 
2458a,  2735b. 

Helgoland,   1664b. 

Helicon,  1664b. 

Heliograph,  1664b,  3301a. 

Heliopolis.  1665a. 

Helios,  1665a. 

Heliostat,  1664b. 

Heliotrope   (gem),  1665a. 

Heliotrope  (plant),  1665a. 

Helium,  1665b. 

Hell,  1666a. 

Hellebore,   1666a. 

Hellenica,   3955b. 

Hellespont.  1028a. 

Hell  Gate.  1666a. 

Hell  Gate  Bridge,  158a. 

Helmet,  1666b. 

Helmholtz,  Hermann  von, 
1666b. 

Heloise,  6a. 

Helots,  1666b. 

Helsingfors,   Finland,   1667a. 

Helvetians,  1667a,  3489a. 

Hemans,  Felicia  Dorothea, 
166?a. 

Hematite,  1667b.  1837a. 

Hemiptera,  1667b. 

Hemisphere,  1667b. 

Hemlock,  1667b.  1668a. 

Hemorrhage,  1668a. 

Hemp,  1668b. 

Henderson,  Ky.,  1669a. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews, 
1669b. 

Hen  Hawk,  1669b. 

Henna,  1669b. 

Hennepin,  Louis,   1669b,  2348b. 

Henrv,  Joseph,  3328a. 

Henry,  Patrick,  1673a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Henry  I  (England) 


4019 


Horse-chestnut 


Henry  I  (England),  1670a. 

Henry  II  (Eng-land),  1670a. 

Henry  III  (England),  1670b. 

Henrv  IV  (England),  1670b. 

Henry  V  (England),  1670b. 

Henry  VI    (England).    1671a. 

lienryVII    (England),   1671a. 

Henry  VIII  (England),  725b, 
932b,  1671a,  304ia. 

Henry  III   (Prance),  1672a. 

Henry  IV   (France),   1672a. 

Henry  III  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror), 1673a. 

Henry  IV  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror), 1673a. 

Henry  VI  (Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror), 1673a. 

Henry  of  Navarre,   1672a. 

Henry  the  Navigator,   1673b. 

Henschel,  Georg,  1674a. 

Henty,  George  Alfred,  1674a. 

Hepatica,   1674a. 

Hepatic  Duct,   1433b. 

Hephaestus,  3792a. 

Heppelwhite,   George,    1427b. 

Heptameter,  2311b, 

Heptarchy,   1230a,  1674a. 

Hera.  1918a. 

Heraldry,  1674a. 

Herbarium,    1674b. 

Htrbart,  Johann  Friedrich, 
1674b. 

Herbert,  Victor,  1675a. 

Herbicides,   1675b. 

Herbivorous    Animals,    1675b. 

Herbs,  1675b. 

Herculaneum,  1675b,  2897a. 

Hercules,    1676a. 

Hercules,  Pillars  of.  1676b. 

Hercules  Beetle,  1676b. 

Heredity,   1244b,  1260b,   1677a. 

Hcrefords,  728b. 

Heretic,   1677a. 

Herjulfson,  Bjarni,  3774b. 

Hermit,  1677b. 

Hermit.  Crab,  1677a. 

Hermon.  Mount,  1677b. 

Heme,  .lames  A.  1677b. 

Hernia,  ]G77b. 

Hero   (mythology),  9a,   1678a. 

Herod  Agrippa  I,  1678a. 

Heiod  Agrippa  II,  1678a. 

Herod  Antipas,  1678b. 

Herodias,  3175a. 

Herodotus,   1678b. 

Herod  the  Great,  1678a. 

Heroes  and  Hero-worship, 
705b. 

Heroin,  1678b.      • 

Heron,  1679a. 

Herrera.  Francesco,  1679a. 

Herrick,  Robert  Welch,   1679b. 

Herring,  1679b. 

Herring  King,  3266a. 

Herschel,  William,  1680a, 
2502a. 

Hesperides.  1680b. 

Hesperus.  1280b,  3753a. 

Hesse,  1680b. 

Hessian  Fly,  1681a. 

Hessians.  1681b. 

Hewlett,  Maurice  Henry,  1681b. 

Hexameter,  2311b. 

Heyse,  Paul,  1681b. 

Hezekiah,    1682a,   3306b,   S253a. 

Hiawatha,  1682a,  2025b. 

Hibben,  John  Grier.  1682a. 

Hibbing,  Minn.,  1682a. 

Hibernation,  1682a. 

Hihernia,  16S2b. 

Hibernians,  Ancient  Order  of, 
1682b. 

Hibiscus,  1682b. 

Hiccough,  1683a. 

Hichens,  Robert  Smythe,  1683a. 

Hickorv.  1683b. 

Hicks.  Elias,  2978a. 

Hicksite  Quakers,  2978a. 

Hierarchy.  16S3b. 

Hieroglyphics,   1683b. 


Higginson,       Thomas       Went- 

worth.  1685a. 
High  Church,  1235b. 
Highest  Mountains,  2426a. 
High       Frequency       Currents, 

1209a. 
Highland  Fling,  1025b. 
High-holder,    1346b. 
High  Point,  N.  C,  1685a. 
High  Priest,  1685a. 
High  School,  1685b. 
High  School,  Technical,  3786a. 
High  Seas,  1686b. 
High  Water,  3579a. 
Hill,  1686b. 

Hill,  Ambrose  Powell,  1687a. 
Hill,  David  Bennett,  1687a. 
Hill,  David  Jayne,  1687a. 
Hill,  James  Jerome,   1687b. 
Hill.  Rowland,  2546b,  2919b. 
Hillis,  Newell  Dwight,   1687b. 
Himalaya,    1688a. 
Himation,  1143b. 
Hincks.  Francis,  1688b. 
Hindenburg,  Paul  von  Benken- 

dorf,  1688b. 
Hindenburg  Eine,  3925a. 
Hindu-Kush  Mountains,  1689a. 
Hindus,   1780a. 
Hindustan,  1689a. 
Hines,  Walker  D.,  3001b. 
Hinge  Joint,  1906b. 
Hinnom,  Valley  of,  1456b. 
Hijipocampiis,  1689a. 
Hippocrates,  1689b. 
Hippodrome,    1689b. 
Hippomenes,   2456b. 
Hippopotamus,  1689b. 
Hiram  (king  of  Tyre),  1690a. 
Hiroshima,  Japan,  1690a. 
Hirsch,  Emil  Gustav,  1690a. 
Hispania,  1690b. 
Histology,  1690b. 
Historical  Map,  2247b. 
History,  1690b. 
History,  Methods  of  Teaching, 

lC98a. 
History  of  the  United  States, 

3699b. 
Hittites,  1702a. 
Hives,  1702a. 
Hoang-ho  River,  1702b. 
Hoar,  George  Frisbie.  1702b. 
Hobart,       (jlarrett       Augustus, 

1702b. 
Hobart,  Tasmania,  1703a. 
Hobbema,  IMeindert,  1703a. 
Hobby  Horse,  427b. 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,   1703a. 
Hobson,       Richard       Pearson, 

1703b. 
Hockey,  1703b. 
Hoe,     Richard    March,     1704b, 

2546b. 
Hoe,  Robert,  1823a. 
Hofmann,  Heinrich,  1704b. 
Hofmann,  Josef,  1704b. 
Hog,  1705a. 
Hogarth,         William,         1705a. 

2705b. 
Hogchoker,  3342a. 
Hogshead,  1705b,  3844a. 
Hogweed.  2998a. 
Hohenlinden,   Battle  of,  2471a. 
Hohenstaufen,  1705b. 
Hohenzollern    (family),    1705b, 

2956a. 
Hojeda.  3356a. 
Holbein   (family).  1706a. 
Holden,       Edward       Singleton, 

1706a. 
Holding  Corporations,  3641b. 
Hole  in  the  Ice  (game),  1439b. 
Holiday,  1706b.   ■ 
Holland,  2512b. 
Holland,    John    Phillip,    1706b. 

3456a. 
Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  1707a. 
Holland,  Mich..  1707a. 
Holley,    Marietta.    1707a. 


Holly.  1707a. 

Hollyhock,    1707b. 

Holmes,  Elias  Burton,   1707b. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  1708a, 

3024a. 
Holmes,    Oliver    Wendell,    Jr., 

1709a. 
Holothuria,  3239a. 
Holsiein-Friesian  Cattle,  729a. 
Holy  Alliance,  1709a. 
Holy  City,  1709a. 
Holy     Cross,     Mount     of     the, 

3089a. 
Holy  Family,  1709a. 
Holy  Ghost,  1709b. 
Holy  Grail,   513a,  1544a.   1545a. 
Holy  Grail.  Quest  of  the,  2b. 
Holy  Land,  The,   2712b. 
Holy  of  Holies,  3495b. 
Holyoke,  Mass.,   1709b. 
Holy    Roman    Empire,     1709b, 

1853a. 
Holyrood  Palace,  1179b. 
Holy  Sepulcher,  Church  of  the, 

1 889a 
Holy  Spirit  Plant,  1711a. 
Holy  Water.  1711a. 
Holy  Week,  1711a. 
Homage,  1711a. 
Home,  Daniel  D.  3387a. 
Home  Discipline,  1975a. 
Homeopathy,   1711a. 
Homer,  1711b. 
Homer,  Louise,  1712a. 
Home  Rule,  1712a,  1834b. 
Home  Rule   (India),  1783a. 
Homestead,  1713a. 
Homestead  Laws,  2012b. 
Homesteads   in  C;;anada,   2015a. 
Home  Sweet  Home,  2760a. 
Homicide.  1713a. 
Homing  Pigeon,  711b,  2851b. 
Honduras,  1713b. 
Hone,  1714a. 
Honey,  1714a. 
Honey  Badger,  3010a. 
Honeybee,  373b. 
Honey  Locust,  1714a. 
Honeysuckle,  1714b. 
Hong  Kiang  River,  3302b. 
Hong-kong,  1714b. 
Honolulu,  Hawaii,  1715a. 
Honor,  Titles  of,  3586b. 
Hood,  John  Bell,  1715a. 
Hood,  Mount,  1715b. 
Hood,  Thomas,  1715b. 
Hoogly  River,  1732b. 
Hookah.   2857b. 
Hooker,  Joseph,  1715b. 
Hooker,  JMount,  1716a. 
Hooker,  Thomas,  1716a. 
Hookworm,   1716a. 
Hoopoe,   1716b. 
Hoosac  Tunnel,  1716b. 
Hoover,  Herbert  Clark,  1717a. 
Hop,  1717b. 
Hope,  Anthony,  1646a. 
Hopi,  1717b. 
Hopkins,  Mark,  1717b. 
Hopkinsville,   Ky..    1718a. 
Hopscotch,  1718a. 
Hoquiam,  Wash.,  1718b. 
Horace,  1718b. 
Horatius,  1719a. 
Horehound,  1719a. 
Horizon,   1719a. 
Horizontal  Bar,  1599a. 
Horn      (musical     instrument), 

1719b. 
Horn  (zoology),  1719b. 
Hornbeam,  1720a. 
Hornbill,  1720a. 
Hornblende.   1720a. 
Horned  Toad,  1720b. 
Hornell,  N.  Y.,  1720b. 
Hornet,  1720b. 
Horns  Up  (game),  1442a. 
Horoscope.  259b,  1721a. 
Horse,  1721a. 
Horse-chestnut,  1721b. 


The   letter   a,   after   a   number,   indicates   eoUmiii   1;   the  letter   1>.  eolumn  '2. 


Horse  Fair 


4020 


Imperial  City,  The 


Horse  Fair,  3741b. 

Horsefly,  1429a. 

Horse  Latitudes,   1721b. 

Horse  Mackerel,  3645a. 

Horse  Power,  1722a. 

Horse  Racing,   2993b. 

Horse-radish,  1722a. 

Horseshoe,  1722a. 

Horseshoe  Crab,  1722b. 

Horsetail  Rush,  1722b. 

Horseweed,  1345b. 

Horticulture,  1723a. 

Hosea,  1723a. 

Hosmer,  Harriet,  1723b. 

Hospital,  1723b. 

Hospital  Fever,  3663a. 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  1805a. 

Hostage,   1724a. 

Hotbed,  1724a. 

Hotchkiss,   Benjamin  Berkely, 

1724b. 
Hotel,  1724b. 
Hotel  de  Ville,  1725a. 
Hot  House,  1580b. 
Hot-pack  Method,  683b. 
Hot  Springs,  3562b,  3963b. 
Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  1725a. 
Hot        Springs        Reservation, 

2742a. 
Hottentots,   1725a. 
Houdon,  Jean  Antoine,  1725b. 
Hound,   1089b,  1725b. 
Hourglass,    1725b. 
Houseboat,  1726a. 
Houseleek,  1726a. 
House  of  Commons,  1560b. 
House  of  Commons    (Canada), 

2744b. 
House  of  Lords,  1560b. 
House    of    the    Seven    Gables, 

The,  1647a,  3172a. 
House  of  York,  3967b. 
House  Snake,  2339b. 
Housing  Problem,  1726a. 
Houston,    Sam,   1726b,    3553a. 
Houston,   Tex.,    1727a.    3552a. 
Howard,  Catharine,  1672a. 
How  Baby  Ray  Got  up   in  the 

Morning,  1963a. 
Howe,      Elias,      1727a,      1823a, 

3265a. 
Howe,  Joseph,  1727b. 
Howe,  Julia  Ward,  1728a. 
Howe,  Willam,  1728a. 
Howell,  Clark,   1728a. 
Howells,  Willam  Dean,  1728b. 
Howitzer,  1729a. 
Howrah,  India,  636b. 
Hubbard,  Elbert,  1729a. 
Huckleberry,  1729a. 
Huckleberry  Finn,  Adventures 
of,  848a. 

Hudson,  Henry,  1729b. 

Hudson,  N.  Y.,  1729b. 

Hudson  Bay,  1729b. 

Hudson  Bay  Railroad,  1730a. 

Hudson  River,  1730a. 

Hudson   River  Tunnels,    3646a. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  1730b. 

Huerta,       Victoriano,        1731b, 
2322a,  3884b. 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans.  1731b. 

Hughes,        James        Laughlin, 
1732a 

Hughes',  Sam,  1732a. 

Hughes,  Thomas,  1732b. 

Hugli  River,   1732b. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  1732b. 

Huguenots,  348a,  1733b. 

Hula  Girl,  3619a. 

Hull,  Eng..  1734a. 

Hull,  Que.,  1734a. 

Hull,  William,  1734b. 

Hull  House,  1734b. 

Humane  Societies,  996b,  997a. 

Human  Period,  44a. 

Humbert  I,  1734b. 

Humboldt,   Friedrich  Heinrich 
Alexander.  1735a. 

Hume,  David,  1735b. 


Humerus,  3318a. 
Humidity,   1735b,   1749a. 
Humming  Bird,  1736a. 
Humperdinck,  Engelbert, 

1736b. 
Humphreys,  West  H.,  1775b. 
Humus,  1736b,  3339a. 
Hundred  Years'  War,  1736b. 
Hungary,   1737a. 
Hunger,  1738a. 
Hunkers,  343b,  2887b. 
Huns,  1738b. 

Hunt,  Helen  Fiske,  1864b. 
Hunt,     James     Henry     Leigh, 

1738b. 
Hunt,  Willam  Holman,  1739a. 
Hunt,  William  Morris,   1739a. 
Hunting,  1739a. 
Hunting  Leopard,  763a. 
Huntington,  Ind.,   1739b. 
Huntington,  W.  Va.,  1739b. 
Hunvady,  Janos,  1740a. 
Hurdle  Races,  273b. 
Hurdling,  1740a. 
Hurdy-gurdy,  1740a. 
Huron,  Lake,  1740b. 
Huron  Indians,  1740b. 
Hurricane,  1741a. 
Husband  and  Wife,  1741a. 
Huss,  John,  1741b. 
Hussites,    1742a. 
Hutchinson,        Anne,        1742b, 

2276a. 
Hutchinson,  Kan.,  1742b. 
Hutchinson,  Thomas,  1742b. 
Hutuktu,  2387a. 
Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  1743a. 
Hyacinth,  1743a. 
Hyacinthus,    1743b. 
Hyaloid  Membrane,   1287b. 
Hyatt,  Anna  Vaughn,  1898a. 
Hybrid,   603b,    1743b. 
Hyderabad,  India,  1743b. 
Hydra  (mythology),  1744a. 
Hydra,  Fresh-water,   1744a. 
Hydrangea,  1744b. 
Hydrate  of  Chloral,  809a. 
Hydrates,   1744b. 
Hydraulic  Cement,  735b. 
Hydraulic  Engine,  1744b. 
Hydraulic  Press,  1747a. 
Hydraulic  Ram,  1745a. 
Hydraulics,  1745b. 
Hydroaeroplane,  1363b. 
Hydrocarbons,      1096b,      1745b, 

1746b. 
Hydrochloric  Acid,  1745b. 
Hydrocyanic  Acid,  2957b. 
Hydrofluoric  Acid,  1746a. 
Hydrogen,  1746a. 
Hydrogen  Dioxide,  1746b. 
Hydrogen       Sulphide,       3467b, 

3468a. 
Hydrography,  1746b. 
Hydrometer,  1746b. 
Hydrophobia,   1747a. 
Hydrophyte,   1747a. 
Hydrostatic  Press,  1747a. 
Hydrostatics,  1747b. 
Hydrosulphuric  Acid,  3468a. 
Hydrotherapy,  1748a. 
Hydroxide,  1744b. 
Hydroxyl,  1744b. 
Hyena,  1748a. 
Hygeia,  1748b. 
Hygiene,  1748b. 
Hygrometer,  1749a. 
Hyksos  Kings,  1190b,  1749a. 
Hymen,  1749a. 
Hymns,  National,  1749b. 
Hymns      and      Hymn      Tunes, 

1749b. 
Hyoid  Bone.  3317b,  3594a. 
Hypatia,  1751a. 
Hypergeometry,  2280a. 
Hyperion,  1751a. 
Hypermetropia,   1751a. 
Hypnotism,  1751b. 
Hypodermic  Injection,   1752a.. 
Hypotenuse,  3633a. 


Hypothesis,  1752a. 
Hyssop,  1752b. 
Hysteria,  1752b. 


I,  1753a,  2682a. 

Iambic  Meter,  2311b. 

Ibanez,  Vicente  Blaso,  3371b. 

Iberia,  1753a. 

Iberville,  Pierre  le  Moyne, 
1753a. 

Ibex,  1753b. 

Ibis,  1754a. 

Ibsen,  Henrik,  1754a. 

Icarus,  1017b. 

Ice,  1754b. 

Iceberg,  1755a. 

Iceland,  1755b. 

Iceland  Moss,  1756a. 

Iceland  Spar,   1756b. 

Ice  Plant,  1756b. 

Ice  Yachting,  1756b. 

Ichneumon,  1757a. 

Ichneumon  Flies,  1757a. 

Ichthyosaurus,  1757a. 

Iconoclasts,  1757b. 

Icterus,  1879b. 

Idaho,  1757b. 

Idaho,  University  of,  1761b. 

Ideal  Feelings,  1306a. 

Idealism,  1761b. 

Ideas,  Association  of,  255b. 

Identity,   The   law  of,   3570a. 

Ides,  1761b. 

Idiocy, 1805b. 

Idiom,  1761b. 

Idiot,  1762a. 

Idle  Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fel- 
low, 1888a. 

Idol,  1762a. 

Idolatry,  1762a. 

Idun  (mythology),  1762a. 

Idyl,  1762a. 

Idylls  of  the  King,  3124a. 

leyasu,  3590b. 

Igloo,  1254a. 

Ignatius,  Saint,  1762b. 

Igneous  Rocks,  1474a,  1762b. 

Ignis  Fatuus.   1762b. 

Igorrote,  1762b. 

Iguana,  1762b. 

Iguanodon,  1077a. 

Iguassu  Falls,  1763a. 

I  Have  a  Rendezvous  with 
Death,  3248a. 

Ildefonso,  Treaty  of,  2543b. 

He  de  Bourbon,  3053b. 

Ileum,  1822a.    ' 

Iliad,  14a,  1711b,  1763a. 

Illimani,   1763b. 

Illington,    Margaret,    1763b. 

Illinois,  1764a. 

Illinois,  University  of,  1770a. 

Illinois    and    Michigan    Canal, 

1770a. 
Illinois  Indians.  1770a. 
Illinois  River,  1770b. 
Illiteracy,  1770b. 
Iloilo,  P.  I.,  1771a. 
Ilium,  3639a. 

II  Trovatore,  1771a,  3755a. 
Image  Worship,  1771b. 
Imagination,  788b,  1771b. 
Imago,  1807b. 

Imam,  2657a. 

Immaculate  Conception,  2436b. 

Immigration   and   Emigration, 

1773a,  3691b. 
Immoral  Acts,  1259b. 
Immortality,  1774a. 
Immortelle,  1281a,  1774b. 
Immunity,  1774b. 
Impact  Wheel,  3831b. 
Impeachment,  1774b. 
Imperator  (ship),  3283b. 
Imperator  (title),  1775b. 
Imperial  Bushel,  612a. 
Imperial  City,  The,  2768b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nmuber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Imperialism 


4021 


Jackdaws 


Imperialism,  1775b. 
Import  Duties,  1011b. 
Impressionist  School  of  Paint- 
ing, 177fia. 
Impressment  of  Seamen,  1776a. 
Imprisonment,   False,    1296b. 
Imprisonment  for  Debt,  1776a. 
Impulse,  1259a,   1951a,  3873a. 
Incandescent  Light,  1203b. 
Incas,  1776b,  2799b. 
Inch  Worms,  2287a. 
Incisors,   3527a. 
Inclined  Plane,  1777a. 
Income  Tax,  1777a. 
Incubator,  1778a. 
Indemnity,  1778a. 
Independence,  Kan.,  1778b. 
Independence,  Mo.,  1778b. 
Independence  Day,  1778b. 
Independence  Hall,  1779a. 
Independent  Treasury,  3623a. 
Indeterminate  Sentence,  1779a. 
Index  Expurgatorius,   1779a. 
India,  1779b. 
India  Ink,  1785a. 
Indiana,  1785b. 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1789b. 
Indian  Architecture,  1790b. 
Indiana  University,   1791a. 
Indian   Chinkara,    1456b. 
Indian  Fig,  2937b. 
Indian  Hemp,  1091a. 
Indian  Ichneumon,  1757a. 
Indian  Mallow,  1791a. 
Indian  Ocean,  1791a. 
Indian   Root,   3385a. 
Indians,  American.   1791b. 
Indian  Summer,  1796a. 
Indian  Territory,  1796b. 
Indian  Turnip,  1860a. 
India  Rubber.  3126b. 
Indicolite,  3602b. 
Indigo,  1796b. 
Indigo  Bird,  1797a. 
Indium,  1797a. 
Indo-China,  1797a. 
Indoor  Baseball,  1797a. 
Indris,  2083a. 
Induction   (logic),  1797b. 
Induction,       Electric,        1201b, 

1797b. 
Induction  Coil,  1797b. 
Inductive  Method,  1798a. 
Inductive  Philosophy,  2823a. 
Indulgence,  1798b. 
Indurite,  3329a. 
Indus  River,  1799a. 
Industrial  School,   1799a. 
Industrial      AVorkers      of     the 

World,   1799a,   3493b. 
Industries  in  the  United  States, 

3685a. 
Inertia,  1799b. 
Infant,  2355a. 
Infantile  Paralysis,  1800a. 
Infant   Mortality,    1800a. 
Infantry,  226a,  1800b. 
Infection.   1800b. 
Inferior  Conjunction,  917a. 
Inflammatory    Rheumatism, 

3059b. 
In  Flanders  Fields,  2199b. 
Inflection,  2049b. 
Influenza,  785a,  1801a. 
Infusoria,   1801a. 
Ingelow,  Jean,  1801b. 
Ingersoll,  Ont.,  1801b. 
Ingersoll,  Robert  Green,  1801b. 
Inheritance  Tax,  1801b. 
Inhibition,  3873b. 
Initiative     (government), 

1802a. 
Initiative    (psychology),    788b. 
Injunction,  1802b. 
Ink.  1802b. 
Inkberry,  2882b. 
Inland   Revenue,   1819a. 
In  Loco  Parentis,  2734b. 
Inness,  George,  1803a. 
Innocent  (Popes),  1803b. 


Innocents,      Feast      of      Holy, 

1804a. 
Innominate  Bones,  3318b. 
Innuits,   1254a. 

Inoculation,   1804a. 

Inquest,  1804a. 
Inquisition.  The,  1804a. 

Insane  Asylum,  1805a. 

Insanity,  1805b. 

Insect.  1807a,  2487b,  2491b. 

Insecticides,  1806a. 

Insectivora,  1806b. 

Insignia,  1810b. 

Insolvency,    1812a. 

Insomnia,  1812a. 

Inspector-General,   225b. 

Inspiration,   549b. 

Instinct,  1812b,  1951a. 

Institute  of  France,  1812b. 

Instrumental  Music,  1813a. 

Insulator,  1201b,  1813a. 

Insurance,  1813b. 

Insurance  Broker,  569a. 

Intaglio,    1815b,    2931a,    3229b. 

Intelligence,  Animal,  127b. 

Intensive  Farming,  1815b. 

Intercolonial  Railway,  3002b. 

Interest  (economics),  1084b, 
1816a,   3724b,   3794a. 

Interest  (psychology),  1817b. 

Interior,  Department  of  the, 
1818a. 

Interjection,  1818b. 

Interlaken,  Switzerland,  1818b. 

Intermezzo,   1818b. 

Internal  Revenue,  1818b. 

International  Code  of  Signals, 
3300a. 

International  Copyright,   945b. 

International  Date  Line,  1819a. 

Internationalism,    1820a. 

International  Law,  1820b, 
2067a. 

International  News  Service, 
254b. 

International  Peace  Confer- 
ence, 2761a. 

International  Relations,  1697b. 

Interne,   1724a. 

Internuncio,  2622a. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act, 
1821b. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion, 3001a. 

Intestacy,  1822a. 

Intestine,   1822a. 

In  Time's  Swing,  2044b. 

Intrados,  158a. 

Invalides,  Hotel  des,  1822b, 
2737b. 

Invalid  Pension  Acts,  2782a. 

Invention,  1822b. 

Invertebrates,    1823a. 

Invincible  Armada,  219a. 

Involution,  1823b. 

lo.  1823b. 

Iodine,  1824a. 

Iodoform,    1824a. 

lola,  Kans.,  1824a. 

Ionia,   1824b. 

Ionian  Islands,  1824b. 

Ionic  Order,  895b. 

I.  O.  U.  1824b. 

Iowa,  1825a. 

Iowa,  University  of,  1828a. 

Iowa  City,  la.,   1828b. 

Iowa  Indians,  1828b. 

Iowa  River,  1828b. 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Mechanic  Arts, 
1828b. 

Ipecac,  1828b. 

Ipecacuanha,  1829a. 

Iphigenia,  1829a. 

Iphigenia  in  Tauris,  1524b. 

Iquique,  Chile,  1829a. 

Irade,  1829b. 

Iran,  1829b. 

Iranian  Languages,   1829b. 

Iranians,   1829b. 


Irawadi  River,  1829b. 

Ireland,  1830a. 

Ireland,  John,  1835a. 

Iridium,  1835b. 

Iridosmine,  1835b. 

Iris    (mythology),    1835b. 

Iris   (plant),  1835b. 

Irish  Lord,  3229a. 

Irish  Moss,  1836a. 

Irish  Sea,  1836a. 

Iritis,  1836a. 

Irkutsk,  Siberia.  1836b. 

Iron,  1836b.  3678a,  3686b. 

Iron  Age,  1839a. 

Iron  Cross.  1839b. 

Iron  Crown  of  Lombardy,  752b. 

1839b. 
Iron  Gate.  1839b. 
Iron  Mask,  The  Man  with  the, 

1839b. 
Iron  ^Mountain,  1840a. 
Iron  Mountain,  Mich.,   1840a. 
Iron  Rust,  3147b. 
Ironton,  Ohio,  1840a. 
Ironwood,  1720a,  1840a. 
Ironwood,   Mich.,   1840b. 
Irony,  1840b. 
Iroquoian  Indians,  1840b. 
Iroquois  Theatre  Fire.  3557a. 
Irrawaddy  River,  1829b. 
Irrigation,  1841a. 
Irrigation  in  Canada,  1843b. 
Irving,  Henry,  1845b. 
Irving,  "Washington,  1846a. 
Isaac,  406a,  1846b. 
Isaacs,  Rufus  Daniel,  3029b. 
Isabella      of      Castile,      1846b, 

3373b. 
Isaiah,  1846b. 
Ishikari  River,  1873b. 
Ishmael,    1608a,    1847a. 
Ishpeming,    Mich.,    1847a. 
Isinglass,  1847a,  2324a. 
Isis,  1847a. 
Islam,  1847b. 
Island,  1847b. 

Island  of  Rhode  Island,  3062b, 
Isle  of  Man,  1847b. 
Isle  of  Pines.  1848a. 
Isles  of  the  Blessed,  1847b. 
Isle  of  Wight,  1848a. 
Isle  Royale,  1848a. 
Isobaric  Lines,  1848a. 
Isocrates,  1848b. 
Isothermal  Lines,  1848b. 
Ispahan,  Persia,  1848b. 
Ispahan  Rugs,  3130a. 
Israels,  Josef,  1849a. 
Isthmian  Games,  1849a. 
Isthmus,   1849a,   2428b. 
Italia  Irredenta,  1850a. 
Italian  Language,  1849b. 
Italian   Literature,   2122b. 
Italian  Somaliland,  3344b. 
Italy,  1850a. 

Italy  in  the  World  War,  3920b. 
Itasca,  Lake,  1856a,  2364b. 
Itch,   1856a. 
Itch  Mite,  1856a. 
Ithaca,  1856a. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,   1856b. 
Ito,  Hirobumi,  1856b. 
Iturbide,  Augustin  de,  1857a. 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  1857a,  3142b. 
Ivory,  1857a. 
Ivory  Black,  499a. 
Ivory  Coast,  1857b. 
Ivory  Palm,  1858a. 
Ivy,  1858a. 
Ixion,   1858b. 
Ixtaccihuatl,  Mount,  2319b. 


J,  1859a. 

Jablru,    1859a,    3428b. 
Jacana,  1859a. 
Jackal,  1859b. 
Jackdaws,  1859b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicntex  column   1:  the  letter  h.  column  2. 


Jack-in-the-pulpit 

Jack-in-the-pulpit.  1860a. 
Jacksnipe,    2185a,    3331b. 
Jack-rabbit,    1628a. 
Jackson,  Andrew,  1860b. 
Jackson,    Helen    Fiske    Hunt, 

1864b. 
Jackson,  Mich.,  1864b. 
Jackson,  Miss.,  1864b. 
Jackson,   Tenn.,   1865a. 
Jackson,      Thomas      Jonathan, 

1865a. 
Jacksonville,  Fla.,  1866a. 
Jacksonville,  111.,   1866a. 
Jackstones,   1866b. 
Jackstraws,  1866b. 
Jacob,   408a,  1866b,   2995b. 
Jacobins,    1105a,    1866b. 
Jacobites,   1867a. 
Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie,  1867a. 
Jacquard  Loom.  3839b. 
Jade,   1867a,  2506a. 
Jaffa,  Palestine,  1867a. 
Jagannatha,  1913a. 
Jaguar,  1867b. 

Jahn.  Friedrich  Ludwig,  1867b. 
Jail  Fever,  3663b. 
Jaipur,  1868a. 
Jalap.  1868a. 
Jamaica,  1868b. 
Jamaica  Pepper,  2853b. 
James  I,  1869a. 
James  II,   18G9b. 
James,  Edmund  Janes,   1869b. 
James,  Henry,  1870a. 
James,     Saint     (the     Greater), 

1870a. 
James,  Saint  (the  Less),  1870b. 
James,  William,  1870b. 
James  Bay,  1870b. 
Jameson,  Leander  Starr,  1870b. 
James  River,  1871a. 
Jamestown,   N.   Y.,   1871a. 
Jamestown,    Va.,    1871a,    3701b. 
Jane  Eyre,  570a. 
Janesville,  Wis.,  1871a. 
January,  1871b. 
Janus,  1872a. 
Japan,  1872b,  3612a. 
Japanese  Art,  1876b. 
Japanned  Leather,  2756a. 
Japanning-,    1878a. 
Japan  Stream,  1997a,  2630a. 
Japheth,  1878b. 
Japura,  1878b. 
Jardin  des   PJantes,   515b. 
Jarvis,  Anna,  2424a. 
Jasmine,   1878b. 
Jason,  1879a. 
Jasper,  1879a. 
Jasper,  William,  1879a. 
Jasper  Park,  2743a. 
Jassy,  Rumania,  1879a. 
Jaundice,  1879b. 
Java,  1879b. 
Jay,  1880a. 
Jay,  John,  1880b. 
Jay  Treaty,   1881a. 
Jeannette,  The,  2606a. 
Jebel  Errahm,  155b. 
Jefferson,  Joseph,  1881a. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  1881b. 
Jefferson  City,  Mo.,  1885b. 
Jeffersonville,   Ind.,    1885b. 
Jehoshaphat,  1886a. 
Jehovah,  1886a. 
Jehu,  1886a. 
Jejunum,  1822a. 
Jellicoe,       John       Rushworth, 

1886a,  3923b. 
Jelly,  1886b. 
Jellyfish,   1886b. 
Jena,  Battle  of,  1886b. 
Jenghis  Khan,   1460a. 
Jenner,  Edward,   1886b. 
Jephthah,   1887a. 
Jerboa,  1887a. 
Jeremiah,  1887a. 
Jericho,   413b,   1887b. 
Jericho  Rose,  1887b. 
Jeroboam,  1888a. 


4022 

Jerome,         Jerome         Klapka, 

1888a. 
Jersey  Cattle,  729a. 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  1888a. 
Jerusalem,  1888b. 
Jessamine,   1878b. 
Jester,   1890b. 
Jesuits,  1890b. 
Jesus  Christ,  1891b. 
Jesus,  Lover  of  My  Soul,  1750b. 
Jet,  1893a. 
Jetty,  1893a. 
Jewelry,  1893b. 
Jewfish.  1894a. 
Jews,  1894a. 
Jew's-harp,   1896b. 
JeA'pore,  India.  1868a. 
Jezebel,  419a,  1896b. 
Jigger,  1896b. 
Jimson  Weed,  3447a. 
Jinrikisha,    1897a,    3612b. 
Joachim,  Joseph,  1897a. 
Joannes  Island,  2248a. 
Joan  of  Arc,  1897a,  3059b. 
Job,  1898a. 
Jochebed,  410a. 
Joffre,     Joseph     Jacques     Ce- 

saire,  1898a. 
Johannesburg,     South    Africa, 

1898b 
John,  king,    (England),   1899a. 
John,  Knights  of  Saint,  1899b. 
John   (Popes),  1899a. 
John,  Saint,  1899b. 
John  Bull.  1900a. 
John  III  Sobieski,  1899b. 
Johhny-jump-up,  3774b. 
John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, 1900a. 
Johns      Hopkins      University, 

1900a. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  1775b,  1900b, 

3544b. 
Johnson,  Hiram  Warren,  1904a, 

3112b. 
Johnson,        Richard       Mentor, 

1904a. 
Johnson,  Samuel,  1904a. 
Johnson  City,  Tenn.,  1904b. 
Johnston,  Albert  Sidney,  1905a. 
Johnston,     Joseph     Eggleston, 

1905a. 
Johnston,  Mary,  1905b. 
Johnstown,  N.  Y.,   1906a. 
Johnstown,  Pa.,   190Ca. 
John  the  Baptist,   1898b. 
Joint  (anatomy),  1906a. 
Joint  (geology),  1906b. 
Joint  Stock  Company,  1907a. 
Jokai,  Maurus,  1907a. 
Joliba  River,  2571b. 
Joliet,  111.,  1907a. 
Joliet,  Louis,  1907a. 
Joly    De    Lothbiniere,     Henri, 

Gustave,  1907b. 
Jonah,  1907b. 
Jonathan,  417a,  1907b. 
Jones,  Edith  Newbold,  3856b. 
Jones,  John  Paul,  1907b. 
Jonquil,   1908a,   2474a. 
Jonson,  Ben,   1908a. 
Joplin,  Mo.,  1909a. 
Jordan,  David  Starr,   1909b. 
Jordan  River.  1909a. 
Joseph     (husband     of     Mary), 

1910a. 
Joseph    (son  of  Jacob),   1910a, 

3442a. 
Josephine,   Marie   Rose,   1910a, 

2472a. 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  1892b. 
Josephus,  Flavins,   1910a. 
Joshua,  1910b. 
Josiah,  1910b. 

Journalism,  Scohol  of,  1910b. 
Journal    to    Stella,    3485a. 
Jove    (mythology),   1918b. 
Juan  de  Fuca,  Strait  of,  1911a. 
Juan  Fernandez  Island,   1911a, 

3085a,  3249b. 


Kalispell,  Mont. 

Juarez,  Benito  Pablo,  1911b. 

Jubilee,  Year  of,   1911b. 

Judah,   1911b. 

Judaism,  1894a. 

Judas,  1912a. 

Judas  Iscariot,  1911b. 

Judas  Tree,  1912a. 

Jude,  1912a. 

Judea,  1912a. 

Judge,  1912a. 

Judge-Advocate-General,  226a. 

Judges,  Book  of,  1912b. 

Judgment  (law),  1263a,  1912b, 
2946a. 

Judgment  (psychology),  1912b, 
1263a. 

Judicial   Department,    3694a. 

Judicial  Department  of  Cana- 
da, 1912b. 

Judicial  Oath,  2627ta. 

Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  1913a. 

Juggernaut,  1913a. 

Jugo-Slavia,    301b,    1913b. 

Jugo-Slavs,  2995a. 

Jugular  Vein,    1914a. 

Jugurtha,   1914a,   3102a. 

Juijitsu,  1914b,  3948b. 

Jujube,   1914a. 

Jujutsu,   1914b,  3948b. 

Julep,  1914b. 

Julian  Calender,  637b. 

Julian   the  Apostate,   1914b. 

Juliet  and  Romeo,  3106b. 

Julius  (Popes),  1915a. 

July,  1915a. 

July,  Column  of,  1916a. 

July  Revolution,  1916a. 

Jumping  Bean,  1916a. 

Jumping  Mouse,  1887a,  1916a. 

Junco,  1916a. 

June,  1916b. 

Juneau,  Alaska,  1917a. 

Juneau,  Solomon,  2343b. 

Juneberry,   1917a. 

June  Bug,  1917a. 

Jungfrau,  1917a. 

Jungle  Books,  1984a. 

Jungle  Fowl,  1917b. 

Junior  High  School,  1686a. 

Juniper,  1917b. 

Junius  Letters,  The,  1917b. 

Juno,  1917b. 

Jupiter  (plant),  1918a. 

Jupiter  (mythology),  1918b. 

Jura  Mountains,  1919a. 

Jurassic  Period,  1919a. 

Jury  and  Trial  by  Jury,  1919b. 
2945b. 

Justice  (title),  1912a. 

Justice,  Department  of,   1920a. 

Justice  of  the  Peace,  1920a. 

Justianian  I,  1920a. 

Just-So-Stories,  1984a. 

Jute,  1920b. 

Jutes,  1921a. 

Jutland,  1921a. 

Juvenal,  Decimus  Junius 
Juvenalis,  1921a. 

Juvenile  Court,   1921b. 


K 


K,   1922a. 
Kaaba,  1922a. 
Kabara-goya,  2387b. 
Kabul,  Afghanistan,  1922a. 
Kadiak  Bear,  368b. 
Kadiak  Island,  1922a. 
Kaffir  Corn,  1922b. 
Kaffirs,  1922b. 
Kaiser,  1922b. 
Kaiser-blume,  962b,  1923a. 
Kalahari  Desert,  1923a. 
Kalakaua,  1645b. 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  1923a.    , 
Kaleidoscope,   1923a. 
Kalends,  1923b. 
Kalevala,  1923b. 
Kalispell,  Mont.,  1923b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Kalmia 


4023 


Lacedaemort 


Kalmia,  1923b. 
Kalmucks,   1924a. 
Kalsomlne,  635a. 
Kamerun,  Germany,  1924a. 
Kamloops,  B.  C,   1924a. 
Kamtchatka,   1924b. 
Kanakas,  1924b. 
Kanawha   River,   1924b. 
Kandahar,  Afghanistan.  1924b. 
Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  1925a. 
Kangaroo,  1925a. 
Kankakee.   111.,    1925b. 
Kansa  Indians,  1933a. 
Kansas,  1925b. 

Kansas,    University    of,    1930a. 
Kansas  City,  Kan.,  1930b. 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,   1930b. 
Kansas-Nebraska    Bill,    1931a. 
Kansas  River,  1931b. 
Kant,  Immanuel,   1931b. 
Kaolin.  1932a. 

Karakorum    Mountains,    1932a. 
Karl      I,      (Austria-Hungary), 

753a. 
Karlowitz,  Peace  of.  3652a. 
Karlsbad,  Bohemia,  705a. 
Karlsruhe,  Germany,  705a. 
Karnak,   Egypt,   3557a,   3570a. 
Kashgar.  Turkestan,   1932a. 
Kashmir.  India,  1932b. 
Kassel,   718a. 
Katahdin,  Mount,  1932b. 
Kata-kana.  1873b. 
Kates,  Who  are  These,  1243a. 
Katrine,  Loch,  1932b. 
Kattegat.  728b. 
Katydid.  1933a. 

Kaulbach.  Wilhelm  von,  1933a. 
Kaunitz,   Wenzel   Anton   Dom- 

inik,   1933a. 
Kaw  Indians,  1933a. 
Kayak,  1254b. 
Kazan.  Russia,  1933b. 
Kearny,  Philip,  1933b. 
Kearsarge,  The,  840b. 
Keats,  John,  1933b. 
Kedzie  Mixture.  1806a. 
Keeley,  Leslie,  1934a. 
Keeley  Cure,   1934a. 
Keene,  Laura,  1934a. 
Keene,  N.  H.,  1934b. 
Keewatin,  1934b. 
Keller,  Helen  Adams,   1934b. 
Kellogg.  Clara  Louise.  1934b. 
Kelp.  1935a. 
Kelvin,       William       Thomson, 

1935a.' 
Kendall,  Amos,  1935a. 
Kenesaw  Mountain.   Battle  of, 

1935b. 
Kenilworth,  Eng.,  1935b. 
Kennan,  George,   1935b. 
Kennebec  River,  1936a. 
Kenneth  (king),  3223b. 
Kenora,  Ont.,  1936a. 
Kenosha,  Wis.,  1936a. 
Kent,  James,  1936a. 
Kentucky,  1936b. 
Kentucky,  State  University  of. 

1941b. 
Kentucky    and    Virginia    Res- 
olutions, 1941b. 
Kentucky  Cardinal,  703b. 
Keokuk,  Iowa,  1942a. 
Kepler,  Johann,   1942a. 
Kerensky,  Alexander,  3245a. 
Kerosene,  1942b. 
Kerosene  Emulsion,  1806a. 
Kestrel,  1942b. 
Ketchup,  1942b. 
Kettledrum.  1146a. 
Kewanee,   111.,   1943a. 
Key  (music),  1943a. 
Key.      Francis      Scott,      1943a. 

3407a. 
Keystone,  158a. 
Keystone  State,  2775a. 
Key  West,  Pla..  1943b. 
Khaki,  1943b. 
Khamsin,  1944a. 


Khan,  1944a. 
Kharkov,  Russia,  1944a. 
Khartum.  Egypt,  1944a. 
Khedive,   1190a,   1944b. 
Khiva,   1944b. 
Khufu,  769a. 
Khyber  Pass,  1944b. 
Kiao-Chau,        China,         1944b, 

3919a. 
Kickapoo  Indians,  1945a. 
Kicking  Horse  Pass.  73a,  561a. 
Kidd,  William,  1945a. 
Kidnapping,  1945a. 
Kidneys.  The,  1945a. 
Kieft.  William,  2500a. 
Kiel,  Germany,  lS45b. 
Kiel  Canal,  1945b. 
Kiev.  Russia,  1946a. 
Kilauea.    1643b,    1946b,    3618b. 
Kilimanjaro,   1946b. 
Killarney,   Lakes  of,   1946b. 
Killdeer,  1946b. 
Kiln,  1947a. 
Kilogram,  1947a. 
Kilogrammeter,  1947a. 
Kilometer,  194Ta. 
Kilowatt,  1947a. 
Kilowatt-hour.  1204b. 
Kimberley,        South        Africa, 

1947a. 
Kindergarten,  1947b. 
Kindergarten  Games,  1955a. 
Kindergarten  Gifts,  1954a. 
Kinematics,  1981b. 
Kinetics,    1159a,    1223a.   3410b. 
Kinetic      Theory      of       (5ases, 

1450b. 
Kinetoscope.  1823a. 
King,  1981b. 
King  Arthur,  236b. 
Kingbird,  19Slb. 
King     Charles     South     Land. 

3580b. 
Kingfisher.  1982a. 
King  George's  War,  1412b. 
King  James's  Bible,   404b. 
Kinglet,  1982b. 
King-maker,  3807b. 
King  Philip,  19S2b. 
Kings.  Books  of,  1982b. 
King's  Counsel,   1982b. 
Kingsley,   Charles,   1982b. 
King's     Mountain,     Battle     of. 

1983a. 
Kings  of  England.  1230b. 
King's  Spear,  252a. 
Kingston,  Jamaica,  1983a. 
Kingston,  N.  Y.,  1983a. 
Kingston.  Ont.,  1983b. 
King  William's  War.  1412a. 
Kiolen  Mountains,  3480b. 
Kioto,  Japan.  1997b. 
Kiowa  Indians,   1983b. 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  1983b. 
Kirghiz,  1984a. 
Kishinev,  Russia.  1984b. 
Kitchen  Cabinet,  1984b. 
Kitchener,     Horatio     Herbert. 

1984b. 
Kitchener.  Ont..  1985a. 
Kitchen  Middens,  1985a. 
Kite   (bird).  1985b. 
Kites,  1985b. 
Kittiwake,   1988a. 
Kjolen  Mountains,  1269b. 
Klamath,  1988a. 
Kleptomania,  1988a. 
Klondike,  1988a. 
Kneipp,  Sebastian.  1988b. 
Kneip.   Sebastian.   1988b. 
Knickerbocker's      History      of 

New  York,  1846a. 
Knife,  1988b. 

Knighthood,   Orders   of.    1988b. 
Knights    Hospitalers    of   Saint 

John,  1899b. 
Knights  of  Columbus,  1989a. 
Knights  of  Labor.  1989a. 
Knights  of  Malta,  1899b. 
Knights  of  Pythias.  1989a. 


Knights  of  Rhodes,  1899b. 
Knights  Templars,  3537a. 
Knitting  Machine,  1989b. 
Knobs,  The.  1937a. 
Knockout  Drops,  139b. 
Knot.   1990a. 

Knot    (nautical),   1990a.   3843b. 
Knotgrass,  1990a. 
Knowing,  2958b. 
Know-Nothings,  1991a.  2890a. 
Knox.  Henry,  1991a. 
Knox,  John,  1991a,  3042a. 
Knox,  Philander  Chase,   1991b. 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  1992a. 
Koala.  1992a. 
Kobe,  Japan,  1992a. 
Koch,  Robert.  1992b. 
Kochanska,  Marcelline,  3250b. 
Kodiak  Island.  1922a. 
Koh-i-noor     Diamond.      1070b, 

1992b. 
Kohl-rabi,  1992b. 
Kokomo.  Ind.,  1992b. 
Kolchak,        Admiral.         3138b, 

3295a. 
Kongfutse.  912a. 
Kongo,  912b. 

Konigsberg.  Germany.  1993a. 
Koodoo,  137a.  1993a. 
Kootenay,  1993a. 
Kootenay  River,  1993b. 
Koran,  1993b. 
Kordofan,  1994a. 
Korea,  948a. 
Kosciusko,     Thaddeus,     1994a, 

2884a. 
Kossuth,  Louis,   1994a. 
Koumis,  1994b. 
Kovno,  Poland.  1994b. 
Krefeld,  Germanv.  1994b. 
Kremlin,    1994b,   2420b. 
Kreutzer  Sonata.  The.  3592a. 
Kronstadt,  Russia,   1995a. 
Kropotkin,   Peter,   1995a. 
Kruger,     Stephanus    Johannes 

Paulus.  1993b,  3343b. 
Krupp.  Friedrich  Alfred,  1995b. 
Kryolite,  999b. 
Krypton,  1996a. 
Kubelik.  Jan,  1996a. 
Kublai      Khan,      802b,      1142a, 

1996a. 
Kudu.  1993a. 
Kufic.   1007a. 

Ku-Klux  Klan,  1996a,  3711b. 
Kultur,   3914b. 
Kumiss,  1994b. 
Kumquat,  1996b. 
Kun,  Bela.  1738a. 
Kurdistan,   1996b. 
Kurile  Islands.  1996b. 
Kuro  Siwo,  1997a. 
Kuskokwim  River,  1997a. 
Kyanite,  1997b. 
Kyoto,   1997b. 


L,  1998a. 

Labiatae,  1998a. 

LaBoheme,  2965b. 

Labor.  Department  of.   1998a 

Labor,  Division  of.  1998b. 

Labor  Bureau.  3667b. 

Labor  Day.  1999a. 

Labor  Legislation,    1999a. 

Labor  Organizations,  1999b. 

Labrador,  2000a. 

Labrador  Current,  2000b. 

Labradorite.  1307b,  2000b. 

Labrador  Tea,  2000b. 

Laburnum,  2000b. 

Labyrinth.  2001a. 

Labyrinth  (ear),  1163b. 

Lac.  2001a. 

Lac  (coin),  2001b. 

Laccadive  Islands,  2001b. 

Lace,  2001b. 

Lacedaemon,  3376b,  3377a. 


The   letter  a,  after  a  number,   indicates  column   1;   the  letter  I»,  column  2. 


Lace-winged  Flies 


4024 


Lemming 


Lace -winged  Flies,  2001b. 

Lachine,  2002a. 

Lacyrymal        Glands,        1289a, 

2002a. 
Lackawanna  River,  2002a. 
Laconia,  2002a. 
Laconia,  N.  H.,  2002a. 
Lacquer,  2002b. 
Lacrosse,  2002b. 
La  Crosse,  Wis.,  2003b. 
Lacteals,   2003b. 
Lactic  Acid,  2004a. 
Lactose,  2337b. 
Ladies  of  Hell,  3225b. 
Lading-,  Bill  of,  432a. 
Ladoga,  Lake,  2004a. 
Ladrone  Islands,  2004a. 
Lady,  1151b. 

Ladybird,  379a,  2004a,  3188b. 
Ladysmith,  2004a. 
Lady's  Slipper.  2004b. 
LaFarg-e,  John,  2004b,  3398b. 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  2005a. 
Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  2005a. 
Lafayette  National  Park,  340a. 

2742a. 
LaFollette,     Robert       Marion, 

2006a. 
Lafontaine,  Jean  de,  2006b. 
Lafontaine,     Louis      Hypolite, 

2006b. 
Lagerlof,  Selma,  2007a. 
La  Gioconda,  2704a. 
Lago  d'  Averno,  3C5b. 
Lago  Maggiore,  2217b. 
Lagoon,  2007a. 
Lagthing,   2611a. 
La  Guayra,  "Venezuela,  2007a. 
Lahore,  India,  2007a. 
Laisser  Faire,  2007b. 
Lak,  2001b. 
Lake,  2007b. 
Lake  Agassiz,  2007b. 
Lake  Charles,  La.,  2008a. 
Lake  Dwellings,  2008a. 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  2008b. 
Lake  School,  2008b. 
Lakes-to-the-Gulf    Waterway, 

2365a. 
Lakh,  3134b. 
Lalla  Rookh,  3259a. 
Lamaism,  2008b. 
Lamar,  Lucius  Quintus  Cincin- 

natus,  2008b. 
Lamarck,         Jean         Baptiste 

Pierre,   2009a. 
Lamb,  Charles,  2009a. 
Lamb  Kill,  1924a. 
Lamentations,  2009b. 
Laminae,  372b. 
Lammergeier,  2009b. 
La      Moyne,      Jean      Baptiste, 

2543b. 
Lamp,  2010a. 
Lampblack,  2010a. 
Lamprey,  2010a. 
Lanai,  3617b. 
Lancaster,     House     of,     2010b, 

3118b. 
Lancaster,  Ohio,  2010b, 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  2010b. 
Lance,  2011a. 

Lancelot  of  the  Lake,  2011a. 
Lancet  Fish,  2011a. 
Lancewood,  2011b. 
Land  and  Sea  Breezes,  2011b. 
Land  Crab,  2011b. 
Landis,     Kenesaw     Mountain, 

2012a. 
Land  Measurement,  2300b. 
Land  Office,  2014a. 
Land     of    the     Midnight    Sun, 

2608b. 
Land  of  the  Rising  Sun,  3G12a. 
Land  of  Steady  Habits,  918a. 
Land   of  the   White  Elephant, 

3291b. 
Landor,  Walter  Savage,  2012a. 
Lands,  Public,  2012a. 


Lands,     Travels     in     Distant, 

3612a. 
Landscape  Gardening,  2015a. 
Landseer,   Edwin,   2015b. 
Land's  End,  2015b. 
Landsmaal,  2610b. 
Landsthing,  1057b. 
Lanfranc,  Archbishop,  2015b. 
Lang,  Andrew,  2015b. 
Langland,  William,   2016a. 
Langley,       Samuel       Pierpont, 

1361a,  2016a. 
Langtry,  Mrs.  Lillie,  2016a. 
Language,  Universal,  3719b. 
Language       and         Grammar, 

2016b. 
Language  of  Flowers,  1355a. 
Languages,  Origin  of,  2820b. 
Languages      of      the      World, 

2056b. 
Lanier,  Sidney,  2057a. 
Lansdowne.      Henry      Charles 

Keith.  2057a. 
Lansing,  Mich.,  2057b. 
Lantern  Fish,  2057b. 
Lantern  Fly,  2057b. 
Laocoon,  The,  3232b. 
Lao-tze,  912a. 
La  Paz,  Bolivia.  2058a. 
Lapis  Lazuli,  2058a,  461a. 
Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,   2058b. 
Lapland,  2058b. 
La  Plata,  Argentine,  2058b. 
La  Porte,  Ind.,  2059a. 
Lapwing,  2059a. 
Laramie,  Wyo.,  2059a. 
Larceny,  2059b. 
Larch,  2059b,  3508a. 
Lard,  2060a. 
Laredo,  Tex.,  2060a. 
Lares  and  Penates,  2060a. 
Lark,  2000b. 
Larkspur,  2060b. 
Lars  Porsena,  3100b. 
Larva,  61Ga,  lS07b,  2060b. 
Laryngitis,  2060b. 
Larynx,  541b,  20Gla. 
La  Salle,  111.,  20Glb. 
La    Salle,    Rene-Robert    Cave- 

lier,  2061b. 
Lassa,  Tibet,  2093b. 
Lassalle,  Ferdinand,  2061b. 
Lassen        Volcanic        National 

Park,  2742b. 
Last      Couple      Out       (game), 

1441b. 
Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  600b. 
Last     Judgment,     The,     2325a, 

3314b. 
Last  Supper,  The,  3774a. 
Las  Vegas,  N.  Mex.,  2062a. 
Lateral  Moraines,  2410a. 
Lateran,  2062a. 
Latex,  3126b. 
Lathe,  2062a. 

Lathrop,  Julia    Clifford,  2062b. 
Latimer,  Hugh,  2062b. 
Latin  Cross,  994a. 
Latin  Language,  2063a. 
Latin  Literature,  2122a. 
Latitude,  2063b. 
Latium,  2063b. 
Latter   Day   Saints,   Church   of 

Jesus  Christ,  2063b,  2413a. 
La  Traviata,  1106a,  3755a. 
Laud,  William,  2063b. 
Laudanum,   2064a,  2664b. 
Lauder,  Harry,  2064a. 
Laughing  Gas,  2064b. 
Laughlin,      James      Laurence 

2064b. 
Laureate,  2878b. 
Laurel.   2064b. 
Laurel,  Miss.,  2065a. 
Laurenco,   Marquez,   2919a. 
Laurentian  Mountains,  2065a. 
Laurier,  Wilfrid,  2065a. 
Laurium,  Mich.,  2065b. 
Laut,    Agnes    Christina,    2066a. 
Lava,  2066a. 


Laval  Montmorency,  Francois 
Xavier  de,  2066b. 

Laval  University,  2066a. 

Lavender,  20G6b. 

Law,  206Gb. 

Law,  Andrew  Bonar,  2067b. 

Law,  John,  20G7b,  2365b. 

Law,  Sumptuary,  3470a. 

Lawn  Tennis,  20G8a. 

Law  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
3100a,  3657a. 

Lawrence,  James,   770b,   2068b. 

Lawrence,  Kan.,  20G9a. 

Lawrence,  Mass.,  2069a. 

Law  Schools,   2069b. 

Lawsuit,  294  5b. 

Lawton,  Henry  Ware,  2069b. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  1719a. 

Lazarus,  20G9b. 

Lazurite,  2058a. 

Lead  (metal),  2069b. 

Lead,  Kindly  Light,  2538a. 

Lead,  Sounding,  2070a. 

Lead,  S.  D.,  2070b. 

Lead  Glance,  1431a. 

Lead  Poisoning,  2070b. 

Leadville,  Colo.,  2070b. 

Leaf  Insects,  2071a. 

Leaf  Lard,  2060a. 

League,  2071a. 

League  of  Nations,  2478b. 

Lea«gue  to  Enforce  Peace, 
2071a. 

Leander,  9a. 

Leap  Year,  2071b. 

Learning,  Formal  Steps  in, 
2313a. 

Lease,  2071b. 

Leather,  2072a,  3687a. 

Leatherback  Turtle,  2073a. 

Leatherstocking  Tales,  940a. 

Leavenworth,  Kan.,  2073b. 

Leaves,  2073b,  24S8a,  3627b. 

Lebanon,  Mountains  of,  2075a. 

Lebanon,  Pa.,  2075b. 

Lecky.  William  Edward  Hart- 
pole,  2075b. 

Lecompton  Constitution,  2075b. 

Le  Conte,  Joseph,  2076a. 

Ledum,   2000b. 

Ledy  Jeassu,  11a. 

Lee,  Ann,  3267a. 

Lee,  Charles,  2076a. 

Lee,  Henry,  2076b. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  2076b. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward,  2077a. 

Leech,  2077b. 

Leeds,  Eng.,  2078a. 

Leek,  2078a. 

Leeward  Islands,  2078a. 

LeGallienne,  Richard,   2078a. 

Legal  Tender,  2385b,  3538a. 

Legate,  2078b,  2622a. 

Legend,  2078b. 

Legend  of  Sle'epy  Hollow, 
1846a. 

Legerdemain,  2078b. 

Leghorn,   Italy,   2079a. 

Legion,   2079a. 

Legion  of  Honor,  2079a. 

Legislative  Assembly,  2079b. 

Legislative  Department,  3693a. 

Legislature,  2079b. 

Leguminous  Plants,  2080a. 

Lehigh  River,  2080b. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm, 
2080b. 

Leicester,  Eng.,   2080b. 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley, 
2081a. 

Leidy,  Joseph,  2081a. 

Leif  Ericson,  1250b. 

Leighton,  Frederick,  2081a. 

Leipzig,   Germany,    2081b. 

Leipzig,  Battles  of,  2081b. 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  Uni- 
versity, 2082a. 

Leman,  Lake,  1459a. 

Lemberg,  Galicia,  2082b. 

Lemming,  2082b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Lemnos 


4025 


Locust  (tree) 


Lemnos,  30a. 

Le  Moine,  James  MacPherson, 

2082b. 
Lemon,  2083a. 
Lemur,  2083a. 
Lena  River,  2083b. 
L'Enfant,        Pierre        Charles, 

3813a. 
Leng-th  of  Life,  2160a. 
Lenine,    Nikolai,    493b,     2084a, 

3139a,   3145b,   3638a. 
Lenni-Lenape,   1052b. 
Lenox,  James,  2084a. 
Lens,  2084b. 
Lens,  France,  2085a. 
Lent,  2085b. 
Lentil,  2085b. 
Leo    (astronomy),  2085b. 
Leo   (Popes),  2085b. 
Leo  X,  3029b. 
Leominster,  Mass.,   2086a. 
Leon,  Nicaragua,  2086b. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  3773b. 
Leonidas,  2086b,  2795a. 
Leopard,  2086b,  2726b. 
Leopold  II,  2087a. 
Lepage,  Bastien.  2706a. 
Lepanto,  Gulf  of.  948b. 
LePas,  1730a,  2753b. 
Lepidus,       Marcus       Aemilius, 

285a,  2087a. 
Leprosy,   2087a. 
Lepta,  1110b. 

Lesage,  Alain  Rene,  2087b. 
Lesbos,  30a. 
Les  Huguenots,  2317a. 
Les   Miserables,    1732b,    2087b. 
Lesseps,   Ferdinand  de,    2088a, 

2720b,  3462a. 
Lethbridge,  Alta.,  2088a. 
Lethe,  2088b. 
Letter  of  Credit,  2088b. 
Letter  of  Marque  and  Reprisal, 

2256a,  2944b. 
Letter  Writing-,  2088b. 
Letts,  2089b. 
Lettuce,  2089b. 
Leutze,   Emanuel,   2089b. 
Levant,   2089b,   3650b. 
Levee,   2090a. 
Level,  2090a. 
Lever,  2090a. 

Lever,   Charles  James,   2091a. 
Leverwood,   1720a. 
Leviathan   (Biblical),  2091a. 
Leviathan  (ship),  3286a. 
Levis,  Que.,  2091b. 
Levites,  2091b. 
Leviticus,  2091b. 
Lewis,  Meriwether,  2091b. 
Lewis    and    Clark    Expedition, 

2092a. 
Lewis    and    Clark    Exposition, 

2092a. 
Lewiston,  Ida.,  2092b. 
Lewiston,  Maine,  2092b. 
Lexington,  Battle  of.  2093a. 
Lexington,  Ky.,  2092b. 
Leyden,  Netherlands,  2093a. 
Leyden  Jar,  2093b. 
Lhasa,  Tibet,  2093b. 
Liao-tung  Peninsula,  3143a. 
Libau,  Courland,  2093b. 
Libel,  2094a,  3321a. 
Liberal,  2094a,  3861a. 
Liberal       Republican       Party, 

2094b,  2889b. 
Liberia,  2094b. 
Liberty,  Religious.  3046a. 
Liberty,  Sons  of,  3346a. 
Liberty,  Statue  of,  2095a. 
Liberty  Bell,  2095a. 
Liberty  Bonds,   2095a,  3933a. 
Liberty  Cap,  2095b. 
Liberty  Loans,   2095a,   3933a. 
Liberty  of  the  Press,  2095b. 
Liberty  Party,  2095b,  2890b. 
Library,  2096a. 
Library  of  Congress,  2097a. 
License,  2097a. 


Lichens,  2097b. 
Licinian  Law,  3100a. 
Lick,  James,  2098a. 
Lick  Observatory,  2098a. 
Licorice,  2098a. 
Lictors,  2098a. 
Liebig,  Justus,  2098b. 
Liebknecht,  Karl,  1502b,  2098b, 

3377b. 
Liechtenstein,  2098b. 
Liege,  Belgium,  2099a. 
Lien,  Belgium,  2099a. 
Lieutenant,   2099a. 
Lisutenant-General,  2099b. 
Lieutenant-Governor,   2099b. 
Life,  Length  of,  2417b. 
Lifeboat,  2100a. 
Life  Estate,  1256a. 
Life  Insurance,  1814b. 
Life  in  the  Desert,  3157a. 
Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,  515a. 
Life  Preserver,  2100a. 
Life-Saving       Service,        866b, 

2100a. 
Life-Saving  Gun   and   Rocket, 

2100b. 
Lift  Pump,  2969b. 
Ligament,   2100b. 
Liggett,  Hunter,  2100b. 
Light,  2101a. 

Light,  Polarization  of,  2884b. 
Lighthall,       William       Dover, 

2103b. 
Lighthouse,  2103b. 
Lightning,  1467a,  2104b. 
Lightning  Rod,  2105b. 
Lightship,  2104b. 
Lignite,  863a,  2105b. 
Li  Hung  Chang-,  Earl,  2105b. 
Lilac,  2106a. 
Liliaceae,  523a. 
Liliuokalani,  Lydia  Kamekeha, 

1645b,   2106a,  3619b. 
Lille,  France,  2106a. 
Lily,  2106b. 
Lily  Family,   523a. 
Lily  of  the  Valley,  2106b. 
Lima,  Ohio,  2107a. 
Lima,  Peru,  2107a. 
Lime   (fruit),  2107a. 
Lime  (chemistry),  2107b. 
Lime  Light,  2107b. 
Limerick,  2107b. 
Limerick,  Ireland,  2108a. 
Limestone,  594b,  2108a. 
Limited  Monarchy,  2382a. 
Limited  Partnership,  2753a. 
Limoges,  France,  2108b. 
Limon,  Costa  Rica,  2108b. 
Limonite,  2108b. 
Limpet,  2108b. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  2109a. 
Lincoln,  Eng.,  2113b. 
Lincoln,  111.,  2114a. 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  2114a. 
Lincoln  Highway,  2114b. 
Lind,  Jenny,  2115a. 
Linden,  2115a. 

Lindsey,  Benjamin  Barr,  2115b. 
Line,  2115b. 
Linen,  2115b. 

Ling,  Pehr  Henrik,  2116a. 
Linguistics.  2820a. 
Liniment,  2116a. 
Linnaea,  2116a. 
Linnaeus,  2116a. 
Linne,  Karl  von,  2116a. 
Linnet,  2116b. 
Linoleum,  2116b. 
Linotype,  2117a. 
Linseed,  2117a. 
Linseed  Oil,  1344b,  2117b. 
Linseed  Meal,  2117b. 
Lion.  2117b. 
Lion     and     the     Mouse,    The, 

2023a. 
Lion  of  Lucerne.  2118a. 
Lipari  Islands,  2118a. 
Lippi.  Filippo,  2118a,  2703b. 
Lip  Reading,  2118b. 


Lipton,  Thomas,  2118b. 

Liquid,   1747b,  2119a. 

Liquid  Air,  2119a. 

Liquidambar,    2119a. 

Liquid  Fire,  2119a. 

Liquid  Measure,  2315b. 

Liquors,  1082b. 

Lira,  2119b. 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  2119b. 

Lisgar,  Lord,  2119b. 

Lister,  Joseph,  2120a,  3477a. 

Liszt,  Franz,  2120a. 

Litany,  2120a. 

Liter,  2120a. 

Literature,  2120b. 

Literature,  Boys  and  Girls  in, 

2129b. 
Literature  of  Canada,  2139a. 
Lithium,  2141a. 
Lithography,  2141a. 
Lithotomy,  2142a. 
Lithuania,   2142a. 
Litmus,   2142b. 
Little  Chief  Hare,  2852a. 
Little  Church  Round  the  Cor- 
ner, 2557b. 
Little  Dipper,  369a. 
Little  England,  3622a. 
Little  Falls,  New  York,  2142b. 
Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  608a. 
Little  Men,  77a. 
Little    Pig-    that    Wouldn't    Go 

Over  the  Stile,  The,  3434b. 
Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain 

of  Wheat,  1959b. 
Little  Red  Riding  Hood,  2791a. 
Little  Rhody,   3061b. 
Little  Rock,  Ark.,  2142b. 
Little    Russians,    3148a. 
Little   Saint  Bernard,   3158b. 
Little  Venice,  3750b. 
Little  Women,  77b. 
Liturgy,   2143a. 
Liu-Kiu,  2167a. 
Live-forever,  1726a. 
Liver,  2143a. 
Livermore,  Mary  Ashton  Rice, 

2143b. 
Liverpool,   Eng.,   2143b. 
Liverworts,  2144a. 
Live  Stock,  3685a. 
Livingstone,       David,        2144a, 

3403b. 
Livingston,  Robert  R.  2178a. 
Livius,  2145a. 
Livonia,  2145a,  3074b. 
Livre,  2145a. 
Livy,  2145a. 
Lizard,    2145b. 
Llama,  2146a. 
Llano  Estacado,  3549b. 
Llanos,  2146a,  3352a. 
Lloyd   George,   David,   1482a. 
Lloyds,   2146b. 
Loam,  2146b,  3339a. 
Loanda,  Angola,  3168b. 
Lobby  and  Lobbying,  2146b. 
Lobelia,  2146b. 
Loblolly  Pine,  2855b. 
Lobster,   2146b. 
Lobworm,  2147b. 
Local  Government,  3695a. 
Local  Option.  2147b. 
Lochinvar,  2147b. 
Lock,  2148a. 

Lock  (engineering),  2148b. 
Locke,  John,  2148b. 
Lockhart,   John  Gibson,   3237b. 
Lockjaw,  3548a. 
Lockout,  2149a. 
Lockport,  N.  Y.,  2149a. 
Lockwood,  Belva  Ann  Bennett, 

2149a. 
Loco-Focos,  2149a. 
Locomotive,        1823a,        2149a, 

3421a. 
Locomotor  Ataxia,  2151b. 
Loco  Weed.  2151b. 
Locust  (insect).  819b,  2152a. 
Locust  (tree),  2152b. 


Tlie  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indJcates  column   1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Lodge,  Henry  Cabot 


4026 


Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,   2152b. 
Lodz,  Poland,  2152b. 
Loeb,  Jacques,  2152b. 
Loess,  2153a. 
Lofoten  Islands,  2153a. 

Lofkn?  John  A.,  2153b.  2295b. 
Logan,   Utah,   2154a. 
Loganberry,  2154a. 
Logansport,   Ind.,    2154a. 
Logarithms,  2154a. 
Loggerhead,  1646b. 
Logic,  2154a. 
Logwood,  2155a. 
Lohengrin,  2155a. 
Loire,  2155a. 
Lok,  2155a,  2461b. 
Lollards,  2155b. 
Lombards,  2155b. 
Lombardy,  2155b. 
Lomond,  Loch,  2156a. 
London,  Eng.,  2156a. 
London,    Greater,    2156b. 
London,  Jack,  2159a. 
London,  Ont.,  2159b. 
London,  Tower  of,  3604a. 
London  Company,  2159b,  3701a, 

3779b. 
Lone  Star  State,  3549a. 
Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  2159b. 
Longevity,  2160a. 
Longfellow,       Henry       Wads- 
worth,  2160b,  3015a,  3021b. 
Long  Island,  2161a.         „,.,, 
Long  Island,  Battle  of,  2161b. 
Longitude,  2161b. 
Longitude  and  Time,  2162a. 
Long  Parliament,  2166b. 
Longstreet,  James,  2166b. 
Loo-Choo.  2167a. 
Loon,  1084b. 
Loopers,  2287a. 
Loquat,  2167a. 
Lorain,  Ohio,  2167a. 
Lord,  1151b,  2167b. 
Lord  Chief  Justice,  2167b. 
Lord  Justice,  1912a. 
Lord  Ullin's  Daughter,  2042b. 
Lorelei,  2167b. 
Lorimer,         George         Horace, 

2167b. 
Loris,  2167b. 
Lorraine,  103b. 
Lorv,   2168a. 

Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  2168a. 
Lossing,   Benson  John,   2169b. 
Lost  Chord,  The,  3466b. 
Lost  River,  1468a. 
Lottery,    2169b. 
Lotus,  2169b. 
Lotus  Eaters,  2170a. 
Loubet,  Emile,  2170a. 
Louis  I,  2170a. 
■     Louis  IX,  999a,  2170b. 
Louis  XI,  2170b. 
Louis  XII,  2170b. 
Louis  XIII,  2171a. 
Louis  XIV,  2171a. 
Louis  XV,  2171b,  2897a. 
Louis  XVI,   2172a. 
Louis  XVII,  2172b. 
Louis  XVIII,   2172b. 
Louisburg,  Sieges  of,  2173a. 
Louis  the  German,  2172b. 
Louis   the   Pious,   709a,   752b. 
Louise,  Lake.  2173a. 
Louisiana,  2173a. 
Louisiana  Purchase,    2177b. 
Louisiana     Purchase     Exposi- 
tion, 2178a. 
Louisiana      State     University, 

2178b. 
Louis  Philippe,  2178b. 
Louisville,  Ky.,  2178b. 
Louse,   2179b. 
Louvain,  Belgium,  2180a. 
Louvre,  The,   2180a. 
Love  Apple,  3592b. 
Lovejoy,   Elijah  Parish,   2180b. 
Lover,  Samuel,  2180b 


Low,  Seth,  2180b. 

Low  Church,  1235b. 

Lowell,       Abbott       Lawrence, 

2181a. 
Lowell,  James  Russell,    2181a, 

3024b. 
Lowell,  Mass.,   2182a. 
Lower  California,   2182b. 
Lower  Canada,  2984b. 
Low  German,  2871b. 
Low  Water,  3579a. 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  2182b. 
Lubbock,  John,  2183a. 
Lubeck,  Germany,  2183a. 
Lucerne,  Switzerland,  2183b. 
Lucerne,  Lake,  2183b. 
Lu-Chu,    2167a. 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  1106a. 
Lucifer,   2183b,   3753a. 
Lucknow,  British  India,  2183b. 
Lucretia,  2184a. 
Ludendorff,  Erich,  2184a. 
Ludington,  Mich.,   2184b. 
Ludlow  Commission,  2721a. 
Lugbait,  2147b. 
Lugworm,  2147b. 
Luke,  Saint,  2184b. 
Lumbago,  2185a,  3060a. 
Lumber,  2185a. 
Lumbering  in  Canada,  665a. 
Lumber  Jack,  1880b. 
Lumber  Measurements,  2301a. 
Luminous  Paint,  2701b. 
Lumpfish,  2187a. 
Lumpsucker,  2187a. 
Lumpy  Jaw,  2187b. 
Luna,  2187b, 
Lunacy,  2187b. 
Lunar  Caustic,  729b,  2187b. 
Lundy's  Lane,  Battle  of,  2188a. 
Lungs,  2188a. 
Lungwort,  2188b. 
Lunula,   2466b. 
Lupercalia,  2188b. 
Lupine,  2189a. 
Lupus,  2189a. 
Luray  Caverns,   2189a. 
Lusitania,   2189a,   3283b,   3715a, 

3924a. 
Lute,  2189b. 
Lutetia,  2739a. 

Luther,  Martin,  2190a,  3039b. 
Lutherans,  2191a. 
Lutzen,  Battles  of,  2191a. 
Luxembourg,    2191a.  „„„^, 

Luxembourg,  Palace  of,  2737b. 
Luxemburg,        Rosa,         1502b, 

3377b. 
Luxor,  Egypt,  2191b. 
Luzon,  P.  I.,  2815b,  3617a. 
Lyceum,  2192a. 
Lycurgus,  2192a. 
Lydia,  2192a. 
Lye,  139b. 

Lyell,  Charles,  2192a, 
Lymph,   2192a. 
Lymphatics,  2192b. 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  2192b. 
Lynch  Law,  2193a. 
Lynn,  Mass.,  2193a. 
Lynx,  2193a. 
Lyons,  France,  2193b. 
Lyre,  2194a. 
Lyre  Bird,  2194a. 
Lyric  Poetry,  2194a. 
Lysander,   2194b. 
Lysimachia,  2194b. 
Lysippus,   2195a. 
-    Lytton,    Edward    Robert    Bui 
wer,  2195b. 


M 


M,  2196a.  „,„^ 

Maartens,  Maarten,  2196a. 
Mabie,        Hamilton        Wright 

2196a. 
Mac,  842b,  2467b. 
Macaroni,  2197a. 


Mahabharata 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington, 

2197a. 
Macaw,  2197b. 
Macbeth,  2197b. 
INIaccabees,  2198a. 
Maccabees,     Knights     of     the, 

2198a 
Macdonald,     John     Alexander, 

2200a. 
MacDowell,    Edward    Alexan- 
der, 2201a. 
Mace  (spice),  2201a. 
Mace  (symbol  of  office),  2201a. 
Macedonia,   1574b,  2201a. 
Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  1830b. 
Macgregor,  Robert,  3085a. 
Machiavelli,  Niccolo,  2202a. 
Machine,  2202b. 
Machine  Gun,  2203a. 
Mackay   (family),  2203b. 
Mackensen,  Field  Marshal  von, 

3922b. 
Mackenzie,  2204a. 
Mackenzie,  Alexander  (states- 
man), 2204a.' 
Mackenzie,  Alexander  (explor- 
er), 2204a. 
Mackenzie,  William,  2204a. 
Mackenzie,        William       Lyon, 

2204b. 
Mackenzie  River,   2204b. 
Mackerel,  2205a. 
Mackinac  Island,  2205a. 
MacMahon,    Maria    Edme    Pa' 

trice,  2208b. 
MacMurragh,  Dermod,  1833a. 
Macon,  Ga.,  2209a. 
Madagascar,  2209a. 
Madame  Butterfly,   2965b. 
Madame  de  Stael,  3397a. 
Madder,  2210a. 
Madeira  Island,  2210a. 
Madeira  River,  2210a. 
Madeleine,  The.  2738a.       „„,„^ 
Madero,        Francisco,        2210D, 

2322a,    388-lb. 
Madison,  Dolly,   2214a. 
Madison,  James,  2210b. 
Madison,  Wis.,   2214a. 
Madonna,  2214b.         „„,  _, 
Madras  (province),  2215b 
Madras,   British   India,   221bt>. 
Madrid,  Spain,  2216a. 
Maelstrom,  2216b.    _         „„,-. 
Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  2216b. 
Mafia,  2216b.  ^     „ 

Magdalen,  Mary,  2217a. 
Magdalena  River,  2217a. 
Magdalen  Islands,  2217a. 
Magdeburg,  Germany,  2217a. 
Magellan,   Ferdinand,    2217b. 
Magellan,  Strait  of,  2217b. 
Maggiore,  Lake,  2217b. 
Magi,   2217b. 
Magic,  2217b.        - 
Magic  Lantern,   2218a. 
Magic  Music   (game),  1441b. 
Magna  Charta,   1899b,   2218b. 
Magnesia,  2218b. 
Magnesian   Limestone,    109;JD. 
Magnesium,  2218b. 
Magnet,  2219a. 
Magnetic        Equator,        1-248P, 

2219a. 
Magnetic  Field,  2219b 
Magnetic  Iron  Ore,  2220a. 
Magnetic  Needle,  2219b. 
Magnetic  Poles,   2219b,  2885a. 
.    Magnetism,    1167b,   2219a. 

Magnetite,   2220a.  ^  .      „ 

Magneto-Electric    Machine, 

2220a 
Magnificat,  2220a.        „„_. 
Magnitude  Relation,  2619b 
Magnitudes  of  Stars,  3406b. 
Magnolia,  2220a. 
Magnolia  State,   2360a. 
Magpie,   533b,   2220b. 
Magyars,  2221a. 
Mahabharata,  2221a. 


The  letter  a.  after  a  number,  indicates  coliimn  1;  the  letter  b,  column  3. 


Mahan,  Alfred  Thayer 


4027 


Matador 


Mahan,  Alfred  Thayer,  2221a. 

Mahanoy  City,  Pa.,  2221a. 

Maharajah,    3005b. 

Mahdi,    1191b,   2221b. 

Mahogany,  2221b. 

Mahomet,   2375a. 

Mahrattas,    2221b. 

Maia,  2872b. 

Maidenhair,    2222a. 

Maid  of  Orleans,  1897a. 

Mail      Matter,      Classification, 

2921a. 
Maiming,  2222a. 
Main,  2222a. 
Maine,  2222b. 
Maine,   The,    1003b,   3375a. 
Maine,   University   of,   2227b. 
Main  Question,  2748b. 
Maintenon,  Madame  de,  2171b, 

2227b. 
Mainz,  Germany,  2227b. 
Maize,  951a. 
Majesty,  2228a. 
Majolica,  2228a. 
Major  (military),  2228a. 
Majorca,  2228a. 
Major-General,  2228b. 
Makaw,  2228b. 
Malacca,  Strait  of,  2228b. 
Malachi,  2228b. 
Malachite,    943b,    2228b. 
Malaga,  2228b. 
Malagasy,  2209a. 
Malaria.    2229a. 
Malay  Archipelago,   2229a. 
Malay  Peninsula    2229b. 
Maiden,  Mass,  2^z9h. 
Maldive  Islands,  2229b. 
Malfeasance,  2230a. 
Malice,  2230a. 
Malines,  Belgium,  2230a. 
Malispena  Glacier,   1516b. 
Mall,   The,   3813a. 
Mallard   Duck,   1149b. 
Malleability,   2230a. 
Mallow,  2230a. 
Malmo,  Sweden,  2230b. 
Malory,  Thomas.   2230b. 
Malpractice,  2230b. 
Malt,   552b,  2230b. 
Malta,  Island  of,  2231a. 
Maltese  Cross,  994a. 
Malvern  Hill,  Battle  of,  2231a. 
Mamelukes,   1191a,  2231b. 
Mammals,  2231b. 
Mammoth,  2232a. 
Mammoth  Cave,  2232b. 
Mammoth  Hot  Springs,  3963b. 
Man,  2233a. 
Managua,   2233a. 
Manaos,   Brazil,   2233b. 
Manatee,  2233b. 
Manchester,  Eng.,  2233b. 
Manchester,  N.   H.,  2234b. 
Manchuria.  2234b. 
Manchus,  2234b. 
Mandalay,  India,  2235a. 
Mandamus,  3949b. 
Mandan,   2235a. 
Mandarin,  2235b. 
Mandeville,  John  de,   2235b. 
Mandingo,    2235b. 
Mandolin,  2235b. 
Mandrake,  2236a. 
Mandrill,  2236a. 
Manganese,   2236a. 
Manganese  Bronze,  570a. 
Mange,  2236a. 
Mango,  2236b. 
Mangrove,  2236b. 
Manhattan  Island,  N.  Y.,  2237a. 
Manheim,  Germany,  2237a. 
Mania,   1805b. 
Manila,  P.  I.,  2237a,  3614b. 
Manila  Bay,  Battle  of.  2238a. 
Manila  Hemp,  1668b,  2817a. 
Man  in  the  Moon,  266b. 
Manistee,  Mich.,  2238a. 
Manitoba,  2238b. 
Manitoba  Lake,  2241a. 


Manitou,  Colo.,  2241a. 
Manitoulin  Islands,  2241b. 
Manitowoc,  Wis.,  2241b. 
Mankato,  Minn.,  2241b. 
Mann,  Donald,  2242a. 
Mann,  Horace,  2242a. 
Manna,  2242b. 
Mannering,  Mary,  2242b. 
Manning,        Henry        Edward, 

2242b 
Man  of  War,  1418b. 
Mansard  Roof,  2243a. 
Mansfield,  Ohio,   2243a. 
Mansfield,  Richard.  2243a. 
Manslaughter,   2435b. 
Mantell,  Robert  Bruce,  2243b. 
Mantis,  2243b. 
Manual  Training,   2244a. 
Manuel  II,  704b,  2245b,  2918a. 
Manures,  2245b. 
Manuscripts,  2246a. 
Man   Without  a  Country,   The, 

1613b,  2246b. 
Manx,   1847b,   2246b. 
Manzanillo,  Cuba,  2247a. 
Maoris.  2247a,  2563b. 
Map,  1469b,  2247a. 
Maple,  2247b. 

Maple     Creek     Antelope     Re- 
serve, 2743a. 
Maple  Sugtr,  3463b. 
Maquari,    3428b. 
Maracaibo,  Lake,  2248a. 
Maracaibo,   Venezuela,    2248a. 
Marajo  Island,  2248a. 
Marat,  Jean  Paul,  2248a. 
Marathon,   1319b,  2248b. 
Marble,  594b,  2248b. 
Marble  Faun,  The,   1303a. 
Marbles,  2249a. 
March,  2249a. 
Marco  Bozzaris,  1616a. 
Marconi,       Guglielmo,       1823a, 

2250a. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  3104a. 
Marcy,  Mount,  25b. 
Marcy,        William        Learned, 

2250b. 
Mardi  Gras,  2250b,  3291a. 
Mare  Island,  2250b. 
Marengo,  Battle  of,  2250b. 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  1671a. 
Margaret  of  Valois,  1672b. 
Margins,  480b. 
Maria  Christina,  2251a. 
Marguerite,  517b. 
Jilaria  Louisa,  2251a,  2472a. 
Mariana  Islands,  2004a. 
Maria  Theresa,  2251a,  3459b. 
Maria  Theresa  Dollar,  10b. 
Maria  Adelaide,  2191b. 
Marie  Antoinette,  2251b. 
Marietta,  Ohio,  2252a. 
Marigold,   2252b. 
Marigold  Window,  3119a. 
Marine  Corps,  2252b. 
Marine  Disasters,   3286a. 
Marinette,  Wis.,  2253a. 
Marion,  Francis,  2253b. 
Marion,  Ind.,   2253b. 
Marion.  Ohio,  2253b. 
Mariotte's  Law,   535b. 
Marius,     Caius,     2254a,     3102a, 

3466b. 
Marjoram,   2254a. 
Mark,    2254a. 
Mark,  Saint,  2254b. 
Mark   Antony,    142a. 
Markham,  Edwin,  2254b. 
Markham,   William,   2813a. 
Marl.  2254b. 
Marlborough,    John    Churchill, 

2254b. 
Marlowe,  Christopher,  2255a. 
Marlowe,  Julia,  2255a,  3348a. 
Marmora,  Sea  of,  2255b. 
Marmoset,   2255b. 
Marmot,  2255b. 
Marne,  Battles  of,  3917b. 
Marne  River,  2256a. 


Marque   and  Reprisal,   Letters 

of,    2256a,    2944b. 
Marquesas  Islands,  2256b. 
Marquette,    Jacques,    2256b. 
Marquette,  Mich.,  2256b. 
Marquis,    2256b. 
Marriage,  2257a. 
Mars  (planet),  2257a. 
Mars    (mythology),    2258a. 
Marseillaise       Hymn,       2258a, 

3123b. 
Marseilles,  France,  2258b. 
Marsh,  2259a. 
Marshal,  2259a. 
Marshall,  John,  19a,  2259a. 
Marshall,  Tex.,  2259b. 
Marshall,  Thomas  Riley,  2259b. 
Marshalltown,  Iowa,   2260a. 
Marsh  Fever,  2229a. 
Marsh  Gas,   2311b. 
Marsh  Hawk,  2260a. 
Mars  Hill,  2260a. 
Marsh  Mallow,  2260a. 
Marsh  Trefoil,   585a. 
Marston  Moor,  2260a. 
Marsupials,   2260b. 
Martel,  Charles,  709a. 
Marten,  2260b. 
Martha    (opera),   1353a. 
Martha's  Vineyard,  2261a. 
Martial,        Marcus       Valerius, 

2261a. 
Martial  Law,  2261a. 
Martin,  2261a. 
Martinique        Island,        2261b, 

3621b. 
Martinsburg,  W.  Va.,  2261b. 
Martin's  Ferry,  Ohio,  2261b. 
Martyrs,  2261b. 
Marx,  Karl,  2262a. 
Mary,  The  Virgin,  2262b,  3093a. 
Mary  I,   2262a. 
Mary  II,  2262a. 
Maryland,  2262b. 
Mary  Magdalen,  1892b. 
Mary    Queen    of    Scots,    1214b, 

2266a. 
Mary  Stuart,  2266a. 
Masaryk,        Thomas,        1015b, 

2266b. 
Mascagni,  Pietro,   2267a. 
Masefield,  John,  2267a. 
Mash,   552b,   1082b. 
Mashonaland,  2267b. 
Mask,  2267b. 
Maskat,  2437a. 
Mason,  George,   2227a. 
Mason,    James    Murray,    2267b, 

3631b. 
Mason,  John,  2268a. 
Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,  2268a. 
Mason  Bee,  2268a. 
Mason  City,  Iowa,  2268a. 
Masonry  (secret  order),  2268b. 
Masonry    (in    industry),   2269a. 
Masque,  2269b. 
Mass,  2270a. 
Massachusetts,  2270a. 
Massachusetts  Bay,  2276b. 
Massachusetts      Bay      Colony, 

2277a,   3701b. 
Massachusetts       Institute       of 

Technology,  2277a. 
Massacre    of    Saint    Bartholo- 
mew,  348a. 
Massage,  2277b. 
Massa's     in     the     Cold,      Cold 

Ground,  1385b. 
Massasoit,   2277b. 
Massenet,  Jules  EmMe,  2277b. 
Massillon,  Ohio,  2277b. 
Massive,  Mount,  885b. 
Master's  Degree.   2278a. 
Mastersingers.   2278a. 
Mastication,  2278a. 
Mastiff.  1089b. 
Mastiff.   2278a. 
Mastodon,    2278b. 
Matabele,  2278b. 
Matador.    598b. 


The   letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column   1;  the  letter  1>.  ooluinn   -. 


Matanzas,  Cuba 


4028 


Matanzas,  Cuba,  2279a. 
Matches,  139b,  1823a,  2279a. 
Mate,   2279b. 
Mate  (officer),  2279b. 
Material,  Strength  of,  34.50a. 
Materialism,   2279b. 
Materia  Medica,  2280a. 
Mathematical    Geography, 

1461b. 
Mathematics,   2280a. 
Mather,  Cotton,   2281a,   3902b. 
Mather,    Increase,    2281a. 
Matrix,  3661b. 
Matter.   2281a. 
Matterhorn,  2281b. 
Matthew,  Saint,   2281b. 
Matthews,       James       Brander, 

2281b. 
Mattoon,  111.,  2282a. 
Maumee  River,  2282a. 
Mauna      Kea,       1643b,       2282a, 

3618a. 
Mauna  Loa,  1643b,  2282a,  3618a. 
Maupassant,    Henri    Rene    Al- 
bert Guy  de,  2282a. 
Mauretania,  3283a. 
Mauritius  Island,  2282b, 
Mausoleum,   2282b,   3592b. 
Mausolus,    2282b. 
Maxim  (family),  3282b. 
Maximilian,    2283a,   247'5b. 
Maximilian  of  Baden,   1502a. 
Maxwell,        William        Henry, 

2283a. 
May,   2283a. 
Maya,  2284a. 
May  Apple,  2236a,  2284a. 
May  Beetle,  1917a. 
May  Day,  2283b. 
Mayflower         (vessel),         553a, 
2284a,     2875b,     2876a,     3358a, 
3403a. 
May  Fly,  2284b. 
Mayhem,  2284b.  „„„^^ 

Mayo,    Charles    Horace,    2284b, 
Mayo,   Henry   T.,   3714b,    3884b. 
Mavo,  William  .Tames,  2284b. 
MaS'or,  2285a.  2434a. 
Maypop,  2754b. 
Mazarin,  Jules,   2285a. 
Mazeppa,     Ivan     Stefanovitch, 

2285b. 
Mazzini,   Giuseppe,   2285b. 
McAdoo,  William  Gibbs,  2196a, 

3001b. 
McAlester,  Okla.,  2196b. 
McBride,  Richard,  2198a. 
McClellan,      George      Brinton, 

2198b 
McCarthy,  Justin,  2198b. 
McClure,  Samuel  Sidney,  2199a. 
McCormack,  John,  2199a. 
McCormick.  C.  H..  1823a,  2199a. 
McCrae,  John,  2199a. 
McCutcheon,       George       Barr, 

21 99b. 
McCutcheon,       John       Tinney, 

2200a. 
McDonough,    Commodore, 

3805b. 
McGee,  Thomas  D'Arcy,  2201b. 
McGill  College  and  University, 

2202a. 
McKeesport,  Pa.,  2203b. 
McKinley,  Mount,  2205a. 
McKinley,       William,        2205b, 

2584a. 
McMaster,  John  Bach,  2208b. 
McMonnies,    Frederick,    2208b, 

3236a. 
Meade,  George  Gordon.  2286a. 
Meadow  Lark,  2060b,  2286b. 
Meadowsweet,  3386b. 
Meadville,  Pa.,   2286b. 
Mealy  Bug,  2286b. 
Measles,  784a.  2286b. 
Measures  and  Weights,   3843a, 
Measuring  Worm,  2287a. 
Meat,  1098a,  2287a. 
Meat  Packing,  2288a. 


Mecca,  Hedjaz,  2289b. 
Mechanical  Engineer,  1225b. 
Mechanical       Powers,       2289b, 

2290a 
Mechanics,  2289b. 
Mechanicsville,        Battle        of, 

2290a 
Mechlin,  Belgium,  2230a. 
Medial  Moraine,  2410a. 
Mecklenburg     Declaration     of 

Independence,  2290a. 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,    2290b. 
Medea,   2290b. 
Medford.   Ore.,   2290b. 
Medical  Schools,  2290b. 
Medici,  2291a. 
Medici,   Maria  de,   1672b. 
Medicine,  2291a. 
Medicine  Hat,  Alberta,  2292a. 
Medicine  Man,  3271a. 
Medieval  and  Modern  History, 

1694b. 
Medina,  Hedjaz,  2292a. 
Mediterranean  Sea,  2292b. 
Medulla        Oblongata,         541b, 

2292b. 
Medusa^  2293a,  2792a. 
Medusae,  2293a.  „„,„.,. 

Meerschaum,   2293a,  2857b. 
Megaphone,  2293a. 
Mehemet  Ali,  1191a. 
Mehemet  Shah,  2795b. 
Mehmet,  2375b. 
Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest, 

2293b. 
Meistersingers,  2278a. 
Mekong  River,  2293b. 
Melancholia,  1805b. 
Melanchthon,      Philip,      2293b, 

3040b. 
Melanesia,  2632a. 
Melba,  Nellie,  2293b. 
Melbourne,  Australia,  2294a. 
Melbourne,      William      Lamb, 

2294a. 
Melchio'r,  2217b. 
Melilot,  2294a. 
Melodeon,  2678a. 
Melodrama,  2294b. 
Melon,  2294b. 
Melon  Eaters.  The,  2707a. 
Melon  Tree,  2220b. 
Melos,  2294b. 
Melpomene,   2294b,    2438b. 
Melting  Point,  2294b. 
Membranes,  2295a. 
Memling,  Hans,  2295a,  2705a. 
Memnon,  2295a. 
Memorial  Day,  2295b. 
Memorizing,      Selections      for, 

2124a. 
Memory,  2295b. 
Memory,  2958b,  2962a. 
Memory  Poems,  2026a. 
Memory  Work,   2018a. 
Memphis,  Egypt,  2297a. 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  2297a. 
Memphremagog,  Lake,  2297b. 
Men,  Races  of,  2994a. 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Felix, 

2297b. 
Mendicant  Orders,  2297b. 
Mendoza,  Argentina,  2298a. 
Menelaus,   2298a,   2458a. 
Menelek  II,  10b. 
Menephtah,   1190b. 
Menhaden,  2298a. 
Meningitis,   2298a. 
Mennonites,  The,  2298b. 
Menominee,  Mich.,  2298b. 
Menominee  Indians,  2298b. 
Menstruum,  3343b. 
Mensuration,  2298b. 
Mental     Activity,     Phases     of, 

2958b 
Mental 'Attitudes,    1262a. 
Mental  Defectives,   1305b. 
Mental    Powers,    Development 

of  the,  2767a,  2959b. 
Mentor,   2303a. 


Meuse  River 

Mephistopheles,   2303a. 
Mercantile  Agency,  899a. 
Mercator's  Projection,   2247b. 
Mercerized  Cotton,  29a. 
Mercerizing,  2303b. 
Merchant  Marine,   2303b. 
Merchant  of  Venice,  2304b. 
Mercier,  Honore,  2304b. 
Mercury     (metal),    344a,    767b. 

2304b,  3563b. 
Mercury     (mythology),     2305a, 

2455b. 
Mercury  (planet),  2305a. 
Mercury,  Bicloride  of,  965b. 
Mercy,  Sisters  of,   2305b. 
Mer     de     Glace,     103a,     1516a, 

2305b. 
Meredith,  George,  2306a. 
Merganser,  2306a. 
Mergenthaler,   Ottmar,    2117a. 
Merida,  Mexico,  2306a. 
Meriden,  Conn.,  2306a. 
Meridian,  2306b. 
Meridian,  Miss,  2306b. 
Merimee,  Prosper,  2306b. 
Merlin,  2306b. 

Mermaid  and  Merman,   2307a. 
Merope,  2872b. 
Merovingians,  2307a. 
Merrimac  (ship),  838a. 
Merrimac  River,  2307a. 
Mersey  River,  2307a. 
Merthyr-Tydfil,    Wales,    2307a. 
Merv,  Oasis  of,  2307b. 
Mesa,  2307b. 
Mesa     Verde     National     Park, 

2742b. 
Mesmer,       Friedrich       Anton, 

2307b. 
Mesmerism,  2307b. 
Mesopotamia,  2308a. 
Mesozoic  Era,  2308a. 
Mesquite,  2308a. 
Messenia,  2308a. 
Messiah,  2308a. 
Messiah,  The,   1623b. 
Messina,   Sicily,   2308b. 
Messina,  Strait  of,  2308b. 
Messines,  Ridge,  3925a. 
Mestizos,     491a,     2319a,     2798a, 

3748b. 
Meta  (comet),  1982b. 
Metacarpals,  1623a. 
Metacarpus,  3318b. 
Metalloids,  2309b. 
Metallurgy,  2308b. 
Metals,  2309b. 
Metamorphic      Rocks,      1474b, 

2310a. 
Metamorphism,  2310a. 
Metamorphosis,  2310a. 
Metaphor,   1321a,   2310b. 
Metaphysics,  2310b. 
Metatarsus,   1368a,   3319a. 
Metaurus,  Battle- of,  1319b. 
Metempsychosis,  3608b. 
Meteor,  2310b. 
Meteorology,  2311a. 
Meter    (unit   measure),    ^311D, 

2315a. 
Meter  (verse),  2311b. 
Methane,  2311b. 
Methodist    Episcopal     Church, 

2312a,  3848b. 
Methodist    Protestant    Church. 

2312a 
Methodists.  2312a. 
Methods  of  Teaching.  2312b. 
Methyl   Alcohol,    3907a. 
Methylated   Spirit,    2314a. 
Metis.  2241a,  3200a. 
Metonymy,  2314b 
Metric  System,  2314b. 
Metronome,  2316a. 
Metropolitan    Museum    of   Art, 
2316b.  ^^  , 

Metternich,    Clemens    Wenzel, 

Metz,  Lorraine,  France,   2317a. 
Meuse  River,  2317a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicate.s  column  1;  the  letter  1).  column   2. 


Meyerbeer,  Giacoma 


4029 


Meyerbeer,    Giacoma,    2S17a. 
Mexican      War,      The,      2317b, 

3709b. 
Mexico,  2319a. 
Mexico,  Gulf  of.  2323b. 
Mexico  City,  2323b. 
Mezzo-Rilievo,  1219b,  2324a. 
Mezzotint,  2324a. 
Miami,  Fla.,  2324a. 
Mica,  2324a. 
Mica  Schist,  2324b. 
Michael,  Saint,  2324b. 
Michaelmas,    2324b. 
Michelangelo       Buonarroti, 

2324b,  2704b. 
Michelet,  Jules,  2325a. 
Michelson,      Albert     Abraham, 

2325b,  2577b. 
Michig-an,  2325b. 
Michigan,  Lake,  2331a. 
Michigan,  University  of,  2331b. 
Michigan  City,  Ind.,  2331b. 
Microbe,   314a. 
Microcline,  1307b. 
Micrococcus,  314a. 
Micrometer,  2332a. 
Micronesia,  2332a,  2632a. 
Microscope,  2332a. 
Midas,  2332a. 
Middle  Ages,  2333a. 
Middletown,  Conn.,  2333a. 
Middletown,  N.  Y.,  2333a. 
Middletown,  Ohio,  2333b. 
Middlings,   3859a. 
Midianites,  2333b. 
Midland,  Ont.,  2333b. 
Midrash,  1660b. 
Midshipman,  2333b. 
Midsummer      Night's      Dream, 

2333b. 
Mignonette,  2333b. 
Migration  of  Animals.  2334a. 
Migration  of  Birds,  456b,  457a, 

457b. 
Mikado   (title),  1877a.  2334b. 
Mikado,  The,   1511a,  3467a. 
Milan,  Italy,  2334b. 
Milan  Decree,  2335b. 
Mildews,  2335b. 
Mile,  2335b. 

Miles,  Nelson  Appleton,  2336a. 
Miles  City,  Mont.,  2336a. 
Miletus,  2336a. 
Military       Academy,       United 

States,  2336a. 
Military  Insignia,  1810b. 
Military  Schools.  2337a. 
Military      Training     in      High 

Schools       is       Desirable 

(theme),   3560b. 
Militia,  224a,  2477b. 
Milk,  2337a,  2491a. 
Milk,  Condensed,  2339a. 
Milking  Machine,  2339b. 
Milk  Snake.  2339b. 
Milkweed,  2339b. 
Milky  Way,  2340a. 
Mill,  James,  2340a. 
Mill,  John  Stuart.  2340a,  3729a. 
Millais,    John    Everett,    2340b. 
Millboard,  703a. 
Millenium,  2340b. 
Miller,       (jincinnatus       Heine, 

2340b. 
Miller,  William,  29a. 
Miller's  Thumb,  3229a. 
Millet,   2341a. 
Millet,    Jean    Francois,    2341a, 

2707b. 
Mill  on  the  Floss,  1213b. 
Millville,  N.  J.,  2341b. 
Milner,  Alfred,  2341b. 
Milo,  2294b. 
Milreis,  2341b. 
Miltiades,  2342a. 
Milton,  John,  2342a. 
Milwaukee.  Wis.,  2343a. 
Milyukof,  Paul,  3145a. 
Mimeograph.  944b. 
Mimicry,  2951a. 


Mina  Bird,  1544a. 

Minaret,  2344a. 

Minas  Bay,  2344a,  3505a. 

Mind,  2344a. 

Mindanao,  2815b. 

Mind    and   Body,    Relation    of, 

2767a. 
Mind  Reading,  2344b. 
Mineral  Pitch,  463a. 
Minerals       and       Mineralogy, 

2344b. 
Mineral  Springs,  3391b. 
Mineral  Waters,  2345a. 
Minerva,     2345b. 
Mine  Sweeping,  3457a. 
Minimum  Wage,  2345b. 
Mining,  2346a. 
Minister    Plenipotentiary, 

1245a. 
Minister  Resident,   2347a. 
Ministry,  1560a,  2347a. 
Mink,  2347a. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  2347a. 
Minnehaha,  2349a. 
Minnesingers.  2349a. 
Minnesota,  2349a. 
Minnesota,        University        of, 

2354b. 
Minnesota  River,  2355a. 
Minnow,  2355a. 
Minor,   2355a. 
Minorca  Island,  2355b. 
Minor  Coins,  2385a. 
Minor  Prophets,  The,  2355b. 
Minos,   2355b. 
Minotaur,   2355b,   3565a. 
Minsk,  Russia,  2355b. 
Minstrel,  2355b. 
Mint,  2356a. 
Mint  (plant),  2356b. 
Minto,    Gilbert    John    Murray, 

2356b. 
Minuet,  1025a,  2356b. 
Minuit,  Peter,  2357b,  2560a. 
Minute.  2357a. 
INIinutemen,  2357a. 
Miocene  Period,  2357a. 
Mirabeau,  Gabriel  Honore  Ri- 

quetti,  2357a. 
Miracle,  2357b. 
Miracle  Play,  2357b. 
Mirage,  1468b,  2357b. 
Miramichi  River,  2358a. 
Mirror,  2358a. 
Misdemeanor,  2359a. 
Misery,  Mount.  3620b. 
Misfeasance,   2230a. 
IMishawaka,  Ind.,  2359a. 
Mishna,  1660b,  3508a. 
Missal,  2359a. 
Missions      and      Missionaries, 

2359a. 
Mississippi,  2360a. 
Mississippi,       University       of, 

2364a. 
Mississippi  River,  2364a. 
IMississippi  Scheme,  2365b. 
aiissoula,  Mont.,  2365b. 
INIissouri,  2366a. 
Missouri,  University  of,  2371a. 
Missouri  Compromise,  2371a. 
Missouri  Indians,  2371a. 
Missouri-Mississippi       System, 

2365b. 
Missouri  River,  2371b. 
Mist,  1366a. 
Mistletoe,   520b.   2371b. 
Mitchell,  Donald  Grant,  2372a. 
Mitchell,  John,  2372a. 
Mitchell,     Silas     Weir,     2372b. 
Mitchell,  S.  D.,  2372b. 
Mites,  2372b. 
Mithridates.  2373a. 
Mittel  Europa,  3919b. 
Mizpah,   2372a. 
Moabites,  2373b. 
Moabite  Stone.  2373b. 
Moberly,  Mo.,  2373b. 
Mobile,  Ala.,  2373b. 
Mobile  Bay,  Battle  of,  2374a. 


Montana 

Mobile  River,  2374b. 
Moccasin  Flower,  2004b. 
Moccasin  Snake,   2374b. 
Mocking  Bird,    2374b. 
Modjeska,  Helena,  2374b. 
Modoc,  2375a. 
Mogul,  2375a. 
Mohair,  2375a. 
Mohammed,  155b,  2375a. 
Mohammed  Ali,  2796a. 
Mohammed  II,  622b. 
Mohammed  V,  2375b,  3653a. 
Mohammed  VI,  3653b. 
Mohammedan         Architecture. 

2375b. 
Mohammedanism,   2376a. 
Mohave  Indians,   2376b. 
Mohawk  Indians,  2378a. 
Mohawk  River,  2378a. 
Mohegan  Indians,  2378a. 
Mohican  Indians,  2378a. 
Moki  Indians,  1717b. 
Molars,  3527a. 
Molasses.   2378a. 
Mold,  2378b. 
Moldings,  2378b. 
Mole,  2378b. 
Mole  Cricket,  2379a. 
Molecular  Forces,  2379b. 
Molecular  Weights,   2379b. 
Molecule,  2379a. 
Moliere,      Baptists      Poquelin, 

2379b. 
Moline,  111.,  2380a. 
Mollusca,  2380a. 
Molokai,    2380b. 
Molting,  1303b,  2380b. 
Moltke   (family),  2381a. 
Moluccas,  The,  2381b. 
Momentum,   2381b. 
Mommsen.  Theodor,  2381b. 
Momus,  2382a. 
Monachism,  2382b. 
Monaco,  Principality  of,  2382a. 
Mona  Lisa,  2704a,  3774a. 
Monarchy,  1542a.  2382a. 
Monasticism,  2382b. 
Monastir,  Serbia.  2383b. 
Monck,  Charles  Stanley,  2383b. 
Monck,   George.   2388a. 
Moneywort,  2194b. 
Moncton,  N.  B.,  2383b. 
Monday,  2383b. 
Money,  2384a. 
Money,  in  Canada,  2386a. 
Money  Order,  2386b. 
Mongolia,  2387a. 
Mongols,   2387a,  2994b. 
Mongoose,  1757a,  2387b. 
Monitor  (animal),  2387b. 
Monitor    and    Merrimac,    838a, 

23S8a 
Monk,   2382b. 
Monk,  George,  2388a. 
Monkey,  2388b. 
Monk's-hood,  14b. 
Monmouth,  Battle  of,  2389a. 
Monmouth,   111.,   2389a. 
Monmouth,  James,  2389a. 
Monobasic  Acid,  14a. 
Monocotyledons,      517a,      518b, 

972b. 
Monogamy,  2257a. 
Monomania,  2389b. 
IMonongahela  River,  2389b. 
Monoplane,  1363a. 
Monopoly,    2389b. 
Monorail,  Suspended,  2390a. 
Monotheism,   2390a. 
Monotype,  2390a. 
Monroe  Doctrine,  2395a. 
Monroe,   James,  2390b. 
Monroe.  La.,  2394b. 
Monrovia,  Liberia,  2395b. 
Monsoon,  2396a. 
Monsoon  Current,  2630b. 
Monstrosity,  2396a. 
Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de, 

2396a. 
Montana.  2396b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column   1;   the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Montana,  University  of 


4030 


Nandu 


Montana,  University  of,  2400a. 

Mont  Blanc,  2400a. 

Montcalm       de       Saint-Veran, 
Louis  Joseph,  2400a. 

Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  736b. 

Monte  Carlo,  2382a. 

Monte  Cristo,  2400b. 

Montenegro,  2400b. 

Monterey,  Battle  of,   2401a. 

Monterey,  Mex.,  2401a. 

Monte  Rosa,  2401a. 

Montessori,  Maria,  2401a. 

Montessori  Method,  2401b. 

Montevideo,  Urugay.  2403b. 

Montezuma,  967a,  2403b. 

Montfort,  Simon  de.  2404a. 

Montgomery,   Ala.,   2404a. 

Month.  2404b. 

Monticello,    1885a,    2404b. 

Montmorency,   Falls  of,   2986a. 

Montpelier,  Vt.,  2405a. 

Montreal,   Que.,   2405a. 

Moody,   Dwight  Lyman,  2406b. 

Moon,  266b,  2407a. 

Moon      and      Morning      Stars 
(game),  1440a. 

Moonflower,  2408a. 

Moonshiners,  2408a. 

Moonstone,   461a,   1307b,   2408b, 

Moore,  John,  2408b. 

Moore,  Thomas,  2408b. 

Moors,  2409a,  2917a. 

Moose.  2409a. 

Moosehead  Lake,  2409b. 

Moose  Jaw,  Sask.,  2409b. 

Moraine,  1516a,  2410a. 

Moral  Acts,  1259b. 

Morality  Plays,  1115a,  2410a. 

Morals  Court,  2410a. 

Moral  Standards,  1261b. 

Moral  Training,  1258a. 

Moratorium,  2410b. 

Moravia,  2410b. 

Moravian  Brethren,  2410b. 

Mordants,  1158b,  2411a. 

Mordecai,  424a. 

More,  Thomas,  2411a. 

Morelia,  Mexico,  2411b. 

Morgan,  Daniel,  2411b. 

Morgan,  Henry,  2411b. 

Morgan,  John  Pierpont,  2412a. 

Morgantic  Marriage,   2257a. 

Morgantovi^n,  W.  Va.,  2412b. 

Morley,  John,  2412b. 

Mormons.  2413a,  3327b. 

Mormon  Temple,  3177b. 

Morning-Glory,   2414a. 

Morocco      (capital     of     sulta- 
nate), 2414b. 

Morocco  (leather),  2415a. 

Morocco   (sultanate),  2414a. 

Morpheus,   2415a. 

Morphine,  139b,  2415a. 

Morphology,   2415b. 

Morrill,  Justin  Smith,  2415b. 

Morris,  Arthur  J.,  2416b. 

Morris,     Gouverneur     (states- 
man), 24l5b. 

Morris,    Gouverneur    (writer), 
2416a. 

Morris,  Robert,  2416a. 

Morris,  William,  2416a. 

Morris  Plan  Banks,   2416b. 

Morristown,  N.  J.,  2416b. 

Morse,    Samuel   Finley   Breese, 
1823a,  2417a,  3530b. 

Mortality,  Law  of,  2417b. 

Mortar,  2417b. 

Mortar   (weapon),  2417b. 

Morte  D'Arthur,  2418a. 

Mortgage,  2418a. 

Mortgage   Bonds,   497b. 

Morton,  Julius  Sterling,  2419a, 
2498b. 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons,  2419b. 

Morton,        William       Thomas, 

2419b. 
Mosaic,  2419b,  3582b. 
Moscow,  Idaho,  2420a. 
Moscow,  Russia,  2420a. 


Moselle  River,  2421a. 

>Moses,  410a,  2421a. 

IMosi-oa-tuni,  3770a. 

JMosque,  2421a. 

Mosque  of  Omar,  1889a,  3537b. 

Mosquito,  2421a. 

Mosquito  Territory,  2422b. 

Mossbunker,  2298a. 

Mosses,  2422b. 

Mosses    from    an    Old    Manse, 

1647a. 
Moszkowski,  Moritz,  2423a. 
Moth,  2423a. 
Mother       Carey's       Chickens, 

2804b. 
Mother  Goose,  2018a,  2423b. 
Mother-of-Pearl,    2424a,   2764b. 
Mother  of  Presidents,  3776b. 
Mother's  Day,  2424a. 
Mother  Shipton,  2424a. 
Mother's  Pensions,  2424b. 
Motion,  Laws  of,  1159a. 
Motions,    Classification,    2748b. 
Motley,   John   Lothrop,   2424b. 
Motor  Boat,  2424b. 
Motorcycle,  2425a. 
Motor  Nerves,   2508b. 
Mott,    Lucretia    Coffin,    2425b, 

3905b. 
Moukden,  2431a. 
Moultrie,  William,  2425b. 
Mound  Bird,  2425b. 
Mound  Builders,  2426a. 
Mountain,  1468a,   2426b. 
Mountain  Ash,  2427a. 
Mountain  Crabs,   2011b. 
Mountain  Laurel,  1923b. 
Mountain-leather,  239b. 
Mountain  Lion,  2969a. 
Mountain-wood,    239b. 
Mount  Carmel,  Pa.,  2427a. 
Mount  Desert  Island,  2427a. 
Mount       McKinley       National 

Park,  2742b. 
Mount  of  Olives,  2654b. 
Mount  Rainier  National  Park, 

2742b. 
Mounts   (palmistry),  2716a. 
Mount  Stephen,  Lord,  2427a. 
Mount  Vernon,  111.,  2427b. 
Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y.,   2427b. 
Mount  Vernon,  Ohio,  2428a. 
Mount  Vernon,  Va.,  2427b. 
Mourning,  2428a. 
Mourning  Dove,  2851b. 
Mouse,  2428a. 
Mouth,  The,  2428a. 
Moving  Pictures,  2428b. 
Moving  Picture  Theatre,  3557a. 
Mozambique,  2918b. 
Mozambique  Channel,  2430a. 
IMozambique  Current,  2630a. 
Mozart,   Johann,   2430a. 
Mucilage,  2430b. 
Mucus,  2430b. 
Mud  Hen,  941b. 
Mud  Turtle,  3655b. 
Muezzin,  2430b. 
Mugwump,  2430b. 
Muir,  John,  2430b. 
Muir  Glacier,  2431a. 
Mukden,  Battle  of,  3146b. 
Mukden,  Manchuria,  2431a. 
Mulatto,  2431b,  2977a. 
Mulberry,  2431b,  3303b. 
Mule,   253a,   2432a. 
Mule  Killer,  3797b. 
Mullein,  2432a. 

Mullens,  Priscilla,  976b,  2432a. 
Muller,    Friedrich   Max,    2432a. 
Mullet,  2432b. 
Multigraph,  945a. 
Multiples,  Game  of,  186b. 
Multiplex  Telegraph,  3530a. 
Mummy,  2432b. 
Mumps,  785a,  1519a,  2433a, 
Muncie,  Ind.,  2433a. 
Mundelein,  George  W.,  2433a. 
Mungoose,   2387b. 
Munich,  Germany,  2433b. 


Municipal  Government,  2433b. 
Municipal     Ownership,     2434b. 
Munkacsy,  Mihaly,  2434b. 
Munroe,   Kirk,   2434b. 
Munsee  Indians,  2435a. 
Munsey,  Frank  Andrew,  2435a. 
Murat,  Joachim,  2435a. 
Muratore,  Lucien,  2435b. 
Murcia,  Spain,   2435b. 
Murder,  2435b. 

Murfree,  Mary  Noailles,  2436a. 
Murfreesboro,  Battle  of,  2436a. 
Muriatic  Acid,  1745b. 
Murillo,     Bartolome     Esteban, 

2436a. 
Murray,  Lindley,  2436b. 
Murray  Canal,  679a. 
Murray     River,      289a,      2436b, 

3358a,  3769a. 
Murrumbidgee   River,    2437a. 
Muscat,  Oman,  2437a. 
Muscatine,  Iowa,  2437a. 
Muscle,  2437a,  2842a. 
Muscle  Reading,   2344b. 
Muscular  Sense,  2437a,  2438a. 
Muscular  Tissue,  2437a. 
Muses,  2438a. 
Museum,  2438b. 
Mushrooms,  520b,  2439a. 
Music,  2439b. 
Musical  Drama,  2664a. 
Musk,  2443b. 
Muskegon,  Mich.,  2443b. 
Muskellunge,    2443b. 
Muskhogean  Indians,  2443b. 
Muskmelon,  2444a. 
Muskogee,  Okla.,  2444a. 
Muskoka  Lake,   2444a. 
Musk  Ox,   2444b. 
Muskrat,  2444b. 
Muslin,   2445a. 
Mussel,  2445a. 
Musset,  Alfred  de,  2445a. 
Must,  3892b. 
Mustard,  2445b. 
Mustard  Family,  2445a. 
Mustard  Gas,  2881b. 
Mutiny,  2445b. 
Mutiny  Act,  2445b. 
Mutsuhito,  2446a. 
Mutton,  2446a. 
Muzaffar-ed-Din,    2795b. 
Mycenae,  2446a. 
Myopia,  2446b. 
Myriapoda,  2446b. 
Myron,  1079b. 
Myrrh,  2446b. 
Myrtle,   2446b. 
Mysore,  India,  2447a. 
Mysteries,   2447a. 
Mystery,  2447a. 
Mystery      of      Edwin      Drood, 

1072b. 
Mystery  Plays,  1115a. 
Mysticism,  2447b.' 
Mythology,    1478a,    2447b. 
My  Thought  (game),  1442a. 
Myxothallophytes,  516b. 


N 


N,  2466a. 
Naaman,  420a. 
Nabopolassar,  257a,  310b. 
Nacre,  2424a,  2764b. 
Nadir,  2466a. 
Nagana,   3642a. 
Nagasaki,   Japan,   2466a. 
Nagoya,  Japan,  2466a. 
Naiads,  2466b,  2625b. 
Nails    (metal),   2466b. 
Nails  (of  animals),  2466b. 
Naismith.  James,  356a. 
Names,   Personal,    2467a. 
Namur,  Belgium,  2467b. 
Nanaimo,  B.  C,   2468a. 
Nana  Sahib,   1784a,  2468a. 
Nancy,  France,  2468a. 
Nandu,  3058b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Nanking,  China 


4031 


Nigeria 


Nanking.  China.  2468a. 

Nansen,   Fridtjof,   2468b. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  2469a. 

Nantes,  France,   2469a. 

Nanticolve,  Pa.,  2469b. 

Nantucket  Island,  2469b. 

Naomi,  414a. 

Naples,  Bay  of,  2470a. 

Naples,  Italy,  2469b. 

Naples,  University  of,  2470a. 

Napoleon  I,  2470b,  3161b. 

Napoleon  11,  3043b. 

Napoleon  III,  2473a. 

Naptha.    2473b. 

Narcissus    (mytholog-y),   2474a. 

Narcissus  (plant),  2474a. 

Narcotic,   2474b. 

Nard.  3385a. 

Narrapransett  Bay,  2474b. 

Narragansett  Indians.  2474b. 

Narvaez,  Panfilo  de,  2474b. 

Narwhal,  2474b. 

Naseby,   Battle  of,    2475a. 

Nashua.   N.   H.,   2475a. 

Nashville,  Battle  of.  2475a. 

Nashville,  Tenn,   2475b. 

Nasmyth,  James,   2476a,   3415b. 

Nasmvth  Hammer,  3415b. 

Nast,  Thomas.  2476a. 

Nasturtium,   2476a. 

Natal,  2470b. 

Natchez.  Miss..  2476b. 

Natick,  Mass,  2477a. 

National   Academy    of   Design, 
2477a. 

National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
2477a. 

National  Bank,  334a. 

National  Bank  Notes.  2386a. 

National       Civic       Federation, 
2477a. 

National  Congress  of  Mothers, 
2734b. 

National  Debt,   2477b. 

National     Education     Associa- 
tion, 1183a. 

National  Flowers,  1355b. 

National  Guard,  2477b. 

National  Hymns,   1749b. 

Nationalists,   2886b. 

National   Museum   of   the  Uni- 
ted States,  2478b. 

National      Republican      Party, 
2890a. 

National  Road,  1007b. 

National  Roads,  3083a. 

National    Transcontinental 
Railway,  3003a. 

National       Zoological       Park, 
3814a. 

Nations,  Law  of,  1820b. 

Nations,  League  of,  2478b. 

Nations,  Naming  the,   1243a. 

Native   Bear,   1992a. 

Nat        Turner        Insurrection, 
3654b. 

Natural   (music),  2484a. 

Natural    Bridge,    2484a. 

Natural   Gas.    1452b,    3678a. 

Natural  History.  2484a. 

Naturalism.   2484a. 

Naturalization,    2484b. 

Naturalization    (botany),    12a. 

Natural  ]Monopoly,   2390a. 

Natural   Selection,    24S.")b. 

Natural  Theology,  2485b. 

Nature  Study,  2486a. 

Nature  Worship,  2492a. 

Nausea,  2492b. 

Nautical  Almanac  and  Ameri- 
can Ephemeris,  100b. 

Nautilus,  2492b. 

Navaho  Indians,   2492b. 

Naval  Academy,  United  States, 
2492b. 

Naval  Arsenals,  232b. 

Naval  Cadet,  2333b. 

Naval  Militia,  2493b. 

Naval  Observatory,   2493b. 


Naval  Reserve,  2494a. 

Naval  Training  Station.  Great 

Lakes,  2494a. 
Naval  Uniforms,  3668a. 
Navarre,  2494b. 
Nave,  2494b. 
Navigation,  2494b. 
Navigation  Acts,  2495a. 
Navy,   2495b. 
Navy,      Department      of      the, 

2497b. 
Navy  Yards,  232b,  1088a. 
Nazarenes,    2497b. 
Nazareth,    2497b. 
Nazimova,  Alia,  2497b. 
Nebo,  Mount.  2498a. 
Nebraska,  2498a. 
Nebraska,  University  of,  2502a. 
Nebuchadnezzar,      310a,      421a, 

2502a. 
Nebula,  2502a. 
Nebular      Hypothesis,       1167b, 

1477a,  2502a. 
Necker.  Jacques,  2502b. 
Necromancy.  2502b. 
Necropolis.  2503a. 
Nectar,  2503a 
Nectarine.   2503a. 
Needle,  2503a. 
Negaunee,  Mich.,  2503b. 
Negligence,  2503b. 
Negotiable  Paper,  2503b. 
Negritos,  2504a. 
Negro,  2504a.  2994b. 
Negus,  10b,  2504b. 
Nehemiah,  2504b. 
Neighborhood  Center,  902b. 
Nelson,  B.  C,  2504b. 
Nelson,  Horatio.  2504b,  3621a. 
Nelson  River.  2505a. 
Nelumbo,  2505a. 
Nemean  Games,  2505b. 
Nemesis,  2505b. 
Neocene  Epoch,  2505b. 
Nepal,  Kingdom  of,   2505b. 
Nephrite.  1867a,  2506a. 
Nephritis.  2506a. 
Nepigon  Lake,  2575b. 
Nepissing  Lake,  2575b. 
Nepos,  Cornelius,  2506a. 
Neptune  (mythology),  2506a. 
Neptune  (planet),  2506b. 
Nereids,  2506b,  2625b. 
Nereus,   2506b. 
Nernst  Lamp,  1203b. 
Nero,  2507a. 
Nerva,  2507a. 
Nerves.  2507a. 
Nervous  Diseases,  2508a. 
Nervous  System,  2508a. 
Nest,  2511a. 
Nestor,  2458a,  2512a. 
Net.  2512a. 

Netherlands,  The,  2512b. 
Nettle,  2517a. 
Nettle  Tree,  2517a. 
Neuchatel,  Lake  of.  2517a. 
Neuchatel,  Switzerland,   2517a. 
Neuralgia,  2507b,  2517b. 
Neurasthenia,  2517b. 
Neuritis,  2518a. 
Neurones,  2507b,  2963a. 
Neuroptera,  2518a. 
Neurosis,  2518a. 
Neurotic,  2518a. 
Neutrality,  2518a. 
Neva.  2518b. 
Nevada,  2519a. 
Nevada        State        University, 

2521b. 
Nevin,   Ethelbert,   2521b. 
New  Albany,  Ind.,  2521b. 
Newark,  N.  J.,  2522a. 
Newark,  Ohio,   2522b. 
New  Bedford.  Mass.,  2522b. 
Newbern,  N.  C,  2523a. 
New  Britain.  Conn..  2523a. 
New  Brunswick,  2523a. 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  2525b. 


Newburgh,  N.  Y..  2526a. 
Newburyport,   Mass.,   2526a. 
New  Caledonia,  2526b. 
Newcastle,  Ind.,  2526b. 
Newcastle,  New  South  Wales, 

2526b. 
Newcastle,  Pa.,   2526b. 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,        Eng- 
land, 2527a. 
Newcomb,  Simon.  2527a. 
New    England    Confederation, 

2527b. 
Newfoundland,     Dominion     of, 

2527b. 
Newfoundland  Dog,  2528b. 
New  Glasgow,  N.  S.,  2529a. 
New  Guinea,  2529a. 
New  Hampshire.  2529b. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  2533a. 
New  Hebrides,  2533b. 
New  Jersey,  2534a. 
New  London,  Conn.,  2537b. 
Newman,    John    Henry,    2537b. 

2694b. 
New  Mexico,  2538a. 
New     Mexico,     University     of, 

2542a. 
New  Moon,  2407b. 
New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  2543b. 
New   Orleans,    La..    2542a. 
Newport,  Ky..  2544a. 
Newport,  R.  L,  2544b. 
Newport  News.  Va.,  2544b. 
New  Red  Sandstone,  2545a. 
New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  2545a. 
New  South  Wales,  2545a. 
Newspaper,  2546b. 
Newspaper  Press,  2943a. 
Newt,  2547b. 
New  Thought,  2547b. 
Newton,  Isaac.   2547b. 
New  Westminster,  B.  C,  2548a. 
New  Year's  Day,  1871b,  2548a. 
New  York  (city),  2555a. 
New  York  (state),  2548b. 
New  York,  College  of  the  City 

of,  2561a. 
New    York,    University   of    the 

State  of.  2552a. 
New  York   State  Barge  Canal, 

1251a,  2561b. 
New  York  University,  2562a. 
New     Zealand,     Dominion     of, 

2562b. 
Ney,  Michel.  2564b. 
Nez  Perce.  2565a. 
Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  2565a. 
Niagara  Falls,  Ont.,  2565b. 
Niagara      Falls      and       River, 

2565b. 
Niagara      Suspension      Bridge, 

3090b. 
Nibelungenlied,  2567a. 
Nicaragua,  2567b. 
Nicaragua,  Lake,  2568a. 
Nicaragua  Canal,   2568b. 
Nice,  Councils  ot,  2569a. 
Nice,  France.  2569a. 
Nicene  Creed.  984b,  2569a. 
Nicholas  (Serbia),  2400b. 
Nicholas.  Saint,   2570a. 
Nicholas  I,  3143a. 
Nicholas  I  Pavlovitch,  2569a. 
Nicholas      II,       2569b,       3095a, 

3143a. 
Nicholas  Nickleby,  1072a. 
Nicholson.  Meredith,   2570a. 
Nicias,  2570b. 
Nickel,  2570b. 
Nickel  Silver,  1492a,  2570b. 
Nicobar  Islands,  2570b. 
Nicolet.  Jean,  3900a. 
Nicotine,  139b.  2571a,  3587b. 
Nielson,    Alice,    2571a. 
Niemen  River  ,  2571a. 
Nietzsche,  Frederick,  2571a. 
Niflheim,  2571b. 
Niger  River,  2571b. 
Nigeria,  2572a. 


The   letter   a,   after   a   uuniber,   indieate.«i   euluiiin    I;   the   letter   b,   column   2, 


Nigger-toe 

Nigger-toe,  547b. 
Night.  1466a. 

Night-blooming  Cereus,  741a. 
Night  Hawlc,  2572a. 
Night  Heron,  2572a. 
Nightingale,  2572b. 
Nightingale,  Florence,  2572b. 
Nightjar,  1527a. 
Nightmare,  2573a. 
Night  School,  1280a. 
Nightshade,  2573a. 
Nightshade  Family,  523a. 
Night  Watch,  The,  3046b. 
Nihilists,  2573a. 
Nijni-Novgorod,  Russia,  2577a. 
Nikalgen,  123b. 
Nike      Apteros,      Temple      of, 

2573b. 
Nike     of     Samothrace,     3233a, 

3893a. 
Nile,  2573b. 

Nilsson,  Christine,  2574b. 
Nimbus,  2574b. 
Nimes,  France,  2574b. 
Nimrod,  2575a. 
Nine  Days'  Queen,  1584b. 
Nineveh,  2575a. 
Ning-po,  China,  2575a. 
Niobe,  2575a. 

Niobe  and  Her  Children,  3233a. 
Nipigon,  Lake,  2575b. 
Nipissing,  Lake,  2575b. 
Nippon,  2575b. 
Nirvana,  588b. 
Nisan,  2575b. 
Nish,  Serbia,  2575b. 
Nismes,  France,  2574b. 
Nitrate  of  Silver,   3308b. 
Nitrates,  2576a. 
Nitre,  3178b. 
Nitric  Acid,  2576a. 
Nitrogen,  2576b. 
Nitroglycerine,  2576b. 
Nitrous  Oxide,  1059b. 
Nix,  2577a. 
Nixies,  1294a. 
Nizam's  Dominions,  1743b. 
Nizhni-Novgorod,        Russia, 

2577a. 
Noah,  2577a. 

Nobel,  Alfred  Bernard,  2577b. 
Nobel  Prizes,  2577b. 
Nobility,  2577b. 
Noble  Metal,  767b. 
Nocturne,   2578a. 
Node,   2578a. 
Nogi,  Ki-teu,  2578a. 
Nomad  Life,  2578b. 
Nome,  Alaska,  2578b. 
Nomen,  2467a. 

Noncommissioned  Officers, 
227b,  2578b. 

Nonconductors,  1201b. 

Nonconformists,  2579a. 

Nones,  2579a. 

Non-Intercourse  Act,  1218b. 

Non-Metals,  2309b. 

Non-Moral  Acts,  1260a. 

Nonnezoshi  Bridge,  3726a. 

Non-Partisan  League,  2579a. 

Nonsense  Verses,  2022a. 

Nordau,  Max  Simon,  2579a. 

Nordenskjold,       Nils       Adolph 
Erik,  2579b. 

Nordica,  Lillian,  2579b. 

Norfolk,  Va.,  2579b. 

Noria,  2796b. 

Normal  School,  2580a. 

Norman  Architecture,  2580b. 

Norman  Conquest,  3875b. 

Normandy,  2581a. 

Normans,  2581a. 

Norns,  2581a. 

Norristown,  Pa.,  2581b. 

Norsemen,  2603a. 

Norse  Mythology,  2463a. 

North,  Christopher.  2581b. 

North,  Frederick,   2581b. 

North  Adams,  Mass.,  2581b. 


4032 

North  America,  1479b,  2582a. 
Northampton,  Mass.,  2593a. 
North  Bay,  Ont.,  2593a. 
North  Cape,  2593b. 
North  Carolina,  2593b. 
North  Carolina,  University  of, 

2598a. 
North     Carolina     College     of 
Agriculture    and    Engineer- 
ing, 2598a. 
Northcliffe,  Lord,  2598a. 
North  Dakota,  2598b. 
North    Dakota,    University    of, 

2601b. 
Northeast  Passage,  2605b. 
Norther,   2601b. 
Northern  Lights,  287a,   1468b. 
Northern  Territory,  2601b. 
North   German   Confederation, 

2603a. 
North  Island,  N.  Z.,  2563a. 
Northmen,  2603a. 
North        Polar        Exploration, 

2603b. 
Northrop,  Cyrus,  2606b. 
North  Sea,  2606b. 
North  S.ar,  2607a,  2885b. 
North  Tonawanda,  N.  Y.,  2607a. 
Northwest  Boundary,  2607a. 
Northwestern     Provinces    and 

Oudh,  3671a. 
Northwestern    University, 

2607a. 
Northwest       Passage,       2605b, 

2607b.  3119b. 
Northwest  Territories,   2607b. 
Northwest  Territory,  2608a. 
Norton,  Charles  Eliot,  2608a. 
Norton,  Lillian,  2579b. 
Norway,  2608b. 
Norwich,  Conn.,  2612a. 
Norwich,  Eng.,  2612b. 
Norwood,   Ohio,   2612b. 
Nose,  2612b. 
Notary  Public,  2613a. 
Notation,  175b. 
Notation    (music),  2441a. 
Note,  Promissory,  2948b. 
Notre     Dame,      Cathedral      of, 

2613a. 
Notre     Dame,     University     of, 

2613a. 
Nottingham,  Eng.,   2613b. 
Notus,  31a. 

Noun,  2048b,  2053a,  2613b. 
Novaculite,   1714a,  2613b. 
Nova  Scotia,  2614a. 
Nova  Zembla,  2616b. 
Novel,  2616b. 
November,  2617b. 
Novum  Organum,  313b. 
Noyes,  Alfred,  2618a. 
Noyes,  John  Humphrey,  2657b. 
N-Rays,  2018b. 
Nubia,  2618b. 
Nuisance,   2618b. 
Nullification,  2619a. 
Numa  Pompilius,  2619b. 
Number,  174a. 
Number,  Methods  of  Teaching, 

2619b. 
Numbering  Machine,  2621a. 
Number-Match,    182a. 
Number  Work.  1978a. 
Numbers,  Book  of,  2621a. 
Numidia,   94a,  2621b. 
Numismatics,  2621b. 
Nummulite,   2622a. 
Nun,   2382b,   2622a. 
Nuncio,  2622a. 

Nuns  of  Saint  Ursula,  3723a. 
Nuremberg,  Germany,  2622a. 
Nurse,  2622b. 
Nursery,  2623a. 
Nursery  Rhymes,  2423b. 
Nut,  2623b. 
Nutation,  2623b. 
Nutcracker,  2623b. 
Nuthatch,  2624a. 
Nutmeg,  2624a. 


Okra 

Nutrition,  2624b. 

Nux  Vomica,  139b,  2644b. 

Nyassa,  2625a. 

Nye,  Edgar  Wilson,  2625b. 

Nymphs,  2625b. 


o 


O,  2626a.  2682b. 
Oahu  Island,  1643a. 
Oak,  2626a. 

Oak,  The  (theme),  3558a. 
Oakland,  Calif.,   2627a. 
Oakum,  2627b. 
Oasis,  2627b. 
Oath,  2627b. 
Oats,  2628a. 
Obelisk,  849a,  2628b. 
Oberammergau,  2628b. 
Oberlin  College,  2628b. 
Obesity,  2629a. 
Obi  River,  2629a. 
Object  Complement,  2048b. 
Oboe,  2629a. 
Observatory,  2629b. 
Obsidian,  2630a. 
Ocarina,  2630a. 
Ocean,  1479b,  1480b,  2631a. 
Ocean  Cable,  626a. 
Ocean  Currents,  2630a. 
Ocean  Grove,  N.  J.,  2632a. 
Oceania,  2632a. 
Oceanic  Islands,  1847b. 
Ocelot,  2632a. 
Ochre,  2632b. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  1834a,  2632b. 
O'Connell,  William  H.,  2632b. 
O'Connor,       Thomas       Power, 
2633a. 

Octavia,  2633a. 

Octavius,  285a. 

Octli,  2968b. 

October,  2633a. 

October's    Bright    Blue    Wea- 
ther, 2019b. 

Octopus,  2634a. 

Odd  Fellows,  Independent  Or- 
der of,  2634b. 

Ode,  2634b. 

Odelsthing,  2611a. 

Oder  River,  2635a. 

Odessa,  Ukrainia,   2635a. 

Odin,   2635b. 

Odoacer,  3561a. 

Odysseus,  2896a,  3665b. 

Odyssey,  1711b,  2635b. 

Oedipus,  2636a. 

Oenone,  2735b. 

Oesel  Island,  2685a. 

Oesophagus,  5b,  2636a. 

Offenbach,   Jacques,   2636a. 

Ogden,  Utah,  2636b. 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  2636b. 

Oglethorpe,      Jaihes      Edward, 
2637a. 

O.  Henry,  2909a. 

Ohio,  2637a. 

Ohio  Company,  2643b. 

Ohio  River,  2643b. 

Ohio     State     University,     The, 
2644a. 

Ohm,  2644a. 

Ohm,  Georg  Simon,  2644a. 

Ohm's  Law,  2644a. 

Oil  City,  Pa.,  2644b. 

Oil  Cloth,  2644b. 

Oil  Colors,  2702a. 

Oil  of  Vitriol,   3468a. 

Oil  Palm.  2644b. 

Oils,  2644b. 

Ointment,  2645b. 

Ojibwa  Indians,  2645b. 

Okapi,  2645b. 

Okhotsk,   Sea  of,   2645b. 

Oklahoma,  2646a. 

Oklahoma,        University        of, 
2651b. 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  2651b. 

Okra,  1683a,  2652a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  colnmii  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Olcott,  Henry  S. 


4U33 


Paleozoic 


Olcott,  Henry  S.  3562a. 

Old  Age  Pensions,  2652a. 

Old  Bay  State,  2270b. 

Old  Bullion.  393a.  2366a. 

Old  Dominion,  3776b. 

Oldenburg,  2652b. 

Old  Gaelic  Lullaby,  2028a. 

Oldham,  Eng.,  2652b. 

Old  Ironsides,   1708a. 

Old  Kentucky  Home.  1385b. 

Old  Line  State,  2262b. 

Old-man  Cereus.  741a. 

Old  Man  Eloquent,  22a. 

Old    Man    of    the    Mountains, 

2530a,  2866a. 
Old  Point  Comfort,  Va..  2652b. 
Old  Pretender,  The,  3452b. 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  2653a. 
Old  Rough  and  Ready,  3523b. 
Old      South     Meeting     House. 

2653a. 
Clean,  X.  Y.,  2653b. 
Oleander,  2653b. 
Oleomargarine,  2653b. 
Olfactory  Nerves,  2613a,  3325b. 
Oligarchy,   1542b. 
Olive,  2654a. 
Olive  Oil,  2654a. 
Oliver  Optic,  22b. 
Oliver  Twist,  1072a. 
Olives,  Mount  of,  2654b. 
Olivin,  817b. 
Olmsted,   Frederick  La'w, 

2654b. 
Olney,  Richard.  2654b. 
Olympia,   2655a. 
Olympia.  Wash.,  2655a. 
Olmpiad,  2655b. 
Olympian   Games,   2655b. 
Olympic   (ship),  3283b. 
Olympic  Mountains,  3809b. 
Olympus.  1567b.  2656a 
Omaha,  Nebr.,  2656a. 
Oman,  2656b. 
Omar,  Mosque  of,  3537b. 
Omar  Khayyam,  2657a.  2980a. 
Omega  and  Alpha,   102a. 
Omens,  2657a. 
Omnibus  Bill.  2657a. 
Omsk,   Siberia,   2657a. 
On  Conciliation  with  America, 

606a. 
Onega,  Lake,  2657b. 
Onega  River,  2657b. 
Oneida  Community,  2657b. 
Oneida  Indians,   2657b. 
Oneida  Lake.  2658a. 
One-step,  1025b. 
One  Sweetly  Solemn  Thought, 

1750b. 
On  His  Own  Blindness,  2342b, 

3346a. 
Onion.  2658a. 
Onondaga  Indians,  2658a. 
Ontario,  2658a. 
Ontario.  Lake,   2662b. 
Onyx,  2662b. 
Opal,  461a. 

Open-hearth  Steel,  3418b. 
Open-kettle  Method,  683b. 
Ophthalmia,  917a. 
Ophthalmia  Neonatorum.  471b. 
Opium,   139b,   2415b,   2664b. 
Opium  War,  2665a. 
Oporto.  Portugal,  2665a. 
Opossum,  2665b. 
Opper.  Frederick  Burr,  2666a. 
Optic  Nerve,  1287a. 
Optics,  2101a. 
Optimism,  2666a. 
Oracles,  2666a. 
Oran,   Algeria,  2666b. 
Orange,  2666b. 
Orange,  N.  J.,  2668a. 
Orange  Free  State,  2668a. 
Orangemen,  2668b. 
Orange  River,  2669a. 
Orang-utan,  2669a. 
Oration,   2669b. 


Oratorio,  2670a. 

Orchestra,   2670a. 

Orchids,  2670a. 

Ordeal,  2670b. 

Order,  2671a. 

Order,  Points  of,  2749a. 

Order  of  Saint  George,  2671a. 

Order  of  the  Bath,  2671a. 

Order  of  the  Garter,  2671a. 

Orders,  Religious,  2382b. 

Orders  in  Council,  2671b. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  2671b. 

Ordnance,  238a. 

Ordnance  Department,  226a. 

Ordovician  Period,  2671b. 

Ore,  2672a. 

Oreads,  2625b. 

Oregon,  2672a. 

Oregon,   University  of,   2677a. 

Oregon  Fir,  3394a. 

Orestes,  2677a. 

Organ,  2677b. 

Organ  of  Corti,  1163b. 

Oriental  Rugs,  3130a. 

Oriflamme,  2678a. 

Origin  of  Species,  1031a,  1743a. 

Orillia,  Ont.,  2678a. 

Orinoco  River,  2678b. 

Oriole,   2678b. 

Orion  (astronomy),  2679a. 

Orion  (mythology).  2678b. 

Orkney  Islands,  2679a. 

Orleans   (family),  531b.  2679b. 

Orleans,  Battle  of,   1319b. 

Orleans,  France,  2679b. 

Orleans.  Louis  Philippe,  Duke 

of,  2679b. 
Orleans,  Maid  of,  1897a. 
Orleans,     Philippe,     Duke     of, 

26S0a. 
Orleans,    Philippe    (Regent    of 

France),  26S0a. 
Orloff  Diamond.  1070b. 
Ornithology.    2680a'. 
Ornithorynchus,  1150a. 
Orpheus,  1278a.  2680a. 
Orpheus  and  Euridice,  1524b. 
Orris  Root,  26S0b. 
Orsini  (family),  2680b. 
Orthoceras,     or     Othoceratite, 

2680b. 
Orthoclase,  1307b. 
Orthography,  2681a. 
Orthopedics,  2684a. 
Orthoptera.  2684a. 
Ortolan,  2684a. 
Oryx,  137b. 
Osage  Indians,  2684a. 
Osage  Orange.  2684b. 
Osage  River,  2684b. 
Osaka,  Japan,  2684b. 
Oscar  I,  2685a. 
Oscar  II,  2685a. 
Osceola,  2685a. 
Osel  Island,  2685a. 
Oshawa,  Ont.,  2685b. 
Oshkosh.  Wis.,  2685b. 
Osiris,  2685b. 
Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  2686a. 
Osier,  William,  2686a. 
Osmium,  2686b. 
Osmosis,  2686b. 
Osprey,  1334a. 
Osseous  Tissue,  922a. 
Ossining.  N.  Y..  2686b. 
Ossoli,  Sarah  Margaret  Fuller, 

2687a. 
Ostend.  Belgium.  2687a. 
Ostend  Manifesto,  2687b. 
Osteopathy,  2687b. 
Ostracism.  2687b. 
Ostrich,  457b,  2688a. 
Ostrogoths,  1540a,  1852b. 
Oswego,  N.  Y.,  2689a. 
Opal,  2663a. 

Open  Air  Schools,  2663a. 
Open  Shop,  2663a. 
Opera,   2663a. 
Opera  Glass,  2664a. 
Ophir,  2664b. 


Ophthalmoscope,  2664b. 

Otho  I,  2689a. 

Otis,  James,  2690b. 

Ottawa.  111..  2689b. 

Ottawa,  Kan.,  2690a. 

Ottawa,  Ont.,  2690a. 

Ottawa  Indians.  2689b. 

Ottawa-Rideau  System,  679a. 

Ottawa  River,  2690b. 

Otter,  2690b. 

Otto  I,  2691a. 

Ottoman  Empire,  3649a. 

Ottoman  Turks,  3651a. 

Ottumwa,  Iowa,  2691a. 

Ouachita  River,  3823a. 

Ounce    (animal),  2691b. 

Ounce  (weight),  2691b. 

Our  Mutual  Friend.   1072b. 

Outcault,        Richard        Felton, 

2691b. 
Out-Door  Amusements,  1974a. 
Outram,  James,  2692a. 
Ouzel,  2692a. 
Ovary,  1354a. 
Oven  Bird.  2692a,  3803b. 
Overshot  Wheel,  3831a. 
Over  the  Teacups,  1708b. 
Ovid,  2692a. 
Ovules,  1354a. 
Owen,  Robert,  2692b. 
Owensboro,  Ky.,  2692b. 
Owen  Sound,  2692b. 
Owl,  2693a. 
Owl   and  the  Pussy  Cat,   The, 

2022a. 
Owosso,  Mich.,  2693b. 
Oxalates.  2694a. 
Oxalic  Acid,  139b,  2693b. 
Oxenstierna,  3567a. 
Ox-eye  Daisy.  817b. 
Ox  Familv,  3982a. 
Oxford,  Eng.,   2694a. 
Oxford  Movement,   2694a. 
Oxford  University,  2694b. 
Oxidation.  2695a. 
Oxide,  2695a. 
Oxidizing  Flame,  476b. 
Oxygen,  2695a. 
Oxygenated  Water,  1746b. 
Oxyhydrogen    Light,   2107b. 
Oyama,  Iwao,  2696a. 
Oyster,  2488b,  2696a. 
Oyster  Catcher,  2697a. 
Oyster  Plant,  2697a. 
Ozaka,  Japan.  2684b. 
Ozark  Mountains.  2697b, 
Ozone,  767b,  2697b. 


■P,  2698a. 

Pachyderm,  2698a. 
Pacific  Cables,  627a. 
Pacific  Ocean.  2698a. 
Paddlefish.  2698b. 
Paddy,  3068b. 
Paderewski,  Ignace  Jan,  2699a, 

2883b. 
Padua,  Italy,  2699a. 
Paducah.  Ky.,  2699b. 
Paganini,  Niccolo.  2699b. 
Page,  Thomas  Nelson.  2700a. 
Page,  Walter  Hines,  2700b. 
Pageant,  2700b. 
Pagoda.  2701a. 
Paine,  Thomas,  2701a. 
Paint,  2701b. 
Painter.  2726b. 
Painting.  2701b. 
Pakenham,     Edward    Michael, 

2711a. 
Palace  of  Versailles.  3762a. 
Palais  de  I'Elysee,  2737b. 
Palanquin,  2711a. 
Palate,  2711b. 
Palatinate,  2711b. 
Palatine  Hill,  3n98b,  3106b. 
Paleontology.  2712a. 
Paleozoic  Era,  2712a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  uumber,  indicates  colomn  1;  the  letter  I>,  column  2. 


Palermo 


4034 


Pendulum 


Palermo,  2712a. 
Palestine,  2712b. 
Palestine,  Texas,  2713a. 
Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi 

da,  2713a. 
Palisades,  The,  2553a,  2713b. 
Palladium  (metal),  2713b. 
Palladium  (statue),  2713b. 
Pallas  Athene,  2345b. 
Palm,  2714a. 

Palma,  Tomas  Estrada,  2714b. 
Palm  Beach,  Fla.,  2714b. 
Palmerston,        Henry        John, 

2715a. 
Palmetto,  2715a. 
Palmetto  State,  3359a. 
Palmistry,   2715b. 
Palm  Oil.  2716b. 
Palm  Sunday,  2716b. 
Palmyra,  2717a. 
Palmyra  Palm,  2717a. 
Palo  Alto,  Battle  of,  2717a. 
Palo  Alta,  Cal..  2717b. 
Palpitation      of      the      Heart, 

2717b. 
Pamir,  2717b. 
Pamlico  Sound,   2717b. 
Pampangans,   2818a. 
Pampas,  2718a,  3352b. 
Pan,  2718a. 

Panama  (city),  2718a. 
Panama,  Isthmus  of,  2718b. 
Panama,    Republic    of,    2718b, 

3111b. 
Panama  Canal,  2720a,  3111b. 
Panama  Hat,  2723b. 
Panama-Pacific     International 

Exposition,  2723b. 
Pan-American       Congress, 

2724a. 
Pan-American  Exposition, 

2725a. 
Pan-American  Union,  2725a. 
Pancake,  The  (story),  1960b. 
Pancake  Tuesday,  3291a. 
Pancreas,  The,  2725b. 
Pancreatin,   2725b. 
Pandanus,  3228b. 
Pandora,  2725b. 
Pan-Germanism,  3914b. 
Panhandle,  The,  3552a. 
Panhandle  State,   3852a. 
Pankhurst,  Emmeline,  2726a. 
Pantasote,  2073a. 
Pantheism,  2726a. 
Pantheon,  2726b,  3096b. 
Panther,  2726b,  2969a. 
Pantomine,  2726b. 
Papacy,  The,  2900b. 
Papal  States,  2726b,  2902a. 
Papaw,  2727a. 
Paper,  2727a. 
Paper  Birch,  449a. 
Paper  Blockade,  473b. 
Paper  Cutting,  1970a. 
Paper  Folding,  1968a, 
Paper  Money,  2385b. 
Paper  Nautilus,   171a,  2492b. 
Paper  Sailor,   171a. 
Papier-mache,  2729a. 
Papillae,  3319b. 

Papineau,  L,ouis  Joseph,  2729a. 
Paprika,  2729b. 
Papyrus,  2727a,  2729b. 
Para,  Brazil,  2730a. 
Parable,  2730a. 
Paracelsus,  2730a. 
Parachute,  2730b. 
Paraclete,  6a. 
Paradise,  Birds  of,  458b. 
Paradise  Lost,  2342b,  2730b. 
Paradise  of  the  Pacific,  3617a. 
Paraffin,  2731a. 
Paraguay,  2731a. 
Paraguay  River,   2732a. 
Paraguay  Tea,   2279b,   3354b. 
Parallel  Bars,  1600b. 
Parallel  Drawing,  1132a. 
Parallelogram,  2977a. 


Parallelogram        of        Forces, 

2732b. 
Paralysis,  2732b. 
Paramaribo,      Dutch      Guiana, 

2733a. 
Parana  River,  2733a. 
Para  Nut,  547b. 
Parasites,  314a,  520a,  2733a. 
Parasitic  Diseases,  2733b. 
Paravane,  3457b. 
Parcae,  1301b. 
Parcel  Post,  2733b. 
Parchment,  2734b. 
Pardon,  2734b. 
Parent  and  Child,  2734b. 
Parent-Teachers     Association, 

2734b. 
Paresis,  2735a. 
Parhelion,  2735a. 
Paris        (mythology),        2457b, 

2735a. 
Paris,  France,  2735b. 
Paris,    Louis    Albert    Philippe 

D'Orleans,  2739b. 
Paris,  Tex.,  2739b. 
Paris,  Treaties  of,  2739b. 
Paris,  University  of,  2740a. 
Paris  Green,  139b,  2740b. 
Park,  Mungo,  40b. 
Parker,  Alton  Brooks,  2740b. 
Parker,       Francis       Wayland, 

2740b. 
Parker,  Gilbert,  2741a. 
Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,   2741a. 
Parkman,  Francis,  2741b. 
Park  Mountains,  3088b,  3089a. 
Parks,  National,  2741b. 
Parks  of  Canada,  2743a. 
Parks    of    the    United    States, 

2741b. 
Parlement,  2743b. 
Parliament,  2743b. 
Parliamentary  Law,  2747a. 
Parma,  223a. 
Parnassus,  2749a. 
Parnell,        Charles        Stewart, 

1712a,  2749a. 
Parochial  Schools,  2749b. 
Parody,  2749b. 
Parole,  2750a. 
Parrakeet,  2750a. 
Parrhasius,  2703a. 
Parris,  Samuel,  3902b. 
Parrish,  Maxfield,  2750a. 
Parrot,  2490a,  2750b. 
Parry  Sound,  2750b. 
Parsifal,   1545a,  2751a. 
Parsing,  2055a. 
Parsis,  2751a. 
Parsley,  2751b. 
Parsnip,  2751b. 
Parsons,  Kan.,  2751b. 
Parthenon,  2751b. 
Participle,  2752a. 
Partnership,   2752b. 
Partridge,  1587a,  2753a. 
Partridge,     William     Ordway, 

2753a. 
Par  Value,  3425a. 
Pas,  Man.,  2753b. 
Pasadena,  Calif,  2753b. 
Pascal,  Blaise,  2754a. 
Pascal's  Law,  2754a. 
Pascua  Florida,  1352b,  2898b. 
Pasha,  2754a. 
Pasig  River,  3614b. 
Pass,  3734a. 
Passaic,  N.  J.,  2754a. 
Passenger  Pigeon,   2851b. 
Passion  Flower,  2754b. 
Passion  Play,  2754b. 
Passover,   2754b. 
Passport,  2755a. 
Pasteur,  Louis,   2755a. 
Pastoral  Poetry.  2755b. 
Patagonia,  2755b. 
Pate  de  foie  gras,  1536b. 
Patella,  3318b. 
Patent,  2756a. 
Patent  (homestead),  1713a. 


Patent  Leather,  2073a,  27rj6a. 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  2756b. 
Patmos,  2756b. 
Patna,  British  India,  2757a. 
Patriarch,  2757a. 
Patrician,  2757a. 

Patrick,  Saint,  2757a. 

Patriotism  (theme),  3559b. 

Patroclus,  1763b. 

Patroon  System,  2757b. 

Patti,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda, 
2757b. 

Paul  (Popes),  2757b. 

Paul,  Saint,  2758a. 

Paulists,  2758b. 

Paul      Revere's      Ride,      512a, 
3018b. 

Pauncefote,  Julian,  2758b. 

Pauperism,   2758b. 

Pavement,  2759a. 

Pawnbroker,  2759b. 

Pawnee,  2760a. 

Pawpaw,  2727a. 

Pawtucket,  R.  I.,  2760a. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  2760a. 

Payne-Aldrich      Law,       3502a, 
3516b. 

Pea,  2760b. 

Peabody,  George,  2761a. 

Peabody       Education       Fund, 
2760b. 

Peace,  Breach  of  the,  2761a. 

Peace,     League      to     Enforce, 
2071a. 

Peace      Conference,      Interna- 
tional, 2761a. 

Peace  Offering,  3153a. 

Peace  of  Utrecht,   3729b. 

Peace  River  Country,  2762a. 

Peace  River  Pass,  73a. 

Peach,  2762a. 

Peacock,  2763a. 

Peale,  Charles  Wilson,  2763b. 

Peale,  Rembrandt,  2763b. 

Peanut,  2764a. 

Pear,  2764b. 

Pearl,  461a,  2489a,  2764b. 

Pearl  Harbor,  1645a. 

Pearl  Spar,  1093a. 

Peary,  Robert  Edwin,  2765a. 

Peary's  Expedition,  2603b. 

Peasants'  War,  2765b. 

Peat,  2706a. 

Pecan,  2766a. 

Peccary,  2766b. 

Peck,  James,  1775a. 

Pecos  River,  2766b. 

Pedagogy,  2766b,  2960a. 

Pediment,  2767b. 

Pedometer,  2767b. 

Pedro  II,   2768a. 

Peel,  Robert,  2768a. 

Peer,  2768a. 

Peerage,  2768a.    , 

Pegasus,  2768a. 

Pekin,  111.,  2768b. 

Peking,  China,  2768b. 

Pelagic  Islands,  1847b. 

Pelasgians,   2769b. 

Pelee,  Mont,  2261b. 

Pelican,    2769b. 

Pelican  State,  The,  2173a. 

Pellagra,  2770a. 

Peloponnesian  War,  1570a. 

Peloponnesus,    2770a. 

Pelops,  2770a. 

Pelvis,  The,  2770b,   3318b. 

Pelvic  Girdle,  3318b. 
Pemberton,       John       Clifford, 
2770b. 

Pembroke,  Ont.,  2770b. 
Pemmican,  2770b. 
Pen,  2771a. 
Penance,  2771b. 
Penang,  2771b. 
Pencil,  2771b. 
Pendant,  2772a. 
Pendennis,  3554b. 
Pendleton,  Ore.,  2772a. 
Pendulum,  2772a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column   1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Penelope 

Penelope,   2773a,  3665b. 

Penguin,  2773a. 

Peninsula    State,    The,     1349a, 

2326a.  „„„„^ 

Peninsular  War,  2472a,  2773b. 
Penn,  William.  2774a. 
Pennacook,   2774b. 
Pennell,  Joseph,  2774b. 
Pennsylvania,  2775a. 
Pennsylvania,    University    Of, 

2780b. 
Penny,  2781a. 
Pennyroyal,  2781a. 
Penobscot  River.  2781a. 
Pensacola,  Fla.,  2781a. 
Pension,   2781b. 
Pension,  Old  Age,  2652a. 
Pentameter,  2311b. 
Pentateuch,  2782b. 
Pentecost,   2782b. 
Penumbra,  2783a. 
Peonag-e,  2783a. 
Peony,  2783a. 
People's  Party,  2891a. 
Peoria,  111.,  2783a. 
Pepin,  2783b. 
Peplos,  1143b. 
Pepper,  2784a. 
Pepperidge,  465a. 
Peppermint,  2784b. 
Pepsin,  2784b. 
Peptones,  2784b. 
Pepys,  Samuel,  2784b. 
Pequot,  2784b. 
Percentage,  2784b. 
Perception,  2787b. 
Perch,  2788a. 
Perennials,    428b,    2788a. 
Perfumes,  2788a. 
Pericardium,  1655b,  2789a. 
Pericles,  2789a. 
Peridot,  461a,  817b. 
Perigee,  2789b. 
Periosteum,  498b. 
Peripatetic   School    of   Philos- 
ophy, 173a,  2789b. 
Periscope,  3454b. 
Peritonetim,  5b. 
Peritonitis,  2790a. 
Periwinkle,  2447a. 
Perjury,  2790a. 
Perkins,     George     Walbridg^e, 

2790a. 
Permian  Period,  2790b. 
Pernambuco,    Brazil,    2790b. 
Peroxide  of  Hydrogen,  1746b. 
Perpetual  Motion,  2791a,  2836b. 
Perrault,  Charles,  2423b,  2791a. 
Perry,  Bliss,  2791a. 
Perry,       Matthew       Calbraith, 

2791b. 
Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  2791b. 
Perryville.  Battle  of,  2792a. 
Persephone,  2950a. 
Persepolis,  2792a. 
Perseus,  2792a. 
Pershing,  John  Joseph,   2792b, 

3932b. 
Persia,  2793a. 
Persian  Gulf,  2796b. 
Persian  Wars,  1572b. 
Persian  Wheel.   2796b. 
Persimmon,   2796b. 
Personal  Property,  2796b. 
Personification,  2797a. 
Perspective,  1118a.   2797a. 
Perspiration,  2797b. 
Perth,       Western       Australia, 

2797b. 
Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  2797b. 
Peru,   2798a. 
Peru,  111.,  2800a. 
Peru,  Ind.,  2800a. 
Perugino,      Pietro      Vannucci, 

2800b. 
Peruvian  Bark,   2800b. 
Peruvian  Current,   2630b. 
Peseta,  2800b. 
Peso,  2800b. 
Pessimism,  2666a,  2801a. 


4035 

Pestalozzi,    Johann    Heinrich. 

2767a,  2801a. 
Petain,   Henri  Philippe.  2801b. 
Petals,  1354a. 
Peter.  2802a. 
Peter  I  (Serbia),  2802b. 
Peterborough,  Ont.,   2803a. 
Petersburg,  Siege  of,  2803b. 
Petersburg,  Va.,  2803a. 
Peter   the   Great,    725a,    2802a, 

3095a 
Peter  the  Hermit,  997a,  2803b. 
Petition,  2803b. 
Petition  of  Right,  2804a. 
Petit  Jury,  1919b. 
Petrarch,    Francesco,    2804a. 
Petrel,  2804a. 
Petrograd,  Russia,  2804b. 
Petroleum,   2806a,   3678a. 
Petunia,  2807b. 
Pewee,  2823b. 
Pewter,  2807b. 
Phaedra,  2808a. 
Phaedrus,  1290a. 
Phaethon,  2452a,  2808a. 
Phalanges,  13G8a,  1623a,  3318b. 
Phalanx,   2808a. 
Phanerogamous    Plants,    517a, 

518b,  2808a. 
Pharaoh,  1190b,   2808b. 
Pharaoh's  Hen,   3792b. 
Pharaoh's  Rat,  1757a. 
Pharisees,   2808b. 
Pharmacist,    146a. 
Pharmacopoeia,  2808b. 
Pharmacy,   2809a. 
Pharos,  2809a. 
Pharynx,  2809a. 
Pheasant,  1587a.  2809a. 
Pheasant's  Eye.  27b. 
Phenacetin,  139b.  2809b. 
Phenic  Acid,  700a. 
Phenol,  700a. 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  2809b. 
Phidias,  2810a. 
Phi   Kappa  Phi.  2810a. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  2810b. 
Philae,  2813b. 
Philemon,  364a. 
Philip  (the  Evangelist).  2813b. 
Philip  IV  (France),  2814a. 
Philip  VI   (France),  2814a. 
Philip  II   (Spain),  2814a. 
Philip  V  (Spain),  2814b. 
Philip      of      Macedon,      2814b, 

3377a. 
Philippics,  1056a,  1574b. 
Philippine  Islands,   2815a. 
Philip  the  Fair,  2814a. 
Philistines,   2820a. 
Phillips.  Wendell,  2820a. 
Philology,  2820a. 
Philomela.  2822a. 
Philosopher's  Stone,  75b. 
Philosophy,  2822b, 
Phlox,   2823b. 
Phoebe,  2823b. 
Phoenicia.  2824a. 
Phoenicians.  3373a. 
Phoenix,  2824b. 
Phoenix,  Ariz..  2824b. 
Phonetics.   2825a. 
Phonograph,  1823a.  3505a. 
Phonography,  3287b. 
Phosphates,  2825a. 
Phosphorescence,  2825b. 
Phosphoric  Acid.  2825b. 
Phosphorus,   139b,  2825b. 
Phossy  Jaw,   2826a. 
Photo-Engraving,  2826a. 
Photographic  Surveying, 

2826a. 
Photography,  2826b. 
Photogravure.  2827b. 
Photometry,  2828a. 
Photosphere,  3470b. 
Phrenologv.  2828a. 
Phrygia.   2829a. 
Phvlloxera.  1080b,  2829a. 
Physical  Culture.   2830a. 
Physical      Geography,      1461b, 

2829b. 


Piracy 

Physical  Work,  Unit  of,  3670b. 

Physics,  2835b. 

Physiognomy,  2840a. 

Physiography,    1461b,   2829b. 

Physiology,  2840b. 

Pia  mater,  542a. 

Pianissimo,  2442a. 

Piano,  2846a. 

Pianoplayer,  2846b. 

Piaster,  2846b. 

Picadores.  598b. 

Piccalilli,   2847a. 

Piccolo,  2846b. 

Pickerel,  2847a,  2852b. 

Pickering,  John,  1775a. 

Pickett,  George  Edward,  2847a. 

Pickles.  2847a. 

Picric  Acid,  2847a. 

Picts,   2847b. 

Pickwick  Papers,  1072a. 

Pictured  Rocks,  3473b. 

Picture-Making      Material, 

1953a. 
Picture'Study.  2706b. 
Piedmont,  2847b. 
Piedmont  Region,  2847b. 
Pied    Piper    of    Hamelin,    The 

(theme),   3559a. 
Pieplant,  3067a. 
Pier,  2847b. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  2848a. 
Pierre,  S.  D.,  2851a. 
Pigeon.   1108b,    2851a. 
Pigeon  Berrv.  2882b. 
Pigment.  2701b. 
Pig-tailed  Baboon,  310a. 
Pigweed,  2851b. 
Pika,   2852a. 
Pike,  2852a. 
Pike,      Zebulon     Montgomery, 

2852a 
Pikes  Peak.  885b,  2852b. 
Pilaster,   2852b. 
Pilate,  Pontius,   2852b. 
Pilcomavo,  2852b. 
Pile.  2853a. 

Pilgrims,  2853a,  3555b. 
Pilgrim's   Progress,   602a. 
Pillars      of      Hercules,       277a, 

1510a. 
Pillory,   2853a. 
Pilot,   2853b. 
Pilot  Fish,  2853b. 
Pilsudski,  Joseph,  2883b. 
Pilum,  222b. 
Pima,  2853b. 
Pimento,  28E3b. 
Pin,  2853b. 

Pinafore, 1511a,  3467a. 
Pina  Muslin.  2856b. 
Pinchot.  Gifford.   2854a. 
Pincian  Hill,  3099a. 
Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth, 

2854b. 
Pincon,  Tanez,  108b. 
Pindar,   2854b. 
Pine,  916b.   2854b. 
Pineapple,  2856a. 
Pine     Barren     Beauty,     2976b, 

3359a 
Pine  Bluff.  Ark.,  2856b. 
Pine  Familv,  916b. 
Pinero,  Arthur  AVing,  2856b. 
Pines.  Isle  of,  2856b. 
Pine  Tree  Shilling,  2857a. 
Pine  Tree  State,  The,  2222b. 
Ping  Pong,   2857a. 
Pink.  2857a. 
Pin   Money,   2S57a. 
Pin  Pool,  2899b. 
Pipe,   Tobacco.   2857a. 
Pipe  Clay.  844b. 
Pipefish,  2857b. 
Pipe  Lines,   2857b. 
Pipe  of  Peace,  647a. 
Pipit,  2858a. 
Pippa  Passes,  547b. 
Pippin,  2783b, 
Pippin   the   Short,  709a. 
Piqua,  Ohio.  2858a. 
Piquet,  2858b. 
Piracy,   2858b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  oolnmn  2. 


Piraeus 


4036 


Potsdam,  Prussia 


Piraeus,  2858b. 

Pirates     of     Penzance,     1511a, 

3467a. 
Pisa,  Council  of,   2859a. 
Pisa,  Italy,  2S59a. 
Pisa,  Leaning  Tower  of,  2859a. 
Pisces,    1330b,   2859b. 
Pisiculture,  1330b. 
Pisistratus,   271b,    2859b. 
Pistachio,  2859b. 
Pistil,  519a,  1354a. 
Pistol,   3057b. 
Pitchblende,   2859b. 
Pitcher  Plant,  521a,  2859b. 
Pitch  Lake,  3635a. 
Pitman  (family),  2860a,  3287a, 

3288b 
Pitt  (family),  2860b. 
Pitti  Palace,   2861a. 
Pittsburg-,  Kan.,  2&61a. 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,   2861b. 
Pittsburg   Landing,   Battle    of, 

3280b 
Pittsfieid,  Mass.,  2862b. 
Pittston,   Pa.,   2863a. 
Pius   (Popes),  2863a. 
Pixies.   1294a. 
Pizarro,  1776b,   2863b. 
Place  de  I'Etoile,  2737a. 
Place  Vendome,  3748a. 
Plague,   2864a. 
Plain,  «864b. 
Plane,   2864b. 
Planet,  267a,  2865a. 
Planetesimal    Hypothesis, 

1167b,  1477a. 
Planetoid,  257a,  2865a.  286Ga. 
Planing  Machine,  2866a. 
Plantagenet,  2869a. 
Plantain,   2969a. 
Plant  Families,   523a. 
Plant  Industry,  Bureau  of.  51a. 
Planting    of    the    Apple-Tree, 

The,  2037a. 
Plant  Lice,  144b. 
Plants,   2487a,   2S66b.   3338b. 
Plants,  Aromatic,  231b. 
Plastering,  2869b. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  2869b. 
Plata,  Rio  de  la.  3077b. 
Plataea,  2869b. 
Plateau,  2870a. 
Plate  Glass,  1522a. 
Platform  Scale,  3842b. 
Plating.  2870a. 
Platinum,   2870a. 
Plato,  2871a. 
Platoon,  226b. 

Piatt,  Thomas  Collier,  2871b. 
Plattdeutsch,  2871b. 
Piatt  National  Park,  2742b. 
Platte  River,  2871b. 
Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  2872a. 
Plattsburg  Idea,   2872a. 
Plautus.   Titus  Maccius.    2872a. 
Play  Hide  and  Go  Seek,   182a. 
Plays,  1438b. 
Plebeians,    2872b. 

Pleiades,    2872b. 

Pleura.   5b,  2872b. 

Pliny  the  Elder,  2873a. 

Pliny  the  Younger,   2873a. 

Pliocene  Period,  2873a. 

Plough  Monday,  2383b. 

Plover,   2873b. 

Plow.   2873b. 

Plum,  2874a. 

Plumage,  456a. 

Plumbing,  1101b,  2874a. 

Plumb  Line.  2874b. 

Plummet,  2874b. 

Plush,  2874b,  3747b. 

Plutarch,  2875a. 

Plutarch's  Lives,  2875a. 

Pluto,  2454b,   2875a. 

Plutus,  2875a. 

Plymouth,  Eng.,  2875b. 

Plymouth,   Mass..    2875b. 

Plymouth,  Pa.,   ?876a. 

Plymouth  Colony,  2876a,  3701b, 

Plymouth  Company,  2875b. 


Plymouth  Plantation,  History 

of,   538b. 
Plymouth  Rock,  2876a. 
Pneumatics,  2876b. 
Pneumatic  Tires,  2876b. 
Pneumatic   Tools,   2877a. 
Pneumatic  Tubes,  2877b. 
Pneumogastric  Nerve,  2507b. 
Pneumonia,   2877b. 
Po  River,  2877b. 
Pocahontas,   287Sa,   3327a. 
Pocatello.  Ida.,  2878a. 
Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  2878a. 
Poem,   2033b,  2052a. 
Poem,  Study  of  a,  2021b,  2029a. 
Poet  Laureate,  2878b. 
Poetry,   2879a. 
Poet's  Corner,  3851a. 
Pogy,   2298a. 

Poincare,    Raymond,    2880a. 
Poinsettia,   2880a. 
Point  Barrow,  64a. 
Pointer,  2880a. 
Point  of  Order,  2749a. 
Poison,  2880b. 
Poison  Gas,  2881a. 
Poison  Ivy,  28S2a. 
Poisonous  Plants,  2882a. 
Poitiers,  France,  2882b. 
Poker,   2882b. 
Pokeweed,  28S2b. 
Poland,  2S83a. 
Polar        Exploration,        2603b; 

3366b. 
Polar  Hare,  1628a. 
Polariscope,  2884b. 
Polarization   of  Light,   2884b. 
Pole,  2885a. 
Polecat,  2885a. 
Pole   Star,    2885b. 
Pole  Vault,  274a,  2885b. 
Police,  2885b. 
Polish  Succession,  War  of  the, 

3459a. 
Political   Divisions,    1465a. 
Political  Economy,  1175a. 
Political  Geography,    1461b. 
Political  Parties  in  the  United 

States,  2886a. 
Polk,  James  Knox,  2891b. 
Polka,    1025a. 
Pollen,   1354a,  2894b. 
Pollination,  2895a. 
Poll  Tax,  2895a. 
Pollux,   720b. 
Polo,  2895a. 
Polo,  Marco,  2895b. 
Polygamy,  2257a,  2895b. 
Polygon,   2299a,   2895b. 
Polyhymnia,   2438b. 
Polynesia,  2632a,  2896a. 
Polyp,  2896a. 

Polyphemus,   2635b,   2896a. 
Polytheism,   2390a,    2896b. 
Pomegranate,  2896b. 
Pomelo,  1554b. 
Pomerania,  2896b. 
Pomeranian  Dog,  3387b. 
Pomona,  2896b. 
Pomona,   Calif.,    2896b. 
Pompadour,  Madame  de,  2172a, 

2897a. 
Pompano,  2897a. 
Pompeii,   2897a. 
Pompey,   2898a. 
Pompey's  Pillar,  2898a. 
Ponce    de    Leon,    1387a,    2898b, 

2913b. 
Pond  Lily,  3827a. 
Pons  Sublicus    555a. 
Pontchartrain,  Lake,  2898b. 
Pontiac    (Indian),   2898b. 
Pontiac,   Mich.,    2899a. 
Pontoon  Bridge,   2899a. 
Pontus  Euxinus,  466b. 
Poodle,   2899a. 
Pool,  2899a. 

Poole,       William       Frederick, 
2900a. 


Poona,  British  India,  2900a. 

Poor  Priests,  3951b. 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  100b, 

1403b,  2900b. 
Poor  Robin's  Almanack,  100b. 
Pop  Corn,  2488b. 
Pope,   2900b,   3093b. 
Pope,  Alexander,  2903b. 
Poplar,  251a,  2904a. 
Poplin,  2904a. 
Popocatepetl,  2904a. 
Poppy,  2904a. 
Poppy  Family,  525a. 
Popular  Sovereignty,  3395b. 
Population,  2904b. 
Population,  Center  of,  3690a. 
Population,  Density  of,  3690a. 
Populist  Party,    2891a. 
Porcelain,  2906a,  2925b. 
Porcelain,  Sevres,   3263b. 
Porcelain  Clay,  844b. 
Porcelain  Jasper,  1879a. 
Porch  of  the  Maidens,  1249b. 
Porcupine,  2906a. 
Porcupine,  Ont.,  2906b. 
Porcupine  Ant-eater,  137a 
Porgy,    2906b. 
Pork,  1705a,  2906b. 
Porosity,    2906b. 
Porphyry,   2B07a. 
Porpoise,  2907a. 
Porpoise  Oil,  389a. 
Port  Adelaide,  24b. 
Portage      La      Prairie,      Man., 

2907a. 
Portala,  3187a. 
Portal   Circulation,   826b. 
Portal  Vein,  2143b. 
Port  Arthur,  Manchuria,  2907b. 
Port  Arthur,  Ont.,   2907b. 
Port  Arthur,  Siege  of,  3146b. 
Port  Arthur,   Tex.,   2908a. 
Port-au-Prince,  Haiti,  2908a. 
Porte,  The  Sublime,  925a. 
Port  Elizabeth,   Cape   of   Good 

Hope,   290Sb. 
Porter,  David,  2908b. 
Porter,  David  Dixon,   2908b. 
Porter,  Jane,  2909a. 
Porter,  William  Sydney,  2909a. 
Port  Hope,  Ont.,  2909b. 
Port  Huron,  Mich.,  2909b. 
Portinari,  Beatrice,  1026b. 
Portland,  Maine,  2910a. 
Portland,  Ore.,  2910a. 
Portland  Cement,  735b. 
Port  Nelson,  1730a. 
Porto   Alegre,   Brazil,    2911a. 
Port  of  Entry,   2911a. 
Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  2911b, 

3622a. 
Porto  Rico,  2911b. 
Port  Said,  Egypt,   2914a. 
Portsmouth,  Eng.,  2914a. 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  2914a. 
Portmouth,   Ohio,    2914b. 
Portsmouth,  Va.,  2914b. 
Portugal,    2915a. 
Portuguese  Colonies,  882b. 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  2918b. 
Portuguese  Guinea,  2919a. 
Port   Wine,   2919a. 
Posen,    2919a. 
Possessions      of     the      United 

States.  3694a. 
Postage  Stamps,  2919a. 
Postal  Savings  Banks,    3205a. 
Postal     Union,     International, 

2919b. 
Postoffice  Department,  2920a. 
Potash,   2922a. 
Potassium,  2922b. 
Ptoassium   Bitartrate,   983b. 
Potato,   2922b,    2491a. 
Potato,  Sweet,  3484a. 
Potato   Bug,   2923b. 
Potential  Energy,  1225a. 
Potomac  River,   2924a. 
Potsdam,  Prussia,  2924a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indieates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Potawatomi  Indians 


4037 


Pythian  Games 


Potawatomi   Indians,   2924a. 
Potter's  Clay,  844b. 
Pottery,  2924b. 
Pottslown,   Pa.,   2925b. 
Pottsville,  Pa.,  2926a. 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  2926a. 
Poultry,  2926b,  3685a. 
Pound  2927a. 
Poundal.  1159a. 
Pound  Sterling,  2927b. 
Powderly,      Terence     Vincent, 

2927b. 
Powell,  John  Wesley,  2927b. 
Powell,  Maud,  2927b. 
Power,  2928a. 
Power  of  Attorney,   2928a. 
Powers,  Hiram,  2928a. 
Powers  of  Congress,   916a. 
Powers    of    Parliament     (Can- 
ada),  2746a. 
Powhatan.   2928b,   3327a. 
Praetor,    2928b. 
•  Praetorian   Guard,    2928b. 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  2929a. 
Prague,  Bohemia,   2929a. 
Prague,  University  of,   2929b. 
Prairie,   2929b,   3674b. 
Prairie  Chicken,   2930a. 
Prairie   Dog,  2930a. 
Prairie   Hare,   1628a. 
Prairie  Schooner,   1923a. 
Prairie   Squirrel,    1537a. 
Prairie  State,  The,   1764a. 
Praxiteles,  2930a,  3232a. 
Prayer  Rug,  3130a. 
Precedence,      Illustration      of, 

2748b. 
Precession    of    the   Equinoxes, 

2930b. 
Precious  Stones,  2930b. 
Predestination,    2931a. 
Preemption,  2931a. 
Prefect,  1061a. 
Premier,    2931b. 
Preposition,  2932a. 
Pre-Raphaelites.   2932a. 
Presbyterians,    2932a. 
Prescott,   Ariz.,    2933a. 
Prescott,      William      Hickling, 

2933a. 
President  of  the  United  States, 

2933b. 
Presidio.   3186b. 
Press,  Liberty  of  the,  2095b. 
Pressburg,    Hungary,    2936b. 
Preston,   Ont.,    2936b. 
Pretoria,   Transvaal,   2937a. 
Prevailing  Westerlies,  2937a. 
Previous  Question,  2749a. 
Pre-Vocational  Education, 

3785b. 
Priam,    king    of    Troy,    2458b, 

2937a 
Pribilof    Islands,    395b,    3240b, 

2937a. 
Prickly' Ash,  2937b. 
Prickly  Pear,   2937b. 
Pride's   Purge,   3134a. 
Priest,    2938a. 
Priesthood,   The,   3093b. 
Primary  Colors,  884b. 
Primary  Department,  1977b. 
Primary  Election,   2938a. 
Primates,  2938b. 
Primogeniture.    2938b. 
Primrose.   2938b. 
Prince,    2939a. 
Prince  Albert,  Sask.,  2939a. 
Prince  Edward  Island,   2939b. 
Prince    Henry    of    Battenberg, 

3768b. 
Prince  of  India,  The,  3798a. 
Prince  of  Wales,  3796b. 
Prince   of   Wales  Island.    66a. 
Prince   Rupert,   B.  C,    2940a. 
Princess,   The,   3543b. 
Princeton,  Battle  of,  2940b. 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  2940b. 


Princeton  University,  2940b.. 

Princip,   Gavrilo,  3915a. 

Printing,  2941a. 

Printing  Press,   1823a,   2942b. 

Printing  Telegraph,  3530a. 

Priory,  2a. 

Prism,   2943a. 

Prison,  2943b. 

Prisoners  of  War,  2944b. 

Pristarchus,  265a. 

Private  Banks,  333b. 

Privateer,   2944b. 

Privy  Council,   2944b. 

Privy  Seal,  2945a. 

Prix  de  Rome,  1175a. 

Prize  Fighting,   2945a. 

Probate,   2945b. 

Procedure,   2945b. 

Proctor,  Adelaide  Anne,  2946a. 

Proctor,       Richard      Anthony, 

2946a. 
Production,   3419a. 
Profit  Sharing,  2946b. 
Program  Music,  398a. 
Progress  and  Poverty,  3312a. 
Progression,   2946b. 
Progressive         Party,        2891a, 

3112a,   3503a. 
Prohibition,         2947a,         3718b, 

3888a 
Prohibition  Party,   2890b. 
Prometheus,  2725b,   2948b. 
Promissory  Note,   2948b. 
Pronghorn,  2948b. 
Pronoun,    2949a. 
Proof     and      Proof     Reading, 

2949a. 
Proportion,  2950a. 
Prosecuting  Attorney,  1083a. 
Prose  Edda,  3331b. 
Proserpina,    2950a. 
Proserpina,  Story  of,  2454b. 
Protagoras,   3346b. 
Protection,    14t9b,    2950b. 
Protective        Coloration        and 

Mimicry,   2950b. 
Protective  Tariff,  3515a. 
Protectorate,  2951a,  3460b. 
Proteids,  2784b,  2951a. 
Proteins,    1096b,    1367a,   2951a. 
Proterozoic  Era,   2951b. 
Protesilaus,  2951b. 
Protestant    Episcopal   Church, 

1247b. 
Protestant  Missions,   2359b. 
Protestants,  2951b. 
Protoplasm.   2&51b. 
Protozoa,    2952a. 
Proud  Flesh,  1553b. 
Proudhon,        Pierre        Joseph, 

2952a. 
Provencal        Langauge        and 

Literature,  2952b. 
Proverbs,  2952b. 
Providence,   R.  I.,   2952b. 
Province,  2953b. 
Provincial   Courts   in   Canada, 

295a. 
Provo  Citv.  Utah,  295b. 
Prune,    2955b. 
Pruning,  2955b. 
Prussia,    1499b,    2956a. 
Prusslc   Acid,   2957b. 
Psalms,  Book  of,   1749b,  2957b. 
Pseudonym,  2958a. 
Psyche,  2958a. 
Psychology,  2958a,  2960a. 
Ptarmigan,  2963a. 
Pteridophytes,        516b,        518a, 

2963b. 
Pterodactyl,  2963b. 
Ptolemy   (author),  2964b. 
Ptolemy     (family     of     kings) 

2964a. 
Ptolemy,  Claudius,   265a. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  83a. 
Ptolemy  Soter,  83a. 
Ptomaine    Poisoning,    2964b. 
Ptomaines,  314b,  2964b. 


Public  Defender,  2964b. 
Public  Lands,  2012a,  2013b. 
Public  Lands  in  Canada,  2014a. 
Public  Roads,  Office  of,   51b. 
Public  Schools,  3213b. 
Public  Utilities,  2965a. 
Publius  Ovidius  Naso,  2692a. 
Puccini,  Giacomo,   2965b. 
Puck,    2965b. 
Pudding  Stone,  912b. 
Pudd'nhead   Wilson,    1325a. 
Puebla,    Mexico,    2965b. 
Pueblo    (illustration),   2589a. 

2965b. 
Pueblo,  Colo.,   2966a. 
Puff  Adder,  23a,  3775b. 
Puftball,    2966b. 
Puffin,  2966b. 
Puffing   Billy,    2149b. 
Pug    2967a 

Puget  Sound,   2967a,   3810a. 
Puisne  Judge,   2P67b. 
Pulaski,  Casimir,  2967b. 
Pulitzer,  Joseph,  1910b,  2967b. 
Pulley,    2968a. 
Pullman,      George      Mortimer, 

2968a. 
Pulmonary  Artery,  5b. 
Pulmonary  Circulation,  826b. 
Pulmonary  Veins,  1656a. 
Pulmotor,   2968b. 
Pulque,    2320b.   2968b. 
Pulse,   2842a,   2968b. 
Pulse   Family,   526a,   2080a. 
Pultowa,  Battle  of,  1319b. 
Puma,   2726b.   2969a. 
Pumice,   2969a. 
Pump,   2969a. 
Pumpkin,    2970a. 
Punctuation,    2970a. 
Punda,  2993b. 
Punic  Wars,  2970b,  3100b. 
Punishment,    791a. 
Punjab,  2970b. 
Punt,   482a. 
Punta    Arenas,     Chile,     2970b, 

3580b. 
Pupa,  616a,   724b,  1807b.  2970b. 
Purdue  University,   2971a. 
Pure   Democracy,   1542a. 
Pure  Food   Laws.   2971a. 
Purgatory.   2971a. 
Puritans,  2971b,  3902b. 
Purple  Flag,   1836a. 
Purple  Grackle,  996a. 
Purple  Martin,  3479a. 
Purslane,   2971b. 
Pursley,    2971b. 
Puslev,  2971b. 
Puss  in  Boots,  2791a. 
Pussy-Willow,   3880a. 
Pustules,   3325a. 
Putnam,  Israel,   2971b. 
Putnam,  Rufus,  2643b,  2972a. 
Putrefaction.    2972a. 
Puttees.   3C68b. 
Putty,  2972b. 
Pygmalion.  2972b. 
Pygmies.   2972b. 
Pyle,   Howard.    2972b. 
Pym,   John,   297Sa. 
Pyorrhoea,  2973a. 
Pyramid    (mathematics),   209a, 

2973a. 
Pyramid   Dvnasty,    1190b. 
Pyramids,  2973b,  3592b. 
Pyramus,    2974b. 
Pyrenees  Mountains,  2974b. 
Pyrite,   1837b,   2975a. 
Pyrocellulose,  1596a. 
Pyrometer,   2975a. 
Pyrotechnv,   2975b. 
Pyroxene,  282b,  2975b. 
Pyroxylin,   1596a. 
Pyrrha,  1066a. 
Pvrrhus.  2975b. 
Pythagoras,  2976a. 
Pythagorean  Theorem,  2976a. 
Pythian  Games,  2976a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nnmber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Pythias,  Knights  of 


4038 


Renaissance 


Pythias,  Knights  of,   1989a. 
Pythias   and   Damon,   1023b. 
Python    (mythology),    2976b. 
Python    (serpent),  2976b. 
Pyxie,  2976b, 


Q,   2977a. 

Quadrant,  2977a. 

Quadrilateral.  2977a. 

Quadrille,    1025a,   2977a. 

Quadroon,    2977a. 

Quadruple  Alliance,  2977b. 

Quaestor,    2977b. 

Quahog,   841b. 

Quail,  2977b. 

Quaker  City,  2810b. 

Quakers,  2978a. 

Quantity,    2978b. 

Quapaw,  2978b. 

Quarantine,  2978b. 

Quarry  and  Quarrying,  2978b. 

Quart,   2979b. 

Quarter-deck,   2979b. 

Quartermaster,  2979b. 

Quartermaster  Corps,  226a. 

Quartz,  2979b. 

Quartzite,  2980a. 

Quartz  Vein,   2980a. 

Quassia,  2980a. 

Quaternary  Period,  2980a. 

Quatrain,   2980a. 

Quebec  (province),  2980b. 

Quebec,  Battle  of.  2984b. 

Quebec,  City  of,  2985a. 

Quebec  Act,  2986b. 

Quebec  Bridge,  556a. 

Quebec  Resolutions,  2986b. 

Quebec    Tercentenary,    2987a. 

Queen,  2987a. 

Queen  Anne's  War,  1412b. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  2987a. 

Queen  of  Roads,  147b. 

Queensberry,        John        Sholto 

Douglas,   2987a. 
Queensland,  2987a. 
Queenston  Heights,  Battle  of, 

2988a. 
Queenstown,  Ireland,  2988b. 
Quest  of  the  Holy  Grail,  2b. 
Quetzal,   2988b,  3637b. 
Quetzalcoatl,   308b,  2988b. 
Quichuas,  491a. 
Quicksand,  2988b. 
Quicksilver,    2304b. 
Quiller-Couch,  Arthur  Thomas, 

2989a. 
Quince,  2989a. 
Quincy,  111.,  2989a. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  2989b. 
Quincy,  Mass.,   2989b. 
.  Quinine,  2989b. 
Quinoa,    1537a. 
Quinsy,  2990a. 
Quintilian,  2990a. 
Quintroon,  2977a. 
Quirinal,   2990a.   3098b. 
Quit  Claim  Deed,  1047a. 
Quito,  2990b. 
Quoits.  2990b. 
Quorum,  2990b. 
Quotation  Mark.  2991a. 
Quo  Vadis,  329Sa. 
Quo  Warranto,  3949b. 


R 


R,    2992a. 
Rabbi,  2992a. 
Rabbit,  1627b,  2992a. 
Rabelais,  Francois,  2992b. 
Raccoon,  2993a. 
Race,   2993b. 
Racer  Crabs,    979b. 
Races  of  Men,  2994a. 
Rachel    (Bible),    2995b. 
Rachel-Felix,  Elizabeth,  2995a. 


Racine,  Jean,  2995b. 

Racine,  Wis.,   2996a. 

Rack,   2996a. 

Radcliffe    College,    2996a. 

Radiata,    2996b. 

Radiation,   1657a. 

Radiolaria,  2996b. 

Radish,   2996b. 

Radium,   2996b. 

Radius,  826a. 

Raffia,   355b,   2997b. 

Ragnarok,   2464b. 

Ragtime,  2998a. 

Ragweed,   2998a. 

Raikes,  Robert,  2998a,  3472a. 

Rail,  2998a. 

Railroad,   2998a. 

Railroads  in  the  United  States, 

3687b. 
Railroads  of  Canada,  3002a. 
Railroad  War  Board,  3001a. 
Railway  Postoffice,  2920b. 
Rain,  2021a,  3003a. 
Rainbow,    1467b,    3004b. 
Rainbow,  The  (theme),  3557b. 
Rainbow  Bridge,  3726a. 
Rainfall  in  the  United  States, 

3677a. 
Rain  Gauge,   3005b. 
Rain  Goose,   1084a. 
Rainier,  Mount,  3005a. 
Rainy  Lake,   3005a. 
Raisin     River,     Massacre     of, 

3005a. 
Raisins,  3005b. 
Rajah,  3005b. 
Rajputana,    3005b. 
Raleigh,  N.  C,   3006a. 
Raleigh,  Walter,  3006b,  3779b. 
Ralph   Roister  Doister,    1114a, 

3664a. 
Ramayana,  o007a. 
Ramee,  Louise  de  la,  3007a. 
Rameses  II,  1190b,   3007a. 
Rameses  III,  1190b. 
Ramie,  48.6b. 

Ramolino,  Letizia,  2470b. 
Ramona,   1864b. 
Ranavalona  II,  2210  a. 
Randolph,    Edmund    Jennings, 

3007a. 
Randolph,  John,  3007b. 
Random  Masonry,  2269b. 
Rangoon,  Burma,  3007b. 
Ranjit  Singh,  3302b. 
Ranke,     Leopold     von,     3008b, 
Rankin  Jeannette,   2399a. 

3008b. 
Rank  in  Army  and  Navy,  3008a. 
Ranunculus,  3009a. 
Rape  of  Lucrece,  The,  3268a. 
Rape  of  the  Sabines,  3099b. 
Raphael,  2705a,  3009a. 
Rapids,   723a. 

Rappahannock  River,  3009b. 
Raspberry  3009b. 
Rat,   3010a. 
Ratchet,  3010a. 
Ratel,   3010a. 
Ratio,  3010a. 
Rattan,  3010b. 
Rattlesnake,    2490a,    3010b. 
Raven,  3011a. 
Ravine   Deer,   1456b. 
Ray,  3011b. 
Razor,    3011b. 
Reaction,   3011b. 
Read,  Opie  Percival,  3011b. 
Read,        Thomas        Buchanan, 

3012a. 
Reade,  Charles,  3012a. 
Reading,   3012a. 
Reading,  Methods  of  Teaching, 

3028a. 
Reading,  Pa.,  3029b. 
Reading  of  Earley,  Lord,  3029b. 
Reagan,        John        Henninger, 

3030a. 
Real-estate  Mortgage,  2418b. 
Realism,  3030b. 


Real  Property,  3030b. 

Realschulen,  1494a. 

Reaping  Machine,  1823a,  2199a. 

3030b. 
Rear-Admiral,  26b. 
Reason,     1263a,     2958b,     2962b, 

3031a. 
Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm, 

2135a. 
Rebekah,  407a. 
Rebellion  of  1837,  3032a. 
Recall,  The,  3032b. 
Receipt,   3032b. 
Receiver,  3032b. 
Recessional,  The,  1984a. 
Recife,  Brazil,   2790b. 
Reciprocity,  3033a,  3515b. 
Reclamation   Act,    1842a. 
Reclamation  Service,  3033b. 
Reconstruction,  3034a,  3711a. 
Rectangle,  3035a. 
Rectified  Spirits,  76a. 
Rectum,  1822a. 
Red,  3035a. 
Redbird,  703a,  3035a. 
Red  Cedar,  3035a. 
Red  Cloud,  3035a. 
Red  Cross  Society,  349a,  3035b. 
Red  Jacket,  3036a. 
Redlands,  Calif,  3036a. 
Red  Letter  Days,  1312b. 
Red   Men,   Improved   Order   of, 

3036a. 
Redmond,  John  Edward,  3036b. 
Redpoll,  2116b. 
Red  River,  3036b. 
Red  River  of  the  North,  3036b. 
Red  River   Rebellion,   3037a. 
Red  Root,   1586a. 
Red  Sapphire,  3129a. 
Red  Sea,  413b,  3037b. 
Red  Spiders,   2372b. 
Redstart,    3037b,    3803b. 
Redwing,  Minn.,  3038a. 
Redwood,    3038a,   3256b. 
Reed,  Thomas  Brackett,  3038a. 
Reed  Bird,  485b. 
Reelfoot  Lake,  3542a. 
Referendum,  3038b. 
Reflecting  Telescope,  3535b. 
Reflection  of  Light,  2101b. 
Reflex  Action,  3038b. 
Reformation,  The,   3039a. 
Reformed   Church,   3042a. 
Reform  Schools,  3042a. 
Refracting  Astronomical  Tele- 
scope, 3535b. 
Refraction,    3042b. 
Refraction  of  Light,  2102a. 
Refrigerator  Cars,  3000b. 
Regattas,  2993b. 
Regelation,  3043a. 
Regent,  3043a. 
Regiment,  226b,  3043a. 
Regina,  Sask.,  3043a. 
Registered  Bonds,   498a. 
Registration,   3043b. 
Registration  of  Births,  Deaths, 

and   Marriages,    3043b. 
Registration  of  Deeds,  1047b. 
Rehoboam,    419a. 
Reichstadt,  Napoleon  Francis, 

3043b. 
Reichstag,   3044a. 
Reid,  Whitelaw,  3044a. 
Reign    of   Terror,    3547a. 
Reikjavik,  Iceland,  3058a. 
Reims,  France,   3059a. 
Reindeer,  66a,  3044a. 
Reinforced  Concrete,  908b. 
Relationship,   3045a. 
Relief,  102b,  359a,  2324a,  3229b. 
Relief  Map,  2247a. 
Religion,  3045a. 
Religious  Liberty,  3046a. 
Rembrandt,  3046b. 
Remington,   Frederic,    3047a. 
Remsen.  Ira.  3047a. 
Remus,   3099b. 
Renaissance,   3047b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicate.^  column  1-;  the  letter  h,  column  2, 


Renaissance  Architecture 


4039 


Roses,  Wars  of  the 


Renaissance       Architecture, 
166a. 

Renan,  Ernest,  3049a. 

Renfrew,  Ont.,  3049a. 

Reni,  Guido.  1591a. 

Rennin,   1075b. 

Reno,  Nev.,  3049a. 

Rensselaer,  N.  Y..  3049b. 

Rent,  3049b,  3794a. 

Reo  Teodoro,  3112b. 

Replevin,  3949b. 

Reply  to  Hayne.  3840b. 

Repousse,  1219b. 

Representatives,      House      of, 
3050a. 

Reprieve,  3051a. 

Reptiles,   3051b. 

Republic,  1542a. 

Republican   Elephant,   2476a. 

Republican  Party,  2889a,  3051b. 

Republican      Party     of      1801, 
*^887a 

Republic   of  Panama.    2718b. 

Republic  of  Plato,  2871b. 

Repudiation,    3052a. 

Requiem,    2270a. 

Requisition    (law),   1286b. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Battle  of, 
3052a. 

Reservoir,  3052a. 

Residual   Air,   549b. 

Resins,  3052b. 

Resolutions  of  1798.  1941b. 

Restigouche  River,   3052b. 

Restoration,  The,  3052b. 

Resumption     of     Specie     Pay- 
ments, 3379a. 

Resurrection,  3053a. 

Resurrection  Plant,   1887b. 

Reszke  (family),  1061b. 

Retainer,  3053a. 

Retriever,    3053b. 

Reunion,  He  de  la,  3053b. 

Reval.  Esthonia,  3053b. 

Reveille,   592b. 

Revelation,  Book  of,  3053b. 

Revelstoke,  B.  C.  3054a. 

Revenue  Cutter  Service,  867a. 

Revenue  Plag^,  1341a. 

Revere,  Paul,   3054b. 

Reveries  of  a  Bachelor.  2372a. 

Review  Roundel  (game).  1439b. 

Revival  of  learning,  3047b. 

Revolution.   3054b. 

Revolutionary   "War   in  Amer- 
ica, 3055a,  3702b. 

Revolver,   3057b. 

Rexford,    Eben   Eugene,    3058a. 

Reykjavik,  Iceland,  3058a. 

Reynolds.  Joshua,  2705b,  3058a. 

Rhadamanthus,   3058b. 

Rhaetians,    3489a. 

Rhea   (bird).   3058b. 

Rhea  (mythology).  3059a. 

Rhelms.  France,  3059a. 

Rhetoric,    3059b. 

Rheumatism,   3n59b. 

Rhine  River.  3060a. 

Rhinoceros,  3f^61a. 

Rhinoceros    Bird,   3061b. 

Rhizopoda,    3061b. 

Rhode  Island,   3061b. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,   2694b,   3065a. 

Rhodes,  Island  of,  3064b. 

Rhodesia,   3065b. 

Rhodes    Scholarships,    3066a. 

Rhododendron.  3066b. 

Rhomb  Spar.  1092b. 

Rhombus.    3066b. 

Rhone  River,   3066b. 

Rhubarb,   3067a. 

Ribbon,   3067a. 

Ribbon  Pish.  3067a. 

Rib  Grass.   2869b. 

Ribs.    3067b. 

Rice,  3067b. 

Rice,   Alice  Hegan,  3068b. 

Rice  Bunting,  485b.  3069a 

Rice   Paper.    3069a 

Richard  I,  997b,  3069a. 


Richard  II.  3069a. 

Richard  III,  3069b. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  3069b. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  Du- 
plessis,  3070a. 

Richelieu  River.  3070a. 

Richmond,  Ind.,  3070a. 

Richmond,  Va..  3070b. 

Richter,  johann  Paul  Fried- 
rich.  3072a. 

Rickets,  3072a. 

Riding,  3072b. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  3072b. 

Ridpath.  John  Clark,  3072b. 

Riel,  Louis,  3073a,  3200a. 

Rienzi,  Cola  di,  3073b. 

Riesengebirge,  307  3b. 

Rifle,  3073b. 

Riga,  Gulf  of,  3074b. 

Riga,  Livonia,  3074b. 

Riggs,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin, 
3075a. 

Right,  Petition  of,  2804a. 

Right  and  Wrong,  1259a. 

Right  of  Search.  3242a. 

Right  of  Way,  3075a. 

Rights,  Bill  of.  432b. 

Rigsdag,    1057b. 

Riis,  Jacob  Augustus,  3075a. 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  3075b. 

Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner, 
878b. 

Rinderpest.   3076a. 

Rinehart.  Mary  Roberts,  3076a. 

Ring,  3076a. 

Ring  and  the  Book,  The.  574b. 

Ring-Toss,    182a. 

Ringworm,  3076b. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  3077a. 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  3077b. 

Rio  Grande,  3078a. 

Rio  Negro,   3(J78a. 

Riot,   3078a. 

Riparian  Rights,  3078a. 

Ripley.  George.   3607b. 

Rip  Van  Winkle,   184fia.   3078b. 

Ristori,  Adelaide.   3078b. 

Rivers,  3079a. 

Riverside,    Calif.,    3080a. 

Riverside  Drive,  2556a. 

River  Svstems  of  North  Amer- 
ica,  2584b. 

River  Tortoise,  3080a. 

Rives,   Amelie.  3080b. 

Riviera,  3080b. 

Road  Rules,  3081a. 

Road  Runner,  3080b, 

Roads.  3081a,  3688a. 

Roanoke,  Va.,  3083a. 

Roanoke  River,  3083a. 

Roaring  Forties,   2937a. 

Roasting    (cookery),    1099b. 

Robbery,    3083a. 

Robert  II,  3224a. 

Rpbbia  (family),  3083b. 

Roberts,  Charles  George 
Douglas,   30S3b. 

Roberts,  Frederick  Sleigh. 
Earl  Roberts,   3083b. 

Roberval,  Sieur  de,  668b. 

Robespierre.  Maximilien  Marie 
Isidore.   3084a. 

Robin,  3084b. 

Robin  Hood,  1049b.  3085a. 

Robin  Hood  and  the  Stranger, 
2052a. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  3085a,  3249b. 

Rob  Roy,  3085a. 

Robsart,  Amy.  2081a. 

Robson.  Mount.  561a.  3089a. 

Robusti,  Jacopo,  3584b. 

Roc.  3085b. 

Rochambeau.  Jean  Baptiste 
Donatien  de  Vimeure,  3085b. 

Rochester.  Minn.,  3086a. 

Rochester.  N.  Y..  3086a. 

Rock,  1474a,  3086b. 

Rock-cork.  239b. 

Rockefeller,  John  D.,  3087a. 
3400a. 

Rockefeller  Foundation,  3087a. 


Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medi- 
cal Research,  3087b. 
Rocket,  The,  2150a,  3421a. 
Rockford,  111.,  3087b. 
Rock  Hill.  S.  C,  3088a. 
Rock  Island,  111.,  3088a. 
Rock  of  Ages,  1750b. 
Rock    of    Chickamauga,    The, 

3567b. 
Rock  Salt,  3175b. 
Rocky       Mountain       National 

Park,   2742b. 
Rocky  Mountain  Parks,   885b, 

2743b. 
Rocky  Mountains,  3088b. 
Rocky   Mountain   White   Goat, 

3089b. 
Rodentia,   3089b. 
Rodin,  Auguste,  3090a. 
Roe.   Edward   Payson,   3090b. 
Roebling,    John    Augustus, 

3C90b. 
Roebuck,  3091a. 
Roentgen,     Wilhelm     Konrad, 

3091b. 
Roenthen  Rays,  3091b. 
Rogers,  Randolph,  3092a. 
Rohlfs,  Anna  Katharine  Green, 

3092a. 
Roland,  3092a. 
Roland  de  la  Platiere,  Madame 

3092b. 
Rolfe,  John,  2878a.  3092b. 
Rolfe,  William  James,  3092b, 
Roll  Brimstone,  559a. 
Roller,    3092b. 
Rollo  Books,  3a. 
Roman  Architecture,  164b. 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  3093a. 
Romance.  2616b.  3094a. 
Romance      Languages,      3094b, 

3189b. 
Roman  Consul,   935b. 
Romanesque  Architecture 

164b. 
Roman  Mythology.  2448b. 
Roman  Numerals.  3094b. 
Romanoff  (dynasty).  3095a. 
Romans,  Epistle  to  the,  3095b 
Romanticism,   3095b. 
Roman  Walls.  3095b. 
Roman   Wormwood,  2998a. 
Rome,  3096a. 
Rome.  History  of,  3099b. 
Rome,  Ga.,  3106a. 
Rome.  Modern.  3098a. 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  3106a. 
Romeo  and  Juliet.  3106b. 
Romulus,  3099b.  3106b. 
Roof  of  the  World,  3577b. 
Rook,  3108a. 

Rookwood   Pottery.    3108a. 
Roosevelt,  The,  2603b. 
Roosevelt       Theodore,       2577b, 

3108b. 
Roosevelt  Dam.  1842b. 
Root  (mathematics).  3115b. 
Root.  Elihu,  2577b,   3115b. 
Root,  George  Frederick,  3115b. 
Roots.   3116a. 
Rope,    3116a. 
Roquer,  Emma  de,  647a. 
Rorqual.   3116b. 
Rosa,  Monte,  3116b. 
Rosaceae.  3116b. 
Rosamond.   3117a. 
Rosario,  Argentina,  3117a, 
Rosary,  3117a. 
Rose,   3117b. 
Rose  Bay,  2653b. 
Rosebery,      Archibald       Philip 

Primrose,  3118a. 
Rosecrans,      William      Starke, 

3118b. 
Rose  Familv.  522a,  3116b. 
Rosemarv,  3118b. 
Rose  of  .Jericho,  1887b. 
Rose  of  Sharon,  1683a. 
Roses,  Wars  of  the.  3118b. 


The   letter   a.   after   a    nninher,    indioateN    ooliinin    1;    the   letter   I».   rolutnn   2, 


Rosetta  Stone 

Rosetta  Stone,   3119a. 

Rose  Window,  3119a. 

Rosewood,    3119a. 

Rosin,   3052b.  3119b. 

Ross,   Alexander,  3119b. 

Ross,  Betsy,  3119b. 

Ross,   James  Clark,   3119b. 

Rossetti,    Christina    Georgina, 

3120a. 
Rosetti,  Gabriel  Charles  Dante, 

3120a. 
Rossini,      Gioachino      Antonio, 

3120b. 
Rostand,  Edmond,  3120b. 
Roswell,  New  Mex.,  3120b. 
Rot,    3121a. 

Rotation  of  Crops,  3121a. 
Rothscliild    (family),  3122a. 
Rotterdam,  Netherlands,  3122b. 
Roubaix,  France,  3122b. 
Rouble,  3129a. 
Rouen,  France,  3122b. 
Roug-e,  3123a. 

Rouget  de  I'isle,  2258b,  3123b. 
Rouge  et  noir,  3123a. 
Rough-on-Rats,  139b. 
Rough     Riders,     3110a,     3123b, 

3375b,  3907a. 
Roulette,   3123b. 
Roumania,  3131a. 
Roundheads.  3123b. 
Round  Table,  3124a. 
Round  Towers,  3124a. 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  3124a. 
Rowing,  3124b. 
Rowland,     Henry    Augustus, 

3125a. 
Royal,  Mount,  2405a. 
Royal  Gorge,  3125a. 
Royal.    Institution,    of.    Great 

Britain,   3125a. 
Royal     Northwest     Mounted 

Police,  3125b. 
Royal  Society,  The  3126a. 
Royal  Supremacy,   3475b. 
Rubaiyat,  1337a,  2657a. 
Rubber,  2489b,  3126b. 
Rubble  Masonry,  2269b. 
Rubellite,   3602b. 
Rubens,     Peter     Paul,     2705b, 

3128a 
Rubicon  River,  3128b. 
Rubidium,   3128b. 
Rubinstein.    Anton    Grigorye- 
vitch,  3128b. 

Ruble,  3129a. 

Rubrics,  2246a. 

Ruby,  461a,   3129a. 

Rude,  Francois,  3129a. 

Ruff,  3129a. 

Ruffo,   Titti,   3129b. 

Rugby  School,  3129b. 

Rugs,  3129b. 

Ruisdael.    3149a. 

Rule  of  Three,  2950a. 

Rulers  of  the  World,  3131a. 

Rum,  3131a. 

Rumania,   3131a. 

Rumania  in  World  War,  3922b. 

Rumelia,  3133b. 

Ruminants,  3133b. 

Rump  Parliament,  992a,  3134a, 

Runes,  3134a. 

Runjit  Singh,  3134a. 

Runnimede,  3134b. 

Running  Relay  (game),  1441a. 

Rupee,   3134b. 

Rupert's  Land,  3134b. 

Rupture,  1677b. 

Rural  Credits,  3134b. 

Rural  High  Schools,  1685b. 

Rurik,  3142a. 

Rush,   3135b. 

Ruskin,  John,  3136a. 

Russell,  Annie,  3136a. 

Russell,   John,    3136b. 

Russell,  Lillian,  3137a. 

Russell,  Sol  Smith,  3137a. 


4040 

Russell       Sage       Foundation, 

3137a. 
Russia,  3137b. 
Russian  Turkestan,   3648b. 
Russo-Japanese  War,   3146b. 
Russo-Turkisk  War,  3147a. 
Rust,   3147b. 
Rusts,  3148a. 
Ruth.   414a. 
Ruth,  Book  of,  3148a. 
Ruthenians,  3148a. 
Rutile,    3148b. 
Rutland,  Vt.,  3148b. 
Rutledge,  John,   3148b. 
Ruwenzori,  Mount,   8a. 
Ruysdaal,   Jacob   van,   3149a. 
Ryan,  Abram  Joseph,  3149a. 
Rye,  3149a. 

Rye  House  Plot,  3149b. 
Ryswick,  Treaty  of,  3149b. 


S,  3150a. 

Saar  Coal  Region,  1390a. 

Sabbath,  3150a. 

Sabbatical  Year,   3150a. 

Sabine  River,   3150b. 

Sabines,  3150b. 

Sabines,  Rape  of  the,  3099b. 

Sable,    3150b. 

Sable  Antelope,  137b. 

Sable  Island,  3151a. 

Sabotage,  3151a. 

Sac,  3151b. 

Saccharin,  3151b. 

Sachs,  Hans,  3151b. 

Sacrament,  3093a,  3151b. 

Sacramento,  Calif.,   3152a. 

Sacramento  River,   3152b. 

Sacred  College,    3152b. 

Sacred  Grove,  The,  2655b. 

Sacred  Way,  3096b. 

Sacrifices,  3152b. 

Saddle,  3153a. 

Sadducees,  3153a. 

Sadowa,  Battle  of,  3153b. 

S.  A.  E.  Form.ula,  1722a. 

Safe,   3153b. 

Safety  Lamp,  1034a,  3153b. 

Safety  Matches,  2279b. 

Safety  Valve.   3154a. 

Safflower,  3154a. 

Saffron,    3154a. 

Safi,    Ismail,    2795b. 

Sagas,  2611a,  3154b. 

Sage,   3154b. 

Sage,  Margaret  Olivia  Slocum, 

3155a 
Sage,  Russell,  3154b. 
Sagebrush,  3155a. 
Sagebrush  State,  3155a. 
Sage  Grouse,  3155a. 
Saghalien   Island,   3170b. 
Saginaw.  Mich.,  3155a. 
Sagittarius,   3155b. 
Sago,   3155b. 
Saguenay  River,  3156a. 
Sahara  Desert,  3156a. 
Said  Pasha,  1191b. 
Saiga,   137a. 

Saigon,  Cochin-China,  3157a. 
Sailboat  and  Sailing,  3157a. 
Sailing  Vessels,  3281b. 
Saint  Albans,  Battle  of,  3118b. 
Saint  Andrew's  Cross,  994a. 
Saint  Augustine,  Fla.,   3158b. 
Saint    Bartholomew,    Massacre 

of,  348a. 
Saint  Bernard,  Great,  3158b. 
Saint  Bernard  Dog,  3158b. 
Saint  Basil.  Order  of,  275b. 
Saint  Boniface,  Man.,  3159a. 
Saint  Catharine's  Ont..  3159a. 
Saint  Charles.  Mo..  3159b. 
Saint      Christopher      (island), 

3159b. 
Saint  Clair,  Arthur,  3159b. 
Saint  Clair,  Lake,  3160a. 


Salon,  The  Paris 

Saint  Cloud.  Minn.,  3160a. 
Saint  Croix  Island,  3620b. 
Saint  Elias  Mountains,  3160a. 
Saint  Elmo's  Fire,   3160b. 
Saint  Etienne,  France,   3160b. 
Saint  Francis  Xavier,  3955a. 
Saint       Gaudens,       Augustus, 

3160b,  3236a. 
Saint  George,  1409b. 
Saint  George,  Order  of,  2671a. 
Saint  George  and  the  Dragon, 

3161a. 
Saint  George's  Channel,  3161a. 
Saint  Gotthard,  3161b. 
Saint  Helena  Island,  3161b. 
Saint  Hyacinthe,   Que.,   3161b. 
Saint  John,  Que.,  S162b. 
Saint  John,  N.  B.,  3162a. 
Saint      John      of      Jerusalem, 

Knights  of,   1899b. 
Saint  John  River,  3162a. 
Saint    John's,     Newfoundland, 

3162a. 
Saint     John's      River      (Fla.), 

3162b. 
Saint  Joseph,  Mo.,  3162b. 
Saint  Kitts,   3159b.   3621a. 
Saint  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,  3163a. 
Saint  Lawrence  Canals,  678b. 
Saint  Lawrence  Islands  Park, 

2743a. 
Saint  Lawrence  River,  3163a. 
Saint  Leger,  Barry,  3163b. 
Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  3164a. 
Saint  Lucia   Island,   3621b. 
Saint     Mark,      Cathedral      of. 

3166a. 
Saint  Mary's  Canal,  3202b. 
Saint  Mary's  River,  3166b. 
Saint  Maurice  River,   3166b. 
Saint   Nicholas,    a   Visit   from, 
2020a. 

Saint  Paul,  3167a. 

Saint  Paul  de  Loanda,  Angola, 
3168b. 

Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  3168b. 

Saint  Petersburg,  Fla.,  3169a. 

Saint       Petersburg,       Russia. 
2804b.  3169a. 

Saint   Peter's   Canal,    679b. 

Saint  Peter's  Church,  3169a. 

Saint  Quentin,  France,  3169b. 

Saint-Saens,   Charles  Camille, 
3169ta. 

Saint  Sophia,  Church  of,  3169b. 

Saint  Thomas,  Ont.,  3170a. 

Saint  Thomas  Island,  3170a. 

Saint  Ursula,   3723a. 

Saint  Ursula,  Nuns  of,  3723a. 

Saint  Valentine,  3732b. 

Saint  Veronica,   3761b. 

Saint  Vincent,    3170b. 

Saint  Vitus's  Dance,  3170b. 

Sainte  Anne  de  Beaupre',  Que- 
bec, 3160a. 

Sakhalin  Island,  3147a. 

Saladin,   997b,   1191a,   3171a. 

Salamander,  3171a. 

Salamis,  3171b. 

Sal   Ammoniac,    3171b. 

Salary  Grab,  3171b. 

Salayer  Islands,  3171b. 

Sale,  348a. 

Sale,  Bill  of,  432b. 

Salem,  Mass.,  3171b. 

Salem,  Ohio,  3172a. 

Salem,  Ore.,   3172b. 

Saleyer  Islands,  3171b. 

Salic  Law,  3172b. 

Salicylic   Acid,   3172b. 

Salina,  Kans.,  3173a. 

Salisbury,  N.  C,  3173a. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Arthur  Tal- 
bot Gascoyne  Cecil,  3173a. 

Saliva,  3173b. 

Sallust,   3173b. 

Salmon,    3174a,    3809b, 

Salol,  3175a. 

Salome,   3175a. 

Salon,  The  Paris,  3175a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  numljer,  indicates  column   1;  the  letter  b,  column  S. 


Saloniki,  Greece 

Saloniki,   Greece,    3175a. 

Salsify,  2696a,  2697a. 

Salt,  3175b. 

Saltillo,    Max,   3177a. 

Salt    Lake    City,    Utah,    3177b, 
3725a. 

Salt  Lakes,   1468a. 

Salt  Sea.  1037a. 

Salton  Sea,  3178a, 

Saltpetre,  3178b. 

Salts,  Smelling,   3178b. 

Salutations,  3178b. 

Salvador,  3178b. 

Salvation  Army,  3179b. 

Salvini,  Tommaso,  3180b. 

Samaria,  3180b. 

Samaritans,   3180b. 

Samarkand,    Russian    Turkes- 
tan, 3181a. 

Samen   Mountains,   9b. 

Samnites,  3181a. 

Samoa,  3181a. 

Samos,   30a,   3181b. 

Sampson,      William      Thomas, 
3181b. 

Sam  Slick,  1614b. 

Samson,  3182a. 

Samson  Agonistes,  3182a. 

Samson  and  Delilah,  3169b. 

Samuel,  3182b. 

Samuel,  Books  of,  3182b. 

Samurai,  3182b. 

San  Ang-elo.  Tex.,  3182b. 

San       Antonio,       Tex.,       3182b, 
3552a. 

San  Bernardino,  Calif.,  3183b. 

San  Diego,  Calif.,   3184b. 

San  Domingo,  3192a. 

Sand,  3183b. 

Sand,  George,  3183b. 

Sandalwood,  3184a. 

Sand  Bur,  3184a. 

Sand  Eel.  3184a. 

Sanderling,    3184a. 

Sand  Lance.  3184a. 

Sandpaper,  3184b. 

Sandpiper,  3185a. 

Sandstone,  3185a. 

Sand   Table,    1978b. 

Sandusky,  Ohio,  3185a. 

Sandwich  Islands,   1643a. 

Sandv  Hook,  3185b. 

San   Francisco,  Calif.,   3185b. 

San  Francisco  River,  3187a. 

Sanhedrin.   3187b. 

Sanitary   Science,   3187b. 

Sanitation,    1101a. 

San   Jacinto,    Battle   of,    3183a, 
3187b. 

San  Joaquin  River,  3188a. 

San  Jose,  Calif.,  3188a. 

San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  3188a. 

San  Jose  Scale,  3188b. 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  3188b. 

Sankey.  Ira  David.  3188b. 

San  Luis  Park.  3088b. 

San   Luis  Potosi,   Mex.,  3189a. 

San  Marino,  Renublic  of,  3189a. 

San  Martin,   3189a. 

San  Miguel    de    Tucuman,   Ar- 
gentina.  3643a. 

San  Salvador,  Central  America, 
3189b. 

Sanskrit  Language  and  Liter- 
ature, 3189b. 

Santa  Ana,  Calif..  3190a. 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de, 
3190a. 

Santa  Barbara.  Calif.,   3190a. 

Santa  Claus,   2570a. 

Santa  Cruz.   Calif..   3190b. 

Santa  Fe,  Argentina.  3190b. 

Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,3191a. 

Santiago,  Chile.   3191b. 

Santiago,  Battle  of,  3191b. 
Santiaeo  de  Cuba.  Cuba.  3192a. 

Santo  Domingo,  Santo  Domin- 
go.  3192a. 

Santos.   Brazil,  3192b. 

Santos-Dumont,  Alberto.  1362a, 
3193a. 


4041 

Saone  River,  3193a. 

Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  3193a. 

Sap,  3193b. 

Sapajou,  3193b. 

Sapphire,  361a,  3193b. 

Sappho,   3194a. 

Saprohytes,   314a. 

Sap-sucker,        1346b,        3194a, 

3909a 
Sapulpa,  Okla.,  3194b. 
Saracens,  1191a,  3194b. 
Saragossa,  Spain,   3194b. 
Sarajevo.   3195a. 
Saratoga,    Battles    of,     1319b, 

3195a 
Saratoga  Springs,  X.  Y.,  3195b. 
Saratov,  Russia,  3195b. 
Sarcolemma,  2438a. 
Sarcophagus,  S75a,   3195b. 
Sard,  3196a. 

Sardanapalus,  257a,  3196a. 
Sardine,   3196a. 
Sardinia,    3196a. 
Sardinia,  Kingdom  of,  3196b. 
Sardonyx,  461a,  2662b.  3197a. 
Sardou,  Victorien,  3197a. 
Sargasso  Sea,  3197a. 
Sargent,  John  Singer,   3197a. 
Sargon   II,   257a,   311b. 
Sarnia,  Ont.,   3197b. 
Sarpedon,   3197b. 
Sarsaparilla,  3197b. 
Sarto,  Andrea  del,  2704b,  3197b. 
Sartor  Resartus,   705b. 
Saskatchewan,   3198a. 
Saskatchewan      R  e  Mte  1 1  i  o  n, 

3200a. 
Saskatchewan  River,  3200b. 
Saskatoon,  Sask.,  3200b. 
Sassafras,    3201a. 
Satan,    1066a. 
Satellite.  3201a. 
Satin,   3201a. 
Satire.   3201b. 
Saturday,    3201b. 
Saturn    (mvthologv),    3201b. 
Saturn   (planet).  3201b. 
Saturnalia.  3202a. 
Satvrs,  3202a. 
Sanger,   2852a. 
Sauk   Indians,    3151b. 
Saul.   2758a.  3202a. 
Sault      Saints     Marie,      Mich., 

3202b. 
Sault  Sainte  Marie.  Ont.,  3202a. 
Sault      Sainte      Marie      Canal, 

3202b. 
Saunders,   IMargaret  Marshall, 

3203a. 
Sausage,  3203b. 
Savannah  (ship).  32S2b. 
Savannah,  Ga.,  3203b. 
Savannah  River,  3204b. 
Saving  and  Spending,  3572a. 
Savings  Bank,   3204b. 
Savings        Bank,        Canadian, 

3205b. 
Savonarola.  Girolamo.   3205b. 
Savoy,  House  of,  3206a. 
Saw,    3206a. 
Sawfish,  320fib. 
Saw  Flv,    3207a. 
Saxe,  John  Godfrey.  3207a. 
Saxifrage.   3207a,  3386b. 
Saxons,   3207a. 
Saxonv,  Kingdom  of,  3207b. 
Saxonhone.  3208a. 
Scabies,  2236a. 
Scalds,   3316a. 
Scale  Insect.  3208b. 
Scales   (music).  2440a.  3208a. 
Scales    (zoology),   3208b. 
Scallop.    3208b. 
Scalp,  The.  3208b. 
Pcammonv,   3209a. 
Scandinavia,   3209a. 
Scandinavian    Mythology, 

2461b. 
Scapegoat.  3209a. 
Scapula,  3317b. 
Scarab,    3209a. 
Scarification,  3520a. 


Sea  Anemone 

Scarlet  Fever,  785a,  3209b. 
Scarlet  Letter,  The,  1647a. 
Scheldt   River,   3210a. 
Schenectady,  N.   Y.,    3210a. 
Schiller,      Johann      Friedrich, 

3210a,  3211a. 
Schist,   463b. 

Schleswig-Holstein,  3211a. 
Schley.  Winfield  Scott,  3211b. 
Schleyer,        Johann       Martin, 

3787b. 
Schmalkaldic  League,  3212a. 
Schoffer,   Peter,   1598a. 
Schofield,       John       McAllister, 

3212b. 
Scholasticism,    3212b. 
School,  3213b. 
School,  Evening,  1280a. 
School,    Parochial,    2749b. 
School,   Vacation.    3731a. 
School  District.   3212b. 
School  Gardens,  1444b.  3212b. 
School  Savings  Banks,   3205a. 
Schopenhauer,  Arthur,   3214b. 
Schorl,   3602b. 
Schottisch,  1025a. 
Schubert,  Franz,  3215a. 
Schuckburgh.  Richard,  3960a. 
Schumann,  Robert,  3215b. 
Schumann-Heink,      Ernestine, 

3215b. 
Schurman,  Jacob  Gould,  3216a. 
Schurz,  Carl,  3216a. 
Schuvler,  Philip,  3216b. 
Schuvlkill   River,    3216b. 
Schwab,  Charles  M.,  3216b. 
Schwatka.  Frederick.  3217a. 
Sciatica,  3217a. 
Science,  Christian,  814b. 
Science  and  Health  with  Key 

to  the  Scriptures,  1178a. 
Science      and      the      Sciences, 

3217a. 
Scilly  Islands.  3217b. 
Scipio  Africanus,  3217b. 
Scipio,        Publius       Cornelius 

Aemilianus,  3218a. 
Scissorsbill.  3218a. 
Sclerosis,   3218b. 
Sclerotic.    1287a. 
Scopas,  3231b. 
Scorpio.  3218b. 
Scorpion,  3218b. 
Scorpion  Fish,   3219a, 
Scorpion  Flv.  3219a. 
Scotch,  3220a. 
Scotch  Terrier.  3219a. 
Scotch  Verdict.  3219a. 
Scotia,   3223a. 

Scotland,  3219b.  • 

Scotland  Yard,   3225b. 
Scots,  3220a. 

Scott,  Hugh  Lenox.   3226a. 
Scott.    Robert    Falcon,    3226a, 

3367a. 
Scott,  Thomas.  3073a. 
Scott,  Walter,  2b.  3025b,  3226b 
Scott,  AVinfield.  3227b. 
Scotti.    Antonio,    3227b. 
Scottish  Chiefs,    2909a. 
Scouring  Rush,  1722b,  1723a. 
Scranton.   Pa.,    3227b. 
Scran-Books     (kindergarten), 

1973b. 
Scran-Books    (primary  dept.). 

1978b. 
Screw,  3228a. 
Screw  Pine.  3228b. 
Screw  Propeller,  1823a. 
Scribe,        Augustin        Eugene, 

3229a 
Scrofula,  3229a. 
Scruple,    3229a. 
Sculpin,  3229a. 
Sculpture,  3229b. 
Sculpture,   American,   3700a. 
Scnrvv,   3238b. 
Scutari,  Albania.  3238b. 
Scutum,  223a. 

Scylla  and  Charybdis.  3239a. 
Ssa.   2631a. 
Sea  Anemone,  3239a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  h,  colnmn  2. 


Sea  Bear 

Sea  Bear,  3240b. 

Sea  Blubber,  1886b. 

Sea  Cow,  2233b. 

Sea  Cucumber,  3239a. 

Sea-Devil,  125a. 

Sea  Horse,  1689a. 

Sea-Island  Cotton,  969a. 

Sea  Islands,  3239b. 

Sea  Kale,  3239b. 

Seal  (animal),  3240a. 

Seal   (mark),  3241b. 

Sealing-  Wax,   3241b. 

Sea  Lilies,  989b. 

Sea  Lion,   3241b. 

Sea  Necklaces,  907b. 

Sea  Nettles,  1886b. 

Sea  Onion,  3395b. 

Sea  Otter,  2691a. 

Sea  Raven,  3229a. 

Search,  Rigrht  of,  3242a. 

Search  Warrant,  3806a. 

Sea  Robin,  1596b. 

Sea  Serpent,  3242a. 

Seasickness,    3242a. 

Sea-snipe.  388a. 

Seasons,  3242b. 

Sea  Squirts,  3242b. 

Seattle,  Wash.,  3243a. 

Seat  Work,  1978a. 

Sea  Unicorn,  2475a. 

Sea  Urchin,  3244a. 

Sea  Weed,  3244b. 

Sebaceous        Glands,        1519a, 

1610b,  3319b. 
Sebastian,    Saint,    3244b. 
Sebastopol,  Crimea,  3244b. 
Secession,  3244b. 
Secession  in  America,  3710b. 
Secondary  Colors,  885a. 
Secondary  Schools,  3214b. 
Second-Lieutenant.  2099a. 
Secord,   Laura,   3245a. 
Secret  Societies,  1404b. 
Secretary  Bird,  3245a. 
Secretary  of  State,  3410a. 
Secretary     of     the     Treasury, 

3623b. 
Secretary  of  War,  225b. 
Secretion,    3245a. 
Secret   Service,    3245b. 
Section,   Division   of  a,   2013b. 
Secular  Games,   3245b. 
Sedalia,  Mo.,  3245b. 
Sedan,  Battle  of,  3246a. 
Sedative.  3246a. 
Sedg-es,  3246a. 
Sedimentary  Rocks,  1474a. 
Seed,  2490b,  3247a. 

Seed  Dispersal,  3246b. 

Seeder,    3369a. 

Seedless  Apples,  150a. 

Seed    Testing-,    3248a. 

Seeger,  Alan,  3248a. 

Seidlitz  Povi^ders.  3248b. 

Seigniorage,  3248b. 

Seine.   3249a. 

Seismograph,    3249a. 

Selections      for      Memorizing-, 
2124a. 

Selene,  1225a,  3249a. 

Selenium,  3249a. 

Seleniureted   Hydrogen,   3249b. 

Seleucus  Nicator.  140b. 

Self-Activity,  2767a. 

Self-denying  Ordinance,   992a, 
3249b. 

Self-Dependence,  3873b. 

Self-Expression,   787b. 

Self-Reliance,    1263a. 

Self-Respect,  787b. 

Self-Restraint,  1262b. 

Seljuks,   3249b. 

Selkirk,       Alexander,       1911b, 
3085a,  3249b. 

Selkirk  Mountains,  3250a. 

Selma,  Ala.,  3250a. 

Selvage,  858b. 

Selvas,    3250a. 

Semaphore,  3250a. 

Sembrich,  Marcella,  3250b, 

Semele,  3250b. 

Seminole,  3251a. 


4042 

Semiramis,  256b,  3251a. 
Semiramis  of  the  North,  3251a. 
Semitic  Group   of  Languages, 

2821b. 
Semites,   3251a. 
Semitic  Language,   3251b. 
Semmes,  Raphael,  3251b. 
Senate,  3251b. 
Senate    (Canada),   2744a. 
Senate    of    the   United  States, 

3252a. 
Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus,  3252b. 
Seneca  Indians,  3252b. 
Seneca  Lake,   3252b. 
Senegal,  3253a. 
Senegal  River,   3253b. 
Senegambia,  3253a. 
Sennacherib,   311b,    3253a. 
Sensation,  3253a. 
Sense  Games,  1955b. 
Senses,  2961b,  3254a. 
Sensitive   Plant,    3254b. 
Sensory  Nerves,  2508b. 
Sensuous  Feelings,  1306a. 
Sentence,  The  Simple,  2047b. 
Sentimental  Journey,   3422a. 
Seoul,  Chosen,  3254b. 
Sepal,  1354a. 
Separatists,  2853a. 
Separator,  Cream,  983b. 
Sepia,  3254b. 
Sepoy,   3254b. 
Sepoy   Rebellion,    731b,    1784a, 

3255a 
Seppukii,  1627a. 
September,    3255a. 
Septennial  Act,  1562a. 
Septimius    Severus,    Arch    of, 

3255b. 
Septuagint.  1894b,  3256a. 
Septum,   1656a. 
Sequoia,    3256a. 
Sequoia  National  Park,  2742b. 
Sequovah,   103a,  769b. 
Seraglio,    3256b. 
Serajevo,  Bosnia,  3195a. 

Serapis,      The,      499a,      3057a, 
3257a. 

Serbia,  3257a. 

Serfs,   3259a. 

Sergeant,   3259a. 

Sergeant-at-Arms,  3259a 

Serinagur,   Kashmir,   3259a. 

Serous  Membranes,  3259b. 

Serpent,  3330b. 

Serpent  Charming-,   3259b. 

Serpentine.  3259b. 

Serum   Therapy,    3259b. 

Serval,  3260a. 

Servetus,  Michael,  647b.  3260a. 

Service,  Robert  William,  3260b. 

Servius  Tullius,  3260b. 

Sesame  Grass,  1436b. 

Seti  I,  1190b,  3260b. 

Seton,  Ernest  Thompson,  536b, 
3261a. 

Setter,  3261a. 

Seul,   Chosen,   3254b. 

Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture, 
The,    3136a. 

Seven  Modern  Wonders  of  the 
World,   3262a. 

Seven  Pines,  Battle  of,  1294a. 

Seven  Sleepers,  3261b. 

Seventeen-year  Locust,  819b. 

Seventh  Day  Adventists,  3261b. 

Seven  Times  One,   2021a. 

Seven     Weeks'     War,     3153b, 
3261b. 

Seven    Wise    Men    of    Greece, 
3262a. 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World, 
3262a. 

Seven  Years'  War,  3262a. 

Severn  River,  3263a. 

Severus,      Lucius      Septimius, 
3263a. 

Seville,  Spain,  3263a. 

Sevres  Porcelain,  3263b. 

Sewerage,   2874b,  3264a. 

Seward,  William  Henry,  3264b. 

Sewing  Machine,  1823a,  3256a. 


Shingles 

Sextant,  3265b. 
Seymour,  Jane,  1672a. 
Shackleton,       Ernest,       3265b, 

3367b. 
Shad,  3266a. 
Shadbush,  3386b. 
Shaddock,  1554b. 
Shad  Fly,   2284b. 
Shadow,  2103b. 

Shafter,  William  Rufus,  3266b. 
Shaftesbury,   Anthony  Ashley- 
Cooper,  3266b. 
Shagreen,  3266b. 
Shah,  645b. 
Shah  Jehan,  3267a. 
Shakers,  3267a. 
Shakespeare,  William,  3267b- 
Shaking  Quakers,  3267a. 
Shale.  3270b. 
Shaler,    Nathaniel    Southgate, 

3270b. 
Shamanism,  3271a. 
Shamokin,  Pa.,  3271a. 
Shamrock,  3271a. 
Shanghai,  China,  3271a. 
Shannon,  The,  3806a. 
Shannon  River,  3271b. 
Shantung,  3271b. 
Shark,  3272a. 
Sharon,  Pa.,  3272b. 
Sharps   and    Flats,    2441a. 
Shasta,  Mount,   640b,   3276b. 
Shasta   Daisy,    1021b. 
Shat-el-Arab  River,   1268a. 
Shaw,  Albert,  3272b. 
Shaw,  Anna,  3273a. 
Shaw,   George  Bernard,  3273a. 
Shawnee,  Okla.,  3273b. 
Shawnee  Indians,   3273b. 
Shaw's  Garden,  3164b. 
Shays,   Daniel,   3273b. 
Shavs'  Rebellion,  3273b. 
Sheboygan,  Wis.,  3273b. 
Sheep,  3274a. 

Sheep  Laurel,  1923b,  1924a. 
Sheephead,  3275a. 
Sheffield,  Eng.,  3275a. 
Sheik,   3275a. 
Shekel.    3275a. 
Shelbyville,  Ind.,  3275b. 
Sheldon,        Charles       Monroe, 
3275b. 

Shell,  3276a. 

Shell  (zoolog-y),  3275b. 

Shelley,   Percy  Bysshe,  3276a. 

Shenandoah,  Pa.,  3277a. 

Shenandoah  River,  3277a. 

Sheol,  1666a. 

Shepard,  Finley  J.,  3277a. 

Shepard,  Helen  Gould,  3277a. 

Shepherd  Dog,  3277a. 

Shepherd  Kings,   1190b. 

Sheraton,        Thomas,        1427b, 
3277b. 

Sherbrooke,    Que.,    3277b. 

Shere  All,  1784b.- 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  3277b. 

Sheridan,      Richard     Brinsley 
Butler,  3278a. 

Sheridan,   Wyo.,  3277b. 

Sheriff,   3278a. 

Sherman,  James  S..   3499b. 

Sherman,  John,  3278b. 

Sherman,  Roger,   3278b. 

Sherman,  Tex.,  3279a. 

Sherman,    William   Tecumseh, 
3279a. 

Sherman      Anti-Trust       Law, 
3642a. 

Sherman  Silver  Purchase  Act, 
3713a. 

Sherry,  3279b. 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  1533b. 

Shetland  Islands,    3279b. 

Shield,  3280a. 

Shiites,  3280a. 

Shlllaber,  Benjamin  Penhallo-w- 
3280a, 

Shilling,  3280b. 

Shiloh,  3280b. 

Shiloh,  Battle  of,  ,3280b. 

Shingles,  3281a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nnmber,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  h,  column  3. 


Shinney 


4043 


Sofia,  Bulgaria 


Shinney.  1703b. 

Shintoism,   3281a. 

Ship,  3281a. 

Ship  Broker,   569a. 

Shiraz,   Persia,   3286b. 

Shittim  Wood,  3286b. 

Shoddy,  29a,   3287a. 

Shoes,    506a. 

Shoestring-  Republic,  793b. 

Shogun,  1977a,  3287a. 

Sholes,  Charles  L.,   1823a. 

Shooting  Star,    2310b. 

Short  Ballot,   3287a 

Shorthand,   2860a,   3287b. 

Shorthorns,   728b. 

Short-tailed       Field       Mouse, 

3789a. 
Shoshonean  Indians,   3288b. 
Shoshone  Palls,  3288b. 
Shoshone  River,  3331a. 
Shot,  3288b. 
Shotg-un,  3289a. 
Shot  Put,   274a,   S289a. 
Shovelboard.  3291a. 
Shoveler,  1150a,   3289b. 
Shrapnel,  3289b. 
Shrapnel,   Henry,   3290a. 
Shreveport.   La.,    3290a. 
Shrew,   3290a. 
Shrew  Mole.  3290b. 
Shrike.    3290b. 
Shrimp,   3291a. 
Shrove   Tuesday,  2250b,   3291a. 

3343b. 
Shuffleboard,  3291a. 
Shuster,  W.  Morgan,  2796a. 
Shwanpan.  2a. 
Siam,  3291b. 
Siberia,  3293a. 
Sibyl,  3295b. 
Sibylline  Books,   3295b. 
Sicilian  Vespers,  3295b. 
Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the  Two, 

3296a. 
Sicily,   3296b. 
Sickle,  3297a. 

Siddons.  Sarah  Kemble,  3297a. 
Sidereal  Month.  2404b. 
Sidereal   Time,   3297b. 
Siderite,    1837b. 
Sidney,  Philip,   3297b. 
Sidon.   3297b. 
Sidonians.  2824a. 
Siege.  3298a. 

Sienkiewicz,  Henrvk,  3298a. 
Sierra,  Leone.   3298b. 
Sierra  Madre  Mountains.  3298b. 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 

3299a. 
Sierras.  3370b. 
Sigel,  Franz,  3299a. 
Sighs,  Bridge  of,   557b. 
Sight,  3783a. 

Sigismund  I.  28S3b,  3299b. 
Signal  Corps.   226a,    3299b. 
Signaling,    3300b. 
Sign  Language.  3301b. 
Sigsbee,      Charles      D  w  i  g  h  t, 

3302a. 
Sigurd,  3302a. 
Sikhs.  1780b.  3302b. 
Si  Kiang  River,  3302b. 
Silage.   3307b. 

Silas  Marner    1213b,  2129b. 
Silence,   Towers   of,    3604a. 
Silesia,  3302b. 
Silica,    3303a. 
Silicon.   3303b. 
Silk,  3303b. 
Silk.  Artificial.   3306a. 
Silkworm.    3303b. 
Silkworm  Gut,  S30Gb. 
Siloam,  Pool  of,  330Rb. 
Silo  and  Silage.  3306b.  3307b. 
Silurian  Period.  3307b. 
Silver,  3308a.  3678a. 
Silver  Certificates,   2386a. 
Silver  State.  2519a. 
Slmcoe,   John  Graves.   3309b. 
Similarity,  Law  of.   2296a. 
Simile.   1321a.   33C9b 
Simonides,  31b,  3309b. 


Simon  Peter,  28C2a. 
Simons,    Menno,    2298b. 
Simoon,  331Ca. 
Simplon  Pass,    3310a. 
Simplon  Tunnel,  3310a. 
Simpson,  James  Y.,  123b,  809b, 

3310a. 
Sims,  William  Sowden,  3310b. 
Sinai,   Mount,   3310b. 
Sinclair,  Upton,  3310b. 
Sindia,  3311a. 
Binding,   Christian,    3311a. 
Singapore.    3311a. 
Singing,   3311a. 
Single   Tax,  3311b. 
Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  2686b. 
Sinn  Fein,  1564b,  1834b,  3312b. 
Sinusoidal  Current,   1209a. 
Siouan  Indians,  3312b. 
Siout,  Upper  Egypt,  3315a. 
Sioux  City,  Iowa,   3313a. 
Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.,  3313b. 
Sioux  Indians,   3313a. 
Siphon,   3313b. 
Sir  (title),  3314a. 
Siren,  3314a. 
Sir  Galahad,  3547a. 
Sirius,  1089a,  3314a, 
Sirocco,   3314b. 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,   23b. 
Sir  Tristram.   3223a. 
Sisal.   433a,    3314b. 
Sisters  of  Charity.  751b. 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  2305b. 
Sistine  Chapel,   3314b. 
Sistine  Madonna,    770a,    2215a, 

2705a,    3009b. 
Sisyphus,  3315a. 
Sitka,  Alaska,  3315a. 
Sitting  Bull,   3315a. 
Siut,  Upper  Egypt,  3315a. 
Siva.  3315b. 

Six  Nations,  The.  1338a. 
Six  Per  Cent  Method,  1816b. 
Sixtus  (Popes),  3315b. 
Skagerrak,  3315b. 
Skagway,   Alaska,    3316a. 
Skalds,    2610b,    3316a. 
Skat,   3316a. 
Skate,   3316a. 

Skates  and  Skating,  3316b. 
Skeat,  Walter  William,  3316b. 
Skee,  3319a. 
Skeena  River,  561b. 
Skeleton,   The.   3317a. 
Skepticism,   3319a. 
Ski,  3319a. 
Skimmer,    3218a. 
Skin,    3319a. 
Skin  Grafting,  3319b, 
Skink,  3319b. 
Skinner,  Otis.  3320a. 
Skip  Jack,   854b. 
Skua.  3320a. 
Skull,  3317a. 
Skunk.   3320a. 
Skupshtina.  3258a. 
Skye,  Island  of,  3320b. 
Skylark,  2060b. 
Skye  Terrier,  3320b. 
Sky-scraper,  162b. 
Slag.  3320b. 
Slander,  2094a,  3320b. 
Slang,   3321a. 
Slate,  3321b. 
Slate  Pencils,  2772a. 
Slavery,  3321b. 
Slavery  in   the  United  States, 

3710a. 
Slavonia.  990a. 
Slavs,  3322b. 
Sleep,  275a,  3323a. 
Sleeping  Beauty,  2791a. 
Sleeping  Car.  3000a. 
Sleeping        Sickness,        3323a, 

3642a. 
Sleeplessness,  1812a. 
Sleepwalking,  3345a. 
Slidell.  John,  3323b,  3631b. 
Slime  Molds,  3323b. 
Sling.   3323b. 
Slipperwort,  635a. 


Sloe,    3324a. 

Sloth,    3324a. 

Slot   Machine,    3324b. 

Slovaks,  3324b. 

Slovenians,  3325a. 

Sloyd  System,  2245a,  3325a. 

Slug,  3325a. 

Small  Circle,   3383b. 

Small-Pox,   785a.   1886b,  3325a. 

Smell,    2843a,    3325a. 

Smelling  Salts,  3178b,  3325b. 

Smelt,    3326a. 

Smetana,  Friedrich,  3326a. 

Smilax,   3326a. 

Smiles,  Samuel,  3326a. 

Smith,  Adam,   3326b. 

Smith,  Edmund  Kirby,  3326b. 

Smith,      Francis      Hopkinson, 

3326b. 
Smith,  Goldwin,  3327a. 
Smith,   Hyrum.  2413b. 
Smith,  John,  287Sa,  3327a. 
Smith,  Joseph,   2413a,   3327b. 
Smith,  Samuel,  110a,  3327b. 
Smith,   Sophia,   3328a. 
Smith,   Sydney,  3327b. 
Smith  College,  3328a. 
Smith-Hughes  Act,   1686a. 
Smith's  Falls,  Ont..  3328a. 
Smithson,  James,  3328b. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  3328a. 
Smoke,    3328b. 
Smokeless  Powder,  3329a. 
Smollett,  Tobias  George,  3329a. 
Smoot,  Reed,   3329b. 
Smuggling,  3329b. 
Smuts,   3329b. 
Smyrna,  3330a. 
Snail,   2488b,   3330a. 
Snake,  3330b. 
Snake  Bird,  1030a,  3950b. 
Snake  Charming,  3259b. 
Snake  Dance,   1717b. 
Snake  Indians,  3288b. 
Snake  Killer,   3081a. 
Snake  River,  3331a. 
Snap  Dragon,  3331a. 
Snapping  Turtle,  3080a,   3331a. 
Snipe,   3331b. 
Snoring,  3331b. 
Snorra  Edda,  2611a. 
Snorri  Sturluson,  3331b. 
Snout  Beetle,  1008b. 
Snow,  1469b,  3332a. 
Snowball,  3332b. 
Snowberry,   3332b. 
Snowbird,  3332b. 
Snowbound,  3869a. 
Snowbunting.  3332b. 
Snowdrop.  3332b. 
Snow   Leopard.    2691b. 
Snow   Line,   3332b. 
Snowplow,  33£2b. 
Snowshoe,    3333a. 
Snowstorm    in    the    Country, 

3558a. 
Snowy  Heron,  1679a. 
Snuff,    3333a. 
Soap,    3333b. 
Soapstone,  3334a. 
Soccer  FooFball.  1371b. 
Social  Democrats,  3334a. 
Socialism,    3334b. 
Socialist  Party,  2891a. 
Social  Settlements.  3335b. 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of 

Cruelty  to  Animals.  3336b. 
Society    Islands,    Archipelago, 

3336a. 
Society  of  Friends.  2978a. 
Society  of  Jesus,  1890b. 
Sociology,    3336b. 
Socrates,   3337a. 
Soda,    3337a. 
Soda  Ash,  3337b. 
Soda   Water.    3337b. 
Sodium,  3337b. 
Sodium  Bicarbonate,   3337b. 
Sodom,  3338a. 
Sodom,  Apples  of,  3338a. 
Soerabaya.  Java,   3476b. 
Sofia,  Bulgaria.  3338a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indionteN  eolumn  1;  the  letter  b,  colnnin 


Soft  Palate 


4044 


Starch 


Soft  Palate.  541b.  2711b. 

Soft-shelled  Turtle,  3080a. 

Sohn.  2467b. 

Soil.  3338b. 

Soils,  Bureau  of,  51a, 

Soil  Water,  3339a. 

Soissons,  Prance,  3340b. 

Sokoto,   Nig-eria,    3340b. 

Solanum,    2573a.    3340b. 

Solar  Engine.  3340b. 

Solar  Microscope,  3341a. 

Solar  Plexus.   2510a. 

Solar  Spectrum.  2103a. 

Solar  System.   3341a. 

Solders.  3341b. 

Soldiers,     Homes    for,     2014a, 

3341b. 
Soldiers'    and    Sailors'    Insur- 
ance, 1815a. 
Sole,    3342a. 
Solemn  League  and  Convenant. 

977a 
Solicitor.  3342a. 
Solid,    3342b. 
Solidification.   2294b. 
Solitaire,  3342b. 
Solomon,  3342b. 
Solomon    Islands,    3343a. 
Solomon's  Song,  3343a. 
Solomon's  Temple,  3537a. 
Solon,   3343a. 
Solstice,  1469a,  3343b. 
Solution.  3343b. 
Solvent,   3343b. 
Solway  Firth,  3344a. 
Solyman  II.  3344a. 
Somali  Coast.   3344b. 
Somaliland,  3344a. 
Somers  Islands,  398b. 
Somerville,  Mass.,  3344b. 
Somme.  Battles  of  the.   3345a, 

3921b. 
Somme   River,    3345a. 
Somnambulism,   3345a. 
Somnus,  3345b. 
Sonata,   3345b. 
Song  of  Songs,  3343a. 
Song  of  the  Lark,  552a. 
Sonnet,  3345b. 
Sons  of  Daniel  Boone,  536b. 
Sons  of  Liberty,  3346a. 
Sons  of  Veterans,  3346a. 
Soot.    3346b. 

Sophia,  Church  of  Saint,  3169b. 
Sophia,   Bulgaria,  3338a. 
Sophists.   3346b. 
Sophocles.   3346b. 
Soprano,  3311b. 
Sorbonne,    3347a. 
Sorel.   Que..   3347a. 
Sorghum.  3347b,  3465a. 
Sorority,  3347b. 
Sorrel,   3347b. 
Sorrel  Tree.  3347b. 
Sothern.  Edward  H.  3348a. 
Soudan,   3460b. 
Soul,  3348a. 
Sound,    3348a. 
Sounding,  3349a. 
Sounds,       Classification       of. 

2681b. 
Soup-making,  1100b. 
Sour  Gum,  465a. 
Sousa,  John  Philip,  3349b. 
South  African  War,   3349b. 
South  America,   3350b. 
South-American    Washington, 

490b. 
Southampton,  Eng..  3356b. 
South  Australia,   3358a. 
South  Bend,  Tnd..  3358b. 
South  Bethlehem.  Pa..  3358b. 
South  Carolina,  3359a. 
South  Carolina,  University  of, 

3362a. 
South  Dakota,  3362b. 
South   Dakota,  University  of, 

3365b. 
Southern   Cross,   3366a. 
Southern  Ocean,  136b. 
Southey,   Robert,   3366a. 


South  Island,  N.  Z.,  2563a. 
South     Mountain,     Battle     of 

3366a. 
South  Orange,  N.  J.,  2668a. 
South        Polar       Exploration, 

3366b. 
South  Sea  Company,  3368b. 
Sovereign,  3368b. 
Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  3282a. 
Sovereignty,   3368b. 
Soviet,   3130a.    3369a. 
Sowing  Machine.  3369a. 
Sow  Thistle,  3309b. 
Soy  Bean,  367b,  3369b. 
Spaghetti.  2197a. 
Spain.    3370a. 
Spaniel,   1089b,   3374b. 
Spanish-American  War,  3375a, 

3713b. 
Spanish  Colonies,  883a. 
Spanish  Influenza,    1801a. 
Spanish    Succession,    War    of 

the,  3458b. 
Spar  Buoys.  6C2a. 
Sparling.  3326a. 
Sparrow,   3376a. 
Sparrow  Hawk,  3376b. 
Sparta,   3376b. 
Sparticans.    3377b. 
Spartacus,  3377b. 
Spartanburg,  S.  C,  3378a. 
Spasm,    3378a. 
Spathic  Ore.  1837b. 
Spavin,  3378a. 
Spawn,  3378a. 
Speaker,    3378b. 
Spearmint,    3378b. 
Special   Senses.   3254a. 
Specie  Circular,  1864a,  3736b. 
Specie  Payments,  Resumption 

of.  3379a. 
Species.   3379a. 
Specific  Gravity,  1556a. 
Specific  Gravity,  Unit  of,  3670b. 
Specific  Heat,  S564a. 
Spectacled    Snake,    868b. 
Spectacles,    3379a. 
Spectator.  The.  23b. 
Spectroscope,   3379b. 
Spectrum,  2101a.  2103a. 
Spectrum   Analysis,    3380a. 
Specular  Metal,  570a. 
Specular  Iron  Ore,  1837a. 
Speech,  3380b. 
Speedometer,  3380b. 
Speedwell,  2284b.  2876a. 
Spelling,    3380b. 
Spelter,   3977b. 
Spencer,  Herbert,   3381b. 
Spencer  Gulf,  3382b. 
Spenser.   Edmund,  3382b. 
Spermaceti,  3383a.  3834b. 
Spermatophytes.  2808a. 
Sperm  Oil,  3383a. 
Sperm  Whale,  3383a. 
Sphere,  209b,  3383a. 
Spheroid,   3383b. 
Sphinx,    3383b. 
Sphinx  Moth,   3383b. 
Sphygmograph,   3383b. 
Spice,  3384a. 
Spice  Islands,   2381b. 
Spider,    3384a. 
Spider,  Trapdoor,   3611a. 
Spider  Web.  2488b.  3384b. 
Spiegeleisen,  3418b. 
Spikenard,   338.''.a. 
Spinach.  3385b. 
Spinal  Cord.  2508a,  3385b. 
Spineless  Cactus.  629a. 
Spinneret.    3304a. 
Spinning.  3385b. 
Spinning    Jenny,    218b,    1628b, 

3386a. 
Spinning  Wheel,  3386a. 
Spinoza,      Baruch      Benedict, 

3386b. 
Spiny  Ant-eater,  1172b. 
Spiraea.  3386b. 
Spire.  3387a. 
Spirillum,    314b. 
Spirits  of  Turpentine,  3655a. 


Spirits  of  Wine,  76a. 

Spiritualism,    3387a. 

Spirometer,   3387b. 

Spithead.  3387b. 

Spitz.   3387b. 

Spitzbergen  Islands,  3388a. 

Spleen,  5b,  3386a. 

Splicing,  3388a. 

Spofford,      Ainsworth      Rand, 

3388b 
Spokane,  Wash.,  3388b. 
Sponge,  3389b. 
Spontaneous  Combustion,  897a, 

3390a. 
Spontaneous  Generation,  3390a. 
Spoonbill,   3289b,  3390b. 
Spore,   339Cb. 
Spotted  Fever,  3663b. 
Spottiswood,  Lady  John  Scott, 

129b. 
Spottsylvania     Court     House, 

3390b. 
Sprain,  3391a. 
Sprat,  3391a. 

Spring   (astronomy),   3391b. 
Spring   (physics),   3391b. 
Spring,    Mineral,   2345a. 
Springbok,  £392a. 
Springer,  158a. 
Springfield,  111.,   3392a. 
Springfield,   Mass.,    3392b. 
Springfield,   Mo.,    3393a. 
Springfield,  Ohio,  3393b. 
Springing  Beetle,   854b. 
Spruce,    3393b. 
Spurge  Family,  3394a. 
Spurgeon,      Charles     Haddon, 

3394a. 
Spy,   3394b. 
Squad,   226b. 
Squadron,  3394b. 
Square,  3395a. 

Square  Measure,  2315a,  3395a. 
Square  Root,  206b. 
Squash,   3395a. 
Squash  Bug,  3395b. 
Squatter  Sovereignty,  1108a, 

3395b. 
Squid,   3395b. 
Squill,   3395b. 
Squinting.  3396a. 
Squirrel,  3396a. 
Squirrel  Game,  1439a. 
Srinagar.  Kashmir,  3259a. 
Stabat     Mater,     1157b,     3120b, 

3396b. 
Stabiae  Vesuvius,  2897a. 
Stable,   1020b. 
Stadium,   3396b. 
Stadtholder,  3S97a. 
Stael,   Madame   de,    3397a. 
Staff,  3397b. 
Stag,  3397b. 
Stag  Beetle,  3398a. 
Staggerbush,    1924a. 
Staghound,  3398a. 
Stained  Glass,  3398a. 
Staked  Plain,   3549b. 
Stalactite,  3398b. 
Stalagmite,  3398b. 
Stamens.    519a,   1354a. 
Stamford.  Conn..  3398b. 
Stammering,  3399a. 
Stamp,  3399a. 
Stamp  Act,  3399a. 
Stamp  Weed,  1791a. 
Standard  Oil  Company,  3399b. 
Standards.  Bureau  of,  3400a. 
Standard  Time,  3401a. 
Standish,  Miles,   976b.    3402b. 
Stanford,   Leland,   3403a. 
Stanislas  Augustus,  2884a. 
Stanley,  Henry  M.,  2144b, 

3403a. 
Stanovoi  Mountains.   3403b. 
Stanton,      Edwin     McMasters, 

3404a. 
Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady,  3404a, 

3905b. 
Stanton,  Frank  Lebbv,  3404b. 
Star.   266a.    2837a.    3406b. 
Starch.  3404b. 


The  letter  a,  aiter  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Star  Chamber 


4045 


Sun  Yat  Sen 


Star  Chamber,   3405a. 
Starchy  Foods,  1100b. 
Starfish,  3405a. 
Stark,  John,  3405b. 
Starling-,  34U6a. 
Star-Nosed   Mole,    3406a. 
Star  of  Bethlehem,  3406a. 
Starr,  Ellen  Gates,  22b,  1734b. 
Star  Route,  3406a. 
Star  Route  Frauds,  3406a. 
Star-Spangled    Banner,    1341a, 

3407a. 
Starvation.  3407b. 
State,    3408a. 

State,  Department  of,  3410a. 
State,  Secretary  of,   3410a. 
State  Banks,  334a. 
State  Courts,  975b. 
State  Flowers,   1355b. 
State  Governments,  3694b. 
Staten  Island,  3410a. 
States-General.    3410b. 
States  of  the  Church,   2726b. 
States  of  the  Union,  3696a. 
State  Soldiers'  Homes,  3342a. 
States  Relations  Service,  51b. 
States'  Rights,  3410b. 
Statics,  1159a,  3410b. 
Statistics,   3410b. 
Statistics,  Vital,   2905b. 
Statuary  Bronze.  570a. 
Statuary  Hall,  3411a. 
Statue,    3229b. 
Statute,    3411b. 
Statutory  Law,   2066b. 
Staunton,    Va.,    3411b. 
Stead,  William  Thomas,  3411b 
Steam,   2836b,   3412a. 
Steam  Engine,  3412b. 
Steam  Hammer,  2476a,  3415b. 
Steamship,    1823a,    3283a. 
Steam  Shovel,  3416a. 
Steam  Turbine,  1823a,  3647b. 
Stearic  Acid,  3416a. 
Stearin,   3416a. 
Steatite,  3334a,  3505a. 
Stedman,     Edmund     Clarence, 

3416b. 
Steel,  3416b,  3686b. 
Steel     Corporation,     United 

States,  3719a. 
Steel  Pens,  2771a. 
Steelyard,    3419a. 
Steen.  Jan,  3419b. 
Steenbock,  1753b. 
Stefansson,  Vilhjalmur,  2606a, 

3419b. 
Steffens,   Lincoln,    3419b. 
Stegomyia  Mosquito.  2422a. 
Steinbock,  137a,  3420a. 
Stems,    3420a. 
Stencil,  3420a. 
Stenography,    3287b. 
Stephen.  3420b. 
Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton, 

3420b. 
Stephenson,      George,      2150a, 

3421a. 
Stephenson.  Robert,  3421a. 
Steppes,  3421b. 
Steropticon,   2218a. 
Stereoscope,  3421b. 
Stereotyping,   3421b. 
Sterlet,  3453a. 
Sterling.  Michael,   3571b. 
Sterne,  Laurence,   3422a. 
Sternum,  3317a. 
Sterope,  2872b. 
Stethoscope.    3422a. 
Stettin,   3422a. 
Steuben,     Friedrich     Wilhelm 

August,  3422b. 
Steubenville,  Ohio.   3422b. 
Stevens,  John  F.,   2722b.  ^294a. 
Stevens,    Thaddeus,    3422b. 
Stevenson,  Adlai  Ewing.  34  23a. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  144b, 

3423a. 
Stevens  Point.   "Wis.,   4323b. 
Stewart   (family),  3451b. 
Stibnite,  3424a. 


Stickleback,   3424a. 

Stigma,   1354a. 

Stikine  River,  561b,  3424a. 

Still,   3861b. 

Stillwater,  Minn.,   3424a. 

Stilt,  3424b. 

Stilts.  3424b. 

Sting  Ray,  3424b. 

Stink  Weed,  3447a. 

Stcat,    1252a. 

Stock,  3424b. 

Stockbridge  Indians,  2378a. 

Stock   Broker,   569a. 

Stock  Exchange,  3425b. 

Stockholder,   964b. 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  3426a. 

Stockton,    Calif.,   3426a. 

Stockton,      Francis      Richard, 

3426b. 
Stoddard,       Richard       Henry, 

3426b. 
Stoicism,  3427a. 
Stomach,   2843b,  3427a. 
Stone,   3086b. 
Stone  Age,  3427b. 
Stone  Chat,  3427b. 
Stonehenge,   3428a. 
Stone  Mountain,  509a,  3428a. 
Stone  Pavement,  2759a. 
Stone  River.  2436a. 
Stone  River,  Battle  of,  2436a. 
Stones,   Building,   3678b. 
Stones,  Precious,  2930b. 
Stoneseed,  1586a. 
Stones  of  Venice,  3136a. 
Stonewall  Jackson,  1865a. 
Stoneware,  2925b. 
Stony  Point,  N.  Y.,  3428a. 
Storage  Battery,   1198a. 
Stories,  Acting,  2025a. 
Stork,   3428b. 
Storms,  342Sb. 
Storthing,  2611a. 
Story-Telling.    1956a,  3429b. 
Stoss,  Veit,  3445b. 
Stove,  3445b. 
Stowe,        Harriet        Elizabeth 

Beecher,  344Ca. 
Strabo,  3446a. 
Strabismus,   339Ga. 
Stradivarius,  Antonio,  3446b. 
Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth, 

3446b. 
Straits  Settlements,  3446b. 
Stramonium,  3447a. 
Strassburg,      Alsace-Lorraine, 

3447a. 
Strassburg  Clock,  3447a. 
Strategy,   3447b. 
Stratford,  Ont.,  3447b. 
Stratford-Upon-Avon,      E  n  g., 

3448a. 
Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal, 

Donald      Alexander      Smith, 

3448a. 
Stratified  Rocks,   1474a,   3448b. 
Straus,  Simon  W.,  3."75b. 
Strauss,  Joliann,  3448b. 
Strauss,    Richard,   3448b. 
Straw,   3448b. 
Strawberry.  3449a. 
Streator,  111.,  3449b. 
Street,  3081a. 
Street  Railway,  3449b. 
Strength  of  Materials,  3450a. 
Stress,  Unit  of,   3450b. 
Striated       Muscular       Tissue, 

2438a. 
Strike.  3451a. 
Strindberg,  August,  3451a. 
Stripe-bellied  Tunny,  499b. 
Strontium,  3451b. 
Strychnine,  139b,  3451b. 
Strychnos,   3451b. 
Stuart  (family),  3451b. 
Stuart,  Charles  Edward,  3452a. 
Stuart,  Gilbert,  3452a. 
Stuart,  James  Edward,   3452b. 
Stuart,    James    Ewell    Brown, 

3452b. 
Stuart.  Ruth  McEnery,  3452b. 


Stucco,   3453a. 

Students'        Army        Training 

Corps,   3786b. 
Study  of  Authors,  3015a. 
Sturgeon,   3453a. 
Sturm,    Johannes,    3453a. 
Stuttering,    3399a. 
Stuttgart,  Germany,  3453b. 
Stuyvesant,  Peter,  3453b. 
Style  (botany),  1354a. 
Styptic.  3454a. 
Styx,  3454a. 
Sublime  Porte,  925a. 
Submarine.  1823a,  3454a. 
Submarine   Cable,  1823a. 
Submarine  Mine,   3456b. 
Submarine  Warfare,    3924a. 
Subornation  of  Perjury,  2790a. 
Subpoena,  3457b,   3903a. 
Subsidiary  Motion,   2748b. 
Subsidy,   3458a. 
Subtraction,   174a. 
Subvocals,  2083a. 
Subway,  3458a. 
Succession  to  the  Presidency. 

2934b. 
Succession  Wars,  3458b. 
Succory,  782a. 
Sucker,    34G0a. 
Sucre,  Bolivia,  3460a. 
Suction   Pump,  2969a. 
Sudan,  The,  3460b. 
Sudan  Grass,  34Gla. 
Sudermann,  Hermann,  3461a. 
Sudoriferous  Glands,   1519a. 
Sue,     Marie    Joseph     Eugene, 

3461a. 
Suez,  Egypt,  3461b. 
Suez' Canal,  3461b. 
Suffolk   Resolves,   3806b. 
Suffrage,  3462a. 
Sugar,  3462b. 
Sugar  Berry,  2517a. 
Sugar  Cane,  34G5b. 
Sugar  of  Lead,  2070a. 
Sugar  Pine,  2855b. 
Suicide,   34G6a. 
Suleiman  II,  3344a. 
Sulla,  3102a,  34C6b. 
Sullivan,      Arthur      Seymour, 

3466b. 
Sully's     Hill     National     Park, 

2743a. 
Sulphates,    3467a. 
Sulphite  of  Soda,  28b. 
Sulphonal,    140a. 
Sulphur,   180Gb,   3467a. 
Sulphureted  Hydrogen,  3468a. 
Sulphuric  Acid,   3468a. 
Sultan,  3468b. 

Sulu  Islands,  2815b,   3468b. 
Sumac,  3469a. 
Sumatra,    3469a. 
Summer,   3469b. 

Summer  Solstice,  1166b.  3242b. 
Summer  Vacation  for  Schools 

Should  be  Abolished  (theme) 

3560a. 
Summer  Yellow  Bird,  3803a. 
Summons,  3949b. 
Summons,  Writ  of,  2945b. 
Sumner,   Charles,    34G9b. 
Sumptuary  Laws,   3470a. 
Sumter,  S.  C,  3470a. 
Sun,   3470b. 

Sun,   Spots  on   the,   267a. 
Sunbury,   Pa.,   3471b. 
Sunda  Islands.  3471b. 
Sun    Dance.    3471b. 
Sunday,    3150a. 

Sunday,  William  Ashley,  3472a. 
Sunday  School,  2998a,  3472a. 
Sunderland,   3472b. 
Sundew,  3472b. 
Sun  Dial.  858a,  3472b. 
Snnfish,  3473a. 
Sunflower,   3473a. 
Sunflower  State.  The,  1926a. 
Sun  Motor.   3340b. 
Sunshine  State.  3362b. 
Sunstroke.   3473a. 
Sun  Yat  Sen,  804b. 


The  letter  a.  after  a  number,  indicates  column    1 :   the  letter  li.  column  ti. 


Superdreadnaught 


4046 


Sunerdreadnaug-ht,  2496b. 
Superior,   Lake,   3473b. 
Sliperior,  Wis.,   3474a. 
Superior  Conjunction,   917a. 
Suijernaturalism,    3474a. 
Superstition,    3474a. 
Supervisor,  3474b. 
Supper  at  Emmaus,  The,  3047a. 
Supply  and  Demand,   3475a. 
Supremacy,   Royal,    3475b. 
Supreme     Court     of     Canada. 

3475b. 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United 

States,  975a,  3475b. 
Surabaya,  Java,  3476b. 
Surface   Measure,   2315a. 
Surgeon  Bird,  1859a. 
Surg-ery,  3476b. 
Surinam,  1157a. 
Surrogate,    3477b. 
Surrogate  Court,  2945b. 
Surveying,  3478a. 
Survey  of  Land,  2013a. 
Survey  of  Public  Lands,  2012a. 
Susa,  Persia.  3478a. 
Suspension  Bridge,  556b. 
Susquehanna  River,  3478b 
Sutlej  River,  3478b. 
Suttee,  3478b. 
Swallow,  3473b. 
Swallowing.   3479a. 
Swamp,   2259a. 
Swamp  Sassafras,  2220b 
Swan,  3479a. 
Swanee  River,   1385b 
Swayne,  Charles,  1775b. 
Sweat,   2797b. 
Sweat   Glands,   3319b. 
Sweatshop  System,  3479b. 
Sweden,  3480a. 
Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  3483b 
Swedenborgians,   3483a 
Swedish  Movement  Cure,  2116a 
Sweet  Alyssum.  3483b. 
Sweet  Bay,   2220b. 
Sweetbriar,  1186b,  3488a. 
Sweet  Clover.   2294a. 
Sweet  Flag,  3484a. 
Sweet  Gum,  2119a 
Sweet  Locust,  1714a. 
Sweet  Pea,  3484a. 
Sweet  Potato,  3484a. 
Sweet  Scabious,  1345b. 
Sweet  William.  3484a. 
Sweyn,  123  0a. 
Swift,  3484b. 
Swift,  Jonathan,  3484b. 
Swimming,    3485b. 
Swinburne,   Algernon   Charles, 

3486b. 
Swine,  1705a. 
Swing,    The,    2021a. 
Swiss  Guard,  3486b 
Swinton,  William.  3486b. 
Swiss  Family  Robinson,  3486b 
Switzerland,    3487a. 
Sword.   3490a. 
Swordfish,   3490a. 
Sycamore,  3490b 
Sydney,  N.  S.,  3490b. 

^'^^Ilfki'     New     South     Wales, 

3490b. 
Sydney  Mines,  N.  S.,  3491a. 
Syenite,  3491a. 
Syllabication.  2683b. 
Syllogism,  3491a. 
Symbol,   3491b. 
Sympathetic  System,  2509a. 
Synagogue.   3492a. 
Syncope.    1292b. 
Syndicalism,   3492b. 
Synecdoche.  3492b. 
Synesius,   3093b. 
Synge,  John  Millington,  3493a. 
Synod,   2932a. 
Synodical  Month.  2404b. 
Syntax,    1546a,    3493a. 
Synthesis,   3493a 
Syracuse,  Battle  of,   1319b. 
Syracuse,  Italy,  3493b. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  3493b. 


Syracuse  University,  3494a. 

Syria,    3494a. 

Syriac,   3494b. 

Syringa,   3494b. 

Systemic  Circulation,  826b. 


T.  3495a. 

Tabernacle,  3495a. 
Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  3495b. 
Tables    of    Mortality.    2417b. 
Taboo,  3496a. 
Tabor,  Mount,  3496a. 
Tabriz,  Persia,  3496a, 
Tache,       Alexander      Antonin, 

3496b. 
Tacitus,      Publius      Cornelius, 

3497a 
Tacking-,   3158a,   3497a. 
Tacoma,  Wash.,  3497a. 
Taconic  Mountains,   3498a. 
Tactile  Corpuscles,  3602a. 
Tadpole,  3498a. 
Taffeta,  3498a. 
Taft,  Lorado,  3498a. 
Taft,  William  Howard,  3498b. 
Tagalogs,  2818a. 
Tagnan,  1365b. 
Tagore,    Rabindranath,    1780b, 

3503b. 
Tahiti  Archipelago,    3336a. 
Tahoe,  Lake,   641a,  3504a. 
Tailor  Bird,  3504a. 
Taine,       Hippolyte       Adolphe, 

3504a. 
Taiwan  Island,  1380b. 
Taj  Mahal,  3504b. 
Talc,  3504b. 
Talent,    3505a. 
Tale  of  a  Tub,  3485a. 
Tales  of  Hoffmann,  2636b. 
Talisman,   3505a. 
Talking  Machine,   3505a. 
Tallahassee,  Fla.,   3506a. 
Talleyrand-Perigord,      Charles 

Maurice,  3506b. 
Tallow,   3507a. 
Tallow  Tree,  3507b. 
Talmage,       Thomas       DeWitt, 

3507b. 
Talmud,  The,  2507b. 
Talus,  3508a. 
Tamarack,   3508a. 
Tamarind,   3508a. 
Tambourine,    3508b. 
Tamerlane,  1783b. 
Tammany  Society,  3508b. 
Tammany  Tirrer,  2476a. 
Tam  O'Shanter,  610a. 
Tampa,  Fla.,  3509a. 
Tampico,  Mcx.,  3509b. 
Tanager,  3509b. 

Tananarivo,  Madagascar,  136a. 
Tancred,   3510a. 
Taney,  Roger  Brooke,  3510a. 
Tanganyika,  3510a. 
Tangerine,  3510b. 
Tangier,    Morocco,    3510b. 
Tango,  1025b. 
Tank,  Armored,  3511a. 
Tannhauser,  3512a. 
Tannic  Acid,  3512a. 
Tannin,   3512a. 
Tanning,    2072b. 
Tansy,    140a,   3512b. 
Tantalus,  2770a,  3512b. 
Taoism,  3512b. 
Tapajos,  S512b. 
Tapestry,  3513a. 
Tapeworm,   3513b. 
Tapioca,  3514a. 
Tapir,  3514a. 
Taps,   592b. 
Tar,  3514a. 

Tarantula,    3384a,   3514a. 
Tarbell,  Ida  Minerva,  3514b. 
Tarbush.   1314b. 
Tare,  3514b,   3765b. 
Target,   3514b. 


Tender 

Targums,    1660b,   3515a. 

Tariff,    3515a. 

Tariff  of  Abominations,  3516a. 

Tarkington,      Newton      Booth. 
3516b. 

Tarpeian  Rock,  3517a. 

Tarpon,   3517a. 

Tarquinius,    Lucius     (the    El- 
der), 3517a. 

Tarquinius,         Lucius  (the 

Proud),   3100a,   3517a. 

Tarshish,    3517b. 

Tarsus,      Asia     Minor,      1368a, 
3319a,    3517b. 

Tartan,   3517b. 

Tartar,  3517b. 

Tartar    Emetic,  3517b. 

Tartaric  Acid,  3518a. 

Tartars,  3518a. 

Tartarus,  3518a,  3585b. 

Tartary,   3518a. 

Tashkent,        Asiatic        Russia, 
3518a. 

Tasmania,   3518b. 

Tasmanian  Wolf,  3519a. 

Tasso,   Torquato,  3519a. 

Taste,  3519b. 

Tatler,  The,  23b. 

Tattooing    3520a. 

Taunton,  Mass.,  3520a. 

Taurus,   3520b. 

Tautog,    465a. 

Tax,  3520b. 

Taxicab,   3522a. 

Taxidermy,  3522a. 

Tax  Sale,   3521a. 

Tax  Title,  3521a. 

Tay,    3523a. 

Taygeta,    2872b. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  3523a. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  3523b. 

Taylor,   Zachary,   1323a,   3523b. 

Tchad,   Lake,    743a. 

Tchaikovsky,    Peter,    3525a. 

Tea,   2488a,  3525a. 

Teachers'   Institute,   3526a. 

Teaching,   Methods   of,    2312b. 

Teak,  3526a. 

Teal,  1150a. 

Teasel,  3526b. 

Teck,       Alexander       Augustus 
Frederick,    3526b. 

Tebriz,  Persia,  3496a. 

Technical  and  Industrial  Edu- 
cation,   3784b. 

Technical  High  Schools,  3786a. 

Tecumseh   (Indian),   3526b. 

Te  Deum.  3526b. 

Teetertail,  3185a. 

Teeth,  2973a,  3527a. 

Tegner,  Esaias,   3527b. 
Tegucigalpa,   Honduras,  3527b. 
Tehachapi  Mountains,  640b. 
Teheran,   Persia,   3527b. 
Tehuantepec,        Isthmus        of, 

3528a. 
Telautograph,  3528a. 
Telegram,     Write     a     (game), 

1239a. 
Telegraph,  1823a.  2417a,  3528b. 
Telegraph,      Wireless,      1823a, 

3531a. 
Telepathy,  3533a. 
Telephone,  1823a,  3533b. 
Telephone,      Wireless,      1823a, 

3535a. 
Telescope.   1823a.  3535b. 
Tell,   William,  3489a,   3536a. 
Tempe,  Vale  of,  3536b. 
Temperance,  3536b. 
Temperature,    3536b,    3563b. 
Temperature      of     the      Body, 

3536b. 
Tempering,    3537a. 
Templars,   Knights,   3537a. 
Temple,  3537a 
Temple,    Tex.,    3537b. 
Temple  of  Fame,  3796b. 
Temujin,  14fiGa. 
Tenacity,   3537b. 
Tender,  3538a. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column   1 :  the  letter  I»,  oolunm  2. 


Tendon  of  Achilles 


4047 


Tonga  Islands 


Tendon  of  Achilles,  14a. 

Tendons,  3538a. 

Tenement,   3538a. 

Teniers    (family),   3538b. 

Tenlie,  1859b. 

Tennessee,  3538b. 

Tennessee,        University        of, 

3542b. 
Tennessee  River,  3542b. 
Tenniel,  John,  3543a. 
Tennis,   3543a.  „^^„ 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  3022b,  3543a. 
Tenor,  3311b. 
Tent,  657a,  659b. 
Tent  Caterpillar,  3544a. 
Tenure  of  Office  Act,  3544b. 
Tepee.  1792a. 
Terceira  Island,   307b. 
Terence,   3545a. 
Tereus,  2822a. 
Terhune.      Mary      Virginia 

Hawes,  354  5a. 
Termites,  3545a. 
Tern.   3545b. 

Terpsichore,  2438b.  3546a. 
Terra  Cotta,  3546a. 
Terrapin,   3546a. 
Terre  Haute.  Ind.,  3546b. 
Terrestrial  Globe.  1523a. 
Terrier,  1089b,  3546b. 
Territorial    Expansion    of    the 

United   States,    3697b. 
Territories       of       the       United 

States,  3696a. 
Territory,  3547a. 
Terror,  Reign  of,  3084b,  3547a. 
Terrv,      Ellen      Alicia,      3547a, 

3833a. 
Tertiary  Period.   3547b. 
Tertullian,   3547b. 
Tesla,    Nikola,    3547b. 
Test  Acts,  3547b. 
Testament,    3874b. 
Testator,    3874b. 
Tetanus,  3548a. 
Tetrameter,  2311b. 
Tetrazzini,  Luisa,   3548a. 
Tetzel,    .lohann,    3039b,    3548a. 
Teutonic  Group  of  Languages, 

2820b. 
Teutonic   Knights,   3548b. 
Teutonic  Races,  3548b. 
Texarkana,     Ark.      and      Tex., 

3548b. 
Texas,   3549a,    3709b. 
Texas,  University  of.  3553b. 
Textiles,.  3554a.   3686b. 
Thackeray.       William      Make- 
peace. 3554a. 
Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,  2909a. 
Thais.   2277b. 
Thales,    3554b. 
Thalia,   1543b.   2438b,   3555a. 
Thallium,  3555a. 
Thallophytes,         516b,         518a, 

3555a. 
Thames,   3555a. 
Thames    River,  Battle   of   the, 

3555b. 
Thariatonsis.   580a. 
Thane,  3555b. 
Thanet,  Octave.  1411a. 
Thanksgiving  Day,  3555b. 
That  Lass  o'  Lowrie's.   608b. 
Theater.   3555b. 
Thebes,   Egypt.    3557a. 
Thebes,  Greece,  3557b. 
Theine.  632a. 

Themes,  Outline  for,  3557b. 
Themis.   3560b. 
Themistocles.    3560b. 
Theocracy,  3561a. 
Theodoric     the     Great,     1852b, 

3561a. 
Theodosius.   3561b. 
Theology.   3561b. 
Theosophical   Society,    3562a. 
Theosophy,    3562a. 
Therapeutics.   3562a. 
Theresa.  Saint.  3562b. 
Thermal  Springs,   3562b. 


Thermal  Unit,  3670b. 
Thermoelectricity,  3562b. 
Thermograph,  3563a. 
Thermometer,   181a,   3563a. 
Thermometer,      Reading      the, 

181a. 
Thermo-Multiplier,    3563a. 
Thermopylae,   Greece,   3564a. 
Thermopylae  of  America,   63b. 
Thermos   Bottle,    2837a,    3564b. 
Theseum,   3564b. 
Theseus,   271b,   3565a. 
Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the, 

3565a. 
Thessaly,   3565b. 
Thetford  Mines,  Que.,  3565b. 
Thetis,   2457b,  3565b. 
Thian-Shan   Mountains,    3577a. 
Thibet,   3577b. 

Thiers,    Louis    Adolphe,    3565b. 
Thinker,  The,  3090a. 
Third-Rail   System,    1206a. 
Thirst,   2843b,  3566a. 
Thirty-nine   Articles.    3041b. 
Thirty  Tvrants.  3566a. 
Thirty  Years'  War.   3566a. 
Thisbe,  2974b. 
Thistle,   3567a. 
Thistle,  Order  of  the,  3567b. 
Thistle-bird,   110b. 
Thomas,   Augustus,    3567b. 
Thomas,  George  Henry.  3567b. 
Thomas,  Theodore,  3568a. 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  3568a. 
Thompson,  David,  3568b. 
Thompson,   Denman,   3568b. 
Thompson,      James      Maurice, 

3568b. 
Thomson,  James,  3568b. 
Thomson.  William,  1935a. 
Thor.  3569a. 
Thoracic  Duct.  3569a. 
Thorax,   5a,   772a. 
Thoreau,   Henry  David,    3569a. 
Thorium,   3569b. 
Thorn  Apple,   3447a. 
Thoroughvvort,  499a. 
Thorwaldsen,  Bertel,  3569b. 
Thothmes  III.  3570a. 
Thought.  3570a. 
Thousand     and     One     Nights, 

154b. 
Thousand    Day    Method,    The, 

1817a. 
Thousand   Island    Park,    3163b. 
Thousand  Islands,  3570b. 
Thrace,  3571a. 
Thracian   Bosporus,   510b. 
Thrasher,  575b. 
Thrashing   Machine,    3571a. 
Thread,  3571b. 
Thread  Worm,   3572a. 
Three   Bears,   The,    1957a. 
Three      Butterflies,      Story     of 

(theme),  3559a. 
Three  Deep   (game),  1441a. 
Three  Goats,  The.   3431b. 
Three  Men  in  a  Boat,   1888a. 
Three  Rivers,   Que.,   3572a. 
Three  Sisters,  663a. 
Three  Tiny  Pigs,  The,  1958b. 
Thrift,   3572a. 
Thrift  (theme),  3559a. 
Thrift  Campaign,   3575a. 
Through     the     Liookng-Glass, 

95a 
Thrush.  3576a. 
Thucydides,  3576b. 
Thugs,  3576b. 
Thule,   3576b. 
Thunder.   1467a. 
Thurn.  Count,  3566b. 
Thursday,  3577a. 
Thwaites.  Reuben  Gold,  3577a. 
Thyme.  3577a. 
Thyroid  Cartilage.   2061a. 
Tian-Shan    Mountains,    3577a. 
Tiara.  3577a. 
Tiber  River.  3577a. 
Tiberius.  3577b. 
Tibet,  3577b. 


Tibia,   3318b. 

Tic  Douloureux,  3578b. 

Ticks,   3578b. 

Ticonderoga,  Battles  of,  3578b. 

Tidal  Air,  549b. 

Tides,   3579a. 

Tien-tsin,  China,   3580a. 

Tierceroon,   2977a. 

Tierra      del      Fuego      Islands, 

3580b. 
Tiffany,  L.  C.  3398b. 
Tiffin,  Ohio,  3580b. 
Tiflis,   Russian  Transcaucasia, 

3580b. 
Tiger,  3581a. 
Tiger   Lily,   3581b. 
Tiglathpileser  I,   256b. 
Tigris   River,   3581b. 
Tilden,    Samuel    Jones,    3582a, 

3712a. 
Tilefish,  3582a. 
Tiles,   3582a. 
Tillman,        Benjamin        Ryan, 

3582b. 
Tilly,  Johann  Tserklaes,  3582b. 
Timber  Culture  Act,    2012b. 
Timber  Cutting,   2185b. 
Timbrel,   350Sb. 

Timbuktu.  French  West  Afri- 
ca, 3582b. 
Time,   Comparative,   2164a. 
Time,   Standard,    3401a. 
Timothy   (Apostle),    3583a. 
Timothy  (grass).  3583a. 
Timrod,  Henry.  3583a. 
Tiraur.  1783b,  3583b. 
Tin,  3583b. 

Tincture  of  Opium,   2064a. 
Tinfoil,  3584a 

Tingley.    Katharine    A.,    3562a. 
Tintoretto,  3584b. 
Tippecanoe,   Battle   of,    3584b. 
Tirol,   3663b. 
Tissot.  James  Joseph  Jacques, 

3585a. 
Tissues,  3585a. 
Tit,   3586b. 
Titanic,  3585a. 
Titanium.  3585b. 
Titans,  3585b. 
Tithes.  3585b. 
Titian,   Tiziano,  3585b. 
Tilicaca,  Lake,  3586a. 
Titlark,    2060b,    2858a. 
Title,  3586a. 
Titles  of  Honor,  3586b. 
Titles  of  Nobility,  2577b. 
Titmouse,   3586b. 
Titus    (Apostle),    3587a. 
Titus   (emperor),  3586b. 
T.  N.  T..  3635b. 
Toad,   3587a. 
Toad  Bug,  3826a. 
Toadstool,    2439a. 
Tobacco,    2571a,    3587a,    3684b. 
Tobacco   Root,   463a. 
Tobogganing,   3589a. 
Tobolsk,  Siberia,  3589a. 
Tocantins,   3589a. 
Todd,   Mary,    2110a. 
Toga,   1143b.   3589b. 
Togo,  Heihaichiro,   3589b. 
Togoland,   West   Africa,   3590a. 
Token  Money,  2385a. 
Tokyo.  Japan,  3590a,   3612b. 
Toledo,  Ohio,  3591a. 
Toll,  3591b. 
Tolstoi,    Lyoff    Nikolayevitch, 

3591b. 
Tomahawk,  3592a. 
Tomato.  3592b. 
Tomb.  3592b. 
Tombigbee  River,  3593a. 
Tom  Jones.   1319a. 
Tompkins.  Daniel  D..  3593a. 
Tom    Sawyer,    Adventures    of, 

848a.  2370b. 
Tomtit.   3586b. 
Tom-tom.  1146a. 
Ton,   3593a. 
Tone,  3593b. 
Tonga   Islands,    3593b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  uumber,  indicates  column   1;  the  letter  b,  column  '2, 


Tonic 


4048 


Turnverein 


Tonic,  3593b. 

Tongking,  French  Indo-China, 

3594a. 
Tongue,  3594a. 
Tonnage,    3594a. 
Tonsillitis,  3594b. 
Tonsils,    3594b. 
Tonsure,  3594b. 
Tonty,    or    Tonti,    Henry    de, 

3595a 
Toombs,   Robert,   3595a. 
Toothache  Tree,  2937b. 
Top,   3595a. 
Topaz,   461a,    3595b. 
Topeka,  Kan.,  3595b. 
Tornado,  3596a. 
Toronto,  Ont.,  3596b. 
Toronto,   University   of,    3598a. 
Torpedo,   3598a. 
Torpedo    (fish),    3599a. 
Torpedo   Boat,   3599b. 
Torpedo    Boat    Destroyer, 

3599b. 
Torquemada,         Thomas         de, 

3599b. 
Torrens  System,  3599b. 
Torricelli,    Evangelista,    3600a. 
Torrington.  Conn.,   3600a. 
Torsion  Balance,  3600b. 
Tort,  3600b. 
Tortoise,    3600b. 
Tortoise  Shell,   3601a. 
Torture.   3601a. 
Tory,    3601a. 

Tossing  Tally  (game),  1441a. 
Totem,   3601b. 
Totten,  George  M.,  2720b. 
Toucan,  3601b. 
Touch,   3602a. 

Touch  Ball    (game),  1440a. 
Toulon,  France.  3602a. 
Toulouse,  Battle  of,  3847a. 
Toulouse,  France,  3602b. 
Tourmaline,  461a,   3602b. 
Tournament,  .leOSa. 
Tourniquet,   3603a. 
Tours,  Battle  of.  1319b. 
Tours,  France,   3603a. 
Toussaint,     Francois     Uomin- 

ique,   3603b. 
Tower,  3603b. 
Tower  Bridge,   2158a. 
Tower  of  London,  3604a. 
Towers  of  Silence,  3604a. 
Town  Meeting,  3604a. 
Township,   2013a,   3604b,   3695a. 
Township   in   Sections,    2013a. 
Tox-albumlns,  314b. 
Toxicology,  3604b. 
Toxins,  3605a. 
Toynbee,  Arnold,  3336a. 
Tracery,  3605a. 
Trachea,  3605a. 
Tracheotomy,   995a. 
Trachyte,   3605a. 
Tractarianism,  2694a. 
Traction  Engine,  3605b. 
Trade  Acceptance,    3605b. 
Trade   Discount,   1079b. 
Trade  Game,   1441b. 
Trade-mark,  3606a. 
Trade  Schools,  3786a. 
Trade  Unions,  1999b. 
Trade  Winds,   3606a. 
Trafalgar,   3606b. 
Tragacanth.   3606b. 
Tragedy,   llloa,   360Gb. 
Tragopan,    3607a. 
Trailing   Arbutus.    157b. 
Traill,   Catherine  Parr,   3607a. 
Trajan   (Marcus  Ulpius  Traia- 

nus),  3607a. 
Trajan's  Column,  3096b,  3607b. 
Trance,   3607b. 
Transalpine  Gaul,  1455a. 
Trans-Atlantic  Flights.   1362b. 
Transcendentalism,   3607b. 
Transcontinental     Systems, 

2999b. 
Transept.   3607b. 
Transfiguration,  The,   2705a. 


Transformer,   3608a. 
Transfusion  of  Blood,  3608a. 
Transit  Instrument,    3608a. 
Transit  of  Venus,  3753b. 
Transmigration    of    the     Soul, 

3608b. 
Transpiration,   2074b. 
Transportation    in    the   United 

States,    3687b. 
Trans-Siberian       Railroad, 

3294a,  3608b. 
Transvaal,   The,  3609b. 
Transylvania,     3611a. 
Trapdoor  Spider,  3611a. 
Trapezium,  2977a,   3611b. 
Trapezoid,    2977a,    3611b. 
Trapping,  3611b. 
Trappists,    3612a. 
Travels      in      Distant      Lands, 

3612a. 
Traverse   City,   Mich.,    3622b. 
Travertine,    3622b. 
Trawling,   3622b. 
Treadmill,  3e22b. 
Treason,   3623a. 
Treasure  Island,   3423b. 
Treasure  State,  The,   2396b. 
Treasury   Department,    3623a. 
Treaty,  3623b. 
Trebizond,    Turkey,    3623b. 
Treble.  3624a. 
Tree,  3624a. 
Tree,     Herbert    Beerbohm, 

3631a. 
Tree,  The   (poem),  2020b. 
Tree  Frog,   3631a. 
Tree-Planters'  State,   2498a. 
Tree  Toad,  3631a. 
Trefoil,  3631b. 
Trent,       Council       of,       3093b, 

3631b. 
Trent  Affair,  3323b,  3631b. 
Trent  Canal,  678a,  679a. 
Trente   et  Quarante.    3i23a. 
Trenton,  Battle  of.   3632b. 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  3632a. 
Trenton,    Ont.,    3632b. 
Trenton   Series.   3632b. 
Trent  River,   3631b. 
Trepang,   3632b. 
Trephining,    3633a. 
Trespass,    3633a. 
Trevithick,   Richard,   2149b. 
Trial  by  Battle,  363a. 
Triangle,    207b,   3633a. 
Triassic  System,    3633a. 
Tribasic  Acid,   14a. 
Tribune,   3633b. 
Trichina,  3633b. 
Trichiniasis,   3634a. 
Tricolor,  3634b. 
Tricycle,  3634b. 
Triest,  Italy,  3634b. 
Trigonometry,   3634b. 
Trillum,   3635a. 
Trimeter,   2311b. 
Trinidad,   Colo.,   3635b. 
Trinidad   Island,    3G22a,    3635a. 
Trinitrotoluol,   3635b. 
Trinity,   3635b. 
Trinity   Sunday,    3636a. 
TriDhthong,    2683a. 
Triple  Alliance,  3636a. 
Triple   Entente,   3636a. 
Triple     Expansion     Engine, 

3414b. 
Tripoli   (city),  3636b. 
Tripoli    (geology),    844b. 
Tripoli,  North  Africa,  3636b. 
Trireme,   3637a. 
Triumph,    3637a. 
Triumphal  Arch,  158a. 
Triumvirate,         631a,         3102b, 

3637a. 
Tristram  Shandy,   3422a. 
Trocadero,      Palace      of      the. 

2737b. 
Trochaic  Meter,   2311b. 
Trogon,  3637a. 
Trojan  War,  2457b,  3639a. 
Trolling,    3637b. 


Trollope,    Anthony,    3637b. 

Trolls,    1293b. 

Trombone,   3637b. 

Tromp,     Martin     Harpertzoon, 

3637b. 
Tropic   Bird,   3637b. 
Tropics,  1167a,  3638a. 
Trotzky,      Leon,     493b,     3130a, 

3145b,   3638a. 
Troubadours,   3638b. 
Trout,    3638b. 
Trovatore,  II,  1771a. 
Trouvere,    3638b. 
Trowbridge,    John    Townsend, 

3639a. 
Troy,    2457b,    3639a. 
Troy,  N.  Y.,   3639a. 
Troy   Pound,   2f27a,   3843a. 
Troy  Weight,  3639b. 
Truce,   3802b. 
Truce,  Flag  of,   1338b. 
Truffle,    3640a. 
Trumbull,   Jonathan,   3640a. 
Trumbull,   Lyman,    3640a. 
Trumpet,   S640a. 
Trumpet  Fish,   388a. 
Trumpet  Flower,   3640b. 
Trumpet-wood,  732b. 
Truro,  N.   S.,  3640b. 
Truss    Bridges,    555a. 
Trust,  3641a. 
Trust   Company,   3640b. 
Trustee,    3641a. 
Trypsin,    1075b,    2725b,    2784b. 
Tsana,  Lake,  9b. 
Tsar,  1015a. 
Tschaikowsky,     Peter     Ilytch, 

3525a. 
Tsetse  Fly,  3642a. 
Tuberculosis,  or  Consumption, 

3642a. 
Tuberose,  3642b. 
Tubular   Bridges.   555b. 
Tucson,  Ariz.,   3642b. 
Tucuman,   Argentina,    3643a. 
Tudor,  House  of,  3643a. 
Tudor  Style,   3643a. 
Tuesday,  3643b. 
Tufa,  3643b. 
Tufts  College,  3643b. 
Tuileries,   3643b. 
Tulane,   Paul,   3644a. 
Tulane  University,  3644a. 
Tulip,  3644a. 
Tulip  Tree,   3644b. 
Tulsa,  Okla.,  3644b. 
Tumbleweed,  3645a. 
Tumor,   3645a. 
Tuna,   3645a. 
Tundra,  3645a. 
Tungsten,    3645b. 
Tungsten  Lamp.   1203b. 
Tunic,   1143b,  3645b. 
Tuning    Fork,    3645b. 
Tunis    (protectorate),   3645b. 
Tunkers,   1154b.    • 
Tunnel,  3646a. 
Tunny,  3645a,   3646a. 
Tupelo,   465a. 
Tupper,  Charles,   3646a. 
Turanian,  3646b. 
Turban,  3646b. 
Turbine,   3647a. 
Turbot,  3647b. 
Turgenieff,  Ivan  Sergeyeviteh, 

3648a. 
Turin,  Italy,  3648a. 
Turkestan,  3648b. 
Turkey,   3649a,    3763b,   3919a. 
Turkey    (bird),    3653b. 
Turkey  Buzzard,  3654a. 
Turkey  Red,   2210a. 
Turkish    Bath.    361a. 
Turks,  3654a. 
Turmeric.  3654a. 
Turner,    Joseph    Mallard    Wil- 
liam, 3654a. 
Turner,  Nat,   3655b. 
Turnip,   3654b. 
Turnstone,   3654b. 
Turnverein,  3654b. 


The  letter  a.  alter  a  number*  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b.  column  S. 


Turpentine 

Turpentine,  140a,  3655a. 

Turquoise,   461a,   C055b. 

Turtle,  3655b. 

Turtle  Dove,   2851b,   3655b. 

Tuscaloosa,   Ala.,    3655b. 

Tuscan   Order,   895b. 

Tuscany,   3656a. 

Tuscarora  Indians,  3656a. 

Tuskegee  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial Institute,  3656a. 

Tussock  Moth,   3656b. 

Twain,  Mark,  847b. 

Tweed,  3656b. 

Tweed,  William  Marcy,  3656b. 

Tweed   River,   3656b. 

Twelfth  Day,    1871b. 

Twelve  Great  Paintings, 
2706b. 

Twelve  Labors  of  Hercules, 
1676a. 

Twelve  Tables,  Law  of  the, 
3100a,  3657a. 

Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  un- 
der the  Sea,  3761a. 

Twilight,   3657a. 

Twilight    Sleep,    3657b. 

Two  Cities,  A  Tale  of,   1072b. 

Two  Green  and  Glittering 
Gold-Chafers.   1960a. 

Two-step,    1025b. 

Two  Years  Before  the  Mast, 
1024b. 

Tycho  Brahe,  539b. 

Tyler,  John,  3657b. 

Tyler,  Tex.,  3660a. 

Tyler,  Wat,  3660b. 

Tympanum,   1163a. 

Tyndale,  William,  3660b 

Tyndall,   John.  3660b. 

Type,   1597b,    1823a,    3661a. 

Typesetting  Machines,  2117a, 
2390a. 

Typewriter,    1823a,   3662a. 

Typhoid  Fever,   3662b. 

Typhoon,  797b.  3663a. 

Typhus   Fever,  3663a. 

Tyre.   Phoenicia,   3663b. 

Tyrol,  3663b. 


u 


U,  2682b,  3664a. 

Udal,  Nicholas,  3664a. 

Ufflzi,  3664a. 

Uganda,    British   East   Africa, 

3664a. 
Ugly  Duckling,  The,   3435b. 
Uhlans,   3665a. 
Uinta  Mountains,   3665a. 
Uitlanders,   3349b,  3611a. 
Ukraine.  The,  3665a. 
Ulcer,  3665b. 
Ulna,  3318a. 
Ultima  Thule,    3576b, 
Ultramarine,   3665b. 
Ulysses,  2896a,  3665b. 
Umbelliferae,   3666a. 
Umber.  3666a. 
Umbrella   Bird,   3666a. 
Umiak,  1254b. 
Unalaska  Island,   3666a. 
Uncas,  3666a. 
Uncial  Letters.  3950a. 
Uncle   Sam.   571b. 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  3446a. 
Unction,   or  Extreme  Unction. 

3666b. 
Underground   Railroad,    3666b. 
Underground  Railway,  3458a. 
Undershot  Wheel,   3831b. 
Underwood,  Oscar,   3666b. 
Underwood-Simmons     Tariff 

Act,  3516b. 
Undines,  1294a. 
Unemployment,  3667a. 
Ungava,  Canada,  3668a. 
Ungulates,    3668a. 
Unicorn,  3668a. 
Unicorn  Fish.  2475a. 
Unicorn  Whale,  2475a. 


4049 

Uniforms,  Military,   3668a. 

Uniforms,  Naval,  3668a. 

Union,  Act  of,  3669a. 

Union,  States  of  the,  3696a. 

Union  Jack,  1342a. 

Union  of  South  Africa,  3669a. 

Uniontown,  Pa.,   3670a. 

Unit,    3670a. 

Unitarians,   3670b. 

United  Colonies  of  New  Eng- 
land,  2527b. 

United  Daughters  of  the  Con- 
federacy,  909b. 

United  Kingdom,  The,  3671a. 

United  Press,  254b. 

United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh,   3671a. 

United  States,  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  the,  746b. 

United  States,  Education  in 
the,  3699a. 

United  States,  Great  Seal  of 
the,    3G92a. 

United  States,  History  of  the, 
3699b. 

United  States,  Posse5sions  of 
the,  3694a. 

United  States,  Supreme  Court 
of,  3475b. 

United  States,  Territorial  Ex- 
pansion of  the.   3697b. 

United  States,  Territories  of 
the,  3696a. 

United  States  Army,   224b. 

United  States  Coast  Guard, 
866b. 

United  States  Colonies,    884b. 

United  States  Courts,   975a. 

United  States  Indian  Indus- 
trial  School,   3e71b. 

United  States  in  the  World 
War,  3927a. 

United  States  National  Bureau 
of  Standards.   3400a. 

United  States  Naval  Academy. 
2492b. 

United  States  Notes,  2386a. 

United  States,  of  America, 
3671b. 

United  States  Sculpture, 
3235b. 

United  States  Senate,  3252a. 

United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion, 3719a. 

United  States  Weather  Bureau, 
3836a. 

United  Workmen,  Ancient  Or- 
der of,   119a. 

Univalves,   2380b. 

Universal  City,  Calif.,  642b. 

Universalists,  3719b. 

Universal    Language,    3719b. 

Universe,   3719b. 

University,  879b,  3720a. 

University  Extension,   3721a. 

University  of  Halle,   1616a. 

University  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  2552a. 

Unspeakable  Turk,  3651a. 

Unter  den  Linden,  397a,  3721h 

Upas,  3721b. 

Upland  Cotton,  969a. 

Upper  Canada,  26.")8a. 

Ural  Mountains,   3721b. 

Ural  River,  3722a. 

Urania,  2438b,  3722a. 

Uranium.   3722a. 

Uranus    (mythology).   3722a. 

Uranus   (planet),   3722a. 

Urban  (Popes),  3722b. 

Urbana.   111,.  3722b. 

Urine,  3722b. 

Ursa  Major,  368b.  3723a. 

Ursa  Minor.  3723a. 

Urso,  Camilla,   3723a. 

Ursulines,   3723a. 

Uruguay,  3723b. 

Uruguay  River,  3724b. 

Usury,  3724b. 

Utah,   3725a. 

Utah,  University  of,   3728b. 


Veery 

Utah  Lake,  3728b. 
Ute,   3728b. 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  3728b. 
Utica,  Phoenicia,  3728b. 
Utilitarianism,   3729a. 
Utopia,  2411b,  37i9b. 
Utrecht,   Netherlands,   3729b. 
Utrecht.  Peace  of,  3729b. 
US:,  3730b. 


V 


V,  3731a. 

Vaca,  Cobeza  de,  3553a. 
Vacation  Schools.   3731a. 
Vaccination,    1886b.    3731a. 
Vaccine  Theiapy,  3731b. 
Vacuum,   3732a. 
Vacuum   Cleaner,   3732a. 
Vail,   Alfred,   2417a,    3530b. 
Valdai  Hills,  3732a. 
Valencia,    Spain,    3732a. 
Valens,   3732b. 
Valentine,  Saint.  3732b. 
Valentinian  I.   3732b. 
Valentinian  III,  3733a. 
Vale   of    Tempe,    3536b. 
Valerian,    3733a. 
Valhalla,   3733a. 
Valkyries,   3733a. 
Valladolid,  Mex..  2411b. 
Vallejo,   Calif..   3733a. 
Valley,  3733b. 
Valleyfield,   Que.   3734a. 
Valley  Forge,  3734a. 
Valmy,  Battle  of,   1319b. 
Valois,  House  of.  3734b. 
Valparaiso,   Chile.    3734b. 
Valparaiso  University,    3735a. 
Value,   3475a. 
Valve,   3735a. 
Vampire,    3735a. 
Vampire  Bat.   3735b. 
Vanadium,   3735b. 
Van  Buren,  Martin,   3735b. 
Vancouver,  B.  C,   3739b. 
Vancouver,  George,   374  0a. 
Vancouver,  Wash.,   3740b. 
Vancouver  Island,   3740b. 
Vandals,   3741a. 
Vanderbilt   (family),   3741a. 
Vanderbilt  University.    3741b. 
VanDyck,    Anthony,    3741b. 
Van  Dyke,  Henry.  3742a. 
Van     Hise,     Charles     Richard. 

3742b. 
Van  Horn,  William  Cornelius. 

3742b. 
Vanilla,  3742b. 
Vanity  Fair.   372a,   3554b. 
Vannucci,   Pietro,   2800b. 
Van     Rensselaer,     Stephen. 

3743a. 
Van  Twiller,  Wouter,  2560a. 
Vapor,  3743a. 
Vapor  Light,    1203b. 
Varicose  Veins,  3743a. 
Variety,  3743a. 
Variola,  3325a. 
Varioloid,  3743b. 
Varnish,   3743b. 
Vasco  da  Gama,   1436b. 
Vase,   3744a. 
Vaseline,   3744a. 
Vashti,  424a. 
Vassal,  1314a. 
Vassar,  Matthew,  3744b. 
Vassar  College,  3744a. 
Vaterland.   The,   2091b,   3283b. 
Vatican,   3744b. 
Vaudeville,   3745a. 
Vatican  Council.   2902b,   3745a. 
Vatican  Library,  3745a. 
Vault,  3745a. 
Vecchio,   Palma,   2705a. 
Vecelllo.   Tiziano,   3585b. 
Vedas.   374  5a. 
Vedic  Literature,  540a. 
Veery,  3576b. 


Tlie  letter  a.  after  a  number*  indicates  column  t:  tbe  letter  h.  column  2. 


Vega  Carpio,  Felix  Lope  de 


4050 


War  Declarations  of,  in  1915 


Vega    Carpio,    Felix   Lope '  de, 

3745b. 
Vegetable   Butter,   98a. 
Vegetable  Fixed  Oils,  2645a. 
Vegetable  Ivory,  1858a. 
Vegetable   Leather,    2073a. 
Vegetable  Parchment,  2729a. 
Vegetables,    3745b. 
Vegetarianism,  3746a. 
Veil,    3746a. 
Vein   (geology),  3746b. 
Vein        (physiology),        2842b, 

3746b. 
Veining         (botany),         2075a, 

3747b. 
Velasquez,    Don    Diego    Rodri- 

quez,   3747a. 
Veldt.  3669b. 
Velocipede,   2747a. 
Velocity,  3747b. 
Velvet,  3747b. 
Velveteen,  3747b. 
Velvet  Leaf,  9a,  1791a. 
Vena  Cavae,  1656a. 
Venation,  2075a.  3747b. 
Vendetta,  3748a. 
Vendome  Column,  3748a. 
Veneer,   3748a.  . 
Venerable  Bede,  372b. 
Venezuela,  3748b. 
Venice,  3751a. 
Venison,   1048a. 
Venizelos,  Eleutherios,  3752a. 
Ventilation,   1104a,   1658b. 
Ventricle,  1656a. 
Ventriloquism,  3752b. 
Venue,  Change  of,  3753a. 
Venus    (astronomy),    3753a. 
Venus   (mythology),  3753a. 
Venus  and  Adonis,  3268a. 
Venus  de  Milo,  3231b. 
Venus's  Flower  Basket,  3389b, 

3573b. 
Venus's  Flytrap,   521b,   3753b. 
Vera  Cruz,  Mex.,  3754a. 
Verb,  2049b,   2055a,  3754a. 
Verbena.  3754b. 
Verdi,  Giuseppe,  53a,  3754b. 
Verdigris,   3755a. 
Verdun,  Battle  of,  3755b,  3921a. 
Verdun,  France,  3755a. 
Verendrye,   Sieur  de  la,   3954b. 
Vereshtchagin,  Vasili,  3755b. 
Vergil,  3755b. 
Vermes,  3756b. 
Vermicelli,  2197a. 
Vermiform      Appendix,      146b, 

3756b. 
Vermilion,  3756b. 
Vermont,   3757a. 
Vermont,  University  of,  3761a. 
Vernal  Equinox,  1035a,  3242b. 
Verne,  Jules,  3761a. 
Verona,  Italy,   3761a. 
Veronese,  Paul,  2705a,  3761b. 
Veronica,  Saint,  3761b. 
Verrazano,  Giovonni  da,  3761b. 
Versailles,  France,   3761b. 
Versailles,  Palace  of,  3762a. 
Versailles,    Treaty    of,     2956a, 

3762b. 
Verse,  3764a. 
Verst,  2336a. 
Vertebrata,  3764b. 
Vertigo,  3764b. 
Vespasian,  3764b. 
Vespusius,      Americus,       112a, 

3356a. 
Vest,  George  Graham,  1089b. 
Vesta,  3765a. 
Vesuvius,  Mount,  3765a. 
Vetch,  3765b. 
Veterans,  Sons  of,  3346a. 
Veterinary  Medicine,  3765b. 
Veto,  3766a. 
Veto  Bill,  1564b. 
Via  Dolorosa,  1889a. 
Viaduct,  3766a. 
Via  Sacra,  3096b. 
Vicar,  3766b. 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The,  1533b. 


Vice-Admiral,  26b. 
Vice-President,  3766b. 
Viceroy,  3766b. 
Vicksburg,  Miss.,  3767a. 
Victor  Emmanuel  II,   3767a. 
Victor  Emmanuel  III,  3767b. 
Victoria   (Queen),   3767b. 
Victoria,   Australia,   3768b. 
Victoria,  B.  C,   3769b. 
Victoria  Cross,  3770a. 
Victoria  Falls,  3770a. 
Victoria  Nyanza,  3770a. 
Victory,   The,   2505a. 
Vicuna,  3770b. 
Vienna,  Austria,  3770b. 
Vienna,  Congress  of,  3771b. 
Vikings,  2603a. 

Villa,  Francisco,  2322b,  3772a. 
Village  Blacksmith,  The,  3016a. 
Villeins,  3772b. 
Villi,    3772b. 
Vimy  Ridge,  3925a. 
Vilna,  Russia,  3772b. 
Vincennes,  Ind.,  3772b. 
Vincent,  George  Edgar,  3773a. 
Vincent,  John  Heyl,  3773b. 
Vinci,      Leonardo      da,      2704a, 

3772b. 
Vinegar,  13a,  3774a. 
Vinland,   3774b. 
Vinsenne,  Francois  Morgan  de, 

3773a. 
Viol,  3774b. 
Violet,  3774b. 
Violin,  3774b. 
Violoncello,  3774b,  3775a. 
Viper,  3775b. 
Virchow,  Rudolf,   3775b. 
Vireo,   3775b. 
Virgil,  3755b. 
Virginia,  3776b. 
Virginia,  Minn.,   3781b. 
Virginia,  University  of,  3782a. 
Virginia  City,  Nev.,  3782a. 
Virginia  Cowslip,  2188b. 
Virginia  Creeper,  1858b,  2882a, 

3782a. 
Virginians,  The,  3554b. 
Virginia  Resolutions,  1941b. 
Virgin    Islands   of   the   United 

States,   3620b,   3776a. 
Virginius.    3712a. 
Virgo,- 3782b. 
Virus,  378213. 
Visayans,  2818a. 
Viscount,  3782b. 
Vishnu,  3782b. 
Visible  Speech,  3782b. 
Visigoths,   1540a. 
Vision,  3783a. 
Vision      of      Piers      Plowman, 

2016a,  2121a. 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  1545b. 
Vistula,  3783b. 
Vital  Capacity,  549b. 
Vital  Statistics,  2905b. 
Vitamines,    3783b. 
Vitch,  2467b. 
Vitreous  Humor,  1287b. 
Vitriol,  Oil  of,  3468a. 
Vivisection,  3783b. 
Vizier,  3784a. 
Vladimir  the  Great,  3142a. 
Vladivostok,   Siberia,  3784a. 
Vocational  Education,  3784b. 
Vocational  Guidance,  3785a. 
Vocational  Schools.  3785b. 
Vodka,  3787a. 
Voice,  3787a. 
Volapuk,  3787b. 
Volatile  Alkali,  113b. 
Volatile  Oils,  2645a. 
Volcano,  1479b,  3787b. 
Vole,  3789a. 
Volga  River,  3789a. 
Voliva,  Wilbur  G.,  1110a. 
Volt,  3789b. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  3789b. 
Voltaic  Battery.  1196a. 
Voltaic  Electricity,  1202a.     • 
Voltaire,  3789b. 


Voltmeter,  3790a. 

Volume,  Measure  of,  2315b. 

Volunteers,  3790b. 

Volunteers  of  America,  3790b. 

Vom,  2578a. 

Vomer,   1290b. 

Vomiting,  3791a. 

Von,  2578a. 

Vorticella,  3791a. 

Vosges  Mountains,  3791a. 

Vote,  325b,   1194a 

Voters,  Registration  of,  3043b. 

Voting  Machine,  S791b. 

Vow,  The  Sun,  3236b. 

Vowels,  2681b,  3791b. 

Vulcan,  3792a. 

Vulcanizing,    1536b,    1823a, 

2877a,  3127b. 
Vulgate,  3792a. 
Vulture,  3792b. 


w 


W    3793a. 

Wabash,  "ind.,   3793a. 

Wabash  River,  3793a. 

Wacht  Am  Rhein,  Die,  3793a. 

Waco,  Tex.,  3552b,  3793b. 

Wadai,   French  Congo,   3793b. 

Wager,  3793b. 

Wages,  3794a. 

Wagner,      Wilhelm      Richard, 

3794b. 
Wagon,  3795a. 
Wagram.     Battle      of,      2472a, 

3795a 
Wagtail,  3795b. 
Wahunsonacook,  2928b. 
Waikiki  Beach,  3618a. 
Waite,     Morrison     R  e  m  i  c  k, 

3795b. 
Wake,  3795b. 
Wake  Robin,  3635a. 
Waldenses,  3795b. 
Waldstein,   Albrecht  Eusebius 

Wenzel  von,  3798b. 
Wales,  3796a. 
Wales,  Prince  of,  3796b. 
Walhalla,  3796b. 
Walker,  Francis  Amasa,  3796b. 
Walker,  John  G.  2721a. 
Walker,   William,    583b,    3797a. 
Walkerville,  Ont.,  3797a. 
Walking  Leaves,  2071a. 
Walking   Stick.    3797b. 
Wallabies,  1925b. 
Wallace,  Alfred  Russell,  3797b. 
Wallace,  John  F.  2722b. 
Wallace,  Lewis,  3798a. 
Wallace,  William,  3224a,  3798a. 
Walla  Walla,  Wash..  3798b. 
Wallenstein,     Albrecht     Euse- 
bius Wenzel  von  3567a,  3798b. 
Wallflower,  3799a. 
Wall     of     China,     The     Great, 

1566b. 
Walloons,  382b,' 3799b. 
Wall  Paper.  3799b. 
Wall  Street,  3799b. 
Walnut,  3799b. 
Walpole,  Horace,  3800a. 
Walpole,  Robert,  3800a. 
Walrus,  3800b. 
Walrus     and     the     Carpenter, 

The,   2028a. 
Waltham,  Mass.,  3800b. 
Walton,  Izaak,  3801a. 
Waltz,  1025a,  3801a. 
Wampanoag  Indians,  3801a. 
Wampum,  3801a. 
Wanamaker,  John,  3801b. 
Wandering  Jew,  3801b. 
Wandering    Jew     (botany), 

3801b. 
Wapiti,   1215a. 
War,  3802a. 

War,   Declaration   of.    3802b. 
War,  Declarations  of,  in  1914, 

3916b. 
War  Declarations  of,  in    1915, 

3920a. 


The  letter  a.   after   a   number,  indicates   column    1:  the  letter  b.  column   S- 


War  Declarations  of,  in  1916 


4051 


White  Laurel 


War,  Declarations  of,  in  1916 
3920b. 

War,  Declarations  of,  in  1917, 
3924b. 

War,  Department  of,  3803a. 

War  and  Peace,  3592a. 

Warbeck,  Perkin,  3224a. 

Warblers,  3803a. 

Ward  (city),  829a,  2433b. 

Ward  (law),  3803b. 

Ward,  Artemus,  573a. 

Ward,  Elizabeth  Si  t  u  a  r  t 
Phelps,  3803b. 

Ward,  Henry  A.,  3523a. 

Ward,   Mrs.   Humphry,    3803b. 

Ward,  John  Quincy  Adams, 
3804a. 

Warden,  2943b. 

Warfield,  David,  3804a. 

War  Lord  of  Europe.  3877b. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  3804b. 

Warner,  Seth,  3804b. 

War  of    1812,    3804b. 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion, 299a,  3459a. 

War  of  the  Bavarian  Succes- 
sion, 3460a. 

War  of  the  Polish  Succession, 
3459a. 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
3458b. 

Warrant,  3806a. 

Warranty  Deed,  1047a. 

Warren,  Joseph,  601a,  3806b. 

Warren,  Ohio,  3806b. 

Warren,   Pa..  3806b. 

Warsaw,  Poland,  3806b. 

Warship,   2495b. 

Wart,  3807a. 

Wart  Hog-,  3807a. 

Warwick,  R.  I.,  3807b. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville, 
3807b. 

Wasatch  Mountains,  3807b. 

Washburn    College,    3807b. 

Washing  Soda.  140a. 

Washington  (state),  3808a. 

Washington,  Booker  Taliafer- 
ro, 3656a,  3816b. 

Washington,  D.  C,  3812b. 

Washington,  Georg-e,  439a, 
440a,  3817a. 

Washington,  Lawrence.    3817b. 

Washington,   Martha,    3822a. 

Washington,   Pa.,    3822a. 

Washington,  Treaty  of.   3822a. 

Washington,  University  of, 
3822b. 

Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity, 3822b. 

Washington  Arch,  3822b. 

Washington  Elm,   3823a. 

Washington  Monument,   3823a. 

Washington  University,  3823a 

Washita  River,  3823a. 

Wasp,  3823b. 

Watauga  Association,  3823b. 

Watch,  3823b. 

Watchful  Waiting:,  3715a. 

Watch  on  the  Rhine,  The, 
3060b,   3793a. 

Water,  1097a,  3338b,  3825a. 

Water,  Ordeal  by,  2670b. 

Water  Beetle.  3825b. 

Water  Boatmen,  3826a. 

Water  Bug,  3826a. 

Waterbury,  Conn.,  3826b. 

Water  Chinquapin,  2505b, 
3827a. 

Water  Colors.  2702a,  3826b. 

Waterfall,   723a. 

Water  Gaps,   3734a. 

Water  Gas,  1452a. 

Water  Lily,  3826b. 

Waterloo,  Battle  of,  1320a, 
3827a. 

Waterloo,  Towa,  3828a. 

Waterloo,  Ont..  3828a. 

Water-mark,  2728a. 

Watermelon,  3828a. 


Water-motor,  3831b. 
Water  Ouzel,  1078b. 
Water  Plants.  152b, 
Water  Polo,  3828b. 
Water  Power,  3828b. 
Waterproofing,    3S29b. 
Water  Purification,  3829b. 
Water  Scorpion,   3826a. 
Watershed,   354a,   1084b.   3830a. 
Waterspout,   3830b. 
Water  Striders,   3826a. 
Water  Supply,   1101b. 
Water  Tiger,  382ea. 
Waterton  Lakes  Park,   2743b. 
Watertown,   N.   Y.,   3830b. 
Watertown,  S.  D.,  3830b. 
Waterville,  Maine,   3831a. 
Watervliet,  N.  Y.,   3831a. 
Water  Wheel,  38Sla. 
Waterworks,  3831b. 
Watson,   John,   3832a. 
Watson,   Thomas   E..   3832a. 
Watson,  William,   3832a. 
Watt,  3832b. 

Watt,    James,    3412b,   3832b. 
Watteau,  Jean  Antoine,  3832b. 
Watterson,    Henry,    3833a. 
Wattle  Tree,  11a. 
Watts,        George        Frederick, 

3833a 
Watts,  Isaac,  1750a,  3833b. 
Wat   Tyler's    Rebellion,    3660b. 
Waukegan,  111.,  3833b. 
Waukesha,  Wis.,  3834a. 
Wausau,  Wis.  3834a. 
Waverly  Novels.  3226b. 
Waves,  3834a. 
Wa.x,  3834b. 
Wax  Myrtle.  681b. 
Wax  Tree,  681b. 
Waxwing-,   3834b. 
Way  Bill,  432a. 
Waycross,  Ga.,   3835a. 
Wayne,   Anthony,   3835a. 
Wealth,  3835b. 

Wealth  of  Nations,  The,  3326b. 
Weasel,  3835b. 
Weather,  1462b. 
Weather  Bureau,  3429a,  3836a. 
Weather  Chart,   3837b. 
Weather  Map,  2311a,  3837b. 
Weaver,  James  Baird,  3838a. 
Weaver  Bird,   3838b. 
Weaving,   3838b. 
Webb  City,  Mo.,  3839b. 
Weber,    Karl    Maria   Friedrich 

Ernst  von,  3839b. 
Webster,  Daniel,  3840a. 
Webster,    Henry    Kitchell, 

3841a. 
Webster,   Noah,   3841a. 
Webster- Ashburton    Treaty, 

3841a. 
Wedge,  3841a. 
Wedgwood,   Josiah,    3841b. 
Wedgwood,   Thomas,   2827b. 
Wedgwood  Ware,  3841a. 
Wednesday,  3841b. 
Weed,   Thurlow,    3841b. 
Weeds,  3841b. 
Week,  3842a. 
Weeping  Willow,  3880a. 
Weevil,  3842a. 
Wee  Willie  Winkie  and  Other 

Stories,  1984a. 
Weighing-  Scale,   3842b. 
Weight,  3843a. 
Weight,  Atomic,   278a. 
Weight,  Unit  of,  2315b. 
Weights  and  Measures,   3843a. 
Weimar,  Germany,  3844a. 
Welding,    3844b. 
Welland,  Ont.,   3844b. 
Welland   Canal,   3844b. 
Well  Boring,  3845a. 
Welles.  Gideon.   3845b. 
Wellesley,       Richard       CoUey 

Wellesley,  3845b. 
Wellesley  College,  3846a. 


Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley, 

3846a. 
Wellington,       New       Zealand, 

3847a. 
Wells,   Herbert  George,  3847a. 
Welsbach,   Karl,   3847b. 
Welsbach   Burner,    3847b. 
Welwitschia,    3847b. 
Wentworth,  Thomas,  3446b. 
Wesley    (family),    3847b. 
Wesleyan  Methodists,  3848b. 
West.  Benjamin,   3848b. 
Westbrook,   Harriet,    3276b. 
West  Chester,  Pa.,   3849a. 
Western   Australia,    3849a. 
Western  Reserve,  3849b. 
Western    Reserve    University, 

3849b. 
We&tfield,  Mass.,  3849b. 
West  Flanders,    1344a. 
West  Indies,   3850a. 
Westinghouse,      George,      54a, 

3850b. 
Westminster  Abbey,   3850b. 
Westminster  Hall,   3851a. 
West  Orange,  N.  J.,  2668a. 
Westphalia,  3851a. 
Westphalia,  Peace  of,  3851a. 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  3851b. 
West  Virginia,    3852a. 
West       Virginia       University 

3855a. 
Wet  Docks,  1088a. 
Weyler,     Nicolau     Valerlando 

3855a. 
Weyman,  Stanley  John,  3855b 
Whale,  3855b. 
Whalebone,  3856b. 
Wharton,   Edith,   3856b. 
What   Does  Little   Birdie  Say, 

2021a. 
Wheat,  3857a. 
Wheat  Insects.  3859a. 
Wheatstone,   Charles,    3859a. 
Wheat   Thief,   1586a. 
Wheel,  ■3859b. 
Wheel  and  Axle,  3859b. 
Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide,   3860a. 
Wheeler,  Joseph,    3860a. 
Wheeler,      William     A  1  m  o  n, 

3860b. 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,   3860b. 
When  I  Survey  the  Wondrous 

Cross,  1750b. 
When      We      Plant      a      Tree 

(poem),  3630b. 
Where  Go  the  Boats,  2026a. 
Whetstones,  1714a. 
Whigs,     2690b,     3601a,     3708b, 

3861a. 
While      Shepherds      Watched, 

2026b. 
Whip  Grafting,   1544b. 
AVhippoorwill,  3861a. 
Whirligig  Beetles,   3826a. 
Whirlpool,    3861a. 
Whirlwind.   3861b. 
Whisky,   3861b. 
Whisky  Insurrection,   3861b. 
Whisky  Ring,  3712a,  3862a. 
Whispering  Gallery.   3349a. 
Whist,   3862a. 

Whistler,    James    Abbott    Mc- 
Neill, 3863b. 
White    (color).  3863b. 
White,  Andrew  Dickson,  3864a. 
White,        Edward       Douglass, 

3864a. 
White,  Richard  Grant,   3864b. 
White,  Stewart  Edward,  3864b. 
White,   William   Allen,   3864b. 
White  Ants,    3545a. 
White  Arsenic,  232b. 
White  Bronze,  570a. 
White  Caps,  3864b. 
Whitefield,    George,    3865a. 
Whitefish,   2298a.  3865a. 
White  House,  3865a. 
White   Laurel,   2220b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  fo,  column  2. 


White  Lead 


4052 


Yam 


White  Lead,   3865b. 
White  Mountains.  3865b. 
White   Paper,   477b, 
White  Pine,  2855a. 
White  Plains,  Battle  of,  3866b. 
White  Precipitate,   140a. 
White  River    (Ark.),   3866b, 
White  River   (Ind.),  3866b. 
White  Sea,   3867a. 
White   Vitriol,   3977a. 
Whitewood,  359a. 
Whitlock,  Brand,  3867a. 
Whitman,    Marcus,   3867a. 
Whitman,   Walt,   3867b. 
Whitney,   Eli,    1823a,   3867b. 
Whitney,  James  Pliny,  38G8a. 
Whitney,   Mount,   641a,   3868a. 
Whittier,       John       G.,       3023a, 

3868b. 
Whooping  Cough.   785a,   3869a. 
Whortleberry,    1729a. 
Wichita,  Kans.,   3869a. 
Wichita  Falls.   Tex.,   3869b. 
Wiclif,  John,  3951a. 
Widgeon,   3869b. 
Wiesbaden,   Prussia,   3870a. 
Wigvsram,  3870a. 
Wiggin,   Kate   Douglas,    3075a. 
Wight,  Isle  of,  1848a. 
Wilberforce,    Samuel,    3870a. 
Wilberforce,   William,   3870b. 
Wilcox,  Ella  Wheeler,  3870b. 
Wild  Cat,  3870b. 
Wildcat    Banks,    3871a. 
Wilde,  Oscar,  3871a. 
Wilderness,      Battle      of     the, 

3871a 
Wild  Flower,  123a. 
Wild  Laurel,  '3066b. 
Wilhelmina,  Queen,  3871b. 
Wilhelm  Meister,  1529b. 
Wilkes.   Charles,    3631b,    3872a. 
Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  3872a. 
Wilkie,  David  3872b. 
Wilkins,   Mary  Eleaner,  1408b. 
Will   (law),   3874b. 
Will  (psychology),  790a,  2959a, 

2962b,   3873a. 
Willamette  River,  3874b. 
Willard,  Emma  Hart,   3875a. 
Willard,     Frances     Elizabeth, 

3875a. 
William    I     (the     Conqueror), 

1230b, 1630a,  3875b. 
William   II   Rufus,    3875b. 
William  III    (England),   3876a. 
William  IV    (England),    3876b. 
William  I    (Germany).    387Gb. 
William  II   (Germany),  3877a. 
William     and     Mary     College, 

3878a. 
William      of     Orange,      2515b, 

3397a,  3878a. 
William  of  Wied,  Prince,  69a. 
William  the  Lion,  3223b. 
Williams,  George,  3970b. 
Williams,   John  Sharp,   3878b. 
Williams,   Roger,   2276a,  2953b, 

3064a,    3701b,   3172a,    3878b. 
Williamsburg,   Va.,    3878b. 
Williamsburg  Bridge,  556a. 
Williams  College,   3879a. 
Williamsport,   Pa.,    3879a. 
Willimantic,   Conn.,   3879b. 
Willis,  John,   3287b. 
Willis,     Nathaniel     Parker, 

3879b. 
Will-o-the  Wisp,  1762b. 
Willow,   3879b. 
Wilmington,  Del.,   3880a. 
Wilmington,  N.  C,  ■3880b. 
Wilmot,   David,    3881a. 
Wilmot  Proviso.  3880b. 
Wilson,  Augusta  Jane,   3881a. 
Wilson,   Henry,    3881a. 
Wilson,       James       (America), 

3881b. 
Wilson,    James    (England), 
3881b. 


Wilson,   John,   3881b. 

Wilson,  Margaret,  3888b. 

Wilson,  William  Lyne,   3890a. 

Wilson,         Woodrow,         3762a, 
3882a,  3927b. 

Wilton  Rug,   3130b. 

Winchell,  Alexander,  3890a. 

Wind,   1468b,  3890b. 

Wind,  Trade,  3606a. 

Wind     Cave     National     Park, 
2743a. 

Windermere,     3891a. 

Windhover,   1942b. 

Windlass,   3891a. 

Windmill,    3891b. 

Window,   3892a. 

Windpipe,  3605a. 

Windsor,  Ont.,   3892a. 

Windsor  Castle,  3892b. 

Windward    Islands,    3892b. 

Windy  Night,  2027a. 

AVine,  3892b. 

Winged  Bull,   3893a. 

Winged  Lion,  3893a. 

Winged   Victory,    3233a,    3893a. 

Winkelried,  Arnold,  3893b. 

Winnebago  Indians,  3893b. 

Winnipeg,  Lake,  S893b. 

Winnipeg,  Man.,  3S93b. 

Winnipegosis,   Lake,   3894b. 

Winona,  Minn.,  3S94b. 

Winslow,  John  Ancrum,  3895a. 

Winston  Salem,  N.  C,  3895a. 

Winter,   2034b,   3895a. 

Wintergreen,  3895a. 

Winter   Solstice,   1166b. 

Winthron,   John,   3895b. 

Wire,   3895b. 

Wire  Glass,  3896a. 

Wireless   Telegraph,    3531a. 

Wireless   Telephone,    3535a. 

Wire  NaHs,   2467a. 

Wire  Rope,  3116b. 

Wireworms,    3896a. 

Wirz,   Henry,   120b. 

Wisconsin,  3896a. 

Wisconsin,        University        of, 
3900b. 

Wisconsin   River,    3900b. 

Wisdom  Teeth,  3527a. 

Wistaria,    3902a. 

Wister,   Owen,   3902a. 

Witchcraft,  3172a,  3902a. 

Witch  Hazel,  3902b. 

Witenagemot,  3902b. 

Witness,  3903a. 

Witte,  Sergei  Yulievitch,  3903a. 

Wittenberg,    Germany,    3903a. 

Witwatersrand,     The     Trans- 
vaal, 3610a. 

Woad,   3903b. 

Woden,  2635b. 

Wolf,  3903b. 

Wolf     and     the     Lamb,     The, 
2030b. 

Wolfe.  James,  440b,  3904a. 

Wolf  Fish,  3904a. 

Wolf's-bane,   14b. 

Wolseley,        Garnet        Joseph, 
3904a. 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  3904b. 
Wolverine,   1525b. 
Wolverine  State,  The,  2326a. 
Woman's     Christian     Temper- 
ance Union,  3905a. 
Woman's    Relief   Corps,    3905a. 
Woman   Suffrage,   3905b. 
Wombat,   3906a. 
Women's   Clubs,    3906a. 
Women  Should  Have  the  Vote 

(theme),  3560a. 
Wood,   3626b. 
Wood,  A  Cord  of.  202a. 
Wood,   Leonard,  3906b. 
Wood  Alcohol,   3907a. 
Woodbine,  1714b. 
Wood   Carving,    3907b. 
Woodcock,    3908a. 
Woodcodk,  3908a. 


Woodcraft  Indians,  536b,  3261a. 
Wood  Engraving,   1237b. 
Wooden  Horse,  2460a. 
Wooden  Pavement,  2759b. 
Woodmen  of  America,  Modern, 

3908a 
Woodmen  of  the  World,  3908b. 
Woodpecker,  3908b. 
Wood  Pewee,  3909a. 
Wood   Spirit.  2314a. 
Woodstock  Ont..   3909b. 
Woodward,  Calvin   M.,   2245a. 
Wool    and    Woolen    Manufac- 
ture, 3909b. 
Woolflower,  Chinese,  3910b. 
Woolworth  Building,  2557a. 
Woonsocket,   R.   I.,   3910b. 
Worcester,   Mass.,   3911a. 
Worden,  John  Lorimer,  3911b. 
Word  Study,   2046b. 
Wordsworth,    William,    3911b. 
Work,  3912b. 
Workhouse,    3912b. 
W  o  r  k  m  e  n's      Compensation 

Laws,   1222a. 
World,  Rulers  of  the,  3131a. 
World's  Columbian  Exposition, 

3912b 
World  War,   300a,   381a,   3913b. 
Worms,  3756b,  3861b,  3946b. 
Worms,  Diet  of.  2190b,  3040a. 
Worms,  Germany,  3947b. 
Wormseed,    1537a. 
Wormwood,  3947a. 
Worsted,    3947a. 
Wort,  552b,  1082b,  3861b. 
Wounds,  3947a. 

Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  2043a. 
Wren.  3947b. 

Wren.   Christopher,   3947b. 
Wrench.   3948a. 
Wrestling.   3948a. 
Wright.    Carroll    Davidson, 

3949a 
Wright]  Harold  Bell.  3949a. 
Wright,    Orville    and    Wilbur, 

1361b,  3949a. 
Wrinkles,  2843a. 
Writ,    3949b. 
Writing.   3949b. 
Writ  of  Assistance,  3950a. 
Wryneck.   3950b. 
Wurttemberg.  Germany.  3950b. 
Wyandotte   Cave,    3950b. 
Wyandotte  Indians,   1740b. 
Wycliffe,  John,  3951a. 
Wycliffe's  Bible.   3951b. 
Wyoming.   3951b. 
Wyoming,        University        of, 

3954b. 
Wyoming     Valley      Massacre, 

3954b. 


X 


X,  3955a. 

Xanthippe,  3955a. 

Xavier,    Francisco    de,    2183a, 

3955a. 
Xenia,  Ohio,    3955a. 
Xenophon,   3955b. 
Xerxes,   2795a.   3955b. 
X-Ray.  3091a. 
Xylophone,  3956b. 
X  Y  Z  Correspondence,  3956b. 


Y,  3957a. 

Yablonoi  Mountains,  3957a. 

Yacht  and  Yachting.   3957a. 

Yak.  3957b. 

Yakima,  Wash.,   3958a. 

Yakima  Indians.   3958a. 

Yale,  Elihu,   3958b. 

Yale  Unviersity,  3958a. 

Yalu  River,   3958b. 

Yam,  3959a. 


Tte  letter  a,  after  a  number,  indicates  column  1;  the  letter  b,  column  2. 


Yancey,  William  Lowndes 


4053 


Zwingli,  Ulric 


Yancey,       ■William      Lowndes, 

3959b. 
Yang-tse-Kiang   River.    3959b. 
Yankee,  3959b. 
Yankee  Doodle,  3960a. 
Yankton.  S.  D.,  3960a. 
Yapura  River,  ISVSb. 
Yaqui  Indians.  3960a. 
Yarkland,    3960a. 
Yarmouth,  Nova  Scotia.  3960b. 
Yarmouth.    England,   3960b. 
Yarn,   3960b. 
Yates,  Richari,  3961a. 
Yazoo  Delta,  2362a. 
Yazoo  River,  3961a. 
Year.  S961a. 
Yeast.  3961a. 

Yeats.   William   Butler,    3961b. 
Yellow,   3961b. 
Yellow  Antimony,  140b. 
Yellowbird,   110b. 
Yellow  Fever,  3961b. 
Yellow  Fever  Mosquito,  2422a. 
Yellow-hammer.    1346b,    3962a. 
Yellow  Head  Pass,  73a,   561a. 
Yellow  Jacket,  3962a. 
Yellow  Jasmine,    1457b. 
Yellowleg-s.    3962a. 
Yellow  Pine,   2855b. 
Yellow  Sea,  3962a. 
Yellowstone     National     Park, 

3962b. 
Yellowstone   River,   3965b. 
Yellow-tail,    2298a. 
Yellow  Tiber.   3577b. 
Yemen.  Arabia,  3965b. 
Yen,  3966a. 
Yenisei  River,  3966a. 
Yerba  Mate,  2731b. 
Yerkes.  Charles  T..  3536a. 
Yerkes  Observatory,    3966a. 
Yew,    3966a. 
Yggdrasil.  3966b. 
Yiddish,   3966b. 
Yoho  Park,   2743b. 
Yokohama,  Japan,   3966b. 


Yonge.  Charlotte  Mary.   3966b. 

Y^onkers,  N.  Y.,  3967a. 

York,  Eng.,   3967a. 

York,   House   of,    3118b.    3967b. 

York,  Pa..  3967a. 

Yorktown,   Va.,    3967b. 

Yosemite  National  Park  and 
Valley,  3968a. 

Yoshi-hito.   Harunomia.    3968b. 

Young.  Brigham,  2413b,  3178a. 
3968b. 

Young.  Charles  Augustus. 
3969a. 

Young,  Edward,   3969a. 

Young,   Ella  Flagg.   3969a. 

Young  Italy,  3969b. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation. 3969b. 

Young  Pretender,  The.  3452a. 

Youngstown.  Ohio.   3971a. 

Young  Turks,   3653a,   3971a. 

Young  Women's  Christian  As- 
sociation,   3971a. 

Ypres,   Battle  of,  2881a. 

Ypres,  Belgium,  3925a,  3971b. 

Ypsilanti,   Mich.,   3971b. 

Ysaye,   Eugene,   3972a. 

Yuan  Shi  Kai.   804b,  3972a. 

Yucatan,  3972b. 

Yucca,   3972b. 

Yukon  River,  3972b. 

Yukon  Territory.  3973a. 

Yuma,  3973b. 


Z,  3974a. 

Zambezi  River.  3974a. 
Zanesville,   Ohio,   3974b. 
Zangwill,  Israel.    3974b. 
Zanzibar,     Island     and     Town. 

3975a. 
Zealand.  3975a. 
Zebra.  3975a. 
Zeebrugge,  Attack   on,  3934b. 


Zebu,  3975b. 

Zebulun,    3975b. 

Zechariah,   3975b. 

Zedekiah,  3975b. 

Zeisler,      Fannie      Bloomfield, 

475b. 
Zemstvo,  3975b. 
Zemstvos   Union,   All-6ussian, 

3144b. 
Zenana,  3976a. 
Zend-Avesta,  3976a. 
Zenith.  3976a. 
Zeno,  3976a. 
Zenobia.   3976a. 
Zeoditu.  Princess.  11a. 
Zephaniah     3976b. 
Zephyrus,  31a. 
Zeppelin.    Ferdinand,    3976b. 
Zeppelin      Dirigible      Balloon, 

1365a. 
Zero,  3976b. 

Zeus   (mythology),    1918b. 
Zeuxis.  2703a,  S976b. 
Zinc,   3977a. 
Zinc  Etching,  3977a. 
Zinnia.  3977b. 
Zion,  1888b. 
Zion  Church,  42b. 
Zionist  Movement,   3977b. 
Zirconium.  3978b. 
Zither.  3978b. 
Zodiac,   1166b.  3978b. 
Zodiacal   Light.   3978b. 
Zola,   Emile,   3979a. 
Zollverein.   3979a. 
Zone,   3979b. 

Zoological  Garden,  3979b. 
Zoology.   3980a. 

Zorn.  Anders  Leonhard,  3987a. 
Zoroaster.   3987b. 
Zouaves.  3987b. 
Zuider  Zee.  2512b,  3987b. 
Zulus,  3988a. 
Zuni.   3988a. 
Zurich,  Lake,  3988b. 
Zurich,   Switzerland.    3988b. 
Zwingli,  Ulric,   3041a,   3988b. 


The  letter  a,  after  a  nmnber,  indicates  column   1;  the  letter  b,  colnmn  2.