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THE 



American Geologist 



A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY 

^ ( ( VC ( 
ALLIED SCIENCES. 



EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS: 

Samuel Cai.vin. louui City, /oiva. 
John M. Clarke. Albany, A'. Y. 

EDWARI> W. CLAYPOLE.^ifrn?//, Ohio. 

Francis \V. Cragin, Colorado Springs, Colo. Robert T. Hill, Austin, Trx 
John Eyerman. Boston, Pa. Joseph B. Tyrrell. Otta^va, Ont. 

Persifor Frazer, Philadelphia, Pa. Edward O. Ulrich, Nr-Mport, A'r 

\V A RREN U PH A M . SomervilU, Mass. 

Israel C. White, Morganiown, W. Va. 

Newton H. Winchell. Minneapolis, Minn. 



VOLUME XIIL 
January to Jink. 1894. 



Minneapolis, Minn. 
The Geological Publishinc; Company 

1894. 



Al.lKEl) RopHR. Printer. 



r2 



Ill 



CONTENTS. 

JANUARY NUMBER. 

Increase Allen Laphaw. N. H. Winch ell. [Portrait 

and Plate II. J 1 

On the Mode of Occurrence, and the Structure and Devel- 
opment, of Triarthrus becki. V. E. Bkkcheu. [Plat« 
III.] 88 

False Bedding in Stratified Drift Deposits. J. E. Spukk. 

[Illustrated.] 43 

Vertebrate Palieontology at the Columbian Exposition; a 

brief Notice. John Eyerman 47 

Editorial Comment—The Columbian Exposition: a hasty glance taken 
in August, 1898, at the ores of the noble and useful metals in the 
Mines and Mining Building (ooncluded), 48. 

Review of Recent Qeological Literature.— ^me Maryland granites and 



their origin, Crarles R. Kbyes, 63. — Epidote as a Primary Com- 
ponent of eruptive rocks, Charles R. ^eyes, 63.— Relations of the 
Laurentian and Huronian rocks north of lake Huron, Alfred E. 



Barlow, 63.— The Archean rocks west of lake Superior, W. H. C. 
Smith, 64. — Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Fifth 
Annual Meeting, held in Ottawa, Canada, Dec. 28-30, 1892, H. L. 
Fairchild, Secretary; Joseph Stanley- Brown, Editor, 64.— 
Cause of the great Earthquake in central Jspan, in 1891, B. Koto, 
65. — ^Text-Book of Qeoloffy (third edition), Archibald Geikie, 66. 
Ueber das Silurgebeit des Bottnischen Meeres, C. Wiman, 70. — 
Ueber Hypostomen von Homalonotea, L. Beushausen, 71.— Sobre 
el Terreno Jurteico y Cretllceo en los Andes Argentines entre el 
Rio Diamante y Rio Limay, W. Bodensendsr, 71. — Die Gebirgs- 
formen in stXdwestliohen KArnten,und ihreEntstehung.F. Frkch, 
71. — Das Rheinthal von BiogerbrUck bis Lahnstein, E. Holzap- 
FRL, 71.— Die Jurabildungen des Kahlberges bei Echte, J. P. 
Smith, 71. 

Recent Publications, 72. 

Personal and Scientific Neivs, 75. 

FEBRUARY NUMBER. 

A New Species of Carcinosoma. E. W. C>layi»olk. 

[Plate IV.] 77 

On the Geological Position of Jienuettiteg dacofemtiif Mac- 
bride, with remarks on the Stratigraphy of the region 
in which the species was discovered. Samikf. Tal- 
viN 79 

Interglacial Fossils from the Don valley, Toronto. A. P. 

CoLKMAN 85 

On the Value of Supposed Algie as geological guides. 

JosErii F. Jamks 95 

A revised (Classification of the Spire-bearing Brachiopodn. 

('. SnirrnKKT 102 



IV Con feu fa. 

Phosphate-bearing .rocks in middle Tennessee — Prelimi- 
nary Notice. J. M. Saffori> * 107 

Editorial Comment, — ^The Columbiaa Exposition: Notes of Pleistocene 
Geology, 109. 

Review of Mecent Geological Literature, — The Canadian Ice Age, Sir 
J. W. Dawson, 116. — Post-Glacial Eolian action in southern New 
England, J . B. Wooowobth, 122.— The structures, origin and ' no- 
menclature of the acid volcanic rocks of South Mountain, F. Bas< 
COM, 122. — Ueber ein Vorkommnis von Kugelgranit unfern Wirvik 
bei Borg& in Finland, Benj. Frosterus, iS.— Geological map ami 
table of economic resources of Illinois, D. W. Mkad, 123. — Hydro- 
geology of Illinois, D. W. Mead, 123. — La Terre avant Tapparition 
de I'homme, g^ologie r^ionale de la France, Fernakd Priem, 123. 
—A contribution to the invertebrate paleontology of the Texas 
Cretaceous, F. W. Cragin, 124.— Republication of descriptions of 
Lower Carboniferous Crinoidea from the Mall collection now in 
the American Museum of Natural History, R. P. Whitfield, 124. 
— Ueber Silurische Siphoneen, E. Stoli^ey, 125.— Recent studies of 
the Eurypterina, Malcolm Laurie, 125. 

Correspondence,— Additional Facts about Nicollet, H. V. Winohell, 
I2G.— Spire-bearing Genera of the Paleozoic Brachiopoda, C. 

SCHUCBBRT, 128. * 

Personal and Scientific iVeirs.— Personal items, 132. — Iowa Academy 
of Science, 133. — Sixth Annual Meeting of the Geological Society 
of America, with notes of papers, 132. 

MARCH numbp:r. 

A median horned Rhinoceros from the Loup Fork Beds 

of Nebraska. J. B. H AxruKR 149 

New Species of Oinoidn and Brachiopods from the Mis- 
souri Hamilton. R. R. Rowley. [Illustrated.].... 151 

The Chemical ('omposition of some of the White Lime- 
stones of Sussex county, New Jersey. Fuank L. Na- 
soN. [Illustrated.] 154 

A Bit of Iron Range History. Houack V. Wischkli 164 

Pleistocene History of the Champlain Valley. S. Pkkn- 

Tiss Baldwin. [ Plate V.] 170 

Editorial CommfHt.— The Columbian Exposition: Notes on some Mee- 
ozoio and Tertiary exhibits, 185. 

Heriew of Recent Geological Literature,— Kcoaomic Geology of the 
United States, Ralph S. Tarr, 189.— Geology of the Boston basin : 
Nantasket and Cohasaet, W. O. Ckosbt, 192.— The Cretaceous 
System of Canada, J. F. Whitbaves, 198.— Large Unio-like shells 
in the Coal Measures at the South Joggins, N. S., J. F. Whit- 
raves, 193.— Eleventh and Twelfth Annual Reports of the New 
York State Geologist, 193.— Cm en Hemipter frftn Sveriges undre 
Graptolitskiffer, J. C. Molseko, 194.— Evolution of the Brachi- 
opoda, AoNEs Crane, 194.— Causes of Magmatic Differentiation, 
Heixsb Backstrom, 194.— Genetic relationships among Igneous 
Rocks, J.'P. Iddinos, 195.— Annals of British Geology, 1892, J. F. 
Blake, 195. 

Recent Publicationn, 196. 

Correspondence. -Some Conditions of Ripple-mark, T. A. Jacujar, Jr., 
ItK). -Oscillation and single-current ripple-marks,J.E. Spt*KB,201. 



^ 



f 

f 



Contents, v 



I 



Personal and Scientific News, — Personal items, 206.— Food habit of 
plesioBBurs, 206. — African lakes, 207.— Glacial erosion of lake ba- 
sins of rook, 207. — Eozoon-like structure in ejected blocks of Monte 
Somma, 208.— Sixth Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of 
America, notes of papers (concluded), 208. 

APRIL NUMBER. 

On a new Horizon and some new Localities for friable 
sandstone in which the grains are enlarged by Sec- 
ondary Deposition of Silica in optical continuity 
with the original nucleus. S. Calvin. [Plate VL). 225 

Geological Notes on the Sierra Nevada (Part I). IL W. 

Turner 228 

A Classification of Economic Geological Deposits based 

on Origin and Original Structure. W. O. Crosby. . . 249 

Geology of Jefferson county, Texas. W. Kennedy 268 

British Drift Theories. Warren Upham 275 

Editorial Comment.— The Columbian Exposition: The Harvard Uni- 
versity Geological Exhibit, 279. 

Review of Recent Geological Literature. — Flora of the outlying Car- 
boniferous basins of southwestern Missouri, David White, 2^.— 
Lichas (Uralichas) ribeiroi, J. F. N. Delgado, 284.— Un nouveau 
Eurypterus du Rothliegendes de Bussaco (Portugal), W. db Lima, 
281. — Age of the Newark brownstone, B. S. Lyman, 284.— Coal 
Measures of Blount mountain, Alabama, A. M. Gibson, 284. — 
Diamonds in meteorites, O. W. Huntington, 284.— Conversion of 
chlorite into biotite in rock-metamorphism, Chas. Callaway, 285. 
—Basalts of Kula, H. S. Washington, 285.— Chemical composition 
of Staurolite, and the regular arrangement of its carbonaceous 
inclusions, S. L. Pbnfield and J. H. Pratt, 285. — Continuity of 
the Glacial period, G. F. Wright, 286; 

Correspondence. — Composite Generic Fundamenta, J. M. Clarke, 286. 
"The Columbian Exposition: Notes on some Mesozoic and Ter- 
tiary Exhibits," T. W. Stanton, 289. 

Personal and Scientific Neios^ 291. 

MAY NUMBER, 

A Multiple Diabase Dyke. Andrew C Lawson. [Plate 

VII.] 293 

Geological Notes on the Sierra Nevada (Part 11). H. W. 

TCKNEK 297 

A Reconnaissance of the Abandoned Shore Lines of Green 

Bay. F. B. Taylor. [Illustrated.] 316 

American Species of Autodetus and some Paramorphic 
Shells from the Devonian. John M.Clarke. [Illus- 
trated.] 327 

The Iron Ores of the Mesubi Range. J. E. Spirr. [Plat<? 

VIII.] 335 

The Columbian Exposition : Notes on Various p]xhibits 
relative to Mineralogy and Petrography. George H. 
Williams 345 



I 



f 

4 



VI ('Ontents, 

Review of Recent Geological Lite7*ature.—Coh\ Deposits of Iowa, C. R. 
Keyes, 353.-'Re volution in the Topography of the Pacific Coast 
sinoe the Auriferous Gravel Period, J. S. Diller, 354.— Element- 
ary Meteorology, W. M. Davis, ;i54.— Crinoidea of Gotland, F. A. 
Bather, 855.— New Species of Invertebrates from the Paleozoic 
Rocks of Illinois and adjacent States, S. A. Miller and Wm. F. £. 
GuRLEV, 356.~A new suborder of the Ancylopoda, H. F. Osbork, 
857.— Evolution of Teeth in Mammalia in its bearing upon the 
Problem of Phylogeny, H. F. Osuorn, 357.~Anatomy of Dinich- 
thys, Babhford Dean, 357.— La Plata Museum, R. Lydekker, 358. 
— Mean Density of the Earth, J. H. Poynting, 358.— Chemical Com- 
position of Chondrodite, Humite and Clinohu mite, S.Ii.pENFi eld, 
and W. T. H. Howe, 358. -Crystallization of Enargite, L. V. 
Pirssom, 359. — Lower Menominee and Lower Marquette series in 
Michigan, H. L. Smyth, 359. -Sequence of Perlitic and Spherulitic 
structures, Frank Ruti^ey, 359. -Sulfoborit, H. Bucking, 359. 

Confirponcienci'.— Discovery of Diceratherium, the two-homed Rhinoc- 
eros, in the White River beds of South Dakota, J. B. Hatcher, 
360. — Economic Gqology of the United States; Reply to Dr. Pen- 
rose's Review, R. S.-Tarr, 361.— Early Man in Minnesota, Warren 
Upham, 368. 

JUNE NUMBER. 

A Reconnaissance of the Abandoned Shore Lines of the 
South Coast of Lake Superior. F. B. Taylor. [Plate 

IX.] 865 

The Karnes of the Oriekany Valle}'. T. W. Harris 384 

Lake Ronkonkonia and other Glacial Features of Long Is- 
land. John Bryson 890 

The Origin of Drumlins. Ralph S. Tarr 898 

Peculiarities of the Mystic Coal Seam. II. Foster Bain. 

[Illustrated.] 407 

Origin of Anthracite. (Charles R. Keyes 411 

Editorial Comment.— The U. S. Geological Survey, 415.— The Colum- 
bian Exposition; Gems, Native Metals, and other Rare Minerals, 
415. 

Review of Recent Geological Literature. ^On the sedimentary origin 
of iron ore deposits and itabirite, J. H. L. Voor (translated by H. 
V. WiNCHBLi^), 420.— Twenty-tirst Annual Report, Geol. and Nat. 
Hist. Survey of Minnesota, N. H. Winchei^l, 425.~Trap dikes of 
the Lake Cham plain region. J. F. Kemp and V. F. Marhters, 426. 
—Granite of Mts. Adam and Eve, N. Y., J. F. Kemp and A. Hol- 
LICK, 427.— Herderite, S. L. Pen field, 427. — Topaz, S. L. Penfield 
and J. C. Minor, Jr., 427.— Devon isohe Versteinerungen von La- 
goinha, L. von Ammon, 427.— Duslia, J. J. Jahn, 428.— Notes Pale- 
on tologicjues; I. Crustacea, J. Bergeron, 428. —Appendages of 
the Pyfir>^>um of Triarthrus, C. E. Beeoher, 428.- -Ostbaltischen 
Silurischen Trilobiten, F. Schmidt, 428.— Geol. Survey of Canada, 
Annual Report (new series), vol. V, A. R. C. Selwtn, 429. 

Recent Publications^ 431. 

CorretjMndenee.—'Soie on the Chehalis sandstone, A. C. Lawson, 436. 
— Keweenawan rocks of Grand Portage island, lake Superior, U. 
S. Grant, 437. 

Personal and Scientific iVetra, 430. 

Index to Volume XIII, 441. 




2 The American Geologist January, 18M 

result is highly gratifying to the scientific men of the United 
States. It proves a growing appreciation of the value of sci- 
ence on the part of the intelligent. and influential portion of 
the community. 

But while Dr. Lapham was a ttcienfist, in the broad sense of 
the word, he was specially a (jeoloyist, and it is because of his 
alliance with science through the avenues of geological work 
that we desire to review succinctly his life and work in this 
series of sketches.* 

Born in Palmyra, Wayne county, New York, March 7tli, 
1811, his father's family participated in the general westward 
flow of migration, removing first to Rochester and Lockport, 
where his father was engaged as a contractor in the construc- 
tion of the Erie canal. He was one of thirteen children and 
had to do his share for the support of the family. He assisted 
his father as a stone-cutter, and later was aid to his older 
brother in laying out a road on the (.^anada side of the Niag- 
ara river, down the steep banks below the falls. He worked 
also on the Welland canal and on the Miami canal. In 1827 he 
was employed on' the canal constructed round the falls of the 
Ohio, and in that year, at the age of sixteen, sent to Benjamin 
Silliman, editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts^ 
'* A notice of the Louisville and Shippingsport canal, and of the 
geology of the vicinity." It was illustrated by plans, geological 
sections and a map — all executed with arti'stic skill — and con- 
tained the first published notice of the occurrence of petroleum 
in the cavities of limestone rocks.f For three years subsequently 
he was assistant engineer on the Ohio canal, and lived at 
Portsmouth. In 1882 he published an article on the Geology 
of Ohio, in conjunction with his elder brother, giving obser- 
vations on the distribution of the primitive and other boulders. 
These two brothers for several years worked together inti- 
mately, each writing to the other the new observations he 

*Mia8 Julia A. Lapham, Ooonqmowoc, Wis., has furnished a maBs of 
historioal memoranoa from the manuscriptB and reoordB left by Dr. 
Lapham, for use in the preparation of this sketch, inoluding scrap- 
books, unpublished scientific papers, letters and personal incidents. 
The author has also made use of a memorial of Dr. Lapham bv Charles 
Mann, read before the Wisconsin Historical Society, and another by S. 
S. Sherman, read before the Old Settlers' Club, Milwaukee, Dec. 11, 
1875. 

tOp. cit., vol. XIV, p. G5, 1828. 




Increase Allen Lapham. — WincheJL 3 

made, or the new ideas he received from their separate ram- 
bles or in the prosecution of their engineering enterprises. 
This correspondence is full of scientific interest, and, if pub- 
lished, would doubtless prove of historical value. Every trip 
either of these brothers took, whether on business or pleasure, 
was followed by a letter to the other, fully describing the 
country through which he passed. In 1827 began his life- 
long friendship and correspondence wuth Dr. Benjamin S^illi- 
man, of New Haven, editor of the American Journal of Science. 
Interesting and valuable scientific correspondence began at 
this dat« (1828) with Dr. Darlington, Thomas Say, Isaac Lea, 
Chester Dewey, Dr. S. P. Hildreth, Asa Gray, Dr. Troost, of • 
Nashville, and most of the scientists of America. Nothing 
which appeared to be of scientific value escaped the eye of 
young Lapham. He collected shells, plants, insects, fossils, 
until his hands and his home were full. He presented many 
to special workers in Special departments. Dr. Troost used 
his collections while preparing his history of American fossils, 
and Dr. Hildreth established several new species on specimens 
of shells sent by him. Victor G. Audubon, collecting for his 
father, was his frequent companion in his rambles about 
Louisville at this time. At the last his large collection was 
purchased and deposited in the University of Wisconsin, w^here 
it was burned when, in 1884, Science Hall of that institution 
was destroyed. This was a repetition of* the catastrophe 
which befell the cabinet of Dr. D. I). Owen, at Bloomington, 
Indiana. 

One of the noble acts of his early manhood was prompted 
by the filial gratitude he entertained for his parents. In 1829 
the brothers decided to buy a farm for their parents. Their 
united salary did not amount to more than $1,000 per year, 
but by careful economy for several years they had the satis- 
faction of seeing their parents and younger brothers and 
sisters in a home of their own. Like their father, these broth- 
ers were engineers, and it had been necessary that the family 
should move from place to place wherever their canal or road 
work called them. 

While in Ohio, Lapham was concerned in the first move- 
ments for the "first survey" of that state. In 1836 he was a 
member of the committee appointed to investigate and report 



4 T'he American Geologist, Janaary, 1894 

on the subject.* He did not, however, remain in Ohio long 
enough to become identified with it, us doubtless he would 
had he continued a citizen of that State. His lot was to be 
cast with a new commonwealth, where his manhood and his 
mental vigor were to expand as the manifold exigencies of a 
new State might call for them. Wisconsin was still a portion 
<»f the "Territory of Michigan," when, in July, 1886, he ar- 
rived at Milwaukee, then a village of 1,200 inhabitants, where 
*'the red man still lingered and exchanged his furs for the 
products of civilization." 

Thenceforward the life and public acts of Lapham are 
* interwoven with the history of Wisconsin, and constitute 
some of the important threads of its warp. Although he was 
without the initial advantages of a liberal education, was 
averse to appearance in public, naturally retiring in manner 
and wholly unselfish in his scientific work, ho accumulated a 
fund of knowledge and acquired a 'fluency of expression 
that made him the first authority in the Northwest 
on the varied questions of either natural or physical sci- 
ence that concerned his commonwealth. The exactness 
and multiplicity of his observations and the carefulness of his 
deductions, based on the engineering training of bis early 
years combined to render his writings both detailed and com- 
prehensive, and to give him a rank among the first scientists 
of his day in several of the scientific fields in which he la- 
bored. Most American scientists, fifty or sixty years ago, 
embraced all natural science. Lapham neglected none. Be- 
ginning with the record of weather observations at Louisville, 
and the publication of them in the local newspapers, he pushed 
his meteorological studies so vigorously and judiciously that, 
through his efforts largely, the government was induced to 
organize the ^'Signal Service" observations and predictions of 
the weather. The collection of arrow-points in Ohio was 
continued in Wisconsin, and was extended to the completion 
of a survey of the aboriginal mounds of Wisconsin, which was 
published as a quarto volume by the Smithsonian Institution. 
From the amateur in botfiny,- collecting for himself, he organ- 
ized a grand scheme for the thorough study and illuntration 

*Ohio State Does., 1837, p. 31 (Sherman). See Am. Jour, Sex,, (1), 
XXXII, p. 190, for a noUoe of the report rendered by this oommittee. 



-« 9 




Increane Allen Lapham. — WinchelL 6 

of the grasses of the United States. This eventuated in a 
large manuscript volume, yet in existence, but unpublished, 
and in a very large herbarium said to consist of 24,000 speci- 
mens and 8,000 species, embracing the whole range of the veg- 
etable kingdom. Beginning with the study of the primitive 
boulders of Ohio, he continued his geological work in Wiscon- 
sin where he was soon recognized as the first authority in the 
state, and was made "chief geologist" of the state survey, 
organized in 1873. He made valuable contributions also to 
the natural history, the statistics, the topography, the cartog- 
raphy, the civil history and the educational affairs of his state. 
In science he was a cosmopolitan. He said his particular de- 
partment was the "study of Wisconsin." Thisis a simple but 
expressive statement of the nature and variety of his scien- 
tific pursuits. He lived for many years in Milwaukee. He 
died of heart disease, suddenly, while alone in a small row boat 
on lake Oconomowoc, while visiting his son whose farm was 
on the bank of that lake. Born in 1811, he was B4 years of 
age at' his death. 

Dr. Lapham was for Wisconsin what David Dale Owen was 
for Indiana, and Douglass Houghton for Michigan. But he 
was also more than these. They were pioneer organizers and 
light-bearers for the succeeding generation in the line of 
geology simply. They started the first surveys, and by their 
intelligent and industrious labor they laid the foundations of 
the science in their states. Lapham spent the major portion 
of his life in allied sciences, and came to the near consumma- 
tion of his full expectation in geological science near the 
close of his days — when he was appointed by Gov. Washburn 
to conduct the geological survey of Wisconsin. He was well 
known as an archeologist for many years prior, and as a cli- 
matologist the Government had recognized his superior qual- 
ifications. As a botanist he was th<* constant correspondent 
and coadjutor of most of the botanists of the country, and 
had made numerous contributions to their herbaria, as well as 
to the botanical literature of the day, L. Agassiz sought his 
aid in zoology ; and as cartographer and general physicist 
every one in Wisconsin consulted him. He had made an im- 
portant discovery of certain markings in iron meteorites, since 
named Laphamite markings. There was, therefore, a universal 



6 Thi* American Geologist, Janaafy, 18M 

concord in demanding his appointment. No one else knew so 
mueh about the state as he, and he had evinced his capacity 
for conducting such a research into its natural features. Lap- 
ham, therefore, was more than a geologist when he undertook 
the survey of Wisconsin ; he was fortified for the task by 
many years of the most diversified training and experience. 

In reviewing his life and work, therefore, while this sketch 
naturally dwells most on his geological work, it would obvi- 
ously be a partial and xfixy imperfect account, if it omitted 
to present briefly his other scientific contributions. His most 
elaborate finished work was, perhaps, his description and 
illustration of the aboriginal earth-works of Wisconsin, pub- 
lished by the Smithsonian Institution, but his most lengthy 
and persistent was his geological. This he began as a youth, 
and this he laid down but a few months before his death. 

We can divide his works, so far as published, under the 
following heads : 

1. Botanical; 2. (Mimatological ; 3. Archeological ; 4. Car- 
tographical; 5. Cveological; and 6. Miscellaneous. 

y. Botanical Work, 

Lapham was familiar with the botany of the phtenoganious 
plants before he arrived in Wisconsin. He at once began a 
systematic, careful cataloguing of the plants of the state. 
He was an excellent draughtsman. Some of the delicate draw- 
ings of the minute parts of grasses, contained in his unpub- 
lished **Graminenj of the United States/' have almost the 
exact shadings of lithographs. In 1886 he ventured to print 
a ^'catalogue of the plants and shells found in the vicinity of 
Milwaukee."* In 1838, and again in 1840 he reissued this 
catalogue with many additions. In the first volume of the 
Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society is 
an admirable treatise of nearly one hundred pages, on the 
^'Grasses of Wisconsin and adjoining states.'^ He pursued the 
subject of the grasses of the country with great eagerness, and 

**'My first aoquaiotanoe with Dr. Lapham was in 1846, when one 
morning there landed [at Racine] from the steamer Sultana a small 
man with a large collecting box hanging at his side. He came from 
Milwaukee and intended returning on foot along the lake shore in or- 
der to collect plants and ehellB— no eaey journey, encumbered, ae he 
■oon would be, with a well-filled specimen box. He spoke lightly of the 
undertaking, saying he had performed similar feats before." Dr. P. R. 
Hot, in Trans, Wis, Acad, aci,, Arts and Ijet,^ vol. Hi, p, 265, 




Increase Allen Lapham. — Whichelh 7 

did not content himself with anything less than a eoraprehen- 
flive study and cataloguing of the grasses of North America. 
He approached this great enterprise through the bureau 
of Agriculture of the Patent Oftice, suggesting that the agri- 
culturists of the country would be greatly interested in a thor- 
ough investigation and final description of all the native 
Graminea^, not omitting those naturalized. His suggestion 
was approved, an appropriation was made by Congress, Dr. 
Lapham was invited to Washington and entered upon the 
preliminary work under the direction of the Commissioner of 
Patents. He began a systematic collection, and at the same 
time a systematic series of drawings and studies. He was to 
collect seeds for distribution and experimental purposes, and 
to make a report that should include the botanical descrip- 
tion, geographical distribution, time of flowering, sowing and 
harvesting, in different latitudes; the culture, soil and cli- 
mate best adapted to each species, and all other facts relat- 
ing to its economic value. He was also to conduct an expe- 
dition to the West Indies and South America for collecting 
improved varieties of sugar cane, for the use of the planters 
of Louisiana, a liberal appropriation having been made for 
that purpose. Considering the manifold ways in which the 
grasses of the country enter into the labor of the farming in- 
dustry, and the fundamental importance of agricultural labor 
and skill in the industrial economy of the country, it is diffi- 
cult to conceive of a more far-reaching measure for fostering 
and furthering the immediate good of the whole nation. After 
a personal expense of about a thousand dollars and a labor of 
several months, in preliminary arrangements. Dr. Lapham was 
informed by the higher authority residing in the [new] Sec- 
retary of the Interior, that his first bill of expense, including 
his first quarter's salary, could not be audited because his pol- 
itics was not in accord with the party in power, — in short, 
that his appointment was not approved. The expedition to 
South America departed without him. His work was ignored 
and he was never remunerated. The matter was reviewed 
again just before the breaking out of the civil war, and 
the Agricultural Bureau gave it favorable consideration, but 
the national exigencies that soon absorbed all public attention 
put a stop to its execution. The enterprise therefore slum- 



8 The A merican Geologist Jannaryi iflM 

bers, but only slumbers, for it is so palpably an enterprise of 
national utility that it will not be allowed to die. The result 
of Dr. Laphaiu^s labor was a manuscript descriptive catalogue 
of the known species of Gramineee of the United States, still 
unpublished, though preserved among his archives by his 
children. It is accompanied by numerous elegant plates of 
drawings of the flowers and fructification, in pursuance of the 
plan outlined when the work was authorized by Congress. 

Dr. Lapham contributed numerous papers to the Transac- 
tions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society on the plants and 
trees of the state. In 1867 the Legislature ordered an in- 
quiry into "the injurious effect of clearing land of forests, and 
the duty of the state in the matter.'^ Dr. Lapham was ap- 
pointed chairman of the Committee. He made an exhaustive 
report, which the Legislature printed as an octavo volume of 
over one hundred closely printed pages. This neglected vol- 
ume, from which, as from a botanical cyclopedic thesaurus, a 
class of economic foresters and agricultural writers have for 
many years drawn exact knowledge concerning the effect of 
forests on the face of the country, on the climate, on the rain- 
fall, on the healthfulness, the habitability, the productiveness 
and the aggregate value of the primeval country, attests the 
extended research and the sound, practical good sense which 
its author pre-eminently manifested in all his investigations. 
Dr. Asa Gray testified to the reliability of Lapham's botanical 
observations. He used Lapham^s catalogue in determining 
the geographic distribution of western plants. He dedicated 
a new genus to Lapham, found in our southwestern frontiers 
(Laphamia), to which Dr. Gray assigned five species, and 
urged,af ter Lapham's death, that the herbarium which he had 
collected should be made the basis of a botanical museum, 
where it could be preserved permanently as a state or munici- 
pal memorial to one of the honored founders of the common- 
wealth of Wisconsin. 

Dr. Lapham made a botanical excursion into Minnesota, ex- 
tending his notes and collections entirely across the state, and 
to the valley of the Red river of the North. It was in con- 
nection with an ill-starred and futile attempt on the part of 
some speculating capitalists of Milwaukee to found a city in 
northwestern Minnesota that Lapham was induced to take 



.^ 




Increase Allen Lapham, — WinchelL 9 

charge of an expedition from St. Cloud acrose the uninhabited 
tracts westward to the objective point, which was about four 
miles southwest of the present city of Fergus Falls, in Otter 
Tail county. In the midst of the perplexing dutie.s which 
fell upon him, and notwithstanding the harassing failures that 
constantly attended the enterprise, Dr. Lapham succeeded in 
collecting a large herbarium of this region, and he made a 
very full catalogue of all species which he saw, with notes of 
habitat and distribution. With characteristic generosity and 
cosmopolitan love for science he donated this catalogue to the 
Minnesota survey in 1878. It was published in 1875,* and 
was the first systematic attempt to classify the flora of the 
state with any noteworthy degree of success. 

Although Dr. Lapham was notable in the later years of his 
life to devote so much time to his favorite science, yet in one 
of the latest of his scientific papers he reverts to his first 
love, and dedicates to botany one of the ripest results of a life 
of scientific study. The thought embodied in "The Law of 
embryonic development, the same in plants as in animals," 
(American Naturalist, Vol. IX, May, 1875,) is based on a pro- 
found knowledge of organic development. He attempts "to 
show that the same law of resemblance, between the immature 
of one order and the mature of a lower order of animals, is 
equally true in the vegetable world, where its study may lead 
to results of equal importance."! He compares some of the 
low vegetable forms, such a8 the desmids, consisting of a 
single cell which never develops to anything higher than a 
desmid, though manifesting the essential functions of a per- 
fect plant, to the fovilla of a pollen-grain from the stamen of 
some of the higher phtenogams. Next higher he mentions the 
minute one-celled Protococcus packed with minute panicles, 
each one, under favorable circumstances, destined to become 
an independent plant. This still further simulates the pollen- 
grain which, under favorable circumstances (as falling upon 
the stigma), also sends downward a growth which performs 
the otflce of originating a new plant. Fungi, still higher, 

• 

*A catalogue of the plants of Minnesota, Prepared in 1865 by I. A 
Lapham. Trans. Minn. State Hort. See., 1875. 

tWiflcoDsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Vol. in, 1875, pp. 
110-113. 



10 The American Geoloyist, Janoary, 1894 

scatter little cases or sacks, filled with little grains called 
spores, which, if they light in favorable places, grow and be- 
come mould again. The little grains of pollen, of the higher 
orders, are thus shown to be specialized forms of the lower 
orders in their maturity. 

Dr. Lapham's botanical collection, gathered mostly between 
1830 and 1855, embraced, according to Prof. J. C. Arthur, 
24,000 specimens, representing the whole range of the vege- 
table kingdom in 8,000 species, and was tastefully arranged in 
the most approved style in genus and species covers, and care- 
fully labelled. After his death it was purchased by the State 
of Wisconsin and deposited in the University at Madison. 

2, Climatological Work, 
One of the great accomplishments and triumphs of Lap- 
ham's life was the establishment of the Weather Service bu- 
reau. From the time of his earliest scientific work he had 
observed the weather. He became familiar with the move- 
ments of storms and the changes of the clouds. He recorded 
the barometric pressure at Milwaukee for many years, and 
from the record of observations on the level of the lake made 
every three hours, day and night, during August, 1849, he as- 
certained and published the fact that there is a slight dail}' 
lunar tide in lake Michigan, a fact which was fully estab- 
lished later by^ the record of the self- registering tide gauge, 
and still better by the United States engineer corps.* (See 
Report of the Secretary of War Tor 1861.) He fully believed 
that storms could be foretold. The desirableness of such pre- 
dictions was most apparent. The disasters that resulted from 
the sudden outbreaks of storms from the west were brought 
home vividly to all who resided on the western shore of 
lake Michigan. He corresponded with Dr. Caswell, of Prov- 
idence, R. I., with Cleveland Abbe, of Cincinnati, and Dr. 
Asa Horr, of Dubuque, Iowa, in connection with whom he 
carrie<l on a miniature ''weather bureau," each aiding the 
other in determining the course of storms for his locality. He 
labored in vain for several years. His correspondence with 
insurance companies and boards of trade and his appeals 
through the daily press to the general public served only to 

*CoL J. D. Graham, U. 8. Engineers, made the same discovery at Chi- 
cago ten years later. Message and documeDts, 1861-62, pp. 404-5. 



Iiicre(i»e AN en Lapham. — Winch elf, 11 

keep the matter in agitation. He finally made a direct appli- 
cation to Congressman H. E. Paine, from Wisconsin. This 
memorial calls attention to some predictions of on-coming 
storms which had been made by the astronomer Le Verrier, 
as reported by the president of the Toulon Chamber of Com- 
merce in 1868, and to the attempts of Capt. Fitz Roy in En- 
gland. He la^'^s down the groundwork for a scheme of gov- 
ernmental weather service in the United States, based on the 
ascertained direction of movement of the great storms of the 
country, which is that which at the present time is in eifect- 
ive execution. A similar appeal was made by Lapham to the 
National Board of Trade, through Hon. E. I). Holton, of Mil- 
waukee, who presented it, with a resolution, addressed to 
Congress, at the meeting of that Board at Richmond, Va., in 
1870. It was ably supported by Gen. Walbridge, of New 
York. It was unanimously adopted, and was immediately 
forwarded by Mr. Holton to Representative Paine, at Wash- 
ington. In an **incredibly short space of time for that august 
body it was passed, in the course, I think, of three weeks; the 
Signal Service [weather bureau] was thus incorporated."* 
While the chief Signal Officer, at Washington, had general 
charge of this new bureau,. Dr. Lapham was appointed as his 
assistant with office at Chicago. It was his duty to receive 
and summarize reports of the weather from more western sta- 
tions and telegraph his conclusions to Washington for the 
benefit of eastern shipping and agricultural interests. It was 
thus that the first official storm prediction in the United 
States was sent out by him from Chicago, Nov. 8, 1870, as 
follows : 
To observers along the lakes {bulletin this at once): 
Noon, Chicago, Nov. 8,1870.— A high wind all day yesterday at Chey- 
enne and Omaha. A very high wind reported this morning at Omaha. 
Barometer falling, with high wind at Chicago and Milwaukee to-day. 
Barometer falling and thermometer rising at Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, 
Cleveland, Buffalo and Rochester. High winds probable along the 
lakes. 

The result verified the prediction. High winds were re- 
ported the next morning at the following lake ports : Milwau- 



*8peech of Hon. E. D. Holton, Insurance Monitor, Vol. 23, p. .330 
(Sherman). The memorial of Lapham to Congress is published by the 
41st Congress, Second Session, Dec. 14, 1869, Misc. Docs. No. 10. 



con Bin 
as in 



^ The American Geologist. January, isfi* 

kee, Detroit, Toledo, Buffalo and Oswego. Very high winds 
■ at Duluth Chicago and Cleveland. 

Dr Cham h!ld the position of assistant to the chief 
Signal officer until he was appointed State Geologx«t of Wis 
., but continued his interest in the work, and contributed 
previous years, the list of disasters upon the lakes until 
his death, Sept. U, 1875. origination of the Weather 

Dr^ p. B Boy, Racine Wis. ^ ^^^^ ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^,^ 

Dear Sir: Your letter w«i8r«eiv^^^^^^^^^^^ .^ ^ 

neea and I now embrace the Arst cjl^' ^^^ ,,,,^,^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
The action of Congress in regar^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ of Congress 

immediate exertions of ^r. Lapham Jirougn ^^^ ^^ J^ 

from his district, general Paine, m fluting '^^^ " j^^^ ""*^*" 
system to the commercial interests of thvgrest *«* 

Youre, verytrolyf 

Jcw:pH Henry, Secretary. 

Notwithstanding the publicity and tho-indnimity ol assent 
to this claim of priority, there have been ome who have at- 
tributed it to Prof. Cleveland Abbe, who receved the app^'"^" 
ment to the position which was' at fir^t te^igrgj jo ^^^- 
Lapham, viz: that of aid to Gen. Myer who w^ ^^^ Chief 
Signal officer at Washington. Dr. Lapham haviii, ^ecH"^^ 
it, for personal reasons, he was made assistant at d.^go, a^ 
above stated. 

It cannot be denied, however, that several others ha^jon- 
ceived the same idea in this country. It had actually »en 
put into practice on a small scale, in 1868, in Europe, th^h 
probably at the instigation of Redfield, Loomis and othen^ 
this country, who had discussed its principles and metlio« 
It had also been carried on by the Smithsonian InstitutK* 
under the direction of Prof. Joseph Henry, and by Pro 
Cleveland Abbe, who, at Cincinnati began a series of syste 
matic **weather bulletins'' for the Cincinnati Chamber of Com- 
merce in September, 1869. These bulletins, with prediictH)ns* 

♦TrensTwis. Acad. Soi., Arts and Letters, voL iii, 1876, p. 234. 

tin the American Journal of Science, July, 1871, Prof. Abbe gives a 
historical review of all efforts by earlier meteorologists to inaugurate ft 
system of weather forecasts, and also of his own labors at Cincinnati. 



Increase Allen Lapham. — WinchelL 18 

for the next twenty- four hours, were based on reports from 
about thirty observers, many of them the volunteer observers 
of the Smithsonian Institution. Prof. Abbe states that it 
had been intended by some of the delegates from Cincinnati 
to the Richmond meeting of the National Board of Trade to 
bring the subject before that body, but that their action was 
anticipated by that of Hon. E. D. Holton, of Milwaukee, who 
presented a memorial drawn up by Dr. L A. Lapham. It is 
plain, therefore, that the idea which had been slumbering and 
waiting, found public sentiment ripe for the official sanction 
whenever the proper appliances were used to effect it. As in 
the case of many other great ideas that finally blossom out 
suddenly into fruitful actualities, that of weather forecasts 
was not the sole property of one man, still it can be legiti- 
mately claimed for Dr. Lapham, in the first instance, that he 
had an early share in the brotherhood of practical physicists 
who entertained the belief in the possibility of foretelling the 
weather by ^magnetic^ telegraph, and, in the 'second place, that 
he first successfully brought to bear those influences which 
induced Congress to approve and to authorize the National 
Weather Bureau of the United States. He, furthermore, was 
recognized as its responsible and influential instigator when 
he was called (Milwaukee Sentinel, Nov. 16, 1870,) to Wash- 
ington to take charge of it under 6en« Myer, a position which 
Prof. Abbe was called to in January, 1871,* Prof. Abbe's 
own statement Justifies this, and lays at rest forever any doubt 
of Dr. Lapham's prior action. 

3. Archeological Work, 

*^Dr. Lapham's most elaborate work, the one for which he is 
best known abroad, is his ' Antiquities of Wisconsin.' At an 
early day he became much interested in the aboriginal earth- 
works which abounded along the borders of our crystal lakes, 
and near the banks of many streams. He was the first to 
notice that many of these mounds are ^gigantic basso-relievos 
of men, beasts, birds and reptiles, all wrought with persever- 
ing labor, on the surface of the soil.* In 1886 he called at- 
tention through the newspapers, to a turtle-shaped mound at 

^TeBtimony before a Joint CommisBioD, etc., on the Bcientific work 
of the QovemmeDt, AQtlot Congreas, Itt seBsion. Misc. Does. 82, 1886, p. 
247. Compare also pp. 269-273, and 461-465. 



14 llie American Geologist, JaDoary* U94 

Waukesha, and to several other animal ettigiesat other places. 

"As many of these must soon be obliterated by the prog- 
ress of settlement and cultivation, he carefully surveyed and 
plotted such as his opportunities permitted. The American 
Antiquarian Society having proposed to pay his traveling 
and other necessary expenses, he devoted much time to a 
systematic and thorough surve}*^ of these interesting memo- 
rials of a pre-historic race. It was a congenial labor, and he 
prosecuted it with rare devotion and intelligence. 

"The results were published in 1855 by the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, in a handsomely printed quarto volume, with 65 
plates and nearly 100 wood engravings, all from drawings 
made by himself. *Beyond the necessary expenses,' says 
Prof. Henry, 'he derived and received no other compensation 
than the scientific enjoyment which the prosecution of the 
work afforded.' 

"This publication secured to Dr. Lapham an honorable 
rank among men interested in pre-historic studies; it is fre- 
quently quoted by Sir John Lubbock in his well-known work 
on 'Pre-historic Times,' and must always remain a standard 
of authority and reference on the subject which he has so 
fully and ably illustrated. 

"He found peculiar pleasure in the study of these memo- 
rials of a perished 'race, and one of his last labors was the 
preparation of a series of bas-relief models of some of the 
more characteristic mounds, for the Centennial Exposition of 
1876."— *S'. S, Sherman, 

This publication of the Smithsonian Institution had been 
preceded by a similar V(»lume on a kindred topic by Messrs. 
Squier and Davis, relating to the aborginal remains of the 
Ohio vallc^y. This earlier volume had announced the results 
of the authors as to the origin of the earthworks of which it 
treats. They ascribed them to a dynasty earlier than the 
present Indian, a race which they considered much higher in 
culture and intelligence than the Indian, but which had prob- 
ably been exterminated, at least expelled from their abodes, 
by the incursions of the existing red man. This opinion had 
received the sanction of many savants and of archeological 
societies, and its authors had been honored by many testimo- 
nials to their sagacity and the fulness of their research. It 




Increase Allen Lapham, — Winchell. 16 

may be understood, therefore, that it required on the part of 
Lapham a degree of independent reliance x)n his own observa- 
tions and judgment, which is not always possessed by 
scientists, to arrive at and advocate in his volume, a wide 
departure from the conclusions of his exemplars and prede- 
cessors. In short, he ascribed the mounds which he exam- 
ined, to the agency of the Indian and his immediate ances- 
tors. He saw no reason to call in the aid of an imaginary 
race. It is not necessary here to dwell on the merits of this 
question pro nor con. It is sufficient to say that the views of 
Messrs. Squier and Davis continued current in scientific cir- 
cles until within a few years, to the neglect and discredit of 
Lapham's work. It is only necessary to add that there is at the 
present almost a unanimous change of view amongst archeol- 
ogists and ethnologists in America as to the relation of these 
remains to the present Indian races, resulting in a complete 
indorsement of the views of Lapham. 

Jf- Cartographical Work, 

Lapham's early education as an apprentice, and especially 
as u young engineer, served to qualify him for skilful draught- 
ing, and to introduce him to the wide experience wiiich he 
subsequently had in cartography. There is no field of profes- 
sional work in which may be found a greater number of spec- 
imens of his handiwork. Even his earliest maps were exe- 
cuted with scrupulous care, and the nicety of their lining and 
lettering attests the delicacy of his touch and the patience of 
his untiring application. There are maps extant, some of 
them unpublished, of Portsmouth, O. (made before he was 
seventeen years of age), of the region of the falls of the Ohio, 
showing New Albany, ('larksville and Jetfersonville, on the 
north side of the river, and Portland and Louisville on the south 
side, made in 1828, when assistant engineer to the Louisville 
and Portland canal. This map possesses great historic value 
and is herewith reproduced on a reduced scale (plate ii). The 
original scale is 1,600 feet to the inch. The reduction is by one- 
third the linear dimensions of the original. On his removal 
to Milwaukee (July I, 1836), one of his first professional acts 
was the construction of a map of the city, then a straggling vil- 
lage of 1,200 inhabitants, belonging to the territory of Michi- 



I 



16 The American Geologist, January, 18M 

gan. The lands were not yet surveyed, all new-comers occu- 
pied by right of "squatter sovereignty," all tenure was uncer- 
tain and liable to encroachment, and continual dispute 
prevailed. The map of Lapham bears date 1886. The people 
instituted a code of laws and registration of claims and of 
transfers, electing Lapham "register of claims,'' — for no one 
could as yet get a title from the government. He served gra- 
tuitously. The records of this pro tempore office are extant. 
They show by whom every quarter-section in the city and of 
the county was entered, also the transfers made prior to the 
date of the public land sale. "Lapham's certificate," filed 
with the "Judiciary Committee" was duly accredited as valid 
in all courts, and in later controversies attendant on the final 
sale and occupancy under the slow machinery of the United 
States Government, that certificate was thoroughly respected, 
and justice was maintained to the original claimants. This 
early map was reproduced annually for thirty years, each edi- 
tion recording the yearly growth of what became the chief 
commercial and industrial city of the St^ite of Wisconsin. 
To all interested in the real estate of the city Lapham's map 
and records became a vade mecum on all questions of bound- 
aries, names, plats and original titles. 

With the influx of immigration he saw the need of a guide 
to the new comers, and he prepared a map of the entire state, 
to accompany his sketch of Wisconsin,* first issued in 1844. 
This was improved and enlarged in 1848, running through six 
editions, and grew, under his widening acquaintance with the 
natural features of the st^te, into a geological map of Wis- 
consin. As such it was published in 1855, at his own ex- 
pense, and was reissued with corrections in 1869. This is 
based chiefly on his own observations, although along the 
Mississippi valley Owen's surveys had preceded. When the 

* ''Lapham's Wiaooniin" ia a well-known work amons the iceoloffiete 
of the Noitliwest. Its full title is ''A ffeographioal ana topograpnical 
deecription of WiBOonnn: with brief aketohee of its history, geology, 
mineralogy and natural history, population, soil, productions, govern- 
ment, antiquities, etc." Milwaukee, P. C. Hale, 1844, 255 pp.; eeoond 
edition, with map, 1846. In 1846 Donald McLeod published a *'Hie. 
tory of Wiaoonsan," which was taken almost word for word from Lap- 
ham's work published two years before. It also includes his liat of 
plants of Wisconsin, and gives him no credit, in fact does not mention 
his name. McLeod's publication is still sometimes mentioned as a rare 
old took.—'Letter of Miss Julia A, Lapfiam^ Jan. 15, 1891. 



^ 



Vot-XIlI. Plate: U. 



iL. Hit 



■^-^ 






^ 



rj.jj-' 






_ Jail 
'• / Church 

F€ Attaff r7>iili 
H Foundry 
1 Pottery 
J Old O'M.UtrY 
K r-t/hi,-i* 


I. Mtirffec Mcva' 



The American Qeolooist. 



\ 






^ 
^ 

i 



vi 



}fi 




Jp^^nt #t i%^^#rW&liy**^ ^>Mfc.a5y.^^ 



t 



Increase Allen Lapham, — WinchelL 17 

writer came to Minnesota in 1872, Dr. Lapham sent him this 
map as a contribution to the geology of the adjoining area, 
and it hung for many years in a conspicuous place in his 
office, where it was consulted hundreds of times prior to the 
publication of the sheets of the great atlas of the late geolog- 
ical survey of that state. 

Many other maps, some designed to show the climatology, 
or the distribution of forests or the statistics, or the location 
of aboriginal earthworks, or the topography of some portions 
of the state, appear among his publications. The work of 
cartographers, in all fields of natural science, and particularly 
in geology and topography, is apt to be undervalued. It is 
the function of a map to summarize and express in one view 
a multitude of details. It is the last conclusion of a long 
series of tedious and time-consuming records. It is the re- 
sult of a process of minute research in the confused facts of 
an untrodden field. It embodies the "Q. E. D." of a philo- 
sophical discussion, or of a scientific investigation. It re- 
quires a peculiar type of mind to group in the form of an 
original chart the chief results of such research. We find by 
this review of Dr. Lapham's work that a resort to the carto- 
graphical method of expression was one of his peculiar 
traits which was frequently resorted to. He was no less a 
pioneer in this field in the development of the science of 
Wisconsin, than in others in which he has been more highly 

applauded. 

J. Geological JVork\ 

The accompaning list of Dr. Lapham's publications will 
•give in detail his geological work. Beginning in Ohio at the 
early age of sixteen, when in 1828 he sent his "Notice of the 
Louisville and Shippingsport canal and of the geology of the 
vicinity'' (with maps, sections, etc.) to the American Journal 
of Science* he only remitted his geological labors a few 
months prior to his death, and after he had been honored by 
the governor of Wisconsin with the appointment of "Chief 
Geologist" under the law ordering a thorough survey of that 
state. Twelve of the published works included in the list 
of his papers are exclusively geological, and several others 
have geological chapters, or are so allied to or based on a 

*Op. oit., ToL V, pp. 65-69, 1828. 



20 The American Geologist, January, 1894 

(1850) was written at the request of Mr. Foster. This is accom- 
panied by two sections showing the succession of strata from 
Milwaukee to Janesville, and from Grand Haven, in Michi- 
gan, to Milwaukee, the latter being designed to show that the 
basin of the lake is excavated in soft shales and shalj lime- 
stones. The sandstone at Janesville, seen in the valley of Rock 
river, he considers Potsdam. It is overlain by theCalciferous 
sand rock. In upward succession follow the Blue or Trenton 
limestone, the Galena limestone, seen at Palmyra and White- 
water, Waukesha limestone, Soft Yellow limestone, Geodifer- 
ous limestone, Shaly limestone and Corniferous limestone, the 
last having a small area at Milwaukee. The section is notice- 
able for the absence of the St. Peter sandstone. Black bitu- 
minous shale found in loose fragments in the vicinity of 
Milwaukee he attributes to the possible existence of the Mar- 
cellus shale in the near vicinity, though nowhere found in 
place. The design of this article is to demonstrate, according 
to the general views of Messrs. Foster, Whitney and Hall, that 
the general stratigraphic sequence seen in New York state can 
be recognized throughout Wisconsin as in other parts of the 
Northwest. 

In September, 1858, Lapham made one of the first (if not 
the first) scientific visits and description of the Penokee iron 
range.* His examination was carried over an extent, east 
and west, across three townships, and of its location he gives 
a map, showing towns 44 — 1, 2 and 3, west of the fourth prin- 
cipal meridian, and T. 45 — 1 west. This area is in the 
magnetic portion of the range and is crossed by the Bad river 
and some of its tributaries. Dr. Lapham describes the general 
character of the country, the strata which constitute the range 
and the manner of occurrence of the ore in the rock. He was 
accompanied by Edward Daniels, one of the (■ommissioners 
of the (then) state geological survey. He expresses a very 
high estimate of the iron-producing qualities of this portion 
o( the range, although he seems not to have seen much, if any, 
of that soft hematite which has since rendered the Penokee 
range (in connection with its eastern extension known as the 

*Col. Charles Whittlefiey examined this range in 1849. See his de- 
Boription in Owen's report on Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, 1852. 
p. 444. 



\ 




' Increase Allen Lapham. — WinchelL 21 

Gogebic range) one of the famous iron regions of the country. 
He based his opinion on some chemical analyses that had been 
made and on what he saw outcropping, of the hard siliceous 
magnetit-e. He fully identifies the ore as passing into the slate 
rock in one direction and into a "hard rock" in the other, and 
he concludes that the ore must have had an origin as early as 
the rock itself. He announces the opinion also that "the ge- 
ological relations of this prolonged ore-bed are quite the same 
as those of the non-magnetic ores near Marquette," an opinion 
which for many years remained current, endorsed as it was 
by all later surveys, and until the wider extent of this forma- 
tion was studied in Minnesota. 

On the basis of this examination Dr. Lapham wrote two 
other articles, designed to arouse the interests of capitalists, 
and the public authority for the construction of the necessary 
railroads.* But the war of the rebellion soon coming on 
caused a postponement of material development in northern 
Wisconsin for many years, and Dr. Lapham did not live to see 
the fruition of the expectations which he expressed. 

On the sudden death of Dr. J. G. Percival, when serving as 
state geologist of Wisconsin, it was found that his second re- 
port was left incomplete and the field notes in much confusion. 
To Lapham was assigned the task of reducing them to order 
and preparing the report for the printer. He re- wrote the en- 
tire report and added to it a geological map of the state based 
on his own wider acquaintance with the state, though incorpo- 
rating also such modifications as the more detailed examina- 
tions by Percival made necessary. The report is in substance 
Percival's, but in form it is more Lapham's. 

In 1860, Dr. Lapham made an important announcement to 
the Milwaukee Geological Club. It was the discovery of 
"rocks near Milwaukee equivalent to the Devonian (Old Red 
sandstone) containing remains, which he exhibited, of charac- 
teristic fishes. These remains consist of fragments of bone, 
teeth, and a paddle with portions of the tuberculated skin or 
osseous covering. The bed containing these remains overlies 
the Niagara group and is the uppermost of the geological series 

♦ ^ 

^TranBactions, Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1860; and Hunt's 
Merchant's Magazine, for April, 1880. 



22 The American Geologist. Jannery, 1894 

yet observed in Wisconsin."* The aj^e assigned to this rook 
was contested by Dr. O. W. Wight in 1875,f but again the 
judgment of Lapham has been vindicated, in the discovery of 
many Hamilton species in the vicinity of Milwaukee, in addi- 
tion to the fish remains first noted. At a later date, July, 
1874, Dr. Lapham compared this rock with the water-lime- 
stones of Louisville, Ky.,* with a suggestion as to its possess- 
ing the same useful qualities. This suggestion has also been 
verified, the average tensile strength of the Milwaukee ce- 
ment, at the end of seven days, being, according to Gen. Q. 
A. Gilmore, 64 J pounds to the square inch, and that of the 
standard brands of five of the Rosendale companies being 47 
pounds. 

The principal event connected with Dr. Lapham's life, hav- 
ing a geological bearing, was his appointment as "chief geol- 
ogifc-'f' of the state surve3% ordered in 1873 by the Legislature 
of Wisconsin. He served about two years and rendered two 
rej^orts of progress. These are published in the second vol- 
ume of the final report of this survey, recently concluded 
under Prof. T. ('. Chamberlin. These reports, while not con- 
taining much original matter that can be referred to Dr. 
Lapham's direct agenc3\ yet reveal at once the broad grasp 
which he had taken of the contemplated work and the effi- 
cient executive management and practical turn which his 
conduct of the survey would have imprinted on its progress 
and its results. His report for 1873 summarizes the work of 
the year. His aids were Profs. R. I). Irving, T. C. Chamber- 
lin and W. W. Daniells, and Mr. Moses Strong. The work of 
each is epitomized in clear, concise language. He then adds 
a long list of railroad levels, a catalogue of the known miner- 
als of the state, gives many analyses of mineral waters, and 
tables of the annual rain-fall at Milwaukee from 1841 to 1873, 
from records mostly kept by himself, the grand average be- 
ing 30.27 inches. He treats briefly of the relations of the 
survey to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and 
to agriculture. It was through his initiatory rec(»mmendH- 

*Am. Jour. Sci., (2) xxix, p. 145. 

tQeology of WiBconsin, vol. ii, p. 79. 

^Wailing's Atlas of WiBoonsin, article Geologyt July, 1874. 



Increase Alleit Lapham. — Winchell. 23 

tion that the Coast and Geodetic Survey began the trian- 
gulation for the determination of latitude and longitude at 
various important points in the state, this work being placed 
under the direction of Prof. J. E. Davies, of the University of 
Wisconsin. Subsequently a triangulation was extended across 
the state to the Mississippi valley, under the law of Congress 
granting aid, through the Coast Survey, to such States as 
were carrying on either geological or topographical surveys ; 
and this more recently has furnished a basis for the exten- 
sion of similar work in Minnesota. 

His second report is similar in scope and contents to his 
first. It shows, however, a greater amount of detail of geo- 
logical facts, and indicates that the survey was deeply involved 
in an investigation of those questions which were at a later 
date elucidated in full in the reports of that survey. The work 
of these two years gives a stamp to all the volumes of the 
final report. The men he employed and the plans he laid per- 
petuated their influence to the end of the survey. The sec- 
ond year he secured the services of Maj. T. B. Brooks who 
had but recently concluded his survey of the iron regions of 
Michigan. The voluminous annual reports of his assistants 
for 1873 and 1874 are not printed in connection with the re- 
ports of Lapham, as they should be in full justice to Lapham, 
but they were returned to their authors who condensed and 
corrected them, and incorporated their contents in the final 
report that was published under the direction of Prof. Cham- 
berliu. 

Dr. Lapham gave, in 1874, an epitome of the geology of the 
'state of Wisconsin, in a chapter in Walling's folio atlas (pp. 
16-19). The Lauren tian he makes the parallel of the term 
Archean. The Huronian he describes in the same sense as the 
Michigan and Canadian geologists — /. c, it includes the crys- 
talline and the chloritic schists, the greenstones, the iron- 
bearing rocks and the quartzites, such as those of Barron 
county, the base being supposed to be non-conformable upon 
the granitic rocks of the Laureptian. No limestone was then 
known in the Archean [here probably meaning to include 
Huronian in this term] in the state of Wisconsin. Following 
the Huronian come the copper- bearing rocks.' These he makes 
pre-Silurian. In the section showing the position of the 



24 The American Geologist Janiuur, 1894 

strata from lake Michigan to lake Superior, he represents the 
rocks of the Penokee iron ridge as dipping northward, but 
rising again before reaching lake Superior, their northern out- 
cropping edges being hid by the horizontal sandstones. The 
St. Croix sandstone is described under the name Potsdam 
sandstone. The Lower Magnesian limestone he considered the 
equivalent of the Calciferous sandstone of New York. The 
St. Peter's sandstone has a thickness of about 100 feet, but 
is "concealed-by overlying rocks" to the eastward of its line 
of outcrop, its most northern known outcrop being in Sha- 
wano county. The Buff and Blue limestones (with the Ga- 
lena) he puts in the Trenton period, and conformable on the 
St. Peter sandstone. The interesting remark is made that 
these beds embrape a "layer of highly bituminous shaly lime- 
stone, often so well saturated with bitumen as to burn with a 
blaze." This fact was discovered in Minnesota about the 
same time, and it shows, us remarked by Lapham, an abun- 
dant display of low forms of plant-life over a wide continental 
area in Lower Silurian time.* The Galena limestone, the Cin- 
cinnati group, the Clinton and the Niagara are mentioned. 
He also adds here, to the Upper Silurian the Racine limestone 
and the Salina, the latter occurring at a single locality on 
Mud creek, near Milwaukee ; but fragments found in the 
drift indicate a much greater extent of this rock. It had been 
the source of small quantities of gypsum and of salt. Of the 
Devonian he adds to previous statements, the "Black Shale," 
which is found in considerable quantities distributed in the 
drift northward from Milwaukee. 

His brief paper in 1874, on the relation of the Wisconsin 
geological survey to agriculture, contains a concise statement 
of those ways in which geology bears directly on the interests 
of the farmer, and is designed to recommend the new survey 
to the favorable attention of such legislators as were from the 
rural districts. It was read before the State Agricultural So- 
ciety. The distribution and nature of the drift which deter- 
mines the distribution and nature of the subsoils, the ascertain- 
ment of bights and depressions, on which depend the surface 
drainage and the depths to subterranean streams, and hence 

*It is apparently the same as the stratum deecribed by J. D. Whitney 
•a Utioa slate in Iowa. Geology of Iowa, Vol. i, pp. 359-60, 1858. 




Increase Allen Lapham, — WinchelL 25 

the possibility of artesian wells, the educational incentives 
that will accrue to the schools of agriculture from a study of 
the geological structure of the stat« — these are briefly men- 
tioned. 

In the midst of this energetic and harmonious prosecution 
of the survey, whose very quietness had attracted the public 
attention, a disgraceful transaction was perpetrated by the 
politicians of Wisconsin. The so-called "Granger party" had 
elected to the governorship a man whose chief aim seemed to 
be to undo as much as possible of what had been done by his 
predecessors in office. Gov. C. C.Washburn, founder of Wash- 
burn Observatory at Madison and of several benevolent insti- 
tutions of the State, had received the hearty approval of 
everyone when he nominated and commissioned Dr. Lapham 
as chief geologist. This was after the legislature of 1873 had 
adjourned. This transaction is succinctly stated in the words 
of Dr. O. W. Wight:* 

'*The commiBsion of the undersigned bears date February 16, 1875. His 
predeceeflor was appointed by Gov. Washburn in the spring of 1873, af- 
ter the adjournment of the LeglBlature. His name was not sent to the 
senate for confirmation during the session of the subsequent Legisla- 
ture. It was, therefore, decided (so the undersigned is informed) by 
the judiciary committee of the Senate, in the early part of the session 
of the last Legislature, that the office of the Chief Geologist was va- 
cant. Hie Exceilenoy, Gov. Wm. R. Taylor, did the undersigned the 
honor to send in his name to the Senate, and the Senate conlirmed the 
appointment with singular unacimity."! 

Near the middle of February Dr. Lapham learned from the 
newspapers that he had been superseded by the nomination of 
another man. It was nearly a month later when he received 
the following official communication from Gov. Taylor : 

Madison, March 10, 187 o. 
Dr. L a. Lapham, Milwaukee, Wis. 

Dear Sir: — You are hereby notified that, by reason of the noc -con- 
firmation, by the Senate, of your api)ointment as Chief Geologist, and 
by reason of the nomination and confirmation by the . Senate, and the 
appointment of Dr. O. W. Wight, of Milwaukee, us Chief Geologist, 

'K^eology of Wisconsin, vol. ii, p. 71. 

fit has been stated by some biographers of Lapham that his nomi- 
nation was not confirmed by the Senate; and by others that the Senate 
**refu8ed to oonfirm" the nomination. It appears, however, that the 
Senate never had his name before it for confirmation. It is plain that 
the responsibility of this underhanded transaction rests solely with 
Gov. Taylor. 



26 The American Geologist, January, 18M 

pursuant to Chapter 292, of the laws of 1878, all authority (if any) pos- 
sessed by you as Chief Geologist ceased and was annulled on the 16th 
day of February, A. D. 1875. 

Very respectf uHy your obedient servant, 

W. R^ Taylor, Qovernor, 
This change took the community by sudden surprise. The 
new appointee had not been known as a geologist, nor has he 
since. It was palpably a political appointment, and as such 
it lies at the door of Gov. Taylor. Though geological science 
in America has suit'ered numerous such crimes at the hands of 
politicians, none have been so cruel, causeless and criminal as 
the removal of Dr. Lapham. There had not been a ripple of 
discontent. The survey had done an unwonted amount of 
work considering its means and men. Its reports had been 
prompt and full. Its maps, sections, sketches, its specimens 
collect<?d, its scientific and practical results, though still un- 
published, and the unruffled harmony that pervaded the corps, 
all demanded of the executive of the State that its organiza- 
tion should be undisturbed. United with the chagrin of re- 
moval was the added sting, which rankled in Lapham^s breast 
until death relieved him, expressed in Gov. Taylor's official 
letter, of non-cimjirmation by the Senate. This was a fact, 
and at the same time a misrepresentation ; but the wiliness of 
the artful politician, as revealed by the statement of Dr. 
Wight, is apparent in the governor's silence as to the cause 
of non-confirmation, — his name had never been presented to 
the Senate. It had simply been an oversight on the part of 
governor Washburn. He held Gov. Washburn's commission. 
He was no politician. With him official position was never 
sought, but came unsolicited. He was not a self-confident 
man. He was modest and never ambitious of personal prefer- 
ment. He had spent much of his life in gratuitous service of 
tlie State and of the community in which he lived. He had a 
right to expect that the only remunerative public position 
which he ever held would be allowed to continue until he could 
bring to a successful close those long continued labors on its 
natural history and its industrial resources which he had 
prosecuted hitherto unrewarded. He had a right to hope that 
he would be able to establish, in the completion of this surve}', 
a commemorative and creditable monument to his zeal and in- 
dustry, which succeeding generations would not willingly 



fticrease Allen Lapham, — WinchelL 27 

forget. Under the circumstances there appears not one palli- 
ative streak of justification or excuse for the cruel act of gov- 
ernor Taylor. It was an extreme exemplification of the un- 
reason and selfishness of partisan politics. The press and the 
public generally considered his removal under the circum- 
stances an unpardonable outrage. It is a lesson, however, 
which,with others that geology has learned from similar source, 
speaks loudly for redress, and which warns geologists that 
partisan politics i» a ravehous creature which respects no 
persons, no services, no public weal, or personal rights, and 
which prostitutes to its own uses the non-partisan labors of 
the scientist, as relentlessly as the wolf devours the lamb. 

Dr. Lapham's assistants tendered their resignation and sent 
to Dr. Lapham the following letter : 
I. A. Lapham, L. L. D. 

Dear Sir: — We trust that the intercourse of the last two years, dur- 
ing which we have acted as members of the geological corps under your 
direction, has not left you without unmistakable evidences of the con- 
fidence we have reposed in you as a man, a scientist and as our official 
superior; and we hope that, even now, it is not necessary that we should 
add to these evidences. But we, nevertheless, desire to express indi- 
vidually, and collectively, and in this explicit manner, our high appre- 
ciation of the very great efficiency of your administration of the survey 
and of the valuable assistance you have rendered us in the discharge of 
our duties; of the many facilities you have placed in our possession, 
which have added largely to the work accomplished; of that vast fund of 
knowledge collected by your industry, during thirty years, or more, of 
active study of the resources of the state, which has ever been freely at 
our command, and which has been so generously mingled with our own 
accumulations; of that promptness which has never caused a delay for 
want of material, or instruction; of that exactness which has never left 
room for hesitancy or doubt, and of that prudence and discretion that 
have so conspicuously marked your administration. More than we can 
readily estimate of those results that bear our names, are due to the 
contributions that you have continually poured into them. 

Knowing that time, which proves all things, will do ample justice, and 
feeling most strongly the irreparable loss the State has sustained in the 
disseverment of your connection with the survey, we remain, with piost 
sincere respect, your obedient servants, 

R014AIVD D. Irvinq, 
T. C. Chamberlin, 
Moses Strong, 

Assistant Geologists. 
W. W. Danixlls, 

Chemist to the Survey. 



28 The American Geologist Jannary, ism 

• 

The rest of the story of Lapham's life is quickly told. He 
must have received the injury that was done him as a mor- 
tal blow. It had fallen unexpectedly, sharply and heavily. 
In the retirement of his family he may have revealed the 
poignancy of his wound, but he never publicly complained. 
His loyal, trusting heart, which had suspected no enemy, was 
broken by the ingratitude and injustice of the State which 
he had served. He retired temporarily to his son's farm at 
Oconomowoc. The modesty and fortitude of the Quaker 
training to which he was born and in which he lived and 
died, did not forsake him. He busied himself for a few 
months with some of the problems that were connected with 
the lake near which his residence was situated. Another 
summer season rolled by. The autumn came. With declin- 
ing health he seeks recreation and at the same time informa- 
tion in the examination of the soundings, temperature and 
currents of the lake. His boat is his sole companion. The 
lake is calm and beautiful. A September quiet pervaded the 
hour. The fading hues of the surrounding foliage are a 
sweet reflection of his life's mellow autumn. The sun's last 
evening rays did not see him return. The shades of a beau- 
tiful life close about him, and he surrenders up in silence and 
alone, the gentle spirit which had become weary of the jostle 
and insincerity of man. 

o. 3fiitcen(tneous Papers, 

But we must neturn to a further consideration of some 
of Lapham's work. He was many-sided. To do him jus- 
tice requires at least a brief mention of other public 
contributions. He was active in the first movements 
which resulted in the establishment of several of the present 
institutions of the State, both educational and scientific. In- 
deed there was scarcely any important enterprise which 
affected the general weal of the community or the State, with 
which he was not connected. In 1846 he donated to the city 
of Milwaukee thirteen acres of land for the purposes of a 
high school, and when it was by neglect allowed to lapse for 
non-record of deed and non-payment of taxes, and was sold, 
he redeemed it and renewed the deed. He was one of the 
founders of the Milwaukee Female College, and served for 



f. 



Increase Allen Lnpham, — WinchelL 29 

many years as president of its Board of Trustees. He 
assisted in the organization of the Young Men's Associa- 
tion. He was the first and most liberal contributor to the 
cabinet of the State University. He was one of the founders 
of the Wisconsin Historical Society, and of the Wisconsin 
Academy of Sciences, Letters and Arts. He was one of the 
original members of the American Ethnological Society, an 
active member of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, an honorary member of the Royal Society 
of Northern Antiquarians of Copenhagen, a member of the 
American Philosophical Society, and of most of the Scientific 
and Historical Associations of the United States. In 1860 
Amherst College (Mass.) conferred on him the degree of 
Doctor of Laws. 

The Doerflinger meteorite, often known also as the- Wiscon- 
sin meteorite, was brought to light largely through his 
agency. A farmer brought a sixteen-pound piece to the city 
from a locality about thirty miles northwest from the city of 
Milwaukee, and found his way to a hardware store, where 
Mr. Doerflinger was struck by the peculiar appearance of the 
iron. On applying the proper acid to a roughly polished 
surface he was gratified to see the appearance of beautiful 
Widmannstattian figures. Mr. Doerflinger reported the facts 
to the Natural History Society and presented the piece to 
the society. Two smaller pieces were acquired subsequently 
and a full account of the occurrence was printed. 

"At this time Dr. Lapham first heard of the find, and in con- 
sideration of his many valuable services to the Natural History 
Society the Board of Directors resolved to present him with n 
piece not to exceed two pounds in weight.* * * Dr. Lap- 

ham had been informed exactly of the location of the farm, 
and although on his first visit the farmer would under no 
conditions part with his property, still Dr. Lapham succeeded, 
by the aid of his well-known amiability, persistency and a 
considerable roll of greenbacks, in softening the farmer's 
heart." It was the wide distribution among scientists made 
at once by Lapham, that brought this meteorite to notice in 
scientific publications. In examining a polished piece re- 
turned to him by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, he noticed certain 

^Records of the Natural History Society, Dec. 7, 1868. 



30 'The Americun Geologist. January. 1894 

peculiar markings developed within the Widmannstattiun 
figures and called Dr. Smith's attention to them. The latter 
gave the first description of these smaller figures in the 
American Journal of Science* with a figure, and proposed to 
name them Laphamite markings. These peculiar figures are 
portions of the area in general marked by the Widmannstat- 
tian lines, and instead of having their extremities rounded 
like the Widmannstattian lines, they have rectangular or 
concave extremities. These areas are marked by a much 
finer lining, indicating, as thought by Smith, the axes of 
minute columnar crystals produced by cooling on contacting 
with a cold surface, and this proving that the Laphamite- 
marked area was of later origin and molten when the Wid- 
mannstattian area was solid. A few years later Dr. Smith 
not^d the same fine lining on a meteoric iron that had been 
preserved in the cabinet of the late Prof. Troost, and says : *'In 
connection with these Widmannstattian figures I will call 
attention to the delicate parallel lines inside these figures^ 
which I pointed out several years ago as being peculiar 
to certain of the irons, and which I designated by the 
term Laphamite markings."! Dr. Lapham prepared 
an elaborate list of all known American meteorites, 
with citations of authorities, but it was never pub- 
lished, 60 far as known. Dr. C. T. Shepard urged him 
to submit it to the American Journal of Science. The 
Laphamite markings are also illustrated in the American En- 
cyclopedia (New Ed.) under the article ''Aerolite." Some- 
what later Dr. Lapham gave particulars of the discover}" of 
additional fragments of the Wisconsin meteorite, making a 
total of 143 pounds. The six fragments were all found in the 
same field in the town of Trenton, Washington Co., about 30 
miles northwest from Milwaukee.* 

Although Dr. Lapham did not publish much that could be 
called zoological, yet among his papers are several manuscripts 
wholly zoological. One is a "Catalogue of the Fishes of Wis- 
consin and the adjoining states; with a synopsis of the fami- 
lies, references to the places where they are figured and 

♦Op. cit. (2), XLvii, 271, 1869. 
tOp. cit. November, 1875. 
{Amer. Jour. Sci. (8), iii, 69. 



liirrease Allen Lapham, — Winchell. 31 

described, etc, etc.," prepared in 1H60. Thifl synopsis is a 
sort of analytical key, like that of Dr. AsaCJru}', published in 
his Manual of Botany, by which a student cuin trace out and 
determine the name of any certain fish. The second part is 
a list of all known fishes in the waters of the states north- 
west of the Ohio river to and including Minnesota. This was 
no collation simply, but at the time he prepared it (between 
1860 and 1860) he was in correspondence with Dr. Kirtlandin 
regard 1o the fishes of Ohio and Wisconsin, and it embraces 
much original observation. Among his papers are twenty- 
seven packages of fish-scales with notes of the peculiarities 
of different species, and outline drawings on rough paper 
where the fishes were laid on the paper and drawn from na- 
ture, as the paper shows. This was long before the Fish 
Commission of Wisconsin was organized; audit is probable 
that his interest in fishes aroused by this study led him to sug- 
gest, as he did in a letter to Hon. F. G. Parker, then in the 
Wisconsin Legislature, the appropriation of a sum of money 
"for the propagation and introduction of better kinds of 
fish." In reply, Mr. Parker asked him (Jan. 21, 1878) to 
draft a bill and send him for introduction in the Assembly, 
saying that he thought an appropriation of $500.00 would be 
allowed when the proposition should be understood. 

He made large contributions to the laboratories of Isaac 
Lea and Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of shells from Ohio, and the latter 
found material for several new species among the specimens 
sent him. He prepared, in 1884, a "List of American Shells," 
which still remains unpublished. In 1875 he prepared another 
of the shells of Wisconsin. Following is a list of his most 
important unpublished papers, prepared by Miss Julia A. 
Lapham : 

List of Unpublished Papers of Dr I. A. Lapham. 
Prepared by Julia A. Lapham, 

1882. Indian Antiquities of Portnmouth, O, Consiets of sketohes of 
arrow points, extracts from letters and journal, etc., etc., evidently in- 
tended ae material for an article, but I am quite sure it was not pub- 
lished. 

1838. On boring for frenh tenter. May have been published in some 
newspaper. 

1831-86. Notes of the time of showing buds, leaving out, blossoming, 



82 The American Geologist. Jantuury, 18M 

fruit, and shedding leaves of all treee and ahrabe in the localities he 
happened to be in. 

1834. List of American shells. Was evidently prepared for exchang- 
ing specimenB, poesibly with an idea of publishing sometime. There is 
a great deal of work in it, done with and for judge Benjamin Tappan 
and Dr. S. P. Hildreth, with a criticism of Conrad's table of American 
Naiades, suggesting many alterations. I do not know whether they 
met with favor. 

1836. Change of level of lake Erie, and Jiise and fall of lake Michi- 
gan. I still cannot satisfy myself in regard to these two papers. They 
evidently were ready for publication, and may have been in some news- 
paper, as he frequently wrote for the Sentinel. There was however, no 
paper in Milwaukee at that time. 

1840. A week in Wisconsin. Its animals, plants and mounds. 
This was probably published in the Sentinel, but there is nothing to 
show it. On nearly all his trips through the state and elsewhere, he 
wrote letters to the Milwaukee papers. One series was headed *K>lanoes 
at the Interior.'' 

1849. Geological Notes.; Tour to the Dells. May have been published 
as above. 

1851. Geology of Wisconsin. We have the manuscript. 

[There is a paper by Dr. Lapham on tbe **Oeoloffioal formation of Wiaeonsin," in 
Trans. Wis. State A«l. 8oe., VoL 1, 1851. written abont this date, bat as Mias Lapham 
atatea that this nnpabiished article is illustrated, it is donbtfal whetiier they are the 
same. One figure is designed to show the Wisconsin geological column, beginning 
with the '*PrtmitiTe" and ending with the BcTonian, the last surmounted by tlie drift, 
lake deposits and the soil. The thickness of each formation is expressed in feet, the 
sedimentary rooks and drift amounting to 105Q feet. Another figure, supposed to be- 
long to this unpublished article, is "a section showing the equiyalence of the Mar- 
qaetto and Menominee iron deposits, by Prof. Raphael Pnmpelly," but it is appar- 
ently misdated and out of place. N. H. W.] 

1886-71. Meteorological manuscript. Some of this has been pub- 
lished, but a great deal of it has not. 

1863. Afneriean Paleontology. There is a great deal of work done 
here, and I send you the agreement between father and Prof. Hall. Why 
it was not carried out I do not know. Evidently father did his part of 
the work. 

[Tlie agreement referred to by Miss Lapham is as follows, in Lapham's liand : 

This agreement, made this first day of March, A. D. 18S3, by and between James Hall 

of Albany, A. ( N . ] York, and I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, witnesseth : 

That said Hall agrees to prepare a work to be called American pcUeontology, et ctttra, 

based apon manuscripts now placed in his hands by said Lapham (which manuscript 

embraces descriptions of about two thousand species) and to procuje the publication 

thereof upon the most favorable terms, as tbe joint work of said Hall and Laptiam ; 

that in ease no publisher is found to assume the expense of the publication, then the 

work is to be pablished at the joint and equal expense of the said parties hereunto ; 

that said work and pubUoatlon is to be completed within one year from the date 

hereof, and that all proceeds and profits resulting from the said publication are to be 

divided equally between the parties aforesaid. 

Witness our hands, our hands on the day and year first above writt^i. 

In preeence of } JAMES HALL, 

F. B. Meek. S I. A. LAPHAM. 

-N. H. W.l 



■V 




//icreftse AUen Laphatn, — WhicheJl. 33 

After 1853. Antiquities of Wisconsin. CoDBists oDly of notes, 
sketches, etc., partially for a new edition which he would like to have 
published. 

1854 to 1860. List of North Ajtierican Meteorites. We have this 
manuscript. 

1856. Catalogue of the described Graminese of the United States. 
Ten plates of drawings. We have this manuscript. 

1858-59. List of the mosses of Wisconsiii. 

1858. The Red river of the Norths irith an aceoutit of the rich and 
fertile country along its hanks in Minnesota and Dacotah, with illus- 
trations and a map. A large manuscript ready for publication. 

[Important 86 a historical docamoDt for the State of MinoeBota.— N. H. \V.] 

I860. Catalogue of the Fishes of Wisconsin and the adjacent states, 
with a synopsis of the families, references to places where they are fig- 
ured and described, etc. 

1860. On wind. We have the manuscript. 

1860-1875. Lietters, notes and manuscript, merely prepared for future 
use. Lake and Coast survey. 

1861-63. List of the mosses of Wisconsin, with Index. 

1865. Report of the geology of Council Hill, ///., Lead mines. Made 
for Messrs. Gregory and Hilton, with profiles, maps and drawings. 

1861. Milwaukee county. This was written for the Wisconsin Agri- 
cultural Society, but was not published, as the Board were not willing 
to pay for it. 

1865. Chi general atmospheric movements. 

1868-69. On building -stone. All, or nearly all, published in the Mil- 
waukee papers, when the court house was planned. 

1868-69. Account of Sauk county. Its general history, geology, bot- 
any, etc. 

1869. Aug. 7. Solar eclipse. This consists of observations on the 
eclipse, and meteorological observations during the time. 

1871. Geology of Georgia. A sketch of a tHp to Stone Mountain. 
Written after making the trip. 

1875. On the Cranlyerry^ acid of, etc, 

[Thia aabject, in connection with Laphani'e atady, was referred to in a late number 
of the TTtsconMH Weather and Crop Journal, Vol. 11, No. 4, p. 6, April, 1893.— N. H. W.l 

1875. List of the shells of Wisconsin. Additions to the early list of 
1836. 

[Of this manoacript Dr. P. R. Hoy says : '^What a pity your father couldn't finish 
the book. It would hare been a capital volume; and the drawings were so good and 
exact. I knew the doctor was exact with the pencil, but I was not prepared for so 
fine and good work.*'] 

There are many testimonials to the personal character of 
Dr. Lapham. They all ascribe to him an unimpeachable in- 
tegrity in business, and a blameless transparency in all his 
social and domestic relations. lie was as free and honest as 
the sunlight, and his presence and willing dedication of his 
whole energy to the service of the little group at home, or U> 



84 The American Geologist, January, I8M 

his Rcientific friends when they called on him, made him the 
almoner of gracious influences. He lived more for the service 
of others than for himself. Disappointments, injustice in- 
flicted upon him through either political or personal motives, 
left him outwardly unscarred, because he harbored neither 
ambition nor resentment. His griefs rose more from his own 
inability to accomplish his beneficent purposes than from the 
failures of any personal ambitions. The genial hospitality of 
his home, where the appreciative aid of a loving wife and 
family surrounded him, embraced all visitors and rendered 
them more than welcome. 

Dr. Lapham "was modest, patient, industrious, unwilling to 
appear in public, but ready to act as a private wherever his 
services were needed, one of the few who seek in their own 
labor their chief reward, one of the true noblemen of nature. 
His name will always cast an honor on the State of Wisconsin. 

He married Ann Maria Allcott, whose father was a second 
cousin of A. Bronson Allcott. He left five children, three 
sons, Henry, Seneca George and Charles, and two daughters, 
Mary J. and Julia Allcott. 

The value of Lapham*s services to Wisconsin will grow in 
the estimation of competent judges as time passes by. When 
we are near the light we are not so able to judge of its bright- 
ness as when we are so far removed that we can compare it 
with other lights or with surrounding objects. In the distant 
future Lapham's name will appear brighter in Wisconsin be- 
cause of its shining almost alone and in an epo<;h when sucii 
lights were few, and generally faint. The effort to honor 
Lapham*s name was well begun by the generous ofi'er.and thi* 
prompt responses mentioned at the opening of this sketch. 
That should not be the end of that suggestion. The State 
would honor herself by recognizing Lapham's merits in some 
substantial and permanent manner. The United States Weather 
Bureau cannot allow his name to be forgotten. "He is the 
guardian genius of our lake commerce, and on that crimson 
flag which so often flutters in the rising breeze, the herald of 
the coming storm, should be inscribed — Lapham!" 

[Note. Besides the bio^aphical sketches that are mentioned at the 
opening of this sketch, the following notices have appeared : Popular 
Science Monthly, April, 1883, pp. 885-840, eketch by the editor, based on 




Increase Allen Lapham, — WinchelL 85 

Slierman's addreesl with a portrait. Appleton's Cyclopedia of Ameri- 
can Biography, a sketch baaed largely, or entirely, on Sherman's ad- 
drees. Dr. P. R. Hoy and Mr. E. R. Leland have tributes to the life 
and labors of Lapham in Vol. iii of the Transactions of the Wisconsin 
Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Proceedings of the Davenport 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. n, 1876-77; sketch by Dr. C. C. Parry. 
The American Antiquarian, March, 1893; short sketch by the editor, 
with a portrait. The following bibliography is taken primarily from the 
lately published "Bibliography of Wisconsin Authors,** prepared and 
published by the Wisconsin Historical Society, but it contains some 
corrections and additions.] 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DR. L A. LAPHAM. 



1. Notice of the Louisville and Shippingsport canal and of the ge- 
ology of the vicinity. (With plates, sections, etc.) — Am. Jour, of Sci., 
(1) XIV, pp. 65^, 1828. 

2. Observations of the primitive and other boulders of Ohio, by Da- 
rius and Increase A. Lapham.~Id., (1) XXII, pp. 300303, 1882. 

3. Miscellaneous observations on the geology of Ohio. — State Docu- 
ments of Ohio, p. 31, 1837. 

4. On the existence of certain lacustrine deposits in the vicinity of 
the great lakes, usually confounded with the '*drift.*' — American Jour- 
nal of Science, (1) XXXII, pp. 90-94, 1837. 

5. Catalogue of plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukee, Wiscon- 
sin Territory. Milwaukee, 23 pp., 1838. 

6. Documentary history of the Milwaukee and Rock River canal. 
Milwaukee, 151 pp., 1840. 

7. Report on the commerce of the town of Milwaukee, and naviga- 
tion of Lake Michigan. 1842. (Pamphlet.) 

8. A geographical and topographical description of Wisconsin, with 
brief sketches of its history, geology, mineralogy, natural history, popu- 
lation, soil, productions, government, antiquities, etc., etc; Milwaukee: 
P. G. Hale, 1844, 255 pp.; 2d ed., improved, with map, 208 pp., 1846. 

9. Statement of elevation of Wisconsin. — American Journal of Sci- 
ence, (1) XLVI, pp. 258-260, 1844. 

10. Communication to Governor Dewey on the subject of a state peni- 
tentiary .--Journal of Wisconsin Assembly, pp. 682-687, 1849. 

11. (Catalogue of) Plants of Wisconsin.— Proceedings of American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 19-62, 1849. 

12. Wisconsin ; her topographical features, and general adaptation for 
agriculture. — Northwestern Journal of Education, Science and General 
Literature, I, pp. 46-49, 1850. 

13. Meteorology.— Ibid., pp. 117122. 

14. On the geology of the southeastern portion of the state of Wis- 
consin, being the part not surveyed by the United States geologists. — 
Bsport on the Geology of the Lake Superior land district, by J. W. 
Foster and J. D. Whitney, Part 2. Washington, pp. 167-173, 1851. 



36 The American Gcoloyinf. January, liA4 

15. CommunicatioD in regard to state cabinet.— "Meteorological De- 
partment, etc. (Pamphlet), November, 1851. 

16. Geological formation of Wisconsin. — Transactions, Wisconsin State 
Agricultural Society, I, pp. 122-128, 1851. 

17. A systematic catalogue of the animals of Wisconsin, prepared for 
the use of the University of Wisconsin. — Fourth Annual Beport, Board 
of Regents of the University of Wisconsin, pp. 43-56, 1851. 

18. Meteorological observations made at Milwaukee.— Transactions, 
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, I, p. 306, 1851; II, p. 449, 1852. 
Also in American Almanac, p. 102, 1852. 

19. Fauna and flora of Wisconsin.— Transactions, WlEconsin State Ag- 
ricultural Society. II, pp. 337-419, 185*2. 

20. The grasses of Wisconsin and adjacent states. Plates.— Id., IV 
pp. 397488, 1855. 

21. The forest trees of Wisconsin. — Id., IV, pp. 195<251, 1855. 

22. The antiquities of Wisconsin as surveyed and described by I. A. 
Lapham, on behalf of the American antiquarian society. 55 plates. Wash- 
ington, xii-|-108 pp. — Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1855. 

23. The native, naturalized and cultivated grasses of the state of 
Illinois. Plates. — Transactions, Illinois State Agricultural Society, II, 
pp. 551-609, 1856-57. 

24. Catalogue of the plants of the state of Illinois. — Ibid., pp. 492 550. 

25. On the public land surveys, and the latitude and longitude of 
places in Wisconsin. — Wisconsin Historical Collections, IV, pp. 359-363, 
1857-58. 

26. On the man-shaped mounds of Wisconsin.— Ibid.,pp. 365-368,1857- 
1858. 

27. The Penokee iron range. Map.— Transactions, Wisconsin State 
Agricultural Society, V, pp. 391-400, 1858-59. 

28. Additions to the flora of Wisconsin. By I. A. Liapham and T. J. 
Hale.— Ibid., pp. 417-424, 1858-59. 

29. Farm drainage.— Bulletin of the Wisconsin Agricultural and Me- 
chanical Association, pp. 11-16, 1860. 

30. Report to the directors of the Wisconsin and Lake Superior Min- 
ing and Smelting Co.— In the ** Penokee Iron Range of Lake Superior.*' 
Map. Milwaukee, pp. 22-37, 1860. 

31. Discovery of Devonian rooks and fossils in Wisconsin. — Am. Jour. 
Sci., (2) XXIX, 145, 1860. 

82. Lapham family records. (Tabular pedigree.) Milwaukee, sheet 
form, 1864. 

33. Addresses of the Hon. I. A. Lapham, LL.D., and Hon. Edward 
Salomon, at the dedication of the rooms in the south wing of the capi- 
tol for the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Wednesday evening, 
Jan. 24, 1866. 31 pp.. Madison, 1866. 

34. Statistics, exhibiting the history, climate and productions of the 
state of Wisconsin. Published by order of the Legislature. Map. Madi- 
son, Wis., 32 pp., 1867. 

35. On the climate of the country bordering on the great North 




American lakes.— Transactions, Chicago Academy of Science, I. Part 1. 
pp. 584)0, 1867. 

36. Report on the disastrous effects of the destruction of forest trees 
now going on so rapidly in the state of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham, 
J. G. Knapp and H. Crocker. Madison, 104 pp., 18G7. 

37. Memorial to Congress showing the necessity of storm predictions 
for the benefit of commerce, and how they could be secured (with other 
papers). — House Miscell. Docs., 2d Sess., 41st Congress, No. 10, 1869-70. 

38. Meteorological observations. With map, showing the origin and 
progress of the storm of March 14-17, 1850, and that it might have been 
known on the lakes a whole day before it reached them. — The Bureau 
(Chicago). I, January, 1870. 

39. Paper on the number, locality and times of removal of the Indians 
of Wisconsin; with an appendix containing a complete chronology of 
Wisconsin, from earliest times — to 1848. By I. A. Lapham, Levi Blos- 
som and George G. Dousman. Milwaukee, 27 pp., 1870. 

40. On the classification of plants. — ^Transactions, Wisconsin Academy 
of Sciences, Arts and Letters, I, pp. 102-109, 1870-72. 

41. Additional fragments of the Wisconsin meteorites. — American 
Journal of Science. (3) III, 69, 1872. 

42. Atmospheric electricity.— Annual Report of the Chief Signal Offi- 
cer, pp. 65-67, 1871. 

43. American railroad time. (Pamphlet.) 1872. 

44. The great tires of 1871 in the Northwest. — Annual Report of the 
Chief Signal OfHoer, pp. 186-189, 1872. 

45. List of the great storms, hurricanes and tornadoes of the United 
States.— Ibid., pp. 190 205. 

46. On the relations of the Wisconsin geological survey to agriculture. 
— Transactions, Wisconsin Agricultural Society, XII, pp. 207-210, 1873-74. 

47. Wisconsin geological survey. Report of progress and results for 
the year 1873.— G^Iogy of Wisconsin, II, pp. 5-44, 1878-1879. * The same 
for 1874. Ibid., 44-66. 

48. Our great fresh-water lakes.— Lakeside Monthly, XI, pp. 165-169 
1874. 

49. Catalogue of the plants of Minnesota. Extract from the report 
of the State Horticultural Society for 1875. St. Paul, 32 pp., 1875. 

50. Oconomowoo lake, and other small lakes of Wisconsin, considered 
with reference to their capacity for fish production.— Transact ions, Wis- 
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, Letters, III, pp. 31-36, 1875-76. 

51. The law of embryonic development the same in plants as in^animals. 
Reprint from the American Naturalist, IX, 4 pp., 1875. Also in Trans- 
actions, Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, III, pp. 110- 
113, 1875-76. 

52. Annual address before the Old Settlers* Club of Milwaukee county, 
10 pp., January, 1875. 

53. Geology (of Wisconsin.) Walling's Atlas of Wisconsin, pp. 16-19, 
1876. 



S8 The American Geologist. JuiDBrr. i*»* 

Dr. I j;>h»«~ «ai a prollfia writer tor ths prfiH, and Tor enoyolopiedlo pobUoatioiia. 

Ona or hb nrllMt Biticln wa> On Farmen' LlbraHw, in Tht duMricati Farmer, IKtZ: 

maaU>»t on Asricnltara Id Ohio, in the Gene»ee Farmtr. 1833; in tt» Uihoaulcte 3enti- 

lul tor Sapt. 3, 1818, he had an important uticle oa DlHoTenota Tide in Lake Hlehi. 

b: Omaxli^LntaVlKOBaiB.aiApplctim't American Enrvclopadia (lSlB.l»a) «» 

him. written at tha reqneat of Gonrnor Haney ; in Tha Chicago Tribunt, 1873, he 

Dt* on Snppond SnbtonBneao Bodtcob of the Watan of Che Great Lakea ; in the 

itmmkw RtptUiiican. March 1, 18S2. he wrote of Tbe Geologr ot Waokssha. TheK 

■ nnp ot Milwaukee, Unt iHBoeii in 1345, was pabliabsd annnBllj until lasi ; hit map 
theitate,firatiHaedinlg4S, waarecnbiiahediD 18U, 1BG3, 18H and 1817. He pnb- 
hsd a iBOlnKical map ot Wiaoonnln in ISU and 1B88 ; and the state map In tbe Legria- 
iin Uanaal*. im.73, wa* bia wurk. 



ON THE MODE OF OCCURRENCE, AND THE 

STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF 

TRIARTHRUS BECKI.* 

BjC. E, Bbbchu. New HBTen.Cunn. 

The presence of antennee and other appendaKCB on a trilo- 
ite from the Utica Slate was announced in May, 1893, by W, 
. Matthew. t The specimens were discovered by W. S. Val- 
.nt,J near Borne, New York, where they occur in a fine- 
rained carbonaceous shale. It was npparent that specimcne 
reserving organs bo delicate aa antenna? ought to show, in 
Idition, other anatomical features which would be of great 
jsistance in determining the zoological position of the Tril- 
')ita. With this object in view, and with the assistance of 
rof. Marsh, a collection was made for the Yale Univer- 
ty Museum. From this material, it ie hoped that the re 
aining details in the structure of this important fossil may 
B made out. The preliminary examination of the specimens 
lows a number of new and remarkable structural features, 
>me of which will be briefly noticed here. It was also possible 
)r the writer to miike observations in the field, which fur- 



t'H>n AnteDDFB and other Appendages of Triartbrus Beokii." Bead 
ifore the N. Y. Academy of SoienceB. May, 1893. Published in Ameri- 
lU Journal o( Science, vol. ilvi, pp. 121125, August, 1893. 
JAf r. Valiuit informa me that he found the first apecimen showing 
itVDUffi in 1B84, but it was not until 1892 that other specimens were 
•tained by him and H. Sid. Mitchell fully establishing the discovery, 
se specimena sent to Columbia college were collected by W. S. Valiant 
Kutgere college. 



Triarthrus Becki. — Beecher. 39 

nish interesting facts as to the mode of occurrence, and to the 
habits of the trilobite. 

In their present condition, the specimens contain very lit- 
tle calcite matter, and nearly the entire calcareous and 
chitinous portions of the animal are represented by a thin film 
of iron pyrite. To this kind of fossilization is doubtless due 
the preservation of delicate organs and structures, which oth- 
erwise would have been destroyed. For, as is well known, pyr- 
ite may replace such organic tissues as chitine or even soft 
dermal structures, the change occurring by the slow decom- 
position of these tissues in the presence of iron sulphate in 
solution, or from the action of hydrogen sulphide as a result 
of decomposition in a chalybeate water. 

From the mode of occurrence of the specimens, it is evident 
that some physical change of a rather sudden nature must be 
inferred to explain the facts. This is shown from the follow- 
ing considerations : ( 1 ) their restricted vertical distribution ; 
(2) nearly all specimens are complete and preserve their ap- 
pendages; (8) they are of all ages, from larval forms up to 
full-grown individuals; (4) the rock has a characteristic 
structure and composition; and (5) the adjacent strata con- 
tain a rather sparse fauna in which the trilobites are gener- 
ally fragmentary, or usually without appendages. 

It does not require a violent catastrophe to account for 
these peculiarities, and, as in the case of the recent destruc- 
tion of the tile fish off the eastern coast of the United States, 
it is possible that a temporary change in the direction of an 
ocean current, with the consequent variation of temperature, 
would be amply sufficient. Just what occurred in the present 
instance has not been determined. Throughout the trilobite- 
bearing rocks generally, young and larval forms are extremely 
rare, while, of full-grown examples, fragments are the rule and 
entire specimens the exception. Therefore, it is believed that 
the remains commonly found represent sheddings or moults, 
and not in each case the death of a separate individual. In 
the present material, however, the almost invariable perfection 
of the specimens precludes this view. Moreover, the append- 
ages are apparently in the position held in life, and not such 
as obtain in the cast-ofi' shells of recent Crustacea. 

Another feature noticed in the field is that the specimens 



40 Th(t Ainvrirati Geobujist. Janaair. Hi'4 

neurlv all lie with the back down. The same thinp; has been 
observed by other ii»vestip»tors, and has been aecoiinted for 
b}- the assumptif»n, that in beinp^ drifted about alonj? the bot- 
tom, sueh a position would be assumed from the center of 
j^ravity beinj^ on tlie convex side. This idea does not seem 
tenable, because, while on their backs, the trilobites would be 
most easily rocked bv the currents of water, and eventually 
be turned over or dismembered. A further explanation has 
been offered by Hicks and accepted by Walcott,* to the etfect 
that trilobites probably lived with the ventral side down, 
and the accumulation of gases in the viscera during decompo- 
sition was suttlcient to overturn the animal and allow it to be 
buried by the deposition of sediments in the position now 
found. This theory, also, does not meet the facts as here ob- 
served, for in turning over a dead and limp animal provided 
with long and slender antennie, delicate jointed legs, and 
fringed appendages, the legs would be either folded under the 
carapace on one side, or displaced from their natural position. 
But, as has been already noticed, the present material gener- 
ally shows the legs extended on both sides of the body and 
the antenna* in a very life-like position. (Plate iii, figures 3-7.) 
It seems most probable that trilobites could both swim 
freely and crawl along the bottom, and that, on dying, they 
coiled themselves up in the same manner as the recent iso- 
pods. Then upon unrolling they would necessarily lie on 
their backs. Even if they did not coil up, any swimming 
animal having a boat-shaped form would settle downward 
through the water with the concave side up. 

The definite structure of the legs of Triurthrtis is now for 
the first time clearlv shown, and is of much interest. Further- 
more a difference can be seen in the appendages of the pygid- 
ium, thorax, and cephalon. Those of the caudal region 
overlap eacli other, and are furnished with very long hairs, 
or seta*. The appendages of the head include the antenna* 
and the mouth parts, the latter consisting of the mandibles 
and maxilhe bearing palps and seta\ 

The legs of the thorax have been worked (uit in detail, and 

*The Trilobite: new and old evidence relating to ite orgaDizatioD. 
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zo6logy, vol. viii. No. 10, 1881. 



Trfai'thnts Jierkt\ — litrrhcr, 41 

are sliowii on Plate iii, figures ?<, 0. No essential ditlerenees 
have been observed in the series attached to the free sejr- 
ment'^. Each segment ])ears a pair of bi famous api)enchiges, 
originating at the sides of the axis, as in other trilobites 
(Waleott, /. r.). The anterior legs are the longest and the 
others gradually become shorter towards the pvgidiuni. 
Th(»se which are here taken for descri])tion are the legs of 
the second and third free thoracic segments. The entire 
length of the legs has been exposed from the dorsal side, by 
removing the overlying pleura* of the thorax, which concealed 
nearly half theif length. Each limb consists of two nearly- 
equal members, one of which was evidently used for crawling 
and the other for swimming. These two members and their 
joints ma}'' be correlated with certain typical forms of crusta- 
cean legs among the Schizopoda, Cumacett, and, Decnpoda^ 
and may be described in the same terms. Therefore each 
limb is composed of a stem, or shaft, with an outer branch 
(exopodite), and an inner branch (endopodite). Plate in, 
figure 9, shows the joints of the stem (6, 7), the exopodite 
(fj\, 1 and 2), and the endopodite (ew, 1-5). The precise 
form of the coxal joint of the stem (coxopodite) has not yet 
been clearly made out. It is followed by a broad joint about 
twice as long as wide, which may be referred to the protopo- 
dite. 

The endopodite (figure 9, vn) was the member used for 
crawling, as in the Sc/tizopoda. The three proximal joints 
(5, 4, 3) are similar in form to 6, and taper gradually out- 
wards. The distal portion is completed by two slender cylin- 
drical joints (2, 1), the latter bearing at its extremity short 
seta*, or bristles, of which three are commonly to be seen. 

The other member, the exopodite {('-*'), lies over the endop- 
odite. It apparently articulates with the protopodite, but 
may spring from what is here referred to the coxopodite, as 
its basal portion is very broad and originates close to the 
articulation of the protopodite with the coxal joint. The 
proximal joint of the exopodite (2) is somewhat arched and 
tapers rapidly. It extends to the ends of the pleura*, and is 
the longest joint of either branch. The posterior edge is 
finely denticulate, and -carries a row of long seta*. The distal 
portion (1) is raultiarticulate, being composed of ten or more 



42 The American Geologist Janoanr, 18M 

Joints. In general form, it is Hlightly crescentic, with the 
margins thickened, the anterior one being strongly crenu- 
lated. Long setie extend posteriorly from the crenulations 
on the dorsal side of the leg, making a conspicuous fringe 
along the distal half of the exopodite. 

Plate HI, figure 7, represents a dorsal view of Triarthrug^ 
hecki^ showing the antenna* and the exposed portions .of the 
appendages. The antennae and legs on the right side are 
drawn from one specimen, and the legs on the left side are as 
shown in another individuaL The biramous character of the 
entire series of thoracic legs is very evident, as is also the 
distinction between the crawling and swimming members. 
Figure 8 shows the right second and third legs of the free 
thoracic segments. In figure 9, the upper exopodite is rep- 
resented without seta*, s(» as to bring out the structure in 
greater detail. On the lower leg, the seta? are shown. 

The antenna* are iibout as long as the head, and are com- 
posed of short conical Joints. They usually occur in the po- 
sition shown in figures 6 and 7, but occasionally lie close to 
the margin, figures 3 and 4, and sometimes curve backwards 
over the head, as in figure 6. 

» 

It is not necessary in this place to describe in detail the de- 
velopment of Tviarthrus litcki^ but attention may be called to 
two early larval forms. The youngest is shown on Plate iii^ 
figure 1, and may be compared with the first segmented stage, 
figure 2, and with the adult, figure 7. At this early stage, the 
animal is less than one millimeter in length (.68 mm.), and 
has no distinct separation into parts. The division into a 
cephalic and a caudal region is indicated by a transverse groove, 
but as yet the body si^gments are undeveloped. After the sep- 
aration of the head and pygidium, the thoracic segments are 
intnKluced successively between the head and abdomen until 
the full number is reached, and the animal measures from 10 
t4» 65 millimeters in length. The segmented stages have been 
d<'M*r]lH'd fully by Walcott,* and an outline figure of the stage 
with one thoracic segment is given in figure 2. 

Thi* final conclusions to be reached from a complete study 
of th«' development and structure of these animals can only as 
y«'t Ik* surmised. It is quite evident, however, that they are 
^TranMiciiona Albany Institute, vol. t. 




Tm Ahhicam GaoLOOiflT. 



Vol. XIU. Plats III. 




False Bedding in Stratified Drift Deposits. — Spurr. 48 

related to the true Crustacea. The Trilobita are shown to be 
a primitive type in (1) their multiple segmentation, (2) the 
irregular number of thoracic legs, and (8) the biramous 
structure of the legs. They therefore present characters 
common to the Entomostraca and Malacostraca, 

EXPLANATION OP PLATE. 
Triabthbub Beck I Qreen. 

Figure 1.— Dorsal yiew of larva, z 28. 

Figure 2.~DorBal view of young individual, with one free thoracic seg- 
ment. (After Waloott.) 

Figure 3.— Cephalon with antennaD nearly at right angles to axis. The 
thorax and pygidium are omitted in figures 3-6. The fig- 
ures are enlarged 3--5 diameters. 

Figure 4.— Oephalon with antenn® bent outwards and backwards. 

Figure 5.~-Cephalon with shgbtly diverging antennsB directed forward 
— the usual position in the msjority of specimens. 

Figure 6.— Cephalon with antennas curving backward between the eyes. 

Figure 7. — Dorsal view; showing antennsB and crawling and swimming 
legs, z 3. The legs on the left side are taken from a 
smaller specimen and are enlarged 6 diameters. 

Figure 8.— Appendasfes attached to right side of second and third tho- 
racic segments; taken from another specimen. 

Figure 9.— The same; with setae omitted from II, to show details of 
structure; ex, ezopodite; en, endopodite. The setae ar» 
represented on III, z 12. 



FALSE BEDDING IN STRATIFIED DRIFT 

DEPOSITS.* 

Bj J. E. Spmui, GlonoMter, Mass. 

The rule has been generally accepted that whenever in 
Htratiiied deposits persistent layers differing decidedly in 
structure are found to alternate regularly, then the plane of 
these layers is to be regarded as the actual plane of deposi- 
tion, that is, approximately parallel to the surface of the water 
in which the sedimentation took place. The layers in cross- 
bedded structure, which are restricted, both as regards thick- 
ness and lateral extent, do not, of course, come under this 
rule. 

^Published by permission of N. H. Winchell, State Geologist of Min- 
nesota. 






44 The American Geoloffist. Jannary, 1894 

It is possible, however, that sueeessive layers of eoarse and 
of fine sediment may be prodnoed at a very ^reat anj^le .with 
the actual bedding plane, and with the surface of the water. 
This false bedding is f<u'nw'd under peculiar circumstances: 
and the first condition is identical with that necessary for the 
true bedding whi<'h it simulat<'s, namely, dej)osition in a cur- 
rent. But in the true bedding, in order to produce alternat- 
ing deposits, ditterinj; in size of material, a current of vary- 
ing speed is required; while the false bedding is well-formed 
only in a current of nearly constant velocity. 

In St. Louis county, northeastern Minnesota, about two 
miles south of Iron Junction on the Duluth, Missabedr North- 
ern railroad, a cut in a level plain of sand and gravel shows a 
section a hundred yards long and fifteen or twent}' feet high. 
The stratification appears to be well marked. At a distance, 
the layers are seen to dip steeply north ; and even within a 
few yards this seems to be the true bedding, marked through- 
out the greater part of the secticm. Indeed, were it not for 
the peculiarity of such stratification in drift deposits, it 
might be passed by without suspicion. Close inspection re- 
veals in places the real lines of stratification, often faint and 
sometimes difficult to distinguish. These are, in their gen- 
eral course, nearly horizontal, and their outline is that char- 
acteristic of ripple-marks. 

Ripple-marks are often seen in the sandy bottom of shallow 
streams. As has often been pointed out, they present a mod- 
erately sloping surface, as that of greatest resistance, to the 
current ; while the leeward side is steep. It was in a shallow 
glacial stream, therefore, that this deposit was laid down. 

When it was formed the precipitation of sediment was 
going on rapidly. Thus the material, once formed into ripple- 
marks, was not disturbed and rearranged for the slow forward 
movement of the ridge with the current, as in regions of slow- 
deposition ; but was quickly covercnl up with new layers. 
Yet the deposition was not so rapid but that the surface al- 
ways preserved the ripple-marked structure. 

As each fresh Iwyi^v was deposited upon the bottom, tlie 
most of it came to rest on the steeper, or sheltered, side of the 
ripple-marks. Thus, in the figure, if the original surface be 
represented by «, the new la3'er will assume the position ^, the 



Faise Beddhuj in Slraffjieff Drift Deposits. — Spvrr. 45 




FxO( l.—a, b, r, Saccessive ripple-marked layen of sediment. Scale, one inch to a foot 

third c, and flo on. Thus, every point of the ripple- mark 
moves onward and upward, at an an^le with the bottom de- 
pending upon the velocity of the current and the rate of dep- 
osition, — in this case about forty dej^rees. The dotted lines 
represent the direction of this upward advance. 

As the materials varied in point of size and weight, the 
larger fragments generally came to rest in the trough on the 
leeward side of the ripple-mark, that being the position where, 
owing to the shelter of the ridge, the current exerted least 
force. This happened with every fresh ripple-marked sur- 
face, and this trough (represented by -I in the diagram), 
moving onward and upward, formed the layers of coarse ma- 
terial, which alternate with the finer sand of the gently slop- 
ing side of the ridge. Often these layers extend ten or twelve 
feet with perfect regularity. The real bedding, when not ob- 
scured, might easily be mistaken for a minor cross-bedding. 

What material was deposited on the gently sloping side of 
the ridges was more exposed to the pressure of the current 
than that accumulated to the leeward ; and the deposition be- 
ing slower there, it was exposed much longer. Thus it became 
firmly packed. When laid open to the weather, as in this 
cut, these layers stand out ridgewise, while the looser and 
more rapidly formed parts are worn away. This hightens the 
deceptive appearance of stratification. 

The process of accumulation is explained in figure 2, a dia- 
gram made from a sketch. The ripple-mark may be divided 
into three separate portions, where by accumulation are 
formed three distinct layers in the false bedding: A, the 
hollow immediately in the lee of the steep side, in which ac- 



46 The American Oentogiit. JaDnarr.iaet 

cumulate many large pebbles, finer gravel and loose sand ; B. 
the forward part of the gently eloping side of the ridge, 
which mainly receives the pressure of the current and accu- 
mulates a layer of firmly packed sand ; and C, the upper part 
of the steep side, where coarse fragments, on account of their 
weight, do not lodge, and where the force of the current is 
little felt. This last forms the layers of loose sand. There is 
often a fourth division, lying between A and H. This posi- 
tion receives but sparingly the coarser fragments: and it is 
somewhat protected from the force of the current. The re- 
sult is I), a layer of loose sand and fine gravel, nearly like ('. 



Fia. "L—A, CoBTBA f raTel. fi. (.'ompaot und. C. Loose HDrl. D. Loon mnd vitli 
■omeBrmTel. 8cBla,(iDelDah ton tooL 

The analysis of this structure gives some clue to the con- 
ditions under which the deponii was laid down. It was in 
shallow water, and the current was approximately constant, 
both in its velocity, as is shown by the considerable extent 
of these false layers of coarwe material (for if the velocity 
should change the material would also change, and so dcstr<)y 
the semblance of a layer), and in its direction (from thi- 
north), as is shown by the regular and unvarying form of the 
ripple-marks. The velocity may be cwtimatcd from the size 
of the pebbles in the coarse layers. Tlic stream was able to 
move these along on the gently inclined slopes, but was un- 
able to do so when they were in a place where the force of 
the current was slightly warded ntT. Thuw the size of the 
larger fragments marks the limit of the carrying power of the 
water. 

The average size of these larger fragments may be estimated 
as between two and two and a half inches in diameter. Acord- 



Vertebrate Palmontoloyy, — Eyerman, 47 

ing to the tabulation of Mr. David Stevenson,* a current of 
three feet per second, or 2.145 miles per hour, suffices to 
«weep along pebbles the size of an figg. Thus we know that 
the bottom current was upwards of two miles per hour. 

It would be far-fetc«hed to attempt to apply the principle 
here dwelt upon to the wolidified rocks. Yet in the case de- 
scribed the appearance is so deceptive that it emphasizes the 
danger of the hasty application of rules, without a study of 
each individual case. 



VERTEBRATE PAL/EONTOLOGY AT THE CO- 
LUMBIAN EXPOSITION; A BRIEF NOTICE. 

B7 John Etbrmam, F. Z. 8., F. G. B. A., Kaston, Pa. 

Vertebrate pala?ontology in the Mines and Mining building 
was represented by a few and (with the exception of th6 
New South Wales exhibit) small and isolated collections. 
The best exhibit by far, and, in fact, the only one worthy of 
notice, is in the New South Wales section ; in fact, it would 
not be an exaggeration to say that, apart from the fossils, this 
section, irepresenting principally, as it does, the mineral in- 
dustry of that colony, is unquestionably the best and most 
interesting in the building. 

In this country's exhibit there is a remarkably good collec- 
tion of fossil fish from the Ilawkesbury beds of the Mesozoic, 
which beds are characterized by the absence of the vertebral 
centra in the fossils, and, according to Woodward,f are homo- 
taxial with the Keuper or perhaps the Rha»tic. Woodward's 
new Dipnoi genus GosfonUa\ truttcatu is here shown by sev- 
eral good specimens. Of the ganoids there are a number of 
specimens of Pn'sfisomus graciit\s, several of J*, iafits and one 
of P. crnssuif, several of Dictyttpyge symmetrica^ Clithrolepia 
yrauufatHS, Pelfopleurns duhiiis^ Belonorhyuchus (jrncilh^ ^fyr- 
iolepist sp., and a new genus Apafolepin ausfraifs Wood. 

In the Japanese section, a good specimen of a teleostean is 
represented by a new species of Lenciscus, This individual 

^Quoted ia Eocycl. Brit., Art. Geology. 

tMem. Geol. Sur. N. S. W., No. 4, Pal., pp. 55, pi., Sydney, 1890. 

{Named from the locality, Goeford. 



» 



48 Thf. Aincn'rft/i (ieohnjist, January* 1804 

(minus the head in this specimen) measures about 130 mms., 
and eomes from Yawataura Iki. Brazil also had a small col- 
lection from Ceara. 

In the Mammalia, New South Wales exhibited a collection 
of marsupials. In the annex to this country's exhibit, on the 
west side and directly across the aisle from the main exhibit, 
there were some fine casts of the mandible, femur, pelvic gir- 
dle, etc., of Di'profodfffi attsfrf(h'.s, the only species of this ex- 
tinct family at present known and the largest of the entire 
Marsupialia. Locality: Pleistocene, near Myall creek, Bin- 
gera. The pelvic girdle shows the so-called marsupial hones ex- 
tending upward from the symphysis. In the catalogue there 
' are no less than 113 specimens of various parts of Murrt^pitn 
(Kangaroo), Nototherium (which is similar in many re- 
spects to Di'profodoft), Thijldcimts (Tasmanian wolf), Thyln- 
iUfho (Phalangers), Phasroloniyit (wombat) and Savroplnlus. 

In the Brazilian exhibit there were bones of the }fn»toffoH 
and Mcyafherhnn (imrriratnau from Bahia, and of Mantoihpn 
from Ceara, and the Japanese section exhibits teeth of Klv- 
phas prhiiifjetifuit. 

Besides these, there are restorations and casts in the Tnited 
States (Jovernment building and more particularly in the 
Anthropological, as well as photographs and a few casts in 
the Mining and in the galleries of the Liberal Arts buildings. 
It is to be regretted that the casts of some of the most re- 
markable species in our extinct mammalian and reptilian 
faunas were not exhibited. 



EDITORIAL COMMENT. 



The CoLi'MBiAN Extosition. 

.1 hftnty (jhtnve taken in Attytt.Hf^ ISihS, at the ores of the noffle 
antl nsefiil ntftafs in the Mines and M inintj hnilitinij, 

(Continued.) 

FoREKiN C'OI'NTKIES. 

Bolivia. 
Bolivia is not mentioned in the official catalogue consulted 
by the writer, but contains in the 20 feet scjuare allotted to 



Editorial Com men f, 49 

her as much of interest as many countries which enjoy that 
distinction. 

Among other exhibits are cases of lead (probably argentif- 
erous), but without labels specifying the localities. Bot- 
tles containing mineral salts, borax, etc., barks and woods, 
with an ornamental table of inlaid woods, representing vari- 
ous musical instruments, India rubber plants and articles 
made of crude rubber were grouped together without system. 
Piles of rocks w^ith frequent opal are backed by paintings of 
the park at Cochabamba and a full length portrait of Bol- 
. ivar (?). 

Chile. 

The exhibit from this country is almost exclusively of 
nitrates and illustrates that industry well, but of her impor- 
tant and rich mines of the precious metals there is not a trace. 
It is unfortunate that this is the case, and more so if the cause 
be the recently strained relations between Chile and the 
United States. 

ECLADOU. 

About 20 feet square is occupied by this republic, and has 
for background maps of Guayaquil and Quito. On the north- 
west corner are books descriptive of gold mining in Ecuador, 
placer mining of the Playa de Oro Mining Co., and of the 
('odigo de Mineria de la Republica de Ecuador, Quito, 188(). 
A chain of gold nuggets. The Esmeralda and Angostura 
placer mines. Silver mines Pilzum, Caflar ores and minerals 
with a map. In the southwest corner are ores from the Playa 
de Oro silver mines. Pilzhun ornamental, decorative stone 
and coal, and various salts. Masses of sulphur. In the 
center is a heterogeneous mass of rocks, ores, and building 
stones. This exhibit is also omitted from the above mentioned 
otficial catalogue. 

■ 

Brazil. 

Brazil, whose exhibit exists in spite of the oversight of Mr. 
F. J. V. Skiff and Moses Ilandy, attracts the attention of the 
visitor by a triple column of gilded cubes representing gold, and 
showing the little profit in the mining of 4(5.55 tonsof gold from 
the Minas Geraes. The expenditures were 31.49 tons, and the 



60 The American Geologist. January, 18M 

A 

profit 15.06 tons. Another pyramid of gilt boards represents 
the value of the product of Minas Geraes from 1720 to 1820 
as .$303,080,000. 

Lignites and coals from Rio Grande do Sul ; building-stones, 
crystallized minerals and copper ores from Minas Geraes; 
bombs of siliceous iron ore, pyrrhotite and various samples of 
iron ore, also from Minas Geraes; also a fine geode of quartz 
crystals. 

The material is insufficient and compares badly with the 
mineral exhibit of this state at the Philadelphia Centennial 
in 1876. It is without scientific arrangement. Dr. Motts is 
the commissioner of minerals in charge. 

France and French Colonies. 

Rhodochrositc and carbonates of manganese from Las 
Carknes, near St. Girar ( Aricge) ; large and handsome speci- 
mens of calamine and galena (Camarsal). 

New Caledonia nickel ores and products (cobalt and nickel 
make another exhibit in the Tonkin pavilion) exhibited by 
the society "Le Nickel" ; asphalt works at Seyssel ; bitumi- 
nous limestone; photographs of the process of paving the 
streets of Paris with it. 

In the French Colony exhibit in the pavilion dedicated to i 

Annam, are cobalt ore from New Caledonia, a jar of small 
cubes of nickel, one jar of pure nickel oxides and nickel cast- 
ings exibited by the society "Le Nickel," 13 Rue Lafayette, 
Paris; also bituminous coal from New Caledonia. 

Germany. 

The most prominent object in the German department is the 
splendid exhibit of steel rails in the form of a pyramid by 
Stumm Bros., of Neunkirchen, and Randolph Rocking, of Hal- 
bergerhatte, with an artistic bronze figure in the center, with 
bronze figures of miner and f urnaceman at the base. A case of 
the tests of the product is at the side, and contains beautiful 
sections. An admirable display of washed and crude ores 
with sweat apparatus and cold bending test; oligistes hema- 
tites and specimens of iron fractures. 

Permanent stone huddle of the Humboldt Co., near Cologne ; 
cases of gems and of amber, and chemical manufactures. For 
background a picture containing the Bay of Naples, offices in 




Editorial Comment, 51 

Frankfort on Main, and smelting works in Spain. The ores 
and methods employed at Clausthal and Freiberg, and espe- 
cially the latter, are conspicuous by their absence. 

Among the most notable objects exhibited by the German 
government are hand specimens of ores from the upper Harz 
veins, and of the lower Harz (Rammelsberg) deposits; rea- 
gents, middle and end products of the lead works of the 
upper and lower Harz ; ore, middle and end products of the 
smelting works at Oker; specimens from the royal 
Friederichs mine ; middle and finished products of the royal 
Friederichs smelting works; pyramid of gangue, iron ores 
and Spiegel iron ; specimens of pig and spiegel iron ; new ana- 
lytical method for the quicker separation of iron, manganese, 
cobalt, copper, aluminum, chromium, et-c. 

Grrat Bkitain and her Colonies. 

Antimony ore from Dumfriesshire, Scotland; arsenical 
pyrites from New Cook's Kitchen and Levant mines, Corn- 
wall and Devon Great Consols mine ; cobalt from Foel Herad- 
dug mine, North Wales; copper ore from Corriston, Lan- 
cashire; gold ore and auriferous quartz from the Morgan 
gold mine. North Wales; iron ore from Gillfoot E^rk Mining 
(^o., Egremont, Midland Co.'s mines at Frodingham, Lincoln- 
shire, Park iron ore mines, Hodbarrow Mining Co., Winford, 
Northamptonshire and Antrim Iron Ore Co. 

Lead ore from Snailbeach mine, Shropshire, Maweton mine, 
Derbyshire; Milnor, Holywell, Flintshire, South String, Lan- 
cashire, Rushen mine. Isle of Man, East Darran mine, Cardi- 
ganshire, Old gang, Swaledale, Halkyn, Meitz Wood, Corn- 
wall, Great Laxey, Minera, Wrexam, Foxdale, Van mine, 
Llanidloes. 

Manganese ore from Benallt, Rhiw, Llyndj'wurchen, Har- 
lech (N.^ Wales), Merionethshire, Craig Uchaf, Llanbedr. 

Zinc ores from Mawston, Derbyshire, Truastell Conway ; 
Milwr Lid, Flintshire, Old Milwr shaft, Halkyn mines, 
Wrexam and Talare mines, Holywell. Blende from Moelwyn, 
Mona and Parys, Anglesea, Great Laxey, Mining Co., Lid, 
Isle of Man, Minera mine Wrexam, and Van mine, Llanidloes. 

Johnson, Matthey h Co. make a unique exhibit of the pure 
rare metals; ingots of platinum, and iridium-platinum ; 



62 The American Geologist, Jaunary, 18M 

« 
melted rhodium, electrolysing apparatus, metallic osmium ; 
ingots of palladium ; tubes and spout of platinum for sul- 
phuric acid manufacture; gold-lined platinum dishes; metal- 
lic ruthenium ; an ingot of 266 lt>s. of platinum melted by 
oxy hydrogen blowpipe. 

Indian Empire, 

Gold quartz and iron ore from Mysore, South India. 

i*ape Colony exhibit. 

Piles of "diamondiferous ground" and of bituminous coals. 
A central case of minerals, and a table of crude crocidolite. 
A large pile of copper ores. Chalcopyrite from the Otkiep 
mines, Namagua land. Electric car photographed in Kimber- 
ley. Fine specimens of asbestos. A bag of asbestos. Fibrous 
manufactured crocidolite. 

The process of extracting the diamonds from the diamond- 
bearing earth and of cutting and polishing them are illus- 
trated. 

3>*r South Wales, 

Brown hematite, coke from washed coal ; brown hematite, 
Fitz Roy mines, Mittagong; lode tin ores, Poolamacca, Bar- 
rier range: brown hematite, Blayney ; minerals of manganese, 
copper, asbestos and chrome iron ore. 

Alley Point, near Nundle, auriferous stibnite, Cudgegong, 

Pretty Gully, Lady Carrington mine. New Armidale; fine pile 

of manganese ores from Woodstock, near Coura ; limonite near 

Blayney, ('liefden Homestead; magnetite, Bowling Alley 

Point, near Nundle. The exportations from New South Wales 

here follow : 

From 1851 to 1891. 

Gold ♦ 187,758,698 

Silver and lead 54,978,3r)0 

Coal 124,195,672 

Petroleum and kerosene shale 6,885,269 

Iron 1,864,115 

Tin .' 46,300,228 

Copper 29.273,874 

Antimony 562,778 

Canada, 

Galenite from Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario; stibnite ( Kaw- 
den); sphalerite, Calumet Id., (.^ue. ; chalcopyrite, Bolton, 
Que.; bornite (Cleveland, Que.); magnetite. Queen Char- 




Editorial Comment. 58 

lotte Ids., B. C. ; Grandison, Que. ; hematite, McNab, Ont. ; 
models of the gold nuggets found in the province of Quebec. 

Besides these are splendid specimens of mica, graphite, 
gems, tourmaline, etc., and a fine series of hand specimens of 
rocks and geological maps. 
Xova Scotia, 

Gilt pyramid exhibiting the gold production to 1893, which 
has been 561,000 ounces; copper ores from Cape Breton 
county ; manganese ore from Hunts county ; brown hematite 
from Coldister county ; case of gold nuggets and gold quartz 
by the Government of Nova Scotia ; Truro Mining Co., Carri- 
boo district. 

Ontario Section, 

The exhibit of nickel ore by the Canadian Copper Co. is 
very extensive and includes masses of copper and nickel ore 
weighing respectively three, four and six tons. Samples of 
the selected copper and nickel ore are displayed on one side. 
Numerous photographs line the walls of the center pillar; 
specimens of the graded ore, as well as of the finished products, 
alloys and pure metal are seen in the show cases. The whole 
subject of the treatment of the copper-nickel pyrrhotite in 
the diorite gangue, from its mechanical sorting to its treat- 
ment in the roast pile and its extraction as matte in Besse- 
mer converters and its transformation into an alloy of about 
equal parts of copper and nickel, or the elimination of the 
copper and the resulting nickel of nearly 99 ^{^ purity, is one 
of the most interesting in the department of Mines and Min- 
ing. 

The entire exhibit, as to arrangement, labeling and mate- 
rial, is one of which its managers have every reason to feel 
proud. 
Jiritinh Colnmftia section. 

A very complete series of argentiferous galena from the Slo- 
can district; magnetic iron ore from the Kamloops district; 
zinc ore from the Burrara district; gold quartz from the Car- 
riboo district, silver lead, E. Kootenay ; mercury ore, Barclay 
Sound, V. R. ; mercury ore from Kamloops : case filled with 
lead and iron ores; gilt plaster pyramid representing in gold 
ingots the output of the gold from placer mines of British 
Columbia since 1858, i. e. $53,512,662. 



54 The American Geologist, Janaair. 1894 

Mexico. 
This exhibit occupies a large space in the southwest cor- 
ner of the Mining building. The collections are arranged 
well in 28 cases of modern and excellent construction, and on 
separate pedestals. The cases are boxes of iron with glass 
sides, about seven feet wide and fourteen feet long, on feet 
which support them about one foot from the floor. The 
shelves are of glass about ten feet long and twenty inches 
wide, and two and one-half feet between them. The ores, 
solutions, and products of the Hacienda del Progreso are 
very well displayed, except that the labels are not easily read 
and there is not enough information as to localities. Silver 
and copper from Michoacan de Ocampo. The second case on 
the south side is chiefly fllled with clays and building stones. 
The third case is fllled with minerals which unfortunately 
rest on their labels so that the latter cannot be read. In 
cases where the labels can be read they are in technical 
Spanish, not intelligible to the ordinary visitor. The fourth 
case shows argentiferous, plujiibiferous and ferriferous 
ores from the El Carmen mine. The fifth case contains 
minerals of the heavy and light metals indiscriminately. The 
sixth case contains argentiferous ore from various mines and 
much associated zinc ore. Case No. 7 contains minerals of 
the heavy and light metals. Case No. 8 has a mixed assort- 
ment of minerals and building stones. Case No. 9 contains 
building stones and days. Case No. 10 has coal from Mich- 
oacan de Ocampo. Case No. 11 contains mixed minerals and 
various grades of ores, but without explanation or descrip- 
tion. There is an elevated map of a district of Tetzicoco, 
Xochimilco and Chalco. Case No. 12 has minerals from 
Pachuca and other localities. This collection is value- 
less because the labels are displaced or covered. 
Case No. 13 has fine " exemplares minerales " of 
galena, malachite, etc., from unknown localities. Case 
No. 14 h«s galena and other ores from Durango and 
Chiapas. The copper minerals from the latter are especially 
fine; and handsome specimens of Mexican onyx. At the south- 
west end illustrated topographical and other maps of theCan- 
delaria mine, the metals produced from its ores and fifteen 
photographs. Case No. 16 has a collection of fossils, miner- 



Kditoi'kd Comment, 65 

als and photographs. Cast* No. 17 has a column of building 
stoneH. Case No. 18 contains a fine collection of silver ores 
from the Roncevellas, San Domingo, Penasquito, Todos San- 
tos and (Mnco de Mayo veins by the Batopilas Mining Co., — 
large masses of ore from the Porfirio Diaz shaft of the Esper- 
anza workings 280 feet below the tunnel. Assay value $20,000 
per ton. (^ase No. 19 has building stones, onyx slab and 
stalactites. Case No. 20 has a collection of rock specimens 
from localities not named, — opals and the matrix in which 
they occur. Case No. 21 has a column of very handsome 
building and decorative "rose garnet" stone, and a thin slab 
showing the light of an incandescent lamp through it, from 
Xalostoc, Mexico. No. 22. Slabs of Mexican onyx. No. 23. 
Slabs and veins of prettily veined onyx. No. 24. Case of 
ores, building stones and salt of Valisco. No. 25. Silica quartz 
and building stones. No. 26. Minerals, ores and rocks from 
Zacatecas. No. 27. Minerals, ores and country rock from Za- 
catecas. No. 28. Minerals and ores from the Maravillas Co, 
in Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. Le Ley, Sta. Anna, Sta. Gertrude, 
El Pebillon, El Carmen, Amistad of Concordia, and the Real 
del Monte Co. (Labels principally covered.) No. 29. Ores 
and minerals of Chihuahua and Durango. No. 30. Murdock 
& Compania, Mina del Cedral, Estacia de Baroteran, ('oa- 
huila. light yellow earth. No. 81. Sulphur ores and salt. Real 
del Monte, Pachuca; white clay ore, Puebla; white earth. 
No. 82. Puebla building stone, Michoacan. No. 88. Zacatecas 
ores and minerals. No. 84. Ores and minerals from Oaxaca, 
chiefly silver, lead and copper. No. 85. Real del Monte ores 
and country rockjblue vitriol and manganese ores; upper case, 
('hihuahua rocks and minerals. No. 86. Rocks and chalco- 
pyrite. and various minerals — no classified labels. No. 87. 
Rocks, minerals and ores, imperfectly labeled. 

Italy. 

Sulphur, building stone»s, marble, and statues of the last; 
exhibit of Vanzetti, Sagramoso k Co., of iron and steel foundry ; 
forged and foundried pieces, Milano, but no ores: piles 
of copper, tin and antimony, ingots and ores. This display 
is, in its own line, the finest in the building. A large column 
of the products of the Kerosene Oil and Mineral Company. 



56 The American Geologist. Janaaiy, 1894 

Japan. 

A case of splendid specimens of stibnite from Hyago ; a 
ease of mineral and rock specimens of small size ; stibnite, 
Loc Osboiu Igo. An interesting historical exhibit of ancient 
mining and smelting in Japan; models and drawings of the 
Anio copper mines; graphite crucibles; large mass of chalco- 
pyrite from Skiti province ; ingots of copper ; copper and brass 
wire. 

Gold and silver from the mines of Sado island, the Aikawa 
and Tsurushi mines ; stephanite and myargyrite from near 
the Innai village ; argentite from the mountains near Handa ; 
argentites with barite and galena from Karnizawa ; a mixture 
of galena, zinc blende, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and gray copper, 
called locally, "kuromono," or black ore, lies in tuff at Kosaka. 
The Towada 3fine, 

Argentites and copper pyrites in a clay and gypsum gangue 
on the west shore of lake Towada ; the Omaki silver mine of 
the red oxide from the province of Ugo; the Tsubaki mine, 
consisting of silver chlorides, in the same province ; the Kam- 
ioka mine in the town of Funatsu, produces argentiferous 
galena and chalcopyrite with zinc blende, malachite and 
chrysocolla. 

The Mozumi silver and copper mine, in Hida province, pro- 
duces argentite and galena with zinc blende, chalcopyrite, and 
pyrite. The lladasa mine, in the province of Mino, gives ar- 
gentiferous copper and galena. 

Of the copper mines, which produce the metal forming the 
chief metallurgical industry in Japan, are the Ani mine, 
which really comprises seven mines, in the province of Ugo; 
the Ashio: the Besshi ; the Arakawa : the Omodani ; the Ku- 
sakura ; the Ogoya; the Yoshioka ; the Osarusawa; the Ko- 
maki; the Kokusei; the Ose. Antimony is obtained from the 
Ichinokawa ; iron sand mines are the Neu, in the Hoki prov- 
ince and the Yoshida, in the province of Idsunio. Sulphur, 
coal and petroleum are produced in large quantities. 

The volume issued by the Director of the Mining Bureau of 
Japan, Mr. Wada Tsunashiro, is a very clear and complete 
statement of Japan's mineral wealth and the history of its de- 
velopment, and is a necessary aid to the understanding of her 
display. 




Editorial Comment, 57 



• 



KussiA. 

The floor space occupied by this exhibit is about 60'x70'. 
It was tastefully arranged and decorated with flags. One of 
the most striking objects on entering the enclosure was the 
inevitable objective presentation of the gold yield of Siberia 
and European Russia by means'of three gilt pyramids made of 
proper sizes to represent the gold mined from 1745 to 1891. 
The product of East Siberia between these 

two years was 1,097,232 kilogr. 

Western Siberia 109,990 " 

European Russia 458,844 ** 

Silver and lead ores were shown from the Sadon mine and 
the Alaghire smelting works. Zinc ores, metallic zinc and 
other products from the Dombrowa, and a few specimens of 
cinnabar and manganese ore from South Russia, also nickel 
and cobalt ; iron ores from the Nantruska and Mnda villages ; 
small specimens of magnetite from the Blagodat mine in the 
Blagodat mountain, the latter illustrated by drawings and 
models. A model is shown also of the Choroblagodotsky 
iron works. (.*ases of iron wares, thin sheet iron and other 
interesting products and tools are exhibited in connection 
with these. Handsome specimens of azurite from East 
Siberia are shown. 

The individual exhibits are good, but the arrangement, 
though pleasing to the eye, lacks some system, which would 
facilitate its study, and the labels were strikingly inadequate. 
The rock salt, petroleum product, sulphur, etc., besides the 
finely executed geological map, the latter probabl}' under the 
direction of the able ('hief Geologist Serge Nikitin, deserve at- 
tentive study and merit commendation. 

Spanish Colony ok (iba. 

About 48x60 feet was accorded to the exhibit of this coun- 
try. A collection of galena and other ores in cases and jars 
without labels were among the first objects observed; speci- 
mens from Santiago de Cuba, containing a large representa- 
tion of the Spanish American Company's ores from Yucca, 
Perseverance, Ujiion, etc. Several cases of minerals were fol- 
lowed by stands supporting large blocks of galena from the 
Arroyanas mine, province of Jaen : a model of an open retort 
furnace for mercurial ores, in wood, four feet long; iron and 



58 llie American Geologist. Janaary, 1804 

copper ores from Ponee P. R. ; coals and slates and asphalt 
from Angela Elmira, Cuba. 

Gfpld 

Is found in the mines of Ilolguin, 25 miles from the coast, in 
the Eastern Department. The miriferous zone is situated about 
^ye kilometers from the city of Holguin and runs, approxi- 
mately, northeast and southwest. The veins of the precious 
metnl dip more or less than 45 degrees, between serpentine 
rocks. They were openedby a Cuban in 1836, abandonedin 1860, 
but work on them was resumed later by Don Vicente Guillen. 
Mr. Coltman, by a very imperfect method, found four ounces 
of gold to the ton, equivalent to $70. This brilliant result was 
fully confirmed by experiments in Philadelphia and London. 
Prof. James C. Booth (of Philadelphia) report-ed that the 
metal obtained by the reduction consisted, at least in two ex- 
periments, of three parts of gold united to a white metal, 
probably iridium-osmium. Some specimens of the ore analyzed 
in Cuba gave li to 5 ounces of gold per ton. The principal 
mines are *'La Oriental,'* "Aquipada," '*La Central," "Nuevo 
Potosi," **San Juan Hantista,'' *'San Isidoro,'' ^^Holguinera," 
all contained within two leagues of terrane. 

The following description of the "San Atanasio'' mine is 
given literally in the words of the prospectus which was fur- 
nished the student of this part of ('uba's mineral wealth : 

i8l.and op cuba. 

The Golden Mines Named 

"San Atanabio." 

This Mine belonging to Mr. Martinez <t Co., is situated in the farm 
Descanno in lands of Quaracabullas village; from which place it is only 
fifteen mioutis away; in the province or state of Santa Clara, and seven 
miles to Placeias village, being this place the end of the Caibarien 
Railway-line. 

The San Atanasio Gold Mine embraces apiece of land of about more 
than twelf acres; or by Cubans measure 58,080 square yards. In grounds 
of this Mines is a large building which comprehend; Machinery build- 
ing with a compleat Wiswell Grinder, moved by a fourty horse power 
Boiler and Engine; an elevator engine; four horse power, an top of a 
well and to which engine is adapted a "Dunkey" to lift up the water. 
Besides this building it has a beautiful dwelling-house, lodgings for 
laborers and so fort; all this buildings, were made and brought from the 
United States of America having employed in their construction the 
hardest and best wood, from the above named place. 






Editorial Comment. 59 

The works, or diggens made or realized in this Mine are compoeeed, 
of tow wells, one of 125 feet deep and the other of 75 feet, connected by 
themeelf with a principal gallery only 25 feet deeponder the level of the 
ground. 

There are, distinctly to the sight, as well in the gallery as in the 
wells, different vein of ore and lines producing gold; and of one this 
lines, which runs all throug the gallery and is 12 inches wide all along is 
the piece of gold wihioh is at sight. 

From this same vein of ore, or line it has been drawed out four Tons 
of Mineral which after been melted and grinded (empirically way) and 
without any scientifical direction; — and only to trie the Engine and 
Grinder have produced four small bars of pure gold one weighing six- 
teen ounces which was sold for the price of $300 and the other is the 
piece joined to the Mineral and at sight to the public which optained 
the first primiun at the Regional Exposition of Santa Clara. 

Havana, March, 1893. Ezequiel J. de ljl Auja. 

Iron. 

Jost* RuiZjOf Leon, wus the first to "denounce'' an iron mine 
in Cuba (so says the Spanish guide book), which he did 
three or four minutes past noon on the 26th of January, 1881. 
Without the initiative of the gentleman (it adds) these rocks 
would have been forever undiscovered ! ! ! 

The first group, distant from Santiago de Cuba about six 
kilometers, is three kilometers in extent and is called Dorotea. 
It is composed of five mines entitled San Lino, San Ignaeio, 
Dorotea, S'tra S'ra, del Recreo y Criolla, with a total area of 
300 hektares. The analysis of these ores is as follows: 

Moisture 0.95 

Metallic iron C3.20 

Metallic manganese 0.90 

Silica 0.42 

The second group is that of the Sevillu and Oeafia, eight 
kilometers east of Santiago de Cuba, and six kilometers in ex- 
tent. The mines are the Rosa, Concha, Palafingell, Justieia, 
Calaboon, Doloritas, Lopez, Antoflica, Reus, San Andres, 
Joturo, Joturito. 

Various analyses of this group give the following result: 

1 2 3 

Fe GTy.U 63.50 66.04 

Mn 1.27 0..% 2.53 

AI2 Os 4.43 0.89 0.25 

Soluble silicates 10.:36 6.18 4.10 

Ignition 4.05 3,18 4.78 

Sulphur 0.06 0.27 0.27 

Phosphorus 0.03 0.33 0.20 



60 The America}^ Geologist, Jannuy, 18M 

The ( -arpintero group, distant twenty kilometers east of San- 
tiago de Cuba, and six kilometers from the sea, contains the 
mines Yuca, Grande, Pequefla, Carpintero, Yuquita, Reforma, 
Polux, Castor. 

Analyses of these ores give: 

1 2 

Fe 61.00 68.50 

Si Oa 5.00 10.50 

P 0.009 0.086 

S 0.045 0.148 

MoiBture 0.000 0.000 (?) 

This group is found 750 feet above the level of the sea. 

The cost of mining is as follows. • 

Per ton. 

Mining and placing on cars $ .95 

TraDsportation to ship 65 

Transportation by sea 1 .65 

Dutiee in the U. 8 75 

Other charges 15 

Totol coBt $4.15 

Profit per ton $1.70 

The Juragua group consists of the Abundancia, Union, Su- 
burense, Perseverancia, Jupiter, Firmeza, Vulcano, Resolucion, 
Fomento, America, ('onstancia, Empresa, Concordia. The 
mining of these ores is by open cut. 

Analysis. 

p. c. 

Si O2 1.90 

CO2 '. 0.98 

Pe.^ On 95.15 

Al.2 Os 0.55 

CaO 0.07 

MgO 0.15 

MdjOr 0.50 

S 0.07 

TiOj 0.03 

Organic matter 0.00 (?) 

This company has exported from 1884 to 1892, 1,806,505 
tons. 

The group Magdalena, or Lolas, consists of Lola, Lola 2. Bar- 
<*elona, Kesurrexit, San Antonio. 

Tlie Providencia group consists of San Rafael, La Llave, 
La Cerradura, Sta Rosa, Alfredo, Alberto, Norte. 




Editorial Comment, 61 

The group Retire and Economia comprises the San 
Jose, San Rafael, Creii de Ritas, Triangulo, Conveniencia, 
Girasol, Piano, Alianza, Constancia, Eseondida, Elvira, Elvi- 
rita, Magdalena, Mariana y Rafaela, Grafla Kubie, Carmen, 
Carlota, Sur. 

The group Gtiira y Cajobnbo. — Coneepcion, Stma Trinidad, 
Duarte, Paulina, West, Este, Pilar, Pater, Cuba, San Sebas- 
tian, Laura. 

The group lierraco containing Ave Maria, La Trinidad, La 
California y Nueva Caridad. 

Group Ubero. — Fausto, Fausto 2, Bufera, Faleonera, Clar- 
ence, King, Skilton, Delicia, Mascota, Antonia y C-arolina, 
Isabel, Ceres, Vesta. 

Group Sigua, or Awayode la Plata. — Rea, Alfeo, Awayo de 
la Plata and Avetusa. 

Group Limoncito. — San Jose and Manuelico. Mineral zone 
west of Santiago de Cuba. 

Group Nimanima. — Algeria, Boston, Philadelphia, Nueva 
Bilbao, Laffayette, Denver, Yunqiie. 

Group Cuero. — Enrique, Aragon, Picardia, Acorosait, Cald- 
well, Mina A, B, and C, Solo. 

Group Guama. — 

AnalystH of various mines: 

p. c. 
Fe 59.12 

Si O^ 14.85 

P 0.38 

S 0.49 

Cojtper, 

Four leagues northeast of Santiago de Cuba is the Villa del 
Cobre, near which are grouped many copper mines. The old 
mines of Consolidada, IsabeliUi, Santuario, San Jose, San Joa- 
quin, Perseverancia, Augelita, San Andres. Two kilometers 
north of Santiago de (,'uba are other copper mines, towit: 
San Pedro, San Jos^ N Sra del ( 'armen, San Francisco, San 
Feliciano, Ntra Sra de Dolores^. 

The Cuabite group is composed of Conchita, Encarnacion, 
Mina Espaflola Noertina, Cuba. 

There are copper mines near Sigua, with ±40 to 48 percent, 
of copper, and the group of Brazo de Canto, which latter is 



62 The American Geologist. JaDoary, 1S94 

composed of four mines, the Triuna, San Jose, San Fruetuoso, 
and Ma^'or. 

There are eighteen groups of manganese mines and three 
groups of mines of chromic iron ; also three groups of lead 
mines, one of the latter containing zinc, silver and gold,* and 
the other two lead and silver. 

All in all, the mining industries of Cuba, both in metals, 
which have been briefly noticed, and in asbestos, asphalt and 
guano, are well represented and industriously and systemat- 
ically catalogued, in the official guide in the Spanish language. 
It is to be regretted that the mother country is so ill repre- 
sented in the building. 

Conclusion. 

In summing up the notes made on this display of the ores 
of gold and silver and of copper, iron, tin, antimony, lead, 
etc., etc., it is incontestible that an assemblage of ores grati- 
fying to the eye has been made. Many of the individual ex- 
hibits are complete and their framing is made in good taste 
and with conscientious fidelity, and yet as a whole it is disap- 
pointing, not so much on account of inadequacies and total 
deficiencies (though these are very frequently apparent) 
as because it is rare to observe any eifort to use the collec- 
tions for the instruction of the public. The aim has been to 
dazzle and please the eye, but those who went through the 
separate pavilions prepared to study and profit by their con- 
tents have not been sufficiently recompensed for their time. 

No uniform system was adopted for the pavilions as a 
whole nor for each by itself. It was too apparent that the ar- 
rangement was governed by the sizes rather than by the char- 
acters of the objects, and by the desire to impress the visitor 
with the magnitude rather than to teach him. Much negli- 
gence was shown in the detail of labels, and the fact was not 
sufficiently considered that what might be a sufficient de- 
scription of an object in a case containing a small collection, 
was very insufficient for a world's fair. The labels them- 
selves were too often missing, incompletely made out or use- 
less on account of being covered by the specimens. Many of 
the most important localities have not been represented at all. 



lieview of Jiecent Geological Literature, » 63 

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 



Some Maryland granites and their origin. By Charl.es Rollin 
Keyes. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. iv, pp. 299- 
304, with a plate; July 31, 1893. The eastern part of the Piedmont belt 
in Maryland is described as consisting chiefly of gneisses broken 
through in many places by eruptive rocks, as gabbro, diorite and pyroz- 
enite, until these basic eruptives occupy fully half of the present ex- 
posed surface. The granites are found in small areas, to the number 
of a dozen or more, intersecting both the foregoing igneous rocks and 
the gneiss. Although these granites have been held by some in- 
vestigators to be metamorphic from mechanical sediments, the author 
confidently maintains their irruptive origin from an acidic molten 
magma cooling under pressure. Sometimes, as at Dorsey's Bun, the 
granite is seen to have been forced between beds of twisted and puck- 
ered gneiss, and at Woodstock huge blocks of gneiss are enclosed in 
the granite. At Sykesville a great variety of fragments of foreign 
rocks, from minute pieces up to blocks of large size, occur as inclusions 
in the granite, comprising limestone, soapstone, pyrozenite, vein quartz, 
and hornblendic and biotitic gneisses. All these rooks are well repre- 
sented in outcrops several miles eastward, where they dip to the west. 
In most of the fragments the outside to a depth of two to four centi- 
meters or more is much changed, but the interior of the larger pieces 
often or commonly exhibits the rock in its original character. Aside 
from the usual microscopic indications that the granites have cooled 
from fusion, another evidence of this is afforded by large grains, micro- 
pegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and feldspar, which appear to have 
been rounded and occasionally hollowed on their sides by magmatic 
corrosion. 

Epidote an a Primary Component of eruptive rocks. By Charles 
RoLLiN Reyes. Bulletin, G. S. A., vol. iv, pp. 305-312, with four figures 
in the text; July 31, 1893. The epidote of certain Maryland granites is 
found in isomorphous growths with allanite, as well as in separate well- 
defined crystals. That it must be there an original constituent, and 
not a secondary product, appears from its presence in perfectly fresh 
rocks, or those which have been but slightly altered by orogenic move- 
ment; by its inclusion in sphene, one of the first minerals to crystallize 
from the molten magma; and by its sharply defined crystallographic 
faces, completely mantled by unaltered biotite or feldspar, and giving 
shape to these essential components of the granite. 

Relations of the Laurentian and Huronian rocks north of Lake 
Huron. By Al.fbbd £. Barlow. Bulletin, Q. S. A., vol. iv, pp. 313- 
332; August 4, 1893. This paper is a revision and extension of one pub- 
lished by Mr. Barlow in the Am. Geologist of July, 1890. The Lau- 
rentian gneiss and granite are shown to have been irruptive and in a 



64 The American Geologist. January, IMM 

molten conditioD subfieqaent to the depoaitioD and lithifioation of the 
Huronian sedimentB. The Huronian Bystem, therefore, is regarded as 
the oldest of sedimentary origin known in that region; and it is 
supposed to have been laid down on a firm floor of rock analogous to 
granite. Fusion, irruptive flow, and recrystallization of this granitic 
floor are thought to have produced the Laurentian gneiss, whose par- 
allel foliation of the component minerals and alternation of coarse and 
fine bands are believed to be magmatic flow structure. Fragments of 
the Huronian rocks are inclosed in the gneiss, and the latter sends out 
coarsely crystalline seams, which are interstratified with the Huronian 
beds, and dike>liko apophyses which cut these beds transversely. 

The Archean n^cks west of lake Superior. By William Henry 
Chatterton Smith. Bulletin, G. S. A., vol. iv, pp. 333-348, August 4, 
1893. We read this able essay with deep regret that its author was not 
spared for further work. His death occurred soon after the society's 
last winter meeting, for whose success he had been very active as sec- 
retary of the local committee. The essay treats of the part of the Do- 
minion of Canada from the Lake of the Woods eastward to the Thunder 
Bay district north of Lake Superior, and from the international 
boundary north to the Canadian Pacific railway. The lower Archean 
or Laurentian rocks are granitoid and gneissic, occupying more than 
half of the country as large rounded or ovoid areas, like those mapped 
by Hitchcock in New Hampshire, by Barlow north of lake Huron, and 
by Lawson in western portions of this district. Surrounding and gen- 
erally dipping away from the nuclear granitic areas, the upper Archean 
rocks constitute an irregular network and comprise in ascending order 
the Coutchiching and Keewatin series of Lawson, the former consisting 
of gneisses and mica schists, and the latter of plu tonic, volcanic and 
pyroclastic rocks. Since the accumulation of the upper Archean 
series, the basal granites and gneiss have been molten and their con- 
tacts with the overlying rocks are nearly everywhere distinctly irrup- 
tive. In its present condition and relationship, therefore, the so-called 
Laurentian system in this part of Canada is held to be of post-Kee- 
watin age, as was first announced by Lawson. Richly gold-bearing 
quartz veins are found in the Keewatin rocks of the Lake of the Woods; 
and nickeliferous diorite has been recently discovered near the mouth 
of this lake. 

Bulletin of the Oeological Society of America. Proceedings of the 
Fifth Annual Meeting^ heUi at Ottawa, Canada, Decembet :iH, 29 and 
HiK 1S92. H. L. Fairchild, Secretary; Joseph Stanlev-Bbown, Editor. 
Vol. iv, pp. ixi, 371-458; Sept. 23, 1893. 

Between the brochure last noticed and this final part of the vol- 
ume are two papers: The Laurentian of the Ottawa district (pp. 349- 
360), by R. W. Ells; and Height of the Bay of Fundy coast in the Gla- 
cial period relative to sea-level, as evidenced by Marine Fossils in the 
Boulder-clay at St. John, New Brunswick (pp. 3G1.370), by Robert 
Chalmers. Somewhat full outlines of each were presented in the Am. 
Geologist for last February and March. 




Jievteir of Recent Geological Literuhire, 65 

In this brochure are comprised memorial biographic aketcheaof Dr. T. 
Sterry Hunt, Prof. J. S. Newberry (with portrait), and Dr. J. H. Chapin, 
fellows deceased in the year 1892, with bibliographies of their writings; 
and the following papers, either in full or by abstract: Note on Fossil 
Sponges from the Quebec group (lower Cambro-Silurian) at Little 
Metis, Canada, by Sir J. William Dawson; A Fossil Earthquake [of New 
Madrid, Missouri, in 1811, continuing with shocks of diminishing inten- 
sity during the next two years], by W J McGee; Notes on the Glacial 
Geology of western Labrador and northern Quebec, by A. P. Low (see 
the Am. Geologist, March, 1898, p. 176); The supposed Postglacial 
Outlet of the Great Lakes through lake Nipissing and the Mattawa 
river, by G. Frederick Wright ( 1. c, April, 1893, p. 243); Notes on Geol- 
ogy of Middleton island, Alaska, by George M. Dawson (1. c, p. 244); 
The Hurouian Volcanics south of lake Superior, by C. R. Van Hise; 
and Two Over thrusts in eastern New York, by N. H. Darton. The 
membership of the Society July 31, 1893, was 224. 

Tlie Cause of the great Earthquake in Central Japan in 1891, B. 
Koto. (Reprinted f rgm the Journal of the College of Science, Imperial 
University, Japan, vol. v, pt. iv, 1893.) 

Prof. Koto, who holds the chair of geology in the Imperial univer- 
sity, has made a very thorough investigation and presentation of this 
remarkable and very destructive earthquake, in respect not only to the 
geological agencies involved, but also the effects produced. The work 
is accompanied by plates xxviii-xxxv, four of them being '^collotypes,*' 
by G. Ogawa, which are almost equal to actual photographs. 

The location of this earthquake was in a fertile and populous plain, 
known as the provinces of Mino and Owari, on the Tokaido. It is 
bounded on three sides by masses of mountains composed on two sides 
of Paleozoic formations with subordinate areas of later granite, and on 
the other side of granites, gneiss and mica schist of older date. The 
plain is crossed by several rivers which fall into the bay of Is^, and 
ranks among the most populous and fruitful of all the rice-producing 
districts of Japan. 

The first shock, which was the most severe, buried thousands of liv- 
ing people beneath tha debris of their houses, and occurred on the 
morning of Oct. 28, 1891. The succeeding shocks, however, were accom- 
panied by fires which broke out among the ruins. The city of Nagoya 
was in the center of the area most shaken. It is an alluvial plain, and 
indeed, in all cases the lowest lands suffered worst. The ground was 
riven with myriads of fissures and small mud-volcanoes were thrown 
up along the banks of the streams, while long, parallel fissures produced 
a falling away and opening of the banks of the rivers. For a distance 
of twenty miles a road ran through a nearly continuous line of village 
settlement. This became simply a narrow lane between two intermina- 
ble heaps of debris. The cities of Gifu, the provincial capital,Ogaki, and 
Kaaamatsu were completely overthrown and then consumed by fire. 
According to the official returns, about seven thousand people lost their 



66 llie Amerivan Geolotjist, Janoary, 1894 

lives, seventeen thousand were wounded, and two hundred and seventy 
thousand buildings were leveled with the plain, while six thousand 
houses, less shattered by the shocks, were burnt down by fire. Engi- 
neering works, such as canals, bridges, dams, embankments, railroads, 
were involved in the great destruction. 

Seventeen separate quakes had already been recorded by the seismo- 
graph in October, prior to the 28th, all, however, confined to the vicin- 
ity of Tokyo. Central Japan, where the devastation was wrought, had 
remained quiet, and afterward, to the close of November, no less than 
1,757 earthquakes were recorded at Gifu and 884 at Nagoya,'and down 
to the end of March, 1892, 2,588 at Gifu and 1,098 at Nagoya. The great 
excess at Gifu indicates unmistakably that this city lay nearer to the 
origin of the convulsion than Nagoya. 

There was no volcanic outbreak, but an enormous fissure was found 
to cross the country, **cutting hills and paddy fields alike," throwing the 
soft earth into enormous clods and ridges, which could be traced in a 
northwest-southeast course along the Neo valley for a distance of forty 
miles. **It starts from about the village of Katobira, not far from Kat- 
suyama, on the bank of the Kiso-gawa, on the Nakasendo, running 
northwestwards up to Fukui, in Echizen, through the Neo valley." 
This fault is supposed to have pre-existed, and a renewed movement 
along substantially the same plane of fracture, is believed to have been 
the prime cause of the earthquake. There was a vertical movement, 
and at the same time a horizontal shifting. Large amounts of earth 
slipped from the mountain sides, so that practically the sides of the val- 
ley had slidden into the river. In the upper part of the dale the greater 
part of the mountain slopes,had **slipped away, carrying with them the 
forests they were covered with." The author describee, with illustra- 
tions, the phenomena observed by him throughout the course of this 
fault line. While these landslides characterized the course of the fault 
in the hilly districts, in the plains great undulatory waves of disturb- 
ance threw the surface into tumultuous confusion. The jelly-like nature 
of the alluvial region served to perpetuate the shocks and to multiply 
them, and to allow the permanent sinking of large areas which became 
at once filled by some of the streams that crossed the region, submerg- 
ing farms and villages. 

Text Book of Geology, By Archibald Geikie, Director-General of 
the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. Third edition, 
revised and enlarged, 8vo, cloth, pp. xvi and 1147, maps and many text 
illustrations. Macmillan and Co., London and New York, |7.50, 1893. 

No text book of geology can long supply the demands of advanced geo- 
logical students without revision. The progress of the science is rapid, 
and new text books and manuals appear with rapid succession. This 
edition contains 150 pages more than the last, and the improvements, 
which are found in all parts, bring the work substantially up to the 
present condition of the science. There are two characteristics which 
this work presents. First, its order of arrangement consists of a 




^ 



nr 



Review of Recent Geological Literature. 67 

gradual deaoent from the general to the special. The author begius 
with coBmieal geology, 1. e., the relation of the earth to other membere 
of the solar system, a section of geology which has usually been rele- 
gated rather to astronomy, but which the late Alexander Winchell, in 
America, and others, mainly of England , have brought forward as one 
of the legitimate fields for the geologist to traverse and exploit. 
Through geognosy the author then descends to a more special examina- 
tion of the chemical and physical forces that have produced the geo- 
logic changes which are embraced broadly under physical geography, 
and then enters upon an actual determination of the stratigraphic suc- 
cession, the sources 9f the various rock masses, their different posi- 
tions and relations. This eventuates in paleontological geology, involv- 
ing a study of successive organic forms, and hence in historical geology. 
These facts being set forth in sufficient detail, and with sufficient 
discussion of differing views, the last step is to apply the laws deduced 
to the explanation of the present immediate surface and contour of 
the earth — this branch being "physiographical geology, involving the 
causes of the surface phenomena, such as ocean basins, plains, valleys 
and mountains. Thus, from the remote and general the author de- 
scends by an easy and even a graceful logical sequence to the present 
and special. It is a philosophical sequence of topics, without making 
any prominent pretense at such succession. 

The second characteristic is its familiarity with present American 
authorities, and its freauent citation of authors by copious foot-notes. 
The former characteristic adapts the work to a miscellaneous class of 
general students, making it a book that can he read, while the latter 
commends it to the working geologist and the enquiring and studious 
teacher. It is preeminently adapted to English-speaking geologists, 
and again especially to American geologists. 

The author inculcates bis views, when he reveals them at all as his 
own, by a judicious selection of authorities. He is apparently not a 
strict uniformitarian, nor is he a catastrophist. He mentions several 
considerations which conspire to indicate that in the early part of the 
earth's history as an individual in the solar system, even within the 
time of sedimentary aceumulation, geological forces were much more 
effective and intense than they are now; at the same time he allows 
that the surface phenomena produced, owing to the present greater 
rigidity of those parts most likely to present legible results of the same 
forces, are greater than in the earlier part of sedimentary geology. 

He presents briefly the data and the reasoning of geologists and of 
physicists for the age of the earth. He intimates that the physicists 
have probably overstated their case, in limiting the duration of geolog- 
ical time to fifteen or twenty million of years, and is inclined to con- 
sider the period of about 100 millions of years as none too long. This 
not only agrees approximately with the results originally announced 
by liord Kelvin, in England, but also with results more lately reached 
by de Lapparent, in France, and Uphamand Walcott, in America, as 
well as by Beade, in England. 



68 The American Geologht, January. 1894 

The obapters devoted to the characters of minerals and of rocks, 
megascopic and microscopic, and to the classification of rocks, are well 
arranged and well illustrated. The general classification of the micro- 
scopic structures of rocks is that first proposed by Zirkel, viz.: bolocrys- 
talline, hemi-orystalline, glassy and clastic. The subdivisions, and 
some of the special terms are adopted from Fouqu^ and Miohel-Levy, 
and from Rosenbusch. The massive crystalline rocks are divided 
chemically into three series, viz.: acid, intermediate and basic, and con- 
densed descriptions are given of the various species belonging to each. 
Their division into two groups by Fouqu^ and Miohel-Levy based on 
two successive stages of crystallization, and into three, based on their 
internal micro-structure, viz.: granular, porphyritic and glassy, or holo- 
orystalline, crystalline and vitreous, are mentioned, but the author 
adopts the threefold division based on the relative amounts of silica. 

The schistose crystalline rooks, i. e. the metamorphic, are derivable 
both from sedimentary strata and from igneous rocks. **At one end of 
the schistose series we find rooks in which an original sedimentary 
character remains unmistakable. At the other end, after many inter- 
mediate stages, we encounter thoroughly amorphous crystalline 
masses that bear the closest resemblance to eruptive rocks into which 
they insensibly pass.*' 

The treatment of igneous rocks and of their relations to the strata 
with which they come into contact is one that shows the special quali- 
fications of the author. The. igneous rocks of all ages, as seen in 
Britain, have been the object of long study by him. These and the 
crystalline schists we do not think have been so thoroughly treated in 
any other similar work. In this excellent presentation we notice but 
two points to which as American geologists we feel like taking excep- 
tions, viz.: There is no adequate allowance for internal heat of the 
earth as a cause for regional metamorphism. It seems more than 
probable that in at least Arohean time the isothermal planes of min- 
eral-changing heat ran nearer the surface of the earth, and that the 
early sediments, whether of chemical or fragmental origin, and 
especially if volcanic debris was mingled with them, would receive 
through their aid largely the mineral transformations which mark now 
the Archean crystalline schists. It also eeems probable that these 
planes might vary for any given region from age to age, or between two 
regions, as to their actual nearness to the surface, thus producing crys- 
talline schists at higher levels in some regions than in others. All these 
regional areas of metamorphism the author ascribes largely to dynnm- 
ical agencies (including the presence of moisture), but he also points 
out their close alliance in their metamorphic phenomena with the areas 
that can be ascribed to contact metamorphism. 

The second point to which we would take exception here is the quota- 
tion of the work of Dana and Wing on the metamorphic changes that 
can be traced out in the region of western New England between Ver- 
mont and New York city (p. 628). The author follows the old opinion 
of Prof. Dana that the schists concerned are of Trenton and Hudson 




Jlcvtew of Eecetit Geological Literature, 69 

River age, and not of Taoonic age. Since Prof. Dana's field work was 
published, not only have the quartzyte and the limestone and shales 
whioh he discussed been found to contain aTaconio fauna (01enelluB,eto.), 
but they have been found to pass into schists and gneisses. The orig- 
inal contention of Dr. Emmons as to the age of these metamorphic 
rocks has been abundantly verified. Again, Dr. Q. H. Witliams has also 
shown that the augitio, hornblendic and cbrysolitic zones, supposed to 
have been produced by metamorphism in the sedimentary rocks, are 
true basic eruptions that invaded the Taconic strata probably prior to 
the commencement of the Lower Silurian, and have nothing to do with 
the original strata in age nor otherwise except to have modified them by 
contact. 

In treating of the Glacial period, the author confidently attributes 
the glacial and modified drift to the action of vast sheets of land ice, 
without important aid from marine submergence, icebergs, and fioes. 
Previous to the ice accumulation the altitude of the glaciated countries 
is thought to have been generally somewhat higher, or at least not 
lower, in relation to the sea level, than now. While the lands were ice- 
covered they are shown to have been somewhat depressed, allowing the 
formation of marine shore- lines and fossiliferous sea deposits upon the 
glacial drift after the retreat of the ice; but the submergence thus indi- 
cated nowhere exceeds 500 or 600 feet, as in the St. Lawrence valley and 
in Scandinavia. For some parts of Qreat Britain a probable submer- 
gence of about 500 feet is claimed, though the highest well defined 
marine terraces and beaches cited are only about 100 feet above 
the sea. The mass of stratified clay with marine shells enclosed in the 
« till at the hight of 524 feet at Chapelhall in Lanarkshire, and the 

shell-bearing drift sand and gravel at greater hights, up to 1200 and 
1360 feet, respectively, in Cheshire and on Moel Tryfaen in northern 
Wales, are regarded as more probably due to glacial transportation from 
the bed of the Irish sea than to the presence of the ocean at those 
altitudes. 

The lower and upper deposits of boulder- clay or till, which are gen- 
erally distinguishable over the greater part of the drift-bearing area of 
Europe, are ascribed to successive glacial epochs, divided by an inter- 
glacial time of general disappearance of the ice-sheets and prevalence 
of a mild climate, as known in some localities by the preservation of 
traoee of the interglacial fauna and flora. But in view of the recent 
discussions and diverse interpretations of the evidences of such changes 
in America, the author leaves it an open question whether the Ice age 
shall be considered so distinctly twofold or multifold as the upholders 
of the astronomic theory of the causes of the glacial climate have 
taught. His reference of the outermost and next succeeding moraines 
of southern New England and Long Islond to ''distinct and perhaps 
widely separated epochs in the Ice age" differs from the present views 
of most or probably all American glacialists. Not only these moraines, 
but also others described by Tarr and Hitchcock farther north in New 
EiUgland, the fifteen or more approximately parallel moraines traced by 



70 The American Geologht. January, 1894 

Chamberlin and lisverett through Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the 
nearly equal number deecribed by Winchell and Upham in Minnesota, 
with their continuation west and northwest through the Dakotas and 
Manitoba, are doubtless referable to closely successive stages of halt or 
slight re-advance interrupting the recession of the ice-sheet at the end 
of the Glacial period. A similar series of retreatal moraines, already 
partially known, will probably be found traceable across northern 
Germany, northwestern Russia, southeastern Sweden, and Finland. 

Concerning the question whether the drift was carried forward 
chiefly beneath the ice-sheet or within its basal part, in the latter case 
becoming exposed on th e surface near the ice-front by ablation, especially 
during the glacial retreat, the author presents only or mainly the hy- 
pothesis of subglacial transportation, while in this country englacial 
and finally superglaciai transportation of much of the drift has been 
long maintained by Dana and many others. We also note that the loess 
is attributed chiefly to wind action, which appears true for portions of 
Asia; but the development of this formation in America, where it ex- 
tends along the course of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, is very 
certainly due to deposition by broad river floods and lakes attending 
the departure of the ice-sheet. In Scotland the explanation recently 
given by Jamieson for the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, that they were 
shores of lakes dammed by the waning Scottish ice-sheet, should prob- 
ably take the place of the old hypothesis of obstruction by local valley 
glaciers, which is here retained. Again, in seeking the causes of the 
glacial climate, only Dr. James CroHs astronomical theory is adequately 
stated, and no space is given to the explanation by high uplifts of the 
lands that became ice-enveloped, which now is held to be most probable 
by nearly all American geologists, excepting those who think that some 
hitherto unsuggested cause remains to be discovered. It is mentioned, 
however, that Hutton accounts for the ancient glaciation of New Zea- 
land by such a high epierogenic uplift. 

The strange history of the Ice age, the descriptions of its records in 
all drift-covered regions, and the explanations of the origin of the widely 
varied drift formations, are very amply, clearly and interestingly pre- 
sented by this magnificent text-book. It was quite impracticable and 
needless, in a science so broad and now receiving so thorough and crit- 
cal investigation, to notice every phase of differing theories and opin- 
ions, or to bring the presentation in all cases exactly up to the present 
condition of knowledge. 

Notwithstanding the foregoing criticisms, we consider the work of 
Dr. Geikie, like Agamemnon among his warriors, ^'conspicuous among 
his equals,** and par e.rcvUenn' the best English text-book for American 
geologists. 

Veher das Siiurgebiet dea Bottnisvhen Meetrs. By Cakl Wiman. 
(Bull, of the Geol. Inst, of Upsala, No. 1, vol. i, 1893.) 

The earliest of the palaeozoic faunas represented in this region is a 
Cambrian sandstone with Olenellns, Anonellun and HyolWies, This is 




liecitw of Re(*vnt fre(tI(Hjfral Literature. 71 

followed by a very complete series of lower and middle Silurian beds, 
which, the author concludes, is nearer in its stratigraphical relations to 
the succession on the east coast of the Baltic than to that of Sweden 
(Oland and Dalarne). 

Ueber Hypoatovien von Homalonotcn. By L. Bbushausen. (Jahrb. 
K6nigl. preuss. geolog. Landesanst. f. 1891, pp. 154-166, 1892.) 

From the examination of the hypostomes of a few species represent- 
ing some of the subgenera of Homalonotus, the author concludes that 
these plates do not show differentials of taxonomic value. 

Sobreel Terreno Jurdsico y Cretdceo en los Andes Argentinos eutre 
el Rio Diamante y Rio Limay. By William Bodensendkr. (Boletin 
Acad. Nao. de Ciencias de Cordoba, vol. xiii, pp. 547, 1892.) 

A narrative of important geological investigations conducted by the 
author, with lists of fossils identified by Behrendsen in Zeitschr. deutsch. 
geoL Gesellsch., 1891-2. 

Die Qebirgsformen in siklwestlichen Kdrnten, und ihre Entstehutiy' 
By Fritz Fkech. (Zeitschr. der Gesellscb. fUr Erdkunde zu Berlin, 
vol. xxvii, pp. 349390, 1892.) 

A very instructive chapter on orogeny and geotectonics. The author 
discusses first the origin of the principal valleys, and secondly their mod- 
ifications during the glacial and recent epochs. Under the latter heads 
are discussions of the extent of glaciation, and morainic distribution; 
of old and late glaoiiU deposits; of the "Kare" and their origin ("under 
the term *Kare' are included the cauldron-shaped niches below the 
mountain crest, which, behind and at the sides, are enclosed by steep 
walls, while the fiat floor of the basin is open only at the front and 
there passes directly into a steep decline. In the summit Alps most of 
the *Kare' are now filled with glacial ice and appear to be the birth 
places of the great glaciers*'); of lakes due to glacial rotation and corro- 
sion, and morainic damming; postglacial erosion and vale-making ; ca- 
tastrophic modifications, etc. 

Das Rheinthal von Bingerbrfick bei Lahnstein, By E. Holzapfel. 
(Abhandl. Konigl. preuss. geolog. Landesanst. Neue Folge, Heft 15, pp. 
1-116, 16 plates, photogravures and half -tones, 1 map, 1893.) 

Gives a detailed account of the geological structure of this classical 
region, with an especially important chapter on the classification of the 
Rhenish lower Devonian. 

Die Jurabildungen des Kattlberyen bei Eehte. By James Perkin 
Smfth. (Inaugural Dissertation, 1893, pp. 1-72, 2 pi., 1 map.) 

The Eahlberg is in north Germany, between Einbeck and the Hartz 
mountains. The author describes the geological succession of this region 
with some detail, giving special attention to the upper or white Jura, 
with comprehensive sections and lists of fossils. The pala^ontological 
part of the work includes descriptions of many new forms and concludes 
with a tabulated list of the fauna. 



72 The American Geologist, January. 1894 

RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 



/. Proceedings of Scientifle Societies, 

Bull. N. Y. State Museum, Vol. 3. No. 11, 1893, oontains: Salt aud 
gypeum industries of New York, F. J. H. Merrill. 

Anuals of the N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 8, Nob. 1-3, 1893, contains: A 
study of the New York obelisk as a decayed boulder, A. A. Julien. 

Proo. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., Vol. 26, Pt. 1, 1892-93, con 
tains: The origin of drumlins, W. Upham; Remarks on drumlins, W 
M. Davie; Remarks on drumlins, G. H. Barton; Indian quarries in Ar 
kansas, L. S. Griswold; Deflected glacial striae m Somerville, W. Up 
ham; The Fishing Banks between Cape Cod and Newfoundland, W 
Upham; Evidences of Man in Nicaragua, J. Crawford; Bioplastology 
and the related branches of biologic search, A. Hyatt; Traces of a fauna 
in the Cambridge slates, J. B. Woodworth. 

Proo. Acad. Nat. Sci., Pt. 2, 1893, contains: Description of a lower 
jaw of Tetrabelodon shepardii, E. D. Cope; Cretaceous ammonites and 
other fossils near Moorestown, N. J.; Their stratigraphic position shown 
by an artesian well section at Maple Shade, N. J.; Incidental reference 
to water horizons, L. Woolman; Remarks on a new species of Oypraea, 
J. Ford; Notes on the physical geography of Texas, R. S. Tarr. 

Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 15, No. 2, 1892, contains: The 
preservation of plants as fossils, J. F. James; Some new species and new 
structural parts of fossils, S. A. Miller and C. Faber; Manual of the 
paleontology of the Cincinnati group, J. F. James (Pt. Ill); Remarks 
on the stems and roots of crinoids near Lebanon, Ohio, D. T. D. Dyche. 

Vol. 15, Nos. 3-4, 1892-93, contains: Manual of the paleontology of the 
Cincinnati group, J. F. James ( Pt. IV); Microscopical study of Ohio 
limestones, Q. P. Qrimsley. 

Vol. 16, Nos. 2-3, 1893, contains: Studies in problematic organisms. 
No. 11— The genus Fucoides, J. F. James; Remarks on the genus Ar- 
throphyous. Hall, J. F.James; Natural History notes from North Car- 
olina, A. G. Wetherby; Fossil fungi, J. F. James. 

Cal. Acad. Sci., Occasional papers, IV, 1893, oontains: A classed and 
annotated bibliography of the Palaeozoic Crustacea, 1698-1892, to which 
is added a catalogue of North American species, A. W. Vogdes. 

Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol.3, Pt. 2, 1893, contains: Geological surveys 
in the state of California, A. W. Vogdes. 

Bull. Qeol. Soc. of America, Vol.5, Nov., 1893, contains: Proc. of the 
Fifth summer meeting, held at Madison, Aug. 15-16, 1893. 

Proo. of the Biol. Soc. of Wsshington, Vol. 8, July, 1893, contains: 
The paleontology of the Cretaceous formations of Texas; The inverte- 
brate fossils of the Caprina limestone beds, Robt T. Hill. 

//. Papers in Srientifir Journals, 

School of Minee Quarterly, Vol. XIV, No. 4, July 1893, oonUins: 
Notes on the Liower Coal Measures ot Western Clearfield county. Pa., 




I 



Jieceat Publicafiotts. 78 

« 

J. F. Kemp; The old Telegraph Mine. Bingham Cafion, Utah, C. Fen- 
ner. 

The Glacialists' Magazine, Vol. I, No. 1, contains: On an Intrusive 
Mass of Boulder Clay, A. R. Dwerry house. 

Jour, of Qeol., Vol. 1, No. 6, Sept.-Oct, 1893, contains: Theory of the 
origin of mountain ranges, J. LeConte; On the migration of material 
during the metamorphism of rock masses, A. Harker; The Ck>rdilleran 
Mesozoic revolution, A. C. Liawson; Sketch of the present state of 
knowledge conceroing the basic massive rocks of the lake Superior 
region, W. S. Bayley; A study of consanguinity of eruptive rocks, O. A. 
Derby; A dissected volcano of Crandall basin, Wyoming, J. P. Iddings; 
Notes on the lead and zinc deposits of the Mississippi valley and the 
origin of the ores, A. Winslow. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 46, Nov., 1898, contains: New England and the 
upper Mississippi basin in the Glacial period, J. D. Dana; Use of the 
name "Catskill," J. J. Stevenson; Finite elastic stress-strain function, 
G. F. Becker; Powellite from a new locality, G. A. Koenig and L. L. 
Hubbard; Geology and petrography of Conanicut Island, K. I., L. V. 
Pirsson; Larval form of Triarthrus, C. E. Beecher;Riseof the mammalia 
in North America, H. F. Osborn; Description of Miocene mammalia, O. 
C. Marsh. 

Kans. Univ. Quar., Vol. 2, No. 2, Oct., 1893, contains: Kansas ptero- 
dactyls (II), S. W. Williston; Kansas Mosasaurs, S. W. Williston. 

Amer. Naturalist, Vol. 27, Sept., 1893, contains: On the structure of 
the carapace in the Devonian crustacean Rhinocarie, and the relation of 
the genus to Mesothyra and the Phyllocarida, J. M. Clarke. 

Vol. 27, Oct, 1893, contains: Phylogeny of an acquired characteris- 
tic, A. Hyatt. 

Canadian Record of Science, Vol. 5, No. 7, 1893, contains: Are the 

Great Lakes retaining their ancient level? Commander J. G. Boulton; 

Geological notes. Sir J. W. Dawson; Notes of a great silver camp, W. A, 

Carlyle. 

Ill, Excerpts and Individual Publications. 

Hatch's Notes on the Birds of Minnesota, T. S. R. '*The Auk,'' July, 
1893. 

A Catalogue of the Official Geological Surveys of the State of Califor- 
nia, Anthony W. Vogdes, Extr. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci^ Vol. Ill, 1893. 

Alnoite containing an uncommon variety of Melilite, C. H. Smyth, 
Jr., Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XL VI, Aug., 1893. 

Two Neocene Rivers of California, W. Lindgren, Bull. Geol. Soc. of 
America, Vol. 4, pp. 257-298. 

Certain Dissimilar Occurrences of Gold-bearing Quartz, T. X. Rick- 
ard. Read before the Colorado Scientific Society in Denver, Sept. 4, 
1893. 

On the CyclopidaB and Calanidae of Central Wisconsin, C. D. Marsh. 
Reprint from Vol. IX of the Trans, of the Wis. Acad. Sciences, June, 
1892. 

Report on the Colorado Coal Field of Texas, N. F. Drake and R. A. 



76 The American Geologist. January, 1884 



( 



not represent the floor on which the Keweenawan lavas flowed, 
and so give no evidence as to the thickness of this series. 
3. Evolutionary development in some species of Brachiopoda, 
by Mr. F. W. Sardeson. The development of some forms in 
the Lower Silurian of the Upper Mississippi valley^ was dis- 
cussed ; it was stated that certain species and varieties re- 
tained their characters and extended through a considerable 
number of beds, although sometimes absent from one or more 
beds, but reappearing again higher up. Thediiferent species 
and varieties do not var}*^ into other forms nearly as often as 
has been stated by others. 

Discovery of ax E«<i of the ^-Epyornis. — A large specimen 
of the nQg of the fabled "roc"' of the '^Arabian Nights," or 
^iSpi/orniit, as the extinct gigantic bird of Madagascar is 
called, has recently been secured by Mr. J. Proctor, of Tama- 
tave and London. It was discovered by some natives about 
twenty miles to the southward of St. Augustine's bay, on the 
southwest coast of Madagascar. It was floating on the calm 
sea, within twenty yards of the beach, and is supposed to 
have been washed away with the foreshore, which consists of 
sandhills, after a hurricane in the early part of the year. The 
child-like longshoremen of the antipodes, thinking that the 
e^g might have a value, showed the unusual piece of flotsam 
about, with a view to the sale of it, and it thus came into the 
hands of Mr. Proctor who has brought the curiosity to Lon- 
don. The e^r^, which is whitish-brown in color and unbroken, 
is a fine specimen, 88^ inches by 28 inches, and an even higher ^ 

value is placed upon it than upon the egg of the great auk, 
which lived within the memory of man. The Brobdignagian 
proportions of the egg are better demonstrated by comparison 
with the eggs of the ostrich and crocodile. An ostrich's egg 
is about 17 inches by 15 inches, and the contents of six such 
are only equal to one egg of the ^-Ei/pornis, The measure- 
ments of the egg of the crocodile are normally 9 inches by 6i 
inches. It would require the contents of 16i emu's eggs to equal 
the contents of this great egg, or 148 eggs of the homely fowl, 
or 30,000 of the humming bird. The last egg of the kind dis- 
posed of in London sold for £100, though cracked. — Scienfijic 
American, 

At a latk mketin(} of the Geological Society of Wash- 
ington the following officers were elected for the ensuing 
year: President, ('. D. Walcott; vice-presidents, S. F. Em- 
mons, G. K. Gilbert ; treasurer, Arnold Hague ; secretaries, J. 
S. Diller, Whitman Cross; council, G. F. Becker, G. P. Mer- 
rill, R. T. Hill, i\ Willard Hayes and W. H. Dall. The soci- 
ety has 134 members, 22 being corresponding members. 
During the past year there has been an average attendance at 
the meetings of 36. 



1 




r 



The America m Obolikust. 



Vol. XIII. Plate IV. 




k 



if 



I. 

■b 



CARCINOSOMA (EURYSOMA) INGENS Claypole. 



THE 



AMERICAN GEOLOGIST 



Vol. XIII. FEBRUARY, 1894. No. 2. 



[PAIiBOMTOIiOOIOAX. NOTKS FBOM BuOHTXL CoLLEOK.— No. 6.] 

A NEW SPECIES OF CARCINOSOMA. 

By £. W. Clatpolx, Akron, O. 

In the American Geologist for October, 1890, I described 
and figured a new genus and species of crustacean from the 
Water-lime quarries at Kokomo, Indiana. That fossil. differed 
in some characters from all known forms of its class. These 
<rharacters are well show^n even in the crushed and flattened 
condition in which the specimen occurred. It is merely a 
black film on the surface of the slab, in this respect resem- 
bling those from the same horizon at Buffalo and elsewhere. 

A few weeks ago Mr. Charles Smith, of Akron, O., obtained 
from his brother, residing at Kokomo, a slab of the Water- 
lime rock, showing an excellent outline of a crustacean evi- 
dently closely^ allied to the above, but of much larger size. 
Through his kindness I have been allowed to make a drawing 
of the specimen and to describe it for the American Geolo- 

<iIST. 

The former specimen was described under -the generic name 
of Eur^'^soma, but after the paper containing it had appeared 
I learned from a friend that this word had been preoccupied 
in Europe. Hence it became necessarj'^ to change it, and in 
the December number of the magazine I substituted the name 
Carcinosoma (p. 400). 

Carcinosoma ingens, sp. n. 

The generic description remains unchanged in every impor- 
tant point, but the present specimen being preserved with the 



78 The American Geologist. Febniary»i8M 

ventral eiirface exposed, shows some specific details which 
were invisible in the former. 

In the specific description the leading points of difference 
and those on which the definition rests are the greater size of 
the fossil and the smaller number of cusps or branches on the 
four anterior pairs of gnathopods. 

The specimen measures twenty-four inches in length, 
whereas none of those from which the description of C. neic- 
liiii was compiled exceeded fourteen. There are also only 
three cusps on the front edge of the first, third and fourth 
pairs of gnathopods, and four on the second pair. In C\ newh'nf 
these cusps are sometimes eight to twelve in number, and ap- 
parently in some cases project from the back of that organ, 
though this must be considered uncertain and against analogy. 

There is, moreover, on the large paddles no trace of the 
fringed or serrated edges* which are so conspicuous in the 
paddles of ('. newiini. They are perfectly even. and smooth. 

There are also some marginal projections on the hinder part 
of the cephalo-thorax which ma}' be the traces of abdominal 
appendages, or the}^ may be merely the projecting margins of 
their corresponding somites, jutting out beyond the general 
line of the bod}'. 

No markings of any kind can be made out on the surface of 
the body such as the crescentic sculpture on the carapace of 
Eurypterus. This maj', however, be due to the roughness of 
the limestone matrix. 

The genus Carcinosoma appears to be intermediate among 
several of the other previously known genera of crustaceans 
from this horizcui. It has the long, spiny tail of Stylonurus 
and its branched gnathopods, the large fifth pair of append- 
ages of Pterygotus, the wide, short bod}' of Limulus or of the 
limuloids of that time, and the four small anterior pairs of 
appendages of Eurypterus. Its nearest ally is apparently 
Eusarciisf of (irote and Pitt, deseribed in the Bulletin of the 
Society of Natural Sciences (Vol. iii. No. 1). But thedescrip- 
tion of that genus mentions that the cephalo-thoracic |>ortion 

^MispriDted ''eyes*' in the original dencription, p. 200, American Ge- 
oixioisT, 1890. 

tin Miller's Catalogue of Palveozoic Fosails thia is put down as a syn- 
onym of Eurypterus, but the distinctionB are quite suflicient to warrant 
generic separation. 



^ 



Hennettiten dacotensis Macbride. — Calvin, 79 

ifi considerably narrower than in allied forms and that the 
terminal segment shows a widening and no trace of spiniform 
process. There are also several other minor points of ditfer- 
ence. 

But except its outward form or outline the above described 
fossil tells us nothing about the detail$> beyond what was 
known before, unless the indistinct outline of a metastomatic 
plate may be so regarded. This is a quadrilateral rhombic 
area, a little in frontof the central part of the body, margined 
by four furrows and corresponding to a similar area visible in 
some specimens of Eurypterus which show the ventral aspect. 



ON THE GEOLOGICAL POSITION OF BENNETTITES 

DACOTENSIS MACBRIDE, WITH REMARKS ON 

THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE REGION 

IN WHICH THE SPECIES WAS 

DISCOVERED. 

By Bamusi. Calvin, Iowa (!ity, Iowa. 

Since professor Macbride's paper on Bennetfites dacofensiif 
was published in the Ameuican Geologist for October, 1893, 
there have been nunieroua inquiries respecting the exact geo- 
logical horizon from which the cjcads were derived. The 
close resemblance and the intimate relationship indicated be- 
tween the Dakota fossil and Tifsouin iitunjlantUca Fontaine, 
while not conclusive, would yet point toward a common hori- 
zon for the two species, and so make it possible to correlate 
the Potomac formation with a definite Mesozoic horizon in 
the Northwest. Professor Macbride's paper left the strati- 
graphical position of his species undecided. To settle the 
<|uestiou definitely, if possible, the writer re<'ently made a 
visit to the locality that furnished the types of Macbride's 
species. 

Specimens i»f Hennettites are not very numerous in the 
Hluck Hills of South Dakota. At all events not very many 
have yet been brought to light. All the individuals at present 
known have been found in a rather limited area around Min- 
nekahta. a small station on the Deadwood branch of the B. 
dc M. railway. By far the greater number, some forty or 
fifty lU together, were discovered on an area of only a few 



80 The American Geologist, Febraair, 18M 

acres about four or fiyc miles southwest of Minnekahta. They 
all lay. partly imbedded in the soil, on the southern slope of 
one of the low, rounded, grassy hills that characterize the 
marginal portion of the Black Hills uplift. Separating the 
cycad hill from the next on the south is a comparatively shal- 
low but steep-sided caflon, supporting a comparatively dense 
growth of J*i)tit8 ponderosa Douglas. The walls of thecafion 
reveal the edges of gently folded and tilted beds of sandstone. 
Sandstones — yellow, brown, or red, sometimes in massive and 
sometimes in thinner layers^-often project above the grassy 
surface on the gentler slopes above the caflon walls; while 
here and there are high buttes, rising two or three hundred 
feet above the general level, and composed of conformable beds 
of sandstone throughout their entire elevation. A single sand- 
stone formation, therefore, extends from the bottom of the 
small secondary canons of the region to the top of the buttes, 
and, though no cycads were seen in place, there is no reason 
to doubt that it was in this sandstone, at s(»me level, that they 
were originally imbedded. The sandstone exhibits the char- 
acteristics of the Dakota group of the Black Hills as described 
by Hayden, Winchell and Newton, still it was thought best 
not to decide the question of its age on lithological grounds 
alone. Diligent search during the short time at our disposal 
failed to disclose the remains of recognizable plants or ani- 
mals, belonging to the sandstone, in place. Fragments of si- 
licified trunks, probably of deciduous trees, la}' loose on the 
surface*. Some of these were mingled with the cycad trunks, 
and, since the condition of mineralization was the same in 
both, it was inferred that the silicified trunks of both types 
had been imbedded under the same conditions and that they 
pr<»bably came from the same horizon. A short distance east 
of the cycad field a gray shale, supposed to be the Jurassic of 
the geologists who hav<' written on the Black Hills, was re- 
vealed by an upward arching fold in the bottom of thecafion, 
but, as it contained no fossils, judgment was for the time re- 
served. Three or four miles west of the main group of cycads 
ash-colored shales, recognized beyond a doubt by Helemnitvs 
ffpHst/H and other characteristic fossils as the Black Hills "SJu- 
raesic," are exposed in full force in the east side of Big H(jrn 
basin. The whole thickness of the Jurassic, two hundred feet 



Bennettites dacotensis Macbride. — Calvin, 81 

or more, is thus revealed; while beneath the Jurassic shales, 
at the bottom of the basin-like valley, there is an exposure of 
Red Beds having a thickness of twenty or thirty feet. The 
rim of Big Horn basin, on the east side at least, exhibits ten 
or twelve feet of heavy, cross-bedded sandstone resting di- 
rectly on the Jurassic shales. These eross-bedded layers con- 
stitute the base of *the great sandstone formation to which 
reference has already been made. The formation extends from 
the Jurassic shales to the summits of the adjacent buttes. On 
stratigraphical evidence we are now prepared to recognize it 
as the Dakota sandstone. The cycad beds are therefore Cre- 
taceous and belong to Meek and Hayden's Cretaceous No. 1. 

A considerable thickness of the sandstone at the top of all 
the higher buttes of the region has been converted into a very 
hard, brittle quartzite. The process of vitrification has in 
some instances almost completely obliterated the original 
structure; in other cases the original sand grains are seen 
imbedded in a secondary deposit of silica. Contrary to the 
opinion of some observers, I believe the vitrification to be due 
to conditions that existed in the sea at the time the beds 
were deposited. The waters were charged with an unusual 
amount of soluble silica which was not only precipitated 
among the sand grains, converting the whole mass into 
a homogeneous quartzite, but some of it was substituted for 
the molecules of lignificd and other tissues in the stems of 
cycads and deciduous trees that by accident were floated in 
from adjacent lands. 

The silicified trunks of ordinary trees now found on the 
lower slopes occupied by the sandstone are very much broken 
and weathered and polished by long exposure. On the shoul- 
der of one of the buttes, a mile or two west of the main cycad 
field, not far below the level of the vitrified bed, there was 
noted.a silicified log two feet in diameter at the base, twelve 
feet of the basal part unbroken, and a train of fragments of 
varying dimensions extending from the smaller end far 
enough to indicate an original length of seventy or eighty 
feet. The fresh appearance of this specimen with its frac- 
tures sharp-angled and its parts of considerable length all in 
their natural relative positions, was in striking contrast with 
the short, polished, worn, disassociated fragments found in 



82 The yimerican Geologist. February, 1894 

the residual soil on surfaces two or three hundred feet lower. 
The differences in condition and appearance indicate enor- 
mous differences in the length of time the specimens have 
been exposed. The effects on the better preserved specimen 
of rain and frost and wind-driven sands, with frequent falls 
from undermining cliffs, during the years necessary to reduce 
the hill on which it lies to the level notv occupied by the 
fragments with which it is compared, will not be left to 
conjecture so long as the worn and dismembered fragments 
lying at lower levels remain to furnish objective illustrations 
of what those effects have been in the past. There are' rea- 
sons for the conclusion that all the silicified trunks, including 
those of Bennettites, came from the same horizon and that 
that horizon was the vitrified beds near the summit of the 
Dakota sandstone. 

East of the valley followed in this vicinity bj" the B. 
& M. railway, rises Arnold's peak, a high butte, the sum- 
mit eight hundred feet above the valle}', and, like the 
other high points of the region, capped with vitrified sand- 
stone. The geological structure at the base is concealed, but 
a mile or two farther north, almost directly east of Minnc- 
kahta, the ridge of which Arnold's peak is simply the most 
prominent part, reveals at its base the belemnite-bcaring 
beds of the Jurassic. The plain on which Minnekahta 
stands is some scores of feet below the top of the Jurassic 
and not less than six hundred feet below the vitrified sand- 
stone near the summit of the Dakota group. On this plain a 
few specimens of Bennettites have been found, but in most 
cases they were so far decomposed as to fall to pieces when 
attempts were made to remove them. Again we find some 
relation between the abrasion and decomposition that the 
fossils have undergone and the vertical distance tlicy lie be- 
neath the vitrified beds. Assuming that all the fossils were im- 
bedded at essentiallv the same horizon, then those that now 
occupy the lowest level have been longest exposed to atmos- 
pheric and aqueous agencies. 

At Hot Springs, — about twenty miles, as one has to travel, 
from the principal group of cycads, — the valley of Fall river 
has been cut down through the entire thickness of the Dakota 
sandstone, through all the Jurassic, and down into the pur- 



Bennettites dacotensis Macbkide. — Caleht, 83 

pie limestone and gypsiferous red clays of the Red Beds. 
Battle mountain, east of the town of Hot Springs, has an 
elevation of about a thousand feet above the valley. The 
upper part of the mountain is composed of Dakota sandstone, 
and away up at the summit is the quartzite seen on the 
higher eminences around Minnekahta. Fall river, formei*l3' 
known as Minnekahta creek, flows off toward the southeast 
to join the south fork of the Cheyenne river. About four 
miles from Hot Springs the stream emerges from the sand- • 
stone hills in a series of cascades which constitute the falls 
of Fall river. At the falls, as previously observed b}^ New- 
ton, the sandstone is inclined at a high angle and passes be- 
neath the dark colored shales of the Fort Benton group. 
Crossing the nearly level plain that separates the last of the 
sandstone hills from a high escarpment that curves 
around nearly parallel to the margin of the uplift, we find 
ourselves on calcareous beds of the Niobrara group. These 
beds are charged with luoceramns problem a ticus Schlot., 
with occasional colonies of Ostrea cottgeHta, the whole aspect 
of the formation resembling closely the Inoceramus-bearing 
beds near Sioux City, Iowa, and Ponca, Nebraska. The sim- 
ilarity of the Sioux City deposits to Niobrara beds on French 
creek, a locality probabl}' thirty miles northeast of the point 
just noted was remarked b}' Prof. N. H. Winchell in 1874. 

Over on the Cheyenne river, about six miles east of Fall 
river falls, is an exposure of Niobrara that reminds one of the 
massive chalk beds at St. Helena, Nebraska. The resemblance 
is not complete, for at St. Helena the beds are for the most 
part white, only occasionally portions are bluish in color, ow- 
ing to the presence of organic matter. On the Cheyenne the 
beds are all bluish. They give out a strong foetid odor when 
struck with the hammer. There are indications of the pres- 
ence of organic matter in unusual amount. But the massive 
bedding of the soft, calcareous material, the manner in which 
the layers break down, the great angular blocks of talus, the 
occasional small colonies of (hfrea comjesta^ the vertebne and 
scales of fishes, are each and all perfectly duplicated at the 
two points mentioned — namely, on the Missouri at St. Helena 
and on the south fork of the Cheyenne southeast of Hot 
Springs. 



84 The American Geologist. Febmarir.iWi 

Around Edgemont, south of the Hilln, the country for some 
distance is occupied by the Fort Benton shales. A steep escarp- 
ment which constitutes the vertical face of the first terrace south 
of the Cheyenne, reveals, with their usual characteristics, the 
Inoceramus beds of the Niobrara; but passing on southwest 
over the hills toward the valley of (-ottonwood creek, the Fort 
Benton is again exposed. Erosion of the shales has formed a 
series of Bad Lands on a diminutive scale. It has at the same 
time made prominent certain beds of impure limestone from 
wiiich we obtained numerous fossils. Among the material 
collected here were specimens of Prionocyc1ui< n^ifomiiujenHin 
Meek, SfUfphifes //v/ /•/■<'/// Meek, S. wyinnimjettsis Meek, Lumi- 
tiff roitciinift M. & IL, I ntjceritmuH pseifflo-niytiloitles Schiel, 
two or three other species of Inoceramus, a Pteria or two, and 
many other less obtrusive forms that have not yet been iden- 
tified. 

At the town of Hot Springs some portions of the valley are 
occupied by horizontal beds of a very coarse conglomerate that 
lies unconformably on the folded and tilted Red Beds. The 
thickness of the conglomerate is about forty feet. It is com- 
posed of fragments of all the harder formations from the crys- 
talline rocks at the center of the uplift to the purple limestone 
of the Red Beds, and the quartzite of the Cretaceous. When 
the conglomerate was deposited the valley had essentially its 
present depth. In some cases the streams have just fairly 
completed the work of cutting through the conglomerate, in 
other cases they have cut twenty or thirty feet below its base. 
This conglomerate is probably the equivalent of that lying at 
the base of the White River Miocene. If so, it would indicate 
an enormous amount of erosion between the beginning and 
middle of the Tertiary as compared with the amount accom- 
plished since. 

Returning finally to the main object for which these obser- 
vations were undertaken, it is clear that JieimvttiteH tfffco- 
tenHiH Macbride belongs to the Cretaceous period, and the 
evidence is practically conclusive that the exact horizon at 
which the individuals of the species were imbedded is repre- 
sented by the uppermost layers of the Dakota sandstone. 




Interglacial Fossih. — Coleman^ 85 

INTERGLACIAL FOSSILS FROM THE DON 

VALLEY, TORONTO. 

By A. P. Coleman, Ph. D., Prof. Met. and AMayic«. School Priict. Sc, Toronto. 

FoBsils have been reported from a number of localities in the 
drift deposits of Ontario, those from the extreme east of the 
province being chiefly subarctic marine forms, while the spfe- 
cies occurring in the center and west are mainly fossil land 
plants and freshwater shells with a few remains of deer, 
beaver and mastodon. Among the more important publica- 
tions in which the Ontario drift fossils are referred to maybe 
mentioned two papers b}' Prof. Chapman in the Journals of 
the Canadian Institute,* a paper by G. J. Hinde in the same 
journal,! a paper by Dr. R. Bell in the Canadian Naturalist 
and Geologist, J and the account of the superficial geology of 
Canada in the Geological Survey Report for 1863.g In this 
report our superficial deposits are classified as follows: 

( Algoma sand. 
2. \ A rtemisiA gravel. 

( Saugeen f roshwater clay and sand. 

1. Erie olay. 
It is difficult to distinguish these deposits from one another 
in many casos, and there are such wide local variations that 
the classification is not always of value. Where the horizon 
of drift fossils is mentioned, they are generally referred to 
the Saugeen clay and its associated sandy beds or to the sands 
of raised beaches of postglacial formation. In most recorded 
instances the exact geological horizon of the find has not 
been determined, and the fossils may have come from post- 
glacial rather than interglacial deposits. The only cases of 
undoubted interglacial fossils which I have seen reported are 
from Niagara Falls, where (-yclas was found in a sandy loam 
coiltaining striated pebbles, || and from Scarboro' Mights,** a 
few miles east of Toronto, where Mr. Hinde found three dis- 
tinct layers of till with fossiliferous beds of sand and clay be- 
tween the two lower ones. From these beds Mr. Hinde 

*Vol. VI, pp. 221 and 497, etc. 

tVol. XV, p. 388, etc. 

JFeb., 1861, p. 42, etc. 

§Vol. for 1863, p. 886, etc. 

llGeol. Sur. Can., 1863, p. 902. 

**GIacial and Interglacial Strata of Scarboro' Rights, Jour. Can. Inst. 
Vol. XV, p. 388, etc. 



86 The American Geologist, Fobraary. 1894 

obtained three Rpeoies of diatoms, a Chara, five mosses, spores 
of Lycopodium, pieces of pine and cedar wood, portions of 
leaves of rush, etc., and seeds of various plants: as well as 
two or three S]>eeies of Cypris, the elytra of a carabid, a Plan- 
orbis, a Zonites (doubtful), — in all a respectable little flora 
and fauna. 

Fossils have been found frequently in the drift near To- 
ronto. Prof. Hinde mentions the finding of trunks and 
branches of trees imbedded in the overlying yellow elay^ at 
depths of from ten to twenty feet below the surface;* and 
from the Don valley in the eastern part of the city pieces of 
half carbonized wood, and fragments of shells have been col- 
lected from time to time. They are first mentioned by Prof. 
Chapmanf and Dr. Bell,* in 1861, who note the fact that a 
Melania and Unio ellipsis had been found by Dr. B. Workman 
under a deposit of sand about 80 feet above the lake. 

While excavations were in progress for the straightening 
and embiinking of the Don numerous fossils were obtained on 
the left bank of the river near the Gerrard street bridge, by Dr. 
Brodie and Mr. J. Town send. Sir Wm. Dawson in 1H90 refers 
to the finding of leaves, fragments of wood, and shells of Me- 
lania and Cychis by the latter collector.}? In an appendix to 
the same paper Prof. Penhallow has figured a leaf found by 
Mr. Townsend, des<*ribing it as a new species under the name 
of Acer pleisKicenicum. || He determined other specimens from 
the same locality as follows, — Asimina triloba, Ulmus race- 
mosa, and Taxus baccata. Mr. Wm. Spr}', who was engineer 
in charge of the work during part of the time, informs me 
that there were tree trunks one or two feet through in the 
boulder-clay just above the underlying shale at Jail hill some- 
what north of the bridge. 

Since then a cutting on the Belt Line railway near the Win- 
chester street bridge, half a mile above the previous locality 
and the west side of the river, has affru'ded many very fragile 
specimens of Pleurocera, Valvata sineera and Sphjerium 

*Geol. Sur. Can., 1863, p. 904. 
+CS«n. Jour., Vol. vi, p. 226. 
JCan. Nat. and (Jeol., Feb., 1861, p. 42. 
§Bull. Geol. See. Am., Vol. i. p. 315. 
Idem, p. 328. 



s 



fnterglacial Fossils, — Coleman, 87 

«triatinuin, as well as pearly fragments of Unio. The foesil- 
iferous bed is sandy and reaches about 25 to 35 feet above the 
Don. 

The most interesting exposure of al] has recently been 
•opened at the Messrs. Taylors' brickyard, nearly a mile north 
of the Gerrard street bridge. Many specimens of Unio have 
been collected here by myself, Mr. Blue, Mr. Townsend and 
the workmen employed in the quarry. The majority of them 
•are so fragile as to fall to pieces with even the most careful 
handling; and it was only after following the advice of Dr. 
Dull, of the Smithsonian Institution, to soak the fossils in 
shellac varnish diluted with alcohol, that they could be at all 
satisfactorily preserved. 

My thanks are due to Dr. Dall and his aid, Mr. C. T. Simp- 
son, for the determination of the specimens, which include the 
following species , — Pleurocera subulare, P. elevatum, an un- 
determined species of the same genus and a single specimen 
which may be P. pallidum ; Valvata sintfera, Spheerium striati- 
num, Unio phaseolus, U. clavus, U. pustulosus, U. pustulosus 
var. schoolcrafti, U. occidens (V), U. luteolus, U. undulatus, U. 
rectus, U. trigonus, U. solidus. * 

Mr. Simpson has described these fossils in the Proceedings 
of the U. S. National Museum* and states that at least three of 
the species of Unio and one Pleurocera are no longer inhab- 
itants of the St. Lawrence drainage area, but belong to the 
waters draining into the Mississippi. 

A list of the species now living in the vicinity of Toronto, 
made out for me by Dr. Brodie, includes r)nly four of the 
species obtained at the quarry, viz. Valvata sincere, Sphterium 
striatinura, Unio luteolus and U. rectus. Specimens of the two 
Unios which he has sent me are thinner-shelled than the fos- 
sils of the same species. 

Three specimens of wood obtained at the quarry just above 
the lower boulder-cla}' were forwarded to Prof. Penhallow, of 
Mc(4ill University, for examination. As his report is ap- 
pended to this paper, it is sufficient to state at this point that 
he refers the specimens, which he finds badly decayed and 
•crushed, provisionally to the nearest living speci€»s, Fraxinus 
•quadrangulata, Quercus obtusiloba, and Taxu-s baccata, var. 

♦Vol.xvi, pp. 591-595. 



8S The American (ieoloyist. Febraary, 1894 

canaden8i8. The firt^t two have not hitherto been reported 
from the Canadian drift. 

In order to show definitely the geological horizon at which 
the fossils were found, the section exposed at Taylors' brick- 
yard has been measured, giving the following results: 

Feot. 

1. Sandy Boil followed by brownish grey clay with boulders ... 3 

2. Stratified bluish grey clay (makiog buff brick) 69 

8. Brownish or drab clay, much jointed (making red brick) 11 

4. Brownish yellow stratified sand 4 

5. Blue clay with peaty flakes 3 

6. Brown sand and gravel (false bedding) with thin layers of 

blue or brown clay—fosBiliferous 18 

7. Blue clay (till) with striated boulders 3 

8. Hudson River snales 80 

141 
The Hudson River shales, which are quarried to make dark 
red pressed bricks rise about 30 feet above the Don, here prac- 
tically at the level of lake Ontario; and are covered with a 
thin layer of typical boulder-clay containing finely polished 
and scratched fragments of the under-lying Carabro-Silurian 
rocks with a few stones of Layrentian origin. The residue of 
the clay after washing discloses particles of quartz, horn- 
blende, feldspar, etc., evidently derived from Arch«?an rocks. 
From the upper portion of the clay, which is indistinctly 
stratified, I have obtained Unios and the specimens of wood 
submitted to Prof. Penhallow. The Unios had evidently 
lived in the place where they were found, since they were not 
at all waterworn, still preserved their dark epidermis and fre- 
quently had the two valves attached. The till fills up all in- 
equalities in the previously eroded surface and forms a floor 
with a gentle southward slope under the whole city. To the 
south it passes beneath the surface of the lake at some points. 
I am informed by Mr. B. E. Walker that in excavating for 
the foundations of the Board of Trade building a few years 
ago two shark's teeth, apparently of Tertiary age, were found 
in the till. One of them is now in his possession. It is hard 
to account for this find, since no Tertiary rocks are known to 
exist this side of Hudson's bay. Some small outlier may lie 
hidden under the drift or may have been completely swept 
awav bv ice action. 



Internlucial FoaaUs, — Coleman. 89 

Above the till we find 18 feet of simd with some fine gravel 
and a few thin layers of clay, a deposit formed in shallow 
water with shifting currents as shown by the false bedding. 
Well rounded pebbles of Laurentian and Silurian rocks occur, 
and the sands contain fragments of most of the minerals be- 
longing to Archiean rocks. Some layers are brown from a 
deposit of hydrous sesquioxide of iron. Shells of Pleurocera 
and Sphseriuiu are common throughout the sand, and about 
eight feet above the till there is a layer containing many 
Unios, mostly separate valves more or less waterworn. 

Above the sand is a bed of blue calcareous clay with flakes 
of peaty matter, then a bed of unfossiliferous sand, followed 
by a thick bed of distinctly jointed brownish clay, making 
red brick, probably corresponding to the Erie clay described 
in the Geological Survey Report for 1863. 

This is succeeded by 69 feet of finely stratified bluish grey 
clay too calcareous for brick-making in the lower portions but 
yielding a buff brick from the upper layers. Very few peb- 
bles or stones occur in it, the few that I have found being sub- 
angular with some faces polished and others rough. Under 
the microscope it appears to be a fine "rock fiour" containing 
a few minute angular fragments of quartz, orthoclase, micro- 
cline, etc., as well as many indeterminable particles. 

Towards the top this clay merges into an unstratified 
brownish dav with manv boulders of Silurian and Laurentian 
origin, some fairly well rounded, others subangular and more 
or less striated. The line between the brown clay and the 
overlying sandy soil also is not well marked. In the soil and 
on the surface are many large Archiean boulders, one mass of 
gneiss measuring nearly six feet in longest diameter. The 
top of the section, 140 feet above the Don, is at the level of 
the plain on which the northern part of T(u*onto is built, a 
plain extending several miles to the westward, but cut off a 
quarter of a mile to the north by the Davenport ridge. Sev- 
eral other exposures along the Don and its tributaries or at 
railway cuttings in the neighborhood show similar sections of 
stratified sands and clays, but, as far as observed, without fos- 
sils. The upper boulder deposit is better displaj'ed at the 
end of the C. P. K. trestle, a quarter of a mile to the south, 
than at the quarry itself. Here ten or fifteen feet of sandy 



90 The American Geologist. Febniarj, iSM 

<*iay containing boulders, especially of limestone, beautif uIIt 
poli«lied and t*triat<^don gome f ace r, form the uppermost layer, 
uud rest upon tlie i»ame thick bed of finely stratiiied bluish- 
j<ray clay observed at the quarry. 

The Uavenport ridge, really a plateau rising 30 or 40 feet 
above the plain to the south, is found, where laid open by cut- 
tiugfc* for roads or railways, to consist in its upper part of un- 
st ratified sand with numerous pebbles and boulders distinct! j 
polished and scored, the whole evidently a glacial deposit of 
somewhat dilferent materials from those of the till at the bot- 
tom of the series. These glacial sands once extended much far- 
ther to the south than now, perhaps reaching the present lake 
siiore, but wave action has washed them away, leaving behind 
the large boulders onee so thickly scattered over the site of 
Toronto, though liow mostly removed for road-making pur- 
poses.* 

Comparing the section just given with one kindly furnished 
by Dr. Brodie from a locality now buried from view, at the Win- 
chester street bridge, there are below the level of the lake,, 
resting on Hudson River shale, six feetof uncertain materials, 
five feet of a deposit containing leaves, wood and Cyclas 
goniobasis ( ?), and ^m* I'eetof till with boulders difi^ering from 
those fr)und higher up. The upper part of this bed rises a 
little above the level of the lake. Upon this follow first a 
lacustrine deposit, say fifteen feet, with wood, leaves, Cyclas 
and Unios; next, ghicial i*\i\y with very large boulders of 
gjiciss, etc.; and fiiuilly hike shore sand, not continuous. 

A somewhat difi'erent account of the section is given by 
Air. Townsend, as (juoted by Sir Wn». Dawson.f Reversing 
I hi* (Hcier in which Mr. Townsend arranges the series, we find 
blui' till resting on the Huds(ui River beds; then sixteen feet 
ijf alternating sand and dark-colored clav with freshwater 
hlu'lU juui wood; tliree feet of ferruginous sand with argilla- 
ciMiiis notlules (one containing a nuiple leaf); twenty-four feet 
nf t<Migh, stratified blue *'Krie clay;'' and finally twenty-six 
I'lM't of fine, light-ci)lored sand, with lavers of rhiv at bottom. 

Tlie lowest fcwsiliferous deposit, mentioned by Dr. Broilie 

^(ilttiiul PhbDomena of Canada, etc.. Prof. RamBey, Can. Nat. and 
( UujI., IHaO, pp. :ti8. He gives a sectioa of Torooto drift, showing bouU 

Ulull. tieol. See. Am., vol. i, p. ;>15. 



Interglacial Fossils, — Coleviatt. 91 

but not by Mr. Townsend, is perhaps preglacial. The fifteen 
or sixteen feet of lacustrine deposit just above the till, corre- 
spond to the Unio- and Pleurocera-bearing beds of the brick- 
yard. 

The section measured by Mr. G. J. Hinde at Scarboro' Hights 
differs more widely from the one described in the present pa- 
per, since there the lowest boulder clay is separated from the 
second by 140 feet of fossiliferous clay and sand.* It is clear 
that our drift deposits vary greatly within comparatively 
short distances. 

In interpreting the facts observed in the Don valley we 
have a first Ice age in which the glacier worked up the Hud- 
son River shales into boulder clay, ktieading in afew Archtnan 
boulders, and spreading a tough carpet of till in a gentle slope 
toward the hollow of lake Ontario, and then withdrew; fol- 
lowed by the waters of the lake, which stood 40 or 50 feet 
above its present level, if we suppose no change in the hight 
of land above sea at this point. Mr. Simpson supposes that 
the lake was ice-dammed at this stage,f and drained into the 
Mississippi, making it possible for mollusks belonging to the 
Mississippi fauna to invade waters normally flowing into the 
St. Lawrence. The supposition is a natural one, but seems 
contradicted by the fact thatat present the watershed between 
lake Ontario and the tributaries of the Mississippi is several 
hundred feet above the level of the lake. I have seen no re- 
ports of buried channels going low enough to drain lake On- 
tario into the Mississippi down to a level onl}^ 50 feet above 
the present, though of course, the possibility of finding one 
cannot be denied. There seems more evidence of an old 
channel leading past Syracuse through the Mohawk valley 
into the Hudson. ;J; which would not account for the presence 
of Mississippi forms in Ontario, however. In whatever way 
they were introduced, there is no doubt that during intergla- 
cial time eight or ten species of Unio, several no longer found 
in our waters, lived at the mouth of the Don, first on the 
scarcelv disturbed surface of the till, afterwards on beds of 
sand and well rolled gravel brought down by the river and 

♦Jour. Can. Inst., vol. xv, p. 392. 
tProc. Nat. Museum, No. 952, p. 593. 
:tWright, Man and the Glacial Period, p. 202. 



92 The American Geologist, February, 18»4 

spread in its shallow estuary. On the banks of the prehis- 
toric Don grew trees such as now flourish in the same region, 
yews and cedars, maples, oaks and ashes ; as well as the 
papaw, now, I believe, not occurring north of the lake. 
Judging by the flora and fauna the climate was by no means 
subarctic, but on the contrary fully as mild as at present, if 
not a little milder. 

The length of the interglacial time was sutticient for the 
deposit of 24 feet or more of sand and clay on the Don and 
140 feet of similar materials at Scarboro' Hights, and for the 
growth of large forest trees. 

It is generally supposed, from the direction of glacial stria- 
tions and of the transport of boulders, that the center from 
which the ice radiated was at the watershed between the St. 
Lawrence and Hudson bay or somewhat farther east in Lab- 
rador, at the farthest* not more than 700 miles from Toronto. 
At the present time in southern British Columbia n6v6 is 
•scarcely found on mountains rising less than 8,000 feet above 
sea level, and glaciers hardl}"^ come down to 5,000 feet. It is 
probable that a depression of the highest point^s to 7,000 or 8,000 
feet would completely wipe out all the glaciers of southern 
British Columbia. So far as I am aware, no point reaches 
^^,000 feet above sea level between Ontario and Hudson ba}', 
and no point in Labrador rises much above 0,000 feet. Unless 
the northern watershed stood very much higher above lake 
Ontario than at present, it is impossible to imagine a wide 
spread sheet of ice existing there during interglaci«l time, 
when oaks and maples and papaws flourished on the land and 
Mississippi Unios in the waters onl}' 400 or 500 miles to the 
southeast. I know of no evidence proving that the glacial 
center stood at that time 8,000 or 4,0(M) feet higher above lake 
Ontario than at present, and hence conclude that the ice fields 
were completely melted during the int4,*rglacial epoch, instead 
of merely receding a comparatively short distance before ad- 
vancing again. 

Afti*r the deposit of the fossiliferous beds the lake rose to 
at least 140 feet above its present level, perhaps dammed at 
its eastern end by the return of the ice during the second gla- 
cial period, and thick beds of clay were laid down in quiet 
water. Probably the Don at this time was a glacial stream, 




Inlerglacial Fossiln, — Coleman, 93 

bringing down rock flour from the not far distant ice front, 
as the upper waters of the Athabasca now do, and depositing 
it on the floor of a lake too muddy and cold for life. 

A further advance of the glacier buried the stratified clay 
beneath 30 or 40 feet of sandy clay and sand containing num- 
berless subangular, stria. ted stones and some boulders of Lau- 
rentian and Silurian rock several tons in weight. These ma- 
terials show little or no stratification and are not waterworn 
so far as 1 have observed. The striie on limestone pebbles are 
sharp, and there are flat pebbles of soft Utica shale here 20 
miles from home, which would have been destroyed if trans- 
ported by wave action or by running water. The clays under 
this second glacial deposit appear to have been very little dis- 
turbed by the passage over them of the glacier. 

When the ice of the second glacial epoch retreated, the 
lakes, whether dammed by an eastern tongue of ice or lowered 
to the level of the sea, formed a beach now 140 feet or more 
above the lake, Spencer's Iroquois beach.* Wave action re- 
moved the loose materials as far as the Davenport ridge, which 
forms so prominent a feature of the northern part of the city, 
the heavier stones being left where they rested as a boulder 
pavement. At the Iroquois stage the lake is considered to 
have drained into the Hudson. Several of the Unios 
exterminated by the second advance of the ice did not re- 
turn when the ice retreated again. Was the continuously icy 
water unfavorable to the species which failed to return? Mr. 
Simpson supposes that some change in the drainage system 
prevent<?d them from regaining the lost ground.f The change 
from the Iroquois level to the present one must have been 
rapid, leaving no time for the formation of intermediate 
beaches. Since the change of level the Don and its tributa- 
ries have had time to remove the drift deposits down to 
base line for more than a mile north of Tonmto bay. 

Note on Inteuulaoial Plants from thk Don Vallky. 

By Prof. I>. p. Pekhai<lo\v, McOiU University, Montreal. 

From time to time there have been brought to light a num- 
ber of interesting plants from the interglacial formation of 

^Deformation of IroquoiB Beach and Birth of Lake ODtario, Am. 
Jour. Sol., Vol. XL, Dec, 1890, p. 446. 
tProc. Nat. Museum, Vol. xvi, p. 595. 



94 The AmencftH Geologist, FebnMry, 19M 

the Don vallej near Toronto. These, chiefly in the form of 
lignite, have thrown much light upon the vegetation of that 
time, and show that in the arborescent forms at least, the 
species were such as maj now be found in the same region. 
On the 7th of November, 1893, Prof. A. P. Coleman, of Toronto, 
sent me three excellent specimens of interglaciai lignite for 
determination. They represented fragments of branches 
which must have been several inches in diameter when grow> 
ing. Outwardly the material appeared well preserved, and 
after boiling in carbonate of potash for about two hours was 
found to be sufticientlv soft and free from siliceous matter to 
section freely. It was therefore imbedded in paraffine and 
sectioned on a microtome. 

Upon examination of the sections it was found that the struc- 
ture had been greatly altered by decay and compression, so 
that, with the exception of number two, reference to species 
could not be made with certain tv. 

As, however, previous experience has shown the close iden- 
tity between the interglaciai vegetation and that of our own 
time in the same locality, it is probably admissible to refer 
doubtful species to those modern species which they most 
nearly approach, and it may be that future material, more 
perfectly preserved, will enable us to decide more definitely 
as to the specific value of such provisional reference. There 
is, at any rate, the great advantage of avoiding the introduc- 
tion of new names which may hereafter require to be 

abolished. 

No.l. Fraxi?(C8 gnADRANOcxATA Michz. 
The specimen marked No. 1, was much altered by oompreesion and 
decay, so that the transTerse section was much disturbed, while the 
longitudinal sections exhibited but poorly a very few of the charscters 
upon which specific distinction is to be based. From the former, how- 
ever, it was at once clear that the plant was a Frazimus, and as, of ex- 
isting speciee, it seems to approach most nearly to F. quadrangulata^ I 
consider it proper to refer it, provisionally, to that species. So far as 1 
am aware this is the first record we have of this genus in the intergla- 
ciai of Canada. Frazinus quadrangulata is at present found in Canada 
along the shores of lake Erie, and particularly about point Peter. {Ma- 

No. 2. Tax us baccata L., var. canadensis Gray. 
Specimen No. 2 showed the characteristic structure in cross section 
very dearly. In longitudinal section the usual markings of the tracheid 
walls were found to be largely obliterated, e%'en to the bordered pits, 




Alym as Geoloffical Guides. — James, 95 

but enough evidence remained to enable me to refer the specimen with- 
out doubt to Taxus baccata L., var. canadensis Qray. 

This species has hitherto proved a somewhat common one in the 
interglacial of Canada, particularly in the Don valley.* 

No. 3. QuERCus OBTUsiLOBA Michx. 

Specimen No. 3 showed considerable alteration. While in transverse 
sectiob the quercic characters are well defined, in longitudinal sections 
the structural markings were almost obliterated. The resemblance of 
this wood to modern oaks was found to be most marked in the case of 
Querctis obtusiloba Michx., to which I therefore refer it, provisionally. 
This is the first time an oak has been found in the interglacial of Can- 
ada. 

Quercus obtusiloba is now found in southern Ontario, a od particularly 
about the bay of Quiute (Macoun), 



ON THE VALUE OF SUPPOSED ALG/E AS GEO- 
LOGICAL GUIDES. 

Bj JosBPH F. Jahxs, M. Sc., F. O. S. A., etc. 
[Bead before Am. Asso. Adv. Science, Au^et, 1893.] 

In the discussion of the evolution of the vegetable king- 
dom it has been the habit to refer to the Alga? as appearing 
very early in time, and as furnishing one proof of the theory 
of derivation and descent from the simple to the complex. In 
the pursuance of this one writerf has given the number of the 
species of Algie that have been found in various strata, and 
has constructed a chart showing their gradual increase from 
early to recent times. Other writers have placed groups of 
rocks in the same time epochs upon the presence of certain of 
these organisms, while still others have gone so far as to make 
new genera for fossils because they occurred in a different lo- 
cality, and were of a different geological age, and because 
they did not believe that Alga? could persist through the 
requisite time interval. The new genera are made, notwith- 
standing they resemble each other so much that, were they 
found in the same beds, or even in the same horizon, they 
would undoubtedly have been placed in the same genus. 

It has now come to he well recognized that Algie existed at 
a very early period in the history of the earth. The abun- 

"i^The Pleistocene Flora of Canada, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., i, 321. 

tWard,L. F. Sketch of Palaeobotany. Fifth Ann. Kept., U. S. GeoL 
Sur., 1885. 



96 The American Geologist, February. 1894 

danec of graphite in the Lauren tian rocks has caused many 
authors, Sir William I)aw8on among others,* to postulate the 
existence of cellular organisms, certainly aquatic and possibly 
terrestrial, during the long pre-Cambrian epochs. In regard 
to the possible existence of these forms of life, he says : 

^'The climate and atmosphere of the Laurentian ma> have be^n well 
adapted for the suBtenance of vegetable life. We can scarcely doubt 
that the internal heat of the earth still warmed the waters of the sea, 
and these warm waters must have diffused great quantities of mists and 
vapors over the land, giving a moist and equable, if not very clear, at- 
mosphere. The vast quantities of carbon dioxide, afterwards sealed up 
in limestones and carbonaceous beds, must also have still floated in the 
atmosphere, and must have supplied abundance of the carbon, which 
constitutes the largest ingredient in vegetable tissues. Under these 
circumstances the whole world would have resembled a damp, warm 
greenhouse, and plants loving such an atmosphere could have grown 
luxuriantly. In these circumstances the lower forms of aquatic vege- 
tation and those that love damp, warm air and wet soil would have been 
at home. * '*' The Algae may have attained to gigantic dimensions, 
and may have even ascended out of the water in some of their forms. 

'*' * Comparatively simple cellular and tubular structures, now de- 
graded to the humble position of flat lichens or soft or corky fungi, or 
slender cellular mosses, may have been so strengthened and modified 
as to constitute forest trees." (pp. 17-18.) 

We have still further presumptive evidence of the existence 
of aquatic vegetation in early Cambrian and Paleozoic times 
in the presence of vast numbers of animal forms which we 
are justified in believing subsisted upon such vegetation. 
But while we may inferentially postulate the existence of 
Algje, it seems more thnn likely that the greater majority of 
the fossils described as Alga* are not such at all. This matter 
has been so often referred to, however, that it need not be 
discussed here. It is the intention to call attention to certain 
facts which have been noted by many observers in respect to 
the positions where the supposi'd Alga* occur, and to discuss 
their value as geological guides. 

The fossils are nearly always found as elevations upon the 
lower surfrci»s 4if the rock, although it sometimes happens 
that they are upon the upper surface. It has also Ix'cn fre- 
<juently remarked that when' they occur. oth<»r and un- 
doubted organic lorms are absent. This is stated in the 
description of nearly every species and has been repeatedly 

♦Geological History of Plants. New York, 1888, pp. 12-19. 



Algft as Geological Guides. — James. 97 

noticed by myself in various localities." They are nearly 
always accompanied by raindrop impressions, undoubted worm 
tracks, or schematic markings. The absence of other organic 
forms is almost in itself sufficient to stamp them as of inor- 
ganic origin. They occur in vast profusion, filling whole sur- 
faces of rock through many vertical feet of strata, and man}" 
attain a great size and length, ten or fifteen feet being not 
unusual. 

The data upon which any chart or any scheme showing 
derivation is based is necessarily derived from the published 
descriptions of species and genera. The more numerous these 
are the larger the amount of data upon which conclusi(ms are 
based. But when a critical examination shows that there are 
more genera and species made than there is reason for, when 
it is shown that the increase of genera and species is due to 
the fact that new forms are made for no other reason than 
that they are f(»und in different horizons, the value of the 
data depreciates very nuiterially. When still further study 
shows that the species and genera charged to Algje are not 
really such, the value of the deductions fades away entirely. 
Such we believe to be the case ; so that, much as we may be- 
lieve in the evolutionary theory, we do not believe it receives 
support from such deductions. This conclusion was also 
reached by Williamson in 1886 as shown in a paper read in 
that year.* In discussing problematic organisms after refer- 
ring to the diversity of opinion as to their true nature, he 
says that the objects '^?an have no weight with the student of 
evolution, and until we obtain more definite proofs than we 
have heretofore obtained of the vegetable nature of most of 
these dubious 'Paleozoic Alga*,' we must reject their testimony 
when framing a pedigree for the vegetable kingdom. At the 
same time I regard the existence of an abundant marine vege- 
tation during the Paleozoic ages as an inevitable corollary of 
the fact that the rocks of those ages abound in the remains of 
phytophagous animals.'' (p. 28.) 

The correlation of the strata of one country, or part of one 
country, with another, has also been frequently made upon the 

^Williamson, W. C. On some undeecribed tracks of invertebrate ani- 
mals from the Yoredale rocks, and on some inorganic phenomena pro- 
duced on tidal shores, simulating plant remains. Mem. Manchester 
Lit. and Phil. Soc., 3d ser., vol. x, pp. 19-29. 



98 The American Geologist. February, 18B4 

preBence of one or more of these organisms. Deductions, for 
example, have been made upon Scolithus linearis^ the presence 
of this fossil having caused Billings* to place strata on the 
Strait of Belle Isle, now recognized as Lower Cambrian, in the 
same horizon as the Potsdam of New York, now in the Upper 
Cambrian. So the Chilhowee of Tennessee has been placed in 
the Potsdam upon the evidence of the same fossil, whereas it 
is really Lower Cambrian. f H. M. Ami, in 1887J when dis- 
ciissing the occurrence of Scolithus canadensis in the Chazy 
of Canada said "that the occurrence of Scolithus remains does 
not necessarily indicate the presence of Potsdam rocks, but 
that the beds may possibly be newer or higher up in the 
series." The same fact was mentioned by Bra i nerd and Seelyg 
when discussing the rocks of the Champlain lake region. 
They stated that "the fucoids, so far as we have seen, are not 
characteristic of any one division, though they appear abun- 
dantly in various horizons of D. Further, Scolithus can not 
be regarded as indicating a Potsdam horizon, as the most 
abundant display we have ever seen is to be found at the bot- 
tom of Division C, 600 or 700 feet above the Potsdam sand- 
stone." Professor Lesley quotes this statement and agrees 
with it. II But he had come to the same conclusion fifteen 
years before. In a discussion of fucoids in that year,** he 
called attention to their wide time range and said : 

''There may have been different Bpeoie8,but certainly most of the ma- 
rine AlgaB had a large vertical time-raoge through the Palseozoic for- 
matioDs. 

"ConeequeDtly they can not be used as geological guides. We know 
nothing about their internal structure. They were cellular masses, 
easily rotted, rapidly losing shape when dead, and leaving on the an- 
cient shore-sand mere molds or indistinct impressions. They cover, by 
millions, the Chemung rocks (Oil system), and have a thousand shapes 
which seem at first to be easily classified into species and genera; but 
the task is fruitless; form graduates into form, and no specific marks 



^Billings, E. Palaeozoic Fossils, 18(31, p. 2. 

tWaloott, C. D. 

$On the occurrence of Scolithus in rocks of the Chazy formation 
about Ottawa, Canada. Canad. Reo. Sci., vol. ii, p. 304. 

§BulL Geol. Soo. Am., vol.i, 1890, pp. 501-511. 

, Dictionary of Fossils of Penn. P4, vol. iii, p. 943. 

**On a map and profile of Coal and Oil Measures along Slippery creek 
in Lawrence county, Pennsylvania; from a Survey in 1864 by J. P. Les- 
ley and Leo Lesquereux. 2d Geol. Sur. Penn., J, 1875, pp. 90-107. 




Alyw as Geological Guides, — James, 99 

can be detected. Whole fields of this ancient marine veg;etation ap- 
pear like a graee plot, each blade of which has eome peculiar feature, 
but none marked enough to make it positively distinct. Either there 
are as many species as individuals, or all belong to one species, repre- 
sented by a great number of closely allied varieties. They can not be 
used as geological guides.*' (pp. 100<101.) 

Count H. Solnis-Laubach* uses equally strong language 

when discussing Algfe. Besides the genuine Alga?, he says : 
"There still remain a large number of forms from all the formations, 
from the Quaternary back to the Lower Silurian, which have been de- 
scribed under an abundance of generic names; but they have virtually 
no interest to the botanist, because there is no immediate possibility of 
profitable comparison with known algal types. We may, perhaps, be 
able at some future time to pick out a type here and there [from] this 
hopeless chaos, but it is scarcely possible that we shall ever attain to a 
better position as regards the remainder. We must neoessarily be 
always dependent on characters derived from external form, and these 
in the case of the Algte prove only too little; we can scarcely hope to 
penetrate to the inner structure of the fructification, which can alone 
determine the affinity. And, to meet an objection which may be ex- 
pected from the paleontologists, I will add at once that I should not 
hesitate to say the same of the ConiferaB, for instance, if we had nothing 
left of them but the impressions of the leaves; but there we are better 
off, for cones, wood and fragments showing anatomical structure have 
been preserved as so many points of support for the conclusions, by 
which we can be continually testing the degree of probability to be as- 
signed to the new conquests. What mistakes may be made without the 
aid of such objects is shown by the number of impressions of conifers, 
which are explained by older authors, by Brongniart for example, as 
Zonarites digitatus, various Caulerpitse, and other Algas.** 

The illustrious algologist, Harvey, gives similar testimony. 
Rogers, in the Geology of Pennsylvania,! refers to certain fos- 
sil remains found by him and supposed to be plants. They 
were sent to Prof. Balfour who wrote as follows in regard to 
one which presents many points of resemblance to the genus 
Dendrophycus^ and which, notwithstanding the opinions of 
Newberry and others, I for one can not but regard as the im- 
print of drainage channels upon mud. Prof. Balfour says : 

'*On the whole subject of such fossil forms, I would take leave to for- 
ward to you the following words of Harvey, who in speaking of the sea- 
weed called Ptilota rhodocalUs says : ^\t first sight this beautiful 
species might almost be taken for Rftacelocarpus biUardieri, so similar 
are its ramifications and co lor ; but the structure of the frond and the 

*Po8sil Botany. Translated by Garnsey and Balfour. London, 1891, 
p. 45 et seq. 

tVol. II, 1858, pp. 830 and 884. . : 



• • . - • • . ♦ 



100 The Am erica n Geologist. February, I6i4 

fructification are bo different that we are forced to refer these Algae to 
widely separated families. Geologists sometimes complain that bota- 
nists refuse definitely to name foesil plants whose impressions are left 
in sandstone, and, in the geological sense, tcell preserved ; but cases 
such as the present — and it is one out of a thousand — show how uncer- 
tain must be the determination even of the best stone printing of a foesil 
stem. What shall we say, then, of the positive settlement of the affini- 
ties and structure of fossil shadows, where there does not remain the 
faintest trace in stone of the entity that was and is not ?* " 

Broni^niart also refers* to the j^reat time range of certain 
species described as Alpe under the name of Chondrites. Thej 
occur in vast numbers in the Flysch of Switzerland, the spe- 
cies passing by insensible gradations into each other. After 
giving a list of twelve species of the Algie, Brongniart says: 
"The remarkable points about this series of species are, that they 
have nothing in common either with the Alga^ of the sub-Cretaceous 
epoch, nor with those of the Miocene; especially of Monte Bolca, with 
which this fiora would be almost contemporaneous, according to many 
geologists ; and again, the identity of these species of Algse in so many 
localities situated at great distances, localities so numerous for most of 
these species that I have not been able to cite them. M. Kurr has also 
described and figured under the name of Ch, boHemis, a Fucus of the 
Lias, the very varied forms of which are almost identical with Ch, tar- 
gioniifWqualis and difformis** all of which are given in the list re- 
ferred to. 

The type of so-called seaweeds various!}' known under the 
names of Spirophyton^ Taonnrn:*^ Alectorurns^ Zoophyros^ Phy- 
tfojfhycit.s and Cancellophycnn presents an instance of the ex- 
cessive multiplication of genera for the simple reason that 
they occur at different geological horizons. For example, 
.1 /f'r7orwri/j» is supposed to characterize the Silurian; Physo- 
y>^i/r//* the Carboniferous; Spirophyton the Devonian; Can- 
ce//o/iAi/c//.« the Jurassic ; Zoophycos and Taonnrmt the Cre- 
taceous or Eocene. Saporta when proposing the generic name 
Canrclfophycns said:f 

'*We replace by a new generic name those species of Zoophycon and 
Taonurun, applied, the one by Massalongo and Heer, and the other by 
Fischer-Ooster, to those .\lgfe represented by the type of Chondrites, 
scopitrinn of Thiolliere. Not only do theee terms appear to us im- 

*ChronoIogical exposition of the periods of vegetation and the differ^ 
ent floras which have successively occupied the surface of the earth. 
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d ser., vol. vi, London, 1850, p. 353. Trans, 
by Arthur Henfrey from Ann.d. Sci. Nat. Botan., ser. 8, vol. xi, May and 
June, 1840. 

•. .^Planfes Jurassiques. Pal.Francaise, 2d ser. Veg. Text, p. 127. 
• - • • - - • • 




Alga' as Geological Guides, — James, 101 

proper, but in the opinion of the authors who have proposed them, they 
designate especially species of the Flysch, the identity of structure of 
which with the Jurassic forms that we here describe is far from being 
proved; this identity, at all events, is doubtful, on account of the dis- 
tance that separates the two epochs, a fact the more curious that it has 
been wished to be verified. Many types of Algee, anterior to the species 
composing the group of Chondrites scoparius show among themselves 
analogies very close to Taonurus of the Flysch; every one of them is, 
however, distinguished by a particular generic name. The resemblance 
of these successive forms, constructed more or less upon the same plan, 
compels us to admit the existence of a great family, now entirely ex- 
tinct, that from Paleeozoic time to the Miocene, has not ceased to have 
some representative in the seas of our hemisphere/' 

The contrast between these remarks by an author who would 
have a new genus for each successive geological horizon and 
a new species on almost every turn of the fossil form, with 
those of Lesquereux, who was also quite prone to make new 
species, is striking. In respect to the genus Taonnms he 
says:* 

"All the forms of Taonurus^ considered as specifically different, may 
perhaps be modifications or varieties of one. They are rarely found in 
a good state of preservation and are difficult to study.'* 

The erroneous deductions which have been made upon the 
remains of pseudo-algse, as they are here considered, might be 
greatly multiplied. It is not, however, necessary to do tliis 
now. The following conclusions, we believe, may be fairly 
drawn from what has been given above : 

(1) The presumptive evidence of the presence of Alg«e in 
early geological time is good, but there is not good evidence 
that the greater number of species described as Algce are 
really such ; and any deductions based upon the number of 
genera and species recorded by authors are defective. (2) 
The great similarity of forms like Scolithus havinga very great 
time range, is against their use as geological guides. (8) The 
poor state of preservation and the great variability they pre- 
sent is also an argument unfavorable to their use. (4) Un- 
less the deductions made are corroborated by other evidence 
than that afforded by presumed fossil Alga», they can not be 
considered as having any great value. This other evidence 
must come from the presence of undoubted organized forms, 
or from stratigraphical evidence which can not be gainsaid. 

*Coal Flora. 2d Geol. Sur. Penn., P, vol. i, 1880, p. 9. 



102 The American Geologist. FebraaTj. 1894 

A REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE SPIRE- 
BEARING BRACHIOPODA. 

By Charlss Schuchebt, Washington, D. (\ 

In the March number of the Amekican Geologist for 1893, 
the writer published a paper entitled **A (MassificHtion of the 
Brachiopoda." Several works on the spire-bearing brachiopods 
have einee appeared,* which greatly increase the knowledge 
of the suborder Jlelicopefjmnta^ and suggest a more natural 
classification than was then possible. Therefore the following 
revised classification is offered : 

Family (Jharactent. Three types of brachidial structure of 
family importance have been observed which will serve to 
characterize the three families into which the suborder Jleli- 
copeijmafa is here divided. These structures are based on the 
position of the primary lamellae with reference to the spirals 
and to the manner in which the}' join with the crura. These 
characters are as follows : 

1. In the earliest and most primitive forms, the Afrifpid(t^ 
the primary lamelhe are directly continuous with the crura, 
diverge widely and have the spirals between them. 

2. In the Spiriferi(la\ the primary lamella* are also directly 
continuous with the crura, but lie between the spirals, thus 
being the reverse of the Atrypido'. 

3. In the Athyridtv the primary lamelhe differ in directirm 
from those in the other families in being more or less sharply 
recurved dorsally near their junction with the crura. 

Sftbfainily charavfers. The nature and complexity of the 
loop which joins the spirals is the most important character 
for subfamil}' differentiation. There are five types of loops, 
the greatest variety occurring in the Athyridtt, Two of these 
are restricted, being common to the Atrypithv and JSjfiri/f'ri<ln\ 
while the three pertaining to the Athyridw are specializations 



* James Hall, assisted by John M. Clarke. An Introduction to the 
Study of the (lenera of the Palseozoic Brachiopoda, Pal. New York, vol. 
viii, pt. ii, fascicle i, pp. 1-176, July, 1803. 

A. Bittner. BrachiopodeD der Alpinen Trias, Abh. d. k. k. geol. 
Reichs., Bd. ziv, pp. 1-325, Taf. 1-41, 1890; Nachtrag I, Ibid., Bd. zvii. 
Heft 2, pp. 1-40, Taf. 1-4, 1892; Neue KoniDckiniden des Alpinen Lias, 
Jahrb. d. k. k. geol. Beichs., Bd. 43, Heft 1, pp. 133-144, Taf. iv, 1893. 

C. £. Beecher and C. Schuchert. Development of the brachial sup- 
ports in Dielasma and Zygospira, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. viii, 
pp. 71-82, 1893. 



Spire- Bem^ing Brack iopoda, — Schuchert. 103 

of the primitive loop of the two other families. These types 
may be defined as follows : 

1. Primitive loop a simple band, variously situated, be- 
coming in the higher forms more or less V-shaped. Present 
in Zygosprriftft^ Dayfmv, Suessihup^ and Vncitiuie, 

2. Loop a simple band in young or immature stages, but at 
maturity more or less medially absorbed, and eventually only 
represented by two short prongs, one attached to each primary 
lamella. Characteristic of Atrypinw and Trigoiwtretino'. 

3. Loop V-shaped, with its apex more or less drawn out 
into a simple or terminally modified extension, which is but 
rarely bifurcated. Present in Anoplothecina% Rhynchospirfniv 
and JlindeUhiCP. 

4. The loop process always present with the distal end bi- 
furcated. The branches are of variable lengths and either 
terminate freely between the first and second volutions of the 
spirals, or may continue with these to their outer ends. 
Present in Athyrin<¥, iJiploitpirina^ and Konhickinino!. 

5. The branches of the process remain between the spirals, 
recurve and join near their origin, thus resembling the han- 
dles of a pair of scissors. Present in MeristelliiKt, 

The ontogeny of Zygospira indicates that the Ilelicopegmtita 
was the last to appear and had its origin in the Ancylobra- 
cfn'a or terebratuloids. The suborder first manifests itself as 
far as known in the lower portion of the Lower Silurian. It 
attains its climax of differentiation in the Devonian, with 
another outburst of specialization in the Triassic chiefly 
among the double-spired athyroids, while there is rapid de- 
cline and final extinction in the Jurassic. Of the eight sub- 
orders into which the class Brachiopoda is now divided, only 
one, the Trullacea, or pentameroids, became extinct before the 
Ilelicopegmafft. These two suborders are the only extinct 
ones of the class. The other six groups still have living rep- 
resentatives, are widely distributed, and are represented by 
about one hundred and thirty species. 

Suborder HELIC0PE6MATA, Waagen 18H3. 

Spiriferacea, Waagen 1883. 

Brachiopods in which the two spirally enrolled brachia have 
internal calcified supports which are more or less completely 



106 



2' he American Geologist, 



February, 18M 



but sometimes bifurcated. Shells plicate; structure distinctly 
punctata. 



Parazyga, H. and C. 1893. 
Acambona, White 1862. 
Uustedia, H. and C. 1893. 
Retzia, King 1850. 
Trigeria, Bayle 1878. 



Homoeospira, Hall and Clarke 

1893. 
Rhynchospira, Hall 1859. 
Ptychospira, H. and C. 1893- 
Eumetria, Hall 1864. 
Trematospira, Hall 1857. 

B. Subfamily Hindellin^, n. subfara. 

Loop with a single process which may be simple, or may 
articulate in a ventral septal socket, sometimes (rarely) being 
sharply recurved terminally. Shells smooth, finely spinose, or 
plicat-e; structure impunetate. 



j Hindella, Davidson 1882. 
I Whitfieldella, H. and C. 
1893. 

Meristina, Davidson 1882 (not 
Hall 1867). 

Nucleospira, Hall 1858. 



A n o p 1 o t h e c a, Sandberger 
1856. 

Bifida. Davidson 1882. 

Ccelospira, Hall 1863. 

Leptoccelia, Hall 1857 and 1859 
Vitulina, Hall 1860. 
y Anabaia, C;larke 1893. 



Hyattella, H. and C. 1893. 

B^ Subfamily Athyrin.«, Waagen 1883. 

The single process of theloop with distal bifurcations which 
may or may not terminate between the first and second volu- 
tions of the spirals. Shells smooth, lamellose spinose, or with 
a few sharp, non-alternating plications; structure impunetate. 



Meristina, Hall 1867. 

AthyriB, Davidson 1853 (oot 
McCoy 1844). 

Whitfieldia, Davidson 1882. 
Glassina, Hall and Clarke 

1893. 
Athyris, McCoy 1844. 

Spirigera, d'Orbigoy 1847. 

Kuthyris, Queostedt 1871. 
Actinoconchus, McCoy 1844. 



Cleiothyris, King 1850 (not 

Phillips, 1841). 
Seminula, McCoy 1841. 
Spirigerella, Waagen 1883. 
Anomactinella, Bittner 1890. 
Pomatospirella, Bittner 1892. 
Amphitomella, Bittner 1890. 
Plicigera, Bittner 1890. 
Tetractinella, Bittner 1890. 



Pentactinella, Bittner 1890. 

B*. Subfamily DirLospiKiNiC, n. subfam. 

Bifurcations of the loop process very long, lying between 
the volutions of the spirals, and continuing with these to their 
outer ends. Sometimes there is an additional process on the 



Phosphate- Bearing liocktt. — SaffonL 



107 



apex which articulatos with the ventral valve. Shells smooth 
or plicate; structure impunctate. 



Kajseria, Davidson 1882. 
Diplospirella, Bittner 1890. 
Euractinella, Bittner 1890. 



Pexidella, Bittner 1890. 
Anisactinella, Bittner 1890. 



C. Subfamily Koninckinin.«, Waagen 1883. 

AmphicliDinaB, Waagen 1883; Diploepidse and Diploepiridaei Munier- 
Chalmas, 1880. 

Loop and spirals essentially as in DiploHpirhui', The spirals 
in Koninck'hn'HO', however, are not laterally directed as in the 
former group, but point ventrally, which is due to the stropho- 
menoid form of the shell. Cardinal areas more or less well 
developed. Shells smooth ; structure impunctate. 



Koninckina, Suess 1853. 
Amphiclina, Laube 1805. 
Koninckella, M.-Chalmas 

1880. 



Koninckodonta, Bittner 1898. 
y Thecospira, Zugmeyer 1880. 
? Amphiclinodonta, Bittner 
1890. 



B*. Subfamily Meristkllin^e, Waagen 1883. 

The loop bifurcations do not enter the spirals, but recurve 
and join near their origin. Shells smooth ; structure impunc- 
tate. 



Meristella, Hall 1860. 
Charionella, Billings 1861. 
V Pentagonia, Cozzens 1846. 

Goniocoelia, Hall 1861. 
Dicamara, Hall and Clarke 
1898. 

i^, S. J^Tafioital Mmteu/ti, December^ 1803, 



Merista, Suess 1851. 

Camariuro, Hall 1859. 
Dioristella, Bittner 1890. 
? Camarospira, H. and (;. 
1893. 



PHOSPHATE-BEARING ROCKS IN MIDDLE TEN- 
NESSEE.— PRELIMINARY NOTICE. 

By J. M. Safford, State Geologist, NaehviUe. 

Within the highland belt of country lying west of the me- 
ridian of Nashville, and between that and the Tennessee river, 
the phosphate-bearing beds associated with the Black Devo- 
nian shale are just now attracting attention on account of the 
prospect of finding certain parts of them rich enough in 
phosphate material to be of economic importance. There are 



108 The American Geologst. Febmary, I89t 

two beds or strata containing stich material, one immediately 
above the Black shale and the other immediately below it. 

That above the shale is a bed made up more or less of gray- 
ish, rounded, concretionary masses, named, in the writer's 
notes, *'balls" and "kidneys." These have been long known to 
be quite rich in phosphate, and search has been made for the 
localities where they occur most abundantly. Some of the 
masses yield from 50 to 65 per cent, of phosphate (Ca32P04), 
the other constituents being calcium carbonate, the oxides of 
alumina and iron, silica and organic matter. When broken 
the interior oft4?n has a granular, open structure, and now and 
then exhibits fossils, chiefly individuals of a species of Lin- 
gula. When struck with a hammer they give off a fetid odor. 

The bed below the shale has been less studied. Its weath- 
ered outcrop has the appearance of a yellowish sandstone and 
may often be seen on the slopes of many valleys in the great 
highland region southwest from Nashville. Of late it has 
been found to yield locally a very promising percentage of 
phosphate, and investigations are now going on looking to its 
full development. The analyses so far made indicate the 
presence, in some samples, of as much as 50 to 70 per cent., or 
more, of phosphate. The more complete results will be given 
hereafter. At certain points the bed contains fish teeth and 
fragments of bone, having the appearance of a bone bed. It 
also shows occasionally indications of a coprolitic origin. 

The generalised secti(m below, in descending order, made 
from many observations taken in Maury and Lewis counties, 
will serve to illustrate the relation of the two phosphate-bear- 
ing beds to the Black shale and other associat<?d formations. 

Section in Maui'y and Lewis cottnties, Tenn. 

1. Hai'2>eth shale; light blue shale; base of Sub-carbon if ♦» roue or 
Mifisissippian. 

2, Bed of concretionary masses^ of spherical, kidney- and cake- 
shaped forms, containing phosphate. These vary in size from that of 
pigeons* eggs to forms as large as a man*s head, and larger. The masses 
are found in a persistent stratum immediately above the Devonian 
Black shale, sometimes loosely disposed in a greenish or bluish shale, 
and sometimes tightly packed together in a bed twelve or more inches 
in thickness. Ordinarily the bed has lees thickness, but, thick or thin, 
it may be said to be universally present, its "kidneys** serving to in- 
dicate the place of the Black shale, when the latter is covered or want- 
ing. 



Editorial Cotiimeiif. 109 

S. The Black Devonian shale] very ipenerally present, but sometimes 
wantiaj; and varying in thickness from to 30 feet. 

4. The bed below the Black shale. The lower phosphate-bearing bed. 
When freshly broken, a dark bluish gray, or bluish black, more or less 
granular rock. It shows under the magnifier scattered, white specks 
and points of pyrites. It has a light bluish streak. This bed, though 
not BO universally present as the bed of concretions above, has a wide 
range in the region indicated, where it varies in thickness from to 3 
and 4 feet. In weathered outcrops it has, as stated, the appearance of a 
gray or yellowish sandstone; but when freshly broken its dark color 
appears. Under a magnifier, some specimens show small kidney-shaped 
grains and now and then minute spiral shells. The presence of fish 
teeth and fragments of bone in some of it has been referred to. 

5, Limestone, In some places Hudson River limestone; at other 
points Niagara limestone. 



EDITORIAL COMMENT. 

Thk ('oLi'MBrAN Exposition. 
Xotes of Pleistorene Geology. 

EXHIHITIOX OF THE SoiLS AND SlHSOlLS OK ILLINOIS. 

SampleH oi the diverse soils and subsoils of the great state 
of Illinois, in which the World's Fair was held, were colleeted 
and carefully studied by Mr. Frank Leverett, both in respect 
to their geological origin and agricultural value, this work 
being done for the Illinois Hoard of World's Fair Conimission- 
ers, under the direction of Dr. Josua Lindahl, the state geol- 
ogist. Mr. Leverett's well-known extensive experience in 
exploration of the glacial drift in this and adjoining states 
specially qualified him for this investigation, in which also he 
was aided by Prof. Milton Whitney, of the Maryland Agricul- 
tural (vollege, who made mechanical anal^'ses of man}' of these 
soils. The collection was on the first floor of the Illinois 
state building, in cases, a short distance to the left from the 
main entrance. It comprised about lOO samples of soils and 
subsoils, ranging in color from black to very light gray or 
almost white, exhibited in glass trav-s. So great diversity is 
due to the chemical and physical characters (»f the various 
drift formations whicli occupy the glaciated area, and to the 



no 



The American Geologist, 



Febmary, V&ii 



diverse rock formatiotiB whose decay has supplied the soils of 
the driftless portions of the state. Accompanying this ex- 
hibit, a colored map showed the areas of the several varieties 
of soil and the courses of the marginal moraines, principal 
eskers, and other drift ridges. A tabular statement of the 
origin and distribution of these soils, prepared by Mr. Lever- 

ett, is as follows : 

Soils of Illinois. 



Variety. 



Origin or 

Mode of 

Deposition. 



Residuary. 



Decay of the 
underlying 
rocks. 



Stony or boul- 
der-ojay, till. 



Glacial. 



Gravelly. 



Glacial over- 
wash, fluvial 
and lacus- 
trine. 



Sandy. 



Glacial drain 

sge. 
Fluvial. 
Lacustrine. 
Eoliao. 



Silts pervious 
to water— 
(chiefly the 
typical loees ). 



Slowly flow- 
ing waters, 
and perhaps 
wind ( m 
part). 



Silts slowly 
pervious to 
water. 



Slowly flow- 
ing waters, 
and perhaps 
wind (in 
part). 



Areal Distribution. 



Driftless portion of the state, where- 
ever the loess, as well as the glacial 
drift, is absent. 



Mainly in the northeastern quarter of 
the state, where loess and silts are 
absent. The Sbelbyville moraine 
forms the southern boundary and 
chiefly the western boundary. In 
northern Illinois boulder-clays form 
the soil on the older drift area be- 
tween the Shelbyville moraine and 
the loess of the Mississippi valley. 



With the boulder-clay, in the north- 
eastern part of the state, and along 
streams leading away from the Shel- 
byville and later moraines. This 
variety of soil includes gravel knolls 
and ridges, overwash gravel plains, 
terraces, and raised beaches. 



Mainly in basins along the Kankakee^ 
Green and lower Illinois rivers; old 
lake bottom and raised beaches near 
Chicago; also on bottomlands and 
fringing in many places the low bluffs 
of stresme; and locally developed on 
areas of glacial formations. 



Along the Mississippi, lower Illinois, 
lower Wabash, ana lower Ohio rivers; 
also between the Illinois and the Mis- 
sissippi from the Green river basin 
south to the latitude of Peoria; and 
in the basin of the Big Bureau creek 
in Bureau county. 



Mainly in west central Illinois, west of 
a line connecting Alton, Litchfield, 
Pans, Decatur, and Peoria; slso on 
the eastern border of the Mississippi 
valley loess belt in the northern part 
of the state. 



Editorial Comment 



111 



Silts nearly im- 
pervious to 
water (two 
kinds, name- 
It, white 
clays, and 
^umbo). 



Nearlystill wa- 
ter; but wind 
may have had 
an influence 
in the deposi- 
tion of the 
white clays. 



White olays cover much of southern 
Illinois south of the Shelbyville mo- 
raine, as far west as the Mississippi 
loess, east to the Wabash loess, and 
south to the Ohio river loess. Gum- 
bo is found along the main rivers, 
on some bottomlands. 



Peaty and 
marly. 



Vegetal accu- 
mulations, 
and s h*e 1 1 
deposits. 



Locally over the greater part of the 
state, wherever drainage is imperfect. 
Peat is rare south of the latitude of 
Springfield, but it abounds in the 
northeastern quarter of the state, in 
bogs. M arl deposits are less extensive 
than peat,but are fully as widespread. 



One of the most important results of Prof. Whitney's analy- 
ses is the demonstration thut the typical loess contains much 
less fine material (under .005 mm. in diameter of grains) than 
the impervious silts, or than the boulder-clay or till. The 
loess has no coarser particles than these silts, and not so coarse 
as the sandy, gravelly, bouldery till, which was amassed by the 
ice-sheet. That the loess is assorted in this way, together 
with the fact that its chief distribution is along the principal 
waterways, seems conclusive proof that it was deposited by 
water and not by wind. Professor Whitney has shown that 
the porosity of soils, dependent chiefly on the fineness or 
coarseness of their particles, is usually a far more important 
cause of their fertility or barrenness than the chemical consti- 
tution of the materials of which the soils are composed. 

Glacial Drift of Chicago and its Vicinity. 

A few steps distant from the foregoing, other cases of 
specimens and small pyramids constructed of glaciated boul- 
ders and pebbles displayed the very instructive collection which 
has been made by Mr. Ossian Guthrie, of Chicago, from the 
drift in that city and its vicinity, his interest in this subject 
having been aroused about eight years ago during investiga- 
tions of the canal routes for the drainage of the city area to 
the Des Plaines river. Many boulders were here exhibited 
which had been obtained from the till in excavations for foun- 
dations of Chicago buildings, some of these having been 
derived from rock outcroi)s hundreds of miles distant in 
('anada, while others occurring almost in contact with the 
Canadian erratics were from the Niagara limestone underly- 



112 The Americna (ieoloffiaf. Fobrnary, 1?<W 

ing the city. Mr. Guthrie, in his further search f(ir boulders 
<»1* Canadian origin, has traversed large portions of Illinois, 
Indiana and Michigan, and his collection illustrates the dis- 
persal of the drift from the region north of the Laurentian 
lakes over the country southward. 

A peculiar conglomerate enclosing fragments of red jasper, 
occurring in ledges north of lake Huron, from near Algoma 
and Thessalon westward to the east end of lake Superior, is 
found to he distributed by the currents of the ice- sheet upon 
the region from (Meveiand and Cincinnati west to Alton and 
the Illinois and Kankakee rivers; but none, according to Mr. 
(4uthrie, cun be found at Chicago, and it is rare even along 
the east coast of lake Michigan, although plentiful through 
the greater part of the lower peninsula of Michigan. Boul- 
ders of very coarse agglomerate in this collection, identified by 
Dr. Robert Bell, of the Canadian Geological survey, as from 
the district north of lake Huron, were found in the till 700 
miles distant, at Alton, Illinois. Pieces of native copper, de- 
rived from tlie lake Superior district, well represented in Mr. 
Guthrie's collection, occur in the drift in and* near Chicago 
and south west ward to Joliet and La Salle, a mass of 168 
p(»unds having been found a half mile east of the state prison 
at Joliet. During the maximum stage of the glaciation drift 
was transported, as these erratics show, from lake Huron far 
to the south and southeast, and from lake Superior to the 
south and southwest, (ilacial striie on the bed rocks, admira- 
bly exhibited near Chicago and thoughout the greater part of 
the drift-bearing region w*herever the rocks are exposed, 
partly record these currents; but in many places the stria*, 
like the moraines, belong to Uiter stages of the glaciation, 
when the ice currents, during the recession of the continental 
glaci(»r, were deflected toward the embayments and re-entrant 
angles then formed In' its irregularly wasting bf>rdc»r. 

(il.ACIAL DlUFT AXI) ThACKS OF (Jl.AriAL MaX IX OlIIO. 

In the Ohio dc])artment of the Anthrojiological building. 
Prof. (J. Frederick Wright, of Oberlin, Ohio, with the assist- 
ance of Mr. 1). C. Baldwin, of Elyria, and others, exhibited a 
collection of striated slabs from the bed rocks, and boulders 
and striated stones from the drift of the state, with samples 




Kdiforidf Comment, . 113 

from the parent Icdgep of rocks in Canada like the Ohio drift 
specimens. One boulder of the jasper conglomerate before 
mentioned, which had been carried by tlie iee-eheet from 
north of lake Huron across Ohio to the edge of Kentucky south 
of Cincinnati, was in this collection, being the same that is 
shown in the engraving from a photograph on page (58 of 
Prof. Wriglit's recent book, **Man and the (ilacial }*eriod.'' 
This boulder is three feet in diameter and weighs 4,000 
pounds. About forty varieties of rocks found in the vicinity 
of Oberlin wore shown as matciied with rocks outcropping in 
Canada, some of these determinations being by Dr. Robert 
Bell. A duplicate set of these matched boulders and Cana- 
dian rocks was also in the Smithsonian <'olle<*tion in the (iov- 
erjiment building. 

The largest mass in this exhibit was a striated slab of the 
Herea sandstone from Amherst, Ohio, measuring five by nine 
feet, being the same which is shown in illustrations of page 
164 in Prof. Chamberlin's memoir on "The Rock Scorings of 
the Great Ice Invasions," ill the Seventh Annual Report of 
the U. S. Geological Surve}^ and on page 52 (»f Prof. Wright's 
l>ook previously noted. Another and very unusual phase of 
glaciation exhibited here was the remarkably Huted surface 
of the (-orniferous limestone from Kelley's island in lake Erie, 
as illustrated in the same volumes and in Prof. Wright's ear- 
lier and larger work on **The Ice Age in North America." 

Portions of gravel and sand beds from the glacial plain at 
Newcomerstown, Ohio, in which Mr. W. C. Mills found a 
palaeolithic implement, were exhibited, having been removed 
and placed in boxes with glass sides, without destroying the 
original stratification. On the walls of the space allotted to 
this collection were photographs of this paheolith and of oth- 
ers from other localities of Ohio, Indiana, New Jersev and the 
Somme valley in France; and two large maps, drafted by Mr. 
Warren Cpham, prrsented the leading facts connected with 
the (Glacial period of North America. One of these maps was 
limited to Ohio and the countr}' immediately adjoining, with 
the courses of the rctreatal moraines of the ice-sheet as mapped 
by Mr. Leveret t, the ancifut beaches of the glacial hike War- 
ren south of lake Krie, and altitudes of man}' t<»wns through- 
out the state. The other map included all the glaciated 



114 The Ame r fc an Geoloy is ( . Fobrnary, 18W 

portion of eastorn North America, the Arctic archipelago, and 
(Greenland, showing the limits of the ice-sheet and glacial 
drift and the derivation of the Ohio boulders from Canada. 

Divisions of the Pleistocene Period. 

Excellent suites of specimens of the rock formations and 
fossils of the United States, exhibited in the Government 
building b}' the U. S. Geological Survey, comprised samples 
of glaciated stones, of the boulder-clay or till, of loam from 
the Columbia formation in Washington, D. ('., and of the 
Mississippi valley loess. On an accompanying placard it was 
stated that the Pleistocene period included the following di- 
visions: *'I. Transition epoch. II. Earlier Glacial epoch. 
III. Chief interglacial epoch. IV. Later Glacial epoch. V. 
Champlain epoch. VI. Terrace epoch." 

Concerning this subdivision, it may be remarked that the 
first or Transition epoch was probably characterized by a gen- 
eral epeirogenic uplift of the region which became ice-envel- 
oped. The slow uplifting to such kltitude as to give a cold 
climate and snowfall during nearly all the year, leading to the 
ice accumulation, may have comprised a longer time than 
the ensuing epochs of glaciation and departure of the ice, 
with the deposition of its drift and the stream channelling 
and terracing of the glacial flood plains. Whether the stages 
of glacial retreat and readvance during the Ice age should be 
regarded as marking epochs or subordinate episodes of the 
Pleistocene period seems at present to be undetermined. 
Some of the most recent studies of our drift are found to sup- 
port the view that the glaciation was continuous, moderate 
fluctuations of the ice- front being thought to be sufficient to 
account for the forest beds between deposits of till and for 
eroded drift valle3's covered by subsequent advances of the 
ice- sheet. 

Models and Relief Maps illihtkating Pleistocene History. 

About twenty models of districts and localities in the 
I'nited States, possessing features of special geological inter- 
est, were exhibited by the U. S. Geological Survey. Among 
these we notc»d, as illustrative of Pleistocene geology^, the series 
of models of northeastern Iowa prepared under the direction 




Editorial Comment. 115 

of Mr. W J MeGee, with representation of the waning iee- 
shoet and the lakes and paha-forming streams in ice-enclosed 
basins and channels; models of the caftons and gorges of the 
Colorado, Yosemite and Niagara; a relief map of the District 
of Columbia and contiguous country, with coloring of the 
Columbia, Lafayette and older formations, by N. II. Darton 
and (j. n. Williams; and a model of (<oon butte, Arizona, by 
Mr. G. K. Gilbert. 

The last named locality is so unique, and was the scene of 
S4) unusual an event in Pleistocene history, that it deserves 
special description. Coon butte, as modelled from Mr. Gil- 
bert's surveys, is an annular hill enclosing a crater, situated 
about twentj'-five miles east-southeast of Flagstaff, the rail- 
wa}'^ metropolis of eastern Arizona. The crater is three- 
fourths of a mile in diameter and 500 to 600 feet below the 
rim, which is elevated only 150 to 200 feet above the surround- 
ing plain. The surface limestone of the region, elsewhere 
horizontal, is steeply inclined quaquaversally in the clilfs 
around the crater; and masses of the limestone and of the 
underlying sandstone are strown in very irregular profusion 
outward from the crater to the base of the butte, which has a 
diameter of about two miles. In less amount the same debris 
reaches outward on all sides over a nearly circular area to a 
distance of about four miles. No lava, bombs, lapilli, or other 
volcanic products, were seen ; and the formation of this singu- 
lar crater, somewhat like the maars of the Eifel district in 
Germany, is referred by Mr. Gilbert to a steam explosion, 
probably near the middle of the Glacial period. 

The occurrence of hundreds of small fragments of meteoric 
iron, up to about a pound in weight, and of several larger 
pieces from 20 to 600 pounds, near the crater and within three 
miles eastward from Coon butte, one piece also being at a dis- 
tance of eight miles eastward, led at first to the thought that 
a meteorite of very large size, surpassing any known example, 
'might have struck this spot, buried itself out of sight, and 
thrown up a crater rim. This hypothesis, upon being tested, 
was abandoned because the volume of the raised rim was 
found by carefid measurements to be very closely equal to 
that of the crater below the level of the plain, and for the sec- 
ond reason that a magnetic survey failed to indicate the ex- 



116 The American Geoloijht, February, 18W 

istence of aii}^ largo mass of meteoric iron, competent to make 
this crater, within at least a depth of many miles. No other 
American niaar is known, and the rareness both of such cra- 
ters and of meteoric falls strongly suggests some intimate re- 
lationship. If a cnistal steam explosion made the crater, per- 
haps the impact of a large meteorite induced the exi)Iosion. 

Thorough knowledge of the altitude, slopes, and general 
contour of any region is so indispensable for explorations of 
the conditions of its Pleistocene erosion by streams, glaciers 
and ice-sheets, and of the formation of its glacial and modi- 
fied drift, or of its residuary soils and alluvium if south of 
tlie glaciated area, that this contribution can not be c(m- 
cluded better than by noting the several states of which relief 
maps were exhibited in the state buildings and in the Mines 
and Mining building. These were New Hampshire, New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Illinois, Kentucky, Ar- 
kansas, and California. The one on the largest scale was New 
Hampshire, the most mountainous of the New England states, 
which was two inches to a mile horizontally, and an inch to 
5(K) feet vertically. This was made by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleft*, 
on the basis of the contoured map published by Prof. C H. 

Hitchcock, the state geologist, who has shown that the ice- 

• 

sheet covered Mt. Washington, (5,21)8 feet above the sea, there 
moving southeastward. It was display(?d in the state build- 
ing, and was surrounded by windows which were transparen- 
cies of White Mountain scenery. In the exhibit of the U. S. 
Geological Survey a relief map of the United States, by Mr. 
Edwin E. Howell, showed the curvature of the earth^s surface 
on a scale of forty miles to an inch, which would make the 
earth's radius about eight feet, while the vertical scale was 
exaggerated fivefold, being eight miles to an inch. 



REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 

The CaitaUtau Ive Agv: In'trnj notes on the PleinUicene geoloyy of 
Caninla^xcith rsjM'vnif reference to the life of the period and its climatal 
condition8j and lists of the specimens in the Mnsenm. By Sir J, 
William Dawson, C M. G., etc., pp. ix, JiOl, with numerous illustra- 
tions. Montreal, October, 1893. 



Review of Becent Geolotjicul Literature, 117 

Id this volume of the memoirs of the Peter Redpath Museum of McGiU 
University, Montreal, this distinguished author and veteran geologist 
has collected and restated his views regarding the Ice age as it occurred 
in Canada. As is well known to all glacialiste, Sir William Dawson has 
always demurred to accepting the prevalent theory— the Agassizian 
theory, as it may be termed — of a continental glacier, and has instead , 
thereof steadily insisted upon the doctrine that the glacial phenomena 
of Canada, at least, may be satisfactorily explained by the action of 
local glaciers and of heavy floe- ice. Geologists who were present at the 
Montreal meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science will recall the ability and earnestness with which he defended 
this position against all assaults, and the courtesy and kindliness which 
marked all the discussions in which he played the double part of host 
and antagonist. 

After a brief review of his earlier published writings on this subject, 
the author takes up the task which he has assigned to himself and be- 
gins with a description of the Pleistocene formations in eastern Canada,, 
which are as follows, in descending order: 

Terraces and Inland Cliffs. 
The Saxicava sand. 
The Leda clay. 
The Boulder-clay. 

In this series the boulder-clay constitutes the true "till,** a hard, gray 
clay tilled with stones and thickly packed with boulders. It rests for 
the most part on smoothed or striated rock surfaces, and is in some 
places on the lower 8t. Lawrence fossil if erous, holding Leda (jiacialis 
(yb/dt'a arc/i'ca Qray), and stones covered with Balanun haineri and 
PolyzoA, indicating marine conditions of deposit. It contains also great 
quantities of loose boulders, both of local and of distant origin. 

The striation of the underlying rock is for the most part in a N. E.- 
S. W. direction; but in some spots, as in the Mile-end quarries near 
Montreal, the surface shows four sets of striae, while very frequently 
two sets can be foupd at right angles to one another, of which in east- 
em Canada the N. E. — S. W. group is, for the most part, on the lower 
ground, while the N. W.— S. E. group is usually higher. The former the 
author attributes without hesitation to the Arctic current passing up 
the valley daring a time of submergence, and the latter in general to the 
local glaciers which more or less filled the lateral valleys, such as those 
of the Saguenay. Murray bay, and the Ottawa river. At the mouth of 
the former are grooves on a magnificent scale, some being ten feet wide 
and four feet deep, being cut into hard gneiss. 

To enable ice floes carrying stones to reach the high levels at which 
striation occurs, a depression of the land is assumed, which converted 
the St. Lawrence into an arm of the sea and left only the high- 
est points of the Lauren tides and Appalachians above the water, thus 
allowing a vast arctic current to fiow^ over the country of the great Lau- 
rentian lakes. 

The Leda clay, which constitutes the subeoil over a large portion of 



118 2' he American Geologist, Fobrnary. 1804 

the great plain of Lower Canada, varies in thickness from nothing to 
fifty feet or more, and is in many places abundantly charged with Leda 
glac talis in fine preservation, with the valves united and covered with 
epidermis. It also contains locally, as near Ottawa, nodules of its own 
material enclosing numerous fossils, such as leaves and other vegetal rel- 
ics, and especially skeletons of the capelin (Mallotus villosus) and stickle- 
back {Gasterosteus aculeatua)^ fishes still living in th^ waters of the lower 
St. Lawrence. Foraminifera and ostracoda also occur in it, and in hold- 
ing these fossils, as well as in its color and texture, it closely resembles 
the blue mud now forming in the deeper parts of the gulf of St. Law- 
rence. Its material has been mainly derived from the wash of the 
Lower Silurian shales of the Quebec and Utica formations, which oc- 
cupy a wide space in the basin. The drift has been carried southwest- 
ward, and grows thinner and finer in that direction. Its western limit 
appears to be where the ridge of the Thousand Isles crosses the St. 
Lawrence river, and where the same ancient rocks cross the Ottawa. 
Deposits referable to the shores of the Leda clay sea, and to the 
estuaries opening into it, are not uncommon, and contain such fresh- 
water genera as Valvata, Paludina, Planorhis, Unio and Cyclas, with 
occasionally TellincL, the last indicating, at least at times, a brackish 
condition of the water. The beds and fossils of the Leda clay rise to 
an elevation of 425 feet in places, which would carry a deep sea to the 
head of lake Ontario, but **no marine fossils appear to have been found 
on the banks of that lake." 

The Saxicava sand frequently rests upon the upper and often much 
eroded surface of the Leda clay, showing in some places an abrupt and 
in others a gentle transition, in which latter case its lower layers are 
richly fossiliferous. It consists of yellow or brownish quartz sand and 
large travelled boulders, but it rarely contains glaciated stones. It is a 
shallow water deposit, but **must, when at high levels, have been formed 
on the margins of deep seas.'* 

Into these three deposits have been cut, during the emergence of the 
land, a series of terraces, which at Montreal lie WlO^ 220, 386, 440 and 470 
feet above tide. On Mount Royal a distinct beach lies at 615 feet, and 
travelled Laurentian boulders occur at the very top, at a hight of 700 
feet. A conspicuous line on the lower St. Lawrence between 500 and 
600 feet seems to mark the margin of the sea in which was deposited 
most of the Leda clay, and in this deposit marine shells have been ob- 
served. 

After thus stating the data on which his work rests, the author passes 
on to discuss the climatic conditions of the time. Assuming, as by 
common consent, a high late Pliocene position of the land and a deep 
depression in the Pleistocene, during which the till was deposited, he 
assigns the Leda clay to a late part of the same depression, a third por- 
tion of which is marked by the second boulder-clay, whose boulders 
were carried by floating ice to the summits of the higher hills and 
mountains in eastern Canada and New England, or to a hight of 4,200 
feet. 




lie view of liecent Geological Literature, 119 

From this depression the contineDt graduaHy arose, leaving the ter- 
races as evidences of the recession of the waters. Thus came on the 
second continental period, when the land was more extensive than at 
present. A southern marine fauna extended far north along our coasts, 
and great mammals now extinct roamed over the land. 

The author's views are illustrated by two maps, showing what, in his 
opinion, was the geography of North America in the Cretaceous and 
Pleistocene periods, and leading to a discuesion of the effects of the 
changes of the areas of land and sea upon the climate of the temperate 
zone. He has no hesitation in ascribing the refrigeration of the Glacial 
period to this cause, which is, he thinks, amply sufficient to produce all 
the local glaciers and the floating ice to which he attributes the glacial 
pheoomena. 

The venerable Nestor of Canadian geologists msy perhaps be par- 
doned for relieving here the dry details of science by a sally wherein he 
indulges in a little good-humored banter of his opponents in matters 
glacial. ''Following,'' he writes, "the example of those geologists of the 
United States who are in the habit of giving a factitious reality to their 
palseogeographical views by attaching names to extinct lakes, etc., we 
may name some of the more prominent features of our map after emi- 
nent living advocates of extreme glacial views, whose personal merit 
and ability, I am prepared to admit, are in the inverse proportion to the 
probability of their theoretical views. The great southern bay at the 
bottom of which lies the 'terminal moraine,' may bear the name of Dana. 
The strait leading to the northeast, where the St. Lawrence now flows, 
may be Upham strait. The great western opening may well be called 
Chamberlin sound, and the northern bay, filled with ice, in the region 
now occupied by Hudson's bay, may be the gulf of Wright." 

Then pursuing the line of argument which he has for many years 
maintained, Sir. J. W. Dawson denies the possibility of a polar ice-cap 
or a continental glacier. He first asserts that the amount of snow 
never could be sufficient for the purpose, and secondly, that the evidence 
is not conclusive and may be read in a different sense. Space will not 
allow us to follow him into details, but it must be admitted that, so far 
as Canada is concerned, much that he urges may be allowed, though we 
can not avoid the conviction that most of the glacial geologists on the 
south side of the border will object when he attempts to annex the 
United States to the glacial empire of the Dominion. 

In the Pleistocene map three large areas of glaciated land are shown, 
and from these, in the author's opinion, flowed all the ice that made the 
glacial era. One of these is Greenland; another is Labrador, with the 
high land of the Laurentides, to the Arctic Ocean; and the third is the 
Rocky Mountain region of Canada. The northern Appalachians, New 
England, and Newfoundland, constitute three other and smaller centers 
of drift dispersion. The remainder of the northern portion of the con- 
tinent is occupied by the waters of the glacial seas into which these 
lands discharged their surplus of ice. 

It may thus be seen that Sir William argues for a general lowering of 



the temperatare in the Ice mge in Canada, rather than a very severe 
climate. This was in his estimation the dominant cause of the Glacial 
period, and in support of his views he brings forward evidence from the 
flora and fauna of the period, which, he sajs. bears strooglr in that 
direction. He writes: 

^ne can to-dar dredge in a living state off Metis in the river St. 
Lawrence all the species found in the upper Leda clay of the neighbor- 
ing coast. In like manner the vegetable remains of the upper Leda 
clav and its equivalent in the west are not arctic but boreal plants, and 
we should have to go near to the arctic circle, then as now, to find the 
true arctic flora. These facts show that the climate of the mid- 
Pleistocene was not an arctic one." i PSge 136. \ 

Passing on next to consider the date of the Glacial period, our author 
asserts plainly that the results of geological study in North America 
will by no means allow the distant date assigned by Croirs astronomical 
theory, but that on the other hand this evidence, though somewhat va- 
rying in detail, points with a surprising unanimity to an epoch between 
eight and fourteen thousand years before our own day as the time of 
the close of the loe age. This is of course a very strong confirmation of 
the view that the dominant cause <^ glacial conditions was telluric and 
not oosmical. 

To conclude, we will give the author*s summary of the conditions of 
the Pleistocene period in Canada (page 96 >. 

NcwiLB PuocEXE— A coo tinental period of lonir dnimtioo, in which \hc land wa» 
higher than at prr9eiit,and veir ertenaiTv ero»ioa of «lc«p ri^rr Talleya oc> 

CtUTBd. 

pLKXSTOCiBrx. -CoTt^ring tfarei' >abdlTi$i«ic£> :— 

'I ' Ear 1 9 Pleistor*^ ik*, with Irrefirnlat' eWratioD and Jeprrae^ion of the rontinents, 

cold climate and jcreat local Kiaciera. 
ff Mid-PUiMtfTf ac. with •abmonrpnca of coasts. r«-^leTation of interior pl^eaiu^ 

and miliier climate. —Inteiwlacial period. 
'■ • Litter Plristttrene, with Mibniens«ace of plains, fcen^nl ir« drift, and local 

iclaciery in the mountains 
E%si.T MoDsaic OB Postulaoai^— 8eeond continental period, in which the land rr. 

0uned almoat all the extension of the Pliocene time. Aire of the mammoth. 

inae-toilon, and of Pala'ocoemic roan. -Poetielacial fanua. 
MODCB5 OB Rci'Eirr. Sabmerxence of short duration, terminal iDft the ajse of Pal«*o- 

C'ismic man. Ke.4>leTation of continents to pres^^nt lerelsc —Modem fanna. 
We cannot follow our author into the local details and the especially 
useful tables of fos«ils with which he concludes. However widely we 
may differ from him on some points, we recognize the timeliness and 
value of the work. To run to extremes seems inevitable, and the gla- 
cial controversy has been no exception to the rule. When the ice- 
c:pecter reached his full stature, and in the vision of the great master 
even the valley of tht* .\mazon was ice-enveloped and clogged with mo- 
ral nic matter, when, to the view of some of his followers, the 
two poles of the earth were alternately bo laden aod overborne with 
their icecaps that the glol)e was thought to be in danger of losing its 
balance, the ^glacial Dijshtroare** may be cocsidered to have reached its 
severest incumbency. Since then the pressure has somewhat relaxed. 
In like manner, our author is. we think, d imposed to put upon the theory 



Reciew of Beccut Geological Littrafnre. 121 

of tioatiog ice a load greater than it cao carry, and to underrate the ne- 
cessity for more than mere local glaciers to account for the glaciation of 
the midland states. It is not possible for a geologist residing and work- 
ing in that region to see in the **terminal moraine*' the marginal wash 
of a glacial lake, when he follows it mile after mile across the country 
and sees it adapting itself everywhere to all the unevennees of outline 
and contour, now crossioga high divide, and then plunging down into a 
river valley, from which anon it rises to continue its former course. To 
presuppose local elevations and depressions of the surface in order to 
remove the difficulty, would transcend the scepticism of the most thor- 
ough-going unbeliever in the stability of the earth, and would demand 
more faith than the ordinary geologist possesses. 

We cannot resist quoting, in conclusion, with a little condensation, 
some of Sir William's excellent remarks in his last chapter. He says: — 

''With reference to the life of the Pleistocene period, one can scarcely 
fail to observe that, whatever may have been the lapse of geological 
time from the period of the oldest boulder-clay to that in which we 
live, and great though the climatal and geographical changes may have 
been, we can not affirm that any change, even of varietal value, has 
taken place in any of the species of the above lists. This appears to 
me a fact of extreme significance with reference to theories of the 

mod location of species in geological time The great elevations 

and depressions of the land, the extensive erosions, the wide and thick 
beds of sediment, all testify to the lapse of time. The changes which 
occurred were fruitful in modifications of depth and temperature. 
Deep waters were shallowed, and the sea overflowed areas of land. The 
temperature of the waters changed greatly, so that the geographical 

distribution of marine animals was materially affected Yet all 

the Pleistocene species survive, and this without change 

*^\ second leading thought to which 1 would direct attention is 
the relative value of land-ice and water-borne ice as causes of geolog- 
ical change in the Pleistocene. On this subject I have constantly 
maintained that moderate view which was that of Sir Roderick Murchi- 
son and Sir Charles Lyell, that the Pleistocene subsidence and refrig- 
eration produced a state of our continents in which the lower levels, 
and at certain periods even the tops of the higher hills, were submerged, 
under water filled every season with heavy field-ice formed on the 
surface of the sea, as at present in Smith *s sound, and also with abun- 
dant icebergs derived from glaciers descending from unsubmerged 
mountain districts.'* 

As a parting word we read on the last page: '*I shall not attempt to 
extend these generalizations to the country south of the Canadian bor- 
der, but must respectfully warn those of my geological friends who in- 
sist on portentous accumulations of land-ice in that quarter, that the 
material can not be supplied to them from Canada. They must estab- 
lish gathering grounds within thoirown territory.** 



122 The American Geologist February. 1894 

Poat-Qlacial eolian action in southern Neto England. By J. B. 
WooDWORTH. (Amer. Jour. Sci., 3, vol. 47, pp. 63-71, Jan., 1894.) 

Pebbles having facettes cut by wiod- blown Band are described, and 
several localities are mentioned where these pebbles occur. From the 
fact that this carving of pebbles is essentially a subadrial phenomenon, 
the presence of such pebbles in any formation is proof of an elevation 
above sea level. The term **gIyptolith" (glyptoB, carved; lithos^ stone) 
is suggested for a rock surface carved by wind-blown sand. 

Tlie structures^ origin and nomenclature of the acid volcanic rocks 
of South Mountain, By F. Bascom. (Journal of Qeology, vol. i, No. 
8, pp. 813-832, Nov.-Dec, 1893.) 

Three types of rooks are represented in this area: (1) A I^ower 
Cambrian conglomerate and sandstone, and below these (2) brilliantly 
colored, acid, volcanic rocks, and (3) dark green, basic, volcanic rocks. 
The author expects soon to present the results of a detailed investiga- 
tion of these different types, but in this paper only some features of the 
acid volcanics are discussed. The object is to show that these rocks 
were originally identical with their recent volcanic analogues, that.their 
present differences are due to changes subsequent to solidification 
(chief among which is devitrification), and to propose a name which 
shall express these facts. 

A large number of the structures peculiar to modern volcanic rocks 
are to be found in these ancient lavas, and the presence of these struc- 
tures is sufficient proof of the igneous origin of the rocks, although 
until quite recently they have been regarded as sedimentary. An almost 
universal characteristic of these South Mountain rocks is the micro- 
poikilitic structure of the groundmass. While this structure frequently 
appears to be an original one, still in most of the rocks under discussion 
there is excellent proof of its secondary nature. Spherulites and per- 
litic parting are also present, sometimes in great perfection, and the 
rock presents in ordinary light the characteristics of a fresh, glassy 
lava. Under crossed nicols glassy structures disappear and the rock is 
seen to be composed of finely granular quartz and feldspar, often show- 
ing poikilitic patches which run across the lines of perlitio parting. '*It 
is impossible by any description to carry the deflniteness of conviction 
as to the original glassy nature of the groundmass which the character 
of such rock sections justifies. To one who has studied them in both 
ordinary and polarized light, there can be no question as to the second- 
ary character of the holocrystalline groundmass." The structures de- 
scribed are: Fluidal, micropoikilitic, spherulitic, axiolitic, rhyolitic, 
lithophysal, i>erlitic, amygdaloidal, taxitic and trichitic. 

Since devitrified volcanic rocks are quite common and have often been 
described, the author thinks best that they should be distinguished in 
some way by name. **If, therefore, we decide to employ this prf^fix (apo) 
to indicate the specific alteration known as devitrification {Entgliuung\ 
we may obtain, by compounding it with the name of the corresponding 
glsssy rocks, a set of useful and thoroughly descriptive terras, like 



'N 



Review of Recent Geological Literature, 123 

aporhyolite, ajtoperlite^ apohaidian, etc., as to whose exact mdaninfc 
there can be no doubt. In accordance with this usage it is proposed to 
call all the acid volcanic rocks, whose structures prove them once to 
have been glassy, aporhyoHtea,^^ G. 

Ueber ein neues Vorkommnis von Kugelgranit unfern Wirvik bei 
BorgA in Finland, nebst Bemerkungen ilber dhnliche Bildungen. By 
Bknj. Frosterus. (Dissertation, Royal Alexandrian University of Fin- 
land ; 34 pages, 2 plates ; Helsingfors, 1893). 

About twenty miles west of the well known Rapakivi granite is an- 
other granite area, in certain parts of which a beautiful spheroidal 
granite occurs.- This forms a basic f acies of the main granite mass, and 
the spheroids (Kugeln) are more basic still. They are of two kinds, 
large and small, and do not occur together. The smaller are from two 
to three centimeters in diameter and are composed of an outer rim of 
biotite, concentrically arranged, and a core of oligoclase, microcline and 
biotite with a more or lees pronounced radial arrangement. The larger 
spheroids are twenty to thirty centimeters in diameter and are com- 
posed largely of biotite scales concentrically arranged. A discussion of 
the spheroidal structure is presented and many references are given to 
places where this peculiar structure has been described. The author 
concludes that the true spheroidal structure (Kugelstructur) is a pri- 
mary structure form, that it corresponds to a concretionary development 
daring the crystallization of a rock, and that it has a certain connection 
with the older, basic secretions. 

Geological map and table of economic reitourcea of Illinois. By 
Dahikl W. Mead. This map, which is in black characters, is based on 
Worthen's map of 1875. The table shows the formations and the local- 
ities where the various economic products are found, also short state- 
ments of the statistics and value of each. This very unique table con- 
tains much useful information, and cost a large amount of study and 
examination, but is injured seriously by its bad arrangement and very 
bad printing. 

Notes on the hydro-geology of Illinois, By Daniel. W. Mxad. Read 
before the Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors, Jan., 1893. A 
very lucid and also comprehensive exhibit of the sources of artesian 
waters in the state, and a discussion of the chemical impurities of sur- 
face waters. Contains many tables of analyses. 

La Terreavant fapparitionde Vhqmme : f>4riodes g^ologiques, faunes 
et fiores fossiles ; gMogie rigionale de la France, par Fkbnand Pbiem. 
Numerous cuts. Paris. J. B. Bailli^re et File. The object of the 
author in this work is to pass in review in a pleasing and simple style 
the changes which the planet has undergone in the different geological 
periods, particularly the faunas and the floras, pointing out the lines in 
which they show some connection with existing faunas or floras. He 
presents a lively view of the general geology of all countries. He dwells 
more fully on that of France. The treatise evinces a familiarity with 



124 77/ e Ante riant Getplotjht. Febraanr. 1^9i 

the work of recent geologists and paleontolc^ists, and is numerously 
illustrated with fiirures of foesils and of geological sections, as well as 
landscape scenes. The former are very good but the latter are not itrst- 
class. The easy, clear style, adapts the work to a wide class of non- 
scientific readers, and the volume will serve a good purpose successfully 
of popularizing, without lowering, the science of geology. The pub- 
lishers send specimens of 32 pages on receipt of 15 cents. We notice 
the prevalence, throughout, of that peculiarity of French geologists in 
the use of the term Hchistes alike for shales, slates, and schists. The 
English geoYogtst fortunately has distinct terms for indicating those 
three structures. 

.-I contribution to thf i avert elf rate pah' ftntoloyff of the Texas Creta- 
ceous. F. W. CRACiiN. (Geological Survey of Texas. From the fourth 
annual report.) pp. 1I1-21G; 23 plates of fossils; published June, 1893, 
Austin. 

This important addition to the exact knowledge of the '^Texas Creta- 
ceous** corrects some former errors in determinations and carries the 
identification of species a long march in advance of its former position. 
Probably since the classic work of Roemer on the paleontology of the 
state no greater addition has been made to its paleontology. The 
species described are many of them new, and they have been derived 
largely from the Comanche series, and from the '^\lternating beds.** 
However, a number are also from higher beds. The Gonial ina^ so-called, 
of the Comanche series was considered by Dr. Roemer, with seme 
doubt, as a species of Parkeria^ but Prof. Cragin describes it as a 
hryozosint Porocystis pruni/ormis. ''As ordinarily preserved the fossil 
resembles a plum or a nutmeg, in form, the surface sculpture not in- 
frequently recalling that of a strawberry.'* 

The species described or identified with other species, are distributed 
among Ocelenterata, Echinodermata, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Lamelli- 
branchiata. Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda. 

Republication ofDescriptioust of Lower Carboniferous Crino idea from 
the Hall (^oHertion now in the American Museum of Xaturai History ^ 
trith il lust rat ittns of the oritjinal type sjtecimens not heretofttre figured ; 
by R. P. Whitfield. (Memoirs Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., Vol. S; pt. 1, 
pp. i-J]7, pis. 1.3,1893) 

This is the first instalment of a new series of publications by the 
American Museum and its elegant proportions (large quarto), high 
grade paper and press work, and lithographic plates by Ast, indicate 
that typographic and artistic excellence are to be paramount considera- 
tions in the make-up of the work. In the preparation of the present 
paper the author is carrying out a plan already begun in one of the 
Bulletins of the Museum, to illustrate all type specimens in the collec- 
tions, not heretofore figured. The Crinoidea discussed were for the 
most part described by Hall in 18<)1, in a pamphlet entitled, ''Descrip- 
tions of New Species of Crinoidea from the Carboniferous Rocks of the 
Mississippi Valley ,**and also published in the Journal of the Boston Soc. 




Review of Hecenf Geologfcal Literature. 125 

Nat. Hist, for that year ; a number were published in the Supplement to 
the report on the Qeologioal Survey of Iowa (1860). In each case the orig- 
inal description is reproduced with the addition of such information as 
has since been adduced. This method of treatment makes the work 
very useful to the student. Forty species and varieties are described, 
of which but one, Batocrinw* binbrachiatus (which, though no doubt a 
good species, is bad Latin), is new. 

reber ailurische SipJwneen ; by E. Stollky. (Neues Jahrb.fUr Min 
eral. Jahrg. 1893, II Bnd, 3d Heft. pp. i:i5.14G, pis. vii and viii.) 

The author describes a number of caic-alga3 from Silurian boulders 
in the vicinity of Kiel, and suggests the probability that many oolites 
are composed of such organisms. 

Recent studies of the Eurypterina, by Malcolm Laurie. On some 
Eurypierid Remains from the Upper Silurian Rocks of the Pentland 
Hills. (Trans. Royal Soc., Edinburgh, vol. xxxvii, pt. 1, No. 10. pp. 161- 
161, pis. 1-3, 1892.) The Anatomy and Relations of the Eurypttridte. 
(Idem, pt. 2. No. 24, pp. 50952^), pis. 1, 2, 1893.) Recent Additions to 
our Knowledge of the Eurypterida. (Natural Science, vol. 3, No. 18, 
pp. 124-127, 1893.) 

Mr. Laurie brings to the investigation of some obscure points in the 
anatomy of these interesting fossils an evident familiarity with recent 
meroetoms and arachnids. The elaboration of the anatomy of 
Eurypterus and Pterygotns by Schmidt, from the exquisitely preserved 
material from RootzikUll, preceded by the work published by Hall, and 
based upon less favorably preserved specimens from the uppermost Si- 
lurian of New York, and the deductions of Salter, Woodward, Hall and 
Clarke in regard to the composition of Hlimonia and StyJonurus^ left 
some points in doubt, fewer in the former than in the latter genera. As 
a natural result Mr. Laurie's most important determinations are in re- 
gard to the hitherto less known genera, principally Slimonia, a genus 
not known to be represented in American faunas. In this genus the 
existence of preoral chelate appendages is for the first time established, 
their presence in Stylonurus was shown to be probable by Hail and 
Clarke; in Pterygotus, they have loog been known, while in EnrypteruH 
Schmidt made out a pair of preoral filamentous appendages tying be- 
tween the bases of the first pair of walking legs, which have been looked 
upon as tentacular {antenme^ see ZittePs '*Handbuch"). Laurie, how- 
ever, finds indications that this preoral pair was of a more substantial 
character and probably chelate. The inference is a priori a natural 
one, and if correct establishes a single type of leg structure in 
all these genera. The author's restoration of the ventral surface of 
Slimonia shows five pairs of abdominal plates or sternites, the tnem* 
bers of which rapidly diminish in width backward, each bearing on the 
inner surface one or more branchial plates. It seems to be satisfactorily 
demonstrated that sexual differences in this genus are indicated by a 
variation in the form of the genital plate, though similar differences 
have not been established in the related genera. A new generic name. 



126 I'he American Geologi»L February, ISW- 

DrepanopteruH (D. pentlandicua) is introduced, based upon the propor- 
tionally great width of the carapace, but the respects in which this fos- 
sil differs from Eusarcus and Eurysoma are not indicated. 

The evidence adduced by the author brings out more forcibly than 
ever the relations of the Bury pterins to Lhnulu8; and if Limulus and 
the merostoms are arachnids, as argued with much force by Lankester, 
VanBeneden, Peach and others, including the author, then the euryp- 
terids must also be regarded as arachnids. The splendid argument of 
Thorell against this position has, however, yet to be counterpoised. It 
is shown that LimuluH is probably no direct descendant of these ancient 
merostoms, but has been derived along a lateral stem, differentiated 
contemi)oraneously with that of theEurypterina from the early ances- 
tral stock of both. What this primitive stock may be is not known. 
The author, whose investigations were made before the recent elucida- 
tion of the ventral anatomy of Triarthrus by Matthew, Jr., and Beecher,.. 
thinks that the trilobites may have been the point of departure, but 
this view is no longer tenable and it is very doubtful now if the Trilo- 
bita and Arachnida (or even the Merostomata) should be regarded a^- 
equivalent sub-classes of the PcBciloj)oda. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



Additional Facts about Nicollet. The name Nicollet is synon- 
ymous in American history with the terms pioneer, explorer, scientist 
and cartographer. In Canada and the Northwest especially we meet 
with reminders of early explorations in the frequency with which the 
name is applied to counties, islands, post offices and city thoroughfares. 
It is a fact which may not be generally known, however, that there were 
two French explorers who bore this name, and that they have not al- 
ways been clearly distinguished. They lived two centuries apart, and 
yet their given names have been confounded even by historians. 

Jean Nicollet, or Nicolet (for his name was spelled in both ways in 
the Jesuit '^Relations"), came to North America at about the age of 
twenty, in the year 1618. His birth-place is supposed to have been at 
or near Cherbourg, and the year 1598. *'He was a man full of spirit, 
daring and at the same time deeply religious,*' and well fitted by these 
qualities to take a prominent place in the new world. 

In a short time he was sent (about 1620) a hundred leagues from Que- 
bec up the Ottawa river, among the Algonquins of Alumette island to 
learti the language. There he stayed two years without seeing a single 
European, **always accompanying the barbarians on their expeditions, 
and travels, amid fatigues that can not be imagined except by those 
who have seen them; several times he passed seven or eight days with- 
out eating anything. He was seven whole weeks without other nour- 
ishment than a little bark/' (Relation of 1G43.) 




Vorrcitpondence. 127 

About 1622 at the bead of 400 Algonquins be was Buccesaful in an at- 
tempt to negotiate peace with tbe Iroquois. Later be went among tbe 
Nipiasings or Algonquina of lake Nipissing, fifty leagues fartber nortb- 
west, and remained witb tbem eight or nine years, becoming one of 
them, adopted by the nation, taking part in their councils, '^having his 
cabin apart, doing bis own fisbing and trading." He is not thought to 
have been in Quebec during tbe time when (1629 to 1632) it was held by 
the English. But when tbe French again obtained control be was 
called to be clerk and interpreter for tbe Company of tbe Hundred As- 
sociates. 

July 1, 1631, he was sent from Quebec by Champlain on an exploring 
expedition to the west On this journey it is said that Nicollet *'sus- 
tained all tbe hard work of the most robust of savages.*' Witb seven 
Huron Indians for his only companions be coasted along tbe shore of 
lake Huron through tbe strait that leads to lake Superior, to tbe place 
since called Sault Sainte Marie, where be remained some time to af- 
ford rest for bis men. He thence proceeded through tbe straits of 
Mackinaw into lake Michigan and landed at tbe mouth of tbe Menom- 
onie river on Green bay. From here his course is not definitely known. 
It is believed that he went up tbe Fox river as far as the village of the 
Masooutins. about where Green Lake county now is, and then turned 
south to the Illinois country. It is not certain that be ever reached the 
Mississippi river, although he traveled some distance into the territory 
west and south of lake Michigan. 

He died in November, 1643. '*While making a journey to Three Riv- 
ers in order to deliver an Indian prisoner, his zeal cost him his life and 
he was shipwrecked. He embarked at Quebec at seven o*clock in tbe 
evening in the launch of M. de Savigny, wbicb was going to Three Riv- 
ers. Tbey bad not yet arrived at Sillery when a gust of the northeast 
wind, that had raised a terrible storm on the great river, caused the 
launch to fill and it sank to the bottom." (Relation of 1643.) 

*^To-day Jean Nicollet is openly recognized as tbe one who disclosed 
tbe way to tbe great lakes and the western territory.** He has been 
called tbe ** Jacques Cartier" of Wisconsin, and furnished the earliest ac- 
counts of its inhabitants. **In the Relation de la Nouvelle France, for 
1639-40, is the first list of western tribes, made up from tbe statement 
of Nicolet." 

These facts are taken from various volumes of tbe Wisconsin Histori- 
cal Collections, especially, however, from the French of Henri Jouan, in 
Hevue Manchoine, 1886. Translated by Grace Clark. Wis. Hist, Co//., 
XI, pp. 1-22. 

Joseph Nicolas Nicollet* was born July 24, 1786, at CI uses, in Savoy. 
He sbowed unusual indications of mental acuteness and energy while 
still a boy. and was given a first-class education. In order to complete 

*Fid. Nouvelle Bioffraphie CJenerale, etc. Dr. Hoefer, Paris, 1H64; Axner. Alma- 
neck, 1H4; Am. Bioir. Diet., 1S57 : Querard, France Litteraire; Obitaary notice* in Am, 
Jour. .ScA.,8er. I, vol. xlt, IkC); J. C. Pofficendorff^s Bioffraphiach-Literariechee Hand- 
worterbnch car Oeechichto der ezacten WiMenscbaften, Leipzig, l*^i, vol. ii, pp. 2N5. 
1131. 



128 lite American Geologist, Februair, i^M 

his studies he went to Paris and soon made himself known for his in- 
telligence. He was attached to the Paris Observatory aa **secr^taire 
biblioth^caire" in 1817. He was naturalized in France in 1819 and eQ- 
tered the Bureau of Longitudes in 1823. He received the Cross of the 
legion of Honor in 1825. He was at one time both professor of mathe- 
matics in the college of Louis le Grand and Examiner for the Naval 
School. Ruined financially by the depreciation in the value of stocks 
caused by the Revolution of 1830, he sailed from Brest for the United 
States in 1831. 

In a former number of this journal* is an account of his work in this 
country. It is not necessary to repeat the facts there given. The fol- 
lowing details are in addition. 

Among his writings which were not mentioned in the former sketch 
are: *'Sur le mesure d' un arc du parallele moyen entre le pole et 
r ^quateur/* Paris, 1826; *'Cours de math^matiquee k V usage de la ma- 
rine," 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830; **Essay on Meteorological observations, 
printed by order of the War Department,'^ Washington, 1839. 

He presented some remarks on his observations in the west before the 
Association of Geologists in 1848, the substance of which is given in the 
American Journal of Science, volume xlv, pp. 153 and 323. The first is 
on the Cretaceous formation of the upper Missouri river; the second is 
on the glacial theory of Agassiz. In this latter paper he expressed his 
astonishment that Agassiz had overlooked the labors of his predecessors 
in the same field, and particularly of M. de Saussure, who spent forty 
years in investigating all the glacial phenomena of the Alps and had 
nearly exhausted the subject. It was, he said, impossible to conceive 
how the effects ascribed by M. Agassiz to the moving glaciers could 
with propriety belong to them. The Mer de glace was an immense ice- 
vault, under which, as in a grotto, one could walk even- for twenty 
miles, while on its bottom runs a stream of water. How, then, could the 
bottom of the Mer de glace be supposed to score and furrow the rocks in 
its path? Moreover, M. Agassiz had overlooked the true effect of the 
expansion of the ice. He had ascribed to it the downward movement of 
the glacier, while De Saussure long ago proved that this motion was due 
to gravity only. Agassiz also overlooked the influence of the direction 
and shape of the valleys on the directi^on of the ''diluvial furrows." 

J. N. Nicollet died in Washington on Monday morning, September 11, 
1843, at the age of fifty-seven. He left in manuscript a dictionary of 
Indian dialects and a collection of Indian songs. In various United 
States publications his name is given as "I. N. Nicollet," while in the 
histories of Minnesota it is printed "Jean N. Nicollet," thus confusing 
it with the earlier explorer. They were both remarkable men and their 
memory is worthy of being perpetuated. Horace V. Winchell. 

Minneapolis, Jan. .9, 1H94. 

Spire-bearikg Genera of the Pal^ii^qzoic Brachiopoda. Palaeon- 
tology of New York, vol. viii, pt. ii, fascicle i, pp. 1-176, with 155 wood 

*Jean N. Nicollet. By N. H. Winchell. American Geologist, vol. vm, pp. ;vi:i^{52. 
Doc, 1H91. 



Correspondence. 129 

cuts in text, July, 1893. By Jakes Hai.l», assisted by John M. Clarke. 
**An unavoidable delay in the printing of the lithographic plates de- 
signed to accompany this volume renders it desirable to issue a part of 
the edition in the form of fascicles." The first fascicle treats of fifty* 
nine genera and subgenera, constituting the paleeozoic forms of the 
suborder Helicopegmata, or spire bearers. Sixteen of these genera are 
new, an increase of over thirty-five per cent. The work is illustrated by 
numerous wood cuts of the calcareous arm supports (here termed 
brachidium), from preparations by Mr. Clarke. Many good and detailed 
definitions and discussions of the interrelations of species and genera of 
this suborder are given, but a complete synopsis will require more space 
than this review admits. Only the more striking conclusions, therefore, 
will be noticed. 

In the forty pages here devoted to Spirifer^ the plan adopted in the 
previous volume in treating of Orthin is abandoned. The latter genus 
was divided into fourteen groups, each of which received a distinct 
subgeneric name, thus rendering it very easy to refer to any group. 
Spirifer, however, is divided into six primary sections; Radiati, Lamel- 
/off, Aperturati, Ostiolati and Glabrati^ ail of these being again subdi- 
vided. Some of the secondary sections have a similar terminology, 
while other subsections are typified by characteristic species ; as Dis- 
JunetuS'type, Striatus-typet etc. The number of sections and subsec- 
tions is thirty. For six of the subsections, the terms Deltfiyris, Reticu 
laria, Choristitea, Martinia, Martiniopais and MentzeUa^ol authors are 
retained. It is not generally known, however, that the type species of 
Delthyria has a ventral septum, which proves this subgenus to beequa. 
to the section Laniellosi Septati^ and not to the Fimhriati Unicispinei, 
as given in this fascicle. Mentzelia has been regarded as a subgenus of 
Spinferina, and was so placed by Waagen in 1883 and by Bittner in 
1893, but whether this is correct is not now evident. 

The above classification of the SpiHfera, which is based essentially 
upon surface characters, has been attempted a number of times, but no 
system has come into general use. It is admitted that Lingula, Orthis, 
Spin'fer, and Rhyncfumello, with their numerous species, are difficult to 
classify bi-, or trinomially, yet it would seem as though internal or de- 
velopmental characters rather than surface ornamentation might aid in 
the solution of the problem. This suggestion is not intended to convey 
the impression that the internal organization of Spirifer has not been 
studied, but it is believed that characters do exist in the many species 
of this genus, which can be used for subgeneric purposes. While 
knowledge of the interrelations which the species of Spirifer h%eiT to one 
another has been greatly increased by this work, yet the former multi- 
nominal method of discussing them is not simplified by it. 

Cyrtia, Dalman, is shown to differ from Spirifer only in having a high 
ventral area, with its delthyrium closed by a perforated deltidum. To 
the list of species should be added Spirifer metitai here referred to the 
"Pauciplicati" of the "Radiati" of Spirifer. 

Spiriferimt is thought to have come through the lamellose-septate 



130 The American Geologist. Febrnanr, iSM 

Bpirifere. The same view was also held by the preeent writer in **A 
Claasification of the Brachiopoda.**^ If this opinion is true, the pro- 
greeeioo would not only be through an impunctate to a punctate stocky 
bat would also include a change from an imperfect to a perfect loop, 
the imperfection of which is thought to have resulted in a partial ab- 
sorption of a complete ancestral loop. Cyrtina agrees with Spiriferina 
in having a perfect loop and a strongly punctate shell, while the other 
internal characters of Cyrtina might easily be modified into those of 
Spiriferina. Which of these views is the correct one can only be proved 
by an ontogenetic study of some species of Spiriferina, 

Metaplasia^ gen. nov^ is typified by Spirifer pyxidaiun. Hall, to which 
should be added 5. dutjxtrilis of the Comiferous, although it is referred 
to the septate- lamellose spirifers in the preeent work. For another 
aberrant group of spirifers typified by the European S. cheiroptyx^ 
the generic name Vemeuilia is proposed. 

Davidson regarded Atryjut nitida Hall, as the type of MeristinOf 
proposing Whitfieldia for Jf. mari^i^ which is the original type of Jlfe- 
risiina. Jl^itfieldia is therefore a direct synonym of Meristina^ and 
for the latter genus, as understood by Davidson, the term HVhiifieldella 
is here substituted. It is a question, however, whether the ''unique 
loop*^ and '^peculiar fulness and close incurvation of the beaks** of Hin- 
dellay Davidson, render it generically different from Whitfieldella, since 
other characters seem to be essentially alike in both forms. 

Hyattella^ gen. no v., is baaed upon Atrypa congesta Conrad ; while 
Dicamara^ gen. nov., is founded upon Merista sralpmm Eloemer, a 
form occurring in the Eif el and having a ''shoelifter^ plate for muscular 
attachment in both valves, while Merista keretileay its nearest generic 
relative, has but one, which is in the ventral valve. 

The type of Meristella first recognized by Hall is Atrypa nariformis, 
a rare and nearly always imperfect shell. This species was later aban- 
doned by him for Merista /tprti, the recognized type species of the 
genus. Conformity to the rules of nomenclature would not permit this 
had the genus been defined when the term Meristella was first used, 
but as this was not done, there can be no valid objection to founding 
the genus upon the second type. Charionella, Billings, is revived as a 
subgenus of Merixtella. 

Camaro^ira, gen. nov.,hasfor its type Camarophoria rucAarrt Hall. 
It is supposed to be related to Merittelia and Merista^ the loop, how- 
ever, being unknown. 

McCoy's abandoned athyroid genera Act i nocont hns mnd Seminula, 
with Cliothyris, King, are emended and serve as subgenera of Athyris. 
While surface ornamentation is the most important distinction for their 
separation, there are internal differences as welL Athyris has a lamel* 
lose exterior t^l.jpiri/c'roiV/^s): in Cli*>thyris, the ''lamellar expanfiions 
are divided almost, and sometimes quite, to their bases, into long, fiat 
spinules** ( .4. rttys^iii: Aciinitconchtts has an '^extravagant development 
of the concentric lamellar expansions, which are striated by distant 

^AWEUCAN GB01j(K«I8T, TOl. Zl, l>Ht. pf). 111-167. 



N 



Correspondence. 131 

<8ulci," and "these expaosions appear to be fine, tubular spinee connected 
by, or imbedded in a tenuous calcareous plate*' {A.planosxUcata)^ while 
Seminula has a smooth exterior (A, aubtilita). 

The most primitive atbyroid known is Terebratula Iceviuscula Sow- 
erby, of the English Wenlock, the brachial apparatus of which was 
first demonstrated by Glass to be structurally different from that of 
Athyria^ and this species now serves as the type of Olasaina, gen. nov. 

Retzia, King, is shown to possess a very peculiar and unexpected in- 
terior structure, which at present is not known to be common to any 
other species. The many American retzioid forms are here shown to 
belong to RhynchoftpirUt Hall; HomoRoapira, sub. gen. nov. (type R, 
•evaa; Hall); Ptychoapira, gen nov. (type Terebratula ferita vonBuch); 
Eumetria^ Hall; Acambona, White; Huatedia,gen, nov. (type Terebrat- 
ula mormoni Marcou); Trematoapira, Hall; and Parazyga, gen. nov. 
(type Trematoapira hirauta Hall). 

Uncitea is placed with the retzioid genera, but the nature of the pri- 
mary lamellse at their junction with the crura seems to forbid this ar- 
rangement, and the family SpirifericUe is suggested by the writer as a 
more suitable place; Uncinella^ Waagen, also might remain where its 
•author provisionally placed it, and Uncitea in the subfamily UncititKe. 

The genus Anoplothecat Sandberger, heretofore little understood, 
proves, in its known characters, to be congeneric with Bifida^ David- 
son, and Coeloapira^ Hall. "The structure of the loop is still unknown" 
in the type species of Anoplotheca, and flail and Clarke state that 
"with our present knowledge it seems necessary to conclude that the 
term Bifida is altogether synonymous with Anoplotheca*^ (p. 133), in 
which case it may be assumed that the loop of the latter genus will, 
when known, prove to be structurally identical with that of Bifida as 
worked out by Clarke. Leptovivlia, Hall, which was thought to be a 
terebratuloid, proves to be a spire-bearer. The structure of its spirals 
and loop are not yet fully known. From Ccploapira concava, L.flabel- 
Utea, the type species "differs, as far as its structure is known, only in 
its greater size and coarser, simple plication of the surface. In general 
contour, structure of hinge, cardinal process, muscular scars and inter* 
nal septa it agrees throughout with Anoplotheca and Cceloapira" In 
regard to the latter "it is clearly evident that the structure in the spe- 
cies of Cufloapira is essentially the same as in Anoplotheca renuata, and 
A. (Bifida) lepida.^* For the present, it seems better to merge these 
unestablished genera into one, Anoplotheca^ until they can be shown to 
have a biologic significance. 

Vitulina, Hall, also proves to be a spire-bearer and "now takes its 
place quite naturally in close association with Cctloapira and Leptocce- 
lift;'* Anabaioj Clarke, gen. nov., "appears to be the precursor of the 
Devonian shells referred to Anoplotheca and Lejitoca^lia." 

CycloHpira, gen. nov., is based upon Orthia biaculata Emmons. It is 
•diflScult at present to indicate with any degree of exactness the relation 
which this genus bears toother spire-bearers. .However, the nature of 
tthe primary lamellce and of the incomplete loop point to the Spirifer- 



182 The American Geologst. Febnianr, 1884 

idee. The slight introversion of the pauci-spirals in this genus should • 
not be given too great taxonomio value towards the Atrypidce. 

In connection with Cyclospira^ forms are discussed which served 
Winchell and Sohuchert as the types of their genus Hallina. These 
species, Zygospira nicolleti and Z. saffordij differ from Cyelonpira not 
in the direction of the TerebratulidcBt as was at first supposed, but are 
now known to be clearly related to Zygospira^ of which they are mature 
species, neither being an immature stage of Z, recurvirosira, Z. nicol- 
leti is regarded as synonymous with Atrypa exigua. Hall, upon which 
is founded Protozyga, subgen. nov. It has recently been shown (Proc.. 
Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. vui, pp. 71-82) that Z. aaffardi is a more pro- 
gressive fixed form towards Z, reciirvirostra than is Z. nicolleti.. 
Moreover, since the generic characters of these species are in harmony 
with Anazygat Davidson, an admitted synonym of Zygospira, it is not 
clear upon what characters Protozyga is to stand. Since these stages came 
into and passed out of existence rapidly and do not have the same value 
as the fixed stages of development in the Terebratnlidoe, there can be* 
no great taxonomic value attached to them. 

Clintonella, gen. nov. (type C. vagabutida^ n. sp.), is supposed to be 
intimately related to Zygospira^ but the nature of the spirals is unde- 
termined. 

Atrypimu gen. nov., is based upon Leptoccelia inibricata. Hall, and 
includes a few forms previously referred to Cteloftpira, One of these is 
the well-known European shell, Atrypa barrandi, Atrypivo is clearly 
a permanent condition of one of the later ontogenetic stages of Atryjm, 

The work of Priele, G^ihlert and Beecher on the TerebratelHdiv has 
shown that it is not safe to propose new genera upon single specimens 
nor upon a number of specimens apparently, but really not adult. The 
spire-bearers are no exception to this statement, since we now know 
that Zygospira also passes through a series of metamorphoses. These 
remarks apply more directly to those genera of the Helicojwgmata 
which are based upon the modifications of the loop processes. 

For the present work, paleontologists, more particularly those making 
a special study of the Brachiopoda, owe Hall and Clarke a debt of grat- 
itude. Any one who has tried to develop thebrachidium in brachiopods, 
whether by the aid of acid, sections or pen-knife, will fully understand 
the difficulties here so successfully overcome. It is evident that the 
volume when completed, will be a most valuable storehouse of brachio- 
pod knowledge, far outranking all previous works of a similar nature. 

Charles Sohuchrrt. 

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 



J. B. Tyrkkli., of the (Jeologieal Survey of C/anada, and J. 
W. Tyrn'Il, Dominion government land surveyor, have recently 
returned to Ottawa from an expedition to the far north. They 
went as far as Chesterfield Inlet, on the northwest side of 



r 



Peruana I ami ScienHjic Neics. 138- 

Hudson bay, traversing 850 miles of hitherto unexplored 
country. The expedition started from Edmonton May 26th 
and travelled with canoes by way of the Athabasca river, the 
north shore of lake Athabasca, Black river and lake, and a 
river that was followed about 800 miles northward and found 
to empty into the head of the long and deep fjord called Ches- 
terfield' Inlet, which was reached about Sept. 1st. On the 
Barren Grounds, through which the last mentioned river flows, 
plentiful herds of reindeer were seen, sometimes many 
thousands being in sight at once. On the homeward trip along 
the west coast of Hudson bay to C'hurchill, a distance of 500 
miles, occupying some five weeks up to Oct. 19, the party ex- 
perienced great hardships from cold and lack of provisions. 
After remaining nearly three weeks at ('hurchill for recupera- 
tion, the party pushed forward on foot with dog teams to York 
Factory, Oxford House and Norway House, and finally reached 
Selkirk, Manitoba, on New Year's day. The total distance 
traversed with canoes was about 2,200 miles, and on foot and 
^y dog team nearly 1,000 miles. 

Prof. I. (\ Rissell, of Ann Arbor, Mich., gave a lecture on 
'"Mount St. Elias and the Malaspina Glacier," on Friday even- 
ing, Dec. 29, 1898, before the Appalachian Mountain Club and 
invited friends, making an audience of 500 or more, in the Y. 
M.C. A. hall, Boston. The membership of this Club is about 
900. 

W. W. Clendenin, late assistant to Prof. (i. C. Broadhead at 
the University of Missouri, has accepted the* professorship of 
geology and botany at the University of Louisiana, at Baton 
Rouge. 

To PALEONTOLOGISTS. J. B. Baillicre and Son, of Paris, have 
just published a paleoutological bibliography, which contains 
the complete titles of more than fifteen hundred works, mod- 
ern and ancient. It is a pamphlet of 48 pages, octavo, and 
they offer to send it, gratis, to all geologists who request it. 

The Iowa Academy of Science held its regular annual meet- 
ing at I)es Moines on Tuesdav and Wednesday, Dec. 26th and 
27th, 1893. 

The following papers, on geological subjects, were read : 

S. Calvin — On the geological position of Benettites dacotensis Mrc- 
bride, with obeervations on the stratigraphy of the region in which the 
speoies was discovered. 

Wm. H. N'orton— Some preliminary notes on the lower Devonian 
strata of Iowa. 

C. R. Ketes— Relations of the Cretaceous formations in northweetern 
Iowa. Derivation of the unione fauna of the northwest. Process of 
formation of certain quartzites. 

H. Foster Bain— Structure of the Mystic coal basin. The deep well 
at Si(?ourney. 

E. H. Lonsdalb— Southern extension of the Cretaceous in Iowa. To- 
pography of the granite and porphyry areas in Missouri. 



■ 

134 The American Geologist. Febniarjr, 1894 

A. G. Leonard —Zinc deposits in northeastern Iowa. Satin spar 
(from Dubuque. 

A. 0. Spencer — A Mazon flora in Iowa. 

F. M. FuLTz — Interruptions during the depositions of the Burlington 
limestones. 

A. J. Jones— The coal measures of Poweshiek county. On the occur- 
rence of Cardiocarpus in Iowa. 

T. H. McBRiDE—Notes on the North American oycads. 
Officers elect^ed for the ensuing year are Dr. L. W. Ahdrews, 
president ; Prof. Herbert Osborn, secretary. 

Sixth Anntal Meeting of the Geologk.'al Sociktv ok 

America. 

This meeting was held Dec. 27-29. 1893, in Boston and Cam- 
bridge, Mass. Fifty-one fellows of the Society were in at- 
tendance, and fiftj^-nine papers were presented. The sessions 
of the opening and closing days were in the hall of the Boston 
Society of Naturul History; and those of Thursday, the 28th, 
were in the Harvard University museum, Cambridge. The 
president. Sir J. William Dawson, presided during the greater 
portion of the meeting, and by his quick wit and genial man- 
ners contributed much toward the interest and pleasure of all. 
Prof. William H. Niles, president of the Boston Society of Nat- 
ural History, made a cordial address of welcome. He contrasted 
the time when Sir Charles Lyell visited Boston and the pres- 
ent time. Public feeling then was strongly opposed to the 
conclusions of geological investigation, but now they are gen- 
erally acknowledged to be for the best interests of humanity. 

The election of officers for 189-A was as follows: president. 
T. C. Chamberlin, Chicago, 111.; vice-presidents, N. S. Shaler, 
Cambridge, Mass., and G. H. Williams, Baltimore, Md. ; sec- 
retary, H. L. Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y. ; treasurer, I. C. 
W^hite, Morgantown, W^. Va. ; councillors (term expiring 1890), 
F. D. Adams, Montreal, Canada, I. ('. Russell, Ann Arbor, 
Mich.; editor, J. Stanley-Brown, Washington, D. C. 

Four new fellows were elected at this meeting, namely, Al- 
bert P. Brigham, Hamilton, N. Y., W^illiam S. Gresley, Erie, 
Pa., Heinrich Ries, New York city, and James P. Smith, Palo 
Alto, Cal. The roll of membership now bears the names of 
242 living and nine deceased fellows. 

The report of the committee on photographs was presented 
by Mr. .1. S. Diller. The especially noteworthy additions to 
the collection this year are 86 views of American caves, com- 
prising 17 of the Mammoth cave, three of the Wyandotte cave, 
two of Marengo cave, two of White's cave and 12 of the Luray 
caverns in Virginia. Fifty other views were obtained, of 
which Mr. W. H. Hobbs prescnt4?d 47, illustrating his papers 
•on the geology of the southwestern portion of Massachusetts. 
The collection of photographs now numbers K02. 



Bo»ton Neetimj of the Geolotjical Society. 185 

Wednesday evening, after the lecture by Mr. Alexander Ag- 
assiz, a reception was held in the rooms of the Boston Society 
of Natural History, at which Mrs. William B. Rogers, Mrs. W. 
n. Niles, Mrs. Boardman, Miss Bouv4, and others, were present. 

Thursday evening the fellows of the Society had their an- 
nual dinner at the Thprndike hotel, Boston. Brief remarks 
were made by the greater number of fellows present, and there 
was a continual flow of wit and good humor. 

The next winter meeting will be held in Baltimore. 

On account of the great number of papers to be read, few of 
them were adequately discussed. In view of this, the general 
impression seemed to be that the executive committee hereaf- 
ter should be more rigorous in enforcing time limits, and in 
sifting out the program ; so that more time should be allowed 
for discussion. 

In the following list of the papers read, they are arranged 
in their order on the program of the meeting. Many of the 
titles are here accompanied by brief statements of the scope 
of the papers as in the preliminary announcements of the So- 
ciety. Of many others abstracts are given as prepared by the 
authors. Fifteen of the papers were read only by title, these 
being mostly those of fellows who were absent. 

1, Some recent discussions in geology. Sir J. William Dawson, 
Montreal, Caoada. This annual address of the retiring president was 
given in the session of Friday morning. The speaker said that he 
should restrict himself to matters which had come quite recently before 
geologists, especially in Great Britain and in this country, and intro- 
duced his subject by the statement that since the goal of the science to- 
day will be its starting point to-morrow, it is most appropriate at this 
time to glance at some of the questions now actively discusced among 
geologists, and to give some suggestions as to their settlement in the 
future. As these matters are necessarily very various, he would con- 
sider tbem more especially in their relation to the building up and de- 
velopment of the continents on which we live. 

Sir William noted first the controversies respecting the age of the 
older crystalline rocks, the true foundation stones of tne continents, in- 
stancing those of the highlands of Scotland as described by Geikie and 
the older rocks of North America as worked out by Logan and bis suc- 
cessors. He was inclined to think that the oldest rocks that we shall 
know are the gneisses of the lower Laurentian, and that those may be 
regarded as the igneo-aqueous products of the earliest action of the wa- 
ters on the crust of a cooling globe. He also gave reasons for believing 
that the whole of the pre-Cambrian rocks may be referred to four great 
systems, — the Lower Laurentian, the Upper Laurentian, the Huronian 
and the Keweenian, either in their littoral or their deeper water modifi 
cations. 

He then referred to the rival theories of mountain-building, and after 
distinguishing between mountains of eruption (volcanoes), like Vesu- 
vius and Cotopaxi, mountains of slightly inclined strata, like the Leba 
non and the Sierra Nevada, and mountains of contorted strata, like the 
Alps and the Appalachians, noted the diverse views as to the origin of 
the latter. He favored the time-honored contraction theory as explained 
recently by LeConte, but saw no objection to connecting with this the 
deposition theory of Hall and others, the expansion theory of Mellard 



186 The American Geologist, Febraary, i89i 

Reade, and the isoetatic theory of Dutton. When it is neceesary to ac- 
count for the compression oC vast masses of rock into a third of their 
normal dimensions and for their elevation thousands of feet above the 
level of the sea we may be thankful to invoke all available powers, each 
in its proper place, and the sculpturing due to atmospheric agencies 
besides. 

This led to a consideration of the uniformitarian and catastrophic 
theories. While on the one hand geologists are consistent in holding to 
the constancy of the laws of nature and the uniformity of their action 
in kind, on tne other hand a catastrophe is often merely the culmina- 
tion of slowly acting causes and is truly a part of the uniformity of na- 
ture. The slow crumbling of the face of a cliff is very gradual, but it 
leads to the sudden fall of vast masses of rock, exposing again new sur- 
faces to infiaitesimally slow decay. 

He next referred to the slow and gradual accumulations of organic 
matter as causes and effects of change. He instanced the growth of 
the coal measures and the relation of this to the gradual subsidence of 
continental areas, and showed that coal of the ordinary kinds, not in- 
cluding cannel, is a product of suba6rial accumulation of vegetable 
matter, under peculiar conditions, which recurred in various geological 
periods, but most extensively in the Carboniferous era. 

Another subject of much interest in connection with the same gen- 
eral matter is the evidence afforded by fossil plants as to the changes of 
climate and the geographical causes thereof. He showed by many il- 
lustrations how much light fossil plants are capable of throwing on 
these questions and how strongly they support the idea that the vicis- 
situdes of climate in geological time are mainly due to the different 
distribution of land and water. In connection with the same subject 
he showed that the areas of land and water have been sufficiently sta- 
tionary to support a continuous succession of animal and vegetable life. 

Much light is thrown on the vexed question of the refrigeration of the 
northern hemisphere in the Glacial period when we learn that the ice 
of this period is local rather than general, and that local glaciers of 
great magnitude on elevated ground and depressions of lower lands be- 
neath the sea were mainly responsible for this icy episode. Sir William 
held that no one cause can explain the phenomena of this great refrig- 
eration, but that changes of level and of ocean currents were dominant, 
that areas of evaporation as well as of condensation were required, and 
that the succession of deposits can be explained only by a consideration 
of the changes of physical geography in the successive stages of the 
I)eriod. 

He further directed attention to the evidences of an open polar sea 
throughout the Glacial period, of the great submergence of the land 
during this time, and of the necessity of abandoning the attempt to ac- 
count for all of the phenomena by the action of land ice, since we must 
recognize the effects of sea-borne ice as well as of glaciers. He referred 
to the evidence now available as to the recency of glacial times and the 
arguments which suggest vast movements of the earth*s crust in periods 
geologically modern. 

The speaker then noticed the opinions lately advanced by a number 
of leading geologists as to the probabilitv of a great diluvial catastrophe 
since the advent of man on this globe. He had himself long advocated 
the necessity for such an occurrence, on the evidence of the extension 
of the northern continents in the early human period, and the appar- 
ently sudden destruction of men and many of the larger animals of the 
Palanthropic age, producing a vital hiatus between this and the suc- 
ceeding ages. 

This conclusion seems now triumphant and is beginning to bring the 
geological events of the later Tertiary into harmonious connection with 
the history of early man as deduced from our traditions and records. He 




Boston Meetintj of the Oeotot/ical Society, 137 

insisted on the importance of dieting uisbing between glacial and post- 
glacial deposits more carefully than heretolore. Until this is done there 
will be much confusion, both as to the Glacial period and as to early 
human remains. 

In conclusion, the speaker looked forward to the speedy settlement of 
these and similar questions in a rational and scientific manner, and in 
such a way as to establish a stable basis for the work of the future; and 
he thanked the Society for giving to him this opportunity of pointing 
out the goals of to-day, which are to be the starting point of the re- 
searches of to-morrow. We can estimate the position of the present 
time, but we cannot easily anticipate that of the future, which with all 
its wealth of scientific results will belong to the younger geologists, of 
whom BO many are members of the Cxeological Society of America. 

2. Geological noten on aome of (he coasts and ialanda of Bering sea 
and its vicinity. Ueokok M. Dawson, Ottawa, Canada. (Read by Sir 
J. W. Dawson.) The observations contained in this paper were made 
during the summer of 1891, while the writer was engaged, as one of the 
Britisd Commissioners, in the investigation of questions relating to the 
fur seal. Attention was particularly given to the general pb>siographi- 
cal aspects of the lands visited and to the search for possible traces of 
former glaciation or evidences of recent changes in elevation of the 
ehores. Localities for which the more obvious geological features have 
already be^n recorded were not especially referred to, while in other 
cases more precise details were given. The localities were taken up in 
the following order: Aleutian islands, Komandorski islands, Kamts- 
chatka, Pribyloff islands, Nunivak island, St. Matthew island,^ Plover 
bay. The opinions of Dr. Dall and others as to the absence of any gen- 
eral glaciation in the Bering sea region were confirmed, and remarks 
were made on the probable date of origin of the Aleutian islands. It 
was found that a continental plateau probably once connected North 
America with Asia. The western part of Bering sea has as yet been 
very imperfectly explored with the deep sea lead. The available evi. 
dence goes to show that the submsrine plateau and the fiat land of 
western Alaska were covered by a shallow sea during the latter part of 
the Miocene period, and that afterward the sea bed was probably raised 
as land, the elevation being sufllcient to permit the mammoth to reach 
the Pribyloff islands. Since the ensuing depression of the region, there 
has been a recent slight uplift, not exceeding 10 to 30 feet, so far as ob- 
eerved. 

^. The fossil flora of Alaska. Frank H. Knowlton, Washington, D. 
C. (Read by Mr. T. W. Stanton.) An historical review of accounts of 
fossil plants in Alaska, with their systematic enumeration, and a dis- 
cussion of the geologic age of the beds in which they are found. 

4. Xew Discover ieft (^Carboniferous batrachiaUH. Sir J. W. Daw- 
son. This paper described recent observations of erect trees whose 
hollow trunks enclosed fossil remains, in the district of the South Jog- 
gin6,in Nova Scotia. The first discovery of them was made in 1851 by 
president Dawson, in company with Sir Charles Lyell. Three beds 
containing such trees have now been found. The interior portions of the 
trees rotted away, leaving them as hollow cvlinders, into which small 
land batrachians fell. On their death and decomposition, their bones 
remained in the trees, intermixed with vegetable debris and soil. 

.*. Venozoic geohnjy along the Appalachicola river. William H 
Daia^ and Jot«EPH Stani^y- Brown, both of Washington. D. C. The. 
observations made during a journey from Bainbridge, Ga., down the 
Flint and Appalachicola rivers to the coastal plain, were summarized. 
The exploration was undertaken with a view to clearing up some un- 
certainty in the sections and discrepancies in the stratigraphy, so far 
as these were previously known. The Appalachicola section, especially 
the series at Alum Bluff, has become the standard section for correla- 



138 The American Geologist, Febmarj, 1894 

tion of the late Tertiary rocks of the Floridian and Gulf region. In 
view of its importance, exact measurements were obtained at the beet 
exposures; a triangulation was made for a sketch map, and photographs 
were taken, at Alum Bluff; and the western extension of the strata on 
the Chipola river at Bailey's Ferry, Abe*s Springs, etc., was carefully 
studied. The results show that above the Vicksburg limestone the suc- 
cession of the Miocene rocks is as follows, in ascending order: (1) The 
Chattahoochee limestone; (2) the Chipola marl; (3) the Alum Bluff beds 
(subsequently named Aspalaga clays by Johnson),— in all over 80 feet 
of strata belonging to the older or Chipola (warm water) Miocene: (4) 
the Chesapeake marl; and (5) the aluminous clay, forming the newer or 
Chesapeake (cold water) Miocene, with a thickness of about 80 feet 
more. Above the Miocene strata are about 80 feet of Orange sand, clay, 
and Pleistocene superhcial sands. Correlation with this section renders 
it probable that the typical Grand Gulf beds (exclusive of the Pasca- 
^oula clays, which seem to be newer Chesapeake) are included in a 
time interval beginning above the lowest Chattahoochee beds and end- 
ing with the epoch of the Alum Bluff sands, thus coming entirely 
within the old Miocene or Chipola epoch. This conclusion agrees in 
the main with the views of. Prof. E. A. Smith as to the probable age of 
the Grand Gulf beds, expressed by him in private letters, as early as 
September, 1892. 

(). Geological activity of the earth^s originally absorbed gases, Alfred- 
C. LiANE, Houghton, Mich. The argument of this paper is as follows: 

The earth in its early stages absorbed various gases which it is 
now giving off in process of cooling. These gases are an original and 
essential factor in every igneous magma, and their presence is essential 
and characteristic in the crystalline development of plu tonic and dike 
rocks, their sudden loss in the development of volcanic rooks. When- 
ever cracks extend far enough down into the earth these gases escape 
and carry with them the lava, and so become the moving cause of vol- 
canic eruptions. The earth, below the various surface formations, in- 
creases in basicity and heat toward a core which probably is largely 
metallic iron. Lavas furnished from a crack will be at first a mixture- 
of the rook magma at different levels. Their chemical composition will 
vary according to the depth of the crack and other factors, but will t>e 
of medium basicity as regards the material that can be furnished from 
that crack. Hence any already individualized minerals of pronounced 
acid or basic character, e. r/., quartz or olivine, are liable to corroeion. 
Acid lavas might be furnishea exclusively by shallow cracks. They 
would have a less high temp<)rature than the basic, and be in a pasty 
condition. The deeper seated basic lavas would have a higher temper- 
ature, hence take a longer time to cool, and so ^ive their vapors more 
time to escape before consolidation. 

The absorbed gases slowly given off from plutonic rocks produce in 
adjacent rocks the characteristic contact zone. In volcanic rocks the 
gases escape from the vent, and hence the contact zone is absent or 
different. These gases are concentrated in the crystallization of plu- 
tonic masses into pegmatitic dikes, so that there is a continuous series 
from pegmatites to segregation veins and true tissure veins filled by 
ascent, allowing the pegmatites to be classed with either veins or igne- 
ous rocks. (The gases are understood, whenever temperature and 
pressure permit, to pass into the state of hot mineralized water.) 
If these gases also percolate with extreme slowness outward every- 
where, we should expect them to tend to produce a regular graduation 
in composition from the center out, causing an exchange of material in 
alternating beds of different composition. The crradual silicification of 
oertAin older rooks and metamorphism of crystalline schists may in part 
he due to this cause, being like a contact zone for the eart.h*s interior. 
Their action would accentuate the crumpling of the earth*s crust by^ 




Boston Meeting of the Geoloyical Society, 139- 

abstracting material below and adding it to the cruet. Their escape 
would also accelerate the cooling of the earth, thus affecting its ther- 
mal gradient and the estimates of its age. 

7. Certain climatic features of Maryland. Willi am B. Clakk,. 
Baltimore, Md. A series of large climatic charts, recently prepared for 
the Maryland State Weather Service, was exhibited, and Lhe effect of 
the mountainous area in western Maryland and of Chesapeake bay 
upon the temperature and rainfall were explained. 

8. Dual nomenclature in geologic classification, U. S. Williams, New- 
Haven, Conn. Dual designations of geologic formations were recom- 
mended, one set of names having reference to the lithological character 
of the rook-masses and being derived from geographic localities or dis- 
tricts, and the other based on the great and persistent life characters of 
the fossil faunas and floras of the rocks. The former set of names will 
be liable to vary as the strata change from place to place, or even a 
name of lithological significance will have a wide extension when the 
same conditions of deposition reached far in space or time. The latter 
names, of biological significance, will be substantially constant over 
large areas and perhaps over the world. This principle was stated by 
the author Several years ago before the International Congress of (ve- 
ologists. (Report of the American Committee at the session in London, 
18^, p. A91 ; also Am. GEOLooisr, vol. ii, pp. 195, 196, Sept., 1888.) 

This paper urged the importance of recognizing in nomenclature that 
dualitv which is already clearly recognized in the nature of the facts- 
classified. The use of Era, period, epoch, age, as simply chronologic 
names, and for the correlative structural divisions Group, system, series,, 
stage, is good so far as it goes; it emphasizes the distinction between 
the geological formations and the divisions of geological time. But it 
should be carried to its logical conclusion, and different names should 
be given to things which are different. The author proposes that the 
present nomenclature, which has been constructed from the outset to 
designate formations, should be restricted to that use, but should be 
applied with strict regard to the facts in each case ; the same name 
should be applied only where the same rock formation is actually rec- 
ognized ; and attention should be given to composition, structure and 
locality, in the definition of the formation. In naminir the divisions of 
the time scale the method and kind of nomenclature already in partial 
use should be systematized and applied, also with precision, according 
to knowledge. The longer divisions. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, are 
the Times of the geological scale. These are subdivided into arbitrary 
divisions, the systems, which were originally aggregations of rock forma- 
tions, and have come to be used as pure time-divisions which are indi- 
cated by the fossil contents. If, then, we speak of the Paleozoic time in 
a tectural sense, it is made up of the five erss named Cambrian, Ordo- 
vician. Silurian. Devonian and Carboniferous. Still finer divisions have 
been determined in each of the eras. In the Cambrian era there are 
three recognized periods, which may be called Eocambrian, or the early 
Cambrian: Meeocambrian, or the middle Cambrian; an dNeocambrian, or 
the later Cambrian. The periods are thoroughly understood by geolo- 
gists throughout the world and are distinguiiahed by their fossils, 
characteristic genera of trilobites, as defined by Walcott. This system 
of nomenclature is easily applied to the subdivisions of each of the eras. 
It is doubtful if the knowledge of palpontology is sufficiently minute to 
define with precision any universal subdivisions of these periods. Lo- 
cally epochs and hemeras may be recognized in the life-periods of the 
species and varieties of the fossils. But in most cases the species which 
are of wide enough distribution to serve as means of definition of the 
time relations of the fossil faunas have a ranire geologically through at 
least one period. Therefore the refinement of the time scale beyond the- 
period awaits the further investigations of paleontologists. 



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Boston Mtcfuiy of the Geoloijical Sovieftj, 141 

in Pennsylvania the strata above the great Silurian limestone (iii to xii 
inclusive) measure in the Pottsville basin 23,700 feet, but in Lycoming 
oounty they are only 9,700 feet thick. These measures being taken 
from the onoe level horizon of overlying coal measures, their base, the 
limestone, evidently conformed to the curved under surface of the mass 
of strata in a trough whose form is indicated by the measures of unequal 
thicknesses. A more (Retailed statement would show several synclines 
of deposition indicated by inequalities of thickness in Devonian or Car- 
boniferous strata, which now form the Anthracite basins. 

Strata have been folded by horizontal compression. They resist com- 
pression as struts oppose a thrust. A bent strut yields at the bend; 
strata forming a syndine of deposition yield in that syndine, which, be- 
ing folded closer, becomes a syncline of deformation. The decided dip 
from the shore seaward is in a position to be sharply upturned; it may 
become vertical or overturned. In this position it may be eroded to 
great depth without much change in the position of its outcrop, which 
remains marking approximately the ancient shore line. The application 
of this method of determining shore lines to the geography of the Ap- 
palachian province in Paleozoic time has been found fruitful and it is 
believed to be reliable. In considering the evidence relating to shore 
lines, the facts of structure considered in the light of this reasoning ap- 
pear to be as important as facts of distribution of sediments and of 
lithologic characters. 

IL An account of an e.vpedition to the Bahamas, Alexander Aa- 
AHSiz, Cambridge, Mass. (liitroduced by W. M. Davis.) This illus- 
trated lecture by the director of the Museum of Comparative S^ology 
at Harvard University, was given on Wednesday evening. It summa- 
rized the observations taken during cruises of nearly 3,300 miles among 
the Bahama islands in the early part of last^ear. A letter describing 
this exploration was in the American Journal of Science for April, 1893. 
These islands (as far a6 to Turk's island) are found to be all of eolian 
origin. They were formed at a time when the now submarine Bahama 
banks must have been practically one huge irregulsrly shaped mass of 
low land, from the beaches of which successive ranges of low dunes of 
coral sand, such as still occur in New Providence, must have originated. 
After the area was thus raised, there was an extensive gradual subsid- 
ence which can be estimated at about 300 feet, and during this subsid- 
ence the sea has little by little eaten away the eolian lands, leaving only 
here and there narrow strips in the shape of the present islands. 

12, The Later Tertiary lacustrine format ions of the Wext. William 
B. SooTT, Princeton, N. J. The Equus beds are shown by their fauna 
to be probably Pleistocene, and are separated by a marked unconform- 
ity from the Loup Fork. The latter can now be separated into three 
horizons, characterized by decided differences in their faunas. Of these 
the oldest is the Deep River formation of Montana, which is known 
only in the valley of that river. The second, which may be called the 
Nebraska, is developed on a vast scale from South Dakota to Mexico ; 
while the third, named the Palo Duro formation, has been found over- 
lying the Nebraska in Texas and northern Kansas. The last appears to 
be the equivalent of the Archer fauna of Florida, which on stratigraph- 
ical grounds Dall regards as Pliocene. In tabular form these horizons 
may be arranged as follows : 

PIciBtocene. Rquus hed». 

S( Peace Creek. 
Pliocene. \ Blanco. 

Palo Duro and Archer ■ Hippidinni beds. 
Nebraska - Coaoryx beds. 
Deep River - ryolopidius hedn. 

Morphological palaeontology requires that correlation of these hori- 
zons with those of the old world be attempted. For this purpose the 



142 The American Geoloyist. February, I'W 

mammalian fauna is well adapted, because of the repeated land connec- 
tions between the continents. The isolation of South America produced 
an altogether peculiar fauna and it is well-nigh inipossible to determine 
the exact equivalents of its various fresh water Tertiaries. Between 
Europe and North America three points appear to be well established : 
(1) The Wasatch E2ocene = the Suessonian ; (2) the White River = the 
Oligocene of Rouzon ; (8) the Deep River = the upper Miocene of 
Sansan. 

IS, Oeoloyy of the CiMna valley in Georgia and Alabama, C. Wil- 
LARD Hates, vVashington, D. C. The region described lies between the 
Rome and Cartersville thrust faults. The rooks are from Cambrian to 
Carboniferous, inclusive, and present interesting stratigraphic problems 
in unconformities and wide iithologic variations in contemporaneous 
deposits. The structure has resulted from two or more periods of ep- 
eirogenic activity, in which the forces acted in different directions, proD- 
ably separated by long periods of denudation. 

14. Geological structure of theHousatonic valley lying eaat of Mount 
Washington, MaHHachuHettH. William H. Hobbs, Madison, Wis. (Read 
by title.) The rocks outcropping within the area are schists and lime- 
stones of Cam bro -Silurian age. Prof. J. D. Dana*s papers on the area 
have expressed his belief that there is a single limestone horizon and a 
single schist horizon above it. The author shows that here, as in Mount 
Washington, the series is divisible into four members, viz: (a) Canaan 
dolomite, which contains colorless pyroxene and rests conformably on 
Cambrian quart%ite;(b) Riga schist, which contains macroscopic garnets 
and staurolite8;(c)Egremont limestone, without pyroxene; and(d) Everett 
schist, free from garnet and staurolite. The areal geology is unusually 
complicated, due to the pronounced corrugation of the beds along their 
strike as well as in a direction across it. The effect of this has l^n to 
produce numerous large ami small lenticular schist islands within the 
limestone. Notwithstanding the frequent alternations of pitch, the gen- 
eral pitch is north, occasioned by the rise of a core of more anc*ient rocks 
just south of the area studied. An important strike fault with easterly 
hade has its course along the Housatonic river on the east of the area 
and has been traced about ten miles. This fault partakes of the char- 
acters of both the normal and reversed types, due to the fact that the 
rocks to the east have no pitch while those of the western limb have a 
northerly one. Asa consequence, the eastern limb has been upthrown 
uniformly, while there has been a differential movement of the west- 
ern limb, that to the north of a nodal point having been downthrown, 
while the portion to the south of the same point has been upthrown. 
At a small distance from the nodal point the upthrow of the western 
limb has been greater than that of the eastern limb, thus producing the 
characters of a normal fault. The dislocation has produced m3ta- 
morphism in the beds adjacent to the fault plane. 

IX The Hihernia fold, AVir Jersey, J. E. Wolff, Cambridge, Mass. 
A brief description was first given of the general characters of the 
Arohean rocks of the New Jersey highlands, and the few distinct varie- 
ties of rock were enumerated. These include gneiss, generally white, 
gray or greenish in color, pegmatite, dark colored basic bands, crystal- 
line limestone and the magnetic ore deposits. The pegmatites and part 
of the dark dioritic bands cut across the gneisses and are probably in- 
trusive. The great uniformity in strike and dip of the foliation of the 
gneisses was mentioned, and the frequent pod-shaped form of the ore 
deposits, the longer axes of which lie in the strike, but incline or **pitch** 
northeast. The fact was emphasized that this '*pitch*' of the ore bodies 
is widespread in the gneisses, either combined with plane-parallel 
foliation or existing as the only structure in otherwise massive gneisses, 
so that a surface across this structure may appear massive, while on a 
side parallel to it this linear- parallel structure is very distinct. It is 




Boston Meeting of the Geological Society. 143 

» 

sometimes plainly connected with the crumpling of the gneisses, but in 
the massive varieties this is not evident ; in all oases it is inherent in 
the form of the minerals themselves, which have a more or less marked 
longer axis in the direction of the ''pitch'* and show no sign of mechani- 
cal strain, so that they must have crystallized under conditions com- 
pelling them to take this form. The problems connected with the areal 
geology of the region are as to the origin of the rocks. 

The Hibernia region specially described contains one of the largest 
ore deposits of the State, which is in bed form, having a mile of outcrop 
and having been worked in the dip GOO-700 feet down. This strikes M. 
E., with a moderately steep dip S. E. The ^^neisses on the foot-wall side 
of the ore bed show generally imperfect foliation, but very distinct pitch, 
which can be followed several miles S. W. from the ore-bed ; just oppo- 
site the north end of the ore outcrop the pitch is replaced by a N. W. 
strike of the gneisses and a N. E. dip in the direction and with about 
the angle of the former pitch. In this way individual beds of gneiss 
can be traced from both the foot and hanging wall sides of the ore into 
this northeastwardly dipping series, which gives us a true stratigraphic 
section of several thousand feet in thickness measured on the axis of 
the dome. This series to the west loses its banded character and turns 
into northeastwardly striking and pitching gneisses. As further proof 
of the stratigraphic order of this series, a band of distinctive jcock con- 
taining garnets, biotite, and graphite, lying many hundred feet above 
the ore, was traced completely around two-thirds of the dome and along 
the east side, and was found in place on the west side. It was therefore 
claimed as proven, that, whatever may have been the origin of this 
series of rocks, they are arranged in stratigraphic succession, with atop 
and bottom and at least one distinct and traceable horizon, and that the 
structure called *'pitch" was closely connected with the folding of the 
rocks. This is believed to be the first or almost the first succession 
definitely established by areal geology in the gneiesic or Laurentian 
complex. 

W. Tertiary dislocations of the Atlantic coast of the United States. 
N. S. Shaleb, Cambridge, Mass. The author has, in several papers, 
called attention to the evidence of mountain-building stresses in Ter- 
tiary and Cretaceous beds on the island of Martha's Vineyard. That 
these distortions were not produced by the shoving action of the last 
ice advance is shown by the fact that the folded strata were denuded 
into hills and valleys before the last glacial drift was deposited upon 
the island. Recently Mr. J. B. Woodworth, of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, examined the similar distortions of Block Island and found 
them closely to resemble those of Martha*B Vineyard. While the age 
of the Block island beds is not yet clearly determined, they are in part, 
at least, Pleistocene, and have a topography newer than the distortions 
and older than the last glacial epoch. It is evident that the Atlantic 
ooast has been the seat of considerable mountain-building since the 
Triassic period; the disturbances of the Triassic or Kha?tic beds having 
taken place in the Jurassic period, or at lenst before the deposition of 
the Cretaceous beds. The disturbances described on Martha's Vine- 
yard and Block island, it seems clear, were not local. The action of 
similar forces has been traced southward by McGee and others along the 
coast. The occurrence of faults in the south and folds in the north 
finds its parallel in what we observe in the movements at the close of 
the Carboniferous period. In eastern Tennessee are mainly faults; in 
southwestern Virginia folds become more common, and thence north- 
wardly they increase in relative importance. These dislocations are 
thought by the author to indicate that the immediate coast region is 
the seat of mountain-making forces which have ceased to act in the 
Appalachian system. They afford additional evidence that a coast line 
is the seat of erogenic action. 



144 The American Geologist, Febniary, iSM 

The Martha's Vineyard folds appear to be the most recent in the east- 
ern portion of the United States. Their extreme compression indicates 
a renewal of mountain-buildinir forces in a district which has long been 
denuded and exempt from such accidents. As to whether the action 
is still going on, the author states that no movement has taken place 
since the cycle of erosion in which the topography older than the last 
ice advance was developed. There is no evidence to show that the folds 
in the Cretaceous and newer strata correspond to a series of anticlines 
and synclinesof the underlying crystallines. Professor Shaler thinks 
the conditions of folding were analogous to those in the Richmond coal 
basin, where the Mesozoic rocks have been thrown into sharply dislo- 
cated attitudes by the formation of a synclinal trough in the underlying 
crystallines. A trough of this kind may be produced by faulting. In 
the case of Martha's Vineyard there is no trace of a seaward side of 
such a trough, but it should be said that the crystallines of this shore 
decline rapidly seaward. The organic movements of southeastern 
Massachusetts occurred shortly after an extensive importation of de- 
tritus rapidly accumulated, a fact which tends to contirm the hypothesis 
that transfers of sediments in some way excite mountain-building action. 

Notwithstanding the crumpling of the strata on Martha's Vineyard, 
there was not much massive elevation. The present shore line is near 
the old one. Numerous deposits of Cambrian and Carboniferous age 
in southeastern Massachusetts contain shallow water sediments, and 
indicate, in the author*s opinion, a tendency of the land in this district 
to return to the level which it has at present. 

/7. RelatiouB of mountains to continents. N. S. Shaler. The 
author notes that mountains appear to be limited to continents or to 
large islands continental in their relations. The islands of the oceans 
are volcanic peaks or peaks brought to the surface by coral-buiding 
Hnimals. The absence of mountains rising from the sea-floor and their 
presence in continental areas leads to the assumption that there is some 
causal relation between the growth of continents and the dislocations 
of strata which occur on them. Some years ago the author examined 
the Italian peninsula and was convinced that, with the folding and 
other compressive phenomena of the mountain axes, there has ^en a 
progressive uplift on each side of the disturbed area. This movement 
appears to indicate that the folding and faulting have been accompanied 
by a wide-spread movement of the underlying rocks towards the seat 
of disruption, in a way to support the uplift and to elevate a broad 
belt. In many cases the highlands adjacent to mountains are due to 
sedimentation from the mountains; but, making allowance even for this, 
it is still evident, the author thinks, that the ^destal feature is a nor- 
mal element in mountain growth. This is shown in North America by 
the Cordilleras and the Appalrtchians. The Mississippi valleyis a trough 
formed by the opposed slopes of these pedestals. The amount of the 
material which has moved in toward mountain tracts appears to be suf- 
ttoient to account for much of the hight of the continents above the 
oceans. According to this view, the continents are to be regarded, so 
far as they have been dry lands, as the product of mountain -building 
forces. The primal action is the deep-seated migration of matter 
toward the axes of disturbance, and a consequent elevation of the 
region where the movements occur; a secondary action arises in the 
erosion and removal of a portion of the highlands. This last is strongly 
contrasted with the first. 

For the original elevation of the continental arches, Prof. Shaler ap- 
peals to the rise of submarine folds to the surface of the sea. Those 
which fail to reach the sea-level constitute one class, and those that at- 
tain the condition of land are by the process of erosion led to a rapid 
upper development. 

IS, Phenomena oflteach and (htne namts, N. S. Shai.er. This paper 



Boston Meetinif of the Geological Society, 145 

Bets forth some obaervatioDS of the author made in connection with his 
work 88 fiTOoiogist of the U. S. Geol. Survey. One of tbe noticeable fea- 
tures of beach sands is their endurance to the beating of the waves. 
Pebbles wear at a very rapid rate. The sands of a beach are held apart 
by a film of water, which protects the sands from mutual abrasion. Pro- 
fessor Shaler concludes that from this circumstance arises the protec- 
tion which sand beaches afford the land areas against the assaults of 
the waves. The absence of sand beaches on small islands is attributed 
to the lack of sufBcient material eioded from cliffs to make considerable 
accumulations of that nature. The sands of beaches are augmented by 
the action of large sea- weeds, which transport pebbles and strand them 
on the beach. Shells are also borne in from the bottom m the same 
way. Floating pumice is also contributed to the sea-beaches, particu- 
larly on the Florida coast, the amount diminishing toward New Eng- 
land. 

Dune sands are often found with a dry surface in a few hours after a 
heavy rain. Professor Shaler has observed that after a summer rain- 
fall of an inch tbe dune sand would often not be wet for more than 
three-forths of an inch from the surface, below which layer the sand 
was quite dry, water not being met with until some feet down in the 
mass. This phenomenon is explained as due to the repulsion of the 
water by the dry sands and to the greater ease with which the water 
flows down the slopna through the wet crust until it reaches tbe bottom 
of some depression in the dunes, where it percolates downward through 
the mass. Owing to this shedding of rain, dunes may become dry in a 
few hours after a rain and be excavated by a strong wind. 

The material of dunes where it has remained in repose for years is 
subject to solution and decay, as is shown by much fine dust, which is 
absent in recent dunes and beach sands. The fine dust is blown away 
in the march, and thus hinders the advance of the dunes by diminish- 
ing the amount of the material left in the hills. The decomposition in- 
dicated by the dust serves in another way to check the advance of the 
dunee by fitting the surface to sustain plant life, particularly tbe 
grasses. Organic matter derived from the beaches acts as a decompos- 
ing agent, and this decay is rapidly promoted by the vegetation growing 
on the dunes, so that the distance to which a dune can travel in ordi- 
nary olimatal conditions is never very great. 

19. The eastern bftundaty of the Connecticut TriastHic, W.M.Da- 
vis, Cambridge, Mass., and u. 8. Gkiswold, Dorchester, Maes. After 
illustrating the general structural features of the Triassic belt by a 
series of lantern slides, the authors maintained that the eastern bound- 
ary of the formation, where it adjoins the crystalline plateau, is defined 
by a series of faults, whose existence is proved as follows: Different 
members of the formation successively terminate along the eastern bor- 
der; in passing northward from the sound near East Haven, to the Con- 
necticut river near Middletown, the lower sandstones, the anterior trap 
sheet, the anterior shales, tbe main trap sheet, the posterior shales and 
sandstones, the posterior trap sheet ana the upper sandstones and con- 
glomerates, all gently undulating in northeast and southwest dips, are 
terminated in alternating succession, without regard to their undula- 
tions, but with remarkably consistent regard for the presumable course 
of the hidden fault lines. This cannot be explained as a result of a 
variable overlap of the several members of the Trias on the crystal- 
lines, for the former dip towards the latter. The stratified beds, with 
the conformable lava sheets, must be abruptly cut off along their east- 
ern margin. The margin is marked by a depression, wider open when 
the adjacent rocks are weak, narrow when they are hard; but continu- 
ous all along the boundary. Close to this depression, departures from 
the prevailing dip of the formation are frequent; in one place the de- 
partures amount to an overturn; brecciated masses of sandstone and 



146 The American Geologist, February. ifVM 

trap are also fouod along the margin. The crystalline rocks near the 
border manifest the effects of shearing, although now reconsolidated. 
The shearing is believed to be a result of the marginal faulting, after 
the deposition of the Triassic beds, because fragments of the reconsoli- 
dated sheared rocks are not found among the pebbles of the marginal 
Triassic conglomerates. 

The eastern boundary of the Trias follows an alternating north and 
northeast course. This is particularly apparent north of Middletown. 
Uence two systems of faults are inferred; one having a northerly 
course, the otner trending northeast. Two members of the latter sys- 
tem have been traced for many miles obliquely across the Triassic belt, 
as well as along the oblique portions of the border. In consequence of 
the combined movements of the two systems of faults, the forma- 
tion as now exposed broadens northward; and in the Manchester dis- 
tnct it is believed that the under sandstones, ordinarily seen along the 
western side of the monoclinal belt, are brought up and repeated along 
the eastern border. 

JS^O. Oeographical work for state geological surveyn, W. M. Davis, 
Cambridge, Mass. (Read by title.) The work of our state geologial sur- 
veys does not at present come into close touch with a large number of 
our people. On the other hand, the teaching of geography incur schools 
is in a lamentably impoverished condition, chiefly because the teachers 
have no accessible source of fresh information concerning the physical 
features of their home states. It is the object of this paper to suggest 
a remedy for both of these difficulties. 

It is believed that if every annual report of a state survey contained 
a chapter on some group of local physical features, prepared with espe- 
cial regard to consultation and quotation by teachers of the state, a 
new interest in the work of the surveys would be aroused and a new 
vigor would be infused into the teaching of geography. In order to 
carry out this proposition successfully the work should be in the hands 
of trained geographers, just as studies in paleontology and petrography 
are in the hahds of trained paleontologists and petrographers, properly 
educated in these branches of the general science. Kelatively simple 
features should be treated first ; their systematic relations to features 
of the same kind in other parts of the world should be dearly brought 
out by descriptions. Illustrations and maps ; the dependence of popula- 
tion and occupation upon the natural features should be emphasized. 
The chapters should be brief enough to attract readers who are not ac- 
customed to research in libraries; hence the advisibility of attempting 
the account of only a small partof a state in one report. In this way, 
an appetite for more material of the same kind would be created, while 
the expense that would be required for this division of the survey work 
would be a small part of the annual appropriation. In order to gain a 
wide circulation for the geographical cnapter of the survey report it 
might be reprinted in the report of the state superintendent of public 
instruction and this issued as a pamphlet for distribution to the public 
schools. It can hardly be doubted that if this plan were successfully 
carried out an effective co-operation between the surveys and the 
schools would result, and both would be benefitted and strengthened by 
it. 

V/. Facetted iH'bhlt'Sini ('affelUni. W.M.Davis. Referring to sug- 
gestions received from his colleague, Mr. J. 6. Woodworth, by whom an 
account of wind-blast carving has been prepared for the American 
Journal of Science (January, 1B94), Prof. Davis briefly described the oc- 
currence of facettea pebbles in the gravels of Cape Cod. At Highland 
Light the pebbles now exposed in a gravel bed at the top of the bluff are 
in process of carving ; specimens can be had in plenty. Along the 
southern side of the Cape, where the sea has cut a low cliff in the gravel 




Bos foil Meeting of the Geological Soviet y, 147 

plain, facetted pebbles may be frequently found at depths of several feet 
below the surface, and in practically all oases the facetted side of the 
pebble lies upward. From this it is argued that the shaping of ihe 
pebbles was effected after they were brought to their present positions; 
and hence it is further argued that during the growth of the gravel 
plain it must have been a subafirial delta, built by streams heading in 
the ice sheet among the hills of the terminal moraine, the **backbone" 
of the Cape. As in ordinary deltas, a portion of the deposit must have 
been laid down beneath the water-level ; but another portion must have 
been built above water-level ; and the facetted pebble beds of the Cape 
seem to belong to the latter. Until the division between these two por- 
tions of the stratified sands and gravels is identified, the postglacial 
changes of level in Cape Cod cannot be determined. 

In the discussion following this paper, Mr. G. K. Gilbert referred to 
a locality about fifteen miles east of Watertowo, in northern New 
York, where the carving of pebbles by the natural sandblast has ap- 
parently been accomplished since a recent clearing of the surface. Prof. 
Shalkr objected to the assumption that the facetted pebbles were 
carved by wind-blown sand; he thought it more likely that they were 
shaped by splitting on joints that had been opened during some retreat 
of the ice; after which a new advance carried the pebbles forward 
again. Prof. Davis replied that, whilesuch weathering might naturally 
happen, he could not appeal to it to explain the forms of firm-textured 
pebbles, waterworn on one side, sharply facetted on the other, lying 
with facets uppermost in undisturbed stratified deposits, several miles 
from the moraine in which the sands and gravels were derived. 

'^*2, Paleozoic iiitra-formational coiiqlomerateH. Charles D. WaLi- 
coTT, Washington, D. C. (Read by title.) An intra-formational con- 
glomerate is one formed of material derived from and deposited within 
a formation. The paper described conglomerates of this type occurring 
at various Paleozoic horizons in the St. Lawrence valley and along the 
Appalachians from Canada to Alabama. 

'23, Paleozoic overlaps in Montgomeryand Pulaski ctnintiea, Virginia. 
M. R. Campbrlu Washington, D. C. (Published by permission of the 
Director of the U. S. GeoT. Survey.) The region along the Norfolk &, 
Western railroad, between Christiansburg and Max Meadows, Virginia, 
is an area of very complicated geology. The prevailing ideas are that 
it is traversed by numerous faults, many of which are transverse to the 
general lines of structure; and they have been so described by Rogers, 
Lesley, Fontaine, Stevenson, and McCreath and d*Invilliers. 

During the present season the writer worked this region quite care- 
fully, and came to the conclusion that all of these supposed cross faults 
are in reality lines of unconformable deposition between Devonian and 
Carboniferous sediments and the Cambro-Silurian or Shenandoah lime- 
stone. Price mountain is the best known of these areas and consists of 
an isolated anticline of Lower Carboniferous coal-bearing rocks, entirely 
surrounded by the Shenadoah limestone. Everywhere around the 
mountain the red shale at the top of the Carboniferous rocks is in con- 
tact with the limestone and appears to be but slightly disturbed; dips 
vary from 15^ to 30^ away from the axis in all directions, while the 
structure of the limestones, so far as could be seen, is extremely compli- 
cated and shows no agreement with the upper beds. 

No theory of faulting could place the mass in its present attitude and 
relation to the limestone, and the writer was forced to the conclusion 
that it was unconformably deposited in a basin produced by folding of 
the limestone and was later upraised and folded into an anticline. The 
same evidence was found in Ingles mountain, where the Devonian black 
shales rest on the limestone ; and in the region north of Pulaski the 
same phenomenon is seen, and again from Max Meadows to Clark's 
Summit. 



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THE 



AMERICAN GEOLOGIST 



Vol. XIII. MARCH, 1894. No. 3. 



A MEDIAN HORNED RHINOCEROS FROM THE 
LOUP FORK BEDS OF NEBRASKA.* 

By J. B. Hatcheb, Princeton, N. ^. 

Hitherto no median horned rhinoceroses have been report-ed 
from the western continent. During last April and May, 
while engaged in explorations for the Princeton Scientific 
Expedition of 1893, in the Loup Fork beds of Sheridan Co., 
Nebraska, the writer had the good fortune to secure, among 
other interesting vertebrate fossils from these beds, the re- 
mains of a rhinoceros with a well-marked, median, nasal horn. 

The material secured, while clearly belonging to the Rhinoc- 
eridffi, represents, nevertheless, a new genus of that family, 
which may be called Teleoceras in reference to the position of 
the horn on the end of the nasals. The species may be called 
major, in reference to its size, which is decidedly greater than 
that of any other known Auieriaan member of the Rhinocer- 
idje. 

The type specimen of Teleoceras major consists of the 
greater portion of the skull and lower jaw. These represent 
an animal about one-third larger than Aphelops fossfnger 
(Cope). The teeth are very much worn, showing the individ- 
ual to have been fully adult. It is readily distinguished from 
all known genera of the Jihhwceridw by the following combi- 
nation of characters : Absence of a crochet and presence of 
an anticrochet on the superior molars and premolars ; with the 
presence of a sagittal crest (?) and of a median horn situated 
on the extreme point of the nasals. This horn is directed for- 
ward and upward, and extends considerably beyond the ex- 
tremities of the nasals proper. 

^Separate copies of this paper were published Feb. 1, 1894. 



150 7' he American freoloffisf, March, i^M 

The principal spfcifio characters arc : Post-fywpoinc ami 
poatt-gleuoitl processes confluent throughout two-thirds their 
length, entire!}' enclosing the ej-tenuil aiiditovy uieafus. Ptery- 
goids slightly bifid. Anterior border of posterior nares on a 
line with posterior border of median sinus of second molar. 
Nasals not co-ossified. The structure of the teeth is very 
much obliterated by the wear to which they were subjected 
before the animal died. The inferior and superior molars are 
«11 represented in the type specimen, as well as the fourth 
upper and lower premolars. Of the superior dentition the 
second and third molars are the least worn, and, therefore, 
present the most trustworthy characters. The//or.vwi« is very 
fiat. The wet/inn rosfrr is entirely wanting, and the (inferior 
and posferior custa- are but weakly developed. The anferior 
4finuif is (juitc small and the nuterior niUttm is not strong. The 
wed id n sinus is well developed and obstructed by a very large 
ontivruvhet and a small cristti^ but there is no crochet^ as be- 
fore stated. The posterior sinns is of ordinarv size with a 
i^tTOi\\f posterior rollnnt. In the last upper molar ow/i/ there is 
a distinct inedifin fnherrte. In the type specimen the first 
upper molar and fourth premolar are so much w(u-n that the 
enamel at the bottom of the median sinus, between the base 
of the anticr(M*het and the opposite side, has been removed, 
thus cutting oil* the inner portion of the median sinus, which 
now appears as an anterior fossette. Ry the same wear the 
enamel once covering the postericu* vallum has been entirely 
rem«»ved in these teeth, and as a result the posterior sinus 
n<»w appears as a posterior fossette. The (inferior ht^nfers of 
the uj^per molars and premolars are convex, the y;o.*/rr/or bor- 
ders concave, excepting that of the last molar, which is ccui- 
vex. The molar and premolar teeth are very large in compar- 
ison with the skull, and the maxillaries are proportionately' 
strengthened in order to receive them. The inferior molars 
and premolars seem to present no distinctive characters. 

To the kindnessof Pn>f. W. B. Sc(»tt, who had charge of the 
expedition, I am indebted for the privilege of publishing this 
preliminary notice, which will be followed later by a full de- 
scription, with figures, of this and other material from the 
same beds. 



N 



i 



-V*' 



■,i(l» 



•ml Jtriirfiiojiiii/n. — ttoirfej/. 



151 



NEW SPECIES OF CRINOIDS AND BRACHIOPODS 
FROM THE MISSOURI HAMILTON. 

By R B. RoULEV, Louiuaiia. Uo. 

IHelocrlnuH tenun. (n. ep.) 
Pig. 1. Side view of the body, natural aize. 

Calyx obconipul; dome almost flat: basal plat«s f«nir, three 
of which are quadrangular, the fourth and largest pentagonal. 
Breadth nearly twiee the length, but slightly expanded : exca- 
vnted for the reception of the column. 

Of the firnt radials, three are heptugonal and two are hex- 
agonal : width a little greater than length. Of the second 
radials two are heptagonal, two liexagonal, another? octago- 
nal. In the ray to the left of the anal area, the second radial? 
is entirely separated from the first radial (a lualforniation) 




by the abutment of the lower lateral edges i)f the large piece 
of the nnal area and the large interradiiil to the left of the 
anal area. Third radials heptagonal, supporting, on the upper 
sloping sides, two small secondary radials. 

Interradial areas filled by from 12 to 14 pieces, the lowest 
one of which is almost as larjjc as the first radial and hexag- 



152 The American GeologinL March, i«m 

onul. In two of the areas two plates rest on the uppef sides 
of the first interradial and first radial, while in one area three 
siieh plates are above the first. There seem to be about ten 
plates in the anal interradius, but this can not be well nmde 
out from the disordered condition of the radial series to the 
left. All of the calyx as well as the vault plates are slightly 
convex but without spines and radiating ridges, except at the 
edges where short connecting ridges give a pitted character 
to the lines of union. 

Vault pieces numerous. Base of proboscis medium, excen- 
tric. Base of the free rays prominent, giving an actino- 
crinoid look to this beautiful species. Top stem joint rather 
large. 

Collected from the Hamilton group of Callaway Co., Mo., by Mr. D. 
K. Greger. Type in the author's collection. Hii^bt of type 4 J of an 
inch. Width at vault } J. 

IHelocrinuii lylii. (n. sp.) 
Fig. 2. Side view of the type, natural size. 

This is the smallest crinoid yet discovered at the Callaway 
locality. Three of the basal plates are quadrangular and the 
fourth pentagonal, slightly projecting outward. Three of 
the first radials are heptagonal and two hexagonal ; width 
and length about equal. Second radials hexagonal. Third 
radials heptagonal, supporting above two series of two small 
plates each. Interradial series twelve to thirteen, arranged 
as usual in this genus. First interradial about as large as the 
second radial piece and hexagonal. Anal interradius com- 
posed of twelve pieces, all being small with the exception of 
the lowest piece. 

All the plates of the calyx of this little crinoid bear a cen- 
tral short spine and strong radiating ridges connecting the 
centers of all the plates, giving the specimen a very handscmie 
appearance. 

Vault plates numerous, almost spinose and having the radi- 
ating ridges. Proboscis slender, excentric. Free rays, arms 
and column unknown. 

Specific name given in honor of Prof. J. N. Lyle, of Weetminster 
College, Fulton, Mo. Collected from the Hamilton beds of Callaway 
Co., Mo., by Mr. D. K. Qreger. Type in the author's collection. Hight 
of type f^ of an inch. Width at vault f^. 




^ew Crinoids and Brffchtopodic. — Jiotrlet/, 158 

Strophonella cratta. (n. sp.) 

Fig. 4. View of ventral valve, natural size. 

Fig. 5, BO drawn that the whole cardinal area is seen, natural size; 

dorsal view. 

Fig. 6, showing the thickness of the shell and shape or outline, nat. 
size. 

Shell semicircular, slightly eared at the cardinal extrem- 
ities. Heavy and thick for a species of this genus. Dorsal 
valve slightly concave from the obsolete beak to the middle, 
convex beyond.. Striee numerous, rather small and indistinct 
on both valves, probably due in part to the state of preserva- 
tion of the type. Ventral valve low-convex behind the beak, 
flat toward the circumference. Beak not incurved, slightly 
elevated, giving a wide, low, triangular cardinal area. Both 
valves have areas but there is no deltidium. 

This species is apparently nearly related to S. reversa, but 
is a much larger form, with less concavity to the dorsal valve 

and less convexity to the ventral valve. 

Colleoted from the Hamilton beds of Callaway Co., Mo., by Mr. D. 
K. Qreger. 

Length of the type l^i inches, breadth along the cardinal line 1 1 J . 

Prodactella marqae«Hi. (n. sp.; 

Fig. 7. View of the ventral valve, natural size. 

Fig. 8. Side view of same valve, natural size. 

This small shell is sub-circular in outline. Cardinal line of 

a little less length than the greatest width of the shell. Ven- 
tral valve without striw but provided with a few slender 
spines, convex. Beak incurved. Cardinal area very narrow, 
scarcely appearing more than a line. Dorsal valve deepl}" 
concave, apparentlj' without s trite and spines. Lines of 
growth cross both valves. 

This little Productella resembles J', pyj-idata from the 
Lithographic limestone, but is much smaller and from a lower 
horizon. Length of type {^^ width j% of an inch. 

Specific name given in honor of Prof. £. H. Marquess, of Westminster 
College. 

Collected by Mr. D. K. Oreger from the Hamilton beds of Callaway 
Co., Mo. 

Taxocrinus concavus (Rowley). 

Fig. 3. Base slightly turned toward the observer, showing the con- 
cavity. A specimen with arms entire and a short piece of the column. 
Natural size. 

Fig. 9. Basal view of another specimen. Natural size. 



154 The American Geoloyist, March, 1804 

Fig. 10. An arm of the type specimen above the second bifurcating 
plate, showing the short, strong pinulse from which the hard matrix has 
been cleaned away. The left free ray appears much shorter than the 
right but probably curves sharply inwdrd. 

This species was described in the last November number of 
the Geologist, and is here again illustrated to show addi- 
tional features. 

We are well aware of the fact that pinuhe have not before 
been noticed in any of the genera and species of the Ichthyo- 
crinida»; if then what we have designated arras are really free 
rays, and the so-called pinulae, arms, we have here an aberrant 
Onychocrinus or a new generic form. 

J an ti fir If J4, IHUJ4, 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE 
WHITE LIMESTONES OF SUSSEX COUNTY, 

NEW JERSEY. 

Ily Frank L. Nahon, New Bmnswtok, N. J. 

One of the strongest objections, to the writer's view, of the 
contemporaneous origin of the white crystalline limestone and 
the blue or '^magnesian limestones,'' has been the generally 
supposed fact that the white limestones are as a rule non- 
magnesian, while the blue limestcmcs are magnesian. It is 
hardly necessary to state that the Taconic or Lower Cambrian 
fossils found in the blue limestones, called Calciferous or 
Magnesian by Dr. Cook, and in the sandstone called by the 
same author Potsdam (Geol. of N. J., 18H8, p. 88), make this 
assumption much more admissible, by carrying the magnesian 
formation considerabh' downwards in the geological time 
scale. 

During the writer's engagement with the I^ehigh Zinc and 
Iron ('Ompan}', while prospecting on the extension of the 
franklinite deposit at Mine hill, at Franklin Furnace, many 
facts came to his notice which seem to have an important 
bearing on this question. The general shape of the outcrop 
of the franklinite bed is shown in fig. 1, as well as the loca- 
tion of some of the bore holes. Along the line a-b, fig* I, 
twenty to twenty-five feet from the franklinite bed runs a 




White Limestones of Sussex Count if ^ X, J, — Xason, 155 

parallel bed of magnetite, from a few inches to two or three 
feet in thickness. The magnetite lies between the gneiss and 
the limestone foot wall of the franklinite bed. From this foot 
wall bed two samples of limestone were taken, covering a dis- 
tance of about one thousand feet along the line of strike. 
None of the samples collected effervesced with cold hydro- 
chloric acid. 




■'-... 



MsT* Jtkt* 



jMA^rO 



Pig. \.— Outcrop of the Mine hill ore body, * 

1-2.— Masnesian limestone, foot wall of mine. 3.— Point where the back vein goes 
under groond. S-No. 8.— Poeition of back yeln under crround. Noe. 1, 5, 6 and 8. — 
DiamcMid drill holes. 4-9. Position of section, Vifi. 2, shaft 400 feot deep. 3.a-5.— 
Ootcrop of ore body. 

Through the kindness of Prof. Smock, state geologist of 
New Jersey, these samples were analyzed under the super- 
vision of Prof. A. H. (.'hester, offieial chemist of the survey. 

The analyses are as follows: 

1. II. 

Inaoluble 0.58 5.75 

F©20j| +AI20;, 1.84 1.80 

Ca COj, 62.96 51.12 

Mg CO3 31.94 40.62 

Totals 97.32 99.19 

These analyses show that on the surface at least there is an 
outcrop of white magnesian limestone, which is nearly atypi- 
cal dolomite. During the month of August, 1893, some ex- 
ploring work in the Trotter mine was done with a diamond 
drill, for the purpose of determining whether or not any 
lenses of ore had been left either in the foot or the hanging 
wall of the mine. The drill holes were bored at the four 
hundred foot level. Through the courtesy of Mr. J. A. Van 



156 



The American Geologist, 



March, 1804 



Mater, the mine superintendent, the writer had the borings in 
the foot wall continued to the gneissie rock. In fig. 2 the 
line «-x represents the position and direction of the drill 
hole. The core of the drill was preserved and tested by the 
writer with hydrochloric acid. The result was what was ex- 
pected. Between the magnetite bed and the franklinite the 
core preserved was ten feet long, which is probably about 
one-half of the entire distance. This makes the thickness of 
the limestone foot wall at this point practically the same as 
at the surface. 

FlO. 2.— Section through No. 4 shaft, 

1.— White doiomita, coarsely crFBtalllue. 2.— White limeetone, coarsely ori'Btalliiie. 
8.— Ore body, mined oat. 4.— Dolomite foot walL 6.— Magnotite bed. 5.— (f neift». 

Samples of the core were carefully selected for analysis. 

The result is as follows : 

III. 

iDBoluble 0.66 

Fea Og +AI2 Og 1.55 

Ca CO, 54.31 

Mg CO3 : 43.92 

Totel 100.44 

What is more remarkable than the above is an analysis of a 
stratum of limestone midway between two lenses of franklin- 
ite ore. The stratum, as indicated by the drill core, is about 
ten feet thick, and is thickly sprinkled with crystalline grains 
of|franklinite. An analysis gave the following result: 

loaoluble 0.39 

Pe^Os+AI jOa 4.58 

Ca COa 63.81 

MgCOg 29.82 

Total 98.60 



^ 



White Limestones of SuHsex County, X. J, — Xason. 157 

Usually the "vein matter" of the ore hody is carbonate of 
lime, which, owing to the presence of manganese, turns black 
after a short exposure to the weather. It is usually free 
from magnesian carbonate. This is also generally true of a 
belt of limestone, from one to ten feet thick, on the hanging 
wall side of the mine. 

After the bore hole in the foot wall was finished, the drill 
was turned into the hanging wall. See fig. 2, y-b. The drill 
passed through a small lens of ore and then for twenty feet 
into pure limstone. As before, the core was tested with acid. 
About two feet of the core effervesced freely, the balance did 
not. Samples of the part which did not effervesce were taken 
and analyzed, with the following result: 

IV. 

Insoluble 10.28 

Pea Oa+Ala O3 2.25 

CaCOg 50.82 

Mg CJOg «S6.52 

Total 99.87 

This is again a dolomite. It is especially interesting since 
it is found in the hanging wall less than ten feet from the ore 
body. The lim.estone is a dark bluish gray, rather than white. 
There is a good deal of sphalerite and pyrite in crystalline 
grains. The end of the core, near the point, in fig. 2, is al- 
most a calcareous sandstone, the silica being present in clear 
grains. The fact that the high percentage of insoluble mat- 
ter, 10.28, is due to silica, was proved by treatment with 
hydrofluoric acid. All was volatilized except .76. 

Analyses I, II, III and III* show very conclusively that the 
outcropping magnesian limestone which forms the foot wall 
of the ore body, and occurs between that and the gneiss, is 
persistent to the depth of at least four hundred feet from the 
surface. Another analysis shows that this bed reaches still 
farther. A piece of the core from the drill hole No. 5 (see 
fig. 1), 1,100 and 1,111 feet from the surface, and below the 

ore body, gives the following: 

v. VI. 

Inaoluble. 0.20 0.03 

Peg O., +AI2 O.^ 3.95 0.31 

Ca 063 .' 55.91 93.99 

Mg Cdg 39.68 5,48 

ToUlB 99.74 99.81 



158 2' he Aw erf can GeologUI. March, 18M 

No. V shows an almost typical dolomite. No. VI only a inag- 
nesian limestone. No. V is dark bluish gra}'^ in color, while 
No. VI is white and sparkling. No. VI is at the bottom, 
nearly, of the drill hole and is in contact with granite and has 
spots, and, in places, crystals of chondrodite. Analysis No. 
V proves very conclusively the extension of the bed of crys- 
talline dolomite from its outcrop on the front vein to a 
distance (east) of about 900 feet on the surface, or, following 
down the dip, a distance of about 1,700 feet. 

On the surface, about fifteen feet back of th<' front vein 
(fig. 1, a-b), the limestone is bluish-gray and does not ett'cr- 
ves<*e with acid ; it is probably a true dolomite. This would 
indicate that the dolomitic hanging wall of the ore body is 
the same as that proved b}' the analysis (No. IV) of the drill 
core from the hanging wall and four hundred feet from the 
surface. (See fig. 2, 3'-b, for position of drill hole.) As a 
proof of the surface extension of this dolomite an anal^'sis 
was made of samples taken from a large pump station cut in 
the shaft which is being sunk (see fig. 1). This pump 
station is 450 feet from the surface. 

vn. 

Insoluble ' 0.09 

Fe., O3 + AU O., 0.85 

cVca^ ...."!...' 55.28 

MgCO;, 4451 

Total 100.73 

This sample is 500 feet above the <»re body at this point. 
Since the above analysis was made, however, the shaft has 
been sunk to 750 feet. The material passed through was 
principally limestone, probably dolomite, as it did not effer- 
vesce with acid, till at about a depth of 700 feet a sparkling, 
. white limestone was reached, which showed a brisk efferves- 
cence. This limestone was two feet thick and lay upon a 
granite dike twelve feet thick. Below the dike for thirty-six 
feet, the present depth, the limestone is very coarsely crystal- 
line, the crystals of calcite being often six inches across. 
Above and below the dike the elfervescing limestone, probably 
non-niagnesian. is thickly studded with clusters and bands of 
bright crystalline masses of chondrodite, phlogopite (decom- 
posed by sulphuric acid), and tremolite. Above 450 feet, to 



\ 



lyhiie Li'mentoneit of Sussex Couiity, X, J\ — Xaxon, 159 

the surface, the principal part of the limeRtone was a dark, 
bluish gray to a dirty white color, all non-elfervescing except 
with hot acid. In consideration of this behavior it is, with- 
out doubt, of the same composition as the dolomite in analysis 
No. VII. There were two or three granite dikes encountered 
within this distance of 450 feet and on either side of these 
dikes the limestone was white, sparkling and filled with the 
minerals above named. 

The above analyses seem to be a clear demonstration of the 
fact that the franklinite ore body lies in a magnesian lime- 
stone, in fact a true dolomite, except the instances named^ 
when the limestone came in contact with granite dikes; 
second, that the white limestone is generally non-magnesian 
only when in close contact with granite or some other eruptive 
rock. This last conclusion has been stated in advance of 
many facts supporting it. The latter facts have been ob- 
served on the surface at surface contacts alone, but this one 
fact stands out very clearly, that in the shaft and in the drill 
cores the magnesian limestone extends through the whole 
thickness of the formation. When non-magnesian limestone 
occurs, it is in connection with granite, which may or 
may not appear on the surface. There may be some excep- 
tions to this rule, for the writer was not present during the 
sinking of the shaft. The difference in the color of the magne- 
sian and non-magnesian limestone is so great, however, as to 
be noted by the men. Mr. Van Mater has observed this rela- 
tion, that is, between the white chondroditic limestone and 
granite. Furthermore, the writer has observed on the dump 
from the shaft that when granite comes to the surface it is 
accompanied by non-magnesian limestone: at other times onl}" 
the other variety is noted. 

About 1,000 feet south of the southwest opening (see fig. 1, 
a) is what is known as the furnace quarry. This quarry sup- 
plies the blast furnace with flux. It is a very sparkling, white 
limestone, for the most part, and has a great deal of chondro- 
dite, tourmaline and other minerals present. There is con- 
siderable tremolite present, but it is in small crystals and in 
not readily observed. Through the center of this quarry runs 
a great dike of allanite granite. Its eruptive nature is clearly 
shown by its numerous adventitious dikes reaching out into 



160 The American Geologist. March, 18»4 

the limestone, by the much more coarsely crystalline texture of 
the limestone in immediate contact and by the contact min- 
erals developed. At the south end of the quarry, about one 
hundred feet from the dike, is a bed of non-effervescing lime- 
stone about fort}' feet thick. Its chemical composition is as 

follows : 

VIII. 

Insoluble 0.07 

Fe^ O.^ + AI2 O3 1.15 

Ca 063 55.28 

Mg Cdg 44.24 

Totel 100.74 

There can be no doubt as to the dolomitic nature of this 
rock. 

There is a still more striking fact to be noted in this con- 
nection. On a small knob, 1,980 feet almost directly east of 
bore hole No. 8 (see fig. 1), is an outcrop of granite. At 
this point the white limestone is seen in direct contact with 
the granite. Within fifty feet to the east of this the blue un- 
changed limestone is seen outcropping. Between these two 
points there is thirt}' feet which is concealed by soil. At 
various points along the strike of the limestone are to be ob- 
served numerous small outcrops of limestone in every degree 
of transition from the unchanged blue to the white. Absolute 
continuity was not visible. To settle the question of contin- 
uity a trench was dug across the strike, exposing a continuous 
series. As was expected, the rock exposure showed a pro- 
gressive transition through almost every shade of color from 
the blue limestone to the coarselv crvstalline snowv white. 

The first change was that the blue limestone was broken into 
closely adhering prismatic fragments, showing light irregular 
or mottled streaks with cloudy blue aggregates. Next, the 
limestone showed evidences of strong compression with pres- 
sure planes developed. Along these planes, through which 
the rock split easily, were cloudy carbonaceous bands, with 
the rock a lighter color. Then the bands became more pro- 
nouncwi with occasional cr^'stalline scales of graphite. Then, 
next, the bands bei'ame yet more distinct, and the black earthy 
bands of carbon were changed to bright welts of cr^'stalline 
graphite. The pressure planes were still strongly developed. 
Finally, within six feet of the granite, the pressure planes be- 



While Limmfoiien of Sii^xi-j- C-i'iily. X. .I.—Xa,„u. IKl 

came lees ttpparent, and fOarffcryRtutsnf linieHtnne, witli scalt'K 
of graphite, chondrodUe and other niintruli^, were abundnntly 
developed. 

As nearly as possible, the outcrop was divided int^> bands 
correspondinn to the depreeK of niPtaniorphinni and carefully 



Flu. 'A.—Htcttim Ihrough trench. 

1.— Uachaogeil Mm limnlone. U.-PrimiBtic alatrllmeBtoiie. pulJy ohauad, wilb 

cloudj cvboD. ill.— Slatrllmsilniie.TBrjdeiiwHndooiiipaoti bricbtBTepbitoKalH, 

well cmUlUiMl. IV.-Ccmne, cnpbiUc (with lUl; DlaBTBBe).^>ou<lroditle time- 

Mods, In oontwtt with Kraiita. V.— Oraoite. Dittanee trom I lo IV, forty fpat. 

sampled (see fig. 3, i, ii, iii and iv). The results of these 
analyses, though not as conehisive as might be wished, not 
showing n gradual loss of magnesia, were as follows: 
1. i. X 1. 

Insoluble 7.24 7.49 11.17 1.50 

Ca COj 71..W 49.78 56.23 96.74 

Mg C0.^ lfi.4C 39-08 31.16 1 39 

Totals 9^.28 96.35 98..56 99.63 

No. 1 here if the unchanged blue limestone. No, 4 the lime- 
stone in contact with the granite. 

Two things arc to be especially noted in this eouneetion. In 
the first place, though there is not a continuous outcrop from 
No. 8 bore hole to this point, a swamp interveninjj;, yet at 
numerous places there are jagged points of limestone, north 
and south of this line and within two hundred feet of it. 
These points of rock were tested on fresh surfaecK with hydro- 
chloric aeid and none of them effervesced. It seems, there- 
fore, a tolerably safe conclusion to draw that a practically 
continuous outcrop across the strike of the rocks, from the 
foot wall of the franklinit« bed to a point where the white 
limestone grades into the blue, is, with exceptions noted, a 
true dolomite, differing in no essential respect from the blue 
magnesian limestone. 

A second fact, strongly corroborative of the above, is that 
in the xection in figure 3 is the blue limestone in which Olm- 



1G2 The American Geologist, March, 18M 

h'Ua craaxa was found, east of the southwest opening and 
near the Furnace pond. Along this line of strike, for a dist- 
ance of nearly one mile, the transition from blue to white 
limestone ma}' be noted at points where the rocks are bare of 
soil. 

This line of transition can be traced at intervals onward 
for a distance of eight miles. Sometimes the transition 
is as above described, at others the meeting point of the two 
lines is marked by a brecciated zone where the fragments are 
more or less metamorphosed. One of these localities is to be 
noted by the roadside just east of Hardystonville hotel and in 
front of a small house. In front of the hotel, in the bed of a 
brook, the same brecciation may be observed. Near by is the 
blue limestone, and in the decomposed sandstone were found 
burrows of Scolftfnts and heads of the Olenelhut^ "with the head 
plates replaced more or less completely by graphite. 

From the ttrst of the above mentioned localities a select i<m 
of specimens for analysis was made.* 

5. 6. 7. 

Insoluble.... 0.81 0.04 0.88 

Ca COj 55.62 99.05 57.58 

Mg CO., 35.52 2.00 27.18 



^. 


9. 


10. 


1.24 


10.92 


0.50 


55.72 


48.13 


56.05 


44.62 


20.34 


:«.34 



Totals... 91.95 101.09 85.64 101.58 79.39 91.«) 
Specimeo No. 5 is from a banded, ribbon structure, blue limestone 
fragment. 
Xo. i\ a bluish gray fragment. 

** 7, coarsely crystalline interstitial matter, graphitic. 

'* 8, coarse white graphitic limestone. 

" 9. '• bluish '* *♦ 

*' 10 is a white graphitic limestone from a point about 1,000 feet 
north of bore hole No. 8 itig. 1). Noe. 6, 7, 8 and 9 were from breccia. 

Two other localities where this transition has Wen observed 
were carefully sampled and tested with acid alone. One of 
these hK^alities. a very pnmiinent hill one mile east of McAfee 
station, shows a bn*i'cia much more striking than the place 
last named. Here only the limestone in direct contact with 
the granite showed elfervescence : but after passing east- 
ward fifty feet from the brecciated zone, unchanged blue 
limestone is found which extends unbroken into New York 
state. 



* These mnalyeee were hastily made for the purpoee of determining 
the magnesia, by the chemist of the Lehigh Zinc and Iron Co. 



White Limestones of Sttssea' Coirnty^ X. J, — Xasou, 163 

There are many other localities which could. be mentioned, 
but instances would only be multiplied. 

Southward from Mine hill the writer has found nothing 
which could be called transition zones, nor have samples been 
collected for anal3'sis. Frequent tests were made with acid, 
and both the limestones were found under the same conditions. 

In the "Geology of New Jersey,'' 1868, pp. 401 and 402, Dr. 
Geo. H. Cook has given several analyses of the extension of 
this same formation to Sparta, six miles south of Franklin 
Furnace. 

a. b. c. 

Lime 51.07 28.31 29.68 

Magnesia 3.02 18.04 20.07 

Carbonic acid 47.47 42.08 45.51 

As only the relative proportiooB of lime and magnesia are essential 
the analyses are not quoted in full. 

a, crystalline white limestone, Sussex lead mine. 

b, " " " Sparta. 

c, " " " Ogdensburgh. 

The exact localities of the first two are unknown. No. c is, 
however, known exactly. At the Stirling hill mines a tunnel 
has been driven into the hill to intersect the zinc bed. This 
specimen is taken from this tunnel. It is highly^ interesting, 
since it shows that the zinc deposit at Stirling hill hasadolo- 
mitic limestone for its countr}'^ rock, in part at least, as well 
as a nearly similar deposit at Mine hill. 

Though there are analyses which show, according to Dr. 
(.'ook, still smaller percentages of magnesia, it seems as if the 
point is well established that the white limestones are gener- 
ally dolomitic, and are, excepting under peculiar circum- 
stances, but slightly magnesian, and that, whatever argument 
may be brought up in the future against the writer's views of 
a contemporaneous origin, this point cannot be urged against 
them. 

It is but simple Justice both to Dr. Cook and to Prof. Smock, 
so long a time his assistant, to say that the}' were well aware 
of the problems connected with the white limestones of Sussex 
county. In a recent conversation with Prof. Smock, he said 
that both he and Dr. Cook had visited many of the localities 
named by the writer, and on the ground had discussed the ques- 
tion of transition and chemical composition; and that at one 



164 The American Geologist. March. 1894 

time they had considered the possibility of making a division 
between the magnesian and the non-magnesian white lime- 
stones. When, however, the attempt was made, the ditttculties 
of the problem became so great that in tiie press of other 
work the subject was dropped. 



A BIT OF IRON RANGE HISTORY. 

By Horace V. Wixohbll, F. G. S. A., Mione«iiK>]i8, Mtnii. 

The average mining man has but little respect for the 
science of geology. He looks upon it as something purely 
theoretical, while the discovery, development and exploitation 
of mines he considers simply and purely practical. He re- 
gards with distrust the opinion of every man who professes 
himself a geologist: but is ready to put a large share of his 
fortune into a venture of any one who claims to have been 
for years a "practical miner." 

The miner himself is no less prejudiced against the student 
of rocks. Many are the tales told in all mining camps of the 
ignorance and errors of the geologists who have visited the 
region. It has been the writer's fortune to hear several of 
these yarns — the cloth for which was woven on the spot out 
of a tissue of absurdities — told about himself. Because a 
geologist visits a certain mine but once or twice the miners at 
that place conclude that that is the extent of his acquaint- 
ance with mines; and ignorant of the weeks and months de- 
voted to field investigation by this samti geologist, and the 
exact habits of observation acquired by careful training and 
his years of research into the literature of ore deposits, they 
set him down as a recluse with his mind full of *'book-learn- 
ing" and ideas that do not in the slightest degree harmonize 
with the facts as the miner finds them. 

The cause of this prejudice is partly excusable ignorance* 
and partly wilful neglect of opportunities of becoming 
acquainted with the real intent and content of geological 
knowledge. Your average miner would scorn to read a geo 
logical treatise upon the very mine or district in which he is 
employed or has a proprietary interest. 

The result is twofold. The first, and by far the most Im- 



t 



Irfni liange History, — //. V. Winchell, 165 

portunt, consequences fall upon the miner and mine owner 
himself. In the first place he does not discover his hidden 
wealth so soon as he would if he read understandingly the 
geological reports of his region. In the second place he 
wastes his monej^ in developing his mine. These statements 
are not made ill-advisedlj. Many such instances have come 
und^r the writer's personal observation. The money that is 
wasted in every new mining district, simply because of ignor- 
ance of its geology, would purchase several of the best mines 
subsequently' developed there. 

The second result affects the geologist. He does not receive 



Correction : Through inadvertence the quotation on page 
167 from the " Report of the Commissioners of the Geological 
Survey" of Wisconsin was inserted in the account of the 
Penokee-Gogebic range. It evidently refers to the Menominee 
range, and should be so interpreted. 



articles in the Euyineeriuy Jfttyazine on the "Iron Ore-Region 
of Lake Superior," by Mr. R. A. Parker of Marquette. "Van- 
ity of vanities, all is vanity," nuiy well be the wail of any 
geological prophet who expects to receive honor in his own 
country. For here again comes one who should be posted on 
such matters, and professes to give a historical and descrip- 
tive sketch of the discovery and development of these iron 
ore ranges, and yet we find the same old stor}' of "rumors [in 
1888] of the occurrence of soft red hematite" and "the dis- 
covery of ore beneath the roots of a tree" on the Penokee- 
Gogebic range. Furthermore, the Vermilion range is said to 
have been found in 1H75 by explorers, and of the Mesabi* it 

*Thi8 m the spelling adopted by the National Geographic Society, 
the U. S. Geological Survey and the Minneeota Geological Survey. It 
has been used on all authoritative maps since 1866. 



166 The American Geologist. March, 1804 

i8 paid "discouraging reports of the district had been given 
by explorers and geologists," but "by perseverance the ore 
was found." As the result the reader is left with the im- 
pression that no real assistance was ever rendered by geolo- 
gists in the discovery of these valuable ore deposits; that all 
the geological surveys that had been prosecuted in these 
districts prior to 18S3, 1875 and 1891, respectively, failed to 
find and report the indications of ore, or else reported unfavora- 
bly; in short, that one man is just as likely to discover min- 
eral treasures as another; that ignorance is as desirable 
as knowledge, and it is all a matter of chance anyhow. 

What were the real facts in the matter? Were these three 
iron ranges visited and studied and reported on favorably or 
unfavorably b}'^ geologists prior to the '^discoveries" of ore 
mentioned bv Mr. Parker? 

Pknokek-Gogebic Kan(>k. 

In I). 1). Owen's "Report of a Geological Survey of Wis- 
consin, Iowa and Minnesota" there is a "Geological Report of 
that portion of Wisconsin bordering on the South Shore of 
Lake Superior, survcyc^d in the year IS49," by Charles Whit- 
tlesey. On pages 444-447 of this report (published in 1852) 
is a description of the "Magnetic Iron-Beds of the Penokie 
Range.'' Analyses of iron ore found there are quoted which 
show from 56.H per cent, to 60 per cent, of metallic iron, and 
the following statements are made : 

The bed of magnetic iron ore south of Lac dee Anglais is of extraor- 
dinary thicknees,— twenty -five to eixty feet. ♦ ♦ * * in 
the wild and deep ravines where the Bad river breaks through the 
range, there is a cliff of slaty ore, most of which comes out in thin, 
oblique prisms, with well-defined angles and straight edgee, probably 
three hundred feet thick, including what is covered by the talus or fall- 
en portions. I estimate more than one-half of this face to be ore; and 
in places the beds are from ten to twelve feet in thickness, with very 
little intermixture of quartz. There are portions of it not slaty, but 
thick-bedded. 

The geological occurrt^nce is fully figured and described, 
and the similarity of this ore to'*the extensive mines or rather 
mountains of iron ore in Michigan, described by Houghton, 
Burt, Jackson, Foster and Whitne}'" is also mentioned. The 
idea of exploitation on a large scale is conveyed in the last 
paragraph : 



s 



Iron Mange Ilhtonj, — H, P. Winch ell. 167 

The position of the beet expoeuree of ore which I saw is such as to 
require from eighteen to twenty-eight miles of transportation to reach 
the lake. The nearest natural harbor is in Chegwomigon bay, about 
twenty-five miles from the central part of the Penokie range. 

In the "Report of the Commisssoners of the Geological 
Survey" of Wisconsin for 1858 are the following remarks b}*^ 
the same writer: 

In 1850 I passed up the Menomonee as far as Irwin falls, and exam- 
ined the rocks to the east of the river in Michigan. Here the mag- 
netic and specular ores were found, and beautifully veined marbles. 
The system of Magnesian slates extending from Carp river, on lake 
Superior, westward and south west ward, which embraces the metamor- 
phic limestones and the iron, was then traced to the state line of Wis* 
consin. 

During the explorations of the present year, in tracing that system 
within this state across the Menomonee river, I had the satisfaction to 
find that it produces here both iron and marble, in quantities that are 
inexhaustible. 

I cannot in this note, nor until the analyses are completed, give an 
idea of the value of the ores, but I am satisfied that whenever a cheap 
mode of transportation is provided, they will attract notice. Both the 
iron ores and the marbles exist on both sides of the river convenient to 
water power that is unlimited. A considerable part of the deposits of 
iron have bard wood near at hand suitable for coal. 

The interesting origin of the name ^'Penokie" was given as 
follows by (V)i. Whittlesey in an article on '"The Penokee 
Mineral Range" read before the Boston Society of Natural 
History in July, 1863: 

In the Chippeway language the name for iron is ]}€wabik; and I 
thought it proper to designate the mountains, where this metal exists 
in quantities that surprise all observers, as the ^'Pewabik Range.^* The 
compositor, however, transformed it to Penokie, a word which belongs 
to no language, but which is now too well fastened upon the range by 
usage to be changed. 

Soon after the publication of Dr. Owen's report, the excitement of 
1845-6 in reference to copper was repeated in reference to iron. Pre- 
emptors followed the surveyors, erecting their rude cabins on each 
quarter-section between the meridian and Lac des Anglais, a distance 
of eighteen or twenty miles. The iron belt is generally less than one- 
fourth of a mile in width, regularly stratified, dipping to the northwest 
conformable to the formations, and having its outcrop along the summit 
of the second or southerly range. 

So much iron was found there that he intended to call it the^ 
*'Pewabik" range in 1850, even before the government survey 
of the region. 

This pap'jr was accompanied by a geological nuqi uf the- 



168 The America It Geolotjist, March, ma 

riinj^e prepared by Whittlesey in 1860, on which the crest of 
the range and the outcrops of iron ore are marked with won- 
derful accuracy. 

But Whittlesey was not the onlj" geologist who observed 
and described the mineral wealth of this region. In 1858 
Edward Daniels, one of the State Geological Commission, and 
prior to that time State Geologist, visited the Penokee-Goge- 
bic range and mentions it as follows in the Commissioner's 
report for 1858, pp. 10, 11 : 

The mineral resources alec promise richly. The most important of 
these are the great deposits of iron ore found in the Penokie Moun- 
tains, about thirty miles inland from the head of Chegwomigou Bay. 
These iron beds follow the mountain ridge through several townships, 
having a direction a little North of East. * * * * The ore is princi- 
pally the magnetic and brown oxide, with traces of specular iron, and 
occurs in seams parallel with the stratification, varying from a mere 
line to fifty feet in thickness; it is of good quality, well located for quar- 
rying, and practically inexhaustible. 

Another well-known scientist who saw and appreciated the 
ore deposits of this range was Dr. I. A. Lapham, afterward 
State Geologist of Wisconsin. He visited the Penokee dis- 
trict with Daniels in 1858. His account of the trip may be 
seen in the Trans. Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol, 
V, 1858-51h He there gives what is perhaps the first pub- 
lished map of the range, and speaks highly of the iron ore he 
saw there. In a report made by Dr. I^pham to the Wiscon- 
sin and Lake Superior Mining and Smelting Company, dated 
November, 1858, and published in pamphlet form in 1860, we 
find the following: 

It will be seen that we have already discovered good ore in such 
quantities as to be practically inexhaustible, situated at points accessi- 
ble to water power and having bold fronts, rendering it comparatively 
easy to be quarried. For many yearn to come only the richest and most 
aeoessible ores can be brought into use, rejecting--at least for the pres- 
ent— all such as have too large a proportion of silica, and such as are 
not in a condition to be easily and cheaply removed from the natural 
bed. 

Further full accounts of the Penokee-Gogebic range are to 

be found in Volume III of the Wisconsin (Geological Reports 
for 187H-79, pages 100-166. 

Minnesota Iron HasiiKs. 
In Minnesota we find a similar condition of afi'airs. The 
first account of iron ore on the Vermilion range appears to be 




Intn liaiHje llhtory. — //. T. WinchelL 169 

in the report of State Geologist H. H. Eames, published in 
1860. On page 11 is this account: 

The Iron Range of Lake Vermulion 

Is on the east end, on the stream known aeTwo River, which is about 
sixty feet wide. * * * This range is about one mile in length, it then 
ceases, and after passing through a swamp, another uplift is reached, 
from two hundred and fifty to three hundred feet high. The iron is ex- 
posed at two or three points between fifty and sixty feet in thickness, 
at these points it presents quite a mural face, but below it is covered 
with detritus of the over-capping rock. On this account its exact 
thickness could not be correctly ascertaineil. The ore is of the variety 
known as hematite and white steely iron, and is associated with quart- 
xoee, jasperoids and serpentine rocks. It generally has a cap rock of 
from three to twenty feet thick. A little to the north of this is an ex- 
posure of magnetic iron of very good quality, forming a hill parallel 
with the one described. 

The hematitic iron has a reddish appearance from exposure to at- 
mospheric influence; its fracture is massive and granular, color a dark 
steel gray. The magnetic iron ore is strongly attracted by the magnet 
and has polarity, is granularly massive, color iron black. 

At the request of the legislature of Minnesota Col. Charles 
Whittlesey made a "Report of Explorations in the Mineral 
Regions of Minnesota during the years 1848, 1859 and 1864," 
published in Cleveland in 1866. In this report is a map of 
Vermilion Lake and the Mesubi Iron Range. It also contains, 
on page 10, an announcement of the discovery of iron ore at 
the former locality by Eames. Here Col. Whittlesey gives it 
as his opinion that workable iron ore exists near enough to 
lake Superior to render it of practical value. 

The original discovery of iron ore on the Mesabi range 
must also be creditt^d to Mr. Eames. In his report of 1866, 
published the following year, is an account of the occurrence 
of iron ore on the western end of the range, at Prairie river, 
and several analyses are given, showing it to be of good qual- 
ity. Favorable mention is also made of the Mesabi in various 
other geological reports between that time and 1891. It will 
be sutficient to call attention to the views advanced in Bulle- 
tin No. 6 (written in 1890: published in 1891) of the Minne- 
sota Surve}', wliere a detailed account of the range is given 
«nd it is stated (pages 112 and 160) : 

They [the ores of the Mesabi] are destined to play a very important 
part in the future development of the iron industry of the state. They 
occupy fourfold the area that is occupied by the Keewatin ores [Ver- 



170 The Auiericau Geologist, March, 1894 

milioD range], and they are nearer the ore-Bhipping points as well as the 
iron-using markets. It is on account of this high promise of future 
productiveness that they are fully described in this bulletin. * * * 

There can be no reasonable doubt that in Minnesota, about the 
western and northwestern confines of the lake Superior basin and ex- 
tending westward to the Mississippi river, there will yet be mined in 
the Mesabi range even greater quantities of hematite than have been 
taken from that marvel of mining districts, the Penokee-Gogebic range 
which blazed out with such a brilliant record only a few years ago. 

The above quotations are sufficient to establish the follow- 
ing points: (1) The ore on these three ranges was found by 
geologists who published aecounts of their discoveries; and 
all reports to the contrary are but idle tales. (2) The ac- 
curacy and trustworthiness of those early reports has been 
fully demonstrated by subsequent developments. (3) Had 
the mining public given due credence to those reports it might 
have reaped the benefit from them a quarter of a century 
sooner than it did. 

If this article had been written in a spirit of criticism 
rather than for the purpose of setting forth a few historical 
facts that were in danger of being forgotten, there are many 
careless statements in the magazine articles above referred to 
which would have called for correction. They are but minor 
p<»ints, however, and the present writer will be well satisfied 
if lie has been able to dissipate any of the cloudiness that now 
surrounds the history of our iron districts, and to aid in tlie 
firmer establishment of the truth. 



PLEISTOCENE HISTORY OF THE CHAMPLAIN 

VALLEY. 

By 8. Phentish Baldwin, ClevHand. Ohio. 

(Plate V.) 
More than thirty years ago Prof. C. H. llitciicock gave a 
careful description and map of the surface geology of the 
Cluim plain valley.* The Champlain clays were mapped and 
their nuirine origin was pointed out: and the}' were subdi- 
vided into the deeper "blue days" and upper *'l)rown clays," 
th<* former characterized hy Lcihi porfhintiica ( Vftifh'a avctira 
(iray), the latter by Mavoina ft/sea, (J/, tjrtpulamh'ra Beck), 

♦(Jeology of Vermont, 18G1, vol. i, pp. 93-1(57, with map. 




T«B Aksuoui QkOLoam. Tul. XII], Plitb T. 



Pleistocene of the i'/tifiitplatn Valletf, — liaUUrin, 171 

Sa.rt'vaca rufjona, and Mt/a arena rift. The river terraces of 
the Winooski, La Moille, and other streams, were described 
and mapped and their sand deltas shown. More recently Mr. 
Warren Uphara has somewhat briefly written of the Pleisto- 
cene history of this region.* The present paper records ob- 
servations and studies made during a summer vacation in the 
year 1892. It is hoped that it may be of some use to those 
who may in the future have more time to study this very 
interesting subject. 

Lake Champlain (Plate V) occupies a long and narrow valley, 
probably only partly a valley of erosion, between the Green 
mountains on the east and the Adirondacks on the west. The 
lake is 110 miles long and nowhere over 10 miles wide, while 
nearly all of the southern half is so narrow that it resembles 
a river, confined on either side by the foot-hills of the moun- 
tains. That a clay plain lies between the lake and the foot- 
hills farther north is due to the covering of Champlain clays 
and sands concealing the buried slopes. 

Vermont. 

Whitehall to Bitrlinfjton. To begin at the south end of 
the lake, we find distinct sand terraces on all the streams en- 
tering near Whitehall, belonging to a definite hight of 150 
feet,f and apparently continuous at that level across the 
'Hudson-C'hamplain divide to the great sand plain of the 
Hudson. West Haven township is cut by two broad sand 
valleys of this level, but with that exception it lies above the 
terrace level. Benson and Orwell are quite above the old 
water levels, except for terrace marks along the immediate 
shore. A fine terrace of stratified sand appears at a hight of 
140 feet at Benson Landing. The clays extend to 195 feet, 
while faint terraces extend to 370 feet. 

Thence northward the clays and terraces are found at con- 
stantly increasing altitudes, and the higher levels are back 

* Bulletin, Geological Society of America, vol. i, p. 5G6; vol. ii, p. 265; 
vol. iii, pp. 484487, 508-511. 

tAU altitudes are from sea level, unless otherwise stated.and are taken 
by barometer from railroad stations or other known points. The low 
and high water stages of lake Champlain are respectively 9.3 and 101 feet 
above the sea, its mean bight being 97 feet. Its maximum depth, 402 
feet below this mean surface level, is west of Charlotte township. (Re- 
port of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, for the year ending June, 
1887, pp. 165, 1C6, 172.) 



172 The American Geologist, March, 18M 

five to ten miles from the lake. The townships between the 
high levels and the lake form one great day plain, extending 
as far as the Win6oski sand delta near Burlington, broken 
only here and there by small hills rising abruptly from the 
plain, somewhat resembling, in appearance, the region of 
buried mountains in Nevada, but on a smaller scale. A defi- 
nite ancient water level seems to be traceable in Orwell at 410 
feet. East of Middlebury village a long sand plain has a 
hight of 460 feet, with such well defined level that one readily 
applies the term "'islands'' to the occasional hills which rise 
above it. Yet it is doubtful if the clay deposits reach the 
town of Middlebury at 31)0 feet. The shore townships, Addi- 
son, Panton, Ferrisburgh, Charlotte, and Shelburne, exhibit a 
decided contrast to the higher townships, as Middlebury and 
Bristol, where the glacial surface deposits are scarcely con- 
cealed by the later lacustrine and marine deposits. Passing 
inland from the shore, the clan's rise in broad terraces, often 
nearlv a mile across and each terrace usuallv from 30 to »50 
feet above the one below, yet w(^ were unable to<?onnect the 
terraces of succeeding townships into continuous levels. 

A well defined esker runs through East Panton and Addi- 
son, from Vergennes to Snake mountain, rising about 150 feet 
above the plain and sloping steadily to the south. It rises 
above the clays, but is partly buried in them. On the west 
side of this esker in East Panton is Elgin spring, the most 
southerly point from which marine shells had been reported.* 
We visited the spring, but did not succeed in finding any 
shells, nor could we get any infornuition of them from the 
residents of the vicinity, so we could not verify the report. 
The days clearly extend to 250 feet, and probably the marine 
levels reached 350 feet. Marine shells appear at Vergennes 
at nearly 250 feet, while at less than 150 feet shells may be 
found in the brown days at almost any point from central Ad- 
dison north. Faint lines seem t(» have been cut in the till of 
Snake mountain to a hight of 58«> feet. Such a level would 
ahuost c(»mpletely cover all the shore townshijis. But the 
more decided levels up to 350 feet would leave Snake moun- 
tain, as well as several hills in Waltham, Monk ton, and Fer- 
risburgh, above the water as islands. 

♦CJeology of Vermont, vol. i, p. 159. 




Plet'sfocene of the Chumjduhi \''alley. — Baldwin, 173 

In (/harlotte, Mt. Philo and Mutton and Peasehillsare sur- 
rounded b}' sand terraces at bights of 415 and 450 feet. Be- 
tween Mutton hill and the shore are three parallel ridges of 
the same higiit, 150 feet each, and standing about 30 feet 
above the plain, about a mile apart. No sections of these 
ridges could be found, but they seem to be sandy beaches, 
made to appear higher above the plain than they originally 
were, from the fact that the present streams have eroded the 
plain between them at least 15 feet. From Mutton hill east 
to central Hinesburgh the plain is cut by brooks flowing north 
to Shelburne bay, and on either side of each brook are broad 
sand terraces, three or four in number. The sand terraces of 
these brooks contain marine shells in Shelburne, as at Morse's 
and Shelburne Falls. The lower sand terraces along the 
brooks undoubtedly come from the re- washing of the higher 
terraces, as the wat<*r fell to lower and lower levels. This is 
shown by the condition of the shells, which are general!}' in 
place in the clays, with valves together and very little broken, 
while in the sands of the lower stream terraces they are broken 
and separated. Shells are plowed up and dug up in post- 
holes at any point between Mutton hill and the shore, and 
they are said to occur in beds 4 or 5 inches thick, a little be- 
lf)w the surface. The discovery of the bones of a whale 
(lielutja vermontaim Thompson*) in the cla3's of this plain, 
together with shells of Sawfcttva and JfacouKi^ in 1849, was 
fully described in the Vermont report, f and needs no further 
mention. 

The township of Shelburne closely resembles Charlotte, one 
general clay level, broken here and there by outcrops of rock 
above that level ; each outcrop shows evidence of having been 
an island, while the water held successive!}' lower levels, by a 
scries of encircling terraces. At Shelburne Falls and again at 
Morse's, near the railroad, are stratified sand deposits, con- 
taining Mavoina fusca, at 180 feet. In the north part of 
Shelburne, near the township line, one mile east of (iov. liar- 
stow's, shells, which from description seem to be Macoina, are 
said to be plowed up at 400 feet. At this point a marble out- 

^Re^arded by Sir J. William Dawson as the same with B, t'utodan, 
which is now frequent in the estuarioe lower part of the St. Lawrence. 
< Canadian Ice Age, p. 2()8.) 

tVol. i, pp. 162-5. 



174 



The Ainci'tcati (ieoloyittt. 



March, 188* 



ch to 
lire 




The marine 
crop seems to be surrounded by a faint terrace, m 

. .^^\v went no 

limit may have eome to this hight, but certairli^ 

higher. The clays are not noticeable above 285 fee 
Whiooski Delta, Coming to Burlington, we find i 
sand terraces and much less clay, marking the appr( 
the Winooski delta. Just outside the city of Burlingt 
very distinct terraces to a hight of 830 feet. Beneath 
sand of the lower terraces the clan's appear, bearing she 
The Winooski delta is composed almost entirely of lightT 
stratified sands, covering the north part of Burlington and 
Williston, Colchester to Mallett's bay, and the southwestern 
part of Essex, then narrowing to the river valle}' as the higher 
levels of the foot-hills of the Green mountains are reached. 
Thence river terraces, four or five in number, mainly of sand, 
extend up the river beyond Middlesex. The hight of this 
sand plain near Essex Junction is about 840 feet, the terrace 
No. 4 of the Vermont report,* while the next marked terrace, 
below that, is very distinct at 215 feet. The blue clay lies at 
nearly the same general hight under the lower end of this 
delta as in Charlotte, and it furnishes a ver3'^ good brick clay 
north of Winooski Falls. As there seems to be no rock near 
the surface through the greater part of the area of the delta 
in (Jolchester and Burlington, the Vermont report suggests 
that the river filled up a c(msiderable area between Colchester 
point, then an island, and. the main shore, thus connecting it 
with the mainland.f This seems entirel}^ probable. 

La }foUh' DvUa, The La Moille formed a large delta* very 
similar to the Winooski, making up a great share of Milton,, 
southern (ieorgia,and northern Colchester, of two distinct lev- 
els, 270 feet and 400 feet, following up the river in terraces as 
on the Winooski. Snake and ( 'obble hills stood as islands at the 
highest extent of the lake, and show very distinct terraces to 
450 feet. In this vicinity are two interesting shell deposits. 
On the south shore of Mallett's bay a bank of strat^^^ed sands 
and clays is cut down by the road to expose a fine bed of 
Saxivava^ with a few Mavoma shells, both in good state of 
preservation, and, in nearly every case, with the two valves 

* Vol. i, p. 132. * 

tibid. 

JIbid., p. 142. 



Pleistocene of fht ChampUn'n Vulley, — liahhrin. 175 

toi^ether; the Saxicava» usually standing upright in their 
bore-holes in the elny. Agtiin, in West Milton, a short dis- 
tance east of A. A. Herrick's, the sand terrace of the 270 feet 
level is cut to a depth of 70 feet, exhibiting a sand and clay 
deposit containing Saj'icftca and Mttcoma and exposing to- 
ward the head many large and finel}' glaciated boulders. Un- 
fortunately we could not find an exposure of the undisturbed 
strata, to discover the exact relations of the deposits; but, 
from the distribution of the boulders, it is probable that here 
is an esker or kanie of about the same hight as the exposed 
esker in Panton, but the still higher sands of the delta cover 
this one. At Checkerberry Village, on this delta terrace at 
270 feet, we were informed that Saxicava and Maeoma can be 
found in almost any excavation, a few feet below the surface. 

The next large delta is that of the Missisquoi,'*' covering 
with sand a large part of northern Swanton, southern High- 
gate, and Hog island, the last being just at the flood level of 
the present lake. 

From here north the higher levels are far back from the 
lake, and the Champlain valley opens into a great clay plain, 
which stretches out 25 or 30 miles on either side from the 
Richelieu river, north of Missisquoi bay, and which probably 
extends to Montreal and the St. Lawrence. I have not traversed 
it. Little or no rock is exposed anj'where in this plain. The 
surface of this plain is ribbed at disUinces of half a mile or 
so with beaches, which stand about 15 feet above the general 
level. Probably no part of the plain is more than 150 to 200 
feet above the sea. 

New Youk. 

WhifehuU fo the Ait Sultte, On the west side tl\e highest 
levels are found near the lake in Washington county, but from 
Ticonderoga to Crown Point distinct terraces extend to 225 
feet. !*■ is not probable that the marine terraces extend to 
lake George, though there seems t() be a decided terrace at 370 
feet at the south end of that lake. The lake itself is 320 feet 

Kieology of Vermont, voLi, p. 145. This report seems to apply the 
term '*delta" only to the deltas formed at the pre^nt lake level, while 
I have applied it to those deposits which were formed as true deltas at 
the hif^her levels, and pass over the present deltas as not pertinent to 
this discussion. 



176 The American Geoloffisf, March, 1894 

above the sea, and the fainter glacial lacustrine levels may 
extend above this hight. 

About four miles south of the village of Crown Point is a 
high terrace standing well above the surrounding plain, before 
the mouth of a small valley, and so distinct as to easily at- 
tract attention. No clear exposure of its material could be 
found, but it seemed to consist of drift, almost entirely un- 
modified. The top is perhaps half a mile broad and two miles 
long and [)itted throughout with small kettle-holes, twenty to 
fifty feet in diameter. It is about 560 feet above the sea. I 
regard this as a typical inoraitfe terrace* formed against the 
ice, when it stood at thathight, b}' the combined action of the* 
ice, in melting and depositing, and of a stream from the small 
valley which opens int-o it. The main deposit was from the 
ice, not levelled by standing water, but by action of the small 
stream. If that be true, the water levels are later than this 
terrace, and, in fact, faint lower terraces are cut on its sides. 

Until Clinton county is reached, the old shore lines are no- 
where far from the present lake. In Chesterfield, near Owen 
Ryan's, the finest beaches were seen, and on an abrupt shore. 
At present water level, in a small cove l>etween the rocky 
points, is the first pebbly beach ; above this in the same cove are 
three exactly similar beaches at 290, 885 and 865 feet; there 
the rocks disappear in two distinct terraces at 886 and 428 
feet, only to re-appear above and yield three more pebbly 
beaches up to 550 feet. A mile or two north distinct terraces 
appear at 470 and 580 feet. 

Clinton (*ftnnftf. On reaching the Au Sable river the higher 
levels are found back six or seven miles from the lake, while 
the lower levels are formed of the sand delta of the Au Sable. 
The uppe4* limit was not measured, but the second level is at 
280 feet, corresponding well with the second level on the 
Winooski. The plain from here north'is similar to that of the 
Vermont side, a clay plain, crossed by the two sand deltas of 
the Au Sable and Saranac. The sand banks on the south side 
of this delta, near Port Kent, are said to contain many marine 
shells. 

The Saranac river is simply a repetition of the Au Sabk% 

*Tbe 8o-uaIled **moraine terraces** of the Geology of Vermont are 
abundantly indented with kettle- holee. 



Pleistocene of the Chnmplaltt Valley, — BaUUrin. 177 

Winooski and other rivers, in its large sand delta and terraces 
extending far up the river, covering northern Schuyler and 
southern Plattsburgh, and in the gorge or rapids of its post- 
glacial channel. One definite level of this delta is at 445 feet. 
The highest terrace here is at 561 feet. The change from the 
high glaciated region to the lacustrine and marine area is 
very well marked by the disappearance of kames and kettle - 
holes, and by prevailing shore levels and terraces, and in de- 
scending to the present lake at least ten distinct terraces 
may be seen. 

The blue clay appears under the township of Plattsburgh 
bearing marine shells, in a bed five inches thick, at its junc- 
tion with the sands above, and they may be found almost 
anywhere at 190 feet. We found these shells again at a l^vel 
which Dr. I). S. Kellogg, of Plattsburgh, informs me is 346 
feet. Dr. Kellogg pointed out two interesting examples of 
buried eskers. One of these he has carefully mapped. It is 
seven miles long, extending from the south part of Chazy into 
Beekmantown, and rises through the clays to about 00 to 80 
feet above them. The other one is near Morrisonville, on the 
Saranac, where the road cuts a fine section through a consid- 
erable deposit of drift, which has been completely covered by 
the sand of the high level of the delta. This exhibits the same 
conditions as the esker described from West Milton, but more 
clearly. From Chazy the Champlain valley soon opens into 
the broad clay plain of the St. Lawrence. 

(hitlet to the Xorth. An examinatir)n of the map (Plate V) 
will show that lake Champlain is largely over 200 feet deep, 
antl in one ])lace it reaches a depth of 400 feet, although the 
present mean surface of the lake is only 97 feet above mean 
sea level. While the uplifting of the mountains of Vermont 
and New York probably had much to do with the existence of a 
valley here, yet the valley itself is certainly a valley of erosion. 
Such a depth of channel below the sea level indicates a pre- 
glacial elevation for this region of more than 300 feet. But 
the elevation was probably very much more than that; for the 
depth of deposition during and since the Glacial period, and 
the fall necessary in order to drain this valley to the sea, must 
be added. This corresponds well with the depths of the larger 
Lauren ti an lakes, and of the submerged channels of the St. 
Lawrence, the Hudson, and other rivers. 



178 The American Geolof/iat, March, l89i 

What closed this channel V Two exphinations may be given : 
first, warping of the earth's crust during the Ice age ; second, 
deposition of glacial material and of the marine clays. De- 
formation sufficient to hold the lake at its present hight must 
have included a considerable and well defined uplift. If this 
was since the formation of the marine terraces, it must have 
distinctly distorted them. If it was during the Glacial period 
it would not probably occur until the ice had disappeared from 
that region, and as soon as that happened the sea came in and 
began building its terraces, which therefore must have been 
ali'ect^d by the differential elevation. No evidence of such 
uplift was found. On the contrary, in going from south to 
north, the marine deposits of sands and clays evidently be< 
come much thicker, and the foot-hills on either side are more 
buried by them until, north of the lake, they are entirely cov- 
ered by the great clay plain of the St. Lawrence. We should 
therefore expect this deep channel to extend under the clay 
plain to the north, at a depth of 400 feet or more, as a buried 
<»utlet to the St. Lawrence. My brief search revealed no evi- 
dence of importiince, though it led me to believe that the 
outlet was not from Missisquoi bay. 

The Hudson ani> Champlain Valleyh. 

The divide between the Pawlet river and Black creek was 
not examined, but seems to be a sand plain at about 400 feet.* 
The lowest divide is that crossed by the canal from Whitehall 
to Ft. Edward at 150 feet, at the same hight as the ends of 
the canal, Ft. Edward and Whitehall. A continuous sand 
plain extends from one place to the other, and is so nearly 
level that while the divide is really at Ft. Ann, eleven miles 
from Ft. Edward, yet the canal flows toward Whitehall, ex- 
cept the last three miles near Ft. Edward. In the town of 
Whitehall, the canal drops 50 feet to the level of the lake. 
The two valleys narrow rapidly to Ft. Ann, where is seen a 
typical divide between streams, entirely of rock, showing lit- 
tie evidence of glacial or postglacial erosion, and not at all 
resembling a river channel. It is not probable that any large 
stream ever flowed across this divide for more than a ver}' 
short time, and the expression, sometimes seen, '*the Hudson 
-C'hamplain valley," seems to me a misuse of terms. 

♦(Jeologjr of Vermont, vol. i, p. 128. 




Pleistocene of (he Champlaiu Valley, — Bald it* in, 179 

Deltas. 

When the main preglacial stream of the Champlain vallej^ 
the Champlain river, as I shall call it, flowed in a channel 400 
feet or more below the present lake surface, the mouths of its 
tributiiries, the Winooski, La Moille, and others, must have 
been proportionately below their present hight. These val- 
leys were filled up, partly with drift during the Glacial period, 
then with the blue clays, brown clays, and sands, during the 
subsequent submergence. At the mouths of the rivers, great 
deltas were formed which now stand not only high above the 
former deep channels, but high above the present channels. 
These tributaries now flow entirely in clay or sand beds, ex- 
cept here and there where they have not returned to their old 
valleys, but have cut small recent gorges of rock instead. The 
history of the delta seems to be this. The highest faint levels, 
which I believe to have been formed by a temporary glacial 
lake, were of too short duration for the accumulation of 
marked deltas. But on admission of the sea, the highest ma- 
rine level was more permanent ; the rivers were backed up as 
slack water far inland, and great quantities of sand and da}' 
were washed from the glacial deposits by the flooded streams, 
the sand to be left along the upper part of the delta and 
stream, while the clays were being deposited in deeper water. 
Then, as the water fell from this highest marine level to the 
next hight, much of the highest delta sand was washed out 
to be spread as a second delta over the claysof the first hight, 
while some of this cla^'' was in turn carried out to cover the 
finer clay of the deepest waters. Thus as the lake fell to 
lower levels, each terrace was partly cut away to form, with 
what fresh material was brought down, the next terrace. An 
interesting explanation of the derivation of the sands and 
clays may be seen, high above the highest terraces, at Flat 
Rock, Altona, N. Y., where are immense accumulations of 
glaciated boulders, in which is no material of even small 
enough size to be called gravel, the smaller material having 
been entirely carried away. 

Pkeglacial Channels and Post<;la('Ial Gok(;es. 

Suppose such a high level delta formed, and that, as the lake 
falls, the river cuts down into the level-topped terrace. Then, 



180 



The 



> Gv'.loiji» 



(1) it may cut back into its old clmnnel to rt-i.Tode it, or (2) 
it may cut down to one side or t)ii> otiier of the old channel 
and BO find n)c]v at some point. In the latt#r ease It may be 
on Bueh n elope tliat it can wear away the sand iin the lower 
side and so worli hack to its old ehannel, or it niay <'ut into 
the rock and form a new channel. Iii that event the river will 
rapidly enlar(fe its valley where it hiis only to earry away the 
soft sands from its old bed. while the size of the new channel 
will depend mainly on the eharaeter of the roek through 
which it is cut. The rapids of the Saranac, the beautiful Au 
Sable chasm, and the falls of the T^Moille, are pnd)ably of 
that origin. 

On the Winooski at least two such channels may be seen 
from the railroad. One is about three miles below Wattr- 
bury. where the railroad passes through a part of the old 
channel a short distance south of the small rock gorge through 
which the river Hows. 

A bett«r example, well worth a visit, is found just above 
Winooski Falls. The accompanying map requires little ex- 
planation. Standing at the quarry and looking up stream, a 
valley perhaps half a mile wide, limited on either side by 




Wina<tki FalU, Vl. 



Pleistocene of the Chaynplain Valley, — Baldwin, 181 

sand terraces, is seen, in which the river meanders through a 
wide flood-plain, avoiding a recently deserted channel for a 
long bend to the north. From the quarry north, the lime- 
stone ledge is everywhere near the surface, except for the 
small gorge, not more than 30 to 40 feet wide and perhaps 75 
to 100 feet deep, which has been cut in the hard limestone by 
the present river. After a second turn south the river emerges 
again into the broad valley limited by sand terraces. Only a 
short distance south of this gorge is a sand terrace, standing 
exactly across the broad valley, continuous with the terraces 
of the south side of the valley, and containing no rock to at 
least the depth of the present river. The top of this terrace 
is lower than the top of the limestone gorge. Evidently the 
river has required the same time t^ clear out the broad valley 
above and the rock gorge, and both are measures of the time 
since the sea fell below the 240 feet level, that of the top of 

the terrace. 

Moraines. 

Professor Hitchcock has shown that moraines of recession 
can be traced in the mountainous New England states, 
although with more difficulty than on the western plains. 
He alludes to a great moraine crossing Vermont from Wil- 
loughby lake, along the upper La Moille, to Burlington.* I am 
inclined to think that this moraine passes through Hyde 
Park and Cambridge to Underbill, but not to Burlington, for 
the buried deposits of Milton seem to indicate that it bends 
to the north near the lake and crosses it, to be represented in 
New York by the extensive deposits of Beekmantown, south- 
ern Altona, and Dannemora. Another line of exceptionally 
abundant drift deposition seems to pass through Ripton, also 
bending northward near the lake, through Middlebury and 
Addison. A third morainic line seems to pass just south of 
the lake and to continue west across the south end of Lake 
George. 

HiSTOKY OF THE ClIAMPLAIN V ALLEY. 

The Chumphiin Ricer, The great depth and the form of 
the Champlain valle3% as a valley of erosion, indicate a long 
continued preglacial elevation of at least 600 feet for this en- 
tire region. During that time the valley was occupied by a 

*PrDC. A. A. A. 8., vol. xli, for 1892, p. 175. 



182 The American Geologist. March, 18N 

river far below the present lake surface; the tributary rivers 
occupied nearly the same valleys as now, but at greater 
depths, and the valley sides were uneven mountain slopes, un- 
marked by level plains and terraces. 

The Glacial period requires little comment. The entire re- 
gion shows abundant evidence that it was covered by the ice, 
but below the high level terraces the till and striated ledges 
are largely concealed by the later deposits. 

The Champlafn Glacial Lake. Though the facts reported 
from the valley of the Red River of the North and from the ba- 
sins of the great Laurentian lakes made it appear probable 
that this valley contained a glacial lake while the ice was re> 
treating down it. I did not, at first, find direct evidence of 
this, but am now convinced that such a lake did exist. 

Prof. J. E. Todd has briefly stated the reasons for the ob- 
scurity of shore lines of glacial lakes,* To apply them to 
the Champlain valley two others must be added: 1. Whatever 
effects the glacial lake may have left, below the later marine 
limit, are concealed by the heavy marine deposits; 2. The 
mountains on either side of the valley were probabl}' some- 
what independent centers of ice dispersion, even so late as 
when the ice-sheet had retreated bevond the St. Lawrence and 
the sea had been admitted. At any rate, the tributary streams 
coming from those mountains seem to have been much flo<Mled 
at that time. It is necessary', in order to account for the 
heavy marine accumulations, to suppose either that it was a 
period of extensive floods, or that the marine conditions were 
c»f long duration. The effect of the floods upon the already 
scanty deposits of the glacial lake would be to largely re- 
move what evidence had been left above the marine limit. 

On either side of the valley, at least as far north as to 
Plattsburgh, strong terraces exist up to a certain hight, which, 
from their relations to the clay, seem to mark the marine 
limit, while above that level faint traces of terrace action can 
be found to one or two hundred feet higher. These faint ter- 
races never show marine shells; the}' are usually of glaciated 
pebbles and cut directly from the till. These levels seldom 
or never appear in harder materials than till. They were of 
short duration. 

*Am. Grolooist, vol. X, p. 299, Nov., 1892. 




Pleistocene of the Champlain Vatley. — Baldwin. 183 

Another evidence of a glacial lake appears in the form of the 
moraines crossing the lake, if they are rightlj^loeated. I have 
elsewhere discussed the relation of the water front of a gla- 
cier to the land front under conditions of advance and retreat.* 
Evidently where no water rested against the ice-front the ice 
must have extended farther south in the valleys than on the 
highlands, and consequently the moraines crossing a valley 
will he convex. But the moraines crossing the Champlain 
valley are concave, due to rapid wasting of the retreating ice- 
front by the waters of a glacial lake. 

During or after the greatest extent of the ice, this entire 
region was depressed so that since the departure of the ice 
the valley was occupied by the sea. The depression was 
greatest toward the north, the subsequent differential uplift 
being apparently a little over three feet to the mile. From 
the fact that the shores of the glacial lake seem to show the 
same differential uplift, it appears that the depression had 
reached its maximum during the existence of the glacial lake. 

The marine limit barely, if at all, reached Whitehall, but the 
higher glacial lake probably extended across the divide and 
was continuous with the glacial lake of the upper Hudson, 
but for no great length of time. Further north, toward 
Plattsburgh and St. Albans, the faint action of the glacial 
lake can be found up to 500 or 600 feet. 

The Champlain Estuary. When the ice had retreated to 
the St. Lawrence, the Champlain valley became occupied by 
the sea. The marine clays and shells prove that the sea 
reached the upper limit of such deposits. But the shallow- 
water deposits of the sea must have been coarser than the 
clays and higher. Between the limit of clays and the faint 
high level terraces is a limit at 76 to 100 feet above the clays, 
marked by the largest and broadest terraces and the immense 
sand deltas of the rivers. This I believe to be the marine 
limit. The shells of the brown clays bear out this supposition, 
as the brown clays are at about the depth, below this limit, at 
which these marine mollusks live. Again, we must suppose 
that the movements of the earth's crust are slow. When this 
region reached its greatest depression, it did not pop up again 
suddenly, but must have remained at that level a considerable 

*Am. Geologist, vol. zi, p. 374, June, 1893. 



184 The American Geologist, March, ism 

time. In fact, it remained there much longer than it hesi- 
tated at any one Btage during its rise, for the deposits of that 
time are much the greatest. Besides, as by far the greatest 
clay deposits are marine, it is but natural to conclude that 
the greatest sand beds are of the same time. 

At the south end of the lake this decided level is probably 
just at Whitehall, 150 feet, or perhaps it did not reach that 
place. At Plattsburgh the marine shells may be found up to 
346 fet?t, but the high level there is somewhat over 400 feet. 
On the La Moille it is at 400 feet. 

The marine limit reported from St. Albams is 658 feet,* 
but that terrace was probably formed by the glacial lake. The 
highest marine level there probably does not exceed 500 feet. 
The method pursued by Baron De Geer,f while it answ^ers 
well on slopes toward the sea, is faulty when applied to such 
an enclosed valley, since it fails to discriminate between the 
marine limit and the (flacial lake limit. 

I have constantly referred to terraces, rather than beaches, 
for the reason that beaches are difficult to trace in a rugged 
region, while the valley terraces of that time of floods are very 
clear. 

Lake Champhn'n, As the continent in late Pleistocene time 
rose to its present hight, the sea was drained off, but the great 
dam formed by the clay plain to the north changed the char- 
acter of the drainage from that of the preglacial Champlain 
river to the present lake. The fresh water lake was at first 
50 feet ornuire higher than now, but the Richelieu has low- 
ered its channel to its present level since. The present lake 
lies mostly well above the preglacial cliannel, but the southern 
end seems to occupy that part of the old channel and is now 
little broader ihan a river. 

In closing, I would express my thanks to Mr. Upham for 
many helpful suggestions, to Prof. Hitchcock for the loan of 
valuable maps, and to Mr. C. II. Richardson for his company 
and assistance in the field. 

*Baron De Gear, Am. Geologist, vol. xi, p. 36, Jan., 1893. 
IAm. Geologist, vol. xi, p. 23. 



V 



Editor iitl ('omwent, 185 

EDITORIAL COMMENT. 



The CoLuiCBiAM Exposition. 
Noien on some Mesozote and Tertiary Exhibits. 

The United States Geological Sukvey. 

The Survey presented in the Government building a synop- 
tic exhibit under the caption of "Systematic Collection of 
Rocks and Fossils." This included a series of selected and 
prominent types of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks and fossils 
arranged ^primarily according tostratigraphic and geographic 
divisions, and subordinat^ily, as to fossils, according to zoolog- 
ical and botanical relationships. 

The maps showing the geographic distribution of the 
Eocene and Neocene and of the Oetaceous systems within 
the United States, exhibited in connection with the corres- 
ponding collections, were for their general pretensions reas- 
onably accurate, as to those parts at least with which the 
writer is most familiar, one of the least satisfactory parts of 
the Cretaceous map being, perhaps, Kansas south of the Ar- 
kansas river. But no such map should be expected to present 
detailed accuracy. 

The Tertiary collections were divided into Eocene and 
Neocene, and for the most part, without further attempt to 
specify the horizon, except as it might be implied in the 
geographical locality named on the label. The chief Eocene 
localities from which specimens were exhibited were, for In- 
vertebrata, Jackson, Vicksburg, (,'aton's bluff, Claiborne, 
Wood's blutf, etc.; and for leaf impression!?, Green river and 
Florissant. The Neocene fossils were given, in the main, 
only States as localities, exceptions being shells from "York- 
town, Va., Lower Neocene" and plants from Cherry creek and 
John Day valley, Oregon, and Coral Hollow, California. 

The Cretaceous collections were primarily divided into Up- 
per and Lower. In the Upper Cretaceous, a small series of 
fossils from the recently redefined Bear River formation con- 
stituted a feature of special interest. It included the follow- 
ing forms: Campeloma macrospirn }tik,, Pyrt/fili/erff httmer- 
osa Mk., Goniobasis clebitntii White, Corbahi pyrifonni» Mk., 
Corbicnla dttrkeei Mk., r/tio refusftts^k,, and l^. bellipUcatvs 
Mk. 



Two TfrfT inlf'Tfr^UDf^ •fiecimfrD-i of Orttpk*w*9 fn^m the <.*<•!- 
ffTutlo ^oup of Huerfan** Park. Tolorado. were labelled 
'^Ej^o*j^r'9 fMh'MrhirMlnto Lamarck/' From the $ame disiriet 
and formation were specimen?' of Tritj*fH*fmM ^^htitimn 31 k^ 
and of the re*-entlv d«r«*rilied f njufhlMlM* %9*9%,it,Hi i lark. 

Examples of JSa*lioliti'* *9w»tiH*^H*U fn>m E!Ii* ei»untT, 
Texa«». were remarkable for being labeled **Ea^Ie Ford s^hale^." 
If not ^y lat>elled bj mif^take. thej extend the known ifitniti- 
graphie range of thif»hippuritid. 

The large Texan Timber Creek -Ire// {B'trhttfitt \ whieh. in 
hi* refent "Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleontologr of 
the Texa«» ^'retaceouj^.*** the writer de>4"ribed a?* cons^tituting 
a flight and even d/iubtful variety (/r////*///^ /#*/*> of , I. /;#?///- 
fntt^i IVOrb.. and from whieh the -I. ronlrillennis White seem? 
to differ, if at all. onlj in ^^ize. wai^ exhiV>ited under the name 
Hn fhfi f ia M i*'f*nt fiftn M k ." If the n a m e?: tM»r rtjH ^ im «/ a nd *•/*'/ /- 
rill^uMtM repreMfnt but one variety, whose larger examples 
effual th/>*<' of the Texas shell in size, and whioh is identical 
with it in detail of seulpture. the names tntmiitHris and /*/////- 
riU^ttMtM mu*t yield t/» the earlier name mi^Troufnnf^ and the 
Ameri/'an varietv would ^tand a.« --i. iftillifitHri I/Orb., var. 
wirftnumtt Mk. But whether the A, (iullitnuti^ from <»//»/ of 
it** American h^alitie**. shows differences sufficiently preva- 
lent to eonf^titute a Jrn'al variety, is quite doubtful, as has 
been admitt4;d in attempting to establish such a variety in the 
caM' of the Texan repres<>ntative of the species. 

The aKs/Kriati/»n in the Timber Creek sandstone of Amt 
tjaUit-unft. (fUtfirfHiia (^'Ti'rrife/la" ) remntxinnu, and the 
Anieriean analogue {(', int^'t'lhiettttnit) of Cerithhtm pt'orht- 
rinlf, eharaeteristic s|H*cies of the (^hloritic chalk of France, 
an /K'eurrenee ree/irdiKl in the almve-named "Contribution," is 
a Hignifieant faet, and would seem to indicate that these two 
forma tionw are at least approximately synchronous. 

The ga«*ter/fp«Ml that was labelled "^Ghmruniu cotilrHhuxh 
Mk. Col/»rado formation. Upper Kanab valley, Utah," in the 
Su r\*ey exhibit, is indistinguishable from specimens of the 
same sj>i'eies from the Timber Creek horizon of Texas. The 
Tttrritf^lbi vunlriUetf^in of mv "Contribution" and the Ttn-ri- 



* Fourth Annual Report of the (geological Survey of Texaa. See pp. 
\m 170. 




Editorial Comment. 187 

fi'Ufi renauj-iima of the same, and of D'Orbigny's Paleontolo- 
gie Franca ise, should undoubtedly both be referred to the 
genus Gfaacnnia, 

That there was in the collection, also from the '*Upper 
Kanab valley," a specimen of the Eagle.Ford ammonite, liuchi- 
f'eran swnllovii Shum., is noteworthy. The writer has a 
specimen of this species from northern Kansas, representing 
a broad phase of the species, close to one such that is of occa- 
sional occurrence in Texas. 

It would be interesting to know concerning the specimen 
from the "Eagle Ford shales, Midlothian, Ellis county, Texas," 
marked *'J*larenficer(i9 plaantfa DeKay ?'' whether the varia- 
tion indicated by the interrogation mark be in the direction 
of /*. Ht/rtalis Mort., or of the recently described var. cininniuni 
of that species. (See Fourth Ann. Rep., (ieol. Surv. Tex., pp. 
287-289.) 

The Lower Cretaceous fossils exhibited were from the Co- 
manche series and the Shasta formation. 

The '^Mofh'ola conrentrive-voHtellata Roem.?" is the recentl}' 
described ^f, tffonewallenHis, The species occurs also in the 
Fredericksburg of southern Kansas, and was recorded by the 
writer from Belvidere, Kansas, several years ago under the er- 
roneous designation of Modiola bvrUttytonenais Whitf. 

An excellent specimen (? the type) of Hill's superb Vola 
roetitf'i'i from the Vola linu*stone of Travis county, Texas, was 
among the more striking features of this part of the exhibit. 

The *H'(intium fiiUanttnt'* on exibit represented the C, mut- 
fiHtriatiim of Conrad, a phase of the subgenus typically de- 
veloped in the Comanche Peak limestone, and common, for 
example, at Georgetown, Texas, and which* is strikingly' 
different from the common phase of the genus in the Washita 
division. The latter phase is particularly well seen in the 
Denison beds. It remains to be shown whether these two 
phases are only extreme varieties of one species or are con- 
stantl}' distinct. 

The example of Anfarfe ('SS7f*<//'w*/r/'') vobbiitHi White 
('*20,137'' — the type V) is finely preserved. So far as could 
be feeen, it did not show on the exhibited side any trace of the 
radial marks seen on the beaks in the type of A, ftrnntiunfa 



188 The American Geolof/ht. March, i8M 

Cragin. It is not only much larger, but also apparently a 
(coarser-featured shell than the latter. 

A specimen of ^^Tn'<jonift emoryr from "Denison, Texas,'' is 
apparently a young example of T. clan'r/era Cragin. The 
''^Avcopagin texana*'* is-unquestionably a (Jyprimeria, (See 
Contribution to In v. Pal., etc., p. 177. For relation of C. tex- 
(nui to C.cntHsa, see also p. 176.) 

Illinois. 

A part of one case in the large paleontological collection 
from this state, exhibited in the Illinois building, was devoted 
to the little corner of Cretaceous that intrudes itself within 
the otherwise severely Paleozoic borders of the state at its 
southern extremity. 

A fine small-medium-sized specimen of Exoijura cotttfifn 
Say was labeled, "Cairo, Alexander Co. In a rock under the 
Ohio river. Struck in sinking a caisson for the I. C. R. R. 
bridge. Coll., S. W. Barton." 

A tray of casts of undetermined fossils, in grayish brown 
(? Dakota or equivalent) sandstone, included several species 
of univalve and bivalve mollusks and a ( V willow) leaf- 
impression, labeled, "Caledonia, Pulaski Co." 

(.'A NAD A. 

In connection with the Canadian Mining Exhibit, the Geo- 
logical Survey of Canada found room for a paleontological 
collection, small, but representative of the leading geological 
divisions of the Mesozoic, including Triassic, Jurassic and 
('retaceous, with divisions of the latter, and the (-enozoic of 
British America. 

Time and opportunity were not sufficient to give this col- 
lection the attention it deserved, or indeed to note any of its 
features of special interest. 

Mexico. 

In the excellent exhibit of mining and mineral resources of 
Mexico, displayed in the Mining building, was a small but 
interesting collection of fossils, a manuscript catalogue of 
which was kindly shown me by the courteous commissioner in 
charge. Prof. Carlos Sellerier. The catalogue enumerated about 
128 species. Of this number, seventy-nine were listed as 




Review of Ilecent Geological Literature. 189 

• 

Cretueeous, and at least seven others were certainly so, mak- 
ing a minimum of eighty-six Cretaceous species exhibited. 

The collection included Orbitolina tejrana Roem., which in 
Texas belongs in beds — the Alternating beds or Glen Rose 
division — that geologists of the United States have geilerally 
included in the lower Cretaceous, but which was here as- 
signed to the upper Jurassic. 

Fkom Evkky where, as exhibited by Prof. H. A. Ward, 

Rochester, N. Y. 

Vertebrate paleontology, which seems conspicuous for its 
lack of representation in most of the geological exhibits at 
the World's Fair, was represented by many leading fossils and 
casts in the comprehensive Mesozoic and Tertiary (as well as 
Paleozoic and Quaternary) collections which formed a part of 
the superb exhibit from Ward's Natural Science Establish- 
ment, in the Anthropological building, an exhibit of which it 
would be difficult to speak too highly; fot whether it were 
vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, or rock-types, and these 
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or Cenozoic, American or foreign, that 
one wished to see, they were there displayed in fine form for 
inspection. 



REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 



Evoiunnic Geology of the United States. By Ralph S. Tarb, Assib- 
tant ProfoEsor of Oeology at CorDell Univereity. 8vo., pp. xx, 509, il- 
lustrated. MacmillaD and Co., New York, 189i. Price, |4.00. 

Much baa be^n done in the past quarter of a century toward popular- 
izing the study of general geology. The descriptioDB of rocks atid fo8> 
ails and the physical and chemical changes which the earth has under- 
gone and is still passing through, have been couched in un technical 
language and a general knowledge of them is now possessed by many 
who are not 8i)ecially educated as geologists. For the science of eco- 
nomic geology, however, this important work has not been so well per- 
formed. It is only a specialist who can pretend to a knowledge of the 
natural inorganic products of our country, and even his information 
must often be derived from personal examination, or by laborious re* 

itch into the geological reports and the wide- scattered technical lit* 



190 The American Geologist. March, laM 

erature. The only text-books available until recently have been mere 
primers, containing the barest outline of description and some tables 
of statistics. 

The book before us is intended to supply this deficiency and to fur- 
nish also an accurate account of our mines and valuable rooks and 
minerals, and their importance as compared with other countries. Be- 
ginning with a clear and readable presentation of the geological truths 
necessary for an understanding of the various deposits described 
later, the first 70 pages are devoted to a discussion of common minerals 
and rocks and the influence of physical geography and topography on 
the distribution and extent of ore deposits. The origin of ore deposits, 
and the methods of mining are treated in the next 40 pages of Part i. 
Part II discusses the metalliferous deposits in the order of their im- 
portance to man, beginning with iron. This occupies nearly 200 pages; 
while 150 pages are devoted in Part iii to the non-metallic mineral 
products. 

There is an appendix consisting of a list of treatises on economic geol- 
ogy and ore deposits in general or upon particular subjects. This is 
very poor, and will be of almost no value to a reader unfamiliar with 
the subject. He would not know where to procure many of the works 
listed nor what their size, or value. Such a list should contain com- 
plete data as to the name of the author, date and place of publication, 
together with the names of the publishers and size and cost of the 
volume. There is a good index which adds to the usefulness of the 
work. The illustrations are well-drawn and clearly printed. 

A treatise of this sort might be written from many points of view, 
geological, chemical, mining, statistical or metallurgical. This is evi- 
dently from the standpoint of a geologist, and it is not strange there- 
fore that it is strongest and most explicit in its statement of geological 
facts, although the statistical side is also very well cared for, and there 
is a fund of varied information on all branches of the subject treated. 

The style of the work is easy and entertaining, but the statements 
are not always made with perfect accuracy. At the risk of appearing 
hypercritical regarding a work which contains so much that is com- 
mendable, we shall mention a few points where there is a chance for 
improvement, or, at least, for difference of opinion. On page 2, for ex- 
ample, we find that '^upon the surface (of the earth) nearly all of the 
elements are in chemical combinations of greater or less definiteness, 
and these are called minerals.^ The definition is loose. The majority 
of combinations of elements on the surface of the earth are not miner- 
als. Again, on page 80, ore deposits are divided into three main classes: 
1. Eruptive; 2. Mechanical; and 3. Chemical. But since all the opera- 
tions of nature are primarily chemical or the result of chemical action, 
the classification evidently refers to the kind of action which has had 
for its direct and immediate result the production of the ore in the 
place where we find it If this view be taken, it seems that the division 
''eruptive** is not coordinate with "mechanical** and ''chemical,*' but 
should rather be a division under "mechanical,*' of equal rank with 



\ 



Retiew of Recent Geological Literature, 191 

'*8edimeotary.'' All eruptions are produced by the direct operation of 
physical forces. In fact, it would seem that all natural operations must 
be either mechanical or chemical. Otherwise the classification of ore 
deposits presented here is a good, working arrangement, and much bet- 
ter than many that have been proposed. The statement on page 81 that 
'*there is no deposit of ore known to be of eruptive origin, which is at 
present worked," is not strictly true. Under ''mechanical" ore deposits 
we find only tin, gold and platinum placers as examples, thus excluding 
iron sands and the "recomposed*' iron ores of Michigan described by 
Wadsworth and Van Hise. 

The ''simplest illustration" of "precipitated deposits" is not clearly 
given (page 82). Bog iron ore is not formed by the transportation of hy- 
drated sesquioxide of iron in solution and its precipitation in the pres- 
ence of certain vegetable acids, but rather by the carrying of carbonates 
and other salts of iron in solution through the aid of these vegetable 
acids and their precipitation as hydrated sesquioxide of iron on being 
oxidized by the atmosphere and oxygenated waters. 

We notice a careless use of the term "boulders" on page 98, where it 
is used to signify the "float" or masses detached from a vein and rolled 
down the hillside. Again, on page 99, the "country rock" is said to be 
"sharply defined," meaning rather the vein or its walls. On page 114 
the term "calcine" is said to mean "to allow ores to decompose in the air 
at ordinary temperatures," which is of course incorrect. The following 
proper names are misspelled: Chamberlin, Andreasberg, W6hler, Lott- 
ner, and Mesabi. 

It is a good idea to teach the student the intimate connection between 
rocks and ore deposits. Our author dwells on the fact that all rocks 
contain ores and that the most probable source of all our valuable min- 
erals is the eruptive rocks. When the reader once realizes that all rocks 
are incipient or potential ore deposits he first perceives the necessity of 
a knowledge of geology in order to be successful in mining. The sec- 
ondary processes which operate to bring about the concentration of 
these disseminated ore-particles are also well described. The all-impor- 
tant agency of circulating waters is occasionally overlooked, however, 
as for instance on page 126, where standing water is said to account for 
the replacement of limestone by iron ore on the Gogebic range. The 
better supposition is that the waters flowed along the pitching trough, 
formed by the intersection of the dikes and the quartzite, and that the 
ore was deposited at the confluence of the ferriferous waters, which had 
percolated down through the ferruginous cherts, with the oxygenated 
waters which came more directly down on top of the quartzite from the 
surface. 

The condition of the Canadian iron mining industry and its future 
prospects are rather facetiously described by the remark that there are 
undoubtedly '^great possibilities in store" for the iron industry of 
Canada. 

The iron ores of Cuba are not mentioned, although they are of vastly 
greater importance in this country than the ores of Klba or Spain. The 



192 The American Geologist. • March, 1894 

author is evidently not familiar with Prof. Kimhairs account of the for- 
mation of the Cuban ores by the "ieomorphous and pseudomorphous 
replacement of limestone," which is one of our most valuable memoirs 
on the subject. 

The idea that iron mines are all worked in open pits is so frequently 
•expressed that it seems necessary to call attention to the fact that 
nearly all of the iron mines (150 or more) of the lake Superior region are 
underground and have attained depths varying from 400 to 1,600 feet. 

No particular mention is made of the Home»take gold mine in the 
Black Hills, although it is an important producer and well illustrates 
one class of gold mines, — those contained in a belt of crystalline schists. 
The occurrence of native silver in calcite veins in the Silver Islet and 
other mines of Thunder bay is also overlooked. 

On page 210 the depth of the Calumet and Heda copper mine is in- 
correctly stated to exceed 4,000 feet; and on page 2G9 we are told that 
manganese is less valuable than iron and therefore not ordinarily mined 
unless collected into extensive beds, neither of which statements is 
etrictly true. 

There is a valuable chapter on coal and another on petroleum and 
natural gas. On these products, as on building stobee, clays, cements, 
and soils, the information is accurate and up to date. Elook salt is 
rather briefly mentioned, but here as throughout the book the author 
has availed himself of -the most recent statistics as to production. 

The work is a welcome addition to our scanty literature on mineral 
products and is exceedingly creditable to its author. It is gratifying 
to learn that it has already been adopted in ten or more colleges as a 
text-book. For general students it is admirable, but for mining engi- 
neers something like Kemp's **Ore Deposits of the United States,'* more 

specific in description and exact in reference, will be used. 

H. V. W. 

Geology of the Boston Basin, Vol. «, Part L — Nantasket and Coluin- 
aet. By William O. Crosby. (Occasional Papers of the Boston Society 
of Natural History. IV.) Pp. 177, with two maps, four plates, and 23 fig- 
ures in the text. 1893. This is the first of a series of memoirs to treat 
of the geology of the area reaching to distances of five to fifteen miles 
or more from Boston, Mass., upon which the author has devoted much 
observation and study from the time of his publication of a geological 
map of the district for the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876. 
The tract here described is the peninsula of Nantasket, enclosing Bos- 
ton harbor on the southeast, with the adjoining mainland township of 
Cohasset. The very ancient lava flows of the Boston basin and their 
relations to the interstratified conglomerate (Roxbury puddlngstone) 
are here observed better than in any other localities. Professor Crosby 
shows that the melaphyrs and porphyrites were mainly contemporane- 
ous lavas poured out on the sea-fioor at different times during the depo- 
sition of the beds of conglomerate and sandstone. The granite and 
diorite of the area are newer than the Cambrian slates of Braintree and 
Weymouth; it is also clear that the conglomerate and melaphyr sheets 



Jieciew of liecent Geological Literature. 193 

are newer than the granite and therefore more recent than Middle 
Cambrian. They are regarded as certainly Paleozoic, but whether re> 
ferable to the later Cambrian or possibly to the Carboniferous period, 
which is well represented in the neighboring Narragansett basin, re> 
mains to be determined. 

The Cretctceoits System in Canada. By J. P. Whitbaves. Presiden- 
tial address in Trans., Roy. Soc. Canada, section iv, 1893, pp. 8-19. This 
is a valuable discussion of the present state of knowledge of the Creta- 
ceous strata in Manitoba and the country extending thence west to the 
Rocky mountains and to the Pacific. Including the Laramie formation, 
the total number of known species of Cretaceous fossil plants in Canada 
is 179, and of animal remains 394. Only comparatively small portions, 
however, of the rocks of this system in Canada have been examined in 
detail. 

Note mi tli£ recent discovery of large Unio-like shells iw the Coal 
Measures at tlte South Joggins, Nova *SVofia. By J. F. Whiteaves. 
Trans., Roy. Soc. Canada, sec. iv, 1893, pp. 21-24, with a plate. The spe- 
cies {Asthenodonta tvestont) here described and figured was found as- 
sociated with laiige fragments of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron and 
leaves of Cordaites, It measures nearly 8 inches in length, with a width 
of 3)^ inches. 

Eleventh and Twelfth Annual Reports of the New York State Qeol- 
agist. These reports, for the years 1891 and 1892, the publication of 
which '^ad been delayed by the burning of the state printing house at 
Albany, have now appeared under the dates of 1892 and 1893. The 
Eleventh report is a royal octavo of 296 pages, the most important part 
of which (169 pages) is "An Introduction to the Study of the Braohio- 
poda, intended as a Handbook for the use of Students," by James Hall, 
assisted by John M. Cimrke. This has about 100 pages on the dis- 
tribution, habits, anatomy, and development of the brachiopods, which 
are followed by generic diagnoses based largely upon the determina- 
tions made in volume viii, part 1, of the Palfeontology of New York. 
The whole is accompanied by 286 zinc-types, 22 lithographic plates, and 
a map showing the distribution of the reoent brachiopods. A conclud- 
ing part of the work is to follow in a subsequent report. In addition to 
this paper the report contains a brief statement of the work of the de- 
partment, a list (23 pages) of the fossils in an important donation from 
the Albany Institute, containing many of the originals of Green's 
^'Trilobites of North America" and of the cephalopods described in Pal. 
N. Y., vol. i; also an elaborate ''List of the original and illustrated 
Specimens in the Palieontological Collections; Part 1, Crustacea" (6G 
pages), and a paper *'On Cordania, a proposed New Genus of Trilobites," 
by JoHir M. Clarke. 

The Twelfth report (8vo., 142 pages) contains, in addition to the re- 
ports of the geologist and palaeontologist, a continuation of the list of 
type specimens (Annelida and Cephalopoda, 50 pages) and also the fol- 
lowing: **Notes upon two boulders of a very basic eruptive rook from 



194 The American Geologist, March, 1894 

the west shore of Canandaigua lake, and their contact phenomena upon 
the Trenton limestone/' by B. K. Emjcrson; and '*The Devonian Section 
of Central New York along the UnadillaKiver," by Charles S. Prosser. 

Om en Hemipter frdn Svertges iindre Qraptolitskiffer] by Johann 
Chr. Molserg (Geolog. Forening. i Stockholm Forhandlingar, vol. xrv, 
pp. 121-124). 

The author has found a bed-bug (Protocimex siluricus) in the grapto- 
lite shales of Sweden. 

The Evolution of the BrachiopocUr, by Agnes Crane. 

The Brighton Herald of Dec. 16, 1893, publishes a very full abstract of 
Miss Crane's paper prepared for one of the scien title congresses of the 
recent Columbian Exhibition and re-read before the "Brighton and Sus- 
sex Natural History and Philosophical Society.'* It is a lucid and 
forcible presentation of the subject by a student thoroughly in touch 
with the abundant and important results achieved in this field of inves- 
tigation during the last few years ; gracious in its acknowledgments, 
and interspersed with lively and interesting reminiscence of the late 
Thomas Davidson, whose name will always bear the CtBsarea maJestdH 
in matters brachiopodous. The following passage from this abstract 
seems worthy of reproduction: *'It was shown that synthetic or mixed 
types were by no means rare, reversionary or atavistic forms not un- 
common ; that the study of individual development of larval forms of 
recent species reveals long past phases in the history of the origin of 
genera, which agree geologically with their chronogenesis or birth in 
time. The existence of numerous passage forms, intermediate in struc- 
ture between the hingeless and hinged subclasses, showed those divi- 
sions were not based on fundamental distinctions. Ordinal evolution was 
conclusively demonstrated and numerous instances were given of the 
successive *paterine,' *obolleloid' and Minguloid' characters of ancient 
genera. Instances of development on parallel lines were cited in the 
families Lingulidiv^ HhynchonHlidx and Terehratellidse, The lecturer 
paid a passing tribute to Madame Pauline Oehlert as the only other 
member of her sex who was actively interested in the study of the 
Brachiopoda." 

CauHes of Magmatic Differentiation. By Helge BflckstrOm. (Jour- 
nal of Geology, vol. i, No. 8, pp. 773 779, Nov.,-Dec., 1893.) 

The author thinks that **Soret'B principle" cannot be applied to the 
differentiation of igneous magmas, for we do not know what is the sol- 
vent and what the thing dissolved, nor does it seem right to apply the 
laws of dilute solutions to magmas before attempting to consider them 
simply as mixtures of liquids. He gives an illustration of how two 
liquids, aniline and water, mix at different temperatures; it is found 
that the mixture separates into two layers, which contain different 
amounts of the two liquids, and the relative proportions of the liquids 
vary in the layers according to temperature, mixing more readily as the 
temperature increases, and finally, when sufficiently heated, mixing in 
all proportions. The different parts of a rock magma may perhaps act 



liectew of lieceiU Geological Litevatuve, 195 

in this way, mixing in all proportions at high temperatures, and on 
partial cooling may separate into two or more parts by liquation. The 
author then selects two cases, basic inclusions and the great petro- 
graphical province of Iceland, and examines them briefly in the light of 
both theories, t. e., differentiation due to Soret's principle and that due 
to liquation. In these cases the latter theory seems to explain the facts 
better. **The purpose of this communication is to give to liquation and 
not to diffusion its place in the working hypothesis, upon which the 
theory of differentiation is to be constructed. How far this theory may 
differ from the approximation to it given by Rosenbusch in his 'Kern' 
theory, the future will show." G. 

(tenetic RelationnhipH among Igneous Rocks, By Joseph P. Id- 
DINGS. (Journal of (Geology, vol. i, No. 8, pp. 833--844, Nov.-Dec., 1893.) 

Under ^'Studies for Students** Prof. Iddings has presented in a clear 
and simple manner some of the data and opinions bearing upon the 
genesis of different kinds of rock magmas. The results of differentia- 
tion, the gradual passage from one rock type to another and the 
sequence of eruptions are briefly discussed, and special attention is di- 
rected to the existence of distinct and well characterized petrograph- 
ical provinces. A distinction is noted between the idea conveyed by 
the term rocks as ordinarily used and that which is involved in the ex- 
pression rovkbofly as a geological unit. G. 

Annah of British Geology ^ 1HU2. A digest of tfte hooks and papers 
published during the year -with occasional notes. By J.F.Blake. 
(Pp. i-xliv, 1-310; 7 plates; 8vo: Dulau & Co., London, 1893.) 

This book gives a compilation of all that has been written on the ge- 
ology of the British Isles during the year 1892. The various articles 
are divided into different groups and under each title is an abstract 
giving the gist of the article; sometimes these abstracts are several 
pages in length. Many of the abstracts have been submitted to the 
various authors for correction and approval, and in such cases this fact 
is indicated, thus making' the abstracts all the more valuable. The au- 
thor has wisely refrained from indulging in any discussions or criticisms 
of his own in connection with the abstracts; such discussions and 
criticisms are brought together in the form of introductory review. 
Among other things in this review it is noticed that the results as to 
the reoentness of the end of the Glacial period, obtained by a study of 
the recession of St. Anthony falls and of Niagara falls, are questioned, 
and the author concludes : **If, then, the American glaciation only dates 
back as far as that (7,000 years), it cannot belong to the same period as 
ours; there must have been two glacial epochs, one in the old world and 
another in the new.** All the new species of British fossils described dur- 
ing the year, except those in the Palseontograpbical Society *s volumes, 
are figured and a selection of other illustrations is made. This book repre- 
sents a great deal of work and will be a valuable aid to all geologists, 
especially to those who do not have access to a library which contains 
the recent geological literature. G. 



196 The American Geologist, March, ifi94 

RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 



I, Government and State Reports, 

Geol. Sur. of Ark., Vol. 4, 1890, contains: Marbles and other lime- 
stones. T.C. Hopkins; The faults of the marble region of North Arkan- 
sas, T. C. Hopkins; Geologic map of the marble region of Arkansas, J. 
C. Branner and T. C. Hopkins. 

Calif. State Mining Bureau. 11th report of the State Mineralogist 
for two years ending Sept. 15, 1892, Wm. Irelan, Jr., State Mineralogist. 

Qeol. Sur. of N. J., Annual report for 1892 contains: Surface geology, 
R. D. Salisbury; Preliminary report of the Cretaceous and Tertiary for- 
mations of N. J., W. B. Clark; Water «upply and water power, C. C. 
Vermeule; Artesian wells in southern New Jersey, L. Woolman; Notes 
on the sea-dikes of the Netherlands, and the Reclamation of the low- 
lands of the Netherlands, J. C. Smock. 

The climatology and physical features of Maryland: First biennial 
report of the Maryland State Weather Service, for the years 1892 and 
1893. Wm. B. Clark, Director. 140 pages. Baltimore, 1894. 

Fourth annual report of the Inspector of Mines, for the State of 
South Dakota. W. S. 0*Brlen, Inspector. 19 pages; Lead, 1893. 

Mineral resources of the United States, 1892. By David T. Day. 
850 pages. .U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1893. 

Bulletin No. 3 of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History con- 
tains: Descriptions of some new species of invertebrates from the 
Paleozoic rocks of Illinois and adjacent states, S. A. Miller and W. F. 
E. Gurley. 

II, Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 

Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 5. pp. 39-70, Nov., 1893, contains: Origin 
of the Pennsylvania anthracite, J. J. Stevenson. 

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, vol. 9, pt. 2, 1893, con- 
tains: Geology of the Waterloo quartzite area (Plates 7-9), I. M. Buell. 

Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 5, 1893, 
contains: Artionyx, a new genus of Ancylopoda, H. F. Osborn and J. 
L. Wortman; Acratherium tridactylum from the Lower Miocene of 
Dakota, H. F. Osborn; On the divisions of the White River or Lower 
Miocene of Dakota, J. L. Wortman; Ancestors of the tapir from the 
Lower Miocene of Dakota, J. L. Wortman and Charles Earle; Fossil 
mammals of the Upper Cretaceous, H. F. Osborn. 

///. Palters in Scientific Joumatis, 

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 47, Jan., 1894, contains: Petroleum in its rela- 
tion to asphaltic pavement, S. F. Peckham; The age of the extra-mo- 
raine fringe in eastern Pennsylvania, E. H. Williams, Jr.; Notes on the 
Cambrian rocks of Pennsylvania, from the Susquehanna to the Dela- 
ware, C. D. Waloott; Postglacial eolian action in southern New 
England, J. B. Woodworth. 



"^ 



Recent Publivntions, 197 

• 

Jour, of Qeol., Vol. 1, No. 7, Oct.-Nov., 1893, contaias: Geologic time 
as indicated by the sedimentary rocks of North America, C. D. Walcott; 
On the Origin of the Pennsylvania anthracite, J. J. Stevenson; The 
basic massive rocks of the Lake Superior region, W. S. Bay ley; On the 
geological structure of the Mount Washington mass of the Taoonic 
range, W. H. Hobbs. 

Jour, of Geol., Vol. 1, No. 8, Nov.-Dec. 1893, contains: The supposed 
^laciation of Brazil, J. C. Branner; Causes of magmatic differentiation, 
Helge BAckstrOm; The geological structure of the Housatonic valley 
lying east of Mount Washington, W. H. Hobbs; The Newtonville sand- 
plain, F. P. Gulliver; The structures, origin and nomenclature of the 
«oid volcanic rocks of South Mountain, F. Bascom; Studies for Students 
— Genetic relationships among igneous rocks, J. P. Iddings. 
IV. Exeerpta and Individual Publi4sation8, 

Annual report of the St. Liouis Public Library, F. M.Crunden, 1891-92. 

On the nature of the chemical elements: The distribution of the 
•atomic weight, C. S. Palmer. Eztr. Proc. Colo. Scien. Soc., Nov., 1893. 

Notes on some fossil plants from the Trinity division of the Coman- 
•ohe series of Texas, W. M. Fontaine. Proc. U. S. Nat'l Mus., Vol. 16, 
No. 934. 

A basic dike in the Connecticut Triassic, L. S. Griswold. Bull. Mus. 
Oomp. Zool., Harvard College, Vol. 10, No. 14. (Geol. Series, Vol. 2.) 

Petrography of the gneisses of the town of Gouverneur, N. Y., C. H. 
Smyth, Jr. Contr. Geol. Dept. Columbia College, No. 11. 

Production of coal in 1892; E. W. Parker. From Report of Statistics, 
1892. 

A preliminary report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of 
New Jersey, W. B. Clark. From the Geol. Survey Report, New Jersey, 
1892. 

The great Mesozoio fault in New Jersey, B. S. Lyman. Prpc. Am. 
Phil. Soc., vol. 31, No. 142, Sept., 1893. 

The Cretaceous system in Canada, J. F. Whiteaves. Presidential ad- 
dress. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Section 4, 1893. 

The future of silver, Eduard Suess. Translated by R. Stein, U. S. 
Geol. Survey, 1893. 

On the Thoracic lega of Triarthrus, C. E. Beecher. Amer. Jour. Sci., 
vol. 46, Deo., 1898. 

The recent discovery of large Unio-like shells in the coal measures at 
the South Joggins, N. S., J. F. Whiteaves« Trans. Roy. Soc. Can . , Sec- 
tion 4, 1893. 

The geology of Nashville and immediate vicinity, P. M. Jones. 

Geological map and table of economic resources of Illinois, D. W. 
Mead. Notes on the hydro^geology of Illinois in relation to its water 
supplies, D. W. Mead. 

Natural science at the Chicago exhibition, F. A. Bather. Naturnl 
Science, Vol. 8, No. 21, Nov., 1893. 

Nickel: Historical sketch, W. L. Austin. Read before the Colorado 
Scientific Society ,^Dec. 4, 1898; 2G pages. 



198 lite American Geologist, March, 1894 

Nickel: The occurrence, geological distribution and genesis of its 
ore deposits, Philip Argall. Read before the Colorado Scientific Soci- 
ety, Dec. 4, 1898; ^ pages, 2 plates. 

Economic geology of the United States, with briefer mention of for- 
eign mineral products. By Ralph S. Tarr. Pp. i-zi, 1-509; New York 
and London, Macmillan and Co., 189i. Price, $4.00. 

ObserTationson the geology and botany of Martha's Vineyard, Arthur 
Holliok. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, pp. 8-22, 1893. 

The ore deposits at Franklin Furnace and Ogdensburg, N. J., J. F. 
Kemp. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.. XIII, pp. 76-98, 1893. 

V. Foreign Publications. 

Soci^t^ G^ologiquedu Nord, AnnalesXX, 1892, contains: i. Terraitis 
primaires: Sur la composition des terrains primaires des Pyrenees, par 
M. J. Roussel; Observations sur le terrain devonien de la catalogue, par 
M. Ch. Barrels; Memoirs sur la distribution des graptolites en France, 
par M. Ch. Barrois; Etude stratigraphique sur les calcaires de Vise, par 
MM. Horion et Gosselet; Premieres r^marques sur le Boghead d* Aatun, 
par MM. £. Bertrand et Renault; Compte-Rendu de 1' excursion g^olo- 
gique dansTEifel, par M. L. Desoil; Decouverte de Radiolaires dans les 
schistes graphitiques du terrain azoique de la Bretange, par M. Ch. 
Barrois; Compte-rendu d'une excursion dans lesenvironsd'Avesnes. par 
M. Parent. 2, Terrainn aecondaires : Sur les conditions de depots de 
la Craie blanche, par M. O. de Grossouvre; Coupe du terrain Or^tac^ k la 
fosse. No. 5, k Divion, par M. Gosselet; Sur la presence de nombreuses 
diatom^es dans les gaizes jurassiques et Cr^tac^es du bassin de Paris 
et de Texistence dee Radiolaires dans les gaizes Cr^tac^es de ce meme 
bassin, parM. L. Cayeux; Sur le Corallien de la region de Lerouville, par 
M. Jannel; Sur la composition du terrain Cretac^ des Pyrenees centrales 
et des Corbi^res, par M. J. Roussel; Etude sur la Craie k Micraster du 
Boulonnais et sur les plissements de la Craie dans cette region, par M. 
Parent. 3, Terrains tert (aires: Compte-rendu d'une excursion au 
Cateau et k Solesmea, par M. Bardou ; Sur les gr^ k silex de Beuzeville 
et sur Targile k silex blanchis, par M. Gosselet; Sur les phosphates de 
Chaux du Tarn et du Tarn-et-Oaronne, par M. Helson. 4. Terrains 
quaternaires et recents: Essai sur la constitution g^ologique du terrain 
qaaternaire des environs de Mons, par M. Ladri^re; Sur les alluvions 
recents de la valine de I'Oise, par M. Rabelle; Com pte rendu de Texcur- 
sion dans le quatemaire du Nord, de la France et de la Belgique, sous 
la direction de M. Ladri^re, par M. Parent; Compte-rendu de la reunion 
annuelle de la Soci^t^ G^olgique du Nord, a Saint-Omer, par M. Parent; 
Compte-rendu de Texcursion au Cateau et k Soleemes, par M. Bardou; 
Remarquessur V origins de la plaine maritime, par M. Gosselet. ii Pal- 
^ontologie: Description de quelques oursins nouveaux de la Craie 
blanche, par M. Parent. 

Second Report of the Bureau of Mines, Ontario, Archibald Blue, Di- 
rector, 1892. 

Geol. Surv. of Canada. Catalogue of Section I of the Museum of 
the Geological Survey, G. Christian Hoffman, 1893. 




Corrcifpoudence. 199 

Une excursion g^ologique dans lee Montagnes Rocheuses, M. Marcel- 
iin Boule. Aasoo. Francaise TAdvaDcemeDt dee Sciences, 1898. 

Vari^t^e: L*hoinme paltolithique dane i*Amerique du Nord, M. Boule. 

The Mount Morgan gold mine, Australia, F. W. Sykes, 1892. 

The w(»rk of the Geological Survey, A. Geikie. Trans. Federated 
Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. 5, pp. 142-168, 1898. 

Report of the Director-General of the Geographical Survey and Mus. 
of Practical Geology for 1892, A. Geikie. Eztr. 40th Rep. Sci. and Art 
Dept., 1893. 

Ri^union eztraordinarie dans la Velay et la Lozere, Sept. 14-24, 1893. 
Oompte-rendu des stances de la Soc. Geol. de Franco, No. 14, 1893. 

Discussion of certain dissimilar occurrences of gold-bearing quartz, 
T. A. Rickard. 

Catalogue of a stratigraphical collection of Canadian rocks prepared 
for the World's Columbian Exposition, W. F. Ferrier. Geol. Sur. Can- 
ada, 1893. 

* Datoe para la Geologia de Mexico, Jose G. Aguilera andEzequiel Or- 
donez, 1893. 

VI. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories. 

Bulletin of the Department of Geology, University of California, Vol. 
1, No. 3, Dec., 1893, contains: The eruptive Rocks of Point Bonita, F. 
Leslie Ranaome. Vol. I, No. 4, Dec., 1893, contains: The Poet-Pliocene 
diastrophism of the coast of southern California, A. C. Lawson. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



SoMB Conditions of Ripple mabk. In a recent number of the 
Ahericau Geologist,'*' an interesting occurrence is described of highly 
inclined bedding in a glacial sand- plain. This is explained as false bed- 
ding, on the ground that the real bedding consists .of very faintly visi- 
ble ripple-marked layers, nearly horizontal, that have been deposited 
through a considerable thickness in regular series, the ripples in suc- 
cessive beds conforming precisely to those below. This is accounted 
for by a uniform current in one direction, depositing at a uniform rate 
materials "varied in point of size and weight,*' which became assorted 
by the rippling action, the larger fragments coming to rest in the 
troughs and the sand being packed closely on the long slopes of the 
ripple ridges. In this way a false bedding was built up by successive 
ripple-troughs and successive ripple-crests, dipping about forty degrees 
in the direction from which the ripple-forming current ilowed. The 
section exposed is described as one hundred yards long and fifteen to 
twenty feet high; the ripple-marks have "regular and unvarying form,** 
and the larger pebbles have an average diameter of two to two and a 
half inches. 



***FaLw bedding in stratified drift depoeita.*' By J. E. Bpubb. Vol. xui. January, 
18M. 



200 The American Geologiit. March, iSM 

Now there are certain points in this explanation which do not quite 
accord with the results of experimental work on ripple-marks, nor with 
the facts observed elsewhere in the field in either ripple-marked sand- 
stones or recent detrital material. Ripple-mark cannot be reproduced 
in the laboratory in material consisting of mixed iwbbles and sand; this 
is true of marks formed by single currents in one direction, as well as 
of regular ripple-mark formed by oscillation. This I hav^ proven by ex- 
periment, and it is confirmed by observations of Messrs. Darwin* and 
De CandoUe.t In recent stream beds and on sea beaches, ripple-mark 
is found only on surfaces of homogeneous sand; in pebbly areas the 
ripple-mark cannot exist, as the larger fragments interfere with the 
growth of the vortexes, to which, as Prof. Darwin has shown, ripple- 
mark is due. Fossil ripple-mark is almost invariably limited to sandy 
beds; it occasionally occurs in arenaceous clays and fine-grained lime- 
stones, but never in conglomerate. This statement is based on an ex- 
tended examination of the literature, and on personal field observation. 
Furthermore, ripple-mark formed by a continuous current in one dr- 
rection is irregular, migratory, and continually changing in form, and 
has been so distinguished by experimenters,^ from regular ripple-mark 
formed by harmonic oscillations of water in contact with a sandy bot- 
tom. In sandstone strata, continuous series of rippled layers, crest over 
crest and trough over trough are very rare. Scrope§ noted this as early 
as 1830, observing that the upper and lower surfaces of a single ripple- 
marked slab do not correspond, when the lower surface retains the cast 
of the marks below. 

In the section described in Minnesota, assuming even that a current 
could form regular marks in mixed material, it seems improbable that 
the velocity and rate of deposition of the stream remained absolutely 
uniform while fifteen or twenty feet of stratified sediment was added 
to its bottom; and in any case the continual shifting of the marks 
would be more than likely to produce great irregularties in the sup- 
posed false bedding. Finally, could ripple-mark exist at all in a current 
of sufficient velocity to *'sweep along iwbbles the size of an egg"? A 
current of less than one half of this velocity is quoted by Lyell', as 
sufficient to **tear up fine gravel." In such case a current flowing two 
miles an hour would certainly tear up fine sand. 

It is of course impossible to do more than suggest an explanation 
which will replace that based on the presence of ripple-mark. The 
occurrence as described, however, is strikingly similar to the foreeet 
beds of the ideal sand-plain figured by Prof. Davis.^ It is possible that 

*Oeorge Darwin, Proc. Roy. aoc, toI. xxxvi, No. 228, Not. 22, 1883. I. "On the 
formation of rippla-mark.** 

H^asimir de CandoUe, Arch, dee 8ci. Phys. et Nat., Geneve, toI. ix. No. 3, l^ss. 
'*ItideefonneeB,eto.** 

tDarwin, De TandoUe (t. a.), also A. R. Hont, Proc. Roy. Boc., toI. xxxiv, April 20, 
1882. "On the formation of ripple-mark." 

gPoulett Scrope, Proc. Geol. Hoc., London. toI. r, No. 21, March 2. 1831. 

Lyell, Prineiplea of Geology, 1889, p. 342. 

^ Bulletin Geol. Boc. America, vol. i, p. 197. 



Correspondence. 201 

the inolined layers may actually be the true bedding, deposited oblique- 
ly in the manner characteristic of fore-set beds. They would naturally 
contain much coarse material near the head of the sand-plain, and be- 
come finer-grained towards its front; the suggestion that the supposed 
ripple-marked layers ''when not obscured, might be easily mistaken for 
a minor cross-bedding,'' accords with this hypothesis, for oross-bedding 
is a frequent accessory of fore-set deposits. 
Harvard UtiiverHity, January HiK 1^94. T. A. Jaggar, Jr. 

08CI1.L.ATI0N AND SINGLE CURRENT RIPPLS-MARK8. ThrOUgh the 

kindness of the editors, the writer is enabled to reply to the foregoing 
communication in this number. The comments in the preceding letter 
are very suggestive, and doubly valuable on account of the acknowl- 
edged familiarity of the contributor with his subject. In defence of 
my position, I desire primarily to emphasize certain features which 
were only casually touched upon before, it being considered that this 
brief treatment was sufficient for the importance of the subject in hand. 
The cut from which the section for description was taken is, as before 
stated, *'in a level plain of sand and gravel/' and not "in a glacial sand- 
plain," that is, a delta plateau. There appeared to the writer no evi- 
dence that it was a delta formation. The dimensions given, it must 
also be pointed out, are those of the out alone. The "level plain" in 
which it is made is part of an immense sheet of stratified drift which 
covers the surrounding country, and which usually shows a remarkable 
lack of topographical peculiarities. 

The material in this cut varies in coarseness from a fine sand to a 
type made up mainly of pebbles, with all gradations between the two. 
The transition from one phase to another is vertical, so that thick hori- 
zontal beds of coarser and finer material alternate. These beds, where 
they are individualized by a more sudden change of material than 
usual, may be stated as being from three to ten feet in thickness. Ordi- 
narily, the change from one to another is not striking, but occasionally 
the difference of average texture is great. Within these larger horizon- 
tal divisions, marking the coarser alternations of the true bedding, 
there may be a minor diversity in the size of material at different hori- 
zons, or, more often, the material is so nearly uniform that the grada- 
tions are hardly discernible. In the finer sand, there are successive 
continuous horizontal laminations which are as beautifully marked and 
as distinct as in any stratified sand deposit whatever; but instead of 
being perfectly straight, they are undulating and follow the familiar 
outline which is peculiar to the ripple- mark formed by a strong and 
constant current. In the material of mixed sand and pebbles, these 
lines of successive lamination are fainter, but they may be distinguished 
and traced continuously in almost every case. In the material which 
is made up mainly of pebbles the lamination becomes still fainter, and 
often entirely disappears. Between the cleanly marked lamination of 
the sand and the nearly obliterated stratification of the pebbles there 
is, of course, every possible gradation. 



\ 



202 The American Geoltffjhf* .March, l»» 

The ripple-marked lamiose generally nearly coincide with one another, 
crest for crest, and trough for trough, except for the slight forward 
movement of each new creet and trough. Figure 1 in the article in the 
January number of the Am£Rica;« Obologiat expreeaes this relation of 
the successive lamime, and if other lines were superadded to a. 6, and r 
till the whole space of the figure were filled, a very fair idea of the ac- 
tual appearance of the lamination in one of these sandy beds might be 
obtained. 

This structure is beet marked where there are no pebbles mixed with 
the sand, for then there are fewer phenomena to obscure it and distract 
the attention. The lines of the growth which each individual ripple- 
mark traces in its onward and upward movement are strongly marked. 
In material of uniform fine sand, weathering brings out this structure 
very strongly, for the looser and more rapidly formed parte which accu- 
mulate on the steeper slope fall away first, leaving the harder parts 
standing out as ridges. In those commoner horizontal beds which are 
of predominating sand, mixed with some coarser material and pebbles, 
the corresponding structure, shown in figure 2 of the above-mentioned 
article, is ordinarily found, providing that the relative proportion of 
sand and gravel is nearly constant, in all the horizons of the bed. This 
structure differs from that in the beds of homogeneous sand only in 
that the loose fine sand becomes mixed with coarser material and oc- 
casionally pebbles. As the pebbles begin to predominate, the false 
bedding, as well as the lamination of the true bedding, tends to become 
obscured and to disappear. 

To sum up, we have in this cut three distinct banded structures, two 
of which are horizontal and the third inclined at a considerable angle. 
The first is a series of thick horizontal beds which differ from one 
another in the average size of material. At a distance this structure is 
very plain, but at close quarters the chances are that it would escai)e 
observation. The second is a series of finer horizontal layers, consti- 
tuting the ordinary bedding of stratified deposits. This structure is 
best developed in the most sandy beds, and in proportion as the amount 
of coarser material increases it becomes obscured and finally disappears. 
The third is found developed to any noteworthy extent only in thoee 
beds which were formed with practically the same texture: any change 
in texture deHtroys the continuity of these layers, and therefore thessme 
layer cannot extend from one bed into another. This structure follows 
and marks the linesof growth traced by each point of the horizontal rip- 
ple-marked layers. Each of the larger divisions shows this in a greater 
or less degree, and though the layers are not continuous in the different 
beds, yet they are parallel, and give the impression of a oontinuoub 
stratification. This coarse and steeply inclined striping is, except at 
close quarters, the most striking structural feature in the deposit; but 
when very near, its importance is seen to be slight in beds consisting 
only of sand. 

The first two structures show that the deposit was laid down in sue. 
cessive horizontal layers, and it then follows that the third, which 







Correspondence, 203 

trBverses the first two, must have been formed under the same condi- 
tions. The constant relation of certain layers of the steeply inclined 
banding to certain parts of the ripple-marked lamination, the regular 
and continued alternation of the coarse and loose with fine and firm 
material, the thickness of these layers being always the same,— these 
seem to the writer to be sufficient evidence of the correctness of the 
explanation given in the January Geolooibt. If, as suggested, the 
layers are the true fore-set beds of a sand plain, the explanation of the 
continued recurrence, over a horizontal distance of many yards, of simi- 
lar layers, separated always one from another by a constant distance of 
several inches, will be difficult. But the presence of the true bedding 
does not admit such an hypothesis. 

In reconciling this conclusion with the observations of previous ob- 
servers upon the subject of ripple- marks it is necessary to insist upon 
the distinction between those ridges formed by the oscillation of water 
upon a sandy bottom and denominated **regular" by Darwin and oth- 
ers, and those which are formed under a single current, called 'ir- 
regular" by the same investigators. To the former class belong nearly 
all the examples which are found on sea-beaches and shallow lake bot- 
toms, and which, on account of their being by far the commoner, have 
been chiefly studied. It is here that the restrictions urged in Mr. Jag- 
gar's communication are applicable. The places where these are formed 
not being seats of rapid deposition, there is at the beginning of the 
period of formation of the ripple-mark the same material as at the end. 
Further the oscillations are relatively slight, and the resulting vortexes 
comparatively weak, so that, although they are quite sufficient to move 
sand, they fail at coarser material or pebbles, and as a result the 
growth of the vortex is broken and the ridge is not completed. Thus it 
happens that the oscillation ripple-mark is never found in pebbly beds; 
bul only where all the materials are fine enough to be moved easily. All 
preglacial fossil ripple-marks which the writer has seen come under 
this head. Owing to the instability of the oscillating currents and the 
consequent incessant shifting of the vortexes, it is by the merest chance 
that successive ripple-marked surfaces coincide; and, in view of the 
length of time which generally separates two layers, such rare coinci- 
dences must be regarded as accidental. 

To the second class belong those ripple-marks with which we have to 
deal. Because the limit of the strength of the single current is indefi- 
nite, the strength of the resulting vortexes may also become indefinitely 
great. So these ripple-marks are characteristically developed on a 
larger scale than the former class,— they are higher and the distance 
from crest to crest is greater.'*' Under the pressure of the current they 
move forward, but with so little change of form and relative position 
that the movement will ordinarily be overlooked, unless a mark is set. 
The variety of single-current ripple-marks formed by wind on dry sand 
has been chiefly described by geologistB.t This structure is figured by 

*Dana, ICanaal of Geology, eeoond ed., p. 672 ; third ed., p. 684. 

tLyell, Prinoip1f*« of Geoloicy. p. 842. PrestDvich, Qeolo«;y, toI. i. p. 146. Geikie, 
Text-book of Geology, p. S:<5 (\9»{). 



204 The American Geologist. 

Lyellt* in a diagram showiag the outline of the marks, and De La Beche 
has figured the manner of the forward progreas. The latter figure ha» 
been reproduced by Geikie.t For the relative symmetry of single-cur- 
rent and of oscillation ripple-marks compare th^se figures and that of 
the writer in the January 6eol.ogist with the outline of osdllaticMi 
ripple-marks given first by De La Beche^ and reproduced by Geikie.^ 
The wind-formed ripple-mark is of the same class as that formed by a 
constant current in water, but the new element imposes importtot 
modifications. On account of the buoyancy of the water a current of 
given strength is much more effective than a similar current in air, and 
so it produces ridges of greater hight and separation, and of coarser 
material. In rivers, moreover, the direction and velocity of the current 
are constant for long periods of time, and so the structures are not con- 
fused and cross-bedded by shifting currents. Again, the water between 
the sand-grains acts as a cement, and the sand consequently becomes 
so firm that the march of the completely formed ridge is very slow. 
Finally, the water is the carrier of large quantities of sediment, which 
it deposits wherever opportunity offers, and thus the material found 
composing ripple-marks in rivers is not usually that in which the 
npple-mark series began. The constancy of the current d€>ee not 
give rise to those incessant vacillations in position of the vortexes which 
o^u'MT in the oscillation ripple-mark, and, at greater intervals, in the 
wind-blown sand; hence the successive layers, particularly if the depo- 
sition be rapid, are ordinarily conformable, except that each new layer 
moves slightly forward, in a direction parallel with that of the current. 
We may have ripple-marks of this class in mixed material by two pro> 
C4;sses. First, if a strong current produce ripple-marks in homogeneous 
sand these will be high and broad, and coarser material, brought by the 
stream, may lodge in the sheltered places without interfering with the 
structure. It is to be noted that a loose i)ebble of considerable size 
III ay be more easily moved by the current than the smooth bed of 
\\rm\y packed sand, so arranged as to present the greatest possible re- 
MiMtancf; to the current. Second, if the strength of the vortex be suflS- 
vAHui to move coarse gravel and even pebbles it is evident that the 
ripple-marking process will go on in mixed material quite as well as in 
sHnd, which is more uniformly finely divided. The strength of the 
vortex will depend upon the strength of the current. So it is quite 
(lOHHible that a ridged structure analogous to ripple-marking may be 
|ir(f(luced in beds which are entirely of pebbles, in swift rivers. 

"Finally," says the writer of the foregoing communication, "could 
ripple mark exist at all in a current of sufiicient velocity to *sweep along^ 
pebbles the size of an egg*? A current of less than onp-half this veloc- 
ity IN quoted by Lyell as sufficient to 'tear up fine gravel.' In such 



•Pr)fi«li»l«iof Ooolofry, p. »4;J. 
'V\m l*#i<»lf»gic«l Obiervrr, p. ^7 n.sr,l). 
f Vh%\AHHiV of (if<oloK.V. p. 'Ci-'*. 
tOp v\i , p, WW. 
SOp cW , p. .V)7. 



Correspondence, 205 

case a current flowing two milea an hour would certainly tear up fine 
sand.** In single-current ripple-marks, unless both the current and 
the resulting vortex are strong enough to move the sand, it seems clear 
that the sand will not be moved, and no ripple-mark will be formed. 
It will appear quite clear, moreover, from a consideration of the cause 
of their formation, that the more exposed portions of these ridges do 
not bear the pressure of the bottom velocity of the stream, for they lie 
in a Comparatively quiet zone, where the force of the direct current is 
to a great extent counteracted by the current of the vortex. 

At Cloquet, Carlton county, Minnesota, the writer, while in company 
with Mr. Warren Upham, observed a cut in a bed of glacial sand which 
had exactly the same features as those of the most sandy portions of 
the cut near Iron Junction. The following is an extract from notes 
made Oct. 21, 1893: **In the horizontal layers of one of the deposits near 
the town, on the west side of the river, a ripple-marked structure ex- 
actly like that south of Iron Junction was seen. The material, how- 
ever, was of homogeneous fine sand, which did not so accentuate the 
steeply-inclined line of growth following the apexes of the ripple-marks.'^ 
Very near this cut the St. Louis river fiows, and the direction of the 
current indicated by the ripple-marked sand is nearly that of the pres- 
ent stream. 

Mr. Upham has shown me a photograph, taken by Prof. W. O. Crosby 
at Mt. Hope, a few miles southwest of Boston, which exhibits a similar 
ripple-marked structure in a bed of stratified sand. The ripple-marked 
portion of the section photographed is about 30 feet long and 5 to 6 feet 
high. The separate layers in the bedding are nearly horizontal in their 
general course, but are ripple-marked along their whole extent. They 
are always conformable, crest for crest, and trough for trough, and the 
thickness through which this extends is five to six feet. In this case 
the steeply inclined lines connecting corresponding portions of the suc- 
cessive ripple-marks, instead of being straight, follow a gentle curve, 
which at the bottom begins with an angle of about forty degrees from 
the horizontal and gradually increases this angle till its course is nearly 
perpendicular. This curve and the constantly diminishing size of the 
ridges toward the top of the section point to a gradual slackening of the 
current. In the photograph about seventy-five distinct ripple-marked 
layers can be counted. 

The writer has observed in various places well-formed ripple- mark in 
the bed of streams. The case of Embarass river in St. Louis county, 
Minnesota, is important. This river fiows from Esquagama lake, the 
lowest in the series of the Embarass lakes, and empties into the St. 
Louis. It thus has a length of less than ten miles, but carries a consid- 
erable body of water. In September of 1893 this river was canoed by 
the writer; and it was observed that the bed of sand and pebbles was 
almost continuously strongly ripple-marked. At this season the water 
was so low that the structure could be well observed. Here the writer 
first saw ripple-marking in places where pebbles were present, and 
noticed that the pebbles almost always came to rest in the troughs. 



206 The American Geologist. ICarah, 18»4 

The velocity of the current was estimated at about three milee per 
hour. In the St. Louis and other rivers the same phenomena were 
observed. While travelling in Nova Scotia, in April, 1B93, beautiful 
single-current ripple-marks were seen at Weymouth. They were on a 
large scale, so as to be conspicuous at some distance, forming parallel 
ridges across the shallow bed of a fjord and perpendicular to its shores. 
The currents in this fjord were governed by the strong tides of the bay 
of Fundy. 

In the article in the January Geologist, the extent of the layers in 
the false bedding was stated to be often "ten or twelve feet.'' Since 
they make an angle of about forty degrees with the bottom, this means 
a thickness of about eight feet of sediment, which was deposited 
while the current and the rate of deposition remained nearly constant. 
In the cut at Cloquet, there is certainly as much; and in the cut at 
Mount Hope there is a thickness of 5 to 6 feet at least. But this thick- 
ness of sediment, in glacial deposits, does not necessarily imply more 
than.a short time for its formation. Professor Davis'*' has made this 
<:lear in the case of delta sand-plains, showing, by the relation of fore- 
set to back-set beds, how very swift was the formation of these deltas 
as compared with the melting back of the ice-front. Again, the forma- 
tion of kettle-holes by the melting of ice- blocks which had become 
partly or perhaps sometimes wholly buried in the rapidly accumulating 
sediments has been discussed by several writers. The melting of these 
ice-blocks, however, was in its turn so rapid that, according to Mr. J. 
B. Woodworth, after the subsidence of the waters which deposited the 
sediments it furnished '^streams of considerable volume, though possi- 
bly of short duration."t 

Feb. /;. 1S94, J. E. Spubr. 



PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 



Pkof. J. W. Si'ENCER VI8ITED (X'BA in Januafj, with a view- 
to follow up the question of terrestrial oscillations recently 
dincussed by him before the Geological Society of America. 

Thk (.'iiirrLAU of the Cornell University Si mmer School 
for 1894 announces courses by Prof. Ralph S. Tarr on physical 
geography, dynamical geology, and economic geology. 

In the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 
at its twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth annual meetings, pub- 
lished in 1893, Prof. S. W. Williston records an interesting 
food habit of plesiosaurs. In a number of instances well 
worn siliceous pebbles were found among the ribs of plesio- 
saurs in such a way as to suggest that they had been in the 
stomach of the animal. The pebbles were mineralogically 

'Ballet in. OeoL Boc. Am., toI. k, p. 199. 

tA VESICA SI Gbolooebt, NoTember, 1893, p. 279. 




Personal and Scientific Xews, 207 

unlike any found in the strata in which the saurian skeletons 
were embedded. All the smaller pebbles were worn smooth 
and were ellipsoidal in shape. The larger ones showed 
rounded angles, indicating, as the author says, a less amount 
of abrasion. Another point of interest lies in the fact that 
all the pebbles were conspicuous in color, either white, black, 
or pink. The inference is that the pebbles were purposely 
swallowed and served as an aid to digestion, and that the 
plesiosaurs possessed n color sense which led them to select 
the more conspicuous rock fragments. The distant shores of 
the Fort Benton and Niobrara seas must have been visited by 
the reptiles, for only along the shores were such highly in- 
durated masses to be found. Many of the fragments are of 
red quartzite and must have been derived from the quartzite 
of the Dakota group or from the horizon of the Sioux quart- 
zite. It is known that ledges of both quartzites were present 
along the shores of the interior sea in which the plesiosaurs 
of the Fort Benton and Niobrara ages lived. 

Dk. J. W. Gregory, as rerortkd by Xafure (Jan. 18), in an 
address before the Royal Geographical Society of London, on 
his recent explorations in eastern equatorial Africa, described 
the series of lakes which occupy deep rifts in the country, in- 
cluding lake Tanganyika (350 miles long, 15 to 60 miles wide, 
2,700 feet above the sea, and having a depth of more than 
1,200 feet), lake Nyassa (800 miles long and averaging 25 
miles wide, 1,500 feet above the sea, enclosed by very grand 
scenery of high mountainous plateaus), lakes Natron, Na- 
washa, Baringo and Basso Narok (lake Rudolph). From the 
last of these a line of depression continues northward through 
Abyssinia into the Red sea ; and thence it can be followed 
along a vast fault from the gulf of Akabn to the' Dead sea and 
Jordan valley. *'It seems not unlikely," says Dr. Gregory, 
"that the whole of this great line is due to one common earth 
movement of no very great age, for the traditions of the na- 
tives around Tanganyika, of the Somalis and Arabs, and of 
the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, may have reference 
to it." On Mt. Kenia moraines of ancient glaciers were found 
5,000 feet below their present level, 

Tbk theory of glacial erosion of lake basins of ro('k in 
drift-bearing regions has been very ably revived by Alfred 
Russel Wallace ( The Fortnightly Jierietr, Nov. and Dec. 1893). 
It is now known, however, that deformations of the earth's 
crust by ditferential uplifts and subsidences were coincident 
with the accumulation of the ice-sheets and of the formerly 
vastly extended glaciers in mountain districts, as the Euro- 
pean Alps; 80 that it remains to be discriminated whether 
glacial erosion or crustal deformation contributed the princi- 
pal share in the production of these rock basins. 



208 The American Geologist, March, isoi 

Dr. Johnston-La vis, in referring to specimens and micro- 
scopic slides showing eozoonal structure in the ejected blocks 
of Monte Somma, exhibited by him, said that all the criti- 
cisms of Eozoon have so far been destructive, no analogous 
structure having been found in other localities under condi- 
tions that could explain the origin of so curious an arrange- 
ment of different minerals. These altered limestones from 
Monte Somma correspond in all details with those of the orig- 
inal Canadian specimens, and, in many cases, on account of 
their freshness, exhibit some of the pseudo-organic structural 
details, such as the stolon-tubes, in far greater perfection than 
does the true so-called Eozoon canadense. He had been work- 
ing at the subject in conjunction with Mr. J. W. Gregory, F. G. 
S. Ahs. of Proc. GeoL Soc. Lond. Xo. 610, Series of 1892-93. 

Sixth Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of 

America. 

[Conoladed from page 148 in the February nnmber.] 

Further notes of the papers read at this meeting, held Dec. 
27-29, 1898, in Boston and, Cambridge, Mass., are as follow^s: 

25. The Shasta-Chieo series of the Pacific coast. J. S. Dillsr, 
Washington, D. C. Several measured sections of the Cretaceous were 
shown and compared with other seotions in different parts of the same 
regioa. The slratigraphic and faunal continuity of the Shasta-Chieo 
series, composed in California of the Knoxville, Horsetown, and Chico 
beds, was fully maintained. 

26. The Cretaceous fauiuis of tlie Shasta-Chieo series, T. W. Stan- 
ton, Washington, D. Cf. The Cretaceous strata of the Sacramento val- 
ley belong to the Chico formation, the Horsetown beds, and the Knox- 
ville beds, — the last two constituting the Shasta formation. Until re- 
cently the Chico and the Shasta were supposed to be separated by 
stratigraphic and faunal breaks that indicated a considerable time 
hiatus between . them. Later studies of the stratigraphy and larger 
collections of fossils have shown that these two formations are closely 
related, and the preliminary announcement that they form a continuous 
series was made by Messrs. Diller and Stanton at the Ottawa meeting 
of the Geological Society. The past season's field work has strength- 
ened the evidence of the continuity of the faunas. In studying many 
sections several distinct faunal zones characterized by certain species 
or associations of species were recognized, but in every case there was 
a commingling of species near the confines of the different divisions, so 
that no sharp line of demarcation could be drawn between them. 

27. Geology of Indian Territory and Texas adjacent to the Red 
River, Robert T. Hill, Washington, D. C. The region is very di- 
versified in later Meeozoic and Ceuozoic formations, and is where the 
distinct features of the diverse Appalachian, southern coastal plain, 
and Texan regions are differentiated. The Washita division of the 
Comanche series attains its greatest development here, while the Fred- 
ericksburg is represented only by a thin limestone formation. The Deni- 
son beds, consisting of the Marietta, North Denison, Paw Paw, and Main 
Street, reoresent a littoral ferruginated group which thins out rapidly 
southward. 

The Red river flows in the Dakota sandstone from the Grayson county 
line eastward to Pine Bluff, and this formation is highly glauconitic 



I 

k 



lioaton Mvetiny of the Geoiuyical Society. 209 

and abouods in foflsil plants. Its easUrnmost outorop is in the south- 
weet edge of Arkansas, near the Choctaw line. The two ohalk beds of 
the Upper Cretaceous, presenting a singular coincidence with the Up- 
per and Lower Chalk of Europe, occur in northeastern Texas and 
4M>uthwestem Arkansas. The glauconitio division, synchronous with 
the Montana, but of the New Jersey facies, was shown to be well devel- 
oped in northeastern Texas, occurring there and in Arkansas mostly as 
inliers in the Eocene area, being exposed by erosion. The Neocene and 
Pleistocene history of the region shows that it has been the scene of 
similar events to those of the Potomac estuary. 

A fauna was announced as occurring in the Shoal Creek limestone of 
Austin, which is entirely unique and new to our knowledge of the Cre- 
taceous. The braohiopods of the Comanche, upon the authority of 
.Schuchert, were referred to the genus Kingena^ which had not been 
hitherto reported in this country. The differentiation and variation of 
the formations away from this region were discussed at length. The 
old historic localities were described, and the speaker stated that Mr. 
Jules Marcou's descriptions of the fossils from Preston and Fort 
Washita contained the first announcement of the Lower Cretaceous 
age of beds that constitute a part of the Comanche series. 

2f^. Notes 071 the Qeolqgy of Lower California. S. F. Emmons and 
O. P. MsBRiLJ^ both of Washington, D. C. (Read by title.) So little 
is actually known with regard to the geology of the peninsula of Low- 
er California that the writers feel justified in putting on record the 
somewhat incomplete data gathered by them in the years 1882 and 189ri 
'With regard to a belt of country some 60 miles in width extending 
nearly across the peninsula near the 30th parallel of latitude. 

Prof. Qabb in ld67 made a reoonnoiseance trip from the southern end 
of the peninsula to San Diego, and as a result of his observations 
divided the peninsula into three topographical provinces: (1) a moun- 
tainous portion in the extreme south, consisting of irregular ranges of 
granitic rocks with a maximum elevation of about 5,(X)0 feet; (2) an 
intermediate mesa region, with an average elevation of not over 3,000 
to 4,000 feet, comprising the greater portion of the peninsula; and (3) 
a northern mountainous portion, with a longitudinal mountain chain 
filling the greater part of the width of the peninsula and extending 
across the boundary into southern California. The older horizontal 
beds forming the mesa region he considered as probably of Mio- 
cene age, and he recognized Pliocene and post-Pliocene beds resting 
upon their eroded edges. 

W. Lindgren in 18^ examined the northern mountainous portion of 
the peninsula in the latitude of Todos Santos bay, about 60 miles south 
of the international boundary. . He was struck with its resemblance in 
orographic structure and in the character of its constituent rocks with 
the Sierra Nevada, and found that the beds from which fossils of the 
Chico Cretaceous had been already obtained at Todos Santos bay are 
a small patch of nearly horizontal sandstones which have been pro- 
tected from marine degradation by a projecting point of older eruptive 
rocks. With regard to the latter beds he conjectured that they must 
be more fully developed further south and that the mesa sandstones, 
doubtfully assigned by Gtebb to the Miocene, would prove on investi- 
gation to be Cretaceous. 

The observations on which the present paper is based, show that the 
lower beds of the mesa region on the immediate western coast between 
the 29th and 30th parallels consist of Chico Cretaceous overlaid by 
Tejon Eocene, both horizons being defined by characteristic fossils. 
These beds are practically undisturbed and show no evidence of any ex- 
tensive orograpnic movements. 

Further north are more recent beds, occupying similar positions 
along the coast, from which no characteristic fossils were obtained, but 



" .1 






-iir zsLT-^tLCL airi»ni7 mnirai^t uii. i:iri.' 

UMK. mil 411 TIT r ^vupf wrjL ft fliur^ wati uim.jc 

'Liif- ieiuEuiiic^r!!^ s&l Ian- 'man ii* iii* niniur uricrftcd; jmcl^-cf ^^ 
^iit- noicnr ipomr ii nxi siur*^ iii ni» wbk if mini iljo. ii«!- r*^>*^A. 

:^ ic» •.Vr^kT 5«kBZL nf N*^Ai;L. loii *^ i^iAt -. iat«- ntec .:oa» ♦sieTi'-J 
r««'<?es s^ttTSSiJZip t::*^ >L«Bi%»ni: n'lin if iii.'*- v«sK trim, iij^ G^i.f ^'^f 

W: AzA^« R 0-4*aL Ba.-:-!!.:*^. V i> BM»i ^ ft-js-u^ri fcj Prof, W. M. 

^r«*« b<«r n> thf^m v«» pxrtrd ^. xt. ^.w^tr«r v^tL certain phT^ical 
chac:C«« «^^^••oh took p^ac» iunsar \^^ penxi of their depoaitno. A 
v\«s*i:xc«t;vv« ba'wd apoc a study .?f fr.f:r trp** aect:ocs acrosa tbe atate, 
va« •u«e^t^ for the seTeral forcatM'C* r^pp c sa- c ted. althooi^h the 
<»KW tortus weiv relaicri as ecoc^'fr::*: e^uiral-ecta. Th* same author 
«^m)«^whal fuUy ih«cuaM*9 thw »uc?:ect id hi* -Preiiminary Report on 
lh«» Or^tac^*«» and Tertiary f^>rmation« oC New JerBey." formiDfr pa^es 
lt»7 :i4o io the Anaual Kep*>rt i^ tbe W^-A. Sarvey of N. J. for 1892. » 

.•»«. K^r^Kiy\\ K\ij*i^tm*'^i it» ^h" ni.^^r M%*Mi»iffj0i tnisin. ChaRL.ES 
H. Kkyks* l)ea Moineek Iowa. «H'e«d by tit>.t Attention waa called to 
th«> fact that throughout the lova coaitield there exist numeroua faults 
of amall throw. MaD> ot theee are quite close together and form well 
mark«Hl atep-fauUtk Ordinarily it would be impoaaible to recofoiizA 
nu^t of theee rui>ture^ and slippiDes except when discloped bv fortunate 
i^\i*avationa. Through the extensive workiofr. however, of oompara- 
tivtily thin bwla they are capable to be made out From a careful ex- 
amination i>f the larire number of theee faulta it would appear that tbA 
Aiijuatrnt^nt of the tension in the tlat-^-ing strata of the Miaaisaippi 
bABin ia, aa in mountainous reffioos, carried on largely bj means of many 



Boston MtetiiHi of the deoloyical Society. 



211 



small slippiDgs rather than a few large ones. Most of the faults ob- 
served are of the normal variety, with the hade from 15^ to 45°. Illus* 
tratioDS are given of the different types of faults observed. 

SI, A geological study of lake Mohonk and lake Minnewaska, N, W 
William H. Niucs, Boston, Mass. The paper gave the results of the 
study of the origin of these mountain tarns. It necessarily included 
the structure of the Shawangunk range* upon the crest of which the 
lakes are located in rook basins. The relation of the geological struc- 
ture to the occurrence of the lakes was the leading question under dis- 
cussion. 

32, Oeologic relations in the belt from Green pond^ New Jersey^ to 
Skunnemunk mountain. New York, N. H. Dabton, Washington, D. C. 
This paper related to a narrow belt of Paleozoic rocks, which occupy a 
narrow trough in the Archean highlands of New Jersey ,and extend north- 
ward in Orange county, New York. These rocks comprise limestones, 
shales, conglomerates, quartz! tes, and flags, ranging in horizon from 
the middle Cambrian to middle Devonian. In greater part they are 
far distant from the main mass of the formations in the region west- 
ward. The principal ridges to which the harder members give rise are 
Bowling (xreen. Green Pond, Copperas, Kanouse, Bearport, Bell vale, 
and Skunnemunk mountains, (vreenwood lake lies in one of the prin- 
cipal valleys. 

Various ages have been assigned to the rocks and much uncertainty 
has always prevailed regarding their horizons and relations. Mather 
considered all the conglomerates Oneida in age, the slates Hudson 
River, and the limestones Lower Silurian. The New Jersey 
Survey considered the conglomerates and flags Potsdam, the slatee 
Hudson River, and the limestones Lower Silurian. In 1884 Mr. Darton 
began observations in the region and his discovery of Lower Helder- 
berg fossils in some of the limestones afforded evidence that the asso- 
ciated conglomerates are Oneida in sge. These observations were ex- 
tended by Merrill and Britton, who showed that certain areas of slates 
about Newfoundland are Devonian and apparently Hamilton in posi- 
tion. In 1871 Prof. D. S. Martin had found Devonian plantain the flags 
at the south end of Skunnemunk mountain. In 1887 Smock studieid 
the relations in that region, and showed that the conglomerate capping 
this mountain overlies the flags. 

Recently Mr. Walcott has found Olenellus in the basal limestones at 
one point, and Foerste and others have shown the wide extension of 
middle Cambrian limestones in the northern New Jersey region. 

The results of Mr. Darton's studies were shown by a map and a series 
of cross-sections. It was stated that there is conclusive evidence of a 
great fault extending along the western side of the belt, and that there 
are several other faults of greater or less importance. The general 
structure of the region is synclinal, but there are various minor folds, 
notably in the region south of Newfoundland . 

The rocks were classified in a table, of which the following list is an 
abstract: 



Namk. 

Rkunownank coofflomerate. 

Bellvale flamtones. 

Monroe shales. 

Oriskany qnartsita and conglom- 

eraia. 
Helderber^r limaetone. 
Lonirwood red ahatea. 
Green Pond oonfflomerate and 

quartzite. 
Hndaon ahalee and aandatonea. 
Great unconformity. 

LimeMtnne. 

Ouartziteand oonfflomerate. 

Crystalline rocka. 



Appboiimatx Aox. 
Middle Dovnnian. 
Upper Hamilton (groap). 
Lower Hamilton (group). 
Oriakany, etc. 

**Lower" Holderberg. 
Clinton to Medina. 

Oneida. 

Hudaon "Rivor." 

Early Ordovician to (^ambrian. 

Middle Cambrian, 
do. do. ? 

Archean. 



212 7V<e American Geologist. Vaxoh,i9H 

Many of the rocks contain distinctive faunas and numerous discover- 
ies of fossils have been made throughout the belt. 

Besides the great unconformity there are many overlaps and local 
unconformities of considerable extent, of which the greatest is at the 
base of the Green Pond conglomerate. 

The Skunnemunk conglomerate caps the double summit of Skunne- 
munk tnountain and extends along the western side of fiellvale and 
Bearport mountains. The Bellvale flagstones constitute the greater 
part of Skunnemunk mountain, the northern and eastern portions of 
Bellvale and Bearport mountain, and the region about Clinton Falls. 
Along the western side of Bearport mountain they are in greater part 
cut out by the fault above mentioned. The Monroe shales extend along 
the slopes and valleys adjoining the ridges of Bellvale flags, and south- 
ward up the Longwood valley. They are everywhere very fossiliferous. 

The Oriskany quartzites and white conglomerates occur in limited 
areas, but are exposed at many points from the Longwood valley to the 
vicinity of Cornwall station, ^ew York. The Helderberg limestone 
occurs with the Oriskany and contains typical fossils. It is nearly every- 
where underlain bv the Longwood red shales. 

The Green Pona conglomerate constitutes Green Pond, Copperas, 
Kanouse and Bowling Green mountains in New Jersey and the two 
Pine hills in New York. As it overlies the Hudson shales, and is inti- 
mately associated with the red shales and Helderberg limestone, in con- 
formable sequence, there is no doubt as to its Upper Silurian horizon. 

The Hudson formation occurs in very restricted areas within this 
belt, but covers a wide area to the northwest in Orange county. It lies 
unconformably on the Cambrian limestones. These limestones under- 
lie a considerable portion of the belt and outcrop at manv points along 
its margin. Their erosion gave rise to the basin in which the forma- 
tions of the belt were deposited. As has long been known, the lime- 
stones are underlain by a quartzite and conglomerate at the head of 
Macopin pond in New Jersey. 

S3, A prismatie Btadia telescope, Robert H. Richards, Boston, Mass. 
(Introduced by Prof. W. H. Niles.) This instrument may be used for 
measuring distances from the hand or from a tripod. From the hand 
comparatively short distances only can be measured, with self -reading 
target, 400 feet; tape target, 1,000 feet. From a tripod, 2,000, 3000 and 
even 5,000 feet may be measured, according to the magnifying power of 
the telescope, with an error not exceeding 0.1 per cent., and if the mean 
of several observations is taken, with an error probably not exceeding 
.04 per cent. 

34. Ancient volcanic rocks along the eastern border of North Amer- 
ica. Grobge H. Williams, Baltimore, Md. The occurrence of ancient 
volcanic rooks at various horizons along the Appalachian belt has long 
been recognized by some American geologists. It was the object of 
this paper to direct attention to many newly discovered areas of this 
character, as well as to summarize and co-ordinate all pre-existing in- 
formation on the subject. For this purpose the views held in other 
countries regarding volcanoes were stated, and the frequent misinterpre* 
tation of such rocks in this country was mentioned. The criteria for 
the recognition of ancient and altered volcanic materials were then 
given, including the features which distinguish them from other igne- 
ous, as well as from sedimentary rocks. All existing knowledge regard- 
ing the occurrence of such rocks in eastern North America was then 
summarized, beginning with Newfoundland and passing southwest. 
This summary is based upon: 1. published literature; 2, unpublished 
notes or observations by others; 3. extended personal observations by 
the writer. It is hoped that a definite formulation of the problem in 



\ 



Boston Meeting of the Geological Society. 213 

4t8 present state may etimulate further interest in the differentiation of 
ancient volcanic rocks from the other igneous and more or less meta- 
•morphosed sedimentary formations with which they are associated in 
the crystalline helt of the Appalachian system. (This paper is published 
in full in TJie Journal of Geology, vol. ii, pp. 1-31, with map, Jan.-Feb^ 
1894.) 

35. Ancient eruptive rocks in the White Moutitains, C. H. HrroH- 
•cocK, Hanover, N. H. In his report ujx>n the Geology of New Hamp- 
shire, the author had described the granitic areas as built up of a series 
of eruptive rooks disposed much like sedimentary terranes. Resting 
upon a crystalline floor was the foundation called Conway granite, a 
ooarse, well-detined, often reddish -colored granite, sometimes 1,000 feet 
thick. It seems to lie in great sheets dipping slightly in anticlinal 
fashion. This is covered by the AUtany graniteyB. porphyritic rock with 
abundant feldspar, disposed usually like the older underlying rock and 
sometimes fully as thick. It occurs also in large veins. Above this 
•comes the Chocorua flrrantfe, or syenite, in which the feldspar is still 
more abundant. This is capped by porphyry; and that by a breccia of 
slate and porphyry fragments, to which the name of Pequawket breccia 
had been applied. The principle of this association had not been 
•stated. 

The writings of Judd, Allport and other English geologists maintain 
that in Great Britain there is an association of granitic rocks similar to 
that just mentioned. In both areas one might climb a mountain, walk- 
ing successively upon the several granites, and finding the breccia at 
the top. Ben Nevis in Scotland is an illustration of these phenomena 
in Britain. The English authors regard these rocks as parts of one 
.^reat system of volcanic ejection. 

The same and other authors find a corresponding order of succession 
in modem volcanic rocks. At the base is a granitic core, and at the 
summit glassy and basic rocks. Owing to denudation, most of the 
glassy rocks would have disappeared from the Paleozoic volcanoes, 
but some of them might remain somewhat altered, as felsite and por- 
phyry. 

Professor Hitchcock stated that this principle explains perfectlv the 
way in which these granitic rocks are associated in the White Moun- 
tains, and also makes unnecessary the dictum of Sorby that granites 
were formed at a depth of 40,000 feet. The whole series may be found 
in a vertical section of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. From the summits of 
granitic cones like Mt. Ascutney and the Stratford peaks the higher 
rocks have been removed by erosion; but traces of them may remain, as 
the felsite upon the smaller adjacent cone of Little Ascutney. The ap- 
plication of this principle of association will be of the highest impor- 
tance in the understanding of our ancient granites. 

30, The cliemical equivalence of crustalline and sediinentary rocks, 
O. K. Gilbert, Washington, D. C. This paper gave the results of the 
combination of many analyses of the crystalline rocks and certain de- 
ductions therefrom concerning the totals of geologic erosion and depo- 
sition. Prof. F. W. Clarke took all the analyses of crystalline rocks that 
were available (in total 880) and combined them, after carefully study- 
ing their comparative value. (Bulletin No. 78, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891, 
pp. 34-42.) His average of these analyses of the crystalline rocks is pre- 
sented in the following table of percentages: Oxygen, 47.3; silicon, 27.2; 
aluminium, 7.8; iron. 5.5; calcium, 3.8; magnesium, 2.7; potassium, 2.4; 
sodium, 2.4; total, 99 per cent. 

Mr. Gilbert then said that, assuming the sedimentary rocks to have 
been supplied by erosion from the crystallines, we obtain a method of 
'estimating how much seaimentaj^ rock has been formed and the pro- 
portions of the different kinds. The aluminium was nearly all deposited 



214 77/e American Geologist, March, 1894, 

in shales, together ^dth some of the silicon. The remainder of the sili- 
con was mostly laid down in sandstones. The calcium and magnesium 
are in the limestones. The sodium is in the ocean. The iron is not 
concentrated in any one place, but is diffused generally through nearly 
all the sedimentary rocks. The potassium is not easy to find ; it passed 
into the ocean, and some of it occurs in glauoonite and in the terrige- 
nous deposits of blue mud dredged and mapped in the soundings of the 
Challenger expedition. Probably it exists in shales, but we need more 
analyses to determine this. The*shales are the residuum after the 
sanaatones and limestones have been segregated. A computation of 
the relative amounts of sandstones, shales and limestones, based upon 
the total mean of the analyses of the crystalline rocks, is as follows: 

Tahle of proportion of the sedimentary rocks* 
Sandstonefl, 39 per sent., or aboat two-flitha. 
BhaleB, 42 per cent., or again aboat two-fifths. 
LimeatoiiGB, 19 per ceat.,or about one-fifth. 

The sodium in the ocean is a definite amount and equals a layer of 
sodium 350 feet deep on the land, which corresponds to one mile of 
crystalline rock. From this the author concludes that somewhat more 
than a mile in thickness of crystalline rocks upon areas equal to all the 
present land of the globe must have been worked over to give our sedi- 
mentary rocks. 

.?7. Volcanite, an anortJioclase augite rock chemically like the 
flacites. Wili^iam H. IIobbs, Madison, Wis. (Read by Prof. Q. H. 
Williams.) A petrographic study of the **bread crust bombs" from the 
eruption of Volcano in 1888. The rook of these projectiles is mineral- 
ogically a trachyte, with anorthoclase replacing sanidine. The struc- 
ture is andesitic and chemically the rock is a dacite. It contains 
interesting magmatic pseudomorphs after augite phenocrysts. 

:iS. Further n/)tea on the occurrence of Albert ite in New Brun»wickf 
('anada. H. P. H. Brumbli^ Ottawa, Canada. (Read by title.) De- 
scription of several interesting specimens illustrating peculiar condi- 
tions of the mineral in rooks at the base of the Albert series, Albert 
county, N. B. 

.■y/>. Alterations of silicates in gneiss at Worcester, Mass, Homer 
T. Fuller, Worcester, Mass. In a quarry of gneiss in which orthoclase 
largely predominates are found veins and geodic cavities filled with 
caloite, stilbite, prehnite, and chabazite. The process of formation of 
the last three was described and illustrated in this paper. Bosses of 
hornblende and biotite are also found partly changed to chlorite, and 
this alteration was explained. 

40. Pre-paleozoic decay of crystalline rocks north of lake Huron, 
Robert Bell, Ottawa, Canada. An eroded surface of granite occurs- 
under limestone of the Black River formation in the North Channel of* 
lake Huron. Rounded pits in the surface of the granite are filled with 
fossiliferous limestone and sandstone. Caverns, called *'ovens," indent 
steep slopes and bluffs of the granite. Old channeU along joints in. 
granite and other rocks were deepened by glaciation. Rough, unglaoi- 
ated surfaces of Huronian quartzite are shown to have been formerly 
covered by Trenton limestone. These features, and also decay in 
ancient geological times of greenstone dikes cutting the Huronian and 
Laurentian rocks, and the disposal of the detritus from the old crystal- 
line surface, were treated in this paper and illustrated by photographs. 

41. Gabbros on the western shore of take Champlain. Jambs F. 
Kemp, New York City. The paper opened with a brief statement of 
the general geological relations in the area described. Although in 
many respects obscure, disguised by metamorphism, and concealed by 
drift or forest growth, the succession is probably the following, from 
earliest to latest: a series of gneisses, composed of orthoclase (mostly 
micioperthitic), quartz, and mica or hornblende or augite; a series con- 
sisting of black hornblende and pyroxenic schists or gneisses, of crys- 




Boston Meeting of the Geological Society, 215 

•talline limestones, and opbicalcites. Next in age, penetrating both 
these, is found the great series of igneous rocks of the gabbro family, 
which chiefly make up the Adirondacks. Still later are the Paleozoic 
sediments, of which the Potsdam is the oldest. 

The gabbros were shown to include nearly pure aggregates of labra- 
•dorite at one extreme, which were called anorthosites in accordance 
with Prof. F. D. Adams' precedent, and quite basic olivine-gabbros at 
the other extreme. Between these two almost every gradation is met, 
but the anorthosites favor the main mountain masses, while the basic 
gabbros occur more as outliers. All exhibit most remarkable effects of 
dynamic metamorphism, such as crushing and brecciation, develop- 
ment of gneissoid structure, change of pyroxene to hornblende, etc. 
Remarkable reaotion-rims that surround olivine, pyroxene and titanif- 
erous msgnetite, where coming next to feldspar, were especially dwelt 
on, and the parallels occurring elsewhere were cited. Quite extended 
mention was also made of the contact phenomena where the gabbros 
penetrate the limestones. The paper concluded with a brief review of 
the other known gabbro areas in North America, and especially of the 
Canadian exposures described by Prof. Adams, with whose Morin dis- 
trict the Adirondacks stand in very close relations. Acknowledgments 
were made to Prof. James Hall, state geologist, and Dr. F. J. H. Merrill, 
director of the N. Y. State Museum, for permission to use the materials 
which were chiefly gathered under their direction. 

42. Notesi on the occurrence of mica in the Laurentian of the Ottawa 
district, RoBRBT W. Ells, Ottawa, Canada. (Read by title.) A brief 
discussion of the geological relations of the Laurentian rocks, with de- 
scription of certain peculiarities as to their occurrence, observed in the 
townships of Hull, Wakefield and Templeton, and at points along the 

- Gatineau and Du Lievre rivers. 

43. Intrusive sandstone dikes in granite. Whitman Cross, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Read by title.) In the area of the Pike's Peak granite 
mass, in C^olorado, there occur sandstone bodies whoBe formal relations 
to the granite are perfectly analogous to those of dikes of igneous rock, 
while the substance of the masses in question is purely a clastic mix- 
ture, almost wholly of quartz, of fine and even grain, very smiliar to 
sandstones of sedimentary origin. These rocks and their occurrence 
were described and illustrated by hand specimens. 

44. Aqe of the Auriferous slates of the Sierra Nevada. James P. 
Smith, Palo Alto, Gal. The Auriferous slates have been assigned to 
various ages, ranging from Paleozoic to Cretaceous. The various 
known localities for fossils in these slates are discussed, their horizons 
are determined, and new information is added about certain Carbonif- 
erous, Triassic, and Jurassic localities. The Mariposa slates are ascer- 
tained by paleontologic evidence to be of upper Jurassic age, probsbly 
lower Kimmeridge. The Aucella -heariDg beds of California are dis- 
cussed, and found, after the analogy of the AncellaheHTing beds of 
Russia, to range from the topof the Oxford, upper Jura, to the Neocom- 
ian, lower Cretaceous. Neumayr's theory of climatic zones is shown 
not to apply with exactness to the Jura of California. The uplift and 
metamorphism of the Sierras and Coast range are thought to have 
taken plaoe in late Jurassic time. 

i-'i. Or iff in of the coarsely crystalline vein granites or pegmatites. 
William O. Crosby, Boston, Mass. Tbe leading idea of this paper is 
that the pegmatites or giant granites are the product of neither solu- 
tion (veins) nor fusion (dikes), but of the more perfect co-operation of 
heat and water in what may be called aqueo-igneous fusion and igneo- 
aqueous solution. We may assume that, whatever may be true of other 
igneous rocks, water has contributed to the liquefaction of the micace- 
ous granites, with which the pegmatites are so gf^nerally associated. 
During the extremely slow, centripetal cooling and soliditication of a 



216 I'he American Geologist, MArob,i8e4i 

« 

body cf granite magma, at a great depth in the earth, the water in the^ 
magma ia gradually furxsed inward, the magma residuum becoming thus 
more highly hydrated and mace liquid. Fusion iMuwea without a break 
into solution; and the increasing mebility of the unsolidifled magma 
finally permits the development of the ou b umj and perfect crystalliza- 
tion, comb-structure, vugs or pockets, and other Ctaaaacteristic featurea 
of typical pegmatite. Pegmatite may thus be defined as a Mghly dif- 
ferentiated portion of a granite magma, the water, which is an essential 
feature of the magma, becoming concentrated in a limited portion dur- 
ing solidification. The amount of water being quite insufficient to hold 
the minerals of the magma in simple solution, they crystallize out long 
before the magma reaches that condition. 

Soret*8 priDciple, upon which Iddings bases his argument for the 
general differentiation of igneous rocks, that if the temperature of a 
solution is not uniform the dissolved substances will become concen- 
trated in the cooler part of the solution, also finds application here. 
The cooler part of a body of magma is the periphery, and toward this 
the dissolved minerals are concentrated, the central and hotter portion 
of the magma or solution thus becoming steadily thinner — poorer in 
dissolved minerals and richer in the solvent ( water )-< until at last the 
conditions favor the coarse and perfect crystallization of the pegmatites. 
Spherulitesand lithophyeae are believed to present analogous phenomena 
on a minute scale; and an instructive analogy may also be traced be- 
tween the development of pegmatite masses with pockets in the centei 
of a granite boss and the formation of an ordinary quartz geode, with 
its characteristic cbalcedbnic shell, crystalline interior, and central 
pocket. The pegmatites are intermediate, in origin, between plutonic 
or dike rocks and vein rocks, combining the characters of both; and 
the author holds that the true veins are entitled to recognition in the 
lithological classification. 

4(i. A clasHificatioti of economic geological pnvlucti, based up<m ori- 
gin and original structure. William O. Crosby, Boston, Mass. This 
paper will be presented in full in an early number of the Amekican 
Geolooist. 

47. Lake Cayuga a rock Inisin. R. S. Tarr, Ithaca, N. Y. (Read by 
title.) After reviewing the literature relating to the origin of the Fin- 
ger lakes of central New York, evidence is presented to show that Inke 
Cayuga, having a maximum depth of 435 feet, is in a rock basin. This 
evidence is obtained from a study of the preglacial tributaries, which 
at present empty into the lake in completely enclosed rock valleys 
whose rock bottoms are above the present lake surfsce. Lake Cayuga 
is therefore in a preglacial valley, which has been deepened during the 
Glacial period at least 450 feet at one point. 

Evidence is also presented to show that the preglacial Cayuga river 
fiowed northward, being tributary to the preglacial Ontario stream. It 
seems accordingly an inevitable conclusion that lake Ontario is also a 
rock basin. The conclusion is thus reached that no evidence is afforded 
here in favor of continental elevation and depression ; and it is also 
pointed out that, this being the case, an outlet for the preglacial great 
lake bsAin drainage through the Mohawk and Hudson is more probable 
than it has hitherto appeared. 

/N. Pleistocene problems in ^fiMsouri. James E. Todd, Vermillion, 
S. I). (Read by Mr. L. S. Griswold.) This paper presented some of the 
data recently collected by the author in exploration for the Missouri 
(teologicai Survey, and attempted to harmonize them with similar facts 
from adjacent regions. The data compripe descriptions of the pregla- 
cial deposits; of the character and distribution of the bouldery drift, 
or till, and of the loess and its associated deposits; of the terraoea, 
ancient channels and rapids of the Missouri and other streams; and oP 
the present topography as related to the Pleistocene formations. The 



•V 



Boston Meeting of the Geological Society, 217 

problemB are to determine whether the till was mainly of aubgiacial 
origin; how much of the drift was of laouatrine and glaoio-natant ori- 
gin; and to what extent the Pleistocene deposits of northern Missouri 
may be ascribed to flooded rivers. 

49, Remarks upon a supposed alaciated stone cuce fronx Indiana, 
G. Fredbrick Wright, Oberlin, Ohio. The glaciated stone axe de- 
scribed by Mr. John T. Campbell in Science, vol. xxi, p. 346, for June 
23, 1893, was exhibited to the Society and commented upon by Profs. 
Wright, Niles, Hyatt and others. The general conclusion was that it 
was a glaciated stone of such shape as to be readily utilized by the 
artificer, and that it had not been glaciated since the manufacture. 

/>0. Pseudo-cols, T. C. Chamberlin, Chicago, 111. The theme of 
this paper is closely connected with the next, in the discussion of prob- 
able changes, effected during the Glacial period, in the courses of drain- 
age of the upper Ohio, Allegheny, and Monongahela rivers . The French 
term col is gradually coming into use to signify low passes or saddles 
on the watershed between drainage systems. Its use is very convenient 
in the discussion of reversed or diverted drainage, particularly that 
caused by the intrusion of glacial or igneous obstacles. It not infre- 
quently happens that, when a glacier enters the lower part of a drainage 
basin, it ponds back the waters, and causes them to pass over such a 
col into a neighboring^ basin. Sometimes the valley becomes perma- 
nently filled with glacial wash and morainic debris to such an extent as 
to cause the diverted stream to retain its new course after the retreat 
of the ice. In such cases the stream, in subsequently deepening its 
valley, forms a trench across the col, which gradually takes on the form 
of an ordinary valley. In time the col is only represented by a con- 
striction of the new valley and by certain residual features of the old 
topographic configuration. The floor of the trench across the col obvi- 
ously assumes the slope of the new stream that caused it and has its 
highest part on the up-stream side of the former col. As the trench is 
cut deeper and deeper, the highest point in the rock floor is gradually 
carried up stream. It msy, in this way, be transferred some distance 
from the original col and may thus become entirely disassociated from 
its peculiar topographic relations. 

If, after this has been done, another glacial invasion ensues and the 
valley becomes again filled with glacial wash to some considerable 
hight. the transferred summit of the rock floor is liable to lose its obvi- 
ous connection with the old col and may perhaps seem to be associated 
with new and misleading topofrraphio surroundings. In such a case, if 
the valley debris is penetrated by wells at only a few points and the in- 
vestigator ascertains thereby only imperfectly the nature of the trench 
and the location of the rock summit in its buried floor, he is liable to 
mistake this obscured rock summit for a true col. It is, in fact, not a 
col at all in any proper sense. It never has been a watershed, and has 
never performed the functions or sustained the relations of a true col. 
As there is frequent occasion to refer to this phenomenon in the dis- 
cussion of certain regions of reversed drainage along the border of the 
ancient glacial formations, I propose for it the distinctive name psendo- 
col. The nature of the phenomenon has been more or less distinctly 
recognized by many ireoloinsts. The purpose of this paper is merely to 
bring it forth into more definite recognition, and to supply it with a 
convenient nsme. which may be used in lieu of the cumbersome peri- 
phrastic phraseology now required. 

•W. Certain features of the past drainage systems of the upf}er Ohio 
ftasin, T. C. Cbamberljn and Frank Leverett, botjfiof Chicago, 111. 
This paper begins with a discussion of the probable old drainage 
basins. It supports strongly Mr. CarlKs views, advanced some years 
ago, that the two uppermost sections of the present Alleirheny basin, 
namely, the portion above the Kinzua col and that between the Kinzua 



218 The American Geolofjiat, March, 1894 

and Thompson cole, formerly discharged northward to the lake -Erie 
basin. A third natural section of the present Allegheny is found be- 
tween the Thompson col and the mouth of the Clarion river, where a. 
col has apparently been surmounted by the present stream. Evidence' 
amounting almost to a demonstration is found that this portion of the 
Allegheny had its discharge through a broad and meandering valley 
following in part the lower course of French creek and in part an 
abandoned channel to Carll s "Conneaut outlet'* and thence into the 
lake Erie basin. A possible fourth point of division of drainage sys- 
tems is placed on the Ohio river near New Martinsville, West Yirginiat 
which would throw the lower Allegheny, Monongahela, and upper Ohio 
rivers into the lake Erie basin through the Beaver and Grand river 
basins. Concerning reversal of drainage in this section of the upper 
Ohio, the evidence collected, though suggestive, is considered too in- 
complete to justify any firm opinion. This hypothesis differs from the 
one recently advocated by Dr. Foehay in placing the divide some fifty 
miles farther south, in giving the outlec a slightly different course 
from the Beaver to the Grand river basin, and in restricting the 
applicability of the hypothesis to the elevated base plane or to the 
upper part of the trench cut in it, data concerning the rock floor hav- 
ing been collected by Mr. R. R. Hice which demonstrate its inapplica- 
bility to the lower trench. 

The transgression of cols and the development of pseudo-cols through 
shifting of tbe summit of the rock floor by erosion was briefly touched 
upon. Some cols have shifted but little, while others may have passed 
up the river many miles. The supposed col near the mouth of the 
Clarion is thought to have shifted its pseudo-col about ninety miles to 
the vicinity of Warren, where it has become coalescent with that of 
the Thompson col. 

The importance of considering each section of the Allegheny by it- 
self was urged, since in preglacial time it had an independent history 
and even in glacial times differed in some respects from its neighbor. 

The glacial drift of the region is separated into two distinct parts: 
(1) tbe attenuated border; (2) the series of moraines. Tbe recent studies 
have shown that the high level gravels of the river valleys have a def- 
inite relationship to the attenuated drift, a relationship essentially the 
same as that of the moraine-headed terraces to the moraine. Since the 
gravel trains connected with the attenuated drift-sheet stand at alti- 
tudes far above the adjacent moraine-headed terraces, the conclusion 
cannot well be avoided that great erosion occurred between tbe two 
gravel depositions, consequently a great break in the glaciation. This 
being the case, the attenuated drift should no longer, in that region at 
least, be considered a dependency of the moraine which it borders. 

Terraces and gravel deposits occur along tbe Allegheny at levels be- 
tween the high gravels and the moraine-headed terraces, but they com- 
monly occupy such situations on sloping points, etc., as would be favor- 
able to deposition during the progress of valley cutting as well as dur- 
ing valley filling. As such they do not furnish decisive evidence as to 
whether they are remnants of early gravel, or of the possible valley fil- 
ling between the early and late gravels, or are incidents of valley cut- 
ting. In the lower Allegheny region no place was found, after careful 
search, where abandoned ox-bows or deep recesses of the valley contain 
a filling of early gravels comparable in depth to the present trench. On 
the upper portions of the Allegheny which were interpreted to have 
led directly to the Erie basin the broad preglacial baseplsnes lie nearly 
as low an the present streams and trenching is not carried far below 
them. The small amount of trenching there strengthens the negative 
evidence against deep prefflacial trenching on the lower Allegheny. 

In interpreting the phenomena of this region the hypothesis of a 
single continuous glaciation is necessarily excluded because of the 



^ 



Boston Meeting of the Geological Society. 219 

^reat erosion which occurred between the depositions of the two or 
onore systems of glacial gravel. Four hypotheses relative to the history 
of the phenomena were introduced, three of which postulate but a 
single interglacial epoch, and one of which ix>stulate8 two interglacial 
-epochs. Computed ratios of work done in each of the stages of tilling 
and of excavation under each of the several hypotheses were presented. 
The amount of valley filling associated with the terminal moraines (i. e. 
the valley filling of the last glacial epoch) was taken as the unit of com- 
parison for valley filling, and the amount of postglacial excavation of 
the gravels was taken as the unit of excavation. The amount of valley 
filling of the earlier glacial epoch under the four hypotheses ranged 
irom two and two-thirds to seven times that of the last glacial epoch. 
The amount of valley excavation in the interglacial epoch under each of 
the three hypotheses which postulated one such epoch was thirteen 
times the postglacial excavation; in the remaining hypothesis it ex- 
ceeded thirteen times by an undetermined amount. Attention was di- 
rected to the fact that, to the extent to which we assume preglacial 
'excavation of the Allegheny gorge, to that extent we magnify the valley 
filling of the early glacial epoch. The import of all these hypotheses is 
alike on most of the vital points relative to the history of the region. 
They all greatly emphasize the importance and significance of the first 
glacial epoch. They all show very important intervening excavation, 
when compared with the erosion which has taken place since the Gla- 
cial period. They all indicate that, while the last great glacial invasion 
was very much more pronounced in its apparent effect, and in the ex- 
pression which it took on, it was after all but a small factor of the total 
accomplishment of the Glacial period. 

Prof. I. C. White, in discussion of this paper, thought that no sufll- 
cient evidence is adduced for any of these lines of northerly drainage 
from the upper Ohio basin. He is familiar with nearly the whole area, 
and thinks that the high rocky rim facing lake Erie is continuous. He 
had not been able to find any interruption in it sufficient to furnish a 
channel for the supposed outlet. Besides, he had found, while con- 
ducting the survey of the region in the Susquehanna valley near the 
terminal moraine, that there is the same northerly descent of the bed 
of that river north of the moraine, but no one supposes that the Sus- 
quehanna ever ran to the north from that line. His conclusion, there- 
fore, was that the differential depression to the north was a consequence 
of the Champlain subsidence, from which the land has only partially 
recovered. He was inclined also to believe that the weight of the 
glacial debris accumulated in exceptional amount over the belt imme- 
diately north of the moraine is a partial explanation of the remaining 
northerly depression. 

Prof. G. F. Wriuht suggested that, in the recession of the waterfalls 
which doubtless characterized the region during the formation of the 
rock gorge, the beds of the streams may have been eroded to very un- 
equal depths, as is the case now below Niagara, where in the gorge the 
rock bottom is 200 feet or more below the general surface, while from 
Lewiston to lake Ontario there can be no such depth. He cited a simi- 
lar instance in Snake river, Idaho, just above Shoshone falls, where the 
depth of the river below the general level suddenly increases from a few 
feet to 100 feet or more. 

.V^, Glacial History of xreztern Pennsylvania. G. Frederick 
Wright, Oberlin, Ohio. The author preBented the facts observed near 
Warren. Pa., by Mr. Leverett and himself in company, which show that 
the rock bottom in the valleys of the Allegheny and its tributaries at 
that point was nearly at the same depth before the earliest ice invasion 
as now. A continuous bank of clearly stratified gravel containing 
granite nebbles rises from the fiood-plain of the Conewango to the level 
-of the 250 feet rock shelf, which was part of the river bed in later Ter- 



220 The American Geologist March, iSMr 

tianr timee, and spreadB out over it. Thia is unqueetionablj in the area, 
of toe earliest drift, hence the rook gorge must be entirely preglacial. 
On the south aide of the Allegheny at Clarendon, four mUea from War- 
ren, there are extensive gravel deposits, with granitic pebbles, rising to- 
about the same hight with the terrace described on the ConewangOr 
and filling a buried channel 250 feet deep. This is on the watershed 
between the Allegheny and the Tionesta. This rock gorge must be 
wholly preglacial, yet it extends down very closely to the level of. that 
of the present Allegheny. Such an amount of preglacial erosion there 
would be inconsistent with a less amount anywhere down the Alle- 
gheny and Ohio. 

According to Prof. Wright, the amount of glacial gravel preserved on 
the 200 to 250 feet rock shelves of the Allegheny and upper Ohio has 
not been at all appreciated until within the past year. These gravel 
accumulations line the gorge throughout nearly its whole length and 
are often a half mile wide and 50 feet deep. Assuming it to be proved 
that the erosion of the rock gorge was preglacial, the whole valley must 
have been afterward filled with gravel derived from the ice-sheet and 
then re-excavated. Both these processes were probably aided by the 
Cincinnati ice dam formed by the advance of the ice-sheet there across 
the Ohio valley, which, by producing alack water as far up as Oil City, 
retained all the early glacial sediment and so hastened the filling. 
Later the removal of the ice dam gave an increased gradient to the 
stream, so that its re-excavation was greatly hastened. While, there- 
fore, not Questioning Prof. Chamberlin*B estimate of the amount of ma- 
terial eroded since the filling up of the gorge, the time supposed is less 
because the material was all loose and the gradient much larger than 
now, while also the glacial fioods still supplied a larger flow of water. 

.>.y. 77w» ancient strait at Nipissing, F. B. Taylor, Fort Wayne, 
Ind. (Read by title.) The following facts relating to the shore lines of 
the postglacial submergence in the vicinity of lake Nipissing, Ontario, 
were gathered by explorations during the past season. On the hills 
north of North Bay tour distinct beaches were found. Measured by 
aneroid from North Bay station, which by the C. P. R. profile and Dr. 
J. W. Spencer's table of altitudes in Canada is 658 feet above mean tide 
in the (lulf of St. Lawrence, their altitudes are about as follows: 1. 
Nipissing beach, 743 feet. 2. Thibeault beach, 1,005 feet. 3. McEwen 
beach, 1.090 feet. 4. Nelson beach, 1,140 feet. The Nipissing beach 
marks the level of the Great Lakes during the time of the active river 
outlet eastward down the Mattawa to the Ottawa. This beach is de- 
veloped in great strength and was seen at many points westward as far 
as Duluth, Minn. It rises slightly from west to east. The other three 
beaches are distinct ridges of rounded gravel facing lake Nipissing. The 
Nelson beach marks the upper limit of submergence. No evidence of 
submergence was found on higher ground there, but on the hills south- 
east of North Bay the shore line was found at about 1,205 feet near 
Sundridge and about 1,220 feet near South river. 

About 125 miles west of North Bay heavy gravel deltas of the Ohnap- 
ing river and streams flowing into Windy lake were found near the top 
of the grade eight miles east of Cartier on the C. P. R. at an altitude of 
about 1,2(X) feet. 

These facts point to the following conclusions: I. That the upper 
three of the great lakes tributary to the St. Lawrence had a river out- 
let eastward across the Nipissing pass for a considerable time; 2. That 
there was before that time a strait over the Nipissing pass about 25 
miles wide and more than 500 feet deen: 8. The observations near Oar- 
tier prove a wide extent of water in that direction. Hypothetical ex- 
tension of the plane of the Nelson beach and Ohnaping delta northward 
over low lands suggvsts another strait ovor lakes Tamsgaming and 
Temiseamaog, and over the hight of land and lake Abittibito the hasiB 



V 



Boston Meeting of the Geological Society, 221 

of Hudflon bay, making the high ground north of lake Nipissing an 
island. The belief was expreaaed Uiat these straita connected the great 
Laurentian lakes with the sea. Two maps accompanied the paper. 

54. Extra-moraine drift between the Delaware and the SchuylkilL 
Edward H. Wiixiams, Jr., Bethlehem, Pa. The author gave a sum- 
mary of his observations during the past year, describing the drift de- 
posits, and noting their order and variations as affected by the geolog- 
ical foraiBt4ans. He further considered the geographical conditions 
during the Glacial period, and the age of the extra-moraine drift with 
reference to the terminal moraine. All the glacial phenomena of east- 
ern Pennmrlvania are regarded as very recent, with no evidence of an 
interglaciai epoch. 

Evidence was presented showing that the fringe, or attenuated bor- 
der of the glacial deposits in this region, extends across the Lehigh 
river between the South mountain and Blue Ridge to within a few 
miles of Reading. During a portion of this early advance and retreat 
of the ice the mouth of the Lehigh was dammed by the glacial barrier^ 
and its drainsge was across a col into the Schuylkill by Topton. At 
Bethlehem the rock bottom of the Lehigh valley is certainly lifty feet 
below its present bottom and the channel is filled with debris of the 
earliest glacial advance, showing that on the Lehigh, as on the Alle> 
gheny, the preglacial rock erosion had reached its present extent. 
Many of the glacial pebbles from this area of the earliest ice advance 
are about as fresh and free from chemical changes due to weathering 
or leaching as any from north of the moraine. (This subject was also- 
discussed by Prof. Williams in the January number of the American 
Journal of Science.) 

.55, Tlie Interglaciai series of German tf. Prof. Dr. Alfred Jemtzsgh,. 
Konigsberg, Prussia. (Read by title.) i!he International Congress of 
Geologists at Washington in 1891, in discussing the stratigraphy of 
Quaternary deposits, reached no agreement on the question of an inter- 
glaciai epoch in Europe. Some German geologists spoke for the exis- 
tence of an interglaciai epoch, and others against it. Having been in 
explorations and study of the drift in northern Germany since 1872, 1 
am much interested in this question, and must declare that quite surely 
northern Germany (with probably the greater part of the drift- bearing 
region in Europe) has had at least one interglaciai epoch, and perhaps 
two. 

There are many difficulties, however, in the investigation of this sub- 
ject in Germany. Most of our provinces are poor in Pleistocene fossils, 
and in all the provinces these fossils are mostly found not in their origi- 
nal place, but in their second or third place of deposition; often the 
bones of great terrestrial mammals aie mixed with fluviatile or marine 
molluscan shells. Our drift deposits have a thickness of 100 to 150 
meters («K)0 to 500 feet), and their stratigraphy is very complicated and 
variable within small areas. The deepest valleys of northern Germany 
have cut into the drift not more than 200 feet. We have not only two, 
but four, five, or more glacial deposits (boulder-clay) at the pame local- 
ity, separated by stratified beds of gravel, sand and clay. Beds of the 
same character are often found at very different stratigraphic levels, 
and they are often disturbed by glacial pressure and other causes. For 
example, at one place in eastern Prussia we find Cretaceous and Terti- 
ary strata as a mass of 100 feet thickness on an area of 400.(X)0 square 
feet, resting upon 100 feet of drift deposits, and covered by drift of 100 
feet thicknesa 

Surveying and mapping Prussia on a scale 1 : 100,000, and in part 
1:25,000, and atu dying several hundred sections of artesian wells, we 
have found, between glacial boulder-clays, deposits of sands, clays, etc., 
with an entirely consistent flora or fauna. We know layers of Ostrea, 
of Mytilvs, of Cardinm, each of them containing thousands of shells of 



1 



222 I'he American Geologist March. 18M 

few specieB, often with both valves united. We know small Pleistocene 
beds of lignite, with numerous identifiable plants, indioating a temper- 
ate climate, and elsewhere we see, as at Vogelsang, a Pleistocene chalk, 
iiiled with flu viatile diatoms and shells, underlying a marine bed filled 
with Cardium edule and Tellina baltica. All these beds are situated 
l>etween two boulder-clays. I am far from saying that each sedimen- 
tary bed interposed between boulder-clays indicates an interglacial 
epoch; for I know, and have demonstrated, that such beds may be 
formed by subglacial waters. But I propose to take each observation 
of a consistent fauna or fiora in a hundred or thousand specimens as a 
case of original deposition, and therefore, if it lies between boulder- 
clays, as a case of interglacial sediments, and if it lies at the base of all 
known boulder-days, as a case of preglacial sediments. 

In England we have in preglacial time, ending the Tertiary and begin- 
ning the Quaternary era, the Forest bed and the Bridlington Crag. 
Similarly in Prussia there occurs a sandy bed with Dreissena polymor- 
plui, Vaivata species, and iheboues ot Elephaft, Mhinoceras. BostEqutis, 
and OrvuH tarandus; and, above that bed, a day with VokUa arctica, 
Cypn'na iHlaiulwa (small variety), Antarte borealitt, Phoca (TctgophUus) 
yrobnlandicNH, find numerous hones otOadusBpecieB. Thus at first there 
was a fluviatile fauna of Barmatian character, and then a marine fauna 
of Spitzbergen character. Next followed the Early Qlacial (Altglacial) 
epoch, depositing a series of boulder-clays, with intercalated gravels, 
sands and clays, containing few organic remains. The few fossils which 
we have found here are not consistent, for in these ancient glacial de- 
posits teeth of Kiephas occur near shells of Yoldia, t^nd Yoldia is mixed 
with DreisHena or Vaivata, hni neither Cardium nor Tell inn, Mactra, 
NaHBa nor Cerithium are found in the preglacial and ancient glacial 
strata. The later named species are found only in interglacial and later 
glacial strata. 

The interglacial series is marine near Bremen, Hamburcr, Kid, and in 
Denmark, also in the greater part of Prussia; but it is fiuviatile near 
Konigsberg and Memel, likewise near Berlin, and at Lauenburg on the 
Kibe. The interglacial marine fauna of Prussia is composed of Car- 
dium edule, C, evhinatum^ Tapes virginica, Cuprina inlandiva (larger 
variety). Tellina baltica, Macira suhtruNcata, Mytilun edulis.ScrobieU' 
laria pifx'rata, Mya species, Corbula gibba, Nassa reticulata. Cerithium 
species, Lifforina /j7o)yfi, and Scalaria communis. Never is Yoldia 
arctica found in these beds, which have yielded many thousand speci- 
mens of these more temperate species ! All the animals and plants of 
this series indicate a moderate climate like that of the present time, 
but p4*rbap8 of more insular character. 

Then follows the Late Glacial (Jungglacial) series, composed, like the 
Early (llacial, of boulder-clays, with intercalated gravels, sands and 
clays. These younger gravels are rich in organic remains, but the fos- 
sils are mixed, representing all known preglacial and interglacial beds. 
Very commonly we find Yoldia arctica together with Cardium, Dreis- 
nena and Klcphttn, showing clearly that these fossils must be regarded 
as derived from older beds. 

In conclusion. I think it certain that northern Germany had an inter- 
glacial epoch. The same epoch, with terrestrial fossils, is indicated in 
(^ireat Britain. Switzerland, Austria, northern Italy and along the 
Khine. Perhaps we may see proofs of its existence also in some fossil- 
iferous beds found recently near Moscow and in Scandinavia. Accord- 
ingly I ask the fellows of the Geological Society of America to give some 
place to this short communication in forming your theories of the Ice 
age in Europe. 

.v;. The Madison tyjfc of drumlins, Warren Upham, Somerville, 
Mass. (Rc^ad by title.) The Capitol, University and Observator>' hills 
in Madison, Wisconsin, are drumlins of a peculiar class or type, con- 




Boston Meeting of the Geological Society. 228t 

BiBting of till on their surface, and mainly to depths of five to ten feet 
or more, while Btratitied sand or gravel form their nucleal and greater 
part. The till is believed to have been englaoial, being thence depos- 
ited, like a veneer, on unusual subglncial stream accumulations of mod- 
ified drift. (This paper will be presented in full in a later number of 
the Amrrigan Qeologist.) 

:37. Diversity of the glacial drift along ita boundary. Wabren 
Upham. (Read by title.) Different phases of the drift near its limits 
across the United States and about the Wisconsin driftless area were 
considered in relation to the methods of transportation and deposition, 
ensuing erosion, and sequence in age. Remarking how nearly coinci- 
dent the earlier and later drift boundaries are for the long distance 
from the Scioto river in Ohio eastward to the Atlantic coast, the author 
thinks that they cannot be referred to distinct epochs of glaciation sep- 
arated by a long interglacial time, as some have supposed, when the ice- 
sheet made a long retreat to the north or was wholly melted as now 
from this continent. He believes it more reasonable to appeal instead,, 
as Prof. James D. Dana has recently done (Am. Jour, of Science, Nov., 
1893), to meteorological differences between the Mississippi basin and 
the eastern states, whereby comparatively long glacial retreats and re* 
advances could take place at the west while in the east the ice-border 
more steadily remained near the drift boundary. 

In New Jersey the manner of transportation and deposition of the- 
early extra-moraine drift is held to be a probable explanation of its un- 
even distribution, occurring near its limits in patches which have led 
Prof. R. D. Salisbury to suppose that a long time of denudation inter- 
vened between the times of deposition of the early and the late drift. 
The early accumulation and advance of the ioe to its extreme limits 
gave a comparatively thin ice-sheet with feeble erosive action on much 
of the outer part of the drift-bearing area. Its drift there was nearly 
all brought from considerable distances at the north and was deposited 
in obedience to the currents of the marginal portion of the ice>sheet. 
Now we have upon many districts of the thick later drift the very re- 
markable aggregations of the till called drumlins, which appear to have- 
been amassed by convergent currents of the ice-sheet during its retreat 
(Am. Geoix>gist, Dec., 1^). Similar selective action of the outflowing 
early ice advance close to its farthest limits is thought by the author to 
have amassed that outermost early till in the patches where it is now 
found, having received little chancre by later erosion. 

The well oxidized and leached condition of the early outer drift 
everywhere is easily referred to its derivation chiefly f rum the preglacial 
residuary days, decaying rocks, weathered rock cliffs and tors, and 
boulders of secular disintegration. Its smoothed surface, without the 
inequalities of accumulation which provide basins for the myriad lakes 
and lakelets of the later drift, seems attributable to the gentle currents 
of the early thin ice-sheet, in contrast with which the later thick ice 
powerfully eroded its rook bed. even dose to the boundary, and tumul- 
tuously heaped or very irregularly spread its drift with many lake- 
enclosing hollows. 

oH. Notes on the microscopic structure of siliceous oolite. E. O. 
HovET, New YoVk City. In tne Am. Jour, of Science for Sept., 1890, a 
siliceous oOlite from near State College, Center county, Pennsylvania, 
was described by Dr. E. H. Barbour and figures were given. ' That 
author did not use polarized light in investigating the rock. Some of 
the same material came into the present writer's hands, and, having 
been studied between crossed nicols, the details of structure were clear- 
ly brought out and were described at length. The spherules, which are 
very uniform in size and rather evenly dintributed through the rock, 
consist of two distinct zones of minutely fibrous chalcedony deposited' 
about aggregates of very fine-grained quartz sand or fragments of quartz.. 



224 The American Geologist, Match, UM 

Mao7 of the fragments of quartz have been secondarily enlarged by one 
•or two zones of quartz of the same orientation. Sometimes the zone 
of enlargement roughly approximates a crystal outline. Where there 
are two zones of enlargement there is a zone of granular quartz between 
them. The fragments of quartz appear to be of granitic origin. The 
matrix is of chalcedony, sometimes arranged in one or two rather 
coarsely fibrous, incomplete, concentric shells around the spherules, 
/Sometimes in very minute fibers without apparent orientation, and 
sometimes in very small spherulites. Granular quartz also occurs in 
the matrix. No organic remains were observed. The origin of the rock 
appeiirs to have been a clear quartz sand impregnated by hot siliceous 
waters. Another siliceous oOiite said to be from the Tertiary of New 
Jersey was described. In this the spherules of chalcedony are very ir- 
regular in size and distribution. Many of them are spherulites without 
an apparent nucleus, while others have grains of quartz in their centers. 
The paper was illustrated by a drawing of the first oolite between 
crossed nicols, and a photo-micrograph of the second in ordinary light. 

5.9. ChanneU on drumlins, caused by erosion of glaciul streanu, 
George H. Barton, Boston, Mass. (Ivead by title.) Under the di- 
rection of Prof. N. S. Shaler, for the U. S. Geological Survey, nearly 
eighteen hundred drumlins have been studied in Massachusetts and 
Along the southern edge of New Hampshire. Of postglacial erosion 
there is but little indication, each hill remaining nearly as symmetrical 
and perfect as it first appeared when finally left uncovered by the re- 
treat of the ice-sheet. Cases of erosion produced in the smooth, flow- 
ing outlines of these lenticular masses of till before the ice-sheet had 
entirely uncovered them are abundant, more than one hundred having 
been observed. These consist of channels winding down the southern 
or southeastern slopes of the drumlins. In size they vary from merely 
incipient depressions to those that are from sixty to one hundred feet 
in depth. In typical drumlins, having the longer axis parallel with the 
motion of the ice-sheet, these channels are nearly always parallel with 
the axis and often coincident with it, cutting directly along the sum- 
mit of the ridge as it slopes southward. In the more complex masses 
of till, which often extend in their longer direction nearly at right 
Angles to the glacial motion, they cut down the southern slopes with a 
direction usually approximately parallel to that of the axes of neigh- 
boring typical drumlins. With very few exceptions, there is no cut- 
ting down the northern slopes of either the typical drumlins or of the 
complex groups. In many cases the cutting begins north of the sum- 
mit but passes directly through it with the bottom of the channel 
sloping southward continuously from its most northern point. 

In origin these channels seem to have nothing in common with the 
more or less deeply cut valleys between the separate summits of one 
complex mass. The drumlin contour seems to have been perfectly 
formed previous to the cutting of the channels. In a few cases direct 
linear connection is shown between the channels on several separate 
drumlins, and then usually remnants of eskers occupy the low lands 
between. Tbis would seem to indicate that the same stream that de- 
posited the esker performed the cutting of the channels. During the 
early part of the work Prof. Shaler called attention to*a channel upon 
Forbes hill, in Quincy, and suggested the above reason for its origin. 
Lying upon the southern slopes, with little or no indications of existence 
on the northern, they must have been formed when the ice had been 
melted from the south but still lay banked against the northern slopes, 
by superglacial or englaoial streams, which to the northward flowed 
over icy beds and here were discharged from the front of the ioe to 
plow their way down the southern slopes until they reached the lower 
levels or plunged into standing sheets of water, as they did in many 
instmoes. 




Thb Aheui'am ((■olooiht. Vol. XIII, Plate VI. 



Sand grains enlarsed, and showing cryatalllne facats, 
iwlns to secondary deposition of silica In optical oontl- 
lUlty with the nucleus. From a tied of sandstone two feat 
ri thickness reprasentlns the New Richmond sandstone, 
kllamakee Co., Iowa. 



THE 



AMERICAN GEOLOGIST 



Vol. Xlll. APRIL, 1894. No. 4. 



ON A NEW HORIZON AND SOME NEW LOCALITIES 
FOR FRIABLE SANDSTONE IN WHICH THE 
GRAINS ARE ENLARGED BY SECONDARY 
DEPOSITION OF SILICA IN OPTICAL 
CONTINUITY WITH THE ORIGI- 
NAL NUCLEUS. 

By Sakttsl Calviw, Iowa Citj, 

In northeastertt Iowa the last forty or fifty feet of Owen's 
Lower Magnesian limestone, as it has usually been recognised 
along the Mississippi river, contains a number of thin beds of 
sandstone and shale interst ratified with the characteristic 
dolomite. The first or lowest of the sandstone beds varies 
from two to three feet in thickness. It is more constant than 
the other arenaceous beds with which it is associated, it is 
also thicker than most of them, and for these reasons it may 
probably be regarded as the equivalent in Iowa of the forma- 
tion that has been called the Xetr Bivhrnoud Hotuhione by the 
geologists of Wisconsin and- Minnesota. The beds between 
the layer of sandstone mentioned and the base of the inco- 
herent, massive sands of the St. Peter, may then be correlated 
with the Shakopee limestone of N. H. Winchell. McGee, in 
his memoir on the Pleistocene Histor}' of Northeastern Iowa, 
Eleventh Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 332-388, 
unites this upper portion of Owen's Lower Magnesian lime- 
stone with the St. Peter, and in the same work proposes to 
call the great body of dolomite, lying below the horizon of the 
first intercalated sand bed, the Oneota limestone. The beds 
in question, however, seem to have more intimate relations 
with the underlying dolomite than with the St. Peter. Dolo- 
mite predominates, the thin beds of sandstones being wholly' 
subordinate in importance. For probably more than ninety- 



226 The American Geologist, April, 18M 

five per cent, of the time required for the deposition of these 
heds, the conditions were e^^sentiallj the same as prevailed 
during the preceding time, when dolomite was deposited with- 
out interruption. If, tlierefore, in Iowa, different formational 
names are not to be applied to the strata in this portion of 
the geological column, some name, coextensive with Owen's 
Lower Magnesian limestone, must be locally employed to em- 
brace all the doloraitic beds, together with the few thin beds of 
intercalated sandstone, lying between the top of the St. Croix 
series and the base of the massive, friable, quartzose deposits 
that beyond question belong to the St. Peter sandstone. In this 
great body of sediments we have a record of continuous depo- 
sition under practically similar conditions, these conditions 
being only temporarily interrupted by the deposition of thin 
beds of sandstone in the last forty or fiity feet of the forma- 
tion. For the present I am disposed to extend the application 
of McGee's name, and locally, so far as Iowa is concerned, call 
this whole assemblage of strata the Otieofn Umesttme. 

This discussion seemed necessary to fix definitely the hori- 
zon of the sandstone to which reference is made in the title 
of this paper; for it is the siliceous bed, two or three feet in 
thickness, forty or fifty feet below the top of the Oneota for- 
mation as here defined, and probably the equivalent of the 
New Richmond sandstone of Minnesota and Wisconsin, that 
is to be considered. This sandstone is quite constant over a 
large area in the northeastern half of Allamakee county. 
Fragments of it are strewn in all the washes and waterways 
that cut below the level at which it lies. It breaks into pris- 
matic blocks which, notwithstanding the fact that it is easily 
friable, retain their form unusually well when compared with 
masses of sandstone derived from other sources. Its frag- 
ments are at once distinguished by certain peculiarities of 

m 

appearance from all other blocks of sandstone with which 
they mav be accidentally mingled. It Ifioks sometimes as if 
they were partially vitrified, or rather they suggest the ap- 
pearance of blocks of porous sandstone saturated with some 
transparent non-volatile fluid. In the sunshine the freshly 
broken surfaces sparkle and glitter with numberless shining 
.points, as the light is reflected from myriads of minute crys- 
talline facets. Small fragments of the sandstone may be 



S 



Enlarged Sandstone Grains. — Calvin. 227 

crumbled between the fingers. If the detached grains are 
placed on a black surface and examined with a good magni- 
fier their crytalline character becomes apparent, and the 
angles and faces may be made out fairly well. Examined 
with a compound microscope having a low power objective, 
the crystalline angles and facets can be more satisfactorily 
determined. Mounted in balsam and viewed by transmitted 
light, the boundary between the original sand grains and the 
chemically deposited envelope becomes in all cases apparent, 
on account of the thin layer of ferric oxide with which the 
grains were originally coated. With polarized light the opti- 
cal continuity of nucleus and envelope is readily demonstrated. 
' The loc^alities in Allamakee county, Iowa, where this crys- 
tallized sandstone is exposed are very numerous. It may be 
seen in place by the side of the road in the S. W. \ of Sec. 26, 
T. 98, R. 5 W., about three miles east of AVaukun, and blocks 
of it are strewn for a mile or two down the valley that leads 
toward VMUage creek. In the valley of Waterloo creek the 
same sandstone appears in section 25 of Waterloo township; 
while in the other direction, it crops out in the washes and dry 
runs above Waterville, in the valley of Paint creek. The fact 
is, it is found at hundreds of local exposures, — wherever, in- 
deed, the undulating surface of the region intersects its hori- 
zon, — in a broad belt several miles in width, extending from 
the northwest corner of Allamakee county to the mouth of 
the Yellow river. 

American geology is indebted to Irving and Van Hise for 
practically^ all that has been written on the secondary enlarge- 
ment of quartz grains in sandstones. It is not intended here 
to add anything to the descriptions and explanations of the 
phenomena of enlargements given by these authors in the 
Fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, in Bulle- 
tin No. 8 of the same survey, and in papers published in the 
American Journal o/ Science. The cmly purpose of this paper 
is to call attention to a geological horizon not enumerated in 
their list, and to a number of localities where one may collect 
specimens of sandst'One exhibiting in remarkable perfection 
the interesting peculiarity of having facetted grains resulting 
from the deposit of an envelope of silica in optical continuity 
with the water worn nucleus. 



228 The American Geologist, April, 18M 

GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE SIERRA NEVADA. 

By H. W. TuBNSB, Waahington, D. C. 
{PublUhed by permisnon of the Director of the U, S. Geological Survey.*) 

The Sierra Nevada is composed of a series of roetamorphic 
sedimentary rocks, with which are associated large amounts of 
igneous rocks, granite, diabase, etc. On this older series of 
pre-Cretaceous age there rests with u marked unconformity a 
little altered series of sediments, tuffs and lava-flows of late 
Cretaceous and Tertiary age. The rocks are here treated of 
under two headings; first, the sedimentary formations, and 

second, the igneous rocks. 

PART I. 
THK SEDIMKXTAKY FORMATIONS. 
The following formations have been recognized in the Sierra 
Nevada by the U. S. Geological Survey. The much metamor- 
phosed auriferous slate series has, however, not been satisfac- 
torily subdivided. Future discoveries will further unravel 
this complex. 

Only those formations that are known to occur to the south 
of the fortieth parallel, comprising nearly the whole range, 
are included here. For information concerning the north end 
of the range the reader is referred to the publications of Mr. 
J. S. Diller, Prof. A. Hyatt, and Prof. Whitney. The forma- 
tions are as follows : 

Crvstalline schists Ape ? 

(triz/.lv formation Silurian. 

■ 

Calavrras formation Lower ? Carbonifenuis. 

IJtth' (Jrizzly beds VplK^r ? Carboniferous. 

Mineral Kinjf beds- Triassic. 

Cedar formalism Tria.ssic. 

Sailor Canyon beds Jura-Trias. 

Mili<»n series Jura -Trias ? 

MariiHJsa slates Jurassic. 

Chieo formati<in rp|H»r Cretaceous 

Tejou formation Eocene. 

Ocova Cn^ek beds Miocene. 

lone formation Miocene.J 

Auriferous river gravels MitH'ene and Pliocene. 

Shore jrravels PliiK'ene. 

Shore and river jrrav.'ls. | ^,^^,^. j>,,.is(ocene. 

lake beds and moraines S 

Alluvium Late IMeistocene. 



a|>i)ea 
Survey 



These notes are in part an ab.stract of a ]m|H*r that is sclunluled to 
)ear in the fourteenth annual reiMirt of the Cnited State.s (2eoh)pical 



Geological Notes on the Sierra Xevada, — 7'urner, 229 

('RYSTALLINE SCIIISTS. 

Apart from the contact-metamorphic schists and mica 
schists, known to be in part of Jura-Trias and Carboniferous 
age, there are some areas of gneissoid schists, which may be 
much older. One of these is exposed in the canyon of the 
north fork of the Mokelumne river, to the east of the quartzite 
bluff known as Devil's Nose, on the Big Tree atlas sheet. 
These schists consist largely of brown mica and feldspar, but 
carry also at some points abundant quartz, monoclinic and 
rhombic pyroxene, and brown and green hornblende, with ac- 
cessory minerals. The series is cut by numerous granite 
dikes. Only a superficial examination has thus far been made 
of these rocks. 

Grizzly Fokmation. 

This name has been given by Mr. Diller* to the Grizzly 
quartzite and Taylorville slates in which are limestone lenses, 
from which the following fossils were collected : 

Oiiioid stfms. Stromatopora. 

/aphrentis. Syrin^oix^ra. 

H«»lioHti*s. Halvsites cattMuilatus. 

Orthis. Orinoco ras. 

A continuation of the slates of this formation appears in 
the northeast portion of the Downieville sheet, but no Silurian 
rocks are known to enter into the composition of the main 
mass of the range. 

Calaveras Formation. 

A large portion of the sedimentary rocks of the auriferous 
slate series consist of argillite, quartzite and mica-schist, with 
lenses of limestone. Few determinable fossils have been 
found in these rocks and these chiefly in the limestone lenses- 
Rounded crinoid stems, suggesting tUe Paleozoic era, have 
been collected at many points by the U. S. Geol. Survey, and 
in addition the following more characteristic fossils: 

Phuirotomaria. Phillipsastn'a. 

Polyphemofwis. disiophyllum ^abbi. 

Ijoxonoma. Lithostn^tion whitiioyi. 

Spirif**ra. Kusiilina cylindrica. 

The limestone at Pence's ranch f containing Productua 

♦Tt*xt, I^aHM'n p«»ak shnot, and Hull. iUnA. Soc. Am., vol. IJ, p. 'Mil. 
f (t«»olo>fy of ('aliff»rnia. vt)l. i, p. 210. 



230 The American Geologint. April«iar4 

/tetnireftctftfihtx and Spiri/eyi lineafa^ and the Bae? ranch local- 
ity in Shasta county, are in the Calaveras formation, as is also 
presumably the locality on the McCloud river near Baird 
P. O. 

Dr. Gabb* gives the following fossils from the Bass ranch 

locality: 

Fusulina n>biista. KlivnchoiK'Ha. 

Fusulina ^rracilis. Spirifpra I i neat a. 

Fusulina cvlindrica. Spiriforiiia. 

Lithf»stn>tion. Ret/.ia o»m|)rfs.sa. 

Clisiophyllum <;abbi. Ku<»niphahis whitneyi. 

Pnnluctus M'min'tirulatu.v Orlhis. 

Mr. Walcott is of the opinion that the above assemblage of 
fossils indicates the Lov/er Carboniferous. 

Th»* t«Tm "Calaveras formation" was first us4*<l in print in thf Amek- 
KAN (fKouMii>T <vol XI. p. HOl)). aud tht> dt'finiti(»n was in<Mlifiod in 
th^ iwxt issut* (.lum*. IHJW). FuMulimi has btM*n found by tin* 
writ#'r n«*ar Hit<*'s ('ov«». on tli** south fork of the Mt»rf»Hl river, in lime- 
stone that is a |»art i>f the jrreat liniest«»ne tx'lt of the (told litAi. The 
larjre limestone mass<'s of this belt at Si»nora. Murphy's. Cave City. Vol- 
cano, and on McCormick's ranch nine miles east (»f I*l\mi»uth. an» all 
nearly in a line and pretty sun*ly of the sitme a>re. Rounded crinoi<l 
sti*ms have been found at s«*veral of the ab<»\e localities, but the fossil 
which indicates with certainty the ajre of the Iw'lt to Ik* CarbonifenMis 
is the Funnfiuu near Hite's Cove. 

Ftintilina, crinoid stems and some other f«»ssils were obtaine<l b\ Mr, 
('. I). Vov and bv the writer from the limestime b«»lt <»f the liear moun- 
tains, mostly in the northward continuation of this bi^lt in Calaveras 
ahtl A ma<Ior counties. Mr. T. W. Stant<in and myM*lf collected FunuHmt 
an<l other fossils fn»m limestone south of ()ni«in vallev cr«*ek in Plumas 
(MMMitv. alxmt three and a half miles u|>-stream from the mtuith of the 
crei'k. antl Mr. Stanton collecte<l s<ime from limestone on Spanish creek 
one mile east of Spanish Kancli P. O. This last discovery is interest- 
injf, as the limestone forms one of the outcrops describ^nl by Mr. .las. K. 
Millsl as of Mesn/nic ajTe. The Calaveras formation has als<i Iw^en rec- 
oirni/.ed h\ Mr. ]Jtid<;ren at a numlx'r of (Munts in the .\merican river 
ilrainaife. There is little doubt that it comprises perhaps the larjrer 
par! of the M'dimeiits of the auriferous slate series. 

LiTTLK Grizzly Ckkek IU:i>s. 
At the s(»uthwcst base of Mt. Ingalls, by the road to the 
Cascade gravel mine and to the east of Little Grizzly creek, 
there occurs a highly metamorphic tuff, in a fine-grained por- 
tion of which are recognizable fossils. 

♦Palfontolojry of California, vol. i. pp. 1 MS. 
tHuU. (}eol. 8oc. Am., %'ol. 3. p. 42s. 



Geological Xotes on the Sierra Xevada, — Turner, 231 

The following fossils were collected here by Dr. Cooper 
Curtice, Mr. W. T. Turner and Mr. T. W. Stanton. Through 
the kindness of Mr. C. I). Walcott these were examined by Mr. 
Charles Schuchert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, who re- 
ports upon them as follows : 

'*The colleotioii from Little Orizzly cnM»k, Plumas cduiily, Califurnia. 
shows the fossils to be of Vpprr CarboniferouM ajre. The common forms 
are of the following siK*cies: 

ArchroridariM, plates and spin«'s like those of A. ornatuH N»'wberry, 
and A. trndiferV{\\\U\ 

VhoneteH n.itjt. A very common, larjre, subqiiadrale and very convex 
si)ecies. 

Frodurtun longittpinun .Sowerby. 

Productun HcmireticulatUH f 

Orthi» {Srhizopharia) pero^i Marcoii. 

lihynchonflla {Unrinulun) n.sp. ? 

Spirifer n.sp. Related to >'. camtntta Morton and N. iHHMakheylenniH 
Davidson. 

Spirifer i^Itttirultirin) lineatUM Martin. 

Spirtftrina nHntnia Schl<»theim. The larjre variety. 

This fauna is closely related to that of the Robinson* beds. The sfK*- 
cies of the latter locality are known to me only by the list published by 
Mr. Diller." 

These beds are stratigraphically nearly in a line with the 
Robinson beds, which are considered by Mr. Walcott to be of 
Upper Carboniferous age, and which are also in part com- 
posed of volcanic materials. 

Both of these localities lie «t the east base of the* Sierra 

Nevada, and the formation represented may not enter into 

the composition of the main mass of the range. 

Mineral King Beds. 
The attention of the writer was first called to this locality 

by specimens in the collection of the California St^ite Mining 

Bureau. Later Mr. Becker and the writer paid a visit to the 

locality and a lot of the fossils were collected by the writer 

and sent to Washington. They w^ere all much distorted, and 

Mr. Walcott and Dr. White on examining them could only sa}'^ 

that they were Triassic. Mr. Stanton later examined them 

and identified a plicate form of an (hfrea^ and somewhat 

doubtfully Pecfen, Lmio, Jfi/tilus and JIalohia. 

Cedar Formation. 
This was established by Mr. Dillerf and includes the hori- 

*Ball. Oeol. Hoc. Am., toI. S, p. Tt^. 
f Text of the Lass<'n i)eak sheet. 



282 2'he American Geologist. April. iwi 

zon of the HoHselktiB limestone. It is characterized by pen- 
tagonal crinoid stems, Monotin^ and so forth. Mr. James £. 
Mills* has called attention to a bed of conglomerate in this 
formation on Rush creek in Plumas county, containing pebbles 
of granitoid and other intrusive igneous rocks, plainly indi- 
cating the existence of a land area and presumably a moun- 
tain range in the northern Sierra Nevada before the deposition 
of the (Jedar formation. The slates of the Cedar formation 
on Rush creek are continued southward across the east branch 
of the north fork of the Feather river and form part of the 
high ridge to the north of Meadow valley. Except that 
Monotis has been found at Sailor canyon, there is no evidence 
of the existence of this horizon in the cent.ral or southern 
Sierra Nevada. 

Sailor ('ANYon Beds. 

At Sailor canyon, which drains into the American river 
about six miles southeast of Cisco, are a series of bdds from 
which Mr. Lindgren and Dr. Cooper Curtice have collected 
fossils, concerning which Prof. Hyatt states :f 

**The (lisfc»v«»ry of Monotin bods above tin* (*Hrl)oniffrous in American 
cafion, south of (Msco, California, show the probable existence of the 
Trias there, but just above these, in Sailor's cafton, occur beds of Dnon- 
ffla which were more doubtful. The Daonelhe, although hitherto con- 
sidered exclusively Triassic, occur in part near the upper limits of their 
distribution incurious ass4)ciation with Ammonitina* of very doubtful 
asjH'ct. These Amm(»nitinH« are not.^is a whole, like any fauna hen»to- 
ff>re described as Triassic. Thev have a distinctiv Liassic facies, and 
with them Dr. Curtice found two six'cimens of Aptychi of the rugost* 
ty|H', which in F^uroiH* have not yet made their apfiearance below the 
rpIM'r Lias." 

Milton Series. 

The first locality to the south of Genessee valley where 
there is evidence of the Jura-Trias is on the southeast slope 
of the Sierra buttes. Some years ago the writer saw in the 
collection of Mr. C. W. Hendel, of Laporte, Plumas county, a 
very distinct impression of an ammonite on a piece of black 
slate, which Mr. Hendel informs me was obtained by a miner 
from the spot where the mill of the Phcpnix gold quartz mine 
now stands. There is at this point a narrow lens of black si- 

♦Bull. Ueol. Soc. Am., vol. 3, p. 42t>. 

f Abstract in Am. .lour. Sci.. vol. 17, p. 142. The abstract Is not 
quoted word for w«ird. 




Geological Notes on the Sierra Xevaila, — Turner. 233 

liceous slate included in quartz-porphyry, which is the coun- 
try rock of the mine, and the ammonite presumably came 
from this slate lens. Mr. Stanton examined this locality for 
fossils, but found none. 

There are a number of lenses of precisely similar black si- 
liceous slate in the quartz-porphyry, etc., that forms the crest 
of the ridge extending north from the Sierra buttes, and it is 
therefore probable that all of these rocks, both the lenses and 
the enclosing igneous rocks, are Jura-Trias in age. 

Apparently overlying the igneous rocks that contain the 
siliceous slate lenses area series of comparatively little altered 
sediments containing a large amount of fragmental diabasic 
material with some quartzite, fine-grained, reddish, clastic 
rocks, a variegated breccia and a few limestone lenses. The 
series is best exposed along and east of the north fork of the 
Yuba river, in the southeast corner of the Downieville sheet, 
in the neighborhood of the old stage station known as Milton, 
and the rocks are therefore provisionally called the Milton 
series. 

The breccia contains abundant small fraj^ments (if phthanite, and 
other rocks of various colors. Pebbles of this breccia have been noted 
by the writer at a number of points in the Neocene auriferous jfravels. 
Limestone was seen at two points only, both of the bodies beinjr at the 
contact with the granite area to the east, and having yellow and riMl- 
dish garnets, presumably as a result of granitic contact metamorphism. 
The hardened sandst^me (»r quartxite of the series contains a 
go(Ml deal of authigenetic brownish-green mica in minute foils, 
which may likewise be ascribed to metamorphism. There is. 
therefore, little doubt that the series is earlier in age than the granite 
mass to the east. This b<Kly of tuffs and sediments shows very little 
evidence, both macroscopically and microscopically, of having been 
greatly compressed. Not only, as a rule, has every little slaty structure 
been developed, but under the microsco|)e the augiteand feld.spar prisms 
and the quartx grains show little evidence of crushing. The series, as 
a whole, has a remarkably uniform dip of from 45° to 50° to the east. At 
the granite contact the dip is in places much steefH^r. It is probable that 
these rocks are ,1ura-Trias in age, although fossils have not b<MMi foiuid 
in any porti<m of them. The series seems to rest uncon form ably on thi» 
presumably Paleo/x>ic sediments that form the mass of the range on 
the Downieville sheet west of Milton. Thes«* Paleozoic (?) nicks con- 
sist of black slates, quartxite and limestone, with intrusive quartz-jMir- 
phyry, gabbro, etc. They stand approximately vertical and art* much 
compr»»s.sed. The difference in the lithological characters of the two 
s«*ts of rocks, the fact of one showing much evidence of dynamo-meta- 



2^ The American Geologist. ApriL 

morf^hKin and th*- oth»*r comfAmtivHy littl*'. and th«* inark«nl dilf«-r- 
i'Uv^ in dip of th*' tW4> Ixidi*^. tak«'n a> a wh<»N-, Mnia^r su;QS»^t an 
ijnronfonnit\. 

3fAKIPOSA FORMATIOK. 

The Mariprma folates constitute the motit definite of the for- 
mations that have been reeo^ized in the auriferous slat^ 
series. Where studied by the writer to the south of the 
American river this formation consists almost whollvof black, 
clay slates, with layers of diabase- tuff and a little conglomer- 
ate, made of siliceous pebbles from the rocks of the Calaveras 
formation. The Mariposa slates were considered of Jurassic 
age by Gabb and Meek, who determined the following 
fossils : 

AmmoniU'S'* c<»irH\i. Pholadomva ? orbieulata. 

Aucfila ••rriiiifioni. Iielpmnit«'s |»acificiLS. 

Aiirt'lla ♦•rriiijfloiii. var. Iiii«;iiiff>rmis. 

The U. S. Geol. Survey has collected fossils at* a number of 
localities in the Marip(»sa slates. The most prolific of these 
is the Texas ranch in Calaveras county. The following fos- 
sils were obtained here by Mr. C. I). Voy and Dr. Cooper 
Curtice, and determined by Dr. White and Prrif. Hyatt. 

Aiirc'lla *Triii«fioni. AmalthiMis. 

PiTispliiiH'lfS. C'arclioi'fras. 

HH<*mnit<»s imrificiis. 

TIht«* is s<»m<» ditfiTeiin* «»f oi>iiit<iii as to tin* asr«* of the Marip4)sa 
slatj's. Prnf. Hva!t+ is of tin* opinion that tb«* Aiic»»Ihp and th«* Amm<»- 
nitinji* of th»* ^ren^Ta ('urffiorfratt and PtriMphiurtn*, fnun MariiNisa. 
('alaviTas. and Tuolumne counties prow the rpi)er Jurassic ajre of the 
slates. Tlie species of Cnrdineeran and Pt'tixphinrtrn have the common 
characteristics of similar forms found in the ri>iM»r .Jura of Russia, and 
these occur in association with similar forms of Aucella*. The sfM^cies 
of Auceihe differ, as a whole, from those nf the Knoxville slates in bcinjr 
almost invariably ornamented with ratliatinjr strise. Only one Sfx^cies. 
AutuWt trringtoiti. var, (trrifatfi approximates in outline to the well- 
known narrow form <if AurtUa piitrhi. The conclusion is reached that 
the fauna of the Marip:isa beds is Upper .lurassic and olderj than 
the Knoxville formation, which is usually rejrarded as Neocomian. 

Dr. White considers the Auceihe in the Mariposa beds and those in 
the Knoxville beds of tlu* Coast ran«res to belontr to lh«' same sfiecies, al- 
Jhoujrh n vi'ry variable one. He therefore conclu<les that both series of 

♦Prof. Hyatt stales that this ammonite belon«;s tothe «renus Perinphim-' 
ttM. The s|H*cimen is now in Cambridjre. 

f .\m. .lour. Sci.. vol. 47. p. 14H. 

JThe abstract in the Am. .lour. Sci.. .says younjfer. but is a mistake. 



Geological Xotes on the Sierra Xerada, — 2'ttrner. 235 

bods an* of the same age (NVocomiaii), at the same lime reco^ni/iu^ the 
■close res€»mblaiico of some of the ammonites to Jurassic forms of 
Euroi)e. Outside of the paleontolo^ic evidence, there are certain facts 
in the physical jtc«*olojry of the Knoxville and Maripcisa beds which h*ad 
the writer to believe the latter to bt* the older. 

The Knoxville beds consist of sandstones and shales, which are never 
greatly altered: at least this is true of all those iK)rtions of the beds of 
which the aj?e is certainly known by the presence of fossils. The strata 
have been nowhere jrreatly compressi»d, so that no slaty structure has 
been develoi)ed. The Aucelljp and other fossils found in the Knoxville 
beds have seldom been compressed or otherwise distorted. They not 
•only present their projx'r form, but the original shells (»f the fossils are 
jfencrally present. The strata have nowhere, so far as known, been in- 
truded by granite* or diabase, although seriientine dikes occur in them. 

The Mariix)sa beds on the other hand have been greatly compress<'d, 
in places forming a ^ood r(X)flnjf slate: the fossils in them are also com- 
pressed, and the original shells of the fossils have in all cases disa))- 
fK»ared. The strata are, moreover, intruded by diabase and Kr»nite. 
The fact of the Mari(X)sa beds, as well as the other auriff»n)us slates, 
having been cut off and metamorphosed by granite to the south of 
Mari|M)Ka was first noticed in print in this journal, vol. 7. 1801, i). 211, 
by Mr. Fairbanks. Althouj^h not stated by the author, the Mari)K>.sa 
beds form a j)art of the twenty miles of slates "that are greatly broken 
and metamorphosed." In December, 189H, the writer examined the re- 
irion about Mari])osa and corroborated Fairbanks' jreneral results, al- 
thou<rh he is mistaken in statin«? that the 'Vranite extends down from 
the hiirh Sierras, cuts across all the other formations and terminates 
five miles west of the town of Mariposa." The i^ranite of the hijrh Si- 
erras is separated fr«>m the granite area south of MarifMisa by a tonjfue 
of mica-schist and frreenstone schists, which extends southeast from 
S«*va.stoiK)l across the Chowchilla to the minin>r camp of («rub <iulch. 
and doubtless still further south. |)ossibly to the Kaweah river sedi- 
mentary series, as schists are known to <»ccur at several interme<liate 
IMijnts. 

There is no i)ossible doubt. h(»wever. of the Mariixisa slates bein«r met- 
amorphose<l by the /granite area that extends from Mormon Bar. .s<iuth of 
MariiMisa. to the San Joaquin rivi»r. This lar^re granite mass may be of 
the same a*re as the hornblendic j;ranite to the east of the narrow schist 
belt just described: at most fntints. however, it contains little <»r no 
hornblende, but black mica is abundant. The Mari[K>sa slates west of" 
Mari(M)sa. where they terminate abuttin^^ ajrainst the jrranite, have been 

*The followin^note isadd<'(l asbearinjr indirectly on the subject, forthe 
metamorphic Coast ran^e .series is either as held by Whitney and others 
of the same ajre as the Knoxville beds, or older. The note is as follows: 
Mr. Fairbanks stated to me that he has discovered a basal conjrlomer- 
ate in the Coast ran^^e metamorphic rocks in Monterey county, contain- 
inir granite pebbles, so that he no longer rejrards the granite of the ttav- 
ilan ran;fe as intrusive in the Coast ranjre metamorphic series, as stated 
in the Ameuican CJeolooist. vol. xi, p. 71. 



236 The American Geologist, Axyril,i894 

pushed out of their normal northwesterly strike near the jjranite. in 
places strikin«if east and west. They have, moreover, been converted 
into mica-schists, which at some points, as in Ya^ui gulch, carry small 
andalusite crystals. According to Fairbanks, the clay slates, one-fourth 
mile from the granite, contain needles of fibrolite.* 

In the lower f(x)thills of Madera and Mariposa counties is a belt of 
mica-schist, portions of which carry large andalusite crystals in great 
abundance. Attention was called to this schist belt manv vears ago bv 
Prof. Blake. The Ne Plus Ultra and Buchanan cop|>er mines are in 
these schists. This belt may also be a metamorphosed area of Maripofui 
slates. At Merced Falls, at the very west edge of the f(K)thills on the- 
Merced river, is a belt of clay slates, which is probably the southward 
continuation of the western belt of the Mari]X)sa formation, which ex- 
tends from Folsdm through Salt Sf)ring valley southward. The general 
strike of this belt of clay slates would carry it into the Chowchilla mica- 
andalusite-schist area. 

The Mariposa slates form an integral part of the auriferous slate^ 
series. The dip of the slates is usually from 70° to vertical. At Folsom 
a little west of the bridge over the American river, are nearly horizon- 
tal unaltered sandstones containing C'hico fossils; while not far east of 
the bridge are contact mica-schists of the Mariposa formation dip- 
I)ing at a high angle. No more conspicuous unconformity exists in the 
Sierra Nevada than that between these unaltered Chico strata and i\\i^ 
neighboring metamorphic schists of the Marii)osa formation. The pos- 
sibility suggested by Mr. Dillerf of the upheaval of the Mariposa b«*ds 
having occurred after the Chico or Miocene beds were deposited, can- 
not be entertained. 

Ohico Formation. 

The sediments of the Chico formation where seen in the 
foothills of the Sierra Nevada consist chiefly of sandstone and 
conglomerate. In the areas examined by the writer the dark 
shales that form part of the series in the Coast ranges do not 
appear. These sandstones lie with a marked unconformity 
on the rocks of the auriferous slate series. The beds fre- 
quently have a gentle dip toward the valley. The most south- 
ern locality in the gold belt where the Chico formation is 
known with certainty is at Folsom on the American river, 
where the beds have an altitude of two hundred feet above sea 
level. Prof. Whitney first called attention to this locality. 
P'rom here north Chico beds have been found at various points, 
the altitude increasing with the latitude. At Pentz P. O. in 
Butte county the beds are about 400 feet in elevation ; on 
Chico creek 500 feet or more; underlying Shasta valley 2,500 

*Tenth Ann. Rep. Btaie fif ineralogist of Cala., p. 30. 
fBull. Geol. Boo. Am., vol. 4, p. 122. 



Groiopimi \ofes om fht Sirrra -Vrrcff/ri.— ywrwrr. 287 



feet, and nine miles northeast of Yreka 4aM)0 feet^ the last two 
localities being given on the authority of Mr. DiUer. There 
is thus evidence of an increasing elevation, going north, of the 
mountains of northern California since the deposition of the 
Chico beds. 

The following is a report by Mr. T. W, Stanton on the 
Chico fossils collected chiefly bv T. W. Stanton and II. W. 
Turner from Butte count v : 

* 

"I'RETArKors Fossils from HrTTE C'orxTV. fAHi-xiRXiA, 

Pbnce's Rasch. 



.Viiomia lineaiH («abb. 

Mytiliis sp. uiidet. 

Pprnu cxcMVMta WnrrK. 

IVcluncuIiis v«»Hlchi ((iabb). 

Area sp. iincM. 

Niinila triinrata (tABB. 

Tri^niia lt*aiia CSabb. 

I'rassatella tiiscana (CrABB). 

Trllina (Kiides (iabb. 

Lutraria truncata (Jabb. 

Mactra ((.Vmbophora) ashbiirneri 

(iABB. 

Mactra sp. undf*t. 
Corbula traski (tABB. 
Mesalia obsuta White. T\\n* df 
sjw*ci«»s. 

CHTOO CRXEK, 10 MILXH.N. E. OP THE TOWN OP CHICXK 

lVct«»n sfK undHt. Mactra sp. undfl 

Iiiocoramus whitni>yi (iabb. (iyrtMU's i*ximtisa Iiabb 

<*uciill:ea truncata (tabb. (Vratia iu*xilia Wuitk 

(>assiit«'lla tiiscaiia (tABB. 
Cardium (l*roliK*ardia) placfn»nsis 

( tABB. 

CMis4M*oliiK diibius(iABB. 
Chiont* varians (iabb. 
Mactra (C'ymbophora) ashbiirnori 
(■.\bb. 



tVralia m^xilia Wiiitk. T\|>i* *»f 

S|>»*ClfS. 

(tyrtid«»s conradiana UabbT 
Scalaria inatlu'^'soni (iabbT 
Haydt'nia ixnpn^ssa (Sabb. 
Coniinella lecontei WnrrK. Tym* 

of species. 
Fulgiir hil^nii Whitk. Ty|>e of 

s|>ecies. 
Potamides tenuis (Sabb. 
Scobinella dilleri Whitk. 
Perissolax brevirostris (iabb. 
Kri|>achya |)ondert)sa (iabb. 
Baculiles chic<»ensis Trask. 



lVriss*»lax brfvinKsiris (iabb. 
Sycmles cypniNiides (tAHii. 
Host ell iles ^rabbi AViiitk. 
CMnulia oblicpia (jabb. 
liaoulites chictH'usis Thask. 
Ammonites newberr\aniis Mf:kk. 
Ammonites sp. undet. 

TtVTTJt CBEXI, If KAB CBNTSBTILLB. 



Inoceramus whitneyi (iabb. 
Modiola sp. undet. 
Cuculliea truncata (tABii. 
Pecluncuhis veatchi ((iahb). 
Nucula truncata (iabb. 
Tri|^>nia evansana Mkf:k. 
Tri^conia leana (iABB. 



m 



rri^ronia navisCiABB. 
I'rassatella t\iscana ((lAiui). 
(.'ardium (Pn»tocardia) placerensis 

(lABB. 

(Misocolus cordatus Wiiitkavks. 
CMiione varians (iabb. 
(\vther(>a nitida ((iaiib). 



On 



Th*» A ii'*f''fft.$ fr**tt*'t*J*ift', 



T'"..n;i Ai*\\ mni-r 'rtSB. 

*t IBB. 

I*l.«i»;nl«'m-. ;l .■ir»'WT' r i3B. 
ih^j\Xi\, :,;m ••»*.i»»»« » r vBB. 

I 'w\ ni*i»^ >'\[lltCl*Sk ♦ r VBB. 

Tnrrir*-:I;i \»';iri*'i; tr.iBB. 



P .r.i.-n.it»*^ '►•n ;> ♦ r %.Ba. 
Er* ar : i a iiii**-^ •»** • r kBB. 

P-f>.^,j;4X ^r»*' .-» ..rr'^ »rkB3 

Aim- I! '►'^ a. ^r- 



-The fi»Ti*iiI:i from th*?«** I» »<.'»: it it-*, like th«».se fp-ci all the'^ther 
('retac%-i>us Uiealiti**** on th*- ea.'?t Mil>**>f the Sacnininrat»»VBl!fT- 
belon«j to the tvpical rhi<rt> fawna. Th«* strata fn»m vhirh 
thej came are pn>bablr not tlie oMf^^t < h:<r«^ fHrfis.tfartiicrfa jsev- 
eral of the most pn»minent 'ip«?«-i*f^ nin:^ d»»wTi i«» the ha<^ «»f 
the C'hico anU into the Hor^ietown betis in the thi<-k ^e^^tion^^ 
on the west side of the Sacrament«» vallt^r. On the ttther hand, 
these tvpical t.'hio«» strata fn»m whi«*h the formation was fir««l 
nameil seem not to represent the latent Tretaeeons time: for 
their ft^ssils dt> n*>t show anj intimate n-latiiinship with the 
fnuua of the Tejon | E«H:ene >. whieh ha* been ^iipp^is^-d to 
follow the C'hieo without interruptiim. Thi* view is strength- 
ened by the faet that the f«xsils. e*pe«-iailr the Ammonites, 
from the base i»f the <'hi<M» where it blen<i< with the Horse- 
town indieate an ajje n*»t later than the i Vnomanian for that 
^utrtion of the formatii>n/* 

TkJOX FoUllATU^X (EiMEXE). 

So far as known, strata eontaining shells of the Tejon for- 
mation have been f(»und in the G«>ld Belt region only at the 
Maryj^ville buttes. where they were eolleeted by Mr. Lindgren. 
Tejon fossils have n«»t bi*en reported from the foothills of the 
Sierra Nevada between the Marysville buttes and the original 
locality in the Tehaehapi range, the Tejon ranch. 

At the west base of the ni»rth endofOroville table mountain 
about one mile south of Pentz P. ()., the writer collected casts 
of a strongly concentrically ribbed shell, associated with stems 




Geological Xoteis on the Sierra Xevada, — Turner. 239 

of fossil plants. The shells were determined by Dr. White and 
Mr. Stanton as belonging to Corhicala, a genus found onl}' in 
fresh and brackish waters. The Corbicala bed overlies sand- 
stones containing abundant Chieo fossils, and underlies the 
white shales and clay of the lone f<»rniation that is capped by 
the basalt of the table mountain. It is possible that the Cor- 
hicula bed represents the Eocene period and perhaps the 
Puget group of Washington. 

OcoYA Creek Beds. 
Prof. W. P. Blake* reported extensive deposits of Miocene 
age in Tulare county on Ocoya or Pos^ creek and further 
south. 

The fossils collected by Blake were casts, and from these 
Mr. Conrad described a number of species. As there is a 
probability that all of these fossils cannot hereafter be recog- 
nized, only the following are given, these having been identified 
by Gabb from later collections : 

Apisoma KrHvidtt (tabb: nndfl. Conkad. , 

\atica rcclu/.iana (iabb: ocoyana Conrad. 
Pfcleii catilliformis Conrad. 
A considerable number of shark teeth were found and 
studied by Prof. Louis Agassiz. According to Prof. Whitney, 
the upper portion of the beds are of a later and fresh water 
origin and contain fragments of bone and wood. There is a 
possibility of correlating the lone formation with, these beds. 

loNK Formation. 
This term was first used by Mr. W. Lindgren, in the descrip- 
tive text of the Sacramento sheet, for the beds of clay and 
sand, with layers of lignite, that occur along the foothills of 
the Sierra Nevada and seem to have been depositt^d at the 
same time as the earlier auriferous river gravels, which are 
usually composed chiefly of white quartz pebbles. The series 
is best developed in Amador and Calaveras counties, where 
the writer has been able to separate it into three portions, as 
follows, in descending order : 
loiiH formation. 

1. lone clav rock or tuff — 100 f«M*t or more in thickness. 

2. lone sandstont- — ICO feet or more in thickness. 

3. White clav and sand beds containin*; coal seam.s — .hOO 

feet or more. 

*Paeifio RaUroad Reports, vol. 5. pp. 104>]TS. 



242 The American Geologist. April, 18m 

been deposited in the waters of the gulf that formerly occu- 
pied the basin of the great valle3\ Where studied bj^ the 
writer in Amador and Calaveras counties, these gravels merge 
into the Pliocene river gravels. This is particularly notice- 
able to the east of Valley Springs. They may, therefore, be 
said to represent, in part, a delta formation, but the main 
mass of them, occurring as a capping to the ridges, is more 
properly designated as shore gravel. 

Tht' unroll formitx of tlu'so ;rrave!s on tlu' lone formation is pluinix 
s«*«»n at tin* sandstone* (|uarry, thrt*t' mih's soutlu^ast (»f Huena Vista, 
whoro lh»»y rest on the undulating and sni(Mith water-worn surface of the 
lone sandstone. Water-worn boulders of the sandstone (K*c*ur in the 
gravel. In a cut of the San Joaquin and Sierra Nevada railrt)ad, one 
mile stmthwest of Valley Spring, .the jfravels are well exposed and at- 
tain a thickness of two hundrml f«H»t. At the bottom of the cut may be 
seen im»j;ular blocks of the jrray day-rock or tulf of the lone formation 
included in the gravel beds. The unconformity of the Pliocene ahor<» 
>rravels on the rhyolitic series may be s<*en at Valley Spring i)t»ak and 
at Huena Vista jieak. At both places the gravels contain abundant )M*b- 
bles <»r the rhyotite that forms these two jieaks. These heavy bodies of 
coarse jjravel sujfjfest the Pliocene to have been a |K*ri<Hl of rapid en)sion. 
These f^ravels attain at Valley Springs iM'ak a ma.\imum elevation of 
1,000 feet. The jrrt'at bulk of them are fn)m 500 to 700'fe«»t above si*a 
level. 

Eauly Pleistocknk Shoke ani> Kivek Gkavels and Murainks. 

The early Pleistocene shore gravels consist almost entirely 
of quartzite and other highly siliceous pebbles. They appear 
to have been formed largely from Neocene (Miocene and Pli- 
ocene) gravels, from which thesofter pebbles of igneous rocks 
were eliminated by long continued washing by the gulf 
waters. There are extensive areas of these gravels on the 
east side of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. On 
the Jackson sheet they occur as low, 'broad plateaus, and in 
the depressions between the Neocene and older hills up to an 
elevation of 450 feet. Thej' attiiin a maximum elevation of 
500 feet at the Irish Hill gravel mine, four miles northwest of 
lone, in Amador county. The soil of the Pleistocene shf^re 
gravels is red in color. Since these gravels rest on the lone 
formation or on andesitic tuff, it is plain that the quartzite 
pebbles could not have been derived directly from quartzite 
croppings, which, moreover, do not occur along the west edge 
of the foot-hills, but only at a greater elevation than was at- 




GfoUnjival Xoten on the Sierra Xevada, — Turner, 248 

tuined by the Pleistocene gulf waters. The Pleistocene shore 
gravels have been proved at many points auriferous. They 
have been extensively washed on the plateau southwest of 
Canianche, and also along the Mokelumne near Camanche. at 
the North Hill mine near Jenny Lind, at Irish Hill, and other 
points. 

Tht» riviT d(')M>sits of t'nrly Plt*lst<)f»'iH» am* consist of gravels alon^ tin* 
pn*s»«nt rivors lyin^ usuhIIv I<'ss than on<» hiindreil fool alxivo tho |)roH«*nt 
rivor lovel. Then' is much more variety in tht* i)obbh»s of thes«» ^ravols 
thoy havin^r boon formed chiefly from the hanl pro-Ootacoons rocks, in 
which the river canyons are cut. The early Ploistoct»no river jrravels 
have, as a rule, proved hi^lily auriferous. Some of the Pleist<»ceno 
.streams have changed their courses for short distances, having cut 
thnni^h some barrier. This is the case with the Mokelumne river, one 
mile west of Lancha Plana, on the .lackson sheet, and also with Slate 
creek, on the Hidwoll Bar sheet, just before it Joins the Yuba river. 
The gravels in the disserted beds of b<ith of these stn^ams have bt»en 
mined for f^old. 

S<imo of the valleys of the ran^o were occupied in early PloisttH'oiio 
time by lakes. This is the case with Mohawk valley* in Plumas 
county, and with Meadow valley, at the head of S|mnish creek. The 
lake in Mohawk valley was caused by the waters of the Feather river 
boinjf dammed back by an eruption of andesite-breccia, while the basin 
<»f Meadow valley np|M*ars t<» have Iwen formed by on)>rra|)hic caus<*s. 
The >rravel-beiu*hes alxnit Meadow valley that were formed by this early 
Plei.sttK*ene lake, attain an altitude of mon> than 4,(KK) feet, the lowest 
part of the valley having an altitude of :<,7<K) feet. Sierra valley was 
doubtless formerly (H*cupied by a shallow sheet of water. 

Moraines are vt>r\ abundant and finely pn'served in all that |M»rtion of 
the ran^e whert> the hi^rher |M>ints attained an altitude of 8.0U0 feet or 
mon*. The glaciers were local and with tmly minor exceptions they 
followed the course of the pres«'nt drainai;e system. They evidently at- 
tained their ma.ximum development after the formation of the ))resent 
canyons. As was state<l by Prof. I. ('. Uus.sell.f there are rudimentary 
>?lacit>rs still in e.vistence in the hijrh Sierra re;rion east' of Yosemite 
valley, (hie of the most easily seen <»f these was visited by the writer. 
This is on the north side of Ml. Dana. Ther<* is here a very pretty cre.s- 
<*ent-sha|M»d terminal m«iraine. and the water of the little lakes b«»low 
the >rlacier is yellowish frt>m the sill, pr«'sumably due to the ert)sive ac- 
tion <»f the glaciers. 

Prof. .IfMieph he (.*onte^ has studied the glaciers at Mono lake and lake 
TahcM*. 

♦Hull. Phil. S(K-. of Washington, vol. 11. pp. 385-410. 
f Eighth Annual ReiK)rt, V. S. (Jeol. Survey. Part 1. 
^\m. Jour. Sci., :kl S<«r.. vol. 10, pp. 12«-i:m. 



244 The American Geologist. April, 18M 

Allivitm. 
There are gravels and fine sediments in all tiie valleys and 
along the rivers, that have been formed in the Recent period. 

The Upheavals itErouDED in the Roc^ks of the Sierra 

Nevada. 

Pre-i'iirhoniferovH lantf area. In the portions of the range 
studied by the writer, comprising a strip thirty miles wide, 
extending across the mountains just south of the fortieth 
parallel, and a large part of the range to the south of Placer- 
ville in Eldorado county, the first record of a land area is that 
furnished by a bed of conglomerate in the foot-hills of C)ala- 
veras and Amador counties. This conglomerate isinterstrat- 
ified with slates and limestone, the latter containing Fusiilina 
ri/Undrica and rounded crinoid stems, indicating the Carbon- 
iferous period. At one point in Calaveras county this con- 
glomerate is within twenty feet of the limestone croppings, 
all the rocks having the same strike and dip. No fossils were 
found in the conglomerate itself, and therefore the possibility 
remains of its being of later age and folded in with the Car- 
boniferous sediments. 

This conglomerate contains pebbles of diabase, hornblendc- 
porphj'rite and quartzite, the igneous pebbles being much the 
most abundant. The conglomerate is well exposed in a field 
three miles northwest of (iolden Kate hill (Nos. 22 and 50- 
61), Calaveras county collection), and west and northwest of 
Sugar Loaf (Nos. 80 and 81, Amador county collection), the 
last conglomerate stratum being to the east of the Willow 

Springs serpentine belt. 

It is |H)ssibI»> that lh«* <piartzit»' nf Mt. Aijrnri* ami «»thtT similar 
masw's in tin* southwest iM>rti(»ii i»f tlie Plaf«*rvill»- atlas sh«M»t ropr»'s«*iit 
n'miiHiits of tins Ii.v|H»!lH*tical pn-Carboiiifenms laud ar«>a. Tht»se 
qiiartzitt* masM's hav«' a sunifwhat irri'jrular strik«* and dip, and in this 
n's|H'i-t vary from thf Carbonin-rons brlt Ivinjr to tbf t'ast t»f Mt. Aiiran-. 
the HM-ks of which di|> at a hi^'M an«fl»' and strik«* nrarh north and 
south with ^irvnX n-jrnlaril\ . Thfsr (puirtzitf an*as. an». howrwr. r.'|>- 
r»»s«-ntrd on thf lMar«*rviM»' :r»M»h»4rical sheet as of the Calaveras forma- 
tion, then- »>«'injr no i)ositive evidence to the eontrary. 

Another ronirlomerate be<l that is. iHThaps. of Carboniferous ajfe is 
e\pt»M*d b\ the road to Cherokee to the south i»f Mi»nte de ()n» on the 
Cliico atlas slieei. This contains pebbles (Ni». 14» Butte county) of line 
-rained silic.MMis rocks and of |«»r|.hyrile. The black slate associated 




Geolofficaf S'of(*H on the Sierra Xerada, — Turner, 245 

« 

"With till* coiijrlnmerutt* contniiiK somi* imiH'rfi'i't plant rfmains, so that 
fossilH may v»»t be foniul t<» drlermiiie tin* a«r«». Tht* beds an* presumed 
to be ('arlxmifenius in a^re from beinjr apparently tlje continuation of 
the series northeast of Pent/. P. O., in the limestone of which ('arV)onif- 
enuis fossils have l>eeii found. • 

Pre'Trt'axxir la ml. As was noted tinder "(■edar formation," 
there is on Rush creek in Plumas county a bed of conglomer- 
ate interbedded with slates and limest<»ne, the latter contain- 
ini^Triassic fossils. The writer visited this locality' in company 
with Mr. Diller, who has in charge the geological mapping of 
the district. Quite a collection of the pebbles was made, and 
by permission of Mr. Diller the writer has examined a few of 
these. Quartz-diorite, diabase, and what is probably a dial- 
lage-olivine rock are represented. These pebbles will be 
studied further later. 

The jtre-Mari/ioaa tiphyacal. As was noted by Mr. Becker,* 
the Triassic rocks at Mineral King are enclosed in granite 
giving evidence of a post-Triassic upheaval. The pre-Mari- 
posa disturbance, of which the evidence is herewith brietly 
presented, may be identical with that which residted in the 
upheaval and metamorphism of the Mineral King beds, but it 
is likewise possible that the Mineral King disturbance should 
be correlated with the j)<)st-Marip<)sa upheaval. 

Tile prt>-Mari|M)sa uphea^aI. or. to s|M'ak more explicitly. th«*evidi'nce 
of the iinconformit\ of the Mariposa formation on th<' Calaveras forma- 
tion, is shown by the following; facts: First, the litholoiric differences of 
the two formations, the Mari|N)sa beds ctmsisiin^r iniiformly of black 
cla\ slates, whicli contain locallv thin lavers of diabase-tuff and some 
conjriomerate. while the Calaveras formation is matle up of a variety of 
rocks, cla> slates, (piart/ite. phthanite, and lenses of limestone. S«*cond. 
ihe occurrenci* of a con;rIom«'rale in the Mari|Ntsa slates that is largely 
made up of phthanile lobbies, precisely Iik«* the phthanite of the Cala- 
veras formation. Ssune of this coni;lomeral»* ma> be se^n al the south 
l)asc of Hear mountain. t(»the»'ast of the Texas ranch fossil localitv. 

• 

Third, in th«* occurrence of a n:irrow streak <»f the MarifMisa slates cut- 
tini; across till' Ca!a\ eras formation, with a slijrht diversit\ in strike. 
This narrow b«'lt of slate extends fr<»m the Texas ranch fossil Iocalit\. 
which lies to the southwest <if I5»*ar mountain, m^rthwesterh across the 
Calaveras formation, crossing' the road from .Milton to .Vnjri'I's. one mile 
southeHSt of Carman |M*ak. The same phthanite con<;lt»merate that o<'- 
curs near the Texas ranch is found with the slati' where it is cmssed bv 

• 

tin* road mention(*d above. Fourth, the pale<mtolo«ric break, the Cala- 
veras formation n'presentin^r the Carboniferous and probabl\ the liower 

•Hull, tieol. SiK\, vol. *>. p. -itMi. 



246 The American Geologist. April, 1894 

Carboniferous, while* the Marifx)sa slates are of late Jurassic, or accord- 
ing to Dr. White, of early Cretaceous age; and, as the Mariposa slates 
are directly in contact with the Carboniferous rocks, there is plainly a 
long time hiatus. 

The narrow streak of 4he Mari{X)sa slates referred to in the foregoing 
paragraph s<M'ms certainlj' to have been defxisited in a trough between 
pre-existing ridges of the Calaveras formation and to have been folded 
up with the rocks of that formation at the time of the iJost-Marii)osa 
upheaval. The slates of both the Calaveras formation and of this nar- 
row belt of Mari)X)Sa slates dip at a high angle to the east, but as bef(»re 
noted there is a slight diversity in strike. 

Evidence similar to the above may be obtained by noting the strike 
of the two main belts of the Mari)x)sa formation, which were first de- 
scribed in this journal, vol. 11, p. 308. The western belt of slate main- 
tains a general northwesterly strike from near Folsom on the American 
river to Merced falls on the Merced river; the eastern belt, on the other 
hand, maintains a northwesterly strike from its south end nearMariTM)sa 
to near Plymouth in Amador county, where it is flexed, pursuing thence 
a north course to Placerville, again bending northwesterly to the north 
of that town. The result is that the two belts, which are nearl}' paral- 
lel as far north as the Cosumnes river, diverge at an angli* of about 30° 
to the north of that jiver. 

The geographical distribution of the genus AureWi also indicates that 
a land area existed in the n^gion now occupied by the Sierra Nevada, at 
the time the Mari()osa b<»ds were being deix)8ited, for the genus is not 
found in the Jurassic dejxjsits of the higher part of the range at Sailor 
canyon, nor in the highly fossiliferous Jurassic beds of Mt. Jura, in Plu- 
mas countv. 

The Hinchman tuff, which is the highest horizon n'cogni/.ed by 
Diller and Hyatt, is considered to represent not the very top of the Ju- 
rassic, but the Corallian of Kurojx*, while the Mariixisa beds an» re- 
garded, 1 think, by Hyatt as representing the upfx^rmost Jura, so that 
our pn^sent knowledge suggests that all of California and Nevada to the 
east of the an'a of the MariiK>sa beds has been above water since the 
close of the Hinchman tuff (Corallian) epoch. 

This distribution of the genus apix^ars to favor the hy|M>thesis of Dr. 
White and Mr. Becker that the MarifM)sa and Knoxville beds are of the 
.same age. If it be su)>{M>sed that a continuous series of Aucella-lx'ari ng 
Ix'ds were deiK>.Hited on the western border of this pre-Mari|M)sa land 
area, and that thes<» dejM>sits extended over the area now occupied by 
the Sacrament*)- San Joaquin valley and into the pr«'sent Coast 
ranges, and that the orographic movements that uplifted, folded and 
metamorphos***! the Mari|M)sa beds wen* not strt)ngly felt Ui the west of 
the great valley, it ctmld be held that the Mari|)osa and Knoxville beds 
are merely ditfereiit i)(>rtions of this C4»ntinuous series, the slaty struc- 
ture and metamorphism of the Mari|)osa beds being due to their being 
in the zone <»f the intense dynamic movements that formed the Sierra 
Nevada, while the Knoxville b«»ds, being out of this ztme, were less dis- 



Geoloyiral Notes on the Sierra Xecada, — Turner. 247 

tiirbod aiul little* metamorphosed. The facts, Ux>, that seriH'iitine is in- 
trusive in the Knoxville beds, and that some of the granite of the Sierra 
is later than some of the seri)entine of that range, might be used as an 
argument that the absence of intriisive granite in the Knoxville' beds 
merely shows that no granite intrusions have occurred in the Coast 
ranges as late as the {)ost-Marii)osa granite of the Sierra Nevada. 

Against the h.v|>othe8is of Mr. Becker and Dr. White, just discussed, 
is the opinion of Prof. Hyatt that the fauna of the Mari|M)sa beds is not 
identical s|K»ciflcalIy with that of the Knoxville series. The pnM)f of 
then' having been a continuous s«^dimentation in the northern Coast 
ranges of (California from the Knoxville eix>ch to the Chico, inclusive, 
that has lately been brought forward by Messrs. l)iller*andStantonf, re- 
sulting in establishing the Shasta-(*hico series, also does not favor this 
hy|K)thesis. since, as before noted, the Chico is conspicuously uncon- 
formable on the Mari|M)sa slates at Folsom. 

The pn)of of the intrusion of st^rix^-ntine into the Knoxville beds is. 
however, unquestionable, and if the large areas of serpentine in the 
cf*ntral Coast ranges are also i)ost-KnoxvilIe in age, it seems almost cer- 
tain that a disturbance of the Knoxville beds must have occurred at the 
lime of the extrusion of the basic igneous rock from which the s(»rpen- 
tine is derived. 

Post -Mariposa uphearaL As was shown many years ago by 
Prof. Whitney, the Sierra Nevada was upheaved as a great 
mountain range after the Mariposa beds were deposited. Evi- 
dence has already been pre.sented under " Mariposa forma- 
tion," showing that granitic rocks were intruded into the 
slates of the Mariposa formation at the time of this upheaval. 
It is indeed possible that much of the granite of the range 
dates from this upheaval. 

Post-Tertiary elevation. During Cretaceous and Tertiary 
time, the Jurassic Sierra Nevada had been reduced to an ap- 
proximate peneplain. In the late Tertiary a large part of the 
western slope was covered with volcanic materials, extensive 
areas of which still remain, preserving underneath them the 
Tertiary peneplain, the drainage system of which is repre- 
sented by the Neocene auriferous river gravels. 

About the close of the Tertiary the range was elevated and 
the streams, with added force of gravity, cut new and deep 
cations in the hard eroded base of the Jurassic range in a sur- 
prisingly short time. This elevation of the range was not 
accompanied by the folding of the strata, but the formation 
of a series of normal faults appears to date from this time. 

♦Hull, (teol, Soi\ Am., vol. 4. pp. mV2-24. 
f Ibid., pp. •i4.V*2;>«. 



248 



The American Geologist. 



April, 1S»4 



SiiKM* tho iM»st-.liirHssii> disturbatuM'. there ilien a|»iM*ars i<» have been 
no jrreat orojrraphic movenn'iits in the Sierra Nevada, a(T<im|mnied bv 
criiniplinir and Toldin^ of the strata. The block (»f the earth's crust 
that has been practically ri^rid since that time is a hir^je one. embrac- 
in<r abont *iO,()0() stpiare miles, an<l taking in practically tin* entire Sierra 
Nevada an<l all that {Mtrtion of the jrreat valle\ to the east of the San 
.loaqnin an<l Sacramento rivers. It has been shown by (Jilbert. Le 
Conte and others, as is well known, that the east edjre of this<;reat block 
is bounded b\ a zone of normal faults, wliich liave j»r<Kluced an easl«'rn 
escarpment winch is most marke<l west of Mono antUhven's lakes: but. 
so far as known t* th»' writer, attention has not been called to the west 
border of this block, which is perhaps also bounded by a xone of frac- 
tion's alon^ which normal faults may have formed. The pr«)tM)sition is 
here advanced as a workinjr1i.viK»thesis that a jrreat fracture, or. rather. 
series of fractures, exists at about the mi<idleof the jrreat \ alley, whicli 
line i)f fractures is appro.ximately followed by the Sacramento and San 
.Ioa<piin rivers. The soul h ward continuation of this hy|)otlu'lical line 
of fraclurinir may cut the Tehachapi ranire. for Prof. Whitney* writes: 
"As we skirt the base of the Sierra, however, in the n'«rion wheri* this 
chain turns to the west towards F<»rt Tejon, we pass at once from un- 
disturbed Tertiary to strata of the same ajje which are elevated at a 
Jiiirh anirle. and in s(»doinjr we leave the system <»f the Sierra, and pass 
over to that of the Coast raii^n's. This chanjr*' takes place alxmt mid- 
waiy between the 'I'ejon pass and the ('aflacbi de las Txas: but no break 
in the mountain ranires indicates this transition." 

AVhile the rp'taceous and Tertiary beds to tin* west of the;rreat block 
above outlined have been crushed and folded to an enormous extent. 
formin«r «'Xtensi\e ridires in the present Coast ranijes. the block itself 
has been practically rijritl. as is evidenced h\ the nearly horizontal beds 
of Creiac»'ous an<I Tertiary strata that occur aIon«r the foot hills, and In 
the Terliar> tulfs and river de|M)sits. also nearl\ httri/ontal, that cap 
man\ of tin* ridjresexen near the crest of the rany^e. 

Ilow much faultin*r. if an\. has taken place alon^*^ the series <»f frac- 
tures that ar«' suj»|M>sed to exist a lonj; the western edjre of this orojrraphic 
block. i> not known, but the <«xistence of fatilts alon«r the east edjr«' is 
bexond (piestioii. and these normal faults aii)M>ar to ha\e been formetl 
at thr clox- of till' Tertiar.N. chietly as a result of "jrravitatin:; seltliuir" 
which followed the elexation of the riiljres at that lime. 

livrvHt ehraiioHs <tf' the luntf^e. It is well known that much 
of the coast of ('alifornia has risen in recent times. This is 
shown hy tlie finely preserved wave-eiit terraces alon^ the 
eoast that now stand some hundreds of feet above sea level, 
and concerning which Prof. Lawsonf has recently written a 
valuahle paper. If tlie Pleistocene ^iilf <»r inland sea that oe- 



♦tJeol. California. \ol. i. j). MM. 

fitull. I)ej)t. <ieoI.. Cnix. «»f California, vol. r. pp. ll.Vino. 



Kvonotin'v Geoloffical /)e/tosi(s, — Croxhy, 249 

cupied the great valley was at or near sea level, it is obvious 
that the region of the great valley has also risen, since it is 
now high and dry. The Inyo earthquake of 1872 may have 
been due to a slipping along the normal fault zone of the east- 
ern escarpment, which was, perhaps, accompanied by an up- 
ward movement of the crest directly west. 

[To be concluded in next number.] 



A CLASSIFICATION OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGICAL 

DEPOSITS BASED ON ORIGIN AND 

ORIGINAL STRUCTURE.* 

By W. O. C^ROSBT, Boston, Siasb. 
iNTKOUrCTION. 

The title of this paper might be otherwise expressed as the 
enumeration and brief description in natural order of the va- 
rious modes of origin and occurrence of useful minerals and 
rocks. A strictly natural classification on economic lines is, 
of course, impossible: simply because nature has shown no 
special regard for our eccmomic distinctions. The position 
of a rock in the natural classification is essentially the same, 
whether it contains one grain, one ounce, or one pound of gold 
to the ton. The economic classification must, in every instance, 
be a fragmentary scheme, lacking the completeness and per- 
fect co?)rdinati(m or symmetry which we recognize or believe 
to be recognizable in nature: for it represents a body of 
knowledge having arbitrary or artiiicial and shifting bound- 
aries. A mineral which is valueless to-day may find a useful 
application to-nu>rrow, and thus, perhaps, introduce into the 
economic classification a new type of deposit: tnid in like 
manner the deposits of a particular type ma}' be dropped from 
the economic scheme, if the substance which they afford be 
supplanted in its relations to human welfare by some other. 
The most nearly ideal plan would, it is believed, be a com- 
pletely elab(U'ated natural or scientific classification, with a 
special mark to designate those deposits of present economic 
interest. The practical man, who often cares little for the 
general relations to the whole of the small part in which he 

*A |m|M'r pri'siMitrd Iwfon* \hv (tcolotriral Sorirtv «>f AnnTica. I)«'f, 'il). 



250 The Amencan GeoloyisL April, 18W 

feels a vital interest, mignt be disposed to criticise such a clas- 
sification as unnecessarily complicated and as implying a 
more extended knowledge of general geology than he usually 
possesses; but for the teacher and thf; student of economic 
geology and aft who care for broad views over this field, it 
would possess obvious advantages. 

It is generally conceded that, whatever the limits of the 
classification, its highest value, both as a means of education 
and as an aid in the discovery and exploitation of deposits, 
demands that it should be essentially geological, and not be 
based, at least in its main lines, upon the qualities or uses of 
the materials. Now, geology is, first of all, a dynamical sci- 
ence ; and, as professor Kemp has shown,* there are cogent 
reasons for basing a classification of economic deposits upon 
origin instead of structure. The genetic principle, so univer- 
sally recognized as the basis or key-note of biologic classifi- 
cations, is slowly but surely making its way in the domain of 
geology. Classification by structure, of which form is but the 
external expression, is less difficult, and hence has generally 
prevailed in the early days of each science. The main reason 
why the recognition of the genetic principle has made, rela- 
tively, so little progress in geology, is that the processes, being 
to a large degree chemical, are often exceedingly obscure ; 
and the correct interpretation of the observed facts of com- 
position and structure is hence peculiarly difficult. Our 
knowledge is, in consequence, decidedly insufficient, in certain 
directions, for the detailed application of this principle of 
classification. It is, for example, the general belief of geolo- 
gists that mineral veins have been formed chemically, that is, 
by the deposition of minerals from solution ; but further than 
that, as a rule, we cannot safely go; for the nature of the 
chemical process in particular cases is still a matter of spec- 
ulation rather than of positive knowledge. The recent litera- 
ture of the science shows, however, that light is breaking 
upon this problem in various directions, and we may hope for 
a bett4?r state of things in the near future. 

It appears, then, that while ditt'erences of structure and 
composition must always be recognized in our classifications, 
they will become relatively less important with increasing 

♦Ort' <i(')M>sits of tln' rnitf*<l Stuti*s. ji. <2. 




Economic Geological Deposits. — Crosby, 251 

knowledge of genetic processes. In this connection we may 
properly draw a sharp distinction between original and sub- 
sequent structures, the former alone having classificatory value. 
The validity of this distinction is apparent on referring to the 
biologic sciences, since, for example, the accidental loss of one 
or more of its rays by a starfish does not affect its position 
in the classification. Of course, changes in geologic deposits 
amounting to complete metamorphisra, to the transformation 
of one type into another, are truly original and genetic, and 
not in any sense nccidental, with reference to the new type. 
Thus superficial oxidation may be neglect-ed in the classifica- 
tion of veins, but it is highly important as defining one type 
of residual deposits. Distinctions based directly upon com- 
position should be subordinate, in the main, to original struc- 
tural distinctions, and hence can be generally recognized only 
in a more complete and detailed classification than is possible 
in the present state of our knowledge. Even a classification 
based upon origin and original structure, such as is attempted 
here, is necessarily in advance of our knowledge, in the sense 
that future investigations, in many cases, must decide to which 
sections particular deposits should be referred. 

Many classifications of ore deposits have been published ; 
and the more important of these have been recently summar- 
ized and compared by professor Kemp, in the introduction to 
his valuable work on the ore deposits of the United States. 
But, since metalliferous minerals or ores constitute simply one 
limited division of the whole field of economic geology, it is 
apparent^ at a glance, after w*hat precedes, that these classifi- 
cations must be, without exception, seriously lacking in sci- 
entific and educational value. They may be said, perhaps, to 
meet, in some degree, the needs of the metallurgist; and in a 
measure, also, those of the miner. But coal and many other 
non-metalliferous minerals are extensively mined and occur 
in characteristic deposits, with the forms and modes of origin 
of which the miner should be acquainted. 

The distinction of rocks (igneous and sedimentary forma- 
tions) and mineral deposits (veins, impregnations, etc.), or, 
as it is commonly stated, original and secondary deposits, or 
unconcentrated and concentrated mineral deposits, is deemed 
of great importance by some authorities, and notably, among 



252 The American Geologist. April. 1894 

the more reeent wriU^rs, by Posepny, who has introduced the 
terras idiogenous and xenogenous to designate these two 
classes. It seems to the present writer, however, that in a 
broad view of the field this distinction disappears or becomes 
of subordinate importance. 

Strictly speaking, nearly all, if not quite all. known rocks 
are secondary. This is generally conceded for the sediment- 
ar}'^ rocks; but, following Iddings and other recent writers, it 
must be admitted also for the igneous rocks. A dike is a more 
or less highly differentiated portion of some deep-seated 
magma, and it is clearly newer than the walls. An ascension- 
ist, certainly, can say nothing more for a vein save that while 
in formation of the dike heat is the chief agent, with water 
coJ')perating (aqueo-igneous fusion), in the formation of the 
vein water is the chief agent, with heat co<Vperating (igneo- 
aqueous solution). The greater mobility of the solution per- 
mits a higher degree of concentration, but concentration is a 
universal process and participates in the formation of erup- 
tive masses and sedimentar}' deposits, as well as of veins. In 
other words, solidification and deposition, or the rock-making 
processes, involve in every instance differentiation and con- 
centration; while liquefaction, or the destruction of rocks, 
whether acpieous or igneous, implies just as universally the 
undoing of differentiation or dissipation of matter. It appears 
illogical, therefore, to regard one class of rocks (vein rocks) 
as fundamentally distinguished by the faet that their forma- 
tion involves the concentration of their component minerals. 
The concentration is <|uite as marked in the formation of a 
bed of sand, day, limestone, gypsum, chert or iron ore; and, 
if less marked, it is eertainlv not less true iii the formation of 
a dike of granite or trap. In the opinion of the writer, no 
sharp line of demarcation can be drawn between dikes and 
veins, and veins are clearly entitled to some degree of recog- 
nition in the lithological classification. In a broad view of 
the early history of the earth all the sedimentary rocks are. 
of eourse, secondary with reference to the primitive igneous 
crust, but so are the igneous rocks with which we are now 
acquainted. Probably none of the igneous which have been 
studied are trui}' primitive; and their derivation in some 
cases from sediments is claimed bv nianv able observers. 



Kt'OHoitiir (ieolotfival Deposits. — Crosht/. 258 

Veins and dikes are newer than both walls, lava flows and 
sedimentary strata are newer, always, than one wall and older 
than the other. But, for the reasons already stated, the pri- 
mary distinctions should be j^enetic rather than structural, 
although here, as general 1}% a close correlation of genesis and 
structure is to be noted. Heat and water are the two great 
agents concerned in the modification and differentiation of the 
earth's crust; and they are generally, if not everywhere and 
always, in cor)peration, heat prevailing, as a rule, at great 
depths, and water at the surface. Thus arise the two princi- 
pal classes of rocks — igneous and aqueous. In either class 
the rocks may be deep-seated (newer than both walls), or su- 
perficial (newer than one wall), in other words, intrusive or 
contemporaneous. The intrusive igneous masses are known 
as dikes, etc., and the contemporaneous as lava-flows; while 
the intrusive aqueous masses are known as veins, etc., and the 
cruitemporaneous as sedimentary strata. 

Subterranean aqueous deposition must always take j)lace 
from solution, or in a purely chemical manner; but superfi- 
cial aqueous deposition may take place from suspension (me- 
chanically), or from solution (chemically), or through the 
agency of organic matter (organically); and these are un- 
doubtedly, as generally recognized, the natural subdivisions 
of the superficial aqueous n»cks. standing secondar}' to the 
distinction of superficial and deej)-seated deposits. In several 
published chissifications of ore deposits, however, the primary 
divisions of the a(|Ueous deposits are based upon the nature 
of the formative process, whether mechanical or chemical. In 
other words, the first question asked concerning nn^' type is, 
was it depo.sited from suspension or solution V and not, was it 
in its origin superficial or deep-seated? The disadvantage of 
this plan becomes apparent as soon as it is extended to em- 
brace all economic deposits or to have a ppro.xi mutely natural 
boundaries; for it associates dej)osits having little in common, 
and disassociates those that are closely related. Thus, a bed 
of gypsum and a vein or impregnation, say of tin ore, are, ac- 
cording to these classifications, more nearly related, since 
both are chemical deposits, than a bed of g^'psum and a bed 
of slate. This may be true from the standpoint of a chemist, 
but it is certainly not good geology; for whether we are con^ 



254 The American Geoloffitft. April, 18M 

8idering the relations of the deposits to each other or their 
general relations to geological history, gypsum stands natur- 
ally much nearer to slate than to tin ore; and genetic, struc- 
tural, and economic considerations all demand thut superficial 
and deep-seated deposits should not be commingled. 

In the opinion of the writer, we have good reason to believe 
that fusion and solution are not only continuous and overlap- 
ping processes, but that giant granite or pegmatite may be 
regarded as marking the halfway point, the product of their 
perfect <'0?iperation. Pegmatite combines the characters of 
plutonic and vein rocks, but does not belong distinctly to 
either class, demanding separate recognition and classifica- 
tion. 

Explanation of the Classification. 

The classification embraces, as the table shows, three pri- 
mary and coordinate divisions, as follows: — 

A. l)«'ix)sits <»f igneous orijrin (igneous hk'Ws). HtMit is tht» 

chief Hjifent. 
H. I)e|K)sits of Hqiieo-ijrneouK ori^^in (<;iant grHiiitc or ix'^r- 

mat i to). Hejit and water c<K)iM»rate. 
i\ I)e|)08its<)f aqu«H)us origin (sedimentary and vein rocks). 
Water is the chief a;;ent. 

These main divisions of the classification may now be con- 
sidered separately, and their subdivisions noted, with illus- 
trative examples of each type, so far as such have been clearl}' 
recognized. Many of the examples, it should be added, have 
been taken directly from Kemp's -'Ore Deposits of the United 
States;" and his interpretation of the facts have, in most 
cases, been accepted without further investigation. 

A. Depoaits of igneous origin, — Following the lines of the 
lithological classification, we may divide the igneous rocks 
into the intrusive or plutonic rocks and the extrusive or vol- 
canic rocks: although this distinction is obviously not of par- 
amount importance on purely economic grounds. These two 
great classes of igneous rocks admit, for economic purposes, 
parallel subdivisions, as follows: 

I. Igneous deposits of subterranean origin (plutonic rocks). 
Among the plutonic rocks we may recognize : 

(a) yvrnml plutonir rork'ji, altered and uiiahered. Tliese are useful es- 
liecially as affording materials for const met ion (hiiildin^ and ornamen- 
tal stones, **tc.): hut they have in the air«rre;rate. by virtue of their 



1^ 



Economic Crcoloffieal Deposit if, — Cronbij 255 

abrasiv**, refractory and othor iiualities, a wide ranjfe of ap])lications in 
lh«* arts. 

(b) Hifihlti (iiffrreiitiated and exfrMiref}/ htntic phitonir rork/t, Tlicse an* 
lM»ridotites and other ultra-basic rocks, in which, through the oix'ration, 
we may sui)i)«se, of Soret's i)rincii)le, as Iddin<;s insists, aided, |)ossibly, 
by mafrnetisxn and gravitation, as su^jjeste<l by Vo^t. the metallic ox- 
ides or free bases (majrnetile, menaccanite, etc.), which occur only as 
relatively unim|M)rtant accessories in the normal ty|)es, becom»' hijrhly 
concentrated and ^ive character tothe rock, constituting a very distinct 
and not unimi)ortant tyjH' of iron ore. The dike or stock of titanifer- 
Dua magnetite, with access<»ry olivine and feldspar, of Cumberland, K. I., 
is a ^o<kI example: and these ores have also been reco>fnized in the Adi- 
rondacks, Minnesota. lirazil, and Sc*andinavia. It apjx'ars. in fact, that 
the highly titaniferous, crystalline iron ores should be, in general. r<»fer- 
able to this ty|)e. 

(c) Original diMrininntionM in plutonir rorkn. Not tht» rock as a whole, 
but a single orijurinal constituent, is useful. The useful mineral may be 
accessorv, as the zircon in certain svenites; or es.Mential, as the chatov- 
ant labradorite of certain norites and jfahbros. This tyjK' is not mark- 
edly different from the precedinjf (b). Only one constituent or class of 
constituents is, strictly six'akin^, useful in each ca.se; but the ma^matic 
concentraticm is an es.sential feature of (b) and the entire n)ck or ore 
must be mined and submitted to metallurgical treatment. The la.st 
consideration savors somewhat of a classification by uses, and the chief 
emphasis should, therefore, be laid uixm the concentration of (b) as the 
more essential distinction. 

Kach of these tyf)es (a- b, c) may theoretically, at least, occur in or 
form — (1) dikes, (2) intrusive sheets or sills, (IJ) lacc<»lites, (4) stocks or 
plu^, bosses and complexes. 

(d) Sublimatrn formed in dry fissures or other cavities, and not neces- 
sarily in plut<inic rocks; although heat, of course, is still the chief a^ent. 
This ty|M' — virtually veins formed by sublimation — is proi)osed with hes- 
itation. Sublimati<n) is at the present time, and ju.stly, in marked dis- 
favor as a general exi>lanation of mineral veins. l<eh>w the |)ermanent 
water-level the vacant fissures esstMitial to the formation of .sublimates 
must b<' non-existent: and subterranean sublimation de|M>sits, if <H*cur- 
ringat all, must be limited in depth: while the comiM>siti<m and structure 
of most veins art» best explained by deixisition from solution. On the 
other hand, the varied and abundant sublimates formed on the surfaces 
and in the cracks of recent lavas make it more than probable that, at 
least in the neijfhborhcMKl of volcanic vents, they extend to a sufficient 
depth to deserve cla.ssification amonjr subterranean de|x>sits:>and we may 
safely conclude that sublimation is a true, though not a principal, cause 
of vein-formation. This conclusion is sustained by the fact that a 
large pn)()orti<m of the vein-forming minerals have been produced ex- 
IM'rimentally by sublimation. Although accepting the sublimation 
thfMiry as a valid explanation within the narn)w limits indicate<l, I am 



256 The American Geologist. April, 18M 

tinabU' to citi* |M»sitivi*ly any «*ronoinic dciMwits as fxampifs uikUt thin 
head: but then* seems to be a fair ])robabiIity that such exist. 

II. Igneous deposits of superficial origin (volcanic rocks). 
Similarly the volcanic rocks include : 

(a) ytinnal roh'unir rork-M or hintM {hwhnWw):^ tuffs), ancient and miKl- 
ern. These. iil<e the (*orres|M)ndin^ plutonic nK*l\s. are useful rhietly 
for structural |mriM)s«'s: but it is sufficient to cite jnimice to indicate 
that thev also have otlu»r uses. 

(b) Hiyhhi tUffenhtiattd and twiUMMinfif huMir rolrttnir n»rkn. The con- 
ditions are undoubtedly less favorable for the development of the i;rneous 
inui ores in lava flows than in plutonic masses: but this ty|M* is pro|M»se<l 
in the belief that tikis occurrence is not im{K>ssible. in fact.it mi^ht 
almost be claimed that wi* liave an exampl(> in the hu«re masses of native 
iron in the basalt of Ovifak. 

(c) Original diintrmihittionn in rofntnir rork'M. Th»» crystals of jH'ridofe 
(olivine) and various other <;ems occurrin<r as original, and usually as 
accessory, constituents of lavas dearlv justifv this feature of thi' classi- 
fication. 

Kach t»f these thn-e ty|H's (a. b. c) nui\ m'cur in or form — (1) cotUem- 
{Miraneous sheets or flows: Ci) volcanic cones: {'.I) volcanic piiM*> or 
necks. 

(d) Si/hiianfftJt nil recent lava, ill solfalaras. fumai'oles. etc. The 
abundant occurri'iice of sulphur, boracic acid, and otln'r minerals of 
economic interest in and about volcanic crat(*rs establishes the validitv 
4if this ty|H'. 

B. Dfposifs of injtiett'itjneons origin. — The arguiuents.for 
the separate recognition in the lithological classification of 
the a(|Ueo- igneous rocks or pegmatites have been stated with 
surticient fullness. Their economic imp<»rtance is manifest 
when we reflect that they are the principal souree of (piartz. 
feldspar and mica for commercial purpose.**, that they contain 
important depr»sits of tin ore, and that they a fiord tourmaline, 
beryl, and other valuable gems. 

('. /}('ftosi(.H of of/neontt origin. — Th(* a(|iieous deposits em- 
brace, as already explained, both those of subterranean origin 
(vein rocks, etc.) and those of superficial origin (sedimentary 
rocks, ete. ). 

I. Aqueous deposits <»f subterranean origin (vein rocks, 
etc.). — These have necessarily be(»n formed by deposition 
from solution ; but, although tbey an* in general vein-like, 
and are as a class commonly called veins, it appears to the 
writer that in a elassificaticui based upon origin thre<* main 
divisions shoidd be recognized, as follows: Veins, or deposits 
in pre-existing cavities; impregnations, both metasomatie 




/ 



Kvonomic Geolofjical Deposits. — Crosby, 267 

and non-metasomatic ; and substitution deposits, or complete 
nietasoraatic replacements. 

1. Veins, or deposits in pre-existing cavities. — The line of 
demarcation between impregnations and substitution depos- 
its is, in the nature of the case, less sharply defined than that 
between either of these classes and veins, since metasomatic 
impregnations must grade into complete replacements. A 
pre-existing cavity or free, continuous space is regarded as 
essential to the formation of a vein : and all deposits in such 
cavities,without regard to the forms or modes of origin of the 
cavities, are here classed and described as veins. It should 
. be noted, however, that the cavities are usually, if not always, 
secondary features of the wall-rock, the product in general of 
displacement, plication, shrinkage, or solution. The only im- 
portant instance, so far as I know, of cavities contemporane- 
ous with the walls, which might conceivably become the seats 
of veins, is afforded by the lava tunnels which area somewhat 
important feature of the Hawaiian and some other volcanoes. 
It seems extremely probable that cavities formed in this way 
have in some instances been filled by deposition from solu- 
tion ; but so far as I am aware this mode of occurrence has 
not been demonstrated, at least not for any economic depos- 
its, although it is well known that the chimney form, which 
this origin would require, has been clearly recognized in cer- 
tain ore deposits. The discovery of an undoubted instance of 
such a volcanic vein of economic interest w^ould necessitate a 
fundamental distinction between veins filling original and 
those filling secondary cavities, all the types of veins recog- 
nized in this paper belonging to the second class. 

True veins are, of course, always to be reckoned as struc- 
tural rather than textural features of the formations which 
they traverse ; and interstitial deposits, due to the filling of 
steam holes and other forms of interstices, are types of im- 
pregnations and not of veins. It may be noted, however, that 
the larger steam holes pass gradually into irregular cavities 
of considerable size, which are also often filled with segrega- 
tions of chalcedony, etc., and clearly^ point to the possibility 
of veins in lava tunnels. 

The following classification of veins formed in secondary 
cavities is based upon the modes of origin, and only inciden- 



25S The America)* Geologist, April, 18M 

tally upon the forms of the cavities or fissures; but it is 
clearly recognized, as already pointed out, that with increas- 
ing knowledge of the chemistry of vein formation the mode 
of filling will take precedence as a basis for the classification, 
the present arrangement being regarded as provisional. Not 
only the character of the mineral solutions, but their sources, 
whether descending, lateral (lateral secretion veins), or as- 
cending, should be considered in the true classification of 
veins. The advocate of either source to the exclusion of the 
others ought to appear as archaic now as would an out-and- 
out plutonist or neptunist : for this is the da}' of the recogni- 
tion of the kernel of truth in every theory. We are recognizing 
more and more clearly that nature has worked in diverse 
modes to the same general end, and that a complex class of 
phenomena cannot, as a rule, be referred to a single simple 
cause. Posepny has properly emphasized the distinction be- 
tween the superficial and the deep-seated aqueous circulation, 
and he is undoubt-edly right in relegating the phenomena of 
vein formation chiefly to the domain of the latter. But in his 
enthusiasm as an ascensionist he has probably gone too far 
and referred to ascending currents deposits that may be more 
readily explained by lateral secretion or descending currents. 

During the filling of a cavity, the mineral solutions may or 
may not penetrate and impregnate the walls; and this impreg- 
nation, when it occurs, may or may not be metusomatic. Thus 
the same continuous deposit may combine a vein and an im- 
pregnation, or a vein and a substitution deposit, or all three; 
and the vein is in many cases the least important part of the 
combination, having simply supplied a channel for the impreg- 
nating and replacing solutions. Similarly veins may or ma}* 
not occur on or near igneous contacts, although, as others have 
pointed out, all deep veins are contact deposits with reference 
to the igneous interior of the earth. These distinctions, as 
well as the source and nature of the solutions, and the mode 
of origin (»f the cavities, should be recognized in a complete 
and detailed classification of veins. But it is deemed suffi- 
cient to simply refer to them here, and thus, incidentally, to 
explain the absence from the outline scheme here proposed of 
the so-called contact veins. 

In a classification of veins filling secondary cavities in ac- 



"N 



Economic Geological Deposits, — Croshij, 259 

eoidaiice with the iiKKle of origin of the cavities, it is of the 
first importance to distinguish sharply, as Posepny has done, 
between the cavities formed by mechanical forces (spaces of 
discission) and those formed by chemical forces (spaces of 
dissolution). Of the eight types of veins described in the 
following pages, six belong to the first category and two to 

the second. 

(a) True fimturr reimt, filling profound fissures, which are usually ac- 
companied by displacement (fault fissures). This is the leading typ«* of 
veins and is so recojrnized in the standard text-books of jreoloj^y. When 
the fissures can be proved to coincide with imix>rtant displacements, 
liermanencH in depth is reasonably assured and filling by ascending cur- 
rents may be regarded as highly probable. Slickensided walls and a 
distinct .selvage are very characteristic features, though by no means 
essential or jH^culiar. important examples are so numerous as to make 
citation or further description unnece.ssary. 

(b) Cntahed-zone or tthfor reinn, filling crushed or shear zones along 
faults or lines of shearing stress. These are often equivalent to fissure 
veins filled with fragments of the wall-rock; and in other cases the 
cru.shing may take the form of a more or less distinct sheeting. The 
crushed or sheeted rock is frecpiently extensively impregnated or re- 
placed by the vein matter: and the enclosure* of the fragments is often 
so dike-like that the vein matter has, even by st)me recent writers, been 
regarded as of igneous origin. The veins of this tyfH" are commonly 
without definite Ixnmdaries (ir walls, and sometimes i)ass into more or 
less tyjncal stock works. The normal form of the deix)sit, when not 
sheet<'d, is believed to be approximately or nuighly lenticular; and it is 
probable that one great lens may succeed another in strike or de|)th 
along an extended line of fracture. This localization of the crushing 
may, apparently, be regarded as a necessary result of a shearing stress 
along a highly irregular or somewhat interlocking fracture, the protrud- 
ing or convex iV)rtions only of either wall being crushed by the enormous 
friction. Am(mg the more im|K)rtant deiMisits believed to be referable 
to this tyjM? are the nickel ores of the Sudbury district, Ontario, and 
the (Jap mine, Pennsylvania. 

(c) Joint or ganh rcinti^ filling joint-cracks, or fissures due to (1) 
shrinkage and (2) vibratory and torsional strains, and (.*() transverse fls 
sures due to plication and warping without faulting. This tyi)e, with 
varying definition, has been recognized in several classifications of veins, 
it is, of course, not always sharply distinguished from the true fissure 
veins. The chief ix)ints of difTertMice are, that faulting is mon* com- 
monly absent and when occurring is less extensive, that the veins ar«' 
more limited in length and depth, that slickensided walls and a true 
selvage are more commonly wanting, and the filling is more likely to 
have been by lateral secretion. Like joint-crack.s, the gash veins are 
frequently intersecting (reticulated veins) and often exhibit the stock- 



1 1 
• 1 



260 The Anit*rf>ffn fr*ioh>tjUf, April, 18M 

MTiirk phuM*. In fiuT, '^»uMilifci»*il vHins :(nd vhiq1»»is, i>r stinrkworks. 
altlioii^fh :i ?»na^^. iiMi. .»!' >^i»*jtr n^-iiis. ii]»> bt» iv<£airU»*<i as in the maiti 
.1 Mil>-t> jiH «>i 'h** -.sv^u »»'»ii>. hi •.•aicarntm^ rrN.*k.s. ih«* entcks have been 
\i»rx ;r»Mi»'ntih •m.'»nc»^l >x ^MUimn. lH»for»» riiiin:;: Jintl in b«>lh calcare- 
UN .imi Miic'^iU'v -^ii-SN. mpn**£ii;iiioa .uitl r»*fi|»»'Hin»*nt i)f the walls are 
I «•••«» m«*ii <-*'ir«^Mt-*- r*i»* • raji>\ »* »■•*»• i^swir^s due t«> [>iication. here 

-**i»'rr^4 «► ^:»>ii !^ tr*- ik»*i\ 'i» 'i^ 'imitHil ill tiepth. and U) differ 

•i>»nt "•m 'iar» » . • - -nt -vn ••u»'ri\ 11 'lu* «liN»*rij»*«CH of thf walls. «li- 

v»Mx*ti:^«i»»>fcn^*ni->t^ • ^\ -u- in;ti •*•-»«' s>:t nil :ipw}irtiH in anticlinal cracks. 

Vt»i».uv. .'♦ ii^tf" !•• "*- "* ♦"«>*• '^furrti .•\.i»mpl»"* of :fash veins which 

ji ^^ H .«, .^ . M. i.vtitit:^ Mii^ ;iunf»'r»ms [)\r!tf» ami chalcti- 

.» ■ • , .^ . '. .... ..-.i.ix. » MMraOt). \\w \i*iui«*ls »»f native ct>pi)Hr in 

. .X, ■ -N4. I \' t. N U ».»«i x\^ ead .iUti /.inc »h»fj«»wts »if the Missis- 
v^ ... ... % ■ ■ .1 %• :»• '»»rm iMi^-Jh ul" :;n^4i vi'ins ami* Hals, the 

»^v H ^ ,i.» « • • ii-ai ^JtMi \fin>. A>»*\ampies of st«K.*kworks 

>. . % * i»f tf itlack TopptT iTPoup. <ilol>» district, A r- 

» ...*.>,>. , M»' Silicon Nall»\x. l*»Mins> Kama: the lea*!- 

^ \ . % >^ ^ I • .« .ojii.i*- it Asp«ii mountain, ('oiom<lo: ami, in 

,. ., , vv, t* ►hmW *\ N«'>% Alniaileu. r;ilirnrnia. 

V •' ''»w 'i*^ •»«i\%e**u liiH strata, /. '.. tihsiires |)ar- 
^ . >^ % » . .«. uit« t' •lUJtiiou. \iihoui:h tii»» cI«>m» relati«>ns 
^ , .. :, ♦v.: . .:iv »j» \»r> «»b\ious* its distiiictivH features 

. ^^ V, * ^ - .. . n. *i »>x »'• 'pinion oi' \\\¥^ wrtti'r, t«> jiistifx its 

^ , ^ «.«-.■ ^ ■ '» i%. % xp*' «»l \«'in I lusM* v<«»s. R]«>r«* Ut'tiuitt* 

V V •♦. » ***v X t(»'iutti»>il. As a niU\ th«\v ct>nform 

^ . . N ^» »» x^ »».^ u sinke .iUil dip. pr**st«nt iu many 

^ , . v« *'^ V...' •.».%«• *i»'nn»\i \%»its« witlioiit iiuticati«>Qs of 

X . .. ..» . u ,.%>*•' iu*> Tuii>4 !>•• Iimittni inilepth. 

.V » '.»..» .Jivviu* 'o '»licaiion, for of cours«» 

,k . . ■ .!» »v. «• i'» virMta sAHHTliciall> . Tarr, 

. , . . v,v »v. .ts. Ml • o* Kcommuc « o»«»lojf\ of the 

\ s ., V '• • .i>„*i» i i».*i ti»r \»*in.** of this t\|i»» 

V . >vv..«v V. ^ * ^'%ii«>ii <'%iitinif ucin:; akuDc a 

.V »v ' •» A ■ 1%'vwuniii '»ack tile r«K*ks urn! 

• .V . ,..x .«.>«•! >t % r%ioi mi:;ht. That 

, . ».»v \ I H 1. VI . 'or 1 'iJi\»' ohtserviHl 

V . ,« '.xo'H Miiv i-xiii)- anhydrite in 

\ > Ni « x^. ...i Uiii I .i«i\*' n«) pHtks«»n to 

s . • tii •« .hv •« ut ill tile iHHklinif 

, vx .ixs'tM. o I n»* htnUlinx. ami 

. ».\ I •,« iil«ii '♦•Mil! of ih«* ft»UI- 

» \k .*nM V 'UiJilll. of OOUfN**, CO- 

V \ »* vi.M 'tiov lo l>«* ini|ii>r* 

.t . >« > .11. ■ltv•s^tt^v to make a 

V . I H.v^tid luioi^tMious \»*ins 

\ ^ .. ..X .♦.iix u>rm*Hl, Iik»»c<Hi- 

. > . .H iii(«d v» iii>, w»* ha^H 




Economic Geoloijical Deposits. — Crosby, 261 

tricts: the f^reat lenticular veins of pyriU* alon;; the Appalachian belt; 
the lenses of s|)eciilar hematite on the James river in Virj?inia: and 
IK>ssibly some of the ^reat lenses and sheets of ma^^netite belou^^ here. 

(e) Ntrk reimt, flllinf? the interstices of aj?j?lome rates in volcanic pij^es 
or necks. This is a recently, but not quite generally, recognized tyiM*, 
based uixm the Bassick and Bull Domingo silver mines near Kosita, 
Colorado. These ore b(Klies or dejwsits are chimneys 20 to 100 and 40 
to (JO feet in horizontal section, in andesite and in Archean gneiss, re- 
s|)ectively, filled chiefly with fragments of the wall-rock; and between, 
over, and replacing these fragments, the deposition of the ores has taken 
place. This mode of occurrence is, a priori, so probable that we may 
fairly sup|M>se that other and more im[x)rtant examples have been over- 
l(N>ked or misinterpreted. The resemblance of this tyjje to the lenticu- 
lar crushed or shear veins is quite marked, and when we consider that, 
as in these cases, the necks of the craters and craterlets art* naturall.v 
elliptical in outline and tend to occur in linear series along lines of fis- 
sure, the need of proceeding captiously in distinguishing these two tyjies 
is obvious. 

(f) Crtnifir eeimi, filling the conduits of thermal springs. This type, 
which so far as 1 know, is pro|x>sed here for the first time, is suggested 
by the de^iosits of silver-lead ores of Red mountain, Ouray county, Colo- 
rado. The deposits traverse the mountain in an irregular way and are 
believed to mark the courses of old hot spring conduits. The wall-rock 
is silicified andesite. having bt^en highly altered by the ancient thermal 
M'at4*rs. This typ«' differs from the true fissure veins much as a volcanic 
neck diflTers from a typical dike, i. f., the ascending ore solutions are 
more localized, and it is [X'rhaps |K)Ssible that at greater depths these 
conduit de{M>sits i>ass into normal fissure veins. Believing as wt^ do that 
mineral springs have played an important part in the formation of 
veins, the only (K^casion for surprise is that thes4» crenitic veins have not 
been more frequently identified and described; and it will be recalled 
that Sandb«»rger finds here one of his chief arguments against the the<iry 
that veins are formed by ascending currents. It is probable that the 
conduits have, in most cases at least, been somewhat enlarged and 
modified in form by solution prior to filling. This assumption would 
be particularly safe when the wall-rock is limestone; but such mixlifi- 
cation must evidently b<» equally common with gash veins and other 
ty|)es having the normal sheet form. The cavitiesof mechanical and of 
chemical origin are thus combined, but gradation and transition forms 
are the rule everv where in geology, and veins are no exception. 

(g) Ctirfrn reint*, filling cavities due to solution, including chambers, 
flats, sheets, pitches, etc. This is the principal tyjM* of veins filling 
spaces of dissolution. On ti priifri grounds it has strong claims to rec- 
ognition. S<ilution cavities or caverns are numen>us. es|K»cinlIy in 
limestones above the drainage level: and we often observe them in pro- 
cess of filling, esix'cially with stalactite and stalagmite defxtsits. The 
chi^f ditticulty is to find uiuUiubted examples of economic interest; 
nearly all the dejxisits formerly referred to this tyjH* having been proved 



262 The American Geologist. April, 18M 

<m mort* cHn*fiiI study lo be replac€»inents. As moro or less probabli* 
examples I may cite the celebrated Cave mine of Beaver county, Utah: 
some of the lead and zinc deposits of the Mississippi valley (enlar^wl 
Ifash veins): and a series of small caves near Ouray, Colorado, in quart/.- 
ite overlain by shales and containing native g'old. 

(h) Brereiated earern reinn, ftllin«r collajised or brecciated betls r«*sult- 
injf frt)m solution, dolomitixation, or some other chemical change. This 
ty|)e is related to the last very much as the shear veins are to the true 
Assure veins. Particular strata of limestone are weakened by the solv- 
ent action of [M>rcola(ing water, they collapse and b«»come br<H"ciat<Hl. 
and between and around the fragments thus resulting the vein minerals 
are de|N>sited. It is obvious that metasomatic replacements might not 
be readily distinguished from de|x>sits of this type. Among the actual 
<»ccurrences supfxxsed to belong here an» the specular hematite of 
Crawford county, Mo.: the copjier ore of St. (ienevieve. Mo.: the lead 
and zinc de|K)sits of the upjjer Mississippi valley (in part), including 
the lower flats and tumblers of Chamberlin; and the zinc dei)osits of 
southwestern Missouri. 

2. Impregnations, or deposits filling the pores and often 
replacing the original or normal constituents of various rocks 
(metasomatosis). — Although second only, in importance, to 
veins, this main type of aqueous deposits may be more briefly 
described. Certain types of impregnations occur chiefly, as 
already explained, in the walls of veins, the fissure having af- 
forded a passage for the impregnating solutions in each case. 
Also, impregnations, like veins, may or may not occur along 
igneous contacts. In the subdivisions of impregnations we 
may properly distinguish the concretionary, pore-filling but 
not concretionary, and metasomatic but not concretionary, 
types, as follows : 

(a) f^mrretiouarff drponitM that art- not inrtumnmitif — impure nturrtiioHn^ 
due to the s«^gregation of a .soluble constituent in a siliceous or other- 
wise insoluble rock. The segregating minerals are chiefly carbonates 
(calcite, I'tc.) and thecarbiinateor othersoluble salts of iron fn)m which 
the iron is often de|M>sited as the insoluble oxides, lii'ing unable to re- 
move the siliceous matrix, the segregating minerals are de|K>sited in it, 
more jH'rfectly cementing the fmrticles of clay, grains of sand. etc. The 
common claystone is a familiar t>xample of these impure concretions — 
c(»mbinalionsof concreti<»n and matrix: and clay ininstone may be named 
as the chief economic example. 

(b) f'ourrrtiumiry drponitft that are mrtanomatir—piire rnurrrtiom*, due to 
the s«'gregation of a .Mihible con.stituent in a soluble or metasomatically 
replaceable matrix. The siliceous concretions of calcareous r(K*k (flint 
and chert n<Khiles« gemh's, ♦'lc.)are ch-arly the most im|M>rtant exam- 
ples, and no mon' distinctly ectniomlc examples have occurred tome; 



Economic Geolor/ical Deposits.-^Croshy . 268 

but this ty|jo may fairly be rftaiiipil to pri'sorve th»' syinm»»try of the 
claHsiflcation. It should be mHtnl tUnl^ihe essential idea of an economic 
concretionary defxisit is that, althouj^h the se^rejfatinjf mineral is an 
tiri^inal c<mstituent of the r<K.'k, the segregation is required to make it 
available (concrete) and useful. If the rt)ck. as a whole, is us<>ful, as 
in the case of oolitic limestone and iron ore, it must bt» differently clas- 
sified. Clay ironstone is separated from black-band ore in the classifi- 
cation simply because sej^re^ation is essential t-o make the iron carbon- 
ate useful, to chanjre it from a rock to an ore: and the ore only and not 
the entire rock is used. 

(c) Amygdaloidal depoaitti, filling'- the jxjres (steam-holes) of igneous 
(volcanic) rocks. This familiar tyi)e rf»<iuires no detailed explanation. 
The mcist im[)ortant e.xample is, of course, the cuprifennis amygdaloid 
of Keweenaw Point; to which may be added the cupriferous felsite of 
Santa Rita, N. M., although the sup|josed amypdules may be only . 
jweudo-amyjfdules or actual replacements, filling secondary cavities, 
which would refer the deposit to the metasomatic impregnations. 

U\)' Intenttitial depoMitH, filling the jiores (interstices) of sedimentary 
rocks. The designation of this ty|K*, although not, i)erhaps. wholly un- 
objectionable, is the most satisfactory that has occurred to the writer. 
It is intended to include all those cases where sedimentary nicks have 
been filled but not re))laced by ec<»nomic amounts of useful minerals. It 
is very probable, however, that in many cas«»s, as in the cupriferous con- 
jrh)merate of Keweenaw Point, the interstitial filling? is accompanied by 
true metasomatic replacement. As additional examples of thistyjie, we 
have the cupriferous sandst<»nes of the Copjier Basin, etc., Arizona, 
and of various localities in Texas, New Mexico, I'lah, etc.: the silver- 
lead, apparently non-metasomatic, de|j«)sit in quartziteof Coeur d'Alene. 
Idaho: the Potsdam sandstone of the Black Hills imprej^nated with au- 
riferous pyrite, which may bt» oxidized: and the ar^entifert)us Triassic 
.sandstone of the celebrated Silver Reef mine, I'tah. 

The non-concretionary metasomatic impregnations may be 
conveniently subdivided in accordance with the nature of the 
impregnated rock, as follows : 

(e) Metanomatie deponitM in calrnreoun rot'k-M. The Clinton in >n ores a p- 
lM*ar to be, in part, limestone rejilact^d by ferric oxide. The de|)osits of 
^alenite and nickeliferous pyrite of Ikinne Terre, Mine la Motte, and 
I>>e Run, Mo., an' local enrichments (impregnations) of limestone: and 
the silver ores of (Jlendale, Montana, and W<xkI River, Idaho, clearly 
belong under this ty|M\ According to Kemp's n»cent and able summary 
of our knowledjfe of the extensive and unique dejjosits of oxidized zinc 
<ires at Franklin Furnace* and Ojjdensburgh, N. J., they are most pn»b- 
ably interbedded imprej^nations. 

(f) Mftammuitie d4'ponit9 itifruymentnl ntrkn. Some of the native cop. 
|H*r of Keweenaw Point belongs here: and the copper ores nt»ar the trap 

•Tran.s. N. Y. Acad. Sci., xiii, pp. T0-J)8. 



2U4 The Amertcan Geologht. April, 18M 

sluH'ls ill Ihi' Trittssic saiidstoii** «>f N»*w Jersey not only impiv^nate, but, 
M|>i >H It'll tly. Hctually replace the sancLstooe. 

tif) Mftam/fttittit' tif^ptt^iiM iti itfHt^fn* rttrk». The first examph's noted 
\KTur ill \oloanic r^H.'^ks. ami the later ones in ptutonic rocks. In the 
cu|irifervms am>;fUaIotil of Keweenaw [\»tDt the copper is in i>art a true 
r«'|Uaoemeut of the iUabasi*. The auriferous quartz of the Little Annie 
miue» Kio iirauiie c«>uut\. Totorado. is pn>bably a silioified rhyolite. At 
Silver Oitf. Colorado. rh\oIite is impre«rtiated with cerarjfyrite, and in 
the CaliiH> district of Tali foruia I iiMinte and tutf are similarly improK' 
iiatt'd. The ct»p|H'r deixisitsof Llauo inmnt\ . Texas« art» partly fissure 
\eius» but chiertx true impre^natitms in joninite. The copper ores of the 
Mv>r«Mici distnct. Ari^)ua« are in {>art impre^srnations of the |M>rphyry in 
%hich the> t»i*cur. Many of the ;j:oId and silver deposits of the liocky 
iiiouaiauis^ •*tc.. ai>* metasumatic impr«*irnatioDs of dikes and plutonic 
iHas>«*!< The till detniMtsof Irish i'r<»ek. Va.. are typical imprej^nat ions 
«»t <r«iuile aaioUK I«*aderH4\eiiiletSi v>f quartz. 

( tu MitU4M^imilU' *UfH*j»4i» n§ fHttit/mfrftAif rf»ek» {^ttriinnfti and nrhuttn). 
The.*^' defioNitv ^heii oouftfriuiiiK with the bedding or foliation, consti- 
luie Uu' tx pu'««l/<i/i(^/4(/«; and arv then not easily distinguished from 
oiKiu«hl M*dimeii(ar> vU').iikMts ou the one baud, and interbeddod veins on 
iXu «ahvi kU'Mde.vihe cla>£vtc »*\ample. the ar$f«*atifenms fahlbands at 
K'>it«iNiK-t<. N*u'v%ti,\ v^hu"h ar»* oi" ivxtuomic interest t>nly at their inter- 
>t V iKui.v >\iili .iM-fttxoi \«Mii>« >%e mitv notice otie im|)ortant American 
Uv.ilu> lb* i;«»»ki i»\ r«iitenms XwkV i«ui(terticiall> oxidized) of the 
Ui>a4i M.tlv* 'UtUt iiid oiovr Mmiiar b«His iu the Black Hills, are either 
• >u«,(MuI t>i MioiKiiitx irtu-i (uliibaiidss If the p\ rite is a {mrt of th<* 
M.^iu,*; M vU»u\ 4iic\.\ ^^*"»^^MU ihe s4i)H«e«|uent chan^c^s — crystaJUzation 
«uvl v^»»-;.4iu'u iKi\» '»iAilml»;\ 1h%*u NorttcieiiiU extensive to justify 

t vuU*utiiUv»ii Uv|K»MiN^ or <.MiupK*te metttsc^niatic replace- 
ttuui . ^♦^u^u^b the uvvut lttbi>r*i> olf l>r. S. F. Emmons and 
'•ill. • ., i.u >Mb.>l«iuin»u dojK^NJts. hi4\^ b%H?n proved to be of 
.,u ii »«i4|».'; lauw \\is\ Mitttiy diqu>«ats tWmerlv classed as 
\. "i 4U »io\> ly'iowu to >K' o\>aiplotiMueta^>matic replacements. 
\|* I t > u^tu >)u|iu •;uai)oux tuay bi' rv^r\ie\l as marking, in 
. ..» to, *i I iv\.<\ |K»iJit 'u tiiv Uc\clv>ptnent of substitution 
I. J, .1 i'lU*', ,.;.! u iuiiaMoiix nvk^ the itupregnation stage 

.' It sk ,1 vu vi iN I vxx iii'a:, the oimtaot l>etween the ore 

t, Is I'll I » »'u, i»*!u bs r«^ »itiM xhnrplv iletiued. Like ini- 
, . >.,... 1. 1 .'». { : .J .»'ii Ui {k».-n!1«^ may or may not occur 
... . » vv . . \v '. '•: 4 t»:i^ ';^uo*M»x contacts. Substitution 

I I. .« .M.v *. i«\.ii<M •'( lu x.4Mi • v^ay as impregnations; 
I . « V »• V V »' ■ i'.n'M>aM\vI> IittU commingling of 

\ ii. . i ■.' .' M [»inpOM' to recc»gnize two 

'41 » t W 




Kcoiiomiv Geological Depoaits, — Crosby, 265 

(a) SubntUution deposits in ralcareoun rorkn. Th(^ imiMirtHUt examples 
are t(K) mimerous for detailed citation, but include the followiiijj: The 
cMipiKT de|X>HitK, in part, of the Morenci, IJisbee, and CJlobe districts of 
Arizona, and of the Santa Kita district. New Mexico: and the lead-silver 
ores of the Ijeadville,'Ten Mile, Monarch, Ka>;le Uiver, A8i)en, and Rico 
<listricts, of (-olorado; of Galena and Carbonate, South Dakota; of Hin^- 
ham, and ]iig and Little Cotton W(K)d C-afions. the Crismon -Mam moth 
vein and the Horn Silver mine, Utah: and of the Eureka and White 

' Pine districts, Nevada. 

(b) Substitution deponitn in MilieeouH roekit, Owin^ to the j?real<'r insolu- 
bility of the rocks, the well-identified examples under this Xyyy^ are less 
extensive, but include the following;: The hematite of the PenokCe- 
(fOK^^bic d,istrict and the Mesabi ran^e, and possibly of Iron Mountain, 
Mo.; the copper ores of Butte, Montana (extensive replacements of gran- 
ite alon^ small fissure veins): the veins of native copper on Keweenaw 
Point; and many .no-called ffold and silver veins, includinjr theC'omstock 
lode. 

II. Aqueous deposits of superficial origin (sedimentary 
rocks, etc.). — The history of the superficial aqueous deposits 
is so much less obscure than that of the subterranean depos- 
its that comparatively brief statements will suffice. Follow- 
ing the order of the lithological classification, we have : 

1. Mechanical deposits (fragmental rocks). — These have 

been deposited from suspension, and include : 

(a) Normal fragmrntal rork'H^ including; the conjflomerate, arenaceous, 
and argillaceous grouiKS, consolidated and unconsolidated. 

(b) PlartT deponitit, fluvial and marine, ancient and modern. The 
sorting action of wat<*r has effected the concentration in the rock, at the 
time of its de|K)sition. of one or more useful minerals, such as gold, 
platinum, iridosmine, cassiterite, and magnetite, and corundum, topax, 
diamond and other gems. This tyi)e may be compared with the origi- 
nal disseminations in igneous rocks, a single constituent and not the en- 
tire rock being u.seful. It is quite unnecessary to cite the numerous 
gold |)lacer districts of this country. Marine placers occur at Port Or- 
ford, Oregon, and Yakutat bay, Alaska. The gold placers of the Black 
Hills are in phrt Quaternary and Recent, and in part the basement beds 
of the Potsdam sandstone. The beds of conglomerate iron ore mantling 
Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob. M<»., show the sorting and c«)ncentrating 
action of water and are virtually ancient placers. 

2. Chemical deposits (chemically-formed rock, etc. ). — These 
have been deposited from solution by : 

(a) Oxidation. The exami)les include: IJog limonite, with |)ond and 
lake OH': Clinton hematite, o<>litic ore. due to dejNisition of iron oxide in 
concentric coats about minute grains of quartz: and fossil ore, wiiere 
the iron oxide is defKisited in or replaces wati'rworn fragments of calca- 
reous organisms: beds of Iim<»nite and n'd hematite in varit)us forma- 



Economic Geological Deposits, — Crosby. 267 

far simpler, in most cases, than the actual deposits; for a 
classification, to have any value, must isolate causes and ex- 
hibit phenomena in their elements. Thus, for example, ac- 
tual veins are usually combined with impregnations and 
replacements, and on the surface mechanical, chemical, and 
organic deposition go hand in hand ; and we can not ordina- 
rily say of a deposit that it belongs to this or that type, but to 
this or that combination of types. 

Outline ok the Classification. 

A. I)e{X)sits of igneous origin (igneous rocks). 

I. Igneous deposits of subterranean origin (plutonic rocks). 

(a) Normal plutonic rocks. 

(b) Excessively basic plutonic rocks. 

(c) Original disseminations in plutonic rocks. 

(d) Sublimates in fissures. 

II. Igneous deposits of suixrflcial origin (volcanic rocks). 

(a) Normal volcanic rocks or lavas. 

(b) Excessively basic volcanic rocks. 

(c) Original disseminations in volcanic rock. 

(d) Sublimates on lava. 

H. l)e|)c)sits of aqueo-igneous origin. 
(\ Deposits of aqueous origin. 

I. A<iueous deix>sits of subterranean origin (vein rocks, etc.). 

1. Veins, or deposits in pre-existing cavities. 

(a) True fls.su re veins. 

(b) CYushed-zone or shear veins. 

(c) Joint or gash veins. 

(d) Interbedded veins. 

(e) Neck veins. 

(f ) Crenitic veins, 
(g). Cavern veins. 

(h) Hrecciated cavern veins. 

2. Impregnations. 

(a) Concretionary dei)osits, not metasomatic. 

(b) Concretionary deix)sits, metasomatic. 

(c) Amygdaloidal de|x)sits. 

(d) Interstitial dejiosits. 

(»') Metasomatic dept)sits in calcareous rocks. 

(f ) Metasomatic deposits in fragmental rocks. 

(g) Metasomatic deposits in igneous rocks. 

(h) Metasomatic deposits in metamorphic rocks. 
\\. Substitution deposit.s. 

(a) Sub.stitution defK^sits in calcareous rocks. 

(b) Substitution de|K)sits in siliceous rocks. 



268 The American Geoloyist. April, IMH 

II. AqiKMHiM deiKisits of sii|M'rncial ori^riu (seel imcii tar v rocks. eU*.). 

1. Mechanical d.f|x>sits (fragnKMitnl r<>cks). 

(a) Normal frajrmental rocks. 

(b) Placer deposits. 

2. Chemical deiKwils (chemically ft>rmed rocks, etc.). 

(a) Oxidation de{M)sits. 

(b) Reduction defxisits. 

(c) Rva|M>ration de|K>sits. 

X Or^nnic deposits (orjranically formed rock.s. etc.). 

(a) Hydrocarbons. 

(b) Siliceous rocks. 

(c) Calcareous rocks. 

(d) Phosphatic rocks. 
4. Metamorphic dei)osits. 

(a) Normal metamorphic rocks. 

(b) Original disseminations in metamorphic rocks. 
.'>. Residual depasils. 

(a) Residuary metalliferous defx»sits. 

(b) Residuary earthy and siliceous de|N»sit.s. 



GEOLOGY OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. 

W. Kbnnedy, Austin, Texas. 

£arly last spring (1893) a company was formed at Beau- 
mont in Jetferson county, Texas, with the ostensible purpose 
of exploring for natural gas, oil and sulphur, supposed to 
exist in great quantities in that portion of the state. 

Jefferson county lies in the extreme southeastern corner of 
the state. The Neches river and Sabine lake form its eastern 
boundary, the gulf of Mexico lies to the south, (-hambers 
county and Liberty county form the western line, and Pine 
Island bayou stretches across the northern end. In total, the 
county embraces an area of 1,032 square miles. The whole 
county is low and flat, a great portion of it lying scarcely 
above high water level. Beaumont, the county seat, has an 
altitude of only 26 feet above the watern of the gulf. The 
upper end of the county rises slightly higher than this, but 
not much, and all the streams of the district are directly af- 
fected by the riw* and fall of the gulf tides. 

The lower half of the county, with the exception of a nar- 
row strip in the vicinity of Sabine pass, ismarshy^ and suitable 
only for the growth of rice, of which great quantities are 
annually raised. This same region is also used as extensive 



> 



Geology of Jefferson Crmnty^ Texas. — Kenned y, 269 

ctittle ranges, over which the fast diminishing bands of Texas 
long-horned cattle roam at will. A small portion of the north- 
eastern section of the county is timbered with long-leaf pine 
(Pinus palustris), cypress along the river, and magnolia. The 
rest of the county may be considered prairie and more or less 
marshy. 

The climate is mild, almost sub-tropical, and the fig, orange, 
lemon and banana flourish wherever planted. Corn, cotton 
and sugar cane also succeed well. 

Along the Neches at different places, notably at Grigsby's 
blutf, and at various points along Taylor's and Salt bayous, 
mounds of shells occur. These mounds are made up chiefly 
of the Gnaihodon cnneatus and lie at considerable distances 
from the sea, the nearest being at least six miles in a direct 
line from the lake. The mound at Grigsby's bluif, by far the 
most extensive of these shell heaps, is about 150 yards long, 
from 15 to 20 yards wide and from 10 to 15 feet high. This 
mound is almost wholly made up of the shells of the Gnafho- 
don cnneatus^ with a few fragments of the common oyster and 
Cnrdinm magnum, all of which are living in the gulf to-day. 
Mr. Rachford, a local naturalist, tells me that several of these 
shell mounds contain remains of human workmanship in the 
shape of broken pottery, arrow points, etc., and that large 
mounds of a similar character occur on the Sabine river near 
the town of Orange, in Orange county. At the time of my 
visits none of these articles were found. 

The geology of the county is in many respects terra incog- 
nita. Nothing but the merest generalization, and that not 
always correct, has ever been given. The region belongs to 
the coastal clay regions of the Texas Geological Survey, and 
Mr. McGee in his "Lafayette Formation" classes it with his 
Colu'mbia formation and considers this essentially an exten- 
sion of the Port Hudson clays of Louisiana. This area he 
describes as follows : 

"In central and southwestern Louisiana the Columbia for- 
mation is a vast sheet of laminated clays, commonly several 
hundred feet in thickness, which toward Atchafalaya bayou 
are frequently blue or bluish gray and charged with carbon- 
ate of lime, often segregated in nodular form, while farther 
westward they become brownish or reddish in color, non-cal- 



270 The American Geoloyi9t, April, ia94 

careous in composition nnd arenaceous in texture. Moreover, 
there is a fairly constant diifcrence between the upper and 
lower portions of the deposit, the lower strata being coarser 
and the upper Uner, while the uppermost materials are finest 
of all, particularly within the many shallow interstream basins 
circumscribed by levee-flanked bayous. Towards and beyond 
the Sabine these conditions slowly change. In the first place 
the element of northern rock flour diminishes and the calca- 
reous nodules frequently fail ; then the Red river sands di- 
minish and the materials become more tenacious; meantime 
an element of black mud, such as is carried. do4vn by the riv 
ers flowing over the Cretaceous chalks of Texas, appears and 
the deposit becomes the black tenacious clay characteristic of 
southeastern Texas."* 

The greater portion of the county is of very recent origin 
and, as already stated, mostly marsh, and the rest belongs to 
the Port Hudson clays. These clays are, however, very irreg- 
ular in their appearance and texture, and, although forming 
the prevailing substructure of the country, frequently give 
place to very extensive deposits of sand. The element of 
black mud referred to by Mr. McGee as forming the prevailing 
characteristic black tenacious clay of southeastern Texas, is 
nowhere present within the county. The presence of such 
black mud can hardly be looked for in this region, as none of 
the rivers directly involved obtain any of their sediment from 
the Oetaceous areas of the state. The Neches, with its most 
important tributary, the Angelina, are both confined to the 
Tertiary areas throughout their whole length, while the Sabine 
can only be said to enter the Cretaceous in Hunt county, 
through the intt^rposition of several small creeks forming its 
headwaters. The lime nodules, although characteristic of the 
clays, are by no means universal, but occur usually in patches, 
some of which are very extensive. On Pine Inland bayou the 
Port Hudson clays are seen near the railway crossing at the 
Sabine & Pliast Texas railway bridge, and still farther down 
the bayou at John Kerr's ferry. There they are pink and blue 
clays, the blue predominating. In a deep sewer near the 
railway station in Beaumont the section shows from two to 

'^''Lafayette Formation," \\\ J. McGee. Twelfth Annual Report, U. 8. 
Geol. Harvey, pp. 401-405. 



Geologif of Jefferson Cotnift/, Texas, — Kennedy, 271 

three feet of brown sand underlaid by dark blue clay, con- 
taining great quantities of small, rounded, limy nodules. 
The thickness of this clay is unknown, but it shows over ten 
feet in the sewer. The same clay is also seen in the river 
bluff about a mile below the main portion of the town, and it 
underlies a great portion of the prairie south and west of 
Beaumont. On the coast the same blue clay is recorded as 
having been found by the Coast Survey in looking for a foun- 
dation for a lighthouse, and it also forms a bar across the 
mouth of the Neches, causing a shoaling of the water from 24 
feet in the river to 8 or 10 feet in the lake. 

North of Beaumont these chip's occur in most of the wells, 
and at several places are reported to contain shells, chiefly 
oysters. A well bored at Mr. Fletcher's house in Beaumont 
shows a section of 

Foot. 

1. Blue clay with thin strata of sand 20 

2. Sand with broken shells 10 

3. Blue clay and sand 125 

4. Sand containiDg shells 5 

5. Heavy stiff blue clay 60 

6. Blue sand 30 

7. Blue sand and clay, the saod Bometimed in beds of 

80 feet, to bottom of well 163 

Total 413 

A small flow of water was obtained in this well. The water, 
however, was brackish and unfit for household purposes. 

The point selected for the oil and gas well was a slightly 
elevated mound situated on the prairie about five miles south 
of Beaumont. This mound is one of several such places oc- 
curring throughout the county, and only ditfers from the 
others by the presence of several springs locally known as 
•*6our wells." These wells are deserving of notice chiefly on 
account of the peculiarities exhibited by them. There are 
five springs or wells in all. These lie along the base of the 
western side of the mound in small, rounded depressions, to- 
tally devoid of vegetation, and while each emits a consid- 
erable quantity of hydrogen sulphide the color and taste of 
the water are different in each well. Four of them are of 
greenish hue, varying in intensity from light to dark green, 
and the fifth is of a vellow or straw color. In taste they are all 



272 The AMeric'tti Geoioyiff. ApriLi^M 

^tr*png\y aeid. the f^traw eolort-d r»ne bein^ intenseljr j?^. Free 
^ulphurie aeid apfiear^ to be pre«ent. but unfortunately I had 
no mean4» of %'enfjin^ thi^ **r a^-ertaining the «|uantitv. 

Great quantities of hrdrogen sulphide are found at all 
time*, not onir issuing from the«e wells, but at manr «»ther 
plae^r^ along the side«( and even on t4»p of the elevated area. 

Thi^ eondition apj>ear»» to have In-en the determining r-aus4* 
for the M'leetion of the plar«e for boring. An additional in- 
*'<-ntive apjKrars U» ha%*e been that S4»me fifteen miles to the 
«re«^t«rard Ii«'s Sciur lake with its oil or tar wells and mineral 
»pringK and alx»iJt «*ixty miles to the eastward, in L«aiisiana. 
lie the mueh taikeil alKuit Caleasieu sulphur mine^. in which 
\p'pih oil and «ulphur had been rei)i>rt4*d to Im- found a« far 
Imi^k a*» |h7K and the prevailing, although erronef»us. impre<- 
«»ion that great quantities of petroleum ^Kfcur almost anywhere 
throughout eai»t<*rn Texas. 

From the«**- »»tat€'ment« the company, aidi^d by a lc»eal s|>ec- 
ulator. had deduced the idea that unlimited quantities: of oil. 
natural ga« (CU^) and sulphur were to be f(»und at a depth 
not exceeding 25^1 or ii(M) feet at most. 

The l>oring wai* carried on by the <*hapman hydraulic 
rotary pr'K'e»f^, and the si>ecimens of the borings were obtained 
by fmtMiing the material through a series of very fine sieves. 
While the section raav not l>e absr»lutelv correct, it if* as nearly 
^t ai* thlN meth'Kl of boring will admit. The boring after a 
great many difficulties was carried df»wn 4iH) feet, and the 
comfmny, failing to find the deposits they had been led to ex- 
jH'ct, ot/ipfK^ the work. The WK'tion shown from spe<'imens 
obtained by niy«**lf while the work was in progress is as 
follows: l?,^t. 

1. iirmj aand with bluish tint in places 20 

*2. iJark gray sand with particlee of lignite 7 

:$. Blue clarfjr fand 13 

L Bliisaaod 15 

.V Bios aaody clay or mud with iron pjrites 5 

A strong flow of hydrogen sulphide came from this 
bed aftsr the well had remained open all night. 
<$, Floe blue sand and clay with flnely divided iron 

pyrites disieminated through the bed 10 

7. Blue sand with iron pyrites 5 

Hr Fine light blue sand with iron pyrites io tine psr- 

tic'les 25 




Geology of Jefferson Cotmty, Tejcas, — Kennedy, 278 

Feet. 

9. Blue sandy clay 18 

10. Qrayish blue sand 12 

11. Grayish l:Jue sandy clay 15 

12. Blue sandy clay 15 

13. Coarse grayish blue sand with iron pyrites 10 

14. Fine grayish blue sand, gray when dry 25 

15. Blue sandy day with iron pyrites, small tlow of bu1> 

phur water and small quantity of hydrogen 
sulphide 5 

16. Gray sand containing great quantities of coarse 

black siliceous pebbles from )^ to 1 inch in diam- 
eter and some fragments of rotten wood 10 

17. Fine-grained gray sand with small pieces of wood. . 28 

18. Bluish gray sand to bottom 162 

Total depth 400 

No shellsof any sort were obtained from the well. 

The five feet between 55 and 60 feet (No. 5 of section) con- 
tained a considerable quantity of hydrogen sulphide, but be- 
sides its being extremely soft no other peculiarity was noted 
in the large well. It was only after another small hole had 
been bored down to it that the actual condition of this stra- 
tum was ascertained. For some purpose or other a two and 
one-half inch hole was bored about 15 feet from the south side 
of the derrick to a depth of 60 feet and a casing inserted. On 
the completion of this boring a small quantity of gas issued 
from it for several hours. With the view of seeing whether 
the end of the casing had passed the gas-bearing sands the 
tube was raised about ten feet. This caused a heavy volume 
of gas to flow, which within an hour or two brought up large 
quantities of a fine, blue, sandy mud in a very liquid condi- 
tion. This outflow of gas and mud formed » veritable mud 
geyser, which shot up to a distance of 15 or 20 feet above the 
mouth of the tube at intervals of from three to five minutes. 
When not ejecting mud the gas, if ignited, burned with a 
bluish flame, from 8 to 10 feet in length. The extremely of- 
fensive smell from the excaping gas and the almost incessant 
spray of mud became so disagreeable to the men working 
around the machinery that it became necessary to plug the 
small boring. Occasionally, however, during the three months 
of ray stay, when the work was stopped, the plug would be 
removed and the gas and mud allowed to issue. During the 
whole of that time there appeared to be no cessation of activ- 



274 The American Geologist April, 1894 

ity in the flow, us it waB always quite active when allowed 
free vent. 

Three hundred feet west of the well and at the base of the 
mound, in digging a pond to supply water for the pumps, the 
same liquid, sandy mud was found at a depth of eighteen feet, 
or about the same level as the stratum in the well. In the bot- 
tom of this pond there were many soft spots showing a brown, 
oleaginous mud, and throughout the digging numerous gas 
vents were seen, all of which were beautifully lined with thin 
coatings of sulphur, while several small lumps of sulphur oc- 
curred scattered through the clayey sand. Whether these 
were derived from old gas vents or not, could not be ascer- 
tained. 

The main peculiarity about this mound is that it rises like 
an isolated hill of sand from a level sea of clay. It is every- 
where surrounded by level (or approximately so) beds of dark 
blue clay, all more or less calcareous, and some of it extremely" 
HO, with thin deposits of sand interstratified here and there 
and from which good, clear, fresh water is obtainable almost 
anywhere at depths not exceeding twent}^ feet. The top of 
the mound covers an area of probably fifty acres and is 
slightly porous. Small, irregularly shaped depressions occur 
in several places, from the bottoms of which considerable 
quantities of gas are always escaping. 

The occurrence of this liquid mud with its attendant gas 
does not appear to be singular within the coastal country, al- 
tliough none, so far as 1 know, has previously been recorded 
from any portion of the Texas area. In the artesian well at 
New Orleans, bored in 1864, No. 5 of the section is recorded 
as "a dark semi-fluid clay, nearly destitute of grittiness.''* 
This occurs at a depth of 31 feet, and it also appears from Dr. 
Hilgard's report that the same liquid mud occurs everywhere 
beneath that city at depths varying from 37 to 56 feet,t depths 
which correspond very closely with that in the Beaumont well. 

Regarding the origin of thi^ and the several other mounds 
c»f similar structure within the county the question may be 
asked. Are they gigantic mudlumps having a similar furma- 

*See sectioD in PhyBics and Hydraulics of the Miss. River, 1861, p. 101. 
tGeology of the Delta and Mudlumps of the Mississippi River, Am. 
Jour. Sci., Ill, vol. I, pp. 244-246, 3.^6-368, April and May, 1871. 



JirittHh Drift Theories, — Uphnm. 275 

tion and origin as those found in the delta of the Mississippi? 
In many respects these mounds resemble the mudlumps des- 
cribed by Hilgard,* and their existence at the present time 
may be due to the sandy nature of the materials forming their 
body and the rapid growth of the marsh to the south, pro- 
tecting them from the active erosion of the sea. The gas 
associated with the Mississippi mudlumps appears to be car- 
buretted hydrogen, but in Jefferson county the gas is purely 
hydrogen sulphide. No salt wells occur in the vicinity of 
these mounds, although they occur at various places south 
and east of Beaumont. 



BRITISH DRIFT THEORIES. 

By WAftRBM Upham« Somerrillo, Mass. 

The attention and general approval which have been ac- 
corded b}' English and Scottish reviewers to the recent book 
by Sir Henry H. Howorth,t which sets aside the glacial the- 
ory, and substitutes for it the debacle theory, earliest thought 
out and long ago abandoned b}' geologists, seem surprising 
to American readers, since a most wonderful and unique but 
gentle agency of formation of the drift is by these authors 
discarded in favor of a still more strange and extravagantly 
violent hypothesis. Among the latest and most important of 
these British estimates of Sir Henry's work, we note three 
carefully written long articles, each of 20 pages or more, 
which have appeared in the Scottish Review for September, 
1893, the Edinburgh Review of the same date, and the Quar- 
terly Review for January, 1894. The first of these is by I), 
(iath Whitley, and the other two are anonymous. It is 
further to be remarked that the magazines containing these 
two articles are ver^^ venerable, being in each case in the 
<'LXXviiith volume. On this question w*e may perhaps say that 
they are conservative, but more properly that they seek to re- 
vive an old opinion which had its day at the beginning of 

♦Ibid, p. 367. 

fUHviewi'd in llu* Amkkk'an (iEoukust, vol. xii, pp. 181-187. S<*pt., 



276 The American Geologist . April, 19M 

investigations of the glacial drift, but long ago became entire- 
ly obsolete.* 

Another outcropping of neyarly the same ancient opinions is 
found in the February number of the Nineteenth Century. 
Prince Kropotkin, who had written in the January number on 
the present lively interest and discussions concerning the the- 
ory of the formation of the drift by land ice, which he ac- 
cepts and shows to be a full explanation for his own country 
(Russia), believing, too, that the Ice age was continuous, with- 
out definite interglacial epochs, is criticised in the ensuing 
number by the Duke of Argyll, who takes this occasion to 
place himself on the side of submergence and floating ice, or 
even the debacles of Sir Henry Iloworth, rather than in alliance 
with his illustrious countrymen. Prof. James Geikie, the late 
Dr. James ('roll, and Mr. T. F. Jamieson, who are in the first 
rank of glaeialists. 

Doubtless one chief element in the current of present thought 
and studies on this subject, which especially gives countenance 
and encouragement to this extravagant early doctrine, now 
revived and again vigorously advocated, is the view recently 
advanced by the venerable and honort^d Prof. Joseph Prest- 
wich, who holds the place of Nestor among British geologists, 
accounting for the formation known as "rubble drift" or 
"head," which has long been a puzzling problem in southern 
England, by the hypothesis of somewhat similar violent 
rushes of water, while the sea is supposed to have been flow- 
ing off from the land when it was being rapidly uplifted from 
a very brief submergence. This view is published in two 
most valuable articles, the earliest treating of the British rub- 
ble drift in pages 268-348, with a map and sections, in the 
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xlviii, for 

♦S«M' Prof. .]. <iciki(''s 'Min'al Ici* Ajtp." I'haptrr iii. iiiul Lv<»irs "Prin- 
ci pies of (ifolojry." *»l«'viMilh (*d.. 1872. chaptt'r vi. In .Vmi'rica th«' the- 
ory of iht* formation of thr bouldrr-rlay or till by iri'b<*rp« or ti<M»s. 
(hiring? a |M'ri<Ml of subm«'r>r<*iiOH. apfx^ars to hav<» Immmi first proiK>st»d b\ 
IVtf*r I)i>bs<in. of Vfriion, ('<»mi.. from bis observations f>f striattul IxniUI- 
<'rs found on the surface and at considi^rablt* dcptbs in excavations (Am. 
.lour. Sci., first series, vol. x, Feb. 182(J, |)p. 217, 218). Tbis was better 
I ban tbe theory of debacles or violent waves of water, as pnKliiced by 
earthquakes, which were thouKht to carry the drift without the aid of 
floating ice. The chnmoJo^ic onler of the successive debacle, meteoric. 
<lenudation. icel>«>r)r, and land ice theories of origin of the drift, and 
their advocates, are fullv set forth bv Prof. N. H. Winchell in the Pop- 
uhir Science Monthly, vol. iii. pp. 28(i-28», .luly. 1873. 




British Drift Theories, — Ujtham, 277 

1892; and the second describing and explaining the anal6goii$% 
rubble drift in the Mediterranean region of southern Europe 
and northern Africa, forming pages 903-984 in vol. clxxxiv, 
for 1893, of the Philosophical Transactions of tlie Royal So- 
ciety of London. Similar conclusions, drawn from less ex- 
tended investigations, had been published by Prof. Prestwieh 
in 1875 and 1880. 

Although the rubble drift in southern England and Wales 
is ascribed by Prestwieh to a marine submergence of 900 or 
perhaps 1,000 feet, the only fossils found in the formation are 
those of land shells and land animals, and no shore line nor 
terrace of marine erosion or beach deposition has been detect- 
ed, such as would mark the limits or stages in the oncoming 
or decline of the submergence. Prof. Prestwieh thinks that 
the effects observed indicate simply currents of the sea flow- 
ing down from the hillsides while the land was suddenly ris- 
ing, rather than that the rubble transportation was due to 
waves of earthquake origin. It is very ditticult, however, at 
least for me, to see how such currents, even with estuarine 
tidal action, could have produced the observed results, for, the 
total rise being only about 1,000 feet, it would hardly have 
more effect than the flow of a powerful river current upon its 
banks during the few minutes in which the flow would ad- 
vance 1,000 feet. If the emergence were at the rate of the 
fall of tides, as one or two feet in an hour, 25 or 50 feet in a 
day, and the whole amount of 1,000 feet in a month, requiring 
longer time if subdivided b}' intervals of rest, it would be 
quite inadequate to form the rubble drift. But so sudden, 
and not seismic, uplifting of extensive areas as this supposed 
b}' Prestwieh for western and southern Europe, and in Amer- 
ica b^' Shaler for the coastal border of New England,* seems 
to be physically impossible. 

It seems to me, on the contrary, far more probable that the 
true explanation of the origin of the rubble drift is supplied 
by the second of the previously proposed hypotheses concern- 
ing it, which Prestwieh states but rejects, namely, '*the agency 
of ice and snow sliding down the hill-slopes, aided by the run- 
ning off of the water resulting from the melting of the ice 

♦r. S. (J(M>lo>rical Surv«'v. S»«viMUh An. Hep. for IH8.VS(>. pp. :no. :j*i(). 
:r>l: Hulletin X(i. :>X 1SS!». "Th«* (JfMilu>ry of Naiitiicki'l," pp. 44, 45. 



278 llie American Geologist, April, idM 

and snow."* The region lies south of the limits of the ice- 
sheet and the true glacial drift, but I think that during a ge- 
ologically short time, coincident with the European glaciation, 
this western side of the land areas in the eastern hemisphere 
was greatly but slowly uplifted to the extent of the "2,000 
feet or more" which Prestwich mentions on pages 305 and 
329, causing southern England and all the countries bordering 
the Mediterranean to experience a much more severely frosty 
and snowy climate than now. This view is harmonious with 
the epeirogenic theory of the cause of the Ice age, which has 
been thought out and formulated by Dana, Le Conte, Wright, 
and the present writer. f 

Condensed into one paragraph, the epeirogenic explanation 
of the Ice age sees in the fjords and submarine continuations 
of river valleys a proof that the drift-bearing areas immedi- 
ately before the accumulation of the ice-sheets had been grad- 
ually elevated thousands of feet, until finally the cool plateau 
climate at the culmination of the uplift brought on the Gla- 
cial period ; in the low condition of the lands when the drift 
was left by the retreat of the ice, it sees that these areas had 
sunk beneath their ice weight, until mostly they stood some- 
what below their present level ; and in the postglacial uplift 

*ThiH is III!' vii»w h<*ld bv Prcif. .lamt's lit'ikif. **Pn»historic KurojM*," 
1881, pp. 224-227; and pariii'St by Mr. li. A. ('. (}<Klwiii-AiisUMi, wh<i 
tluniKht that Houthorn F]nj;land was thHu drvatt'd snfticieiitly to brini? 
all its hijfhor |M)rti()nK into altitudes having excessiv** c«)ld, Quart. .Jour, 
tteol. S<K*., vol. VI. 18.')0, p. 94. andvoL vir, 18.51, p. 121. Compare the 
discussion by A. T. Ramsay and James (ieikie concerninjj the origin of 
the frost-riven limest(me-a^Kh>nierates of (tibraltar. where they conjec- 
ture that 0,(XX) or 7,(K)0 feet would be the amount of its uplift requisiti* 
t*> caus«* the severe Pleistocene climate (Quart. Jour. <«eol. Soc, vol. 
.\xxiv. 1878. p. .)0.V.>41); also, see J. Y. Huchanan's description of the 
submarine canon of the Con^o. extending to a depth of 0.(¥X) feet be- 
neath the sea (Scottish (Geographical Ma^a/Jne. vol. in. 1887. pp. 217- 
2:W: Troc. A. A. A. S.. vol. xu. for 18»2, pp. 171-173: and Am. J<mr. of 
Science. III. vol. XLVi. pj). 11«, 117, Aujr., 18tW). 

f James I). Dana. Presidential Address. Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. ix, for 
IS.*).*!, p|). 2Ii-21): Trans. Conn. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, vol. ii. 1870: 
many paiM*rs in the American Journal of Science: and the several edi- 
tions «>f his Manual of (teolo}fy. 

Joseph Le Conte, Bulletin, (Jeol. Soc. of America, vol. ii, 18UI, pp. 
32:i-:<:M): Klementsof (ieolo>ry, third edition. 18$)1, p. 58«. 

(r. Frederick Wri^rht. The Ice Ajfe in North America, 188J), chapter 
xix: Man and the (ilacial IVricnl, 18U2, chapter ix: Amer. Jour, of Sci- 
ence, third series, vol. XLVii, pp. 184-187. March, 18J)4. 

Warren Cpham, ApiNMulix of The Ice A^e in North America, ]>p. .>7:{- 
.il).'): Am. Jour, of Science, vol. XLVi. pp. 114 121, Aujr., 181KI: itulletin. 
(reol. Soc. of America, vol. v, 18JM. pp. 87-100. 




Editorial Comment. 279 

of the marine Champlain deposits, overlying coastal portions 
of the glacial drift, it sees an effort of the earth to regain the 
state of isostasj, or flotation of the crust on the heavier 'mo- 
bile interior which is capable of flow whether it be solid or 
molten. 



EDITORIAL COMMENT. 



The CoLi'MBiAN. Exposition. 
The Howard Unirersify Geolofficat Exhibit. 



In gathering together materials for an exhibit, the intention 
of the geological department was to show as far as possible 
the methods of teaching, the working resources of the depart- 
ment, and student products. A more showy exhibit might 
have been made had the exhibition collections and libraries 
been resorted to, but the educational value would have been 
lost. It was evident that from the nature of the case, as well 
as the small space available, only a qualitative idea of geolog- 
ical teaching could be given, so the observer must gain his 
idea of the whole from suggestive samples. Finally the sam- 
ples chosen were fair representatives of resources, selected as 
they could be spared, and at the same time fully illustrating 
some points in the teaching of geology. The care taken in the 
selection and arrangement of materials and in the explana- 
tion of the exhibit gained for it an award of merit. 

Of the elementary courses the one taken by the greatest 
number of students is a lecture course with illustrations by 
lantern slides, photographs and specimens. A set of photo- 
graphs showing wave action was exhibited as the sample of 
illustration. For students having a further interest in geol- 
ogy there is an elementary laboratory and field course whose 
scheme of lectures, laboratory work and excursions was set 
forth in detail by means of a large notice. The kind of ma- 
terials used was shown by plaster models, maps, diagrams, 
photographs and rock specimens. Geological maps and sec- 
tions made by students in the class were shown as products. 

The intermediate geological course, which consists of lec- 
tures, field work and reports, though employing lantern views. 



-4. 



\ 

k 



280 The American Gcoloyist. April, 1894 

models, maps, sections «nd photographs in teaching, was il- 
lustrated only by products, — a list of thesis subjects and ref- 
erences, and some geological maps of small local areas, b^' 
students. The regi(m about Cambridge is divided intx) areas 
of a mile square and each year a student is assigned to an 
area; the various geologic fc?atures are indicated by as many 
colors as are necessary. The accuracy of the work is tested 
by comparison with a manuscript map prepared by the in- 
structor and b}' special excursions to the area. The variety' 
of features f(uind in this region appears in the note given be- 
low describing the photographs exhibited. Library research 
is carried on by the students following the thesis list and ref- 
erences, and the results of such investigation are given orally 
to the class or written in thesis form. 

The next step in gi^ological training is a field course, the 
advanced summer school. A map including southern New 
England and a large part of New York state showed the dis- 
tricts visited by the school ; and the details of the Catskill 
and Meriden regions were shown upon maps of a larger scale. 
Specimens collected at the localities studied and systematically 
arranged showed the lithological and paleontological evidence 
by which the structural geology is determined. As now ar- 
ranged, this summer work begins at Utica, N. Y., with the 
horizontal Paheozoic formations. Abundant fossils aid in 
identifying horizons, and by a series of sections the sequence 
of formations is determined. A considerable part of the same 
series of strata is identified near C'atskill, N. Y.^ but is divided 
into two unconformable series, folded and faulted. The folds 
are of the Appalachian tj^pe, on a small scale, and display 
well the relation of surface form to structure. About Meri- 
den the Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut valley are 
studied. The eviden<*es for the intrusive and extrusive origin 
of the trap sheets are carefully observed. By a series of ex- 
cursi(uis the faulted structure of the region is demonstrated, 
and by means of maps and sections estimates of the amount 
of dislocation are obtained. Student note books represented 
products of the course. 

The final c(Uirse in general geology is one of research under 
the direction of the instructors of the department. Products 
only were exhibited, consisting of geological maps and sec- 



I 



E tutorial Comment, 281 

tion8, photographs, niodel^ ripple marks experimentally made, 
and theses. The natural advantages of Cambridge as a geo- 
logical center were shown by a map of the vicinity of Boston, 
with numbered localities explained by a descriptive list, and 
illustrated by photographs. Among the subjects shown were 
sea- shore features, such us cliffs in hard rock and in glacial 
deposits, beaches of different kinds, sea-shore chasms, wave- 
built spit and wave-cut beach above the present shore level, 
and tidal marshes with meandering streams; noteworthy 
among the glacial subjects were a cross section of an esker, 
cuttings showing contorted gravels and faulted sands, and 
niche moutonee forms; of the bedded rock views those show- 
ing numerous complex relations between sedimenUiry and 
metamorphic rocks and igneous intrusives of different kind^, 
as well as between the intrusives themselves, were of greatest 
interest, for in one view could be seen granite including di- 
<»rite breccia cut by a diabase dike which has been much 

faulted. 

« 

The natural adjuncts of the general geological course were 
represented in a similar manner. To illustrate the element- 
ary course in physical geography were shown selected maps 
of land and sea areas and sets of paper models with explana- 
tory cards. It was noteworthy that some of the foreign maps 
here shown as parts of the laborator}" equipment were also 
shown among the foreign exhibits as samples of fine work. 
One set of m(»dels selected showed the development of river 
drainage. The first conditions represented were of a land 
mass well elevated, the main streams flowing along valleys 
having narrow bottoms and with rather steep sides; the side 
streams, beginning in but few branches on the upland, had cut 
no eonsiderable valleys; the stage of development is that of 
youtli. A second model indicated the result of further growth 
headwards of the various streams. The main stream vallevs 
have been filled with sediments, and the streams have begun 
to meander on their tloodplains; the side streams have diffi- 
culty in reaching the main stream, some wander considerable 
distances down the floodplain before getting into i\\v master 
stream, some have been lakes, and into the lakes are growing 
deltas fed by the little branches. The whole is typical of ad- 
/)lescence. The stage of maturity was manifest in the next 



282 The American Geohnjisf. April, 18»4 

model ; the streams have the greatest development possible,, 
no part of the land mass is undrained and the drainage flows 
oflT quickly without hindrance on floodplains or delay in lakes. 
A fourth model brought out the effect of a glacial accident 
upon such a land mass as the last. The perfect drainage has 

a 

been entirely disarranged; streams in old valleys struggle 
with the glacial detritus, some are unable to follow former 
courses and from lakes escape in new directions. Lakes 
everywhere abound, on main streams, on side streams, and 
among the hills ; some have no visible outlet. 

Meteorology, a subdivision of physical geography, was 
noted by specimen weather maps, foreign and American 
charts of temperature and rainfall, diagrams of vertical tem- 
perature gradients, and photographs of clouds, storm surf, and 
lightning flashes. Photographs of clouds loaned by this de- 
partment appeared in the exhibit of the U. S. Weather Bureau. 
A product of advanced student work in meteorology was a 
chart of isouomalous temperatures. The diagrams of verti- 
cal temperature gradients were perhaps more characteristic 
than the other materials of the method followed in the ele- 
mentary course. One of them showed the strong departure 
of the vertical temperature gradient from the adiabatic gra- 
dient in winter anticyclones, thus explaining the marked in- 
versions of temperature that accompany these weather areas ; 
the other exhibited the close agreement of the two kinds of 
temperature gradients in foehn orchinook winds; the ditfer- 
cnce between the two diagrams being referred to the diif'er- 
ence in the rate of descent of air musses in the anticyclone 
and the foehn. 

The opportunities and methods of studying the petrograph- 
ical side of geology were made evident by samples of rocks 
with accompanying thin sections, selected from the various 
large collections of both foreign and American materials 
available for study; sample models suggested the study of 
optical mineralogy; photographs of optical instruments, ma- 
chines, workshops, and laboratories, ccmipleted the exhibit of 
resources. A photograph showing a large electric microscope 
together with its projection on the screen of a rock slide» 
manifested an important method of illustrating lectures^ 
though, of course, specimens, maps and photographs are also 




Review of JRecent Geological Literature. 283 

used. The products of petrographic work consisted of rock 
sections with microphotographs of rock sections in both black 
and colored prints. 

Two of the courses in paleontology were represented. The 
first is a combination lecture and laboratory course in which 
the subject is treated from its biological side; the specimens 
presented illustrated' the biological method of teaching, re- 
cent forms being used together with fossils to demonstrate 
development. Cut and polished specimens, thin sections and 
plaster casts indicated the variety of materials used in the 
laboratory. The second course is chiefly a laboratory course, 
consisting of the study of the characteristic fossil forms and 
lithologic appearance of the numerous geological horizons. 
Materials from a few horizons were exhibited. Photographs 
of the laboratory taken with students at work and the in- 
structor in attendance were typical of a busy department. 

Some colored sections and diagrams of veins and ore depos- 
its evidenced the quality of illustration used in connection 
with the lecture courses upon economic geology. 



REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 



Flora of the Outlying Carboniferous Basins of Southirestern Missouri. \\\ 
David White. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 98, 1893, 8vo. 139 pp., 5 pi. 

The material forming the basis of this work was mainly obtained by 
W. P. Jenney, of the U. S. Geological Survey, in 1889 while investigat- 
ing the zinc and lead products of Jasper and Lawrence counties in 
soutliwestern Missouri. The fossil -bearing shales are said to occur in 
lenticular masses, which lie in eroded de|)ressions in the limestone "of 
Warsaw — St. T^)uis age," and to be the most recent fossiliferous rock 
within the limits of the lead and zinc region known to have been laid 
down before th»*ores were de]M)sited. 

The identifiable species, barely thirty in all, distributed chielly among 
the EquiHetinrO', FtlirineO' and LyropoiHnnf, the author has taken up one 
by one and treated in a most exhaustive and scholarly manner. The five 
well executed plates enhance the value of the work largely, although 
the descriptions an^ written with great care. After summarizing the 
distribution of the s[H'cies as they oeour at various Nxralities and hori- 
zons throughout the Tnited State.s, the conclusi(»n is reached that the\ 
b«*long io a flora somewhat younger than that of C'lintcm; and **if such 
Ik* the case, the I«»ad and zinc ores of the rt*gion must have been dejKis- 



284 The American Geologi»t. April, IBM 

ited at some }H'rim1 subseiiiUMit to iht* formation of h stajr** probably 
4iboiit the middle of or in the iipin^r half of the Flower Coal-measures." 

The author is led to rejyret that so little has been done on the trans- 
Mississippi coal flora, but in case he continues his work in this field both 
he and science at larsye mav vet rejoice that he found it a tabula ra^i. 

Denrrip^ao (If ama fortwt nora dc 7'rihbitr, fjcha/* (CraUrhaM) ribfiroi, 
by J. F. N. Dkluaikk ((Vmmissao d(»H Trabalhos jfcoloj?. de Portujral. 
181)2. pi>. l-:n. pis. 1-0.) 

Uralkhax ribnroi is an enormous lichad with aprodigiouscaudal spine 
(a very unusual appenda>;e in this jrroup), obtained from the upiH'r Ix'ds 
of the Lower Silurian in the basin of Vallonj^o. Portujral. The species 
d(M»s not widely differ in structure from Ptatyim'topun except in the pres- 
ence of the py^idial spine. The various parts illustrated show that this 
^iKAHtic trilobile attained a lenj?th (»f 560 mm. or about 22.5 inches: a 
size, howt»ver, |)i'obably eipialed if not sur]ms.sed by th»' IVratajtpt'jt 
yrandiM Hall, a lichad of the rpix»r Helderberj? faunas. 

Nott Mur un matreau fCiirf/ptcrfiM du Hothlieyfftdftt de litfjutara {Portugal): 
by W. i>K Lima. (Commun. da (Vimmissao dos Trabalhos jjeolojr. Tom 
ii, Fasc. ii, 181)2.) 

KurypteruH dourilUi, sj). nov.. is the only known representative of this 
.tfenus from faunas so late as the Permian. This s|M»cies is a small one. 
characterized by its broad cephalon and thorax, and .slender abdomen. 
as well as by the ^reat prominence and posterior |M>sition of the ocelli. 

Afje of the Xficark brownMonr. |{y H. S. Lymax. (Proc. Amer. Phil. 
Soc, vol. .'«. pp. 5-10. 181M.) 

From a few imiH*rfect fossil plants, which havi' been obtained from 
the Newark, N. .1., brown .sandstone and which seem to Ix' similar to 
i'arboniferous forms, the author concludes that there is reason to doubt 
the Mesozoic ap* <»f this rock. (J. 

Hfport on tht <%Hil Meatturrif of lilount Mountain. \\\ A. M. (Jibsox. 
((teolo>;ical Survey of Alabama: 8vo.. pj). 1 80. 181K1. ) 

This is a rejMirt ()f explorations conducted by the Survey in a prac- 
tically undevelo|H'd c(»al re^'ion. which lies in lilotint. St. Clair antl 
Ktowah counties. Alabama. A number of dt>tailed sections are ^iven. 
which show that coal seams are (piite abundant in this re<;ion. and it is 
stated that there are elevet» or twelve of these seams that are over 
three feet in thickness and that furnish coal of ^cM>d (piality. («. 

Furthrr obMerratiouit upon tht oreununn of diamond)* in nattorittM. \\\ 
i>. W. HtNTiX(iTON. (Proc. .\mer. Acad. .Vrls and Sciences, vol. 21». pp. 
20*-211, with two plates. I 

A considerabb' quanlit> of the Canon Diablo metforite. from Arizona, 
was dissolved and the diam<mds, which <K*cur only in minute grains, 
were separate*!: amonj; them were found a few small octahedron.s. 
Some of the material was used in cutting an (Ordinary diamond and di<l 
the work well. From the crystal form, the hardness and the chemical 
com|N)sition there is no reason to consider the diamtindsof this meteor- 
ite as other than true diamonds. It is su^^esled that diamonds may 




Review of Jiecent Geological Literature, 28& 

httvo originated in deeply buried masses of inm, as it has been shown by 
Moissan that carbon can be made to crystalline out of melted wrouj^ht 
iron in the form of diamond, if the iron is allowed to cmil under pres- 
sure, (i. 

On the ronreritum of rhUtrite. into biotite. in rork-metamorphutm. By 
CiiARLKH Callaway. ((Jeol. Magazine, HI, vol. 10, pp. 535-8, Dec. 1893.) 

The author in h former pai)f»r (Q. J. (i. S.. Aujj.. 188J), p. 475) has con- 
tended that thi' biotite of the gneisses and schists of Malvern was pro- 
ihiced out of hornblende through the intermediate form of chlorite. 
This conclusion seems to have been questione<l. He mentions several 
others, — Lossen. Michel Levy, Salomon, and Rudermann, — who have 
ilescribed the pnKhiction of biotitefrom chlorite, and then |)roceeds to 
H theoretical discussion of the (piestion. He attempts to account for 
the necessary ffain, in this chanj^e, of silica, iron o.xide and potash, and 
for the loss of magnesia and water. The dei^radational change of biotite 
to chh)rite is well known, but this n>constructionaI chan^^e of the lat- 
ter to the former is not so well known, and is of special interest in the 
study of metamorphism. (i. 

On thr bnmltn of KiiUi. Hy Hkxkv S. Washixotox. (Am«'r. Jour, of 
Science, 8, vol. 47, pp. 114-i2:i, Feb., 1804.) 

Near KuIh, in Asia Minor, an' found a number <»f volcanic cones from 
which have come many tlows of hornblende basalts in comparatively 
n»cent times, but none of these cones are now active. These basalts are 
structurally divided into normal, hyalopilitic, .semi-vitreous and tach- 
ylylic. Ijeucite is for the first lime re|M>rted from a hornblende basalt. 
The hornblende shows alteration, due to mayrmatic action, in three 
ways, the most im|)ortant of which is to an ajf^repiteof au<rite. opacite. 
and a brown mineral which the author thinks is hyfM»rsthene. These 
basalts are characterized by a larjje amount of hornblende, and lh»' 
name kuUdtt is pn)|K)sed tor "a sub-^roup of the basalts which is char- 
acterized by the invariable presence of hornbliMide as an essential con- 
stituent, which also, both in quantity and |M*tro^raphical im|M>rtance. 
surpasses th«' au^ite: in other words, to a larjree.xtent replaces the latter. 
We can call such a |)lajrioclase-basalt kulaite. having the further subdi- 
visions of leucite-kulaite. and nepheline-kulaito." tJ. 

On the rhcmiral rompoaition of Mttturolitr, and tht reffular arntngenwnt of 
itn rarbim^teeotiH inrlnniimM. Hy S. L. Pknkield and J. H. Pratt. (Amer. 
.lour. Science, HI, vol. xia'U. pp. 81-89. Feb., 1894.) 

Ten verv careful analvses were made (»f selected staurolite crvstals 

• • • 

from St. (iothard. Switzerlaml: Windham. M«*.: Libson. N. H.: and 
liurnsville, \. (\ The results apree very closely with each i»ther, and 
the ratios obtained from the analyses jfiv«* the formula HAI5 FfSi^ t^ig* 
which was suj^j^ested by (Jpoth. This is the most reliable work done on 
the chemical comfx)sition of staurolite. A numlxT of sections cut 
across crystals show that the carlxmaceous inclusions an» arrauj^ed in 
certain planes so that each staurolite prism contains two skeleton or 
phantom pyramiils, outlined by carlxniacetms material, whose bases cor- 



286 lite American Geoloyist, April, 18M 

resixmd to lh«» basal planes of the staurolite and whose apices join at 
the center of tlie crystal, while from the acute and obtus** ed^es of the 
Iiyramids the inclusions extend as Alms or fins to the vertical edges of 
the prism. <t. 

Continuity of the GUiridl Period. By O.Frederick Wrioht. Am. 
Jour, of Science, III, vol. xlvii. pp. 1(51-187, with sections and five maps; 
March, 1804. It is proved, as the author thinks, by his observations and 
those of Mr. Leverett and others, that the erosion of the n>ck gorj^es of 
the Ohio river and its tributaries was preglacial, instead of beinjf inter- 
^lacial, which last has been their interpretation by Prof. Chamberliii. 
It is further urj^ed that this removes the necessity for the belief in a 
l(mj( inter^lacial epoch, and that it apjiears more in accordance with all 
the facts known to ascrjbe the glacial drift to a single and continuous 
Ice age. On very slender evidence Mr. McGee has estimated that an 
•*poch of warm interglacial climate in northeastern Iowa extended 
through pn»bably 200.000 and perhaps 2,000,000 years; but the forest 
bed enclosed between deposits of till, on which his opinion rests, is 
thought by Prof. Wright to be explainable by short retreats and soon 
returning advances of the ice-sheet, with a forest at its border, as in the 
ca.se of the Malaspina glacier in Alaska. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



C'oMin)KiTE (iENEUic FiXHAMENTA. Some remarks on "Mathematical 
Hicilogy" in the February number of "Natural Science," and the sug- 
gestion made bv Hather in his recent work on the'*(>inoidea of (Jotland.'* 
that (Jalton's methoil of comi>osite |K)rtraiture might be employed to 
ascertain a siH'cific type from which variations in various degrees couhl 
be n'ckoned. recalled to me some g(»rmane experiments in which I M-as 
interesteil s<ime eight years ago, and which indicate that there is even 
a iK»ssibility amonjf narrowly restricted, ui»-to-date genera, of educing, 
by a series of comparative measurements and successive overlays, a sort 
of \n*\\vT\v fuHtUimetitum. I take the liberty of citing and illustrating a 
single instance of this among the fossils, the case being a simple one and 
involving the sf>arch for the standard in one element of variation only, 
namely, outline-, but whatever may be done with a single siH'citlc char- 
acter, in this manner, is equally iM>ssible of all the others. 

In volume v, pt. i, <»f the Palteontology of New York are described Tu 
s[)ecies of the lamellibranch genus Jjeptodemna. two of whicli are as- 
cribed to the horixon of the Hamilton group, an<l Tm to the fauna of the 
overlying Chemiuig beds. Ijeptodenma is an aviculoid genus with 
smcMith and ctinvex valve.s, and the shells uixm which these observations 
are bam*d, are pr«»served plump and with(»ut disturbance of the margi- 
nal outline. The genus in some of the higher beds of the CMiemung 
group is enormously pnHiflc, so that the |N>rception and identificatitm of 




lhi-»'.MS|i>-('in(- vHlu<-sis»i>ii//l-l» whicli llu- i<l<'iilin(-i>1i<iii<>r .lurns- 
Kir Ammonio-Horri'iH'iil Uiijoh ix but \.\h\. N.-vi-rilu'li-ss. no mon' in- 
Mlriiftivr MHrics of variiitiiins iif iisinirli' jti-ncrir l.v|ii' Iihs t-vi-r bt-i'Ti lU'- 
srribi'd HTniitiir PHliwiqiic fiissils. Tin- Bml imsi>( iil such h Kniu|i is 
oiTlnin li> Ihv iIii- stiideiil Inw willi uciili- liri<iii-rH)r. miiiI Ii'hvi' u|ii>ii his 
minil H linxv i-ouvii-tioii IIihI hII Ihi' Hlli'ind H|M'<'it>s iin' pn-tl.v miiih out- 
iinil Ihi' sHtnt- Ihin". Tlif hi'KUty nf llii' sitU-s uiiil llii- iii'rsiiili-iici- iif lis 
vHrintiiius or K|)>-('ii'N iIhwiih u)ioii llii' mitiil v'rmlitnlly bill iiivEncibly. 
[iHviiitr Httiiini'il litis jioiiit in lln' sliidv of thi- oHicliiiil siM-cimciiK ut 
thi'M' fiissils. Ihi' Htti'mjil WHK TPHili' by llii' |iriH->'ss of Nii|)i-r|M>H>llou lo 
iisciTtniu B slniiiluril or r«ilirlii oullirii- for llii- .■iiliir m-in'Hc Kfiiiii. In 
till' mnliiiiK of lliis ciimiHwilc H^ritn-. wiiicK is bi'n- rfpriMliii-t>il. i1 whs. 
uf fcmrs.'. iMT.'SNiir\ t<i rt.v u)-<M Iwo |«>itils or on., dimi-nsioii as n Iwsf (o 
wliich all llu- •li'mt-iils coiikl Ix- r<-<lii(-.-<l or rli'vaX-ih jiisl aN in ri>mis>s- 
Ut> pxrlrailim'. Ilii' I'yrs. or s<im<- 'itlx'r iinlio's. of nil Thlvs in ilu- rom- 
|H«ili' must bi' (.'I'iiiFiili-iil. In tliis rast- llii' slamlanl to wliicli all hnvi' . 
bf'-n mHil>> toccmfiirm hns bi'.'ii IbiMlistaniv bi-lwi-i-n llii' atitrriiir car- 
ilinal i-xtn-mity and tlii' iIc>-|h-hI [loKli'rior Jncurvalun- of lhi> vhIvi-: a 
purrly arhilra'ry dim>-nKiiin: |>n>bably Hny iillirr would si-rv nn w<'ll. 

Till' fiBiin- M'lircscnis Hiiiji>r|iosi'il 
mitllu.'siir till' l.'fl valv.M.r :«!of llit-si- 
s]ii-i;ii-ii i>f I^/il'Hletma. Il will lii^oh- 
srrvi'd lliHt ]io)ablF-ditr>T<'iir<'sof oul- 
llni> in the ciimitoiii'nls of Mils tttrun- 
Hr>' obscun'd by llir (-<ihicitl>'n('i- of 
tlK' lin>'<> for a h'ri'ulf r or Irss iKirllou 
of thi'irli'iiKlh, wliili- il»- riilin;.' out- 

liki- H cii&rsi'ly Nlindi'd drawing; of Ili>' 
viilv>>. Of all tlK' I'limiKinrnl oullin<-s 

ihis inti'rwov.'ii vhIv.- ii|.r'f "icii' '"ri'M to i Imi .,f /.. n.<,rr«. as shown 

in tliv Hiljuiniii).' Hk'ti-. ll will naliirHlly b.- iiiiil.-rsliXHl iliat /,. r-yern 
I'liliTs into tliis comhiiiHlioii no miiri- tban tlu' oIliiT Xi sjH'rii's, ncir ar.- 

■ similar lollmi of /.. r»s<-r« as loi.n>iliict- a sni'- 

c-ssionof iiaralli-I liu,-s. wliicli Ilius ixTom.' 

inli-riHifliil. Till' di'inh anil iiri'diiminaiicti of 

llu' /,. niffi-rM iiiiiliiii' is whrillyiliii' imli.' c.ij,- 

I cidi'iir.'of imrls.if ouilinis of s|H-ci.-s whir]. 

vary jfrfally in tliis n'S|r,-l. as wiln.-ss Ih^ 

.„..-.- , '"'" f"""*"i« -^illK'n'-in-s or Hi'mi-nis in ihis 

Lepu-l«n.r<«,ri. ^ .n„.^i,ion. shown on ,««.- 3H8. 

.\s «lri-Hd.» nmarki-d. whal is li.-r- .Ion.- for Ihi- oullj f ih.. yaW,.^ 

can 1.1. .Ion.- Willi .-.inal facilily for con M'xilyi.rolhi-r s|«-i-iHc variaiions. 
.-ilhiT by ihis milhiMl of si]|>frts>Hilion or by Ihi- i.v].r.'SHiiin of such dif- 
f.-r.'nc.'s by a s.-ri.-s i.f c.w.rdinal^s or jnHthi.matical ciirvi's. 

Oni- inliTi'stin); faci in n';.'anl lo il 
ill Ihis cotni-wlti- is Dial /,. r-j>>-> 



28ft 



The Am 



I Genioginf. 



AttriLUM 



•Hilbursi of Ujil-iir-iHa in ih<- 4'li<'miitlK faunas, mxl is one .if lln' Iwn 
•.[.^ii-^ ocrtimnx in Ih*- Hmniltiin faiiDHM bi'm'slli. 

1 ani liisfuMtl III h.-!i.\e iHhI wIic-iumt ttiU^mi-tliDil is iinifi imhlc 
i1 will bi- fimiid of n-nl uu-riihu-ss rxit onlv m hjiilouiMs in ir^nrrnt. bin lu 



rini- ■.l^u,\»r>U.,r pi«,l,i„..:l.i. ..-. sti'„'!.'i'sl<-<l t>v Kutli.r. lis ><irn'>sriil 
>i|.|ili<'Rtli>ii imiilii-s. tIrM iif h11. iihiiiiilHiit lUlH. Willi IIihI iir>-r-<|iit- 

>il- |.^"^ill•'•l for. |ir<illliil>li- <-iim|iHris'iMs i-milil 1h' iiisliliiliiMx'tw 

■r.'i'i f .IlKlHIit niiiiiHv. siiiiiKiKiit In IH' iil.-nli<-ul. iirwiili'li. Ili.iii).'li 



III!' 



||<I U 



■illli-r«t.-<-i.-.. |il.— s illlr. Ihr- u 

ri.hr>- l.'n-ii1l> iilik.- nml <-»i-li , 






-"•■liliii 



a r n iiiT- Vi't iIk' 






a- rnlioiiHl •'tiilmi \ sr<<'<-il1<' iili'iililt 

lllio mi'lliixl niii;lil Ih- IioIiiI in iiii-li h 
■•nif. I'niwM'r. wlix nri;ii.-> iIihi hii <-m 



Correspondence. 289 

and (*asUTii N»»w York, which appear U) be ptTmt*aled with Hamilton 
fossils, an* not of the aj?e of the Hamilton group, but represent a later 
^reological stage, and that the fossils have, in a considerable degree, un- 
dergone mcxlifications from their typical expression in the true Hamil- 
ton fauna. As the quality of these variations is hardly palpable under 
nrdinarj- circumstances and has not been satisfactorily expressed in 
words, it ought to appear in composites based uiN>n sufficient data; and 
should there prove to be differences in the fun dameuta of sijeciflc varia- 
tions, from the true Hamilton fauna, and»)f those from the alleged but 
c<»ntested Hamilton fauna above, the argument from such evidence 
would bi* entitled to serious consideration. J. M. Clakke. 

Albaiin, N. r., Ftb. J:^, 1894. 

**TnK Columbian Exposition: Notes on some Mesozoic and Tekti- 
ARY KxiiiBiTs. " An editorial under the above heading in the March 
number of the (Jeolooist, which, though unsigned, was evidently writ- 
ten by Prof. F. W. (Vagin, includes notes on several s|)ecies of Creta- 
ceous fossils exhibited by the U. S. Geological Survey. As these notes 
contain a number of queries, either expressed or implied, I beg space in 
which to answer them seriatim, though several of them will be more 
fully answered in a forthcoming bulletin (No. 100) of the (icohigical 
Survey. 

In i'xplanation of th«' fact [)ointed out by Prt>f. Cragin that th»* labels 
in several instances did not agree with the nomenclature and opinions in 
his "Contribution to the Invertebrate Paheontology of the T«'xas Creta- 
ceous," it is only necessary to remind the reader that the collection was 
on (exhibition in Chicago for some weeks before the b<M)k was |)ublished. 

The "two very inter»'sting s|)ecimens of (irypluea, labeled 'Exogyra 
ffuborhirultita Lamarck,*" really belong io Kjrogyra, as that ariiflcial but 
convenient genus is defined. Unfortunately the .specimens exhibited do 
not show very clearly on casual insiK*ction thi» distinctly spiral beaks of 
both valves. 

The occurrence t)f HadiolitrM auMiinruHiA in the Eagle Ford shales ou«;ht 
n<»t to be considered remarkable when it is known that thrn* is no dis- 
tinct faunal break between that formation and th(* Austin limestone, in 
which it is wfll known to occur. 

Comparison of thetyix'sof Trnprzium mirroneiinim yiwk, JSarOatm roal- 
riY^'W^iVf White (both from Coalville, Utah), and other S|)ecimens from 
Utah, together with the Texan fossils that Prof. Cragin has since de- 
scrib*'d as Area gaUirnnfi d' Orb. var. tntmititmM, convinced me that they 
all belong t4i one s|)ecies, and they were placed under the earliest Ameri- 
can si)ecific name as BarbatUt mirroneiim. It is evidently closely related 
to the EuroiM'an sfwcies to which Prof. Cragin refers it, but whether 
they are really identical can hardly be decided without direct compari- 
son of sfHH'imens from both countries. In T'tah Hnrbntia mirronrma oc- 
curs with (rfauconi^i roalciUeindi*^ Oxtrea .MtlfnUruM, etc., in beds slightly 
below the horizon of BurhicrniM airnUori and probably very near the 
horizon <»f the Texas Timber Creek beds. The .strata containing them 
in I'tah are intimately connected b<»th fauiially and stratigraphically 



290 llie American Geologist, AprU,i894 

with i\\\' ovcrlyinjr bfds of th»' Colorado forniHtion, niul I have thon'foro 
Irfatcd them as the base of that formation. 

So far as can be determined from a description without illustration, it 
is quite possible that the fossil doubtfully referred to Plarentireran pfti- 
renta is identical with 7*. Hyrtalv*^ var. nimmitm Vt\\^\\\. However that 
may be, it seems to me to be more closely related to P. plarenta than to 
P. HyrialiH. From the former it seems to differ in its smaller size and 
slightly h*ss deeply divided suture. If not identical with this well 
known sjx'cies from the Montana formation, it may at least becimsidered 
its direct ancestor. 

Prof. Craj^in refers the "Mtnliola concentrice-costellata RtH»m.?"to 
his recently descril)e<l Modiobt ^touetraUtimM. This s]>*cies, like a con- 
siderable number of others described as new in the ''Contribution to 
the Invertebrate Paleontolojry of the Texas ('retaceou.s,*' has never been 
fl^ure<l, and it is thereft>re ^ratifyinjr to have an example of it idf>ntifled 
by the authctr, who. it is ho}MHl, will take the first op|K)rtutity to illus- 
trate all his unfljifured si)ecies. As to the validity of the name Modiola 
HtoneiniUemtiM. llu' (Ijrures of M. ronceutrice-roHteUata jfiv»»n by Koemer are 
very sujr;?esliv»« of immature examples of this s|)*'cies, and their sjH^ciflc 
identity is made more jirobable by the fact that they come from the 
same hori/on. 

The Texan siM'cies of Protorariiin probably should not b»* refern*d to 
the KurofMNin Caniium hiWtfiuiu Sowerby. although Koemer assigned 
them to that sfM^cies. The fossils of this ^n)up. especially when not 
well jireserved. show so few salient features that it is difficult to define 
the limits of the s|M'cies. 

In his description of AMtarft {fStearuKia) arumimttn Prof. Crajrin ad- 
mits that it is probably a synonym of StmruinH robinni White, an<l his 
fijrure. to«relher with the fact that both came from the sam<' horizon and 
neijrhborluMKl, make their identity almost certain. **The radial marks 
wen on the beaks of Atttartr aruminata."' as re|»resi»nted in the fljrure, 
l<K>k liki* an accidental feature. 

The younj: sjM'cimen <if Trigtmia niwrtfi VowvmX is doubtless the yt»un|: 
of T. rhrif/ent Oajrin, and therefore these two names are synonymous. 
Th»* i<ientif1cation was made by comi)arison with the ty|)e of 7\ rmoryi, 
which so closely resembles the photo^^raphic flj^ure of T. rlnrigrni that 
it mi^ht have served as the ori^rinal, exce|)tinjr that the accidental de- 
fects in the two s|M'cimens do not cpiite coincide. 

Prof. Cra^in is probably rijrht in rc'ferrin^' Arropmjia trxatm ti> ('ifpn- 
tHtria, ih<»u<;h that refi»rence can hardly be called un(]Uestionable so 
lontr as the hinjre of the s|H'cies is entirely unknown. It would be inter- 
est injr to know why any of the Fredericksburjr Cyprimerias have Iwrn 
ref»'rred lo (\ eniMa Meek, which is a medium sized s|H'cies from the 
I'pjH-r Cretaceous (Montana formation) i>f New Mexico. 

The queries as to whether certain sfwcimens are types may be an- 
hwerf<l b\ saNin^' that tyiH'S. i. e. fljrured siM'cimens, were not shown in 
thr (ti*olo};icaI Survey exhibit. T. W. St.kxtox. 

WitMhi/tf/toN, IK r.. March S, tSU4. 




Personal and Sclent ijic Xews, 291 

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 



An Arctic expedition for the exploration of the unknown 
western part of fillesmere land, in latitude 76" to 78^, is to be 
led by Mr. Robert Stein of the U. S. Geological Survey, starting 
from St. John's, Newfoundland, on a whaling steamer in May. 

It has he en suggested that the Arizona petrified forest, 
occupying about 10,000 acres in the eastern portion of central 
Arizona, near Holbrook, on the Atlantic and Pacific railroad, 
should be set aside as a national park. The ground is strewn 
with trunks and limbs of petrified trees, some of the logs be- 
ing six feet in diameter. ( Bulletin^ Am, Geofjvaphical Society^ 
Dec, ,?/, 189S.) 

The topographic work ok the U. S. Geological Survey 
during 1893 comprised the mapping of about 38,500 square 
miles. Thirty- three surveying parties were engaged in the 
field-work, and 134 sheets of the United States topographic 
map were surveyed. Of these, 118 are on a scale of 1 : (J2,500, 
or very nearly one mile to an inch, each being bounded by 
sides of a quarter of a degree in latitude and longitude ; and 
the remaining 16 are on the scale of 1 : 125,000, or about two 
miles to an inch, with half degree sides. In New York, where 
the state appropriated $24,000 for co-operation with the 
national survey, 27 sheets have been completed, covering 5,000 
square miles. In North Dakota, 11 sheets were surveyed; in 
Scilith Dakota, 13 sheets, including the completion of the 
Black Hills area; in Nebraska, 37 sheets; in Kansas, four 
sheets, finishing the part of the state east of the 100th merid- 
ian;- in Oklahoma, eleven sheets; in Montana, two sheets on 
the two mile scale, embracing the region recently set ofi" as a 
timber reserve, east of the Yellowstone National Park ; in 
Idaho, about 1,000 square miles in the Salmon River moun- 
tains; and in California, four sheets about the bay of San 
Francisco, and three sheets in the neighborhood of Los Ange- 
les. The surveys of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti- 
cut, and New Jersey have been completed and published. 

The department of geology at Cornell Univer.sity has 
been reorganized, Mr. G. D. Harris being appointed assistant 
professor of Paleontology, Dr. A. C. Gill assistant professor of 
mineralogy and petrography, and Mr. R. S.Tarr assistant pro- 
fessor of dynamical geology and physical geography. Mr. Tarr 
has been connected with the University for the past two j'ears, 
but the others are new men. Mr. Harris is a graduate of Cor- 
nell, and has been connected with the Smithsonian Institution 
and the geological surveys of Arkansas and Texas, since his 
graduation in 1886. Dr. Gill graduated from Amherst in 
1884, and since then has been five years at Johns Hopkins, 
Leipzig, and Munich, where, in 1893, he took the degree Ph.D. 



292 The American Geologist, April^UM 

Mount Logan, so named by Prof. I. C. Russell in honor of 
Sir Wm. Logan, the founder of the Geological Survey of 
Canada, has been found to excel in hight every mountain peak 
that has been measured in North America. A party under 
Mr. J. E. McGrath was sent out by Supt. T. C. Mendenhall, of 
the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in 1892, to take such 
measurements of angles and distances as would determine the 
hight of Mt. St. Elias. In doing this measurements were made 
on Mt. Logan, twelve miles toward the northeast from Mt. St. 
Elias. These have recently been computed at Washington 
and result in transferring the honor from Mt. Orizaba in 
Mexico to Mt. Logan. There are three peaks having alti- 
tudes 19,497 ft., 19,514 ft. and 19,255 feet. Mt. Logan is 
therefore 1,500 feet higher than Mt. St. Elias and 1,200 feet 
higher than Orizaba (Am. Geologist, vol. xii, pp. 213-217, 
Oct., 1893). 

The International Congress of Geologists, sixth session, 
to convene at Zurich 29th of August, will continue to Sept. 
2d, having simultaneous sectional meetings and daily general 
sessions. The second circular of the arranging committee, 
issued in February, gives the general program and the details 
of the proposed excursions, the latter being intended to be, 
evidently, the chief feature of the meeting. Five excursions 
on foot will take place before the meeting at Zurich and four 
after it, each under a competent guide, the cost of which va- 
ries from ten to fiftv dollars. The conductors of these excur- 
sions will be Dr. H. Schardt, Dr. Aug. Jaccard, M. Louis 
Rollier, Dr. C. Schmidt, Dr. Mfthlberg, Dr. Alb. Heim and Dr. 
A. Baltzer. These are intended for those who are hardv 
enough to endure the labor and hardship of actual travel and 
exploration, with hard beds and frugal diet. Two longer ex- 
cursions in the Alps are arranged, one before and one after 
the session, each occupying thirteen days, the former costing 
sixty dollars and the latter eighty. These are under the di- 
rection of Pn>fs. Renevier and Golliez, of Lausanne, and the 
travel will be principally by railroad, by steamboat and by 
stage, oecasionally on horse or afoot for short trips aside. 
The excursions which take place before the meeting will start 
from different cities in the western or northern part of Switz- 
erland and will converge at Zurich. Those which occur after 
the session will radiate from Zurich through the Alps and 
unite finally at Lugano, where the close of the Congress will 
take place. These excursions will enable the participants to 
visit the principal classical regions of Swiss geology. The cost 
of membership in the Congress is fixed at five dollars, the pay- 
ment of which is the onl}" condition. This sum should be 
sent to the treasurer, M. Casp. Escher-Hess, Bahnhofstrasse, 
Zurich. 



294 



The American Geologist. 



May, 1694 




Pxo. \.—I$land at the mouth of White Gravel 
river, lake Superior. 



dinal profiles are thus those of the hummock, while the trans- 
verse sections show a combination of the hummock and nega- 
tive dyke profiles. The general form of the island is indicated 

in the accompanying dia- 
gram, fig. 1. The other two 
dykes of the island are con- 
fined to the more easterly, 
or lesser, of the two por- 
tions into which it is thus 
divided by the dominant 
dyke. The larger dyke is 
near the S. E. point of 
the island and is remark- 
able only for the irregular character of the containing fis- 
sure walls. In this respect it difi*ers from the great majority of 
the diabase dykes of the region, since these as a rule are con- 
tained in remarkably straight fissures. The average width of 
this dyke is perhaps fifty feet. Its strike is S. S. W., so that 
its projection beneath the waters of the lake would intersect 
that of the dominant dyke of the island. About fift}' feet from 
the margin of this dyke and occupying a jutting point on the S. 
E. extremity of the island is our third dyke — the mitltipir 
(fyke, to which this note has especial reference. 

The rock surface upon which the phenomena to be dcj^cribed 
were observed is at the water.'s edge. Its area is only about oO 
x20 feet, and it passes beneath the surface of the lake on three 
sides. The waves break over the entire area so that it is per- 
fectly clean and bare. The surface is also smooth and pol- 
ished by glavial action. This surface is formed of the edyei* 
of over Jtfty thin sheets of ijranite and diattase in alternating 
setjnence. These sheets are in vertical attitude. The diabase 
sheets are dykes cutting the granite. The evidence on this 
point is absolutely conclusive. Although none of the diabase 
sheets exceed 6.J inches in thickness and man}'^ are not over l\ 
inches thick, yet there is a very apparent difi'erentiation 
in the texture of the sheets from their middle portions to- 
wards their containing wiills. In the middle portions th(* 
crystalline texture of the rock is readily observable. At the 
margins it is a dense aphanite. The diabuse sheets were in 
several instances observed to cut obliquely across the granite 




A Multiple Diabase Dyke, — Lawson, 295 

sheets 80 ae to anastomose ; and little apophyses of the dia- 
base in some cases branch out from the main sheet and die 
out in the granite. These facts, taken together with the pe- 
trographic identity of the diabase with that of the larger 
neighboring dykes, establishes the intrusive character of the 
sheets. A section across the edges of these alternating verti- 
cal sheets of granite and diabase was carefully measured. The 
section selected is a representative one, but neighboring sec- 
tions would be slightly different in detail, as the sheets are not 
uniformly thick along their strike and, as stated, the diabase 
sometimes cuts across the granite sheet obliquely. The re- 
sults of this measurement are as follows, in which the thick- 
ness is given in inches, d=diaba8e, g=granite : Dl j, g4, d4, 
gi d2i, g5i, d4i, d8, g2, dl, gU, d6, g2, d3, g7, d^, g4^, d3, 
gl,d3, g3, d5, g2, d3i, g4i, d2, g2i, d3i, gl|, d3, g2, d6i, g4, 
d4i, g2, dl, g2i, dl, g4, dl, gi, dli, g2i, do, gU, d4, g4i, d5, 
g8, d6, g3, d5, g5, d2. 

We have thus in a breadth of about 14 feet no less than 28 
vertically intrusive sheets of diabase, ranging in thickness 
from 1 inch to A^ inches, separated by 27 sheets of granite 
ranging in thickness from \ inch to 8 inches. There can be 
no reasonable doubt that these diabase sheets represent 
but one invasion of magma and that they are essentially but 
one dyke, although split up into so many parallel sheets. 
Such dykes may convenientl}'' be called multiple dyk^s. The 
extent of the dyke is not known. Its strike is about 8. S. E. 
Its exposure is limited to the rock surface shown in the ac- 
companying photograph (Plate VII). The striping of the sur- 
face, due to the alternation of light and dark colored bands of 
rock, is fairly well brought out in the illustration. The band- 
ing is, however, even more uniform than appears in the pho- 
tograph, seeming irregularities being introduced by pools of 
water, clefts, shadows, etc. 

The interesting feature of the occurrence is the splitting 
of the granite into so many thin vertical sheets. The granite 
is seemingly homogeneous. There is no differentiation of 
structure or of mineral composition,— no trace of foliation. 
The splitting in parallel sheets would therefore seem to be 
due to no intrinsic structural feature of the rock itself, but 
to have been determined by the nature of the forces directed 



296 The American Geologist, May, 1894 

against it from without. There is no evidence of brecciation 
or of shearing; and it appears improbable that the parallel 
partings are jointages or faults, since such features are not 
observable elsewhere in the vicinity. We must therefore sup- 
pose that the splitting of the granite into thin sheets was due 
directly to the invasion of the diabase magma. It would fol- 
low from this that the parting planes, havingonce been estab- 
lished by sudden changes of temperature, or otherwise, the 
separation of the granite sheets must have been effected by 
the pressure of the invading magma. The occasional inter- 
section of the granite sheets by the diabase shows that the 
magma invaded the dliferent parallel fissures at the same time, 
and that the process of Assuring and filling by magma was 
not successive but simultaneous. This occurrence has more 
than a local and special interest. The relations of the intru- 
sive rock to the mass invaded are remarkably similar to those 
which obtain between the intrusive Laurentian granite and 
the earlier rocks of the Ontarian system. Geologists familiar 
with the Archtean on the north side of lake Superior will be 
impressed by the resemblance of the photographic illustra- 
tion to many contacts between the Laurentian gneisses and 
granites and the schistose rocks which they invade. Yet 
when the writer first described the evidence of the irruptive 
nature of the Laurentian of the region, the interpretation 
which he .placed upon the parallel interbanding of schist and 
granite was ridiculed. It was declared impossible that an 
irruptive contact could assume the characters described, and 
the interbanding was held to be due' not to the invasion of 
the schistose rock by the granite magma, but to original sedi- 
mentation in accordance with the views of the old meta- 
morphic extremists. In the case of the irruptive contacts of 
the Archiean the injection of the granite magma in parallel 
i^heets within the schists is not so surprising as is the case 
here recorded. The rocks of the Ontarian system were schist- 
ose prior to their invasion by the Laurentian granites, and 
the parallel planes along which injection took place were al- 
ready established as planes of fission by the cleavage of the 
schists. In the present case there were no pre-existent planes 
of fission in the rock invaded by the irruptive magma. The 
occurrence is, therefore, interesting as establishing independ- 




Geoloyical Xotes on the Sierra Xecada, — Turner. 297 

entlj of the Archu^an contacts the fact that an irruptive 
magma may invade the country rock in thin parallel sheets 
alternating with thin sheets of the rock invaded. 



GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE SIERRA NEVADA. 

By H. W. TuRNSR. WashtngrtoD. D. V. 
[Concluded from page ^9.] 

PART II. 

THK UiNEors ROCKS. 

The classification adopted below is practically that of 
Rosenbusch. It is now generally conceded, and I think by 
Roseubiisch himself, that the chissification of igneous rocks 
on the basis of time is not an altogether scientific one. The 
rocks called porphj^rites are in fact the product of ancient 
volcanoes and correspond in the main to modern andesites. 
Some of the rocks classed as diabase do not appear to ditfer 
in structure or in original composition from modern dolerites 
and augite-andesites. The science of petmgraphy is now in 
a transition stage and the classification here adopted will 
doubtless not obtain a few years later. In the Sierra Nevada, 
however, the time classification is very useful. All, or nearly 
all, of the rocks classed as intrusive are Jura-Trias in age or 
older. During the Cretaceous period the igneous forces in 
this district 'seem to have been quiescent, and do not appear 
to have been very active again till in Neocene (Miocene and 
Pliocene) time. 

The pre-CreUiceous volcanic rocks are all of them altered, 
usuall}' highly so. They have been subjected to pressure, 
rendered in places thoroughly schistose, and folded in with 
pre-Cretaceous sediments. Nearly every hard specimen of 
these ancient volcanic rocks will be found on microscopic ex- 
amination to contain epidote, uralite, or chlorite or other 
secondary products. They also differ from the Tertiary vol- 
canic rocks in containing numerous gold quartz veins and 
other metalliferous deposits. 

The Tertiary volcanic rocks on the other hand lie with a 
marked unconformity in nearly horizontal beds or sheets on 



298 



The American Geolot/ist, 



Hay, 1804 



this older folded series. They are also usually unaltered, and 
almost never contain metalliferous deposits. 

The igneous rocks may be classified as intrusive and effusive, 
but some of the fragmental diabases and porphyrites that are 
included under intrusives were undoubtedly surface rocks. 
Intrusive. 



Amphibolito. 

Diabaso and jK)rphyrit«'. 

Hornbk»nde-t»(»rphyrit<».* 

(fubbro and norite. 

Peridot ite and pyroxenite. 

DioriU*. 

(iranodiorite. 

( iran i te-ix)rphy ry . 

Hiotite-hornblfMuh'-jfranite. 

Quartz-porphyrite. 

Quartz-iKirphyry. 

Kffisivk. 

Rhyolit«». 

Hornblendt^-mica-andesilf*. 
H<>rnblend»*-pynix<MH*-andesite. 
Pvmxenf'-andesit«*. 

Older basalt. 

l)(>lerite. 

Other late basalts. 



liasic series. 



Acid series. 



) 



]- Acid .series. 



I 



Basic series. 



INTHl'SIVK KiNEOrs UOCKS. 
Ahphibolite. 
The rocks here designated as amphibolite appear all of 

them to have been derived by metamorphism from igneous 
rocks. The amphibolites may be classified under three head- 
ings : massive amphibolite, amphibolite-schist and amphibole- 
talc rocks. 

Jfassire amphibolites. Under this head are placed certain 
granular amphibolites which are known in certain cases to 
have resulted from the alteration of pyroxenites. No. 240 
Amador county and No. 76 Calaveras county are examples. 

AmphiholitC'Schist, The mt^jority of the green schists so 
abundant in the gold belt are amphibolites, derived as has 
been shown by the microscope and by field observations, very 
largely from rocks of the diabase series by dynamometamor- 
phism. The augite of the original diabase may frequently be 
seen altering into fibrous green hornblende. There is usually 
in these schists secondary feldspar and quartz, with a good 

*Some «»f the iM»rpliyrites contain (»ver (K)^ of silica and therefore be- 
long? to the acid series. 



Geological Xotes on the Sierra yevnda. — Turner, 299 

deal of epidotc in small grains and sometimes zoisite. These 
rofks resemble to a marked extent the greenstone schists of 
Michigan, so admirably described by professor G. H. Wil- 
liams.* Large areas of amphibolite-schist are shown on the 
Sacramento, Placerville and Jackson atlas sheets. 

Copper. Copper is found in a belt of amphibolite-schist 
that lies just west of the Bear mountains in Calaveras county, 
and in the extension of this belt to the northwest into Eldo- 
rado county are frequent deposits of copper andiron sulphur- 
ets, which have been the source of a considerable copper 
industry. The ore is said at Copperopolis and at Campo Seco 
to carry several dollars in gold to the ton. 

Amphibole-talc rorks. Rocks of this scries occur as narrow 
streaks in the Paleozoic schists. They have been studied by 
the writer chiefly in the area of the Jackson sheet, where they 
appear to occur only in the Calaveras formation, chiefly in 
narrow streaks evidently representing basic dikes, for in 
places they contain cores of pyroxene altering to amphibole. 
This is usually colorless in thin sections and is probably tre- 
molite, but some of the amphibole corresponds more nearly to 
actinolite. Portions of the dikes are now altered to talc. 
Sometimes serpentine is associated with the amphibole and 
talc. In a dike three-quarters of a mile northeast of Oleta 
(No. 348 Araador county) the pyroxene is plainly altering to 
serpentine. The largest body of talc rock noted lies two and 
a half miles northeast of AngePs, in Calaveras county. In this 
case the area is rounded in shape and about one- third of a 
mile in diameter. * 

DlABASK AND PoKrHVUITE. 

Rocks of the diabase series are very abundant in the Sierra 
Nevada. They occur as a rule associated w^ith the auriferous 
slate series and in minor amount associated with granite. 
Much of the material classed as diabase has been shown, on 
careful examination, to be fragmental and may be designated 
diabase-tuff, as the term is used by Rosenbusch. 

Some such areas were undoubtedly formed by eruptions 
which occurred at the time the sedimentary rocks now enclos- 
ing the tuff were being deposited; but many of the fragmental 
diabase areas, or areas which are in part fragmental, that sep- 

♦Bull.r. S. (hM»l. Survt'v. N.». m. 



800 The American Geolotjist, May, isoi 

arate the 8lat<? belts into wedge-Bhapcd portions, appear to 
have been intruded sheets or dikes. Sueh is the Bear moun- 
tain area that begins at the south end of the Jackson sheet 
and extends thence across Calaveras and Amador counties into 
Eldorado county, a distance of about fifty miles. 

This dike or intruded sheet (?) separates for this entire 
distance, so far as known, the Calaveras and the Mariposa 
formations, and might be considered as a dike at their con- 
tact. At various points, particularly about Golden Gate hill, 
the diabase of this area extends in longdike-like tongues into 
the slates of both the Calaveras and the Mariposa formations. 
An inspection of the geological map of thearea (Jackson atlas 
sheet) seems to leave no doubt that these intrusions cut 
across the sedimentary strata in places. 

\(» curcfiil studv has vet b»M'ri rniul*' (if lln'St* diabase aroas. Tin* 
dike-likt' toii^ii(>s iioU'd abovo may prov*' in all casos t(> hv massivo dia- 
bas«' or aii^ito-porphyrilt*. and thf fraj?m<Mital portions of tht'si* an'us 
may prove to be intetbedded. 

There are als<> lar*r<* areas in which tlie material is uuqiiestionabI\ 
massive, as the area southwest of Lalrobe.on tlie Placerville sheet. |K>r- 
ti(»ns of which form an au^ite-ptirphyrite. In otlier portions of this area 
there are scarc»'ly any bisilicates in the rock. No. .')10 Kldorado is a 
sam]>h' of such a rcK'k. This contains 08jg <»f silica. 

In the northeastern part of the Ikiwnieville sheet, in Plumas conntN. 
is a ver\ extensive area of dia))ase. It forms a larjrc part of the western 
slofK* of the (Jri/./.ly mtmnlains. The .same area, apparently uninter- 
rupted, thoutrh in places covered by Pleist<»cene de|M)sits, extends south 
to Mount Klwell. (fold lake and beyond. havin«r in plac(*s a width of six 
miles. A jr<MMl d»'al of this material is breccia, and most of it is more 
or less ronjrhly schistose, ])orlionsof it bein^r converted into a thorou;rhl\ 
schistose amphilxilite h\ pressure. A ver\ jiretty example of this 
dynamometamorphism may be seen just east of Lonjr lake. Hi-re a nar- 
vuw strip (►f th«' diabase has. l)y pressure and m<Jvement. b«M»n convert«*d 
int<i an amphil>olite-chlorite schist (No. 110 Plumas county): and that 
this strip of .schist is an inte«;ral part (»f the diaba.se and not included 
in the diabase, is ver\ evident, the rocks havin>r been cleaned <iff most 
beautifullv bv the jilacier that formerlv covere<l the area. Kven better 
evidence of the dynamic orijrin (»f some of the amphibolite-schisl may 
be seen in the vicinity of Wade's lake, in Plumas count\. On the sIojm* 
to the s<»uth of the lake and at other |M)ints about the lake there are 
numerous diabase dikes in the white quartz-i>orphyry -schist. Some of 
thes»» dikes are fifteen feet throujrh: others arc smaller. In places tin- 
dikes have assumed a schistose structure coincident in din'ction with 
the schistositx of th** enclosing (piartz-|K)rphyry-schist. but bearin<r no 
relation to the course of the dikes. 




Geo/o(/t'c(tl Notes ov the Sierra Xevinht. — Ttirtier. 301 

HoKNBLENDE-PoKPHVRITE. 

Hornblcmde-porphyrite occurs libundantl}^ in the southern 
part of Eldorado county, and to a limited ext^int in Amador 
county as fragmental areas and dikes in the western belt of 
the Calaveras formation (see Placerville atlas sheet). Big 
Sugar Loaf, in Eldorado county, is a massif of hornblende- 
porphyrite. As may be noted in the text of the Placerville 
atlas sheet, the hornblende-porphyrite in Eldorado county 
grades over into rocks of the diabase series. It is probable 
that these hornblende-porphy rites are of the age of the en- 
closing slates, that is, ('arboniferous. Some of these porphy- 
rites were surface lavas, corresponding to the Tertiary horn- 
blende-andesites. In a thin section from the hornblende- 
porphyrite area one mile west of Logtown in Eldorado county' 
the devitrified glass shows flow structure very plainly. 

In Plumas county on the ridge south of the middle fork of 
the Feather river dikes of hornblende-porphyrite cut the ser- 
pentine. A dike of the same rock cuts the diabase one mile 
northwest of (Jold lake. 

It is noted under diorite that there are dikes of a rock al- 
lied to camptonite which cut the granite, the schists and the 
quartz-porphyrite, and in which there are developed poryhy- 
ritic hornblendes. These rocks are sometimes designated 
hornblende-porphyrite, but they may be observed to pass over 
into undoubted diorites of the camptonite series. 

J/ornhlefuleutica-porjthi/rife, At Indian valle}'^ in Sierra 
county is a small biotite-granite area, and in the surrounding 
mica and greenstone schists and clay slates, are very abundant 
dikes of hornblende-mica-porphyrite. At first glance these 
would seem to be oft'shoots of the granite mass, but at the east 
end of the valle}' on the north side of the Yuba river are sev- 
eral of these dikes from three inches to five feet in width 
cutting the granite. While, therefore, the dikes may have 
originated from the same igneous reservoir as the granite, it 
would appear that they are later in age. 

On the south bank of the YuV)a river west of Indian valley 
a dark fine-grained dike six inches wide was noted cutting a 
dike of hornblende-mica-porphyrite. A microscopic exami- 
nation shows this fine-grained dike to be a diorite of the 
camptonite series. 



802 The American Geoloyint. May, 1894 

Gabbro and Noiute. 

Rocks of the gabbro series occur not infrequently in the 
Sierra Nevada, but seldom in large areas. In general they 
seem genetically related to the granite series on the one hand, 
and to the peridotite-pyroxenite series on the other. 

A mica-jrabbro forms a c<msid»*rable hill, m(»ro than a mih' in jrreat«»st 
diameUT, in Amador county, about twt> mil»»s west of Plymouth. At 
other fM)intH jfabbro occurs associated with serjx*ntine dikes. 

The area of gabbro about Whitmore's, in the northeast corner of llie 
Jackson sheet, is a very variable one. While the larj^i'rpart of the area 
is a K^bbro, [K>rtions contain olivine, forming an olivine-^abbro; other 
|K)rtions contain only pyroxene, forming? i^yroxenite, some of which is 
entirely altered to hornblende, forming a massive amphibolite; brt>wn 
mica occurs locally, forming a mica-^abbro; at one tx>int a s{M*cimen 
contains primary quartx. brown mica, pla^ioclase and pyroxene, with 
secondary hornblende, forming kersantite; and on the soutfi sIojk* of 
Mount Crossman is a mass of nK»k comiK)sed chiefly of i)rimary brown 
hornblende that .seemed to be jyenetically a part of the gabbro area. 

In Plumas county gabbro forms the east slofM* of Eur<»ka i)eak below 
the 0.800 foot contcmr. It there may be .seen in sharp contact with the 
<|uarlz-porphyry that forms the crest of tlie jieak, and as fragments of 
the <jabbn» are enclos<»d in the <|uart'/-porphyry. it would apfx^ar that 
the gabbro is here the older rock. 

The area lyinjf four miles .southwest (»f (irizzly fM'ak in Plumas county 
is in part a typical >;abbro (No. 341 Plumas county) of pla^ioclasi* and 
dialIa>r(N and in part is comfNtsed of hyiM^rsthene and pla^ioclase forming; 
a norite. At one point in the area are develoi>i»d lar^e black hornblende 
crystals, some of them more than an inch lonjf. There are also curious 
concn'tionary .structures in the norite (No. 'Mli Plumas county). These 
concretions consist of a central iK)rtion that ai^iH^ars to be largely the 
same as the general ma.ss of the norite, that is, hyjx'rsthene and plajrio- 
clas«». surrounded in the particular one examined by three or more con- 
centric layers, which in thin section are seen to be com|M)sed of i)Iivine 
and magnetite, with interveninjf layers of plaxioclase. 

Pkridotite and PyrOxenite. 

Fresh peridotite has been found, so far as known to the 
writer, at very few points in the areas studied, it having, as 
a rule, been altered to serpentine. Still, traces of the original 
olivine, together with pyroxene, have been found in many of 
the 8eri>entine areas, and at a number of points beautifully 
fresh pyroxenite. 

The largest single dike of serpentine, which is known to 
have been originally a peridotite or pyroxenite, occurs in the 
northern end of the range in Sierra and Plumas counties. It 




Geoloyical Xotes on the Sterra Xecada, — Turner. 808 

follows very closely the strike of the strata and when they 
bend very pereeptibly to the northwest, as is the case from 
Clermont hill in Plumas county to Meadow valley and beyond, 
this dike likewise has the same northwesterly course. The 
serpentine at Red hill in Plumas county to the north of the 
fortieth parallel is a part of this dike, which extends south 
from that point at least fifty miles. The serpentine of 
Goodyear's bar in Sierra county belongs to the same 
area. This dike-like serpentine area has a width where 
it is crossed by the middle fork of the Feather river of more 
than three miles. Associated with the serpentine are large 
amounts of amphibolite-schist. This is especially abundant 
to the south of Onion valley in Plumas county. It seems at 
some points to replace the serpentine, which occurs sometimes 
to the east and sometimes to the west of the amphibolite, and 
sometimes, as two miles south of Onion valley, the serpentine 
is bordered on both sides by a belt of amphibolite-schist. To 
the north of the middle fork of the Feather river the amphib- 
olite-schist is coarsely fibrous and forms a very definite belt 
one- half mile or more wide t^ the east of the broad serpentine 
dike, and a much broader belt is cut by Slate creek in Sierra 
county. The relations of the two ^^rocks are beautifully 
shown on the south and west slopes of Clermont hill, and 
there the contact of the two is everywhere sharp. 

It is presumed that there is a genetic relation between the 8er[)«'nline 
and the amphibolite-schist. but exactly what tho relation is, has not 
>et bf»en determined. It was first shown by Mr. J. S. Diller* that the 
original rock of this seryxMitine dike was a iH»ridotito or allied n)ck, and 
the writer found some [)yn)xenite in the middle of the dike on the rid^re 
to the south of the middle fork of Feather river, and alstj in Sierra 
founty near (icKKlyear's creek. 

In this seri)entine b«'lt to the southeast of Meadow valley at various 
iMiints are small dikes of a very white rock. The microscoi)e shows 
thes*» to be made up almost wholly t>f lar>r*» ;;rains of feldspar with 
marked cleavape, and showing occasionally a twin lamella. From the 
foUowin^ partial analysis by professor Hillebrand of a sfwoimen from a 
dike between the junction of Rock and l>eer creeks it seems unques- 
tionable that the feldspar is albite: 

Analvhis of No. 4.m. Plimah Cointy. 
Sit).^ 0«.54 



MjrO 



'p« 



i i 



CaO i:{ 

K,o m 

XjO 10.28 

•♦Kijrhth Ann. Re[). V. S. (Jeol. Survey, p. 400. 



804 The American Geologist. May, I8»i 

On tilt' Jackson atlas shiM't pyroxonite WHK fi)und altering into mas- 
sive amphibolitt'. Some of the hornblende grains contain cores of py- 
roxene underjroinfr alteration to hornblende. 

DiORITE. 

At nunierou8 pointR in the range are dikes and small areas 
of fine to medium grained rocks, usually showing to the naked 
eye abundant hornblende needles. Under the microscope these • 
rocks are seen to be composed of a fine grained groundmass 
of feldspar and minute brown hornblende needles, through 
which are scattered larger brown hornblende needles. Occa- 
sionally the rock is more nearly granuhir, the hornblende 
being in short prisms. In two instances noted the rock con- 
tains augite phenocrysts in addition to the hornblende. One 
of these (No. 155 Amador county) is from a dike-like exten- 
sion of a hornblende-gabbro area, and is presumably a modifi- 
cation of the same magma as the gabbro (No. 181 Amador 
county). 

S(»me of these fine grained diorites are nearly or cjuile identical with 
a diorite di'scribed by Hawes, which is now called canipt<»nite. 
The\ ap|)ear to be atnon^ the latest of the older intrusive rocks. 

Near West Point in Calaveras county, at Spanish |M'ak in Plumas 
c<»untv. near Merrimac and Swede'.s Flat in Butte county, the campton- 
ite occurs as dikes in the trranodiorite: near Railroad Flat in Calaveras 
county dikes of the same rock cut the schists of the Calaveras forma- 
tion: in the bed of the Cosumnes river to the west of Lamb's brid^re 
(M*e Placervilh' sheet) the (luartz-iM)rphyrite is cut by dikes of this rock. 
S<ime of the camptonites have sometimes been desisrnated hornbh'nde- 
|H^rphyrite. 

(jrKANODlOKITE. 

This name was introduced by Mr. Becker for the potash- 
poor granite of the Sierra Nevada in the general text descrip- 
tive <»f the Gold Belt geological atlas sheets. The rock thor- 
oughly resembles and is usually called granite. It is a holo- 
crystalline rock of hypidiomorphic structure and is composed 
of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende and brown mica, with a 
varv'ing amount of potash-feldspar, which is in almost all 
cases exceeded in amount by the soda-lime feldspar. There 
are also various accessory minerals. Where the potash feld- 
spar is in large amount the rock might be called a biotite- 
hornblende granite or a hornblende-granitite; other speci- 
mens with very little potash-feldspar are practically quartz- 
raica-diorite. 



Geological Notes on the Sierra Xecada, — Tarner, 305 

The ^ranodiorite occurs in very lar^^ areas in the ranj?e and is the 
rock of the Yosemite valley. According? to Mr. W. Lindgren the vrran- 
(Kliorite at Folsom on the American river has metamorphosed the Mari- 
IK)sa slates into mica-schists; and Mr..H. W. Fairbanks* states that the 
slates and schists near Rridjoreport in Mariposa county (this includes the 
Mariposa slates) are cut off and metamorphosed by the granite, an ob- 
servation which the writer later verified. It therefore appears thai much 
of the ^ramxliorite is later in age than the Mariposa slates. 

Granite-Porhpyuy. 

To the east of the granodiorite area of the Yosemite valley 
is a mass of granitoid rock, in which are developed large pink 
orthoclase feldspars. About nine miles nearly north of Mount 
Hoffman, to the north of the Tuolumne river, is a little lake 
which was visited a few years since by Mr. G. F. Becker and 
myself, and to it the name of Granite lake was given, partly 
for the sake of a name to use in notes and partly on account 
of the magnificent granite exposures about the lake. In fact 
there is nothing but granite in the vicinity, and as the loose 
material has been swept away by the glacier that formerly 
covered the spot, the rocks are beautifully cleaned off. The 
granite-porphyry occurs about the head of the lake, and the 
contact there and at other points in the neighborhood with 
the biotite-hornblende granite is everywhere sharp. Dike- 
like protrusions of the granite-porphyry were seen extending 
into the biotite-hornblende-granite, indicating the former to 
be the younger rock. 

The granite-porphyry may be described as a holocrystalline nu'k of 
hypidiomorphic structun* with a coarse ground mass of plagiocIas(\ 
orthoclase, and sometimes microcline, with plenty of brown mica, a lit- 
tle primary hornblende, and titanite and iron o.xide. In this ground 
mass an' develoi>»d large orthoclaw* phenocrysts. which usually contain 
abundant inclusions of the minerals of the ground mass, both in the in- 
terior and along the»»dgeof the phenocrysts. Plagioclase, biotite, (piartx. 
titanite. and iron oxide were noted in theporphyritic orthoclases, which 
are often more than two inches in length. It is evident that thesi* phen- 
ocrysts were formed after some of the other constituents of iht* rock, and 
in this particular the granite-jx^rphyry appears to .strongly n»semble the 
jMirphyrite with large orthoclase phenocrysts described by Mr. Cross 
(not yet published) as ft)rming a part of the laccolites of the Elk 
mountains, Colorado. Prof. A. C. Lawsonf has lately described a gran- 

*AmEBICAN (fKOLOGIST, 1891, p. 211. 

f "The (ieology of Carmelo Hay." Hull. IVpt. (ieology of the Cniver- 
sity of California, vol. i, pp. l-.iO. • 



806 The American Geologist May, iSM 

jte-porphyry from the Santa Lucia mountains, in tlu» Coast ranges of 
California. According to Prof. Lawson. all the quartzes included in 
the orthodase phonocrysts of the Santa Lucia granite have a common 
orientation, with the optic axis j^e.rpendicular to the basal pinacoid of 
the host; and the feldspars have a common orientation by groups. This 
is not the caw* with the inclusions in the rock here de.scribed. They do 
not extinguish simultaneously, nor have they any definite i)osition in re- 
lation to the area of the host. 

The granite-porphyry forms a large part of the cr<\st of the Sierra 
Nevada about the headwaters of the Tuolumne river. It has been 
noted by the writer at several ixiints to the north of that region, but its 
relation to the biotite-hornblende-granite or to the granodiorite has not 
been studied, except near Granite lake. Mr. Becker states that he found 
the same relation between the granite-porphyry and the hornblende 
granite, in the district between Highland lakes and Blue lakes in Alpine 
county, as at (Iranite lake, and also that, according to Clarence King, 
granite-porphyry occurs at Mount Whitney. 

BlOTITE-HORNBLRNDE-GKANITE. 

The biotite-hornblendo-granibe or hornblende-granitite, as 
it might be called, has a higher percentage of potassa, and leBii 
lime, than is normal with the granodiorite; and as its relations 
to that rock have not yet been carefully studied, it is here 
given a separate description, although it is part of the great 
granite area of the Yosemite valley which has there been called 
granodiorite. 

(\tnerrtiimti or negregatiomt in the biotite'hornbU'U(1t''graniU. There are 
numt>rous nodules or HchUerr, as they have been called by German 
writers, in this biotite-hornblende-granite about Granite lake. These 
are particularly abundant on a vertical bank of granite a little west of 
(Jranite lake. The bulk of the rock is the biotite-hornblende-graniie 
(Xo. 240 Tuolumne county), and both the biotite-hornblende-granite 
and the tieJUiere (Xo. 'i'iV^) an* cut by dikes (»r f>egmatitic veins of a 
C(»arse granite (X^o. 2tl). The nodules are comfKised of feldspar in part 
})olysynthetically twinned, brown-hornblende, and brown mica. There 
apfM^ars to be also a little orthoclase. 

Very similar nodules have b<*en described In Arthur Phillips* from 
granite in the British isles, and by Prt)f. G. P. Merrillf from the granites 
of Maine, but in neither case are the constituents of the nmlules alto- 
gether the same as the constituents of the (iranite lake nmlules. 

Both Profs. Merrill and Phillips consider these mnlules to be of concre 
tionary origin and that they d*) not represent inclu.sions of foreign rocks 
altered by metamorphism. 

According to F. von Adrian, as translated in Prof. Phillips' paiM»r (p. 

♦Quart. Jour. (teol. Soc. Lond., vol. 30, pp. 1-22. 
fProc. U. S. Xat. Museum, vol. vi, pp. 1H7-141. 



N 



Geoloffical Xotes on the Sierra Xevaila, — lUirtter. 307 

*i), similar mnliiles occur In Ik^hf'mia and t^xclusivi'lv in tlu» hornblendr- 
^ranites. 

Wtat/iering of the (franitf. The granite of tht* Sierra Nevada weath- 
ers in very different ways, producintr strikingly different scenic results. 
According to Mr. O. F. liecker,* the great granite domes of the Yosemite 
are merely gigantic cases of e.xfoliation. similar except in scale to th(»se 
observed in bastilt and other rocks. Mr. Becker says: — 

**If the theor> of an original controlling ball structure were correct, 
it would account for the spheroidal weathering of the fragments as well 
as the collosal d(»mes, for b<*tween the two extremes of size there is 
every jjossible gradation. The large domes show no indication of a ten- 
dency to res<»lve themselves into smaller spheres, excepting when they 
have first been inters4*cted by fissures."! The surface waters acting 
filong these fissures would prmiuce decom{H>sltion, the exjMised corners 
would scale off. and as a result more or less nearly sjiheroidal bodies 
would finally result. 

Considerable jwrtionsof the Sierra Nevada are intersected by systems 
of fissun^s more or less nearly parallel. According to Becker,^ this is a 
result of pressure from forces acting in definite directions. As a con- 
secpience of this, the granite in places p().s.sesses a laminated structure 
which is jK»rhaps nowhere better shown than in Alpine county to the 
northwest of Charity valley. There are hen* a set of vertical north and 
south fissures and another S(*t nearly horizontal. Erosion of the granite 
produces vertical walls along the vertical fissures and terraces al(»ng the 
horizontal svstem. 

That |>ortion of the crest of tht' range between Tower i^ak and 
Mount Conne.ss is chiefiy comp(»sed of granlte-jK>rphyry. which is inter- 
sected by very abundant fissures so that the rock is divided into small 
polyhedrons of varying sliape. As a result the crest here assumes a very 
serrated outline. 

Analyse** ok (Jkamtes.jJ 

Riotttc-bora- Gnnito-por. 
GranodioritA. blendn ffninite. pbyry. 
No. 84.5. No 19. No. 25, 

Plumas i^oanty. Mariposa (^o. Mariposa Co. 

Silica .M).*! 7:^.48 (U\.'iii 

Alumina H.(M> HUKJ 

.Lime r».4» 2.17 :{.75 

Magnesia .«2 1.12 

PotH,ssa l.«!> 4.7ri :141» 

ScHia :«..>:<■ :{.:w» 4.10 

♦Tenth Ann. Rep. l*. S. (Je<»l. Survey, p. Mi. 

fMr. Becker discusses the subject more fully in Monograph xiii. V. S. 
(Jeol. Survey, p. ()8. 

JBuU. (leol. S«H\ Am., vol. 11, pp. 41>-74. 

S^Nearlv all of the analvses contained in this pa|M»r were made bv Dr. 
W. F. Hillebrand (»f the V. S. (iet*!. Survey. 



308 I'he American Geologist, May, X9H 

QUARTZ-POBPHYKITE. 

In Amador, Calaveras and Tuolumne counties there are 
considerable areas of pre-Tertiary rocks usually showing 
abundant porphyritic-quartzes. These rocks are usually light 
greenish in color, weathering nearly white. Considerable 
portions of these areas are schistose, but even then the por- 
phyritic quartzes are usually plainly discernible. 

In Calaveras and Amador counties dike-like areas of quartz- 
porphyrite or quartz-porph^^ritc-schist were noted in the dia- 
base and araphibolite-schist areas. Some of these are shown 
on the Jackson atlas sheet. The quartz-porphyrites contain 
2.89^. to ZA^/c of lime, and usually more soda and potassa. 

QUARTZ-PORPHYRV. 

In Plumas county there are two belts of white-schistose 
quartzose rocks that do not diifer in general appearance from 
the quartz-porphyrite-schist just described. One of these 
areas forms a belt a mile or less in width and about twelve 
miles long, in the Grizzly mountains, lying just east of a belt 
of argillite that appears to be a continuation of the Grizzly 
formation of Mr. Diller, which is Silurian in age; the other 
belt forms the summit of Eureka peak and continues thence 
south into Sierra county. It is the rock about Wade's lake, 
where it contains numerous dikes of diabase as previously 
noted, and of the Sierra buttes. The quartz-porphyry con- 
tains usually less than 19^ of lime, and as much or more po- 
tassa than soda. 

The distinction between the quartz-porphyries of Plumas 
county and the quartz-porphyrites of the Jackson atlas sheet 
rests on a slender basis of chemical composition and may be 
discarded later. 

The quartz-porphyry of the Grizzly mountains may, how- 
ever, prove to be Paleozoic in age. This is suggested by its 
association as noted above, with presumably Silurian argillite. 
The quartz-porphyry is in part, at least, as late or later than 
some of the diabase known to be Jura-Trias in age. The 
long belt extending from Eureka peak to the Sierra buttes 
is probably Jura -Trias in age, as has been noted under the 
Milton series. 



k 



Geoloyfval Xotas on the Sierra Xevada, — Turner, 309 

AnAIA>KS of QrAMTZ-PoUPIIYUIES AND POKPHYKITEM. 

QuarU'porphyrite. Quanz-porpbjrry. Qoartz-porpliyry . 

No.&5». No.»», ' Mo. IftS, 

Calaveraii ooanty. Plumae oonnty. Plumas county. 

Silica 71.10 7^.27^ T.kCK? 

Lime -2.87 '2i:\ :.\H 

PotassH 1.8-2 :{.7<.) I.*i7 

S<Kla 4.24 2.(H) :-i.78 

KFFrsiVK KiNKors HOCKS. 

Rhyolitc, The rhyolitic rocks of the Sierra Nevada are 
chiefly white or pink in color and seem to have issued as flows 
from various sources, chiefly near the crest of the range. 
These rocks usually occur overlying the Neocene auriferous 
river gravels. At Valley Springs peak in Calaveras county, 
and at other points, they overlie the lone formation. The 
rhyolite flows evidently followed the old river channels to a 
remarkable extent. The exact nature of these flows is not 
determined. They have been considered as tufl's or mud 
flows, but in thin sections the}' frequently show trains of 
spherulites and other evidences of flow structure. This is the 
case with some of the rhyolite near Mokelumne hill, which 
has been spoken of as a tufl*. Occasionally, as at Valley 
Springs peak, the rhj^olite contains pebbles of foreign rock^ 
but fragments of foreign material are, so far as known to the 
writer, rare in the rhyolite. True tufl's unquestionably occur 
and some of them may have reached their present position as 
mud flows. 

Th<» rhyoliti' occurs in ma8.siv<» form as dikes in the granite and 
schists. One of these (Nrt. 400 Plumas county) is remarkabh' as c«»n- 
tainin^ lar^e amounts of <;old in little ({uartx seams which iNMietrate the 
dike in all directions. This dike, which lies about one mile east of 
Onion valley, at the headwaters of P<M>rman creek, is much decom|K»sed 
in the aurifenms }K)rtion. It is a white rock with abundant foils of 
brown mica, sanidine and pla«;ioclase, and a few rounded quart/es in a 
microcrystalline groundmass. 

The rhyolite of the Sierra Xevada apfM'ars to be all of about the same 
a>fi». The flows overlie the Neocene auriferous river j?ravels and under- 
lie the andesite-breccias. and may be early Pliocene* in a<fe. 

To the S(»uth of Mono lake and just east of the escarpment of the 

* It has been suffjf»'sted that the clays t)f the lone formation have re- 
sulted from the decomix>sition of rhyolite. in this ca.se. since the lone 
formation app^^ars to be in part Mi<»cene in age, the rhyolite flows must 
have commenced earlier than the Pliocene. 



310 llie American Geologist, May, 1894 

Si«MTa X<'va(ia ar*' some small extinct rhyolilic volcai»H»s |H*rha|>K of 
I*l«'islocene ax*'. They lia\<' been desfribed by Prof. I. C. Kussell.* 

Rhyolite is esix'cially abundant in the f<K)t hills of Amador and Cala- 
veras counties, formin^r, when it caps the jMiints, the level tops of tabl« 
mountains, of which Buena Vista and Valley Sprin«?s peaks are conspic- 
uous examples. No place has bern noted in the f<K>t-h ills from which 
rhyolitic eruptions issued. The occurrence's seem always remnants of 
former extensive areas fn»m other sources. 

At Buena Vista peak and other |M)ints, a i)eculiar feature in the wealh- 
erinjr of the rhyolite was noted. The exposed surfaces are more com- 
pact than the interior, presenting, as a fractured surface, a vitreous a|>- 
pearance. This seems to be due to the silica of the rhyolite beinjr 
leached out by atmospheric moisture and deposited nearly in place. 
The same phenomenon was previcnisly noted by Mr. (i«HKlyearf at several 
places. 

Andesite, The following varieties of undesite have been 

noted in the Sierra Nevada : — 

1. Hornblende-niiea-andesite. This rook occurs in a mas- 
sive form in two small areas near Grizzly |)eak, in Plumas 
county, and at other points. The rock is light gray in coh)r, 
of a trachytic aspect, strongly resembling the dacite of the 
Lassen peak region, but shows in thin section no quartz phen- 
ocrysts. The hornblende-mica-andesite appears to be among 
the oldest of the Tertiary volcanic rocks. Analysis No. 198, 
Plumas county. 

2. Hornblende-andesite. There are few areas of andesite 
in which hornblende is the only bisilicate. Analysis No. 12, 
Plumas county. 

8. Ilornblende-pyroxene-andesite. The andesite that for- 
merly covered so much of the range, chiefly in a fragmental 
form, may be designated hornblende-pyroxene-andesite, the 
two bisilicates varying a good deal in their relative propor- 
tions. 

There is a reason to believe that much of the and«*site-hreccia issued 
from fissures near the summit of the ranjre mixed with water, ftirmin^ 
vast mud Hows which |H»ured down the sIoih>s. tlisplacin*; the rivers, 
rndoublediv manv areas of andesite-breccia have been formed sub- 
aerially b\ the explosive action of volcan<H's. the lava beinjr thrt»wn out 
as a.shes and fraKin»'nts. which, falling on the surrounding country, b«'- 
c^^mes roujfhly slratiHed. But this diH's not apixsir t«> have been the 
m«Kle of the Formation (»f the bulk of th«' andesite tutf and t>reccia of 
the Sierra Nevatla. The evidence that the matt-rial issued from fissures 

♦Kijrhth Ann. Ue|K)rt, T. S. (ieol. Survi'y, p. :{7S. 
fSee Auriferous (Jravels. p. 520. 




GeoJofftcnl Xotes on the S/ei'ra yecada. — Turner, 811 

ns mud flows finds confirmntion in lhf» canyon of Canyon crt-ok at Pok«»r 
Flat, Siorra county. Here the canyon has cut into the tiki iK*ne]>lain to 
the (Ippth <»f fifteen hundred feet, rijrht across one of these ohl fissures. 
ex|M)sin^ the dike-like mass of fra^mental andesite mixe<l up with fraj?- 
ments of the pre-( Vetaceous wall rock, which is Iarir«*ly seriKMitine. 
This fra^mental material f«)rms also the hed of the creek, where the 
stream crosses it. S«)me years ajro a shaft was sunk near the creek in 
this breccia to the depth of about one hundred feet witho\it a chanjre of 
rock, acconlin^r to a miner who lived there at the time. Portions of 
this dike-like mass are stratified, the layers dippin«r at an anj;le of from 
1(»° tt) i:>°. 

Tlie com|)osition of the andesite formin«r the breccias «if the Sierra 
probably varies more or less. The partial analysis ;riven (No. 09, 
!*lumas count v) is from a biuilder in the bn'ccia, two miles mirtheast 
of La])orte. 

4. Pyroxene-undesite. This roek is represented on the Dow- 
nieville sheet bj' two areas on the ridge south of (irizzl}' peak. 
It is niiei-oscopieally a light gray, medium grained rock (No. 
fSOS, Plumas county). Under the microscope it is seen to be 
made of plagioclase, augite, and hypersthene phenoorysts in an 
almost cr3'pt<i-crystalline ground mass of feldspar and magne- 
tite. It thus ditt'ers very little in mineralogical composition 
from such of the dolerite as contains no olivine, but differs in 
structure in that it has a definite groundmass. It should con- 
tain more silica than the dolerite, but no analysis has been 
made of this rock. It greatly resembles the hornblende- 
pyroxene-andesite, and may be considered merely a variet}' of 
that type. 

There is also a |M'Culiar eruptive that api^ars to b«' later than the 
other andesites. It is macrt»scopically a li^ht >rray, fine jjrained rock, 
with fre(pientlv a slaty fracture. Micn»scopicall> it Is nearly or quite 
liolocrystalline and com|)osed of slender laths of ()la^ioclase, (»f augite. 
and of a .slijrhtly pleochroic rhombic pyroxene with magnetite irrains. 

There is a dike-like <K*currence of this rock (No. IW2 Plumas count\ ) 
on the east side of Mohawk vaHe\ and a little east of the brldjfe oxer 
the middle fork of the Feather river at Denten's. In contact with this 
<like the Pleistocene lake beds of Mohawk valley dip at an anjrie of '2,">° 
from horizontality. This lava occurs at various iH>ints in Plumas and 
Sierra counties, but has not been noted by the writer elsewhere in the 
Sierra Nevada. It forms the \\\*^\\ |>oint one and a half miles northeast 
of (iiMwIyear's bar, the ra>r«red crest one mile northeast of St. Charles 
ranch, and occurs on the southwest s1o|M' of Sachlle Hack, and also one 
mile south (»f I>eadw<MMl; all of these (xiints bein^ on the I>ownieviIle 
shet't. 

A sfHU'lmen (No. 'W7 Plumas county) of this late pyroxene-andesite 



312 'The Ainerfcan Geoloyist, May, 1894 

from llu* art»a alxuit two miles west of Kiircka iM»ak ('(>ntahis (il.47j? of 
silica as determined by (Jeorjfe Stei»fer. 

Analysks of Andksitks, 

No. rt9. No. i»s. No. 12, 

Plumas county. Plamae ooanty. PlamaB coonty. 

Silit-a M.WZ r)».l)T * W. 

Lime 7.1:J «.(m (i.tM 

Potassa \.'M) l.JJ.") 1.44 

shUi 4.14 :{.J)8 :j.:r> 

Older littsiilt. This older basalt is a dense black roek showing 
maeroRcopically no porphyritic constituents except occasional 
olivines. It is frequently roughly columnar, the prisms being 
small, seldom more than three or four inches in diameter. 
This rock has nowhere been seen by the writer except in the 
massive form. 

Microscopically the rock ih composed of lath-like plagio- 
clase, with more or less olivine and some augite in a ground 
mass, which is rendered dark by the abundant magnetite. The 
groundniass sometimes contains considerable glass and fre- 
(juently grains and prisms of augite. Much of the olivine is 
altered to serpentine. The plagioclases are usually small and 
of nearly even size. One slide from the basalt of the Moore- 
ville ridge at the Dodson h^xlraulic mine shows comparatively 
little magnetite, and is nearl}' holocr^'stalline, with a few por- 
l)hyritic plagioclases and olivines. The rock at this locality 
is interesting, from containing abundant crysUils of chabazite 
in cavities. Although diti'ering in microscopi<* character at 
dilferent points, the rock is never coarse grained and always 
dark in color. 

S«» far as known to the writer this older basalt onlv oceurs in Plumas 
and Hiitte counties. It is the lava of the Walker plains in Plumas 
county and also occurs to the north and south of Onion valley creek, 
and in small areas at numerous iMiints. In liuttc county it caps the 
M(K»reviIle ridjre and .several ridges to the north of that ridjre, aJso Oro- 
ville table mountain and Kanaka i^ak: and at all of these places it rests 
u|K)n Tertiary de|H)sits, chiefly auriferous river ^ravel.s, or ujK)n the pre- 
Tertiarv bed n)ck. It forms the lava of Iron canvon of Chico creek, ap- 
imrently resting there directly on ('retace(»us sandstone of the Chico for- 
mation. The basalt al)ove described is older than the hornblende-pyrox- 
ene-andesite-breccia. 

The black lava cappin«: X\w Millerton table mountain in Fresno 
ctHinty n'si»mbles macroscopicall> the older basalts of Hutte and Plumas 
counties. 

The basalt of the Tuolumne tabh' mountain is also a dark, heavy rock. 




Geoloffivtil Xoteg oh the Sierra Xvriula, — Tttnier, 313 

but AS may hv uoit*i\ holow lias an uii usually hi^h [N'ir«Mita^i' of silica 
for a basalt. H is also charactori/cd macn>s('<}pically by c<uitainin^ 
numerous ravitit's and tabular iHirphyritic fj'ldspars, which an* some- 
tim«*s half an inch Ion);. Microscopically the table m«>untain basalt 
shows lar>fe, tabular feldspars, smaller au^rites and numerous olivine 
grains in a nearly opa<pie );roundmass, in which are very abundant 
feldspar micn»lites. This <;roundmass doubtless contains a larjre amount 

• 

of majynetite an<l St ronjfly resembles s«)me of the sections of the older 
basalt. There is a )f«MKl deal of browni.sh ser|)entinoid substance in the 
vrroundmass. The |K»rphyritic feldspars are |)oIysynthetically twinned 
and have a cornaled ap{M*arance, due to the abundant inclusions of a;;- 
srrejrates t»f opaque particles, with some jrlass inclusions. There is also 
some si*riH»ntine in the larjre feldspars. The ndative ajfi' <»f this basalt 
has not l>ei«n determined. Pebbles of hornblende-p\ roxene-andesite (No. 
HC> Calaveras county^ occur under a basalt table miuintain «>n the north 
side of the Stanislaus river, near the Byrne's Ferry bridpe. This ba- 
salt is doubtless part of the Tuolumne table mountain tlow. This would 
su);<rcst that the Tuolumne table mountain basalt is later in ajn* than 
tin* hornblende-pyro.xene-andesite-breccia. For convenience, however, 
it is included here. 

Doleritf. — This lava was described under the name of "late basalt'** 
in a ))revious pai>er. It occurs at numerous ]K>ints in Plumas and Sierra 
counties. Through the kindness of Mr. .1. S. DilJerl was |H>rmitted toex- 
amine a series of ba.salt slides of the ('asca<h' ranjre collection an<l found 
that a considerabh* number of the basalts t<» the north (»f Plumas countv 
are of the .same ty|M'. The "hypersthene basalt" mentioned by Mr. 
Dilli'r in his ]m|)er <»ii "Fulgurite" from Mount Thiels<ni, <)n»»ron (No. 
ISl Cascade ran^fe collection), is practically identical with some of the 
dolerite of Mount In^ralls. 

Almost all the areas examined by the writer overlie the hornbien<le- 
pyroxene-andesite-breccia. In the ravine that heads abt)ut tuie and a 
half miles south bv east from the summit of Mount Installs the dolerite 
is marked by ^rlacial .striae, and the pond indicated on the map near 
this point has l>een formed by a terminal moraine. It is. therefore, 
earlier in aj^e than at lea.st thi> latter jmrt of the ^rjacial )M*ri<Hl. On Mt. 
Iniralls it presents the a)>)MNirance of bavin;; issu<»d after the pre.sent 
draina<;e sy.stem had been partially formin*;, suj;«;estin); the a>;e to be 
Ph'istiK'ene. 

The rock is macn»sco])ically a medium to c<iarse i;rained. Mj;ht j;ray 
rock, sometimes pinkish, with usually lig->;e scattered olivines. Tncier 
the microsco(><* it is seen to be nearly <»r (piite hol<»crystalline and to be 
comiM>s«'d of lath-like pla>;ioclas<*, au);ite and ma);netite. with occa- 
sional olivines and frecpiently hyfiersthenes. One of the slides shows a 
h\iNK'rystalline base containing; abundant j;rainsof ma);netite, with nu- 
merous phenocrysts of p1a>;ioclase and au);ite. and a few hy|R»rsthenes 
and olivines. In general, however, no j;lass is to be s»»en. 

•Am. Jour. Sci.. vol. 4 4. p. 4.V). 



314 



The Amen'cati Geologint. 



May, 1894 



The dolcritc of (iri/./.lv |H'nk in tin* slide exHminecl contains no olivine 
nnd com|)aratively little ])vn)xeno. In the slides examined of the dole- 
rile of Penman i^eak and other areas near that |x>int there apix^ars to be 
no hy|)ersthene, but olivine in more abundant than at Mount In>?allK. 

Othrr Uttf HitnaltM. — Occurrinjf usually in small areas are dikes and 
flows of basalts, some of them i)robably Pleistocene in ajre, as for exam- 
ple the columnar dike-like occurrence at I.ava iM»ak on the Downieville 
sheet where the basalt ap|H>ars to have cut through the Neocene j;rav»»| 
on the ridp' about the jH'ak. The ajyre of the little buttes of columnar 
basalt, and the isolated tl(vws, relative to the other Tertiary lavas, cannot 
usually be determined, but they are doubtless all of them late Xe<K*ene 
or Pleisti)cene. The basalts here referred to alwavs carrv an abun- 

• • • 

dance of olivine. 

AXALYSKS OK HASAIiTS. 

Older basalt. Tuolamno Dolerite. 

Table mountain. 

No. 276, No. 96, No.:U], 

Plumas coanty. Sierra Norarla. Plamaa county. 

Silica r>o..Vi .Vi.ui r>:i.in 

Lime 7.58 i\.X\ 10. 40 

Iron oxides VIAA 7.*i:{ 7.01 

Majfuesia 4.07 :{.7!» ."i.-Vi 

Potassa 2.10 4.4(i l.:U 

S<Kla •. -2.01 t>.r>:{ 2.JM) 

Thk SrccKs.sioN op thk Tkutiary Volcanic Rocks. 
There is « eonsiderable variety of Tertiary volcanic rocks in 
the Sierra Nevada, but there are only^ a few general types 
that have an extensive distribution. The oldest of the series 
are perhaps the hornblende-miea-andesites, which occur in 
small areas on the Downieville sheet and elsewhere, but the 
earliest flows of which the relative age is definitely known are 
of rhvolite and the older basalt. 

Of the.se two older rocks the rhyolit^? has much the wider 
distribution, it being found throughout the (iold belt. The 
basalt referred to above as the older basalt is, so far as known 
to the writer, confined to Butte and Plumas counties. That 
the rhyolite and older basalt of the Sierra Nevada in general 
underlie the hornblende-pyroxene-andesite, which, in the form 
of a breccia, covers so much of the range, has been not-ed in 
two previous papers.* It appears, however, that the writer 
was not the first to have called attention to these relations. 
In a report made to Prof. J. D. Whitney in 1879, Prof. W. H. 
Petteef notes that the older basalt was overlain by andesite, 

•Hull. Phil. Soc, vol. 9, p. :W1»: and Am. .lour. Sci., vol. 44, pj>. 4."»5- 
451). 

f Aurifert)us (iravels, p. 4r>8. 




Geological Xotea on the Sierra Xevada. — learner, 815 

and Mr. W. A. Goodyear* reports that the white lava (rhyo- 
lite) alwayt* underlies the gray lava (andesite). 

Mr. Dillerf has described some fragmental volcanic beds 
which cover large areas in Butte county as the Tuscan form- 
ation. This tuifaeeous formation consists in part of breccia 
and resembles, in a general way, the andesite breccia areas 
further south, but it appears to consist in part of basaltic ma- 
terial of the type of the later basalt or dolerite. The exact 
relation of the Tuscan formation to the andesite-breccia areas 
of the Gold belt thereforq remains to be determined. 

The relations of the older basalt to this tuff is shown in the 
Iron canyon of Chico creek, where the older basalt (No. 1, 
Butte county) rests directly on (^hico sandstone, and underlies 
the Tuscan formation. 

1 also obtained confirmation of this relation by finding peb- 
ples of the older basalt under the tutF at two points, one (No. 
15, Butte county) from a tunnel about three miles southwest 
of Nimshew, and another (No. 52, Butte county) from a little 
butte about one mile west of Pentz post office. 

The relation of the later basalt or dolerite to the andesite is 
evident on Mount Ingalls. It is plainly later than the an- 
desite. It forms the summits and slopes of Mount Ingalls 
down to, and in places below, the 7,000 foot contour, and evi- 
dently poured forth from the volcano as a molten flood of lava 
covering the andesite breccia and other rocks. The dolerite 
may be seen capping the andesite on Penman peak, Mount 
Jackson, Big hill about three miles northwest of Mohawk val- 
ley, on the ridge one-half mile northwest of Bell's bar, and at 
other points. 

The flow of dolerite one mile southeast of Penman peak ap- 
pears to have taken place after the andesite areas had been 
much eroded, and the slopes of the mountains were approxi- 
mately as they are to-day, suggesting that the age of the dol- 
erite flows is post-Tertiary. 

Since many of the mortars found among the gravels of Cal- 
ifornia, which have led to so much discussion as to the 
age of man in that part of the world, are of volcanic rocks, it 

♦Auriferous (J ravels, p. 522. 

f l)escriptive text, Lass«*ii |H'ak sheet. 



816 The American Geologist, May, 1884 

follows that in investigating these evidences of prehistoric 
man, the anthropologist may in some cases get some evidence 
as to their age from the kind of rock composing the mortar. 

Two of the mortars collected by the writer are of horn- 
blend ie andesite, probably the hornblende- pyroxene-ande- 
site. If these had been reported as occurring under rhyolite, 
a reasonable doubt might arise as to the genuineness of the 
occurrence in light of the succession above indicated. 



A RECONNAISSANCE OF THE ABANDONED 
SHORE LINES OF GREEN BAY. 

By F. K. Taylor, Ft. Wayne, Ind. 

During June and July, 1893, an excursion was made along 
the shores of Green bay in Wisconsin and Michigan with the 
object of locating, if possible, the upper limit of postglacial 
submergence in that region. Dr. F. Savary Pearce of Phila- 
delphia accompanied me during the first half of the season, 
including this trip and several others of which accounts will 
be given separately. 1 had learned from conversation with 
professor Chamberlin of the existence of abandoned shore 
lines about Green bay, but had no definite knowledge con- 
cerning them. Mr. Leverett had previously explored a part 
of the coast of lake Michigan, but his investigation did not 
extend north of the Illinois state line. He found several ter- 
races, but none of them belong to the age of the great sub- 
mergence here described, as will appear lat<*r. 

In this investigation our etfortP were confined chiefly to the 
location of the highest shore line. Lower lines were noted 
wherever seen, but no particular effort was made to trace 
them. The principal reason for this is that the highest line 
marks the maximum of submergence and may, therefore, be 
more safely extended than any lower line by inference from 
place to place where not continuously traced. For this reason 
it is also a more reliable index of deformation. Wherever 
the full extent of the shore line is known it constitutes an 
absolute criterion for the determination of the amount of 
change of land attitude. No lower shore line can be relied 
upon for such an inference unless it is traced with absolute 




The Abandoned Shore Linen of Green Baif, — Taylor, 317 



continuity, or unless it has some marked peculiarity which 
makes its identity from place to place a matter of safe infer- 
ence. But the highest shore line need not be continuously 
traced. For, if its identity is thoroughly established in each 
separate locality, its extension by inference between those 
localities is safe enough, provided the distance be not too great. 
With lower lines there is much more liability of error, for they 
are not always continuous even where locally strong. In the 
present state of investigation in this country, and especially 
in the rough and wooded regions of the north, continuous 
tracing for long distances cannot be expected. The best work 

that can be done must necessarily 
be fragmentary and of the nature 
of a reconnaissance. In the accom> 
panying sketch map the present 
shore line is represented by a dotted 
line, except from Two Rivers south- 
ward, where it is a continuous line. 
The heavy lines represent the high- 
est shore line at places observed, 
and the light broken line its proba- 
ble extension. 

Shehoytjan and Manitowoc, At 
these two places, which were the 
first ones visited, the evidence 
found was entirely of a negative 
sort. We drove north and south 
along the shore from each place 
and over some of the higher ground 
back from the lake. The shore at 
both places is a great fresh blutf of 
glacial drift, composed mainly of 
yellow clay with some intercalated 
layers of sand, but with very little 
coarser material. In some places 
the blutf rises steeply from the lake 
for 90 feet or more. That the lake 
is cutting it back at the present 
., ^_ ^ time is quite plainly shown by the 

Fig. L Map of Oreen Bay. Scale, - . , 

about 40 miles to an inch. freshness of the face of the bluff 





318 The American Geologist. May, 18M 

The soda of the fields at its border overhang and vegetation 
is almost entirely absent from its front. About two miles 
south of Sheboygan the plateau of drift deseends gradually to 
the level of lake Michigan and merges into a swampy tract. 
The lakeward front of this swamp is bordered by a beach 
ridge of gravel, covered by more or less wind-blown sand. 
This ridge is narrow and the gravel is not above the present 
reach of the waves. No evidence of a shore line was seen on 
the slope above the swamp. Northward from Sheboygan the 
fresh cut blutf extends out of sight. The low flat south of the 
Sheboygan river, upon which part of the town is built, sug- 
gests a corresponding shore line at that level, but no other 
evidence of it was found. At the east end of St. Clair street 
there is a terrace, which has been largely modified by recent 
improvements. It probably corresponds to a shore line at some 
time in the early postglacial history of the lake, but no other 
evidence of such a line was seen. 

At Manitowoc the shore presents the same appearance of 
freshlv cut bluffs of glacial dav. For 100 to 200 vards off 
shore at bi>th these places the lake is shallow, suggesting the 
existence of submerged terraces. North of Manitowoc the 
bluff becomes much lower. At one place where a small stream 
enters near the town the low bluff is composed of bright red 
clay, upon which the waves of the present lake have thrown 
up a considerable quantity of white limestone pebbles. At 
Two Rivers, about six miles northeast, the bluff passes inland, 
and the shore iH'comes a wide, sandy plain close to the level 
of the lake. This plain projects into the lake as a blunt point 
and is nu doubt in part a delta of the two rivers, 

Krtrfnmv*. Fresh bluffs of clay extend along the lake shore 
here the same as at the places already descrihetl. But the 
Kewaunee river has extensive flats, which are only slightly 
abtn-e the level of the lake. At the town thev are alwut three- 
quarters of a mile wide, and along the north side against the 
foot of the high bluff is a distinct cut terrace about fifteen 
feet above the levt»l of the lake. The face of this bluff is ap- 
parently in a stable condition and east of the road is m<»st]y 
covenni over with a clean turf. At the lake front the bluff 
projt*cts S4iuthward in a sharp point, fresh outside and old in- 
side. Ah<.»ut a mile and a half west of the town. wh(»re the 



J 



The AbaHffou€(f Shore Linen of Green Bat/. — Tat/lor, 319 

railroad ascends from the swamp to the higher ground, it 
•crosses a gravel ridge with a lagoon hollow behind it. We did 
not have an opportunity to examine this ridge with care, but 
it is probably a true beach, for it faces toward the open lake 
and its crest is about twenty feet above that level. These two 
forms were the first positive evidences of postglacial submer- 
gence observed on this shore. Along the open lake shore near 
the town, however, modern wave action has entirely removed 
this beach. The tlats of the Kewaunee river extend inland 
about five miles. Apparently the valley was excavated by the 
river when the water of the lake stood at a lower level than 
now and it was filled up with fine sediments at a later period, 
when the lake st^iod at or near the level of the shore line des- 
cribed. 

Green Hay, This place is about twenty-six miles west and 
six miles north of Kewaunee, and the shore line >vas found at 
about the same level. Near Bay Settlement, about four miles 
northeast of Green Bay, we found the beach developed as a cut 
terrace against the base of the high and heavily drifted coast. 
Within the eastern limits of the town the beach occurs in the 
form of low sand ridges, which are well developed at several 
Im^alities. A very distinct one is not far below the mill at 
the foot of the hill northeast of town. It is about fifty feet 
wide and four or five feet above the surrounding plain. On 
the west side of Fox river the country back of Fort Howard 
slopes upward to the west very^ gradually. On this slope we 
did not find the highest shore line clearly developed, only a 
few faint sand ridges remaining as evidence of submergence. 
We ascended the hill east of Green Bay about 150 feet, but 
saw no evidence of submergence at higher levels. 

Stiirtjeon Bay, At this place we found a fine series of de- 
serted beaches, the crest of the highest being about thirty-five 
feet above the lake. The highest beach is a finely formed 
shingle ridge, composed mostly of limestone pebbles. This 
beach is not very heavily developed and is rather narrow, but 
it is remarkably distinct and extends for a distance of five 
and a half miles toward the northwest, to a precipitous lime- 
stone clirt' half a mile beyond the house of Mr. Roberts. The 
lake shore drive follows the top of the ridge for a considera- 
ble part of the distance. The lagoon hollow behind is very 



320 The American Geologist. May, 1894 

distinct at many places. In a few places, as at the cemetery^ 
the beach becomes a light cut terrace, and for two short 
spaces it is a ledge of bare limestone. In one place the road 
passes through a typical boulder pavement which covers the 
sweep below the beach. The ridge is not far from the present 
shore of the lake, but the intervening slope, which is rather 
steep, is covered with a series of light terraces and beach 
ridges which are quite distinctly developed in many localities* 
The upper ridge is easily traced through the lots of the vil- 
lage. The public school and court house are both built upon 
this ridge, or rather upon a part of it which forms a blunt 
spit projecting southward from the higher ground. From the 
court house the beach turns away to the north up the west 
side of a small valley which extends several miles northward 
into the peninsula. The beach fades away in that direction, 
but appears again on the east side of the valley. On the 
drive from Sturgeon Bay to the Life Saving station, which is 
at the east end of the ship canal, we found the upper beach 
again about two miles farther east on the €»astern slope of the 
ridge which separates the small valley from the lake. At 
this point, however, the road passes into a dense thicket and 
follows a very winding course so that the exact location of 
one or two points where the beach was seen is not known. 
For about an hour and a half we were lost on the old lumber 
roads of the thicket and during that time we crossed well 
formed beach ridges in two or three places. The ship canal, 
which is about a mile and a quarter long and connects Stur- 
geon bay with lake Michigan, was excavated at its deepest 
cut through about thirty feet of gravel and sand. From an 
examination of the material thrown out, it seemed evident 
that the whole depth of excavation was from a deposit of 
shore drift built into the former strait by the waves of the lake 
when it stood at higher levels. The coast bordering the lake 
in that vicinity" is a mass of dunes, and it is of this character 
for a distance of one to two miles back from the shore. At 
Sawyer, on the^opposite side of the bay from the town of Stur- 
geon Bay^, the ground is much more uneven. Several frag- 
ments of the shore line were seen there, but it was not con- 
tinuously traced. In one place near the village a small knob 
of red clay drift had evidently been an island when the water 




The Abandoned Shore Linen of Green Bay. — 7\tyJor, 321 

was at its highest level. It is surrounded by a distinct cut 
terrace with sea-blutf above. This little island was not more 
than 200 or 300 feet in diameter. From Sawyer the beach 
passed about straight south at the rear of the sand plain to 
the lake shore at Clay Bank. Westward, along the south 
shore of Sturgeon bay, the coast is mainly a precipitous lime- 
stone cliif, where the beach appeared to have no distinct rep- 
resentative. Above the level of the highest beach the surface 
of the country on both sides of the bay presents a character- 
istic rolling glacial topography, upon which no evidence of 
submergence was found. The upper beach in the vicinity of 
Sturgeon Bay is not heavy in its development. On the con- 
trary', it is quite light and delicate, though very clear'and dis- 
tinct, and the contrast of topography above and below its 
level is very sharp. This is noticeable at the houses of Mr. 
Snvder and Mr. Roberts. 

The Went Coattf. The west coast of Green baj'' slopes up 
from the lake so gradually that its surface has become a great 
cedar swamp. The whole coast from Green Bay to Gladstone 
is bordered by a strip of countty like this, from two to six or 
eight miles wide. The flats back of Fort Howard are pro- 
longed northward alt)ng the shore. But at several places be- 
tween (ireen Bay and Menominee the railroad rises to slightly 
higher levels and cuts through banks and mounds of gravel, 
which I take to be remnants of deltas, for they are found near 
the courses of the streams. Such gravels may be seen atSua- 
mico and the Oconto and Peshtigo rivers on the line of the 
North Western railway. We found evidences of submergence 
back of Marinette and Menominee developed clearly enough 
up to a hight of about forty feet. But no definite beach mark- 
ing the highest level was found except at one place near Birch 
Creek station, about six miles north of Menominee. At that 
place there is a distinct beach ridge extending north and 
south along the east base of a rolling drift surface and its 
altitude is about fifty feet above the lake. There are a great 
many irregular low sand ridges at lower levels near both these 
towns, and there are a few dunes. There is a very large dune, 
or rather a series of them, in the northern part of Menominee 
near the race course, and there are more about a mile north- 
west of the town. The evidences of submergence are easily 



322 The American Geologist. May, ua94 

traced westwurd out Stevenson avenue to the bank of the 
river above the dam, a dintance of about two miles. In pass- 
ing northward b}^ train the submerged belt is left by the rail- 
road, which ascends to higher levels, at a distance of about 
seven miles. But afterward several swamps about at the level 
of the beach are crossed on high embankments. ToEscanaba 
the road passes most of the way over a typical rolling drift 
country, which has obviously n(»t been submerged. From 
Powers Junction, which is 2S4 feet above the lake, the rail- 
road descends again eastward and at Narenta enters a swamp 
at an altitude of about 120 feet above the lake. At Pine 

r 

Ridge, about six miles west of Escanaba, there are dunes and 
also sand .ridges at about 110 feet, which seem to be the prod- 
uct of wave action, but in the brief time spent in this vicin- 
ity the highest shore line was not definitely located. The 
country around Escanaba presents the same general appear- 
ance as at Menominee. Near Gladstone a steep bluff*, gravelly 
and sandy in its upper part, faces Little Ha}' de Noc. Its 
front edge is about 110 feet above the lake, and from the ap- 
pearance of its upper surface near the front it seems to be 
the edge of a submerged plain. 

Burnt Blnff, The Garden peninsula which separates Big 
Bay de Noc from lake Michigan ends at the southwest in a 
high, precipitous cliff of limestone. Near the top of this hill 
along its north side we found a well- formed beach ridge of 
shingle at an altitude of about 125 feet above the lake and 
with a depression behind it. This ridge faces northward 
over a flat about a (juarter of a mile wide and 20 feet lower. 
The outer edge of this flat is bounded by another beach ridge 
which extends like a rampart all along its front. A depres- 
sion extends across the peninsula north of the hill, which 
makes it certain that the hill was an ivsland at the epoch of 
submergence. The surface above the highest beach is com- 
posed of a clay soil, which was not found in exposed places 
below; and the topography is in long, gentle slopes, appar- 
ently of unmodificHl glacial origin. At 50 feet above the beach 
we had not reached the highest part. 

South Hay IliU, Passing northward from Burnt Bluff the 
road goes along the shore of a bay, most of the time at an al- 
titude of 30 to 50 feet above it. A number of sandy beach 




The Abandoned Shore Linen of Green Bay, — Taylor, 823 

ridges aiui siDall dunes were observed along this shore, reach- 
ing up to 40 or 50 feet above the lake. One of the most at- 
tractive spots on the Great Lakes is this little harbor at Fay- 
ette, an abandoned furnace town. It was formerly, and very 
appropriately, called Snailshell Harbor. It is formed in part 
by the northward extension of a gravelly spit from the end 
of a projecting reef. The opening is toward the north. On 
the east side of the harbor there is an overhanging wall of 
limestone about eighty feet high. Back of the top of this 
clitf there is an extensive level plateau at about 100 feet, and 
along its edge, about fifteen rods back from the clitf, it is 
bordered by a rather irregular beach ridge, formed apparently 
of fragments torn from the front edge of the cliif* and thrown 
up by the waves. Many of the fragments are angular. The 
flat itself looked as though it had been washed over. Parts 
of its surface and of the slopes farther north are literally 
paved with slabs of limestone. 

Two miles east of Fayette is South Bay hill, which is nearly 
as high as the hill at Burnt Bluff. Near its top we found a 
distinct beach ridge, forming a sharp point projecting toward 
tfie northwest. Toward the south the ridge is replaced within 
a quarter of a mile by a low sea-cliff of limestone, which faces 
west. Near the point the beach forms an acute angle, and the 
road crosses it first from the south, passes along about 800 
feet in the lagoon behind the point, and then crosses the beach 
again to the lower ground on the northeast. The altitude of 
this beach is about 185 feet. As at Burnt Bluff, there is a 
lower shelf which is bordered by a barrier beach ridge. It is 
only about ten feet bek>w the highest beach, and the ridge 
which borders its western front appears to join the front angle 
or point of the highest beach as a spit formed at a slightly 
lower level. The ground above the level of the highest beach 
presents the same characters as that on the top of Burnt Bluff 
hill and appears to be an unmodified surface of drift. But 
this island was neither so high nor so large as the other. 
About four miles north of South Bay hill is another plateau 
not so high, not high enough to be an island. Light beach 
ridges were observed along its eastern slope at about 75 and 
100 feet, and for a long distance along its eastern edge there 
is a strong beach ridge at about 110 feet. This hill is called 



824 The Americrm Geologist, Hay, 18M 

Garden Bluif hill, and the descent from the beach to the bed 
of Puffy creek below is 75 or 80 feet and quite steep. At Van's 
Harbor there are some light fragmentary beaches on the south 
slope of the hill north of the village at about 30 feet above 
the lake. On the top of the hill, at about 90 feet, there are also 
faint evidences of wave action. About a half-mile north a 
small knob, partly on the land of Mr. Deloria, rises 80 to 40 
feet higher, but it was not closely examined. The road from 
Garden northward crosses a great rolling sand plain about 
ten miles wide. This plain begins near Jack's bluff, which is 
about six miles north of Garden and rises steepl}^ from the 
shallow water of the north end of Big Ba>' de Noc. The hill 
is composed of line gravel which gives a strong impression of 
wave wash. Its summit is neai:ly 150 feet above the lake, but 
no distinct shore lines were found upon it. 

The plain appeared to be composed almost entirely of wind 
blown sand and is heaped up in great rolling ridges of dunes, 
some of which rise to an altitude of more than 200 feet above 
the lake. In some of the hollows, especially along the bor- 
ders of two small ponds, gravel was found, suggesting that 
the sand may be largely* underlaid by^ that material. On ap- 
proaching the railroad heav}' ridges of gravel were crossed, 
some of them resembling beaches, but none observed were dis- 
tinctly of that form. North of the gravel ridges, clay drift 
with limestone slabs again appeared. 

Cook-'n Milf. At this place several rough and irregular 
hills of drift rise to a considerable hight out of the sand plain. 
On the south side about half a mile north of the station we 
found low beach ridges of fine gravel at an elevation of about 
170 feet above the lake. In two places where the road rises 
to a level higher than this beach the composition of the hill 
was found to be waxy boulder clay. The area of sand and 
gravel forming the plain is at this place continuous up to the 
level of the highest beach. The hill rises about 60 feet above 
the highest beach, and from the top we could see that the hill 
extends northeastward at least two or three miles. This hill 
formed another link in the island chain which represented the 
Garden peninsula at the epoch of submergence. No doubt 
there are more hills of this sort toward the northeast belong- 



\ 



The Abandoned Shore Linett of Green Bay. — Tat/lor, 325 

ing to the same series, but it is not known that any of them 
were high enough to be islands. 

Northward from Gladstone the country is wild, and where 
it is not a swampy sand plain it is a dense forest. Evidences 
of submergence were seen from the train for a considerable 
distance northward. Where the railroad attains the level of 
the sand plain, a few miles northwest of Gladstone, it is about 
130 feet above the lake. At Brampton the lower ground has 
plainly hebn submerged for two miles north and south from 
the station. By the profile of the North Western railroad, the 
altitude of Brampton above lake Michigan is 159 feet. North 
of this, Maple Ridge is 378 feet; Lathrop, 460 feet; Helena, 
526 feet; Swanzey, 646 feet; and Forsyth, where the sand 
plain ends and the railroad passes into the mountains, is 736 
feet. The general appearance of submergence seemed to ex- 
tend for some distance north of Lathrop, but no evidence of 
a shore line was seen. The sand plain rises pretty rapidly 
toward the north and abuts against the rugged crystalline 
hills of the Mineral range and surrounds its outlying rounded 
knobs as perfectly as if the sand were a body of water. North 
of Lathrop the plain becomes very much pitted and holds 
many small lakes and ponds. Subsequenth' the highest shore 
line was found on the hills back of Marquette strongly devel- 
oped at an altitude of 590 feet above lake Superior. But a 
distinct beach marking the highest level of submergence was 
not seen on the slope south of the mountains. In the follow- 
ing table I have presented a list of the principal localities 
observed, with the altitude above sea level of the highest 
shore line; or, where that was not found, the highest observed 
evidence of submergence. The measurements were all by 
aneroid and are, therefore, only approximate. Those near 
railroad stations of the lake shore, however, are probably^ fair- 
ly accurate. The letter t stands for terrace an<l r for beach 

ridge, 

lifvi'l of Ink*' Michigan (T. S. Lukt* Survi*> i 5H'> 

Beach southward from Two Rivers, Wis .VS2 

Two Kivers (about lat. N. 44° 10 ) 582 

Kewaunee t 5!»7 

(Jreeii Kay r «02 

Sturjfeon Iia\ r iiM 

IJirt'h Creek, Mjrii. (0 miles north of M«Miomiiii*e). . . . r (KJO 

Uurnt Hliitr r 7(».% 

S)uth Max hill r 71."> 



326 The American Geologist, May, i^^ 

Piiu' Ki(l>;e (6 milt's west of FlHcanuba) r «$I0 +? 

(iladstoue t 70() -f? 

C\K)k*s Mill r T.^O 

Hrampton 7-40 +? 

ManiiH'th' r lllK) 

These facts show a rather exceptional case of deformation. 
Taking the altitude of Cook's Mill and that back of Mar- 
quette, which is about 42 miles farther north, the northward 
rise of the highest shore line appears to be about ten and a 
half feet per mile. This is more than twice the rate which 
has been established thus far at any locality. There is also 
a westward component of distance, amounting to about 48 
miles, and considering that Lawson's highest beach at Sault 
St-e. Marie is 1,014 feet above sea level, or about 175 feet low- 
er than that at Marquette, it seems likely^ that the highest 
beach has a westward component of elevation from Cook's 
Mill. 

Tile highest beach of Green ba}" shows one feature, which 
is the same as that described in a previous paper relating t(» 
the shore lines of the east coast of lake Michigan.* It w*as 
found there that from a point located at or near Petoskey 
southward the highest beach rises to the north at the rate of 
a little more than six inches per mile, but that from Petoskey 
northward to Mackinac island it rises at th^ rate of about 
three feet per mile, showing apparently a rather sudden change 
in its plane. From Mackinac to Sault Ste. Marie the north- 
ward rise is about four and one-third feet per mile, but it is 
not known that the change of rate is so abrupt. On 4:he west 
coast the change of rate is not so great along the southern 
part, but it is much greater toward the north. The northward 
rise from Two Rivers to Birch Creek, in a northward distance 
of about 1*^ miles, is about eight inches to the mile, and the 
intermediate stations observed are very close to this plane. 
From Birch Creek to Burnt Bluff the northward component of 
distance is about 84 miles, and the northward rise about two 
feet and two inches per mile. From Burnt Bluff to Cook's 
Mill the northward component of distance is about 19 miles, 
making the northward rise about two feet and four inches per 
mile. 

♦•'The Ifjjrhest (Hd Short- LiiM' on .Muckinnc* IsIhikI.** Am. .hiiir. Sri.. 
III. M»l. .\liii. pp. *il0.->is. March. IS1»». 



Auiodeftts rnnf Paramorphiv Shells, — Clar^, B27 

One of the most important points to be determined in this 
vicinity is the altitude of the highest shore line on Washing- 
ton island and on the northern extremity of the peninsula 
south of the "door." These places are not readily accessible, 
and being under some necessity of economizing our time we 
were obliged to pass them by. If the plane of the beach as 
determined at Hirch Creek, Sturgeon Bay, Kewaunee, and Two 
Rivers, be projected southward at the same inclination it will 
pass under the present level of the lake along the submerged 
terraces in front of Manitowoc and Sheboygan. By a com- 
parison with the shore line on the east coast, the beach on the 
west side, excluding the Marquette observation, appears to be 
as a whole about 20 to 80 feet lower in the same latitude. The 
terraces observed by Mr. Leverett farther south probably 
mark the shore of lake Michigan during the activitj"^ of the 
('hicago outlet. Those in the basin of the Fox river and 
Winnebago lake probably mark the margin of a glacial lake 
at the time of the retreat of the ice-sheet. It is at least cer- 
tain that those terraces are entirely above the level of the 
clearly defined beach here described. 



AMERICAN SPECIES OF AUTODETUS AND SOME 
PARAMORPHIC SHELLS FROM THE 

DEVONIAN. 

By John M. Clabkk, Albany, N. Y. 

Atttotiefmi is a term proposed by LindstrOm in 1.884* for a 
small, attached and sinistrally coiled shell, abounding in the 
Silurian (=Upper Silurian) strata of the island of Gotland. 
Originally described from the faunas of Oesel, under the 
name Capfthtu rah/pfratuit Schrenck,f the only known Euro- 
pean species had become quite generally recognized as a char- 
acteristic Silurian fossil. In the same year that LindstrOm 
introduced this generic term, (^uenstedt proposed to designate 
the same shell by the generic t^rm Antituihfptrwa\ and the 
citation of this name by LindstrOm attests its publication be- 
fore the issuance of the latter's work. Though Lindstroui 

*(hi the SiliiriHil (fHstr(>{HKlH hikI Pt<'n)|xHln of (lotlHiiil. p. IS.'). 
fl%'bersicht d»*H SchichtfMisvst. Liv. iiiul Ksthl.. p. SIJ. \K^^. 
{Haiulb. dor IVtrefMCttMikuiido. JM Kd.. p. OTII. 



."Itl?* ^' !•• _1 #* *. * •'•/ * "j-~^'i* i*§ rtT, 



~.. a .•* i:fl:i ~«*** x-~.i •"•^>» i i.i.i»** "tuT 'nf**.. .*^«i*'f;t. -^ ir* 
"jii-T: ''f "^»* "v'l* »**>• i»*«*' ail*** "Jr^n t :r^ '-"•oi _"• ii'»ir. P'li^ 

a-Ht -.»-*. t.T ".It* -mjit* " ni» *Ji:i;ff*Hn.ij: i.iii* 11*13^ <* t.n* "•"** 
H'-'tt* tr^ -H n ii-^^ f'lji-ii^^L ?"* lit* 4p»*i-* 

- 1»* JU » i****ttJ I.ITL'* 'f "1** -mi**'. 2UtT !♦* !-*»— *tt •*• m "TlH- 

- !♦*- ri*1 !»*► .♦ I' f»t '~t^ ▼■* lO^^-^tr 1 -t^HZ** T *! .-^ 1*U1»* Ii* . ~^.»*- 

i> ♦.'♦c *:t 1 ■?•*- •*a*-*'^.i !►**! "Ma Ti** f »«^' .»* *r» w **tl-'' i ■•t***- taiL 
•ii* U"^ -f •^»i.»*'i**^-Hi- * _i # - ."f t/r-ft m •♦; iL ;«*'^»*'* i;tT^ IJh- 
•• rii't*':'' ''a ** *.it* "• n* ' ;-*4*tfca i.Jii_" r*-i i,i»^ i« r ?»m**i :>^^ 

•• r-l»**L At*- -tiNi^-i •'•• ijr j A Il»*'r.i»:* X 'l 1 l£l.*. T'li*-"^ i."^- !• ■» 'T**-^. 

.*M,i. \' "lit I »*" 'i-tx fi.i^it* •!•* C':» i*^ ; 1 "7" .* I'f r'if^^L 

*• ,* *ii. #.-!.«*♦-■: II «i.!i' » IX i"! ^ "r-t**^ f "It* • i-^^»i " » ^ 

'Ii .X*' ** '*.~*1 » " 1 » IT'*- I !•- . • r-** i !•! '- ■I1«*T ll'*> •^ X* •**«■ 

** li*^!*:"^** *-':*•»':. a T':»* ti.^K *";"~ ii "i ^ in'.' 'i*^i \' & 

•■'••Ii': *.♦•»■•" X f *.""*•♦ T Tl»* I'L W !•* • ^ 11**'. n*^^ • !•*► -T"*-!.! ""*" 

♦ \ , I J,. ,•» n » •!-.♦ • "♦♦ **•' Tl I *•♦ r*^ " ••; » I 

i*« f J *.* *.«»♦■ «* -'•!' I •* : I !•: . '.i *■• '•••: »* *»**• • n • • » " i- 

I '.*%•■ r* » i « '^ I i • ' n I * • I I ■ * Tl"'1 ' i * '•-•••I ♦ **"• *• 

'« —■ 11 

. .-* I* » t». V ►" •♦ I • I .1 ' • r •■•i •• • • ^ *■ * ? 





UmbilicBl ud UUtnl 

—-JiMlitvdintWronnf, ihow- 

iDBtlieipiosl olutrix uid tba (iDii. 
tral Tolntion. lU. Hamilton thalH^ 
Hambarsli. N. Y. 



AiitodtlHs tnni I'intiH,i„;>kii: Sbrlh. — i'Uirkf. S29 

the width of the hndj-whori. The Httn<-hc(l surface in thick- 
ened or irreguliirly wrinkled, 
benrintr Bonie trace of the exter- 
nal markings of the htiet. which 
in every cane where the supp<trl- 
ing Hiirfacc hu» been retained, 
proves to be a hrachiopnd whell. tuX>(V'?*".'"'"'^'P?*"[ 

The early whorU of the tube " ' 

whieh are involved in the shell 
■substance are not visible on this cicatrix, as they are in Boiue 
other Httat'hed unnelidtt, e. g., Spirurbln, but this is undiiubt- 
edly due to the thickening of the shell about it» support. It 
is probable that young shells, if they could be detached, 
would show these sutures. LindstrlJro has observed the ten- 
dency of the battui or apical portion of the shell substance to 
Mpread laterally, or even to form short radiciform extensions, 
as in some of the i-orals ((hiiphgmii), the attached pelecypods 
( H i/ifiiiritfit}, und brachiopods (liichthofenin). This latter 
structure ban not been observed in our species, though the 
thickening and spreading of the shell at the cicatrix isalways 
noticeable. In a longitudinal median section of the shell, as 
shown in the accftrnpanying ligure of A. UutMiirmi, we find 
evidence o^ a very c<)n9ider«hle 
thickness of the walls of the sin- 
istrally coiled tube, and this 
thickness is palpably greater 
about the earlier whorls. There 
is also a certain looseness or cel- 
lular character in the shell sub- 
stance, noticeable wherever the 

I .^ . Fill. 1. K tondtuillnil in«d>>ti hc- 

deposit IS greatest, as at the tIoDor.4urarfef>uiiMiiiininii. i\ 

edges of the cicatrix, at the periphery of the body-whorl, and 
especially between the whorls and the solid columella, where 
there are considerable cavities, crossed l>y distant and 
delicate Inmelhe. In figure B, which is an upper or umbilical 
view of a larger specimen of the same siK-eies, from which the 
interior portion of the last volution has been bn)ken, the 
thickness of the outer wall is exposed and this appears to h«- 
more or less cavernous. This loose texture or cellular struc- 
ture is <iuite in accord with that of all attached nnnelidau 



3S0 






Umj.im 



tubes {C'iriiii/i/'-:'. ('iini:liirulifr»,StriiHtti, etc.); and theobiser- 
vationi* by Jm-kson* upon the etTects .if uttuchmetit in the pe- 
lifvpods would lead to the inference, borne out by the evi- 
dence ntforded by the brachiopotU tind such unneiidsws these, 
that such shell-strurture is not merely t> coneoniimnt of this 
xoliil fixation, but a result of it. 




Kgt.4.\t. l^ttrnL »p't»\ tad mmbilitml Timol Antadrtttt UwUtn/mL iS. Hav- 
iluw (haln. CanuMkicu Imkr. H. V. 

It will be further (>b^rve<t that the whorU in them- shells 
nre but xlightly oblique, and in completed individuals these 
Hppear to have numbere<l four and one-half or five. Some of 
the specimens of .1. bef-hfri, preserved as e.vternal and par- 
tial internal eatilc afford faete bearing upon the mode of early 
growth of the shell, figure 7 represents a very young shell, 
which is in no respeot unlike forms of Spirurhi* at a corres- 
ponding growth stage. The nuelear end is very Obtuse, the 
surface of the primary whorl becoming abruptly and ex- 
tremely convex, while the aperture is depressed and its outer 
margin greatly produced. At this stAge and for a consider- 
able subsequent period in the growth of the shell there is no 
envelopment of the whorls, the mode of growth being in all 
respects like that of H/ih'/rhi*. fixation being effected only by 
the attachment of the lower surface of the whorls. Thi-: i« 
seen in figure 9, a view of the internal 
cavity of the cone in which an internal 
cast of the early whorls is retained. With 
the formation of the volution next suc- 
ceeding those represented by this cast, 
the plane of the volution becomes eleva- 
ted above that of the earlier whorls and 
the conical form of the mature shell has 







H IV 



, Ifc-i 



.' Hi- 



AiffoilefMg o-m/ Piirnmoriihii- ShelU.—CUirlce. 381 

therein its inctptiou. Htitl the early mode of growth been 

perpetiiHtccI, a planorbiforni but sinietrni shell attached by 

the upper mar gi n of 

^ each whorl, would have 

remilted, nr such a ehell 

aH \» often prefiented by 

Siiirnrhin, wlif re the sud- 

. den deviation in curva- 

R. lin eiUrul cwt PTMerTlnc at the IP*! (Ii« t"rf doeS not OCCUr. 

kBQi. BsorBfC.Mt,.N. Y. 1"* ^"'"e deflection in 

curvature which characterizes the later growth-stages of most 
forms of Sfiiiorbix was undoubtedly, in Aiiforletaii.nR ettlcient 
cause in producing the coniciU form of the shell in poAt-in- 
fantine stages. 

The sutures rarely leave any trace upon the exterior, though 
when there has been a alight compression of the shell the 
course of the whorls may be traced from without, by u low 
spiral undulation. 

The formation of a columella is a peculiar feature of this 
genus, due to close coiling and the same hypertrophic exuda- 
tion of testaceous matter which has produced the thickened 
cicatrix and outer walls and ban obliterated the sutures. 

Ill lSfl5 Billings described* from the base of the Ordovician 
(Quebec group) a conical, sinistral shell, to which be applied 
the name <:7/jiioa/i(c« (<'. i-wci'twi). There is little known of 
the species, save that it is not attached at its apex, that the 
first two or three volutions of the spiral are clearly defined 
by an external suture, and that the body whorl is broadly ex- 
panded and trumpet-shaped. Billings further state's that "the 
cavity occupied by the animal appears to be, at least in the 
lower part, not spirally coiled, but straight and central, with 
the lip spread out all around." Two additional species, which 
are referred to Clt»lo»iiira by Whitfield, ('. oeei(le.utaU»\, from 
from the Trenton limestone, and C. /iVrt/o.J from the (alcifer- 
ous fauna, afford little additional information in regard to 
the internal structure, except that in the former the suture is, 
on the internal cast, clearly apparent, even to tlie aperture, 

•PHlteiixoic Fossils, vol. I. pp. IMll. 4:>U. 

t»i«.lojry of Wiscorisin. vol. iv. |.. *>3. pi. -■). f\x. -A. I«W. 

tHiill<-lln .\mi'rirHii .Mii»-iim NHliiral DUtorv. vol. i. ii. :iiM. |.t. :!.'). 
lljrH. ICI, 17. ISWl. 



332 Th € A hi arte a u Geolotf ist. May* 13M 

and the dorsal or marginal expansion producing the trumpet 
form of the body whorl in C, cnrlosa much abbreviated. Mr. 
Whitfield suggests the re^^emblanee of the shell to a si nist rally 
coiled In/tni{fihultnti, In the latter of Whitfield's species the 
broad dorsal expansion which produces the conical form in 
the typical Cii^toHpirft is wnnting, and the shell has more the 
appearance of a reversed Capuhtit than a reversed (UiJtfpft'O'a, 
As suggested by the author himself, it probably will prove to 
be a representative of Lindstrora's genus Onychovheihi». 

In a fauna of the later Devonian in New York (Inturaes- 
cens fauna) occur two species of conical shells whose exter- 
nal similarity- to forms of Avtoilettut and Cliniospiyn is at once 
striking. One of these has been found in the concretions of 
the Naples beds in the Whetstone gully, Honeoye lake, asso- 
ciated with Chpnein'a iieopolifana, Goniatitett intttmesreutt^ etc., 
the other in the Styliola layer of the Genesee shales on Tan- 
andaigua lake.* The former is a shell of about the same 
proportions as the species of -li//o</e^i/j* described above, while 
the latter is of considerably larger size. Both and all are 
characterized by the fine, irregular, concentric lineation of 
the external surface, the regularly conical form, and there is 
almost an agreement in the complete obscuration of the ex- 
ternal suture. The Naples species, however, bears a minute 
external spiral at the apex, which shows no evidence of at- 
tachment, and while the shell 
from the Styliola layer is broken 
at the apex, both prove to be 
dextrallv. rather than sinistrallv 
coiled shells. Tpon examinati<»n 
of the shell substance it is found 
to be thin throughout, without 
evidence of columella or testa- Fi|^^. 10,11. LateralandapiodTiow* 
ceous thickening in any piirt. Fi«. 10.1 i«htiy it^tortMi at the mar- 
In the shell whose apical por- •«*«'^«P>e^l«ia,Hoo«,ye lakes N.l. 

*Th(* writer Iihs slmwn in vMriMii> jiaiNTs tliat in Ontario ami tiit* ml- 
joinins? CMnnii»*s tin* 4Miriifsi ap|M*anin(*r of tli«* InttinifM'i'n*^ fauna is in 
ih»' liniHsion*' iKTnrrinir at aNml ihn middle of ilir (ttMi«'>«'«' shah's. 
known a«» Ihf Stpfi*»fa fttfftr: 4li««ap{M'arin<r fn»ni this n»srion (inrinir th«* 
int<*rval of fh*' (l**]Misition of i))«* u|i|M*r |Mirlion of lht> shales it n'apiinnrN 
abun<lantly «i4*\«'l<»iK'<l in tli«' Napl^^s IvmIs abov«*. (S**** liiill. \\ S. Ih»oI. 
Surv«'\. No. Hi. ]Hs\: N«mii'> .lahrh. fur Miufral.. \«ii. i. ISSM: Amkkican 
<Jkoi.<k;iht. \oI. VIII. pp. .NieliCi. Auir.. ISlM.j 





^ 



Aiiloilflux iiifl I'lniimorphir SlielU. — Chirke. 333 

tiona are preserved the external spirul is oblique, ennipoBed of 
one and « hhlf volutions, extends for about one fourth the 
height of the Hhell und thereupon becouiea lost in the abrupt 
expiinsion of the next tind Inst vnltition. The growth of the 
body whorl it* very riipid, giving the shell when viewed from 
beneath precisely the same charaeter as that possessed by the 
reeent genus i'titi/iifrttii. 

In the species from the Styliola limestone, 
though the apex is lost the form and seiilp- 
tureare the same as that of the Naples species, 
and our specimen is broken in such a manner 
AS to d^Rioiistrate the dextral coiling of the 
shell. 

These two dextral Devonian sheilBareelear- 

«iew of Profoea- !y iiastropodous and their eoneurrence with 
tMplriramaitltalli. . 1 . ., , . , ... , . 

x:C speeies of similar exterior, but with a sinis- 

tral coiling, whose nature appears from all the evidence to be 
annelidan, is at least an interesting coincidence. The former 
are, however, of still further interest in representing a novel 
gastropod type for the Palieo- 
zoic faunas, diU'ering from i'li- 
aiimiiiiii of the Ordovician in its 
normal coiling and minute spire, 
and which it is now proposed to 
designate by the name J'rotuca- 

So far as 1 aiu aware, there is 
but one other representative of 
Ihis ancient enlyptrteid genus 
recorded from the Palteozolc fau- 
nas, namely, the species de- 

,,Tll>ed I,}- (]«. «riter.s(»,«,/... SfHS.iCSrfSjaKrf.t; 
iliilfi-oi'lei', from n corresponding "" ^' 

horizon ( Int u mescens fauna) at KQbeland in the Ilartz moun- 
tains.* This is a shullower, less conical shell than the Amer- 
ican species, with a less conspicuous spiral and a pronounced 
oval marginal outline, but with similar surface sculpture and 
internal structure. The occurrence of all the known members 
;: \.ii.-s Jnhrh, fiir Miii.Ti.l.. .'H„ Iti-il. ItiKl. 



334 The America h Geuhnjlst, May, 18B4 

of this j^enus only in this Devonian fauna, which mark« an 
horizon so clearly defined throughout Europe and in the state 
of New York, f^ives to Protocdly^ttnfa at once an important 
value as a geological index. 

DESOKITTIONS OF THE NEW S1»ECIES HERE l>Isri:sSEl>, 

AUTODETUS BEECHERI. 

Shell a truncated cone; apical cicatrix relatively large, 
usually less than one half the diameter of the body whorL 
Cone gradually and somewhat irregularly expanding. Surface 
without external evidence of sutures and marked with irregu- 
lar concentric growth-lines. 

Dimensions of an average specimen : height, 4 mm. ; diame- 
ter of body whorl, 6 mm.; diameter of cicatrix, 2A mm. 

Siliceous limestones of the Lower Ori8kany,Becraft's moun- 
tain, N. Y. 

(Named for Prof. Charles E. Beecher, of New Haven.) 

AUTODETUS LINDSTRCEMI. 

This species differs from the foregoing in its usually larger 
size, more rapidly expanding shell, and greater difference in 
the relative diameter of cicatrix and body whorl. A full 
grown individual measures, height, 6 mm. ; diameter of body 
whorl, 9 mm.; diameter of cicatrix, 2^ mm. Hamilton shales. 
Most of the specimens have been obtained from a locally de- 
veloped limestone occurring at Tichenor's, on Canandaigua 
lake; also found in the shales at Hamburgh, N. Y. 

(Named for Dr. Gustav. LindstrOm, of Stockholm.) 

PROTOCALYPTRiEA STYLIOPHILA. 

Shell comparatively large, regularly conical, apex unknown* 
Surface without rugous growth-lines, but marked with ex- 
tremely fine, essentially concentric striie, as in Calyptnfu. 
The dextral volutions very faintly perceptible from without. 
Dimensions, restoring the broken apical portion from the 
general slope of the sides: height, 12 mm.; diameter of aper- 
ture, 14 utm. 

Styliola limestone in the(Jenesee shales; Genundewah, C'an- 

andaigua lake. 

PROTOCALYPTR€A MARSHALLI. 

Shell small, conical, rapidly expanding. Apical spiral well 
developed for about one and a half volutions, thence lost ex- 




\ 

I 

The Iron Ores of the Jfesabi Jiange, — Spurr, 885 

teriorly by the rapid growth of the body whorl and the ex- 
pansion of its dorsal margin. Surface very faintly marked 
by concentric lines. External trace of the suture on lower 
three-fourths of shell exceedingly faint. Dimensions: height, 
5 mm. ; diameter of aperture, 6^ mm. ; height of external spi- 
ral, 1.2 mm. This is the type of the genus. 

Naples beds; Whetstone gully, near Honeoye lake, N. Y. 

(Named for Mr. W. B. Marshall, of Albany, conchologist of 
the New York State Museum.) 



THE IRON ORES OF THE MESABI RANGE.* 

By J. £. Spusr, QloucMter, Man. 
(PLATE VIII.) 

Pkeliiiinary Note. 

The information on which this paper is based was gathered 
by the writer while in the employ of the Geological Survey of 
Minnesota. Only an outline of some of the more important 
results of this study is given here ; the full account is con- 
tained in Bulletin X of the survey. 

Limits of the Mesabi Range. 

The Mesabi range in Minnesota may be for convenience, 
separated into three geographical divisions, characterized by 
sufficient geographical differences: The Western Mesabi, 
which extends from the Mississippi river to the Embarras 
lakes, on the eastern edge of range 1ft W. ; the Eastern 
Mesabi, reaching from the Embarras lakes to the region of 
(iunflint lake; and the International Boundary division, which 
stretches from Gunflint lake east to Pigeon point. In the 
Western Mesabi region lie all the mines at present worked, 
and it is t-o this section alone that the observations made in 
this paper are intended to be strictly applicable. The chief 
ore-bearing district lies between the Mesabi Chief mine on the 
west and the Hale on the east, a distance of about forty 
miles. 



Piiblisht'cl by in* r miss ion nf tli»* StHt«* (i«M>l4><rist of Minnesota. 



336 The American Geologist, May, laM 

General Strlx'tuhe. 

The lowest rocks of the region are greenish echiste, which 
belong in the Keewatin formation.* These schists are cut by 
a great belt of intrusive granite, which runs the entire length 
of the iron-bearing district and usually forms the summit of 
the divide betweeen the Mississippi and the Red river basins. 
Unconformably upon these older rocks lie the gently dipping 
Animikie strata. 

There are three chief members of the Animikie in the iron- 
bearing regions, as definitely known at present. Lowest is a 
quartzyte ; upon this lie the iron-bearing rocks ; and finally 
there is a great thickness of black slates. The base of the 
slates is calcareous, and becomes in places an impure lime- 
stone, often dolomitized or sideritized. 

The iron-bearing rocks occupy a definite and coniStant hori- 
zon between the quartzyte and the slates. They are marked 
by peculiar and characteristic features, and have always been 
recognized as invariably associated with the ore deposits. 
They seem to have a nearly uniform thickness, which may be 
estimated as between 500 and 1,000 feet, with an average of 
perhaps 800 feet. The relationship of these several forma- 
tions is shown by the section forming figure 1, plate viii. 

Minor Strittlre of the Animikie. 

The ore-bearing region of the Western Mesabi aftords a 
peculiarly valuable field for investigation, for the rocks have 
suffered only very slight disturbance since the time of their 
deposition. The general structure is a monocline, which dips 
slightl}^ east of south, at a gentle angle, which averages per- 
haps ten to fifteen degrees. On the eastern end of the West- 
ern Mesabi there has been some slight additional disturbance. 
There is evidence leading to the belief that a wedge-shai>ed 
area eight or ten miles in length, lying mainly in T. 6K-17, 
has been faulted up above the surrounding rocks ; the amount 
of vertical displacement being perhaps 500 feet. This may 
be called the Virginia area, from the town of that name which 

*Th»' t«'rins Kt'cwatiii hiuI Aiiimikii' an* ummI bv I lit* Minnesota Siir- 
vcy to tlistiuKnish formations which, in K^Mieral. corn^siMmd to thi* 
Hiironian of tho Tnilfd States (fi'olo^ical Siirv»*y. lh«' Animikie corn*- 
.s)M>n(lin^ tn till* u|>|N*r. tlic Keewatin to the lower Huronian. (See 
TwiMit> -first Ann. Kt'i»., Minn. Survev. j». 4.) 




I'he Iron Ores uf the Mettahi liaiuje. — Sjntrr, 837 

18 in the vicinity. To the east of this upthrust area there is, 
as far as the Embarras lakes at least (a distance of five or 
six miles), a gentle folding of the' strata, which appears to 
have been contemporaneous with the faulting. These dis- 
turbances may be provisionally believed to have occurred in 
later Keweenawan or post-Keweenawan time, and to have been 
oontemporaneous with the monoclinal tilting. Figure 2, plate 
VIII, is a section from west to east across these faulted and 
folded strata. 

Chauactkh of thk Ikom-kkauin(» Rocks. 

The rocks of the iron-bearing member exhibit great di- 
versity^. The most common sort is massive and siliceous, and 
is thickly spotted with small round darker areas, consisting 
mainly of iron oxide. From this there are many deviations; 
and often the different varieties cannot be said to resemble 
one another in any way, either in the field or under the mi- 
croscope, or on chemical investigation. But specimens are 
constantly found which show one variet}'^ changing into an- 
other. Thus it soon became evident to the writer that all 
the rocks of the iron -bearing member, however different, were 
closely allied in origin, and were probably derived from a 
single primitive type. This same principle has already been 
shown by Irving and Van Ilise for the Penokee-Gogebic rocks.* 

NaTI'KK of the OKKilNAL KoCK. 

A careful macroscopic and microscopic study of a large 
number of carefully selected specimens was made, with very 
satisfactory results. Nearl}' every detail of the changes from 
one phase into another could be made out and the causes 
assigned. The changes were seen to be those of metasomato- 
sis, and the inciting agents seemed mainly atmospheric. The 
original rock of the series was quite unmistakable. Typicall}' 
it may be briefly described as follows: 

In a ground-mass of cryptocrystalline, chalcedonic, or finely 
phenocrystaliine silica, are thickly strewn rounded or sub- 
angular bodies, made up chieflv of a green mineral, very 
slightly pleochroic, and without cleavage: under crossed 
nicols it appears in some places amorphous, in others extin- 
guishing as an aggregate. 
•Tonth Ann. Ht*p., l'. S. (hmiI. Surwy. 



33^ The Amtrirtm Gt'Ao«fist. Mar^isM 

Aiuilj><4^ I^howe<l thi« minerml to be e<«^ntiiinv a bvdruus 
•ilieate of iron, and selected ^sections kindlv exaniin<rd bj Dr. 
J. E. Wollf, of Harvard UniversitT. wer»* ^tateil bj him to 
-re«<rmble in all phy«i«*al characti-rs tjlnttr*,HHfr In one 
especially fre«h s|>ecimen there were al^> rounded jirrainvi of 
ealeite (probably ma^eMan K apparently originally detrital. 
and in M>me limited areaK these increased in number till thev 
formed nearly the whole bulk of the nnrk. The^^e glaueonitie 
carbonate layers are nearly identical in appearance with the 
l^lauconitic St. Lawrence (Cambrian) limestone of Minnesota, 
of which flections were cut and compared. Dr. Wolff sug- 
gested tentatively that the rock was an altereil greensand. 
This appears to the writer to be the correct view. There is. 
however, a peculiar feature shown by chemical analyses — a 
constantly very small amount of potash. 

The Processes of Cuax««e. 

It is quite certain that from this rock are derived nearly all 
the other phases in the iron-bearing member. In the altera- 
tions there are various pr«K'esses, differing by reason of the 
varying forces which have been brought to bear upon the 
rr^cks. The most common, which may be 4*al]ed the noruutl 
prore^sM^ api)ears to take place under scant access of atmos- 
|>herie agents. The decomp<»sition of the green mineral is the 
noteworthy event. It breaks up, forming chiefly silica and 
the iron oxides or carbonate, so that in bv far the commoner 
phases of the rocks the rounded iKxlies or granules are com- 
posed entirely of these decomposition products. 

The various stages in the rearrangement of the silica and 
the iron oxides or carbonate constitute the succeeding phases. 
The chief cause of their separation lies in the different condi- 
tions under which these two chief constituents are taken into 
solution. From very careful study of the separation and con- 
centration <^f the silica and the iron, there nui}' be deduced 
two rules. First, in regions of comparatively- free oxidation, 
chalybeate waters deposit iron and remove silica. Thus 
bands of iron are formed along cracks and fissures, whether 
macroscopic or microscopic, replacing the silica; and isolated 
spots weakened b}' weathering become hy replacement 
hirjtchcs of iron oxitle. T'onversely, in regions of extremely 




T'he Iron Ores of the Mesabi Range, — Spurr, 889 

scant oxidation, waters deposit silica and remove iron in 
solution. Thus the portions which are most porous become 
richer in iron and lose their silica; this iron is derived mainly 
from the adjacent unoxidized parts of the rock, and into 
these unoxidized parts the silica from the oxidized portions 
is constantly carried. The final result is an almost complete 
separation of iron and silica. 

Chemistry op the Process. 

The chemistry of this process seems to be approximately 
as follows : 

Most atmospheric waters contain, among other things, car- 
bonic acid, oxygen, and certain amounts of the alkaline salts. 
Carbonic acid gives water the power of taking iron into solu- 
tion: while the alkaline salts are slower but ready solvents 
of silica, especially in the finely divided cryptocry stall ine or 
chalcedonic state in which it is usually found in these rocks. 
These waters find their way into the rock, and to some degree 
into the firmest portions. As they begin to penetrate inward 
from the crevice along which they came, the oxygen unites 
with the unoxidized element's of the rock, decomposing some 
of the minerals, and extending the weathered zone. By the 
decomposing action o^ this oxygen, carbonic acid may be set 
free ; and the same product may result from the action of 
acids, either brought in by the water or developed during de- 
composition. The water thus passes further into the rock 
free from oxygen, but highly charged with carbonic acid. 
Aided by the pressure under which it is placed, it readily 
dissolves the iron. The aflinity of the alkaline solvents for 
\ the silica is so much weaker than that of the carbonic acid 
for the iron that the water becomes saturated with iron, with- 
out any appreciable quantity of silica being taken up. The 
solution finally finds its way again out into a zone of greater 
oxidation, such as a crack. Upon the access of oxygen and 
the release of pressure, most of the iron is precipitated. As 
the solvent power of the water is now renewed, the alkaline 
salts become able to take silica into solution. Thus iron re- 
places silica. Next the water again finds its way into an un- 
oxidized region, and under these conditions again takes iron 
into solution, which compels the precipitation of some of the 
silica; so that here silica replaces iron. Finally, this process 



840 The American Geologist. M ay, 18M 

brings about an almost complete separation of the two miner- 

als. 

The Concentration into Bands. 

Most oft«n weak and firm points alternate closelj in the 
rock, usually being arranged in narrow horizontal zones. If 
the weak zone is one of comparatively scanty oxidation, the 
iron may be deposited as carbonate; if of freer oxidation, as 
the hydrous sesqui-oxide. So in the final concentration we 
may have a very well defined banding of cherty silica with 
siderite ; or, more usually on the Western Mesabi, bands of 
silica (usually ferruginous), alternate with bands of iron 
oxide (usually siliceous). The crystallization of the latter 
gives the typical "jasper and ore," which is occasionally found 
on the Western Mesabi, but is not so common as in others of 
the Lake Superior iron regions. 

Results of Accumulated Strains. 

The change from the oxides of iron to the carbonate, and 
from the carbonates back to the oxides, has been found by 
study with the microscope to be very common, and the same 
iron may repeatedly undergo ther metamorphosis, with chang- 
ing conditions. When the most of the rock is thus altered, 
there is an appreciable change of bulk, the oxidation of the 
carbonate being attended by contraction, and the carbonatation 
of the oxides by expansion of the rock. The loss of the more 
soluble products of decomposition has also a marked contrac- 
tile eifect, very early in the rock's decay. These contractile 
and expansile tensions, occurring sometimes in different parts 
of the field, often successively in the same part, have given 
rise to many of the physical peculiarities of the rock. Among 
the effects of the contractile tensions there is a very common 
smooth, vertical, prismatic jointing, and the development 
of closely set horizontal joints, which somewhat simulate 
cleavage. It is these horizontal joint-cracks which become 
the seat of deposition of the iron from the percolating waters; 
and thus the parallelism of the banding is explained. With 
the advance of decomposition, th^ horizontal cracks become 
more numerous, and the bands of iron which are formed along 
them often grow till they unite. It is to this cause that the 
beautifully bedded chanicter of the ore-deposits must be 
chiefly ascribed. 





The Iron Ores of the Mesubi Bange, — Spurr. 841 

The expansile strains lead to breccias, and to local faulting 
and folding, especially in the ore bodies. They also give rise 
to shearing movements, which have in many places altered 
the rocks for a limited distance and induced a schistose or 
slaty structure. This shearing process forms one of the chief 
deviations from the normal process of change. 

Variations fuom the Normal Process. 

Another important modification of the usual manner of 
change follows the exposure of a considerable area to freely 
oxidizing forces. This condition is nearly always found at 
the surface, and often deep into the rock, following zones of 
weakness, induced chietly by regional disturbances. In these 
parts of the rock the various stages of decomposition and 
concentration are hurried forward with such comparative 
swiftness that the phases of rock thereby produced are differ- 
ent from those produced by the normal process. In these 
rocks the iron is concentrated into large bodies and impure 
disintegrated silica and clay is left behind. Thus, among the 
ferrated rocks, the ore-bodies are formed. Among the leached 
rocks the most common are the *' paint rocks," which have, 
subsequent to their leaching, usually become iron-stained, so 
that they form a stiff clay, red, yellow or brown in color ; also 
a cream white residual clay, which has been mistaken for 
kaolin. On analysis the last proves to be mainly free silica, 
with a small amount of silicate of alumina and impurities; 
and, in one place at least on the Western Mesabi, it is a nearly 
pure silica powder. 

Least important among the causes of change has been the 
impregnation of the rocks by minerals apparently derived 
from without the iron-bearing member and brought by pre- 
colating waters, (,'alcite is the chief of these minerals; and 
the calcitized portions of the iron-bearing rock are distributed 
near the contact with the calcareous stratum of the black 
slates. 

The Formation of the Ore- Deposits. 

It has already been stated that the bands of iron owe their 
existence to previously formed zones of weakness. From the 
narrow band there may be found every gradation upward in 
iiize, till the body of iron becomes large enough to merit the 



842 The American Geologist, llay.iaoi 

name of an ore-deposit. These ore-deposits are often very 
large, being occasionally nearly a mile in their longest ex- 
tent. The ore is usually hematite, loose and granular, and 
when of best quality is of a blue or brown color. Typically 
there is a portion, near the surface, which has become 
hydrated into yellow limonite or gOthite. Often these ore- 
bodies rest upon the basal quartzyte ; often again they rest 
upon the hard and little-altered iron- bearing rock itself. The 
conditions under which they form seem identical with those 
necessary for the growth of the narrow bands of iron in the 
banded "jasper and ore." In both cases the iron has concen- 
trated in an area of especial weakness. In the case of the 
band the cause of the small area of weakness has already been 
explained. In considering the cause of the formation of the 
ore-bodies, it is only necessary to find the cause of the 
development of so great regions of weakness. 

The richest ore-producing region thus far developed is that 
which lies in T. 68-17, and surrounds the Virginia area, fol- 
lowing the supposed fault-lines. Immediately east of these 
lies another rich group, near Biwabik, in the somewhat dis- 
turbed strata adjacent to the upthrust area. At the Moun- 
tain Iron mine there is strong microscopic evidence of a dis- 
turbance, probably a fault, while at the other important mines 
there has not been sufficient exploration to enable one to 
determine their peculiarities. So the conclusion may be 
reached that the most important of the ore-bodies owe their 
existence to regional disturbances which have produced large 
areas of weakness. Faults, especially, are accompanied by 
the development of such areas, and in folded regions the sum- 
mits of anticlines, and to a less degree the troughs of syn- 
clines, are weakened. 

In the opening up of a great area of weakness, moreover, 
such as attends a fault-plane, a channel for the surface waters 
to find their way down is often niforded, and the shallow 
underground drainage for a considerable distance is deflected 
into the fault-fissure. The increased supply of water, emerg- 
ing saturated with iron from percolating through the decom- 
posing iron-hearing rocks, is an important factor in the for- 
mation of the ore. The chemistry of the process is practic- 
ally the same as for the small oxidized areas which produce 




The Iron Ores of the Mesahi Range, — Spurr, 843 

bands. Waters emerge heavily laden with iron into this zone 
of oxidation ; here thej precipitate their iron and are enabled 
to take into solution and carry away some small quantity of 
silica. The effect of the underlying impermeable quartzyte is 
important, since it deflects the surface waters into the weak 
zone, instead of absorbing them. Owing to the crystalline 
nature of its quartz, it is hardly or not at all replaced by iron, 
and thus it forms an unaltered stratum, even in the weakened 
zone, upon whic}i the ore- body may accumulate. 

In addition to this, smaller ore-bodies may be formed 
near the surface, at the bottom of the highly weathered 
zone, and resting upon the little-altered rock below. In- 
equalities in the decomposition produce small basins in the 
hard rock below, in which waters collect and finally deposit 
their iron. 

It may be noted that the impervious dikes, which have been 
shown by Irving and Van Hise to have been important in the 
concentration of the iron in the ranges of the South Shore, 
especially in the Penokee-Gogebic, have played no part upon 
the Mesabi. Upon the whole length of the Western Mesabi 
there has not yet been discovered a single dike or other igne- 
ous rock in the Animikie. 

It must be remembered that in no single case has an ore- 
body been mined out, or even explored sufficiently to give a 
complete knowledge of its features, so that much valuable in- 
formation must come to light in the future. 

Date of the Concentration. 

These is no positive evidence as to the exact time of the 
disturbances which ultimately brought about the formation 
of the great ore-bodies. It may be considered, however, 
pending evidence to the contrary, that they were contempora- 
neous with the monoclinal tilting, and that they occurred in 
later Keweenawan or immediately post-Kcweenawan time. 

The Eastern Mesabi. 

The Eastern Mesabi differs in regard to its iron from the 
Western Mesabi in that it contains u much larger proportion 
of magnetite, which is associated with somewhat more crys- 
talline silica. As these peculiarities are associated with the 
presence of the igneous rocks of the Keweenawan, and since 
they fade out as the distance from the Keweenawan area in- 



344 The American Geologist. llay.iSM 

creaeee, it appears probable that, as has been suggested by 
H. V. Winchell,* the advent of these rocks was in some way 
connected with the magnetic coHdition of the iron. If this be 
the case, we must conclude that most of the banded magne- 
tite of the Eastern Mesabi had become concentrated prior to 
Keweenawan time. But the lack of large ore-bodies in this 
region shows that up to this time the concentration ^ad not 
occurred on a very large scale. It is probable that the same 
force which produced magnetization put a serious check upon 
the separation and concentration of the constituents of the 
rocks, causing the degree of concentration in that region at 
the present time to be behind that of the Western Mesabi. 

The Cretaceous Conglomerates. 

There are upon the Mesabi small patches of Cretaceous 
rocks, lying upon the Animikie strata. In the area examined, 
they are chiefly conglomeratic, and the fragments are mainly 
derived from the iron-bearing rocks. A study of these frag- 
ments shows two things : first, that at the time of the forma- 
tion of the conglomerate there existed hard iron ore in the 
iron-bearing member; and, second, that much of the rock has 
been decomposed and has had its iron concentrated subse- 
quently to being taken into the Cretaceous beds. 

We may conclude that the process of concentration has 

been going forward since early Keweenawan or pre-Keweena- 

wan time, and there is abundant evidence that it is going on 

at the present day. 

Summary. 

The more important points in regard to the ores of the 
Mesabi which this paper presents are these: 

1. The original rock is probably an altered greensand, in 
which the iron exists in the form of the hydrous silicate f//fn/> 
ronite, a mineral which is supposed to be formed at the pres- 
ent day, on moderately deep areas of the sea beds adjoining 
coast lines, by the action of decaying organic matter upon 
fine mineral particles derived chiefly from subaerial erosion. 

2. The decomposition of this mineral, producing chiefly 
iron oxide and cryptocrystalline silica, and the concentration 
of these, together with the various phenomena consequent 

♦Twriitifth Ann. Kfp.. Minn. Geol. Survey, p. 130. 




The Columbian Exposition, — Williams, 845 

upon these operations, have produced all the various phases 
of the iron-bearing rock, Including the ore-bodies. 

8. During the process of concentration, in areas of compar- 
atively free oxidation, iron replaces silica; in areas of ex- 
tremely scant oxfdation, silica replaces iron. 

4. The great ore-deposits are believed to have formed in 
large areas of weakness, which have chiefly resulted from 
regional disturbances. The date of these disturbances, and 
of the beginning of the formation of some of the largest ore- 
deposits, is provisionally assigned to Keweenawan time. 



THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION: NOTES ON VARI- 
OUS EXHIBITS RELATIVE TO MINERALOGY 

AND PETROGRAPHY. 

By Okobob H. Wixxiams, Baltimore, Md. 

There was at the Exposition a considerable amount of ma- 
terial of especial interest to students of mineralogy and pe- 
trography, but this was for the most part so widely separated 
and distributed through so many different buildings as parts 
of varied and little related exhibits, that a patient and pro- 
longed search was necessary to discover it. The following 
brief notes, which are the substance of information relative 
to these subjects communicated to the Madison meeting of 
the Geological Society of America, do not pretend to any 
completeness. They are merely jottings made in regard to 
apparatus and collections of mineralogical and petrographi- 
cal importance, as these happened, one after another, to come 
under the writer's notice in various parts of the Exposition 

grounds. 

A. Mineralogical Models and Apparatus. 

One of the most noteworthy and novel, but at the same 
time probably one of the least noticed mineralogical exhibits 
was contained in a small case in the Russian pedagogical mu- 
«*eum, in the central west gallery of the Manufactures build- 
ing. It contained the kaleidoscopic mirrors for crystallo- 
graphic demonstration, as suggested by Hess, and improved 
by Professor Federow of St. Petersburg (see Neues Jahrbuch 
fttr Mineralogie, etc., 1889, I, p. 64; ib. 1890, I, p. 234; and 
the writer's Elements of Crystallography, 3d edition, p. 196). 



itfr aagt^*- I:!i*<i wirh I«--»k:2.je-jei*** a-d ii«r»d fimlj bj th-rir 
apic** ia aa iar^rtrd |>'-»;ci'»a bra -=.;Ter«aI j-'i-iw^f*-- ttai 
thej ^aa b^- ic<-I:a*:d at aar an^Ic-. If i=.:o <K:j^h a pjraaLid 
a^rta* opa*'!'!^ Ii<|'i:d be pi^'j^f>r<l it.* surfanr <«a be vi<?*nE-«*iTelT 
^rea aar ia^-IIaati^a l»> th^ thive rv3r*-ti:iff •urfa^^rs bj alter- 
ing the piT^iti'^a ••f the mirror. The Bi::Idpl«r rede<>tK*tt "f 
thJ4 surface repnxl'iee* <*'.ae f«»rm of that <frT*iaI •-'a*? f«»r 
whieh the parti^:>Iar rairrxr ba« been made, dirid^d bj all of 
iti> planes of «Tm met rj. aad thi« form maj be made to pa$« 
bj ererj ic termed iat«r $ta^. into any other f«>rra haTiai^ thr 
came grade of •nrmmetrr bj s^-iitabij altering the inrliaati*>n 
of the mirror. A« a guide to the pn»per positions of the mir- 
rr^r, one of iti^ edge« maj be prolt-nged ai? a ntredle tA a gnomic 
proje^'tion of the form« desired and anj one of the$«r maj then 
be prodiH?ed bj pla^^ing the pijint of the needle at the ei>rre^ 
pr>nding projection p^^e. One mirror maj be made for eaeh 
erj^tal cla«« baring a different grade of s^rmmetrj and all maj 
lit into the same <tandard. Thej are. hoverer. onlj of esper-ial 
adrantage fortb<^»»eof the higher grades of sjmmetrj* like the 
hoLohedraland hemihedral diTi^ionsof the isometrie.bexagonaL 
tetragonal ^jstems. From practical experience the writer can 
«aj that it would be difficult to imagine a more beautiful or 
fiatisfactorj piece of apparatus for the demonstration of the 
4jmmetrj and relationships of crystal- forms than these 
minors.* 

In the New S^>utb Wales exhibit in the same gailery. Prof. 
Lirer^idge of Sidnej had two ingenious sets of crystal lograph- 
ic axe^ to ilJustrate the relationships of the pyramidal and 
prismatic forms in different systems. These were of brass 
and «ufficiently large to be seen by a large class. Each was 
fixed to a s^^id standard, and by means of a movable rod in- 
side of the exterior hoiiow one, each axis was extensible h\ 
rational increment^. By a joint at the center these axes could 
aI«o be giTen any inclination to one another, and, as their ex- 
tremities were united br a white elastic cord, thcT admirablv 



♦Wit run th** !*•'*» f»-w ni«»f.'h* 'h** wril'-r ha'* had a >»*l of \\^*r^ mim»rv 
fTi«<l*- h> <*hA* Wri.mv ^urziral ifi'^'runifni maktr »»f No. r*«» X»»rth 
HowartJ M.. Kaitirr-'-r*'. wr.sch ha'* i»n»%»*tl in all r»*>i»-ci«» m«Kt satt'^far- 
tor>. Th»- w»*fiwmAri*K:j» i> afimirahi*-. and th*- iiiHtrum^'Dt i> on«* altt>- 
g>-tr.»'r fn»-»l for c.a«w*d»-m«»ri*irati«»ii 




The Columbian Exposition, — Williams, 847 

illustrated, as they were thrown from one position into an- 
other, the relations of a form in one crystal system to the 
corresponding form in any other. 

In the central west gallery of the Mining building. Dr. F. 
Krantz of Bonn had displayed a large assortment of his un- 
rivalled crystal models^inow too well known to require special 
mention. These are of glass and of two different sizes in 
wood, and for stability, accuracy and cheapness are unsur- 
passed. 

Other less important exhibits of crystal models were made 
by Apel of GOttingen in the German University gallery of 
the Department of Liberal Arts« by the Russian pedagogical 
museum, and by Ward of Rochester. 

Very important optical instruments relative to mineralogy 
were to be seen in the German University exhibit in Liberal 
Arts; in the German Association of mechanical and optical 
manufactures in the N. £. gallery of the Electrical building, 
and in the French educational exhibit. Here the well-known 
instruments of Fue8s,Voigt and Hochgesang, Steeg and Reuter, 
Zeiss, Apel, Nachet and Werlein, were displayjed and full de- 
scriptive catalogues given to all persons interested enough to 
ask for them. Most of this apparatus is already familiar to 
mineralogists, although there were not a few novelties, espe- 
cially in the way of refractometers, goniometers, and micro- 
photographic appliances. 

Various pieces of optical apparatus for mineralogical pur- 
poses w^ere also exhibited by others than manufacturers, as 
for instance, Mr. G. F. Kunz in the Mining building gallery. 
Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, and other universities in 
the Liberal Arts. 

Microscopes especially designed for mineralogical and pet- 
rographical investigations were displayed in various widely 
separated exhibits. Those noticed and examined by the writer 
were by Fuess of Berlin (German University gallery), by Sei- 
bertof Munich (Krantz exhibit), by Voigt and Hochgesang of 
GOttingen (Electriealgallery),by Zeiss of Jena (Bame),byLeitz 
of Wetzlar (with Richards <k Co., Mining gallery), by Nachet 
of Paris (French gallery), and Kunz (in Mining building), and 
by Bausch and Lomb of Rochester. English instruments by 
Swift and Beck were also in the English educational galli^ry. 



348 Tke American Geologist, lUy, 18M 

Of all these microscopes those made by Fuess seemed on the 
whole to be most satisfactory, both as regards convenience, 
variety of appliance, workmanship and price. 

If, Af in era logic a I Collections, 

Among the wealth of mineral exhibits, most of which were 
naturally concentrated in the Mining building, it is of course 
possible here to specify in the briefest manner only the most 
noteworthy. On the other hand, the great systematic collec- 
tions of minerals exhibited by English and Ward were so 
prominent and so attractive that no one at all interested in 
the subject of mineralogy could fail to have examined them. 
Hence they require no especial mention here, w^hile no space 
at the disposal of this brief resume could do justice to their 
ample treasures. 

Among objects of especial scientific interest should be men- 
tioned the collection of the rare calcite crystals from Rossie, 
N. Y., shown by the State Museum ; the quartz crystals from 
MiddlevlUe, N. Y., shown by Mr. Crim; the galena, sphalerite 
and large calcite crystals in the Missouri pavilion ; the topaz 
crystals from Japan ; the crystallized gold from Brecken- 
bridge, Colorado ; silver crystals from Montana ; azurite from 
Arizona; great yellow calcites from Wyoming; gold, diamond^ 
and emerald crystals from New South Wales; and argentite, 
calcite and fire opal from Mexico. 

In a small mineral collection exhibited by Mr. Kidd of 
Kingston, Ontario, were two very remarkable crystals of black 
scapolite found at Eagle lake. They are of large size*, per- 
fectly terminated at both ends, and show both pyramid and 
prism of the third order in complete development. 

More or less complete systematic collections of the minerals 
found within their borders were made by New York, Maine, 
Massachusetts, New Jersey, North Carolina, and various west- 
ern states ; by the New York Mineralogical (Uub, of the min- 
erals of New York island ; and by Mexico, Japan, Canada, 
and New South Wales. 

The most remarkable collection of precious and semi-pre- 
cious stones, b(»th mounted, unmounted and in the rough, 
was exhibited by Tiffany & Co., of New York, partly in 

the Manufactures building, and 



Uiejr main pavilion in 
• , • 'J • • 




The Columbian Exposition. — William a, 849 

• 

partly in the west gallery of the Mining building. This In- 
eluded examples of all native American gems and many 
unique foreign specimens, especially from Russia. In this 
connection the collections by Mr. Kunz to illustrate the asso- 
ciation and geological mode of occurrence of diamond, opal, 
amber, platinum and pyrope deserve especial mention. 

Among other noteworthy exhibits of gems, the great dis- 
play of Kimberly diamonds and of the gangue rock from 
which they were being washed was, of course, pre-eminent. 
The output of the J age rsf on stein diamond mine for a 
single day (Feb. 12th, 1898), exhibited in the pavilion of the 
Orange Free State in the Agricultural building, contained 
546 stones weighing 651 carats. Many of these were of fine 
color and purity, one of them weighing about 80 carats. This 
mine is said to have produced in May, 1893, the largest dia- 
mond known, weighing 971 carats. Rough diamonds were 
also shown from the fields of Bingera in New South Wales, 
and one from North Carolina. 

C'eylon exhibited in her own building many characteristic 
gems, including ruby, sapphire, alexandrite, cymophane, 
pearls, spinel ruby, zircon, topaz, cinnamon garnet, and moon- 
stone. The Russian manufactures exhibit likewise included 
many precious and ornamental stones found within the limits 
of the empire. Among these were crystals and cut specimens 
of aquamarine, alexandrite, blue topaz, chrysolite and phena- 
cite ; while among the ornamental and polished stones may 
be named jade, malachite, lapislazuli, rhodonite, jasper, sele- 
nite and labradorite. The latter mineral from a newly dis- 
covered locality in the department of Kiew, in southern 
Russia, surpasses all other labradorite in its iridescence. 

North Carolina was especially noteworthy in her display of 
native gems, including ruby, sapphire, aquamarine, golden 
beryl, hiddenite, rose garnet, amethyst and rutilated quartz. 
Other gem exhibits which deserve mention embrace the fresh 
water (Unio) pearls from Wisconsin, the rubies and sapphires 
from Montana, the opal from Idaho, the turquoise from Villa 
Grove, Colorado, the asterated quartz, blue sodalitf^ and cha- 
toyant perthite from Canada, tourmalines from Maine, and 
various stones from Siam, Mexico, and New South Wales. The 
beautiful case of rough and cut gems so artistically displayed 



850 The American Geologist May, iSM 

in English & Go's mineral collection also calls for special re- 
mark. 

White mica for commercial purposes was exhibited bj the 
Palermo Co., of Groton, N. H., and from the Raj mines in 
North Carolina, while the huge sheets and crystals of phlogo- 
pite (amber mica) from Canada, now in demand for electrical 
apparatus, was quite a novelty. 

Cut and polished agates were shown by Krauth and Dreher, 
of Oberstein, where this industry is principally carried *on, 
while the fine Bigclow collection of agates, accompanied by 
many thin sections, was displayed by Harvard University in 
the south gallery of Liberal Arts. 

Meteorites were shown in great number and variety by 
Ward, of Rochester, by Harvard University, and by Mr. G. F. 
Kunz. 

Scattered among the various state buildings were a few 
collections of some interest, while in others specimens of char- 
acteristic crystals were on sale. Thus good crystals of copper 
could be had in the Michigan building, orthoclase in the Col- 
orado building, rubellite and serpentine in the California 
building, Sioux jasper, tin ore and rose quartz in the South 
Dakota building, etc. 

The exhibit of minerals in the Government building was a 
selection from the well-known cases in the National Museum, 
and in its beauty, arrangement and educational value it came 
up to the high standard set by that Institution. 

In these notes no attempt has been made to take into con- 
sideration exhibits of ores, metals, coal, oil, clays, asbestos, or 
other minerals of purely commercial interest. 

III. Petroyraphical Materials and Collect ions. 

These may include abrasives, microscopic rock- sections, sys- 
tematic collections, ornamental stones and building stones ; 
but again, no attempt will be made to enumerate any ex- 
hibits which did not have a scientific bearing. To both 
abrasives and building stones a long report might easily be 
exclusively devoted, but they can here be mentioned only in 
so far as they bear on the theoretical aspects of petrography. 

Of much importance to all interested in preparing sections 
of minerals or rocks is the recently discovered abrasive ''car- 
borundum,*' now manufactured and put on the market in all 




The Columbian Exposition, — Williams, 851 

desired gizes by the Carborundum Company of Monongahela, 
Pa. This new substance is a beautifully crystallized carbide 
of silicon (C Si), acqi^en tally (Jiscovered by Mr. E. G. Ache- 
son while watching the action ot an electrical furnace upon 
a mixture of charcoal and clay. It is now made in quantity 
by subjecting a mixture of coke and sand to a powerful elec- 
tric current. The result is a mass of tabular hexagonal crys- 
tals of a greenish color, high luster and brilliancy, which pos- 
sess a degree of hardness only inferior to the diamond. Care- 
ful tests by the writer and Mr. G. F. Kunz, showed that these 
crystals would readily scratch a polished sapphire, while a 
wheel composed largely of carborundum will cut rapidly into 
a mass of solid corundum. Practical tests haxe shown that 
aside from many uses in the arts, this substance is unrivalled 
for the preparation of rock-sections for microscopical study. 
The powders 160 and 220 accomplish the coarser grinding 
very rapidly, while the 6 and 10-minute powders {i, e, mate- 
rials fine enough to remain in suspension 6 or 10 minutes) 
may be used to finish the grinding with unexampled ease and 
expedition. 

Descriptions and photographs of machines for grinding and 
sawing rocks and minerals were exhibited in the Department 
of Liberal Arts by Prof. Dwight of Vassar College, and by the 
Johns Hopkins University. 

A number of collections of thin sections of rocks and miner- 
als, many of them showing good workmanship, was also scat- 
tered through the exhibition. Thus, in the German University 
exhibit were seen products of the well known firms of Fuess of 
Berlin, Krantz of Bonn, and Voigt & Hochgesangof GOttingen, 
while others of the same kind were placed in the German optical 
exhibit in the Electrical building. The admirable work of Ivan 
Werlein of Paris was shown in the French department of Lib- 
eral Arts and in the Harvard University (Bigelow) collection 
of agates. American work was exhibited by the N. Y. state 
Museum of Natural History at Albany, by Prof. Dwight of 
Poughkeepsie, and by Prof. Wolff of Harvard. It was also 
shown by the U. S. Geological Survey in the Government build- 
ing. Richards Ar Co.'s exhibit in the gallery of the Mining 
building contained a considerable display of rock and mineral 
sections by Max Wasserschleben of Giessen, but perhaps 
the best exhibit of this kind to be found an^'where in the 



^2 TA« Amertrftn Geo/o^»Jtf, 

Fair wa«i Chat in thi^ Swedish hiiildini^hy A. R. Ander><aen. of 
Upfiala. Thi^-^ie section!* w#»'re rpmarkahle for their ex- 
treni«* thinne<«. pi»'rfer»t evenn«*<M. and in many cai*ef» for their 
gr^at ••{»*. Sr»nie of the !ief*tions» of the orbimilar j^ranite^ from 
Hlattmo<94a and Kortfor* ^howf-d a perfection of workmani4hip 
rarely equalled. 

!^y'^teTOatic roek eolleetion* were exhibited by Ward and 
Krantz. A quite g^eneral roIU,*etion wa» al^^o shown by the U. 
S. frer>lo^eal Survey, and more special oneii by the »tate sur- 
vey <» of Minnesota. Mi'<>w»nri, New Jer-^ey and North Carolina. 
Maine and Mammchii4ett<«. thou^ without geological surreys. 
also displayed suiten of their roeks. The gnyemraent surveys 
of f Canada, 4apan and Sweden likewise showed exten^i^ive pe- 
trographieal eolleetions, aeeompanied by excellent catalogues. 
The New York Mineralogieal f'hib -showed a !*et of the rock* 
found on New York i<4land. 

Among exhibit* of ornamental stones perhaps the mo*»t 
novel and noteworthy were tho<»e of the New Pedrara onyx 
from Ixjwer f alifornia, and nf the ro^e garnet rock from Xa- 
Iosti»c, Prov. of Morelos, Mexico. The latter, which is an ag- 
gp#»gate of white wollastonite. yellow vesuvianite and ro!»e 
ef»lored gro^snlar, seems fo be the prod art of contact meta- 
morphism in a limestone, analogous to the well known occur- 
rences of the Fassa Thai and the Banat. It is now being 
studied by f>r. A. T. Gill. 

Other n^>table decorative stones were the Arizona si licified 
trees and the Sioux jasper (quartzite) from South Dakota 
exhibited by the Drake Polishing Company. Ward also dis- 
pl Hjfd a fine collection of 35<) polished >»labs of marbles. *er- 
p*'n tines, and other decorative stones. 

The ffTf'Sii slabs of prilished granite, pf>rphyry and other 
f»rnamcntal ^Utm-f^ from Elfdalen and other localities in 
Sweden, placed ju«*tfMjtside the Swedish government building, 
wf'll de<«erve mentir»n, as well on account of their size as their 
beauty. A beautiful ornamental stone from La ngesund fjord 
in Norway, di^play^'tl in the Manufactures building, seems 
destined to l>ecome popular r»n account of the fine iridescence 
of its f#-UNpar. This rrwk is well known to geologists as 
Br'Vggcr'** laurvikite. 

(If the great numbfr of building stone exhibits scattered 
through the grounds no account can be taken here. 




Rtview of Jieceni Geological Literature. 853 

REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 



6V/a/ Depfnatti of lotca. By Charleh Rollin Keyes. Iowa («<*«U)^ical 
Survey, vol. ii. 536 pp., 221 ftgures, 18 plates. I)es Moines, 18»4. This 
volume is uniform in size and .style with the first number of the series 
already issued. It is printed on the same heavy pap«»r, and the e.xecu- 
tion is exceptionally good. As is stated in the preface, this report does 
not attempt to cover all the various matters connected with the coal 
which a state survey may properly bt»' expected to investigate. The 
detailed stratigraphy of the various coal seams must of necessity be the 
result of investigations extenditig over a considerable period of time: 
the determination of the best methods of mining and forms of mining 
machinery also forms a subject in itself; the studies on the prtjperties 
of the Iowa coals and the determination of the most economic use of 
each rt^quire long and careful research : each of these subjects has been 
taken up, and in time the results may be expected. The present vol- 
ume comprises 200 pages or more devoted to a consideration of the ge«)l- 
ogy of the Mississippi basin with reference to its bearing on the hiwa 
Coal Measures. Succeeding this is an equal number of pages devoted to 
the details as exhibited in the various count ie.s. The volume closes 
with a brief consideration of the coal industry. In the first part of the 
b(X)k a number of interesting faults are described : and the stratigraphy, 
classification, lithology and geological history of the Carboniferous, both 
Lower and Upper, are treated with a fullness c»f detail never before 
attempted in this field. The author has in this summarized the results 
of his work, not only in Iowa, but in neighboring states, and so throws 
considerable light ui)on the Carbonifenms history of the whole Missis- 
sippi valh*y. The classification of the formations is unchanged, and 
the nomenclature is as used in the previous volume of the Survey. 

In connection with the study of the stratigraphy of the Coal Meas- 
ures are the elucidation of the nature of coal horizons and a harmonizins? 
of tln' vari<uis theories which have been fn>m time to time pro()osed. 
These are of considerabh* interest to both the geologist and the miner. As 
is well known, the earlier workersin the American coal fields held .strongly 
to the idea of the parallelism of .strata, and in accordance with that 
idi»a the individual coal seams were in many cases believed to be prac- 
tically coextensive with the ChaI Measures area. In recent years, how- 
ever, detailed study has led rather to the otht'rextrt-me. and the remark- 
able discontinuity of the coal seams has been emphasized. It has bern 
shown time and again that, in this field at lea.st, individual seams 
rart'ly have more than a very limited extent. Yet the fact remained that 
coal was more usually found at certain levels than at others. For ex- 
ample, nearly one-fourth of the total output of the slate comes from 
within fifty feet of the base of the Coal Measures. Thes*» and numer- 
ous other apparently op|)osinsr facts are happily recimciled by the exi)Ia- 
natioii of the real character of coal horiztuis: that stretchinir out 



354 The American Geologist. May, iee4 

through the toal Moasures there are certain definite stratigraphic hori- 
Kons along which bituminous matter was deposited abundantly, making 
a certain set of conditions prevalent 4)ver a considerable area. The dis- 
tribution of the coal was, however, dependent entirely u^xm the local 
conditions, which determined whether at any ix)int a single thick seam, 
several thin seams, bituminous shales or even non-bituminous matter, 
should be deposited. This throws considerable light on the real condi- 
tions existing at the time of the local formation, and has also a very 
din'ct value to the pros()ect4)r as gliding him in his search. 

In connection with the report is a geological map of the state, which 
shows noteworthy advance over that published the prt^'ious year. 
There is more detail in tracing formation boundaries; the eastern bor- 
der of the Coal Measures is more sharply deflniHl: and the Cretactnius is 
made to extend over a considerable stretch of new territory in the 
southwest. 

A short chapter is given on the origin of coal. The various theories 
advanced are summarized, and the knowledge up to date is given. A 
chapter on the composition of Iowa coals contains notes on their physi- 
cal projM»rties and the rt*.siilts of nearly l.'SO chemical analyses. The 
question of waste in coal mining is briefly touched, and the various 
methods of utilizing fine coal are discu.ssed. The extent and growth of 
the industry in Iowa is shown by various tables and maps so arranged 
as to bring to the eye at once a considerable mass of information: and 
the rapid growth of the industry, as stated by the.se tables, makes a 
go<Kl showing for the state. H. F. B. 

Revolution in tfie Topography of tJm Parifir (hnnt aini^e the AuriferouM 
(rrarelperUMi. Hy J. S. Dilleu. Journal of (leology, vol. ii, pp. 32-54, 
.Ian. -Feb., 181)4. During the Plioci'ne and Pleistocene iM^rimls, accord- 
ing to the studies of Mr. Diller, Prof. Le Conte, Mr. W. Lindgren, and 
others, the rfgion of the Sierra Nevada, which previously had b<»en re- 
duced by erosion to a low altitude, approaching a ba.sel(*vel, has under- 
gone vi'ry great, but gradual orogenic change.s, with extensive ouljiouring 
of lavas. The northern end of the Sierra has been raised *'at least 4,0()0 
feet, and i>ossibly asmuch as7.0(K)feet," while a faultof mort* than 3,000 
feet has been develojM'd along the eastern face of this highest and grand- 
est mountain rang** in the Tnitcd States. Th«* approximately base- 
Ifvelled old plain now forms the h>ng western s1o|h», which, descending 
gently to the Sacramento and San .1oa(|Uin valley, has b«'come deeply 
furrowed with canons by the rejuvenated streams. The auriferous 
river gravels, varying from M) to MH) feet in thickness, were mostly de- 
l>t)sited during the initial part of this revolution: and the source of their 
material was the ihick de|)osits of residuary del rit us which had accu- 
mulat«'d u\H)\^ the surface of the land during the baselevel |H*riod. 

Klrmeutory Mrtcttrohtify. \\y WiLl.lAM MoHKIs DaVIs, Professor of 
Ph>sical (Jeography in Harvard College. 8vo, pp. xii. .Tm, with six plates 
(charts of the world, showing isotherms and isobars), and 10(1 figures in 
the text. Boston: (iinn A: Co.. ISO I. This ver\ lh<»routfh, well arran;;ed 






Reulmr of iiv.ccHi irvohnjicitt Lifvrttftirt'. 855 

and clfHrly pn^sontt'd tn*a.liw' on thr jjrowin^r scmimum' t»f m«»l«M»r<»in«;.v is 
wrlU«»n with n'frrrno' both lo'usi* in the ciusx-nMim and for p*ni'r«l 
rtMidi^D). It contains thr rocpnt iin[M>rtant additions to the throrotic* ex- 
planations of tho atmosphfric circulation and production of storms 
which wi»ro studiod out by the hite Pn»f. AVilliam Frrrel, of Washin^c- 
ton; and the author also acknowlrd^rcs his ^reat indebtedness to KHtiut- 
toUfffif and other writings by Prof. Julius Hann. of Vienna. lAxikinp 
over the admirable work which Prof. Davis has done in this volume 
and his many p'olo^ical pa|M'rs. esi>ecially those relating to the glacial 
drift, we cannot refrain from earnestly hoping that he may next com- 
bine theH«> inve.sti^ations in treating; of the climates of the Ice a^e and 
earlier k<'<*1<>K**'* ajres. 

VriHifidm of Gotlnmi. Hy F. A. Hatiikk. Kon^l. Svenska Vetenskaps- 
Akademiens Ilandlin^ar. Hand 2*1, No. 2, 2tK) pp., lU plates. Stock- 
holm, 18(K{. Paleont4iloj;ists have lon^ admin'il the crinoids found in the 
Silurian rocks of (totland: but ever since the publication of An^elin's 
b«*autiful "lcono>?raphia C'rinoideorum," some fifteen years a>?o. the 
Swedish foasils have greatly puzxied students of crtnoid morphology. 
The marvelous. structures and curious combinations pictured in the 
Icono^rraphia disclosed difficulties which were lnsu|)erable to the anat- 
omist. Althou^rh the fl^^ures are S4) artistic ancjl so fMTfect as to cause 
a suspicion to linger in one's mind that many may be to some extent 
n*.storations, it was with considerable astonishment that workers in 
freneral learned recently that many of Anjfelin's illustrations were mi-re 
combinations and comfHisites, in some cases made up of several indi vict- 
uals and in other instances of even dilftTent s|M*cies. 

The chief pur|M).se of Mr. Bather's timely pajM'r is to discuss \{\v (Jot- 
land crinoids in the lijfht of recent mori>ht>loi;ical progress and to set 
aright many of the erron(H>us id<>as promul<j:ated by the Swedish author. 
This has b<M>n all the more imi)ortant on account of the close Delations 
existing? b<*t ween the Silurian crinoidal fauna of KuAfland and that of 
Sweden. It was uixm British fo.ssil crinoids that Mr. Bather first bej;an 
to study, but it was soon found necessary to take up the n>lat(*<l, and in 
jmrt Identical, siM»cies from the continent before workini; up the ht»me 
collections. 

The fM>rlion of the work just i.ssued is Pari I. the Oinoidea Inadunata. 
These ure taken up first, because', as the author says, they may he very 
plausibly n*^arded as the simi>l<'st forms of crinoi<ls and as least re- 
moved from the \y\M' whenci* all families of crinoids have sprung- 

In lff>tland the Inadunata are represented by at least forty sfHTies, 
which are described in the pa[M*r, and probably by a few other spi'cies 
still doubtful, which have b«*en set aside for the present in thi' hojM* of 
belter material coming to liirht. Of the forty sfwcies considered, eigh- 
teen were founded by Anp'lin, sixteen are re^nrded as new, and thi' 
rest were previously described by other authors. Thi'si* sfwcies are re- 
ferred to ten jrenera, of which (iothocrinus is rejrarded as new, and one. 
Ilomocrinus, has not iM'en hitherto n'conled fH)m Kun»iw. Thes«' 



856 The American Geologist, May, 18M 

ff«*nrra arr distributed amonji: sowrul families. A full list of thesiKTies 
is |?iven with their struti^raphicnl horizons. Tho forms are all de- 
scrilM'd with {?reat minuteness and are finely floured, not only as to pen- 
oral physiognomy, but esp<'cially as regards anatomical structure. An 
interesting fact in res[)ect to the geographical distribution of the 8[w»cies 
is that the forms which are among the commonest in Kngland are the 
rarest in (lOtland, and rice rerm. Similar {M'culiaritii>s in the range of 
many of the Carbon! f(>rous forms had already been known among the 
American crinoids. 

The facts brought out by the careful revi«*w of the Swedish material 
will change very c<»nsiderably many opinions now held in regard to cer- 
tain structural features of the stalked echimnlerms. A consideration 
of Pisocrinus comiM»ls a complete change in the orientation of the calyx, 
and enables this genus to be compared for the first time with other 
Monocyclica. Another (Niint of great interest is the foundation on a 
scientific basis of the nomenclature of the skeletal parts in the Calc(»o- 
crinidie, a group which has long remained a morphological anomaly. 
A mon^ rational classification than has heretofore been suggested has 
been prepared for the Inadunata in the establishment of two grt^at sub- 
groufjs based ujion the presence or absenee of infrabasals. Thes<* are 
the Monocyclica and Dicyclica. 

Taken as a whole, the "C'rinoidea of (iotland'* may be regarded as 
one of the most valuable paleontological contributions which has ap- 
p<*ared for a long time. It indicates clearly one of the most fruitful 
lines along which this branch of science is progressing, and presents a 
marked contrast to most of the pap<>rs passing under th*' name of pah'- 
ontological publicat ion.s. 

l)esrnpti«mM of Some New SpeeieMuf Intertebratenfrom tlu Paleozoic Ititrkn 
of llUnaut and adjaeent State*, By S. A.Millkk and Wm. F. K. (triiLKY. 
(Bulletin No. 3, Illinois State Museum of Natural History. 81 pp., 
Springfield, 181M.) Under the auspices f»f the State of Illinois, Messrs. 
Miller and (iurley describe as new some sixty fossils, chiefly fn>m the 
Carboniferous terranesof the Mississippi basin. From the very indiffer- 
ent diagnoses of thesfM*cies it would be almo.st im|)os8ible to n'cogni/e 
many of th«'m, but with the figures it is easily .seen that no le.ss than 
three-fourths of the so-called "new sjiecles" have aln*ady been fully de- 
scribed, while nearly a doxen <»f the "tyjK's" are manifestly t<Hi imp«*r- 
fect to deserve recognition. There apyx'ar con.set|Uenlly only two or 
thr«»e valid siM»cies out of the three-.scon* noted. Most <»f the descrip- 
tions are of crinoids. and some of thes<', although here regarded as new. 
wen' well described and figured more than a third of a century ago. In- 
cluding siiecies which ar<' widely known to all {persons familiar with 
the paleont(»logy of the up)M*r Mississippi valley. 

This Bulletin gives the fifth batch of '*new siH*ei«'s" which the senior 
author has is8iie<l during the i»asl two or three years. Alt4>gether then* 
have been p«>iK)sed in the series several hundred 'Miew" generic and 
specific tith'S to which this author has ap{>ended his nami*. Chiefly lo 



TM|j^ 



lievtetr of lievent Gcnloyival Literature, 857 

CiMitniii them, tht* same Hiithor has found it nocossary to isstio a R|)ecial 
addition to his oataloyruf* of American Paleozoic foH.sils. In the five |)a)?es 
mentioned it is safe to say that no less than four-fifths of the s|K»cies de- 
scribed as *'new'* must bt» n'lejcated to the limbo of syncimyms. 

The illustrations accompanying; the "descrijitions*' are in most cases 
W(M»fully inaccurate as regards the structural featurt>s of the objects 
represented, or rather misrepresented. S»»veral are so |NM)rIy depicted 
that it would be an utter im|)ossibiIity for even the most exjiert to tell 
the <irder to which they should b«* referred. 

It is to be ho|N*d that under the newr^^ime the IllinoisState Museum 
of Natural History will turn its efforts in a more fruitful direction. 

A netf Mub'order of tht Anrylopoda. By Henhy Fairfield Dhborn. 
(Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.. v<»l. xii, p. 95.) The f<K)t of Arttonyjr is dis- 
tinpiished from that of C/talirotf/rrivni by the character of ankle and 
|M»s, which pres^'nt a marked resemblance to the Articnlactyla, while 
CttaHrothfrium reprt^sents thes<» struct ur«»s as found in the PerisstKlac- 
tyla. I^)th genera are ungulate in ankle joint, but the phalanges termi- 
nate in claws. In view of the double parallelism b<»tween these two 
forms and the two subdivisions of the unfrulates, it issu^^ested to divide 
the Ancylo[M)da into the Artionychia and Periss<mychia. 

The Erolutiou of Teeth in MammntUt in its Inuring upon tlie Problem of 
Phytogeny. Hy Hknhy Fairkirlo Ohborn. (Trans. N. Y.'Acad. Sci.. 
vol. XII, p. 187.) The following abstract of Dr. ()sl)orn's \m\wf is jfiven. 
He reviews the recent researches and theories of Kukenthal, Rose and 
Tacker, u|K)n the formation and succession of the dental series in mam- 
malia, and i)ointsout that es|)(»cially in marsupials, cetaceans and eden- 
tates (with other placentates). the existence of two st»ries of teeth is now 
abundantly proven, as well as the fact that homtnlont forms were de- 
rived fnim early heterodont. Recent discoveries indicate that in marsu- 
pials teeth of the .st*cond si*ries mt^ht be inter|)oS4»d in the first series; 
thus explaining the typical dentition of such >renera as Didrtpttin. This 
trans|N>sition jxTmits a comparison of the dentition of marsupials with 
that of Jurassic mammalia (i 4, e }, p }, m |). 

It is further noted that th«* triconiMlont tyiH» (as AnphiteMteM) may be re- 
>rarded as the hyi)othetical iMiint of diverp'nce of placental mammalia. 
As to the form of tef»th crowns, the theory (Kukenthal. Rose) that the 
complex mammalian tyjM's were made by c<»ncrescence of .simple reptil- 
ian cusps. IS, u])on the evidence of the .lura.Hsic mammalia, shown un- 
t4Miable. — as well as the converw the^iry that cetaceans have derived 
hom<Klynamous forms by the split tinjr of the cus|)S of the tricimtalonts. 

ContritftttionM to the Anatomy of Dinirhthyft. Uy Bashpord Dran, Ph. 1). 
(Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xn, pp. 187, 188.) In this |Ni|M>r the 
author has "c(»rrelated the parts of this I><>vontan- liower Carboniferous 
arlhrtKliran with thos<* <»f (Wronteitn. Notes are made on the dis|)osition 
and characters of the lateral line of <»r«rans, pineal foramen, nasjil ca|>- 
sules. dentary plates, jrin^lymoid articulation of lateral shoulder plates. 



358 The American Geologist May. 18»4 

fharacUTS of shnffreeii, siiid probabi** disixisilion of paired and unpaired 
fins." 

Thf La Phta Mumim. By R. Lydekker, B. A.. F. Z. S. In Natur- 
al Srienre (v(»l- IV, Nos. 'i't, 24) Mr. Lydekker gives an interesting ac- 
count of this Museum, so rich in fossil vertebrates. He describes many 
»>f the best exami»les frofn the Pam|M'an, Patagonian, and other deixisits. 
Ifr finds that very many of the new genera (named by certain South 
American paleontologists) are but siH»ciesof previously described genera, 
or are the same gen»'ra with different names. The author well de- 
scribes this surprising confusion when he says: "Indeed, on the princi- 
ple (or rather, want of principle) which apiK*ars to have guided the Ar- 
gentine paleontologists, about a dozen six^cies and some half a dozen 
genera might easily be made out of the remains of the common horse." 
This statemtMit is the outcome of his examination of some of the forms 
with difl'erent generic names in which the dentiti(»n had assumed dif- 
ferent forms according to the age of the individual in question, and he 
adds, "which even any ordinary student would say were identical." 
After reading Mr. Lydekker's account of the wonderful treasures in 
this museum, one regrets that these fo.ssils are not more accessible: for, 
with what has been remarked above, it is almost unnecessary to say 
that these descriptions by South American workers are not strictly re- 
liable. 

Thf Mean Drimiy of the Earth, m\ essay to which the Adams prize 
was adjudged in 181)3 in the University of C'ambridge. By J. H. Poyn- 
TINO. Svo, pp. XX, 15«, with illustrations and seven folding plates. (Lon- 
d(»n, ('has. (iriftin i\t Co., 18»4.) In this work we find a historical ac- 
count of the various attempts to determine the mean deii.sity of the 
earth from the time of Newton to the present. "It is not a little re- 
markable that Xewton hit u|K)n the limits between which the values 
found by subsecjufut researches have nearly all lain." The author de- 
scribes s<»me <'X|H»rimenls of his own, made with th<' common balance, 
in which he obtained the figure r).49,T as the earth's average density. 
The obwrvations and mathematical calculali(»ns are given with consid- 
erable detail, and the various factors of the problem are elaborated fully. 
The average of the fourteen different determinations that have b<'en 
completed by different calculators gives the figure 5.,V23. The work 
shows tfreat care in preparation, and furnishes a complete resume of the 
subject, thus constituting a valuable work for reference. II. V. W. 

Oh thr rhriiiiral rompotiition of rhon<fro<lite, humite and rlinnhtnnite. By 
S. L. PenfiklI) and W. T. H. Howe. Amer. .Tour. Sci.. v<»l. 47, pp. 188- 
•iO(i, March. IHIM. By a series of careful analyses and a compariscMi 
with other analyses the nuthors show that these three minerals are not 
identical in chemical com|H>siiion. The f<irmulH» established are: 

Chondrodite Mgsi [M«(F.OH)l2 I8i04l2 

Hauiita Mka [Mg (F. OH)]? [8i04ls 

Olioohutnito Mg? [Mr (F. OH)l2 C8i04l4 

The> thus are seen t4» form a series which varies progressively from 



.?••••' 






Ji59 



.,^.i.v. . .-."««"'• Am.r. J.mr. S<i.. 

IH.>.^..-- •--' ,,^, M^oti^-ctlnolitc .chUt. i fonnaUon. 

IM.. .«.< '• • ^ ' '""""'• l.V.,.-ti(- .UlrMOli..!.. ur.- as follows: 

..,.„ '':^:z:z: ^^^-r^'^^^ ."-u..s. ku.. ... ..,.. 

,... ^^- - r r.m->..-«ri..« forma. hu... for th. m.jsi 

,, .. K^ . ^vv^ «» »' ' ^ "" ; •'';,•,„. of M.-ssrH. Hark..r anU 
■• . >"**' "'' ?'H....lir.....n..Hn oLsUlian from M.-.ss.... 

--;^:;•::^;:::J:::::vr;^.;.o.........s> ua...m...im..s.,... 

'", '^".:, ;;J ..i .-> .•.■• .-m...-. 

.V V- '- •' :'; ':,:::;::,, a la. rati.. of . •. /,; <-=o..nim : 

,,.,, ,, « ,,><. .. ''•''''''''^''" ' . , , „v,.rall.-r.»is.im-l habits w.-r.- 
.. M.M \ »< ' •"• ''"••'■'"""' " ' , ■ unit ,.vrami<>. »...! '> 



S60 The Americfin GefAoijini. Majr. UM 

12H 2^^' Sulfobciriti* ih the first r(*|»r(*se[itatiw of a iifw frnmp of natur- 
al comiioundH of b«irat«*s and siil|>hat4*H. which has an Hiialo<?iii' iu luiie- 
bur^itt*. a hydrous comiiound of ina^ii«*sium b«»rat«' with phosphat** of 
maf(n»*Hiuin. O. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



l)lWt)VERV OF DlCERATHERIUM, THE TWO-HORN ED RHINOCEROS. IK THE 

White Uiver bbdh of South Dakota. S<?v«»ral years apo Prof. Marsh 
described under the generic name of Diceratherium a two-horned Rhi- 
n<Krero8 fr«>m the John Day beds of Orejron. Naturally we should ex- 
|M*ct to find the ancestor of the John Day form in the White River beds: 
but up to the prps(*nt it has not been reported. The Princeton Scientific 
Rxfiedition of 1804 has been fortunate in securing? three skulls which at 
presi»nt are not distini^uishable j^enerically from Diceratherium. One 
of thesf* skulls has Ix'en freed from the matrix and it presents charac- 
ters which at once distinguish it from any of the John Day Sjx^cies yet 
described. It may b«* called Diceratherium pn>avi!um in reference 
U\ its relation to the John Day forms. 

The tyfje siM;cimen consists of a nearly complete skull without the 
lower Jaws. The principal si)»»cific characters are as follows: Skull 
lon^ and low, broad esfx^cially in the frcmtal region: superior surface 
slightly concave anteroposteriorly; no well defined sagittal crest; strong 
IKistorbital processes. Nasals strting but not coossifled. About one-thinl 
the distance from their extremities to their junction with the frontals 
an* develofM'd uptm their upjx^r and outer edge a pair of rugose* promi- 
nences rewmbling very much in ap[)earance the rugosities supixirting 
the nasal horns of the recent rhinoceroses; they doubtless served the 
same puriK)se in Diceratherium. Just behind this pair of rugt>sities 
the nasals are constricted, but posteriorly they expand again to meet the 
bnmd anterior border of the frontals. In front of the pair of rugose 
elevations which sup[)orted the horns the nasals narrow rapidly and are 
directed downward and forward. The occipital cresi is deeply emargi- 
nate and overhangs the occipital condyles. The zygomatic arches an' 
rather slender. The |X)St-tympanic and ix>st-gIenoid proces.Ht»s are in 
contact but not co<>ssifled. The anterior o{H*ning of the posterior nares 
is situated Just behind the |K)Steriar border of the molar one. Of the teeth 
only the molars and premolars are preserved in the tyjx' sfiecimeu : 
ihey an* of moderate size. The premolar one is a strong, well developi»d 
tooth: the other teeth gradually increase in size from before backwartl. 
The dorsum is very flat with no suggestion of a median cosla. Th«Te 
is a ba.sal ridge on the dorsum of the true molars, but m»t on the pre- 
molars. The median sinus is shallow, es|M.*ciaIIy in the premolars and 
molar one : it is obstructed bv onlv faint rudiments of the crochet and 
anticrochet. The anterior and ixisterior vulla are shallow. There is a 
cingulum on the inner border of the premolars only. 



~s 



Con'eapoHfieiive. 361 

The r<*muinH of I)icerathi»riiiiii s<» far found in tho White River are 
fn>in tlie iipjx'r Oreodon beds (Protoceras beds of W<»rtinan). The dis- 
c<»very of Diceratherium in thes4* beds may be n*garded as additional 
evidence in favor of Wortman's opinion that the top of the White 
Kiver is the equivah'nt of the base of the John Day. 

J. B. Hatcueh. 

Economic Okolooy of tiik Unitko States: Reply to Du. Penrose's 
Review. It is not a very dignified proceeding for an author to reply to 
a review of one of hi.s own works; but there are times when dignity 
must be sacrificed in order to place the truth before the public. It s<H«ms 
to me that one of thes«* occasions has b<*en creat<*d by Prof. Penrose's 
review of my Economic (ieology of the United States which appeared 
in the February-March number of the Journal of Geology. This re- 
view, which occupies six pages of the maga/.me, finds the lxN>k wholly 
bad, and so inaccurate that not a word of praise can be found except 
for the **publisher's work," the "good language/' and "the general 
scheme in the arrangement of the subject matter," which he says is 
••logical." 

At first sight, the volume and virulence of the attack led me to infer 
that many vital errors had been found: the reviewer says that thesi* "are 
only a few of the many that might be mentioned," like the school boy 
who found the things he was writing about "tix) numerous to mention." 
Hut, uiMHi rereading it and boiling it down to the actual errors, thesi' 
are found to be very few. and hardly sufficient in number to utterly con- 
demn the work. On still further examining these the astonishing fact 
is revealed that all but two and iN)S.sibly three, are errors <jf thereviewerl 
The purjMKse of this reply is to jxiint out these errors. 

As if to crush me at the very .start, Pn)f. Penrose devotes an entire 
page to a discussion of my use of the term "ore," the implied ctmclusion 
of which is that the author of an F^conomic (Jeology diH's not know what 
an on' is. He quotes my definition and remarks that it should have 
been qualified. Forthwith he gives, among others, the very qualifica- 
tion (bi<»lite) which I do give just flv<' lines Ix'low the sentence (pioted. 
He tells us that many ores are common rocks; but the Century Diction- 
ary, in its deflnititmof ore, written by a well known giM)logi.st, says: "A 
mixture of a native metal with rock or vein-stom' is not usually called 
ore." The rock is gangu<'. "The term •ore,' " he says, "has no scien- 
tific significance whatever." in refutation of my statement that it has. 
Had Dr. Penrose studied i)etrography he would probably not need to bi* 
told that the term ore. tis I used it, is to b<' found in Rosenbu.sch's pub- 
lications, and, in English, in Teali's British Petrography, p. 52. Thus 
one page of criticism, and the one u|K)n which mt>st energy is devoted, 
de|)ends rather uiMMi the reviewer's misconcepti<ms than upon the au- 
thor's inaccuracies. On the next page there is a very curious criticism 
and one that is extraordinarilv unfair. He takes me to task for n4}t sav- 
ing just what 1 do say; as is shown by his own quotation from my b<N)k. 
I say that th«' silicate's are of UttU' importance as on's, and he quotes 



862 The American (ivolofjist. May, I8M 

this. ThnM» sontfiicrs b«'l(»w th«» (»nr qiiotfd I stutf Ihul thorc ar«* u f«*w 
ores brlon^in^ to this ^miip; but, notwithstanding this, ht' says that I 
havr 'Vvidi'ntly ovt»rhH)k«*cl** certain silicate or<% which, however, are 
all described in their pro|H'r place in my b<N)l\, — calamine on [mges 2H 
and 243: ^arni<>rite <m pa^es 2U2 and 294; and chrysocolla on pages 22 and 
208. • 

Next, quoting me as follows: "Sometimes, though not commcmly, 
gold occurs in iron f)yrites in invisible grains," he says, "it is almost 
unnecessary to say tliat one of the, most common m<Kles of occurrence 
of gold is in intimate ass(»ciation with iron pyrites, so that this state- 
ment is extremely misleading,*' Not so misleading, 1 venture to say, as 
his criticism. On page KiU. wh«'n speaking of gold, I say just what he 
does, but, although there is nothing in the quotation nor in his remark 
to indicate it, the .sentence* (pioted by him was from a paragraph on 
iron pyritf. The common occurrence of gold is in pyrite; but is gold 
common in pyrite? 

His criticism of my stat<'ment that native gold is the "typical occur- 
rence and the on«' from which the gold in use is obtained'* is a criticism 
on my "good language." 1 had just .siniken of the telluride as an ore, 
and it is evident that 1 meant the gold ami tthole, not all ir{ th<* gold. 

His objection to my speaking of chalc<i|>yrite as a combination of ir(»n 
and cop{M'r sulf)hides in varying proportions, and of siderite as a simi- 
lar combination of iron carbonate (the latter word being omitted by mis- 
lake) and calcite, dejMMids uiN)n his misinterpretation of the m<'aning of 
the w<»rd coml>ination, which hea.ssumes to mean r/ir;/i*r/e/ combination. 
That I rec<»gni>ce the fact that the mineralogical chalcopyrite and sider- 
ite* are deflnite chemical cominuinds is shown by the fact that 1 gave 
their formuhe. Since I was not writing a text-lxM>k on mineralogy 1 did 
not feel called ufxin to intrcKluce and explain isomorphous mixtures and 
replacements. 

Kxcepting by haxarding a guess, Dr. Pennise do<'s not appi^ir to be 
able to understand what I mean by "mineralized ores." My meaning is 
•'xplainedon pag<*s 15 and 10 of the b<M»k. Nor is it quite clear to him 
what I mean by "rust." Rust is oxidation and ircm rust is the product 
of oxidation of iron, while lead rust is the similar prtMluct for lead. 
The pale yellow rust of lead, to which I refer and which he (piestions. is 
used by the pr(»s|M>ctors of the west, or at least by some with whom 1 
hate ))een in the field in Montana, as a sign of lead. 

The* reviewer cannot understand on "what basis" an author has "m<Hi- 
ifled" the geological sections of other authors. In the instance under 
consideration, as in others (and always with a .statement of it), the sec- 
tions wi'n* miHlifled for the puriH).se of rendering them mori' diagram- 
matic, so that the iH'ginner could understand them. The m<Klifications 
were made for exactly the same reason that their technical descriptitins 
were m<Hlif1ed. 

We are t«>ld that the IxMik "bears evidence of a lack of the wnse of 
pr<»i)ortion in the amount of space given toditferent subjects." It would 
have been more mmlest to havi' said that this seemed sc» to the n'viewer. 



Correspondence, 363 

<)n#* mor<» inisstat<>ment should be nn*nti(ni«»tl. Prof, Penrose says 
that the book rt»lates "mostly to the ore dejKisits of this country." Ex- 
clusive of the index and app(*ndix. there are 45(J pa^es in the book, only 
1!K) of which are devoted to ore de{x>sits« including the jx^rlions on for- 
eijrn ore deposits. About half of the b(K>k is devoted to ores, if we in- 
clude those preliminary chapters relating to ores and mining methods. 

There are ermrs in the book — few text books are fn»e from them; but 
only two of those pointed out by Prof. Penrose are errors of mine, and 
these two are blunders which, though inexcusable, are not at all vital. 
I welcome fair criticism and am glad tt) know of any errors in order 
that they may be corrected in ])ossible future editions: but, entirely 
aside troTti my delicate position as author of the b<K)k in question. I em- 
phatically object to a review like the one in question. The reason f»)r 
it is not thoroughly apparent. I should hesitate to ascribe it to malice, 
and certainly will not retaliate by referring it to **an extremely sXiper- 
ficial knowledge of economic geology." The only other cause that 1 
can find for its inaccuracies is a ha.sty and su|K'rflciaI examination <if 
the book, begun, iH»rhaj>s. with the preconceived opinion that the b<K)k 
was worthless. The evident eagerness and th<* occasional violence (»f 
denunciation may, i)erhaixs, have grown with the fancied discovery of 
errors. Ralph S. Tarr. 

Tthnra, Xtir York, April 11, 1S94. 

Early Man in Minnesota. The Archaeologist for March, 181)4, pre- 
sents a paiK»r on this subject by Prof. W. H. Holm«'s, which he had 
previously published in the American Geolooist for April,J803; but 
no mention is made of this maga/ine. nor of the previous publication <if 
the paiK'r. In this n'publication. Prof. Holmes inserts a new sentence, 
saying that I "have been misled by the unverified statements of an in- 
"xi)erienced observer into constructing a section. rept»ated by Prof. 
Wright, in which an implement-bearing btul is carried entirely acn»ss 
the immediate valley of thi' Mississippi at the ba.se of the glacial dejx^s- 
ils." The section referred to,* however, .shows the "stratum contain- 
ing quartz chippings" (not implements in a finished state) as restricted 
to the locality of Miss Habbitt\s examinati<m ou the east side of the 
Mississippi river close above Little Falls, though the section itself is ex- 
tended across the valley to .show the relation of this place and its drift 
with the river and the land surface on both its sides. This stratum, 
furthermore, is not "at the ba.se of the glacial deposits." An undeter- 
mined thickness of till is shown below the mtKlifled drift, and the quart/- 
bearing layer is wholly above the till and in the basal part of this m<Kli- 
fied drift, as was observed bv Miss Habbitt. . 

Having again atti*ntively read her statements! of the condition of this 
most [plentifully quart/.-bearing bed of the modified drift at Little Falls, 
with its occa.sional grouping of numerous quartx fragments of similar 

*First published in a paper in t|ia Proceedings of the Boston Society of Nataral 
History, vol. xxui, pp. 4aiM47. Dec. 21, 1887; mostly reprinted in Wright^s *lco Age in 
North America.'* 1889, pp. 53H.550. 

^Proc. A. A. A. 8., roL xzxn.for 1883, pp. 38V-390. Am. Natnralist, toI. XTtit, pp. 
MM-«)5, 807-708, Jane and Jalj, 1884. 









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THE 



AMERICAN GEOLOGIST 



Vol. XIII. JUNE, 1894. No. 6. 



A RECONNAISSANCE OF THE ABANDONED 

SHORE LINES OF THE SOUTH COAST 

OF LAKE SUPERIOR. 

By P. B. Taylob. Fort Wayne, lad. 

(Plate IX.) 

The places deBcribed in this paper were visited during July 
and September of 1893. With^the exception of the localities 
at Sault Ste. Marie and those between Duluth and the Portage 
lake canal, I was accompanied throughout by Dr. Pearce. As 
in the exploration of other regions, including that of Green 
bay described in the preceding number of the Am. Geouhuht, 
the particular object of these excursions was to locate, if pos- 
sible, the highest shore line of postglacial submergence. Al- 
though this object was held distinctly in view, our first trip 
was not successful in this particular. The highest shore line 
was not recognized at that time, although it w*as found later 
that it had been crossed twice. 

Besides other fragmentary shore lines at intermediate lev- 
els, two very strongly developed beaches were found along 
this coast, which mark the m(»st important epochs of its recent 
hij^tory. One of these is at a low level, not more than fifty 
feet above the present level of the lake at any point observed. 
The other, which marks the upper limit of postglacial sub- 
mergence, is at a somewhat higher level than was anticipated, 
ranging between 585 and 590 feet above lake Superior. The 
lower of these beaches is so favorably situated for observation 
that it was traced continuously for many miles, but the upper 
one is in a rough and heavily timbered country and was seen 
only in a few places. The development of the latter, however^ 



366 The American Geologist. JancisM 

i$ s^o strong and so much care was taken to make sure of its 
identity in each place as the upper limit of submergence that 
its continuity between the points of observation is hardly to 
be doubted. 

The character of the work described in this paper will not 
compare favorably in point of accuracy of measurement with 
the recent admirable work of Prof. A. C. Lawson on the north 
coast of this lake.* Our observations were all made by ane- 
roid, but all of them are based either on a railroad station or 
the lake level near by, and as much care as possible was taken 
to determine and eliminate the weather variation. 

The Nipissing Beach. 

Marquette to the Pictured Bocks. The lower of the two 
beaches is very strongly developed all along the south shore 
of lake Superior so far as seen. No beach, except the one 
which marks the maximum of submergence, has anything like 
its strength, and even that lacks its sharpness and definite- 
nese of development. The reason for calling it the Nipissing 
beach will be pointed out presently. At Marquette this beach 
is about twenty-five feet above lake Superior, and for more 
than three miles southeast of the citj' it has the form of a flat, 
narrow cut terrace, which is occupied by the D., S. S. &: A. 
railway and the lake shore drive. Near the city it abuts 
against the base of an immense drift blulf, which rises more 
than a hundred feet above it. The surface of this higher ter- 
race is quite uneven, but its front is a sharp bluff made by 
the waves of the Nipissing episode. Farther east this shore 
line is represented by great, sand}' beach ridges which have 
been built across the mouths of the valleys of the Chocolay, 
Sand and Au Train rivers. Each of these valleys was for- 
merly a ba}* of the lake, but they have been almost entirely 
filled in by the sandy beaches of the Nipissing stage. 

These beaches are finely developed in parallel lines at 
Harvey P. O., and from a point about half a mile west of this 
place the railroad is built upon them, and lies nearly parallel 
with them for about fifteen miles, to a point one mile east of 

♦'•Sketch of the CoMStul Toixjjrrnphy of the North Side of Lake Su- 
|M»rior, with S|H*ciHl reference to the Al)aiHlone(l Struiids of Lake War- 
ren." By Andrew C. La ws» HI. Twentieth Annual KeiK)rt, Minn. (ieol. 
and Nat. Hist. Survey. 



B 



Abandoned Shore Lines of Lake Superior. — Taylor, 367 

Sand River station. The belt of beaches varies in width from 
an eighth of a mile at Harvey to more than a mile at Sand 
River station. The Choeolav river flows westward behind 
them, close to the lake, for a distance of about four miles, 
that part of its course evidently being determined by the 
westward predominance of shore drift. In the case of the Au 
Train river the bay reached so far inland that the waves failed 
to carry the sand up to its head, but built out spits which 
united across it, and the waves afterward built upwards of 
forty distinct beach ridges of sand, arranged in successive 
order from Au Train lake, which was cut off in this way, out 
to the present shore. It is more than a mile and a half across 
these beaches. The process is still going on, as may be seen 
at the mouth of the Au Train river. I had visited the Au 
Train country in the autumn of 1882. In the eleven years 
which had passed since then, I could see that there had been 
a distinct growth of the shore line outward. At the sides of 
the outer ends of these valleys the shore line is plainly marked 
as a terrace cut into the drift. Lake Independence, Pine lake, 
and others along this shore, have the same origin as Au Train 
lake. At Old Munising, near Grand island, this beach ap- 
pears again as a very sharply defined terrace of coarse white 
i«and, about 200 yards wide and 25 feet above the lake. Frag- 
ments of it were seen still farther along the shore in clefts of 
the Pictured Rocks where small streams enter. Eastward the 
shore was not seen, but it is well known to be very sandy, as 
would be expected if it is bordered by the Nipissing beach. 

Beginning at Light House point in Marquette, this same 
shore line passes through the northern part of the cit}" and is 
finely developed in that locality. It is there composed of a 
series of sandy gravel, shingle ridges, the highest passing 
along the foot of a low bluflf from which it is separated by a 
lagoon hollow. From Hewit avenue east of Cedar street the 
bench extends about a mile and a quarter due northwest 
through the city. The abandoned sea -cliff is well developed 
at the corner of East Prospect and Spruce streets, and at 
that point there was a small rocky island close to the cliff. 
At the corner of Third and West Hematite streets the upper 
ridge with lagoon hollow and low cliff is crossed by the 
Presque Isle Park electric cars. A third of a mile beyond 



868 The American Geoloyiat, June, 1804 

this place the beaeh turns west and passes south of the driv- 
ing park. It is crossed again on the CoUinsville road a little 
to the west of the park and the Dead River railroaci. We 
traced it still farther to a point about five miles northwest of 
Marquette, where it is a distinct beach ridge about a quarter 
of a mile back from the lake shore. It is also well developed 
as u cut terrace around the west, south and east sides of 
Presque Isle Park, about two miles and a half north of the 
city. This picturesque peninsula was once an island more 
than a mile from shore. It is now connected with the main 
land by a sandy neck which was built largely by the waves 
of the Ni pissing episode, but probably finished by the pres- 
ent lake. Besides this, the whole tract north of Dead river 
and westward along the shore for three miles or more from 
Presque Isle was filling in with sand. Some remarkably fine 
beach ridges are to be seen north of the saw mill. At the 
beginning of the Nipissing stage this whole tract was a shore 
of rocky reefs among which the sand afterward gathered. 
From the Pictured Rocks to the point northwest of Marquette 
this line was traced with almost entire continuity, the distance 
being about 45 miles. 

U Anse to the Porfaf/e Lake (.'(mal. The same beach was 
found again at L'Anse, at the head of Keweenaw bay. Its 
altitude is a little less than 20 feet, measured at the back of 
the terrace. Along most of this shore it appears as a narrow 
cut terrace, but at a few points it has been entirely cut away 
by the modern lake. It is very distinctly developed and is a 
marked feature on both Bidecs of the bay. We traced it north- 
ward nearly to Pequaming point, and it apparently rises * 
slightly" in that direction. In going by rail from L'Anse to 
Houghton, the railroad follows the terrace of this beach near- 
ly all the way and it may be seen plainly from the train. It 
is well developed at Baraga and northward to Fewsville and 
Newtonville, and again at Chassel, where the railroad crosses 
the great flats of Sturgecm river. Its altitude at Houghton 
was not carefully measured, but is not far from 25 feet above 
the lake. In going by steamer from Houghton out through 
the Portage lake canal, this beach was seen to extend to the 
north side of the Keweenaw peninsula. In fact, it was the 
shore drift of the lake when it stood at this level which filled 




Ahoiidoned Shore Lines of Lake Sffperior, — Taylor. 869 

in the Portage struit of that time and united Keweenaw Island 
to the mainland. The case here is like that at Sturgeon Bay, 
Wisconsin; the canal is excavated almost wholly through 
littoral drift. It cuts through about 30 feet of sand and 
gravel near the north end, which shows plainly enough that 
the beach of the Nipissing episode was about at that level at 
that place. 

Again, near the outer end of Keweenaw point, we found this 
shore line strongly developed at Lac la Belle and along the 
shore eastward to the extreme point. Its altitude there is 
about 40 feet above lake Superior. Lac la Belle, like Au 
Train lake, was a bay cut off by the shore drift of the Nipis- 
sing beach. But it was not completely separated until a 
lower stage. We found this beach alt»o on the north side of 
the point at Eagle Harbor as a sandy strip at about the same 
hight as at Lac la Belle. The second reach of the Nipissing 
beach, extending from Pequaming point to the north end of 
Portage lake canal, is also about 45 miles in length. 

Duluth, Farther west the coast was not seen at low levels 
except at Duluth and Superior. In that vicinity the Nipissing 
beach drops nearly to the present level of the lake. Minneso- 
ta point, which is about six miles long, and possibly Rice's 
point also, are great spits which belong mainly to the shore 
line. They are not more than 10 or 15 feet above the present 
level of the lake and for this reason they must be attributed 
to present wave action, but the present shore does not show- 
heavy littoral developments like these anywhere else. Be- 
sides, the observed gradual descent of the Nipissing beach 
toward the west w*ould point to a probable lower level for it 
at Duluth. There is also another reason which agrees with 
this expectation. The horizon of the Nipissing beach, in the 
two stretche? described above, shows such a great degree of 
modification by wave action as compared with contiguous 
higher ground that the line of demarkation could hardly 
be missed. The great spits near Duluth are like the Nipissing 
beach farther east. But the ground immediately above them, 
the broad terrace upon which Superior is built, is totally un- 
like that beach, for it is composed mainly of red clay. In one 
section, about five feet deep, fine horizontal layers or lamina- 
tions were seen, which indicate that it is a deep, still water 



370 llie American GeologisL Jaiie,i8M 

deposit. It i8 hardly poHsible that so strong a feature as the 
NipisBing beach at Marquette and the Portage lake canal, 
implying so long a duration of wave action at one plane, 
should not he continuous westward along the same shore. But 
there is nothing above the level of the spits at Duluth which 
can be correlated with it, and the clay terrace at Superior, 
which is 20 to 40 feet above the lake, could not have withstood 
the action of the Ni pissing waves. 

Satfll Sfe, Man'e <ntil eanlward. The great strength of the 
development of this shore line, taken in connection with the 
fact that it is only a few feet above the present level of lake 
Superior, led me for a considerable time to call it the Sault 
Ste. Marie beach. But by subsequent exploration at Sault 
Ste. Marie and at other points east of there, and especially at 
lake Nipissing (an account of which has been given in a pre- 
ceding paper*), I was forced to conclude that this shore line 
marks the level of the Great Lakes during the active period 
of the Nipissing outlet river, and not a higher stage of lake 
Superior alone. Before visiting Sault Ste. Marie it seemed 
probable that this beach belonged only to lake Superior and 
that it began to be formed when that lake became an inde- 
pendent body of water. It seemed probable that its level had 
been determined by a barrier at the Sault. But this is not 
the case, for at that place thre same strong shore line passes 
through the valley of the Ste. Marie river and its altitude 
above lake Superior is about fifty feet. The outlet of lake 
Superior at that time was not a river, but a narrow strait 
with a gentle current. There is no recent rock cut worth 
mentioning at the Sault. Probably part of the river channel 
below is of postglacial age, but the most of it is certainly pre- 
glacial. The sediments of postglacial submergence extend 
close up to the foot of the Sault, proving conclusively the very 
short time since the beginning of its present period of activ- 
ity. Professor Lawson gives the altitude of a shore line on 
the Canadian side, which I identified as the Nipissing beach, 
as forty-nine feet above lake Superior. It may be seen as a 
finely formed cut terrace, with a marked boulder pavement, 
along the foot of the hill below the new barracks back of the 

♦•*Th«* Am-i«-iil Strait at NipissiiiAf". HiiHotin <i. S. A.. V«.l. v, 1894. 
Am. <fKoi.<MJisT, vol. Mil, p. ***iO. March. 18JM. 




AbatHloued Shore Linen of Lake Superior, — Taylor, 371 

town on the American side; and it lias the same character 
where I saw it on the Canadian side. It is also well devel- 
oped on Sugar island and the mainland south of it, and also 
on St. Joseph*s island and the Canadian mainland. On both 
sides of the river at the Sault, the Nipissing beach has an old 
sea-cliff or bluff at it« hack, which is the front edge of a wide 
terrace. On the south side this terrace is composed of finely 
bedded clny and silt in horizontal layers; on the north side it 
is reddish boulder clay. Good exposures may be seen in the 
ditches by the roads where they ascend to the tops of the ter- 
races. These beds are postglacial deep water sediments lik^ 
those at Superior, Wisconsin. From Sault Ste. Marie east- 
ward along the shore of the North Channel fragments of this 
shore line were seen near Algonia Mills and at several points 
80 to 100 or more feet above lake Huron. West of Worthing- 
ton on the C. P. railway is a great sand and gravel delta of 
Spanish river, which probably marks this beach. It is there 
about 120 or 130 feet above lake Huron. None of these points 
east of Sault Ste. Marie were closely examined, except those 
near lake Nipissing, but I have no doubt that this accentuated 
beach is one continuous shore line from Duluth to the Nipis- 
sing pass. Its altitude near North Bay on lake Nipissing is 
about 160 feet above lake Huron, or about 140 feet above lake 
Superior, showing a rise of about 125 to 130 feet from Duluth. 
As is shown in the paper previously referred to, this shore line 
is definitely" related to the ancient river outlet at Nipissing. 
For this reason I have called this whole line, which seems to 
be continuous to the west end of lake Superior, the Nipissing 

beach. 

HKiHClt Bkac'hes. 

Marquette, Fragments of beaches were found in a number 
of places above the Nipissing beach, but over considerable 
areas where beaches might be expected they appeared to be 
absent. The hills back of Marquette are mostly cleared and 
cultivated up to about 500 feet above the lake, and we ex- 
amined them pretty thoroughly. The soil is of a gravelly, 
sandy character, strongly suggesting wash by wave action, 
but hardly anything having definite form as a beach or a ter- 
race was found except near the highest beach. This same 
washed character of the soil prevails all along this part of the 



370 'i 

deposit. It it) haii 
Nipissing beach m 
implying en lon^ ■■ 
should not he <-(iiui 
there is nothing iil' 
cHti be correlHti'il 
which \s 20 to 4ii 
the action of tli' 
SnifU .Sfe. .1/" 
derelapmetit nl' 
fBot that it i« .. 
Superior, kil ■ 
Ste. Mario I" 
Ste. Marie :< 
lake Nipi>-: 
ceding ]ni|. 
mark)!! tli' 
of the N ■ : 
Superioi 
probll^^ 
thiit ir ' 

been ■ 
the .■ 



unuhined Shore Liues of Lake SHperiov, — TffifJor, 378 

ilor joining the lOHin river, empties into lake Superior 
of Mnrquette. This delta is cleared and eiiltivated and 
• fanu house upon it. It was not examined closel}', but 
-vel is nearly that of the hif^hest beach. 
.••Hides these positive evidences of .submergence at this 
li level, we found equally impressive evidence that submer- 
nre did not reach higher levels. Continuing on the same 
•ad towards Negaunee, we crossed a low divide about 80 
•*et above the highest beach and found ourselves in the val- 
ry of the north branch of the V»\\y river about three miles 
fast of Eagle Mill and ten feet above the bench. This valley 
is filled with terraces and gravel plains on a large scale. They 
may bi* seen to best advantage about a mile and a half east 
of Eagle Mill near the site of an old abandoned iron furnace, 
where the road ascends to the upper level of the gravel plain. 
The plain has been partly cut away by the river^ leaving bold 
terraces on both sides about 40 feet above it. On the south 
-side the plain is wide and the road follows it continuously to 
Eagle Mill. This station is on the main stream of Carp river, 
but the gravel plain extends across from one stream to the 
other a distance of more than a mile. The plain is very 
■sand}', but the sand is mixed with a considerable portion of 
gravel and pebbles with a few boulders, all waterworn. No 
•doubt the gravel plain extends down the valley of the main 
stream to another delta, but we did not have time to visit it. 
The top of the gravel plain at the old furnace is about 50 
feet above the beach at the old sea clilf. There are immense 
glacial terraces at higher levels in the same vicinity ; but 
they are not easily mistaken for those of later age, f«)r their 
<*omposition and position are clearly glacial. We drove to 
the top of one of these about a quarter of a mile northwest 
of the station of Eagle Mill where, at an altitude of about 
110 feet above the station or 790 feet above the lake, we had 
41 magnificent view eastward over the gravel plains and ter- 
races. Fragments of these gravel plains extend down to the 
head of the delta of the north branch of Carp river, already 
described, showing that the same conditions which led to the 
formation of the delta were also the cause of the gravel plains 
•extending back to Eagle Mill. On the higher ground, above 
the level of the beach at 590 feet, we saw no trace of a shore 



u iiL''ii wt-rc nira^ 

4:.>. :li.'>. :tH» ;iini 

- —il i.L :-iw l-^veU 

iiiL.-li iiiiire iii!'tim-t 
Mnr-iiieiie. Th*- 



Abandoned Shore Lines of Luke Superior, — Taylor, 375 

terraces themselves, however, are more sandj and gravelly 
than the soil below and are deltas of a small stream. 

Homjhton, On the Keweenaw peninsula shore lines were 
seen in a number of places. On the high hill back of Houghton 
a gravel beach ridge very, strongly and clearly developed was 
found on the higher ground back of the Huron mine. It 
extends towards the southwest from some ledges of rock at a 
point where the main road crosses the summit of the hill. The 
form and composition of this beach ridge are typical and its 
altitude above the lake is about 410 feet. Prospectors^ holes 
on ground 25 to 30 feet higher show the same composition as 
in the beach. But no distinct shore line form was seen above 
the one mentioned. At one point by the roadside near the 
Huron mine there is a rock surface with fine glacial grooves and 
some nodules with "ice shadows" of the softer rock project- 
ing in the direction of the ice motion. The direction was 
found to be N. 75" or 80° W. (mng.) About two miles farther 
southwest on the Ontoiiagon road another immense beach ridge 
of gravel was found at about the same altitude. It forms a 
blunt spit projecting to the southwest and incloses a little 
lagoon basin about a hundred 3'ards wide and eight or ten 
feet below the crest of the ridge. 

The road passes down through this hollow and over the 
ridge to the west. We drove still farther out along the 
Ontonagon road to a point about nine miles southwest of 
Houghton. But the whole tract was one dense forest and it 
was impossible to see much of the ground. We crossed a cut 
terrace on an eastern elope, with sandy soil below it, at a level 
closely corresponding with the beaches just described, but 
no beach ridges were seen. 

On the hill back of Hancock terraces were observed at about 
100, 150, and 200 feet above the lake, and at about 230 feet a 
broad, gravelly terrace and beach ridge. But we did not ex- 
amine any of these closely and we saw none higher. Above 
this, up to about 490 feet, there are water- worn gravels on the 
s'urface. All these beaches and terraces were exposed to wave 
action from the northeast through the gap over Portage lake 
canal. 

Aflouez. In the vicinity of Red Jacket and Calumet we 
did not find satisfactory evidences. In Calumet there is a 



S76 The American Geologist, Jnne, 18M 

remnant of a gravel ridge in the railroad 3^ard which ma}*' be 
a fragment of a beach. So little of it remained, however, 
that no certain inference could be made as to its previous 
form, and there were elements in its composition which are 
not characteristic of a beach in that situation. Most of the 
pebbles were well rounded, but there was a good sprinkling of 
angular ones and a good many boulders of considerable size. 
A number of curioxisly cracked or sutured boulders were 
found in this bank. The altitude of this gravel ridge is 
about 600 feet above lake Superior. Following the road 
northeast about twelve miles towards the old (.-opper Cliff 
mine we found very little evidence of submergence, only a 
few terraces related to small streams. The best one of these 
is at the foot of the hill^eyond Allouez. It is a very distinct 
terrace and Be enns to be related to a plane of still water ex- 
tending nortinvvstward over lake Superior. Two or three 
more terr»oea of this kind were found about two miles farther 
northeast simthiTly related toother small streams at about the 
«ame level. Their altitude above lake Superior is about 400 
feet. Although no certain shore lines higher than these were 
observed on the peninsula, it is doubtful whether they mark 
the upper limit of submergence. Neither the ridge at Hough- 
ton nor the terrace at Allouez has that composite form which 
marks the upper line at other places along this coast. 

Ketreenaw Point, Our opportunity to visit the coast of 
the outer point came through the kindness of Messrs. Ralph 
and Arthur Connable, who invited us to Join them in a cruise 
on their fishing tug, the *'J. W. Parmelee." We found several 
fragments of beaches on the outer point above the level of 
the Nipissing beach. There are faint traces of a beach about 
75 feet above the lake back of the copper smelter at Lac la 
Belle. On the western slope of Mount Bohemia I found nar- 
row terraces at 95, 110, and 120 feet above the lake. They 
are probably related to a small stream which descends there 
through a ravine, but the}" undoubtedly mark the level of the 
lake at that time. Looking eastward from the roof of the 
smelter, the southward face of the mountain shows a distinct 
notch which looks very much like a sea-cliif. Captain Plum 
and part of the crew of the "Parnielee'' made the ascent of 
the mountain and ascertained bv barometric measurement 



Abandoned Shoi*e Lines of Lake Supeyiov.^^Taylor. 877 

that the top of the backwall of this notch iB about 660 feet 
above the lake. The level of the rock shelf below is about 
600 feet above the lake. It is not certain that this is a shore 
line, but its form and place are suggestive. None of these 
shore lines, however, were seen to advantage, for the country 
is rough and heavily timbered. Manitou island, which lies 
oif the extreme point, w^as probably all submerged at the 
Ni pissing stage. We landed on the west end of it and found 
there a massive conglomerate including rounded boulders four 
and five feet in diameter. There are also many faults 
of small displacement cutting through the pebbles and 
boulders. 

On the north side of Keweenaw point, a fine series of shore 
lines was found back of Eagle Harbor. One at an altitude of 
170 feet above the lake is a finely formed shingle ridge with 
u depression behind it, and there are several others almost as 
well developed on the steep slope below. Above this highest 
ridge are two terraces related to a stream which comes out of 
a deep ravine at this point. The lower terrace is about 200 
feet, and the other about 220 feet, above the lake, both prob- 
ably old deltas. In driving across the peninsula from Lac la 
Belle to Eagle Harbor, faint semblances of tt*rraces were no- 
ticed near the Delaware mine; and about a mile west of it, at 
about 580 feet, some gravel deposits which resemble beaches 
in their composition. But we did not see their form, and it 
is doubtful whether any of them are shore lines. 

Ihilnth, At Duluth we visited the locality of Prof. Law- 
song's highest beach at the top of the Seventh Avenue Inclined 
railway. We did not find the highest beach very clearly de- 
veloped, but the one next below is well marked. We saw 
them at a disadvantage, however, ns a dense fog was prevail- 
ing at the time. We went about a mile farther back to High- 
land Park and saw there other gravel ridges about 100 feet 
above Prof. Lawson's highest. From the brief examination 
which we were able to give them, it seems probable that they 
are of glacial origin. But our observations were too hurried 
to be decisive. From Duluth I returned eastward alone, vis- 
iting several localities on the south coast in search of the high- 
est beach. On the long, gradual ascent from Superior east- 
ward over the red clay plain only a few faint marks of shore 



378 The American Gcoloyist, Jnae, im)4 

lines were obfierved until an altitude of about 450 feet was 
reached. At this level sand begins to overlie the clay. 

Maple RiiUje, About a mile east of Poplar station, at about 
460 feet, there is a magnificent beach ridge and lagoon south 
of the railroad extending for a long distance. About a mile 
and a half east of Maple Ridge station, the upper limit of 
submergence was found very clearly developed as a beach 
ridge with a depression behind it. Its altitude is about 535 
feet above lake Superior, which is the same as Prof. Lawson's 
highest at Duluth. The railroad crosses the beach and for a 
mile or two passes over ground above its level. Then it de- 
scends again and crosses the beach on the eastern slope west 
of Blueberry station. Immense deposits of fine gravel and 
sand were crossed near the Bois Brul6 river and two or three 
other streams. 

Iron River. At Iron River the ground was examined with 
some care, but the results were not decisive. The immense, 
rolling gravel deposits south of the town are so unlike ordi- 
nary littoral features that it seems certain that they are of 
glacial origin. Still, they are much like certain postglacial 
deltas which I have seen at several other places. About a mile 
north of the town and at an altitude of about 510 feet above 
the lake there is a well formed beach ridge of gravel. On the 
front of the sand hill south of the town there is a faint terrace 
at about 556 feet, which may be a shore line, but this is not 
certain. This place was left with the impression that the 
highest beach had not been certainly identified. 

Kimball, At Saxon the country is so new and there are so 
few roads that I was unable in the time at my disposal to 
reach the probable level of the highest beach. No distinct 
beaches or terraces were seen at this place except some grav- 
elly stream- terraces on Mr. Emory's farm in the valle}' of the 
east branch of Potato creek, about two miles southwest of the 
station. Their age was not determined. But in going by 
rail from Saxon eastward the highest shore line was crossed, 
about two miles west of Kimball. Its highest level here is a 
cut terrace and is well defined. Within a short distance, at 
slightly lower levels, beach ridges were also seen. The alti- 
tude of the highest beach at this place is about 570 feet above 
the lake. 




Abandoned Shore Lines of Lake Superior, — Taylor, 379 

Bemtemer, At this place I found myself entirel}'' above the 
level of submergence. I drove about seven miles north down 
the valley of Black river, but saw no littoral or subaqueous 
forms. Almost the whole distance was in dense forests and 
thickets. The lowest altitude reached on this drive was about 
600 feet. This was in the bed of Black river near North Bes- 
semer station. The valley there is nearl}^ half a mile wide 
and about 100 feet deep, and it continues northward at least 
four or five miles in the same character. Its floor is flat, im- 
plying the attainment of base-level conditions, and it is inter- 
esting to note that this temporary base-level was apparently 
close above the level of the highest shore line as observed at 
Kimball and L'Anse. The country surface slopes gentlj' to- 
ward the north, interrupted by a few rocky hills andmorainic 
ridges. The lowest place reached on this surface was at the 
north, where it is about 625 feet above the lake. 

Sault Sfe. Marie. With the possible exception of two or 
three small islands near Au Train lake, the entire upper penin- 
sula of Michigan eastward from Marquette was submerged 
along its lake Superior side. In going from 8oo Junction to 
Sault Stc^ Marie the railroad climbs up a long sandy slope to 
a point two or three miles west of Wellsburg, where it cuts 
through a heavy beach ridge of gravel with layers sloping 
downward to the east. The altitude of this beach is about 
310 feet above lake Superior or 910 feet above the sea. After 
examining the Nipissing beach on both sides of the river at 
Sault Ste. Marie, I drove out the Tarentorus road on the Cana- 
dian side about six miles, to the last locality described by 
Prof. Lawson. Taking all the circumstances' together, this 
locality alfords the finest display of postglacial shore line 
forms which I have seen anywhere. There is a whole series 
of very massive beach ridges of gravel resting like even, par- 
allel steps against a rough, rock}' country, and below the 
beaches are massive gravel terraces fully as typical of their 
kind. The ground is all cleared and cultivated, so that the 
opportunity to see the features described is perfect. Profes- 
sor Lawson gives the altitude of the highest beach at this 
place as 414 feet above lake Superior. The slope southeast- 
ward to the Ste. Marie river is pretty steep, alTording a grand 
view over the great river and the islands. * These beaches rest 



380 The American Geologist. Jane, 1894 

on a comparatively narrow tongue of land between the valley 
of Root river on the west and the deep ravine of Silver creek 
on the east. In going down the Ste. Marie river by boat, on a 
clear day, the level line of these beaches is easily seen on the 
hills fifteen miles away. Gravel terraces comparable with 
these were seen later, on the Canadian Pacific railway, eight 
miles east of Cartier, in Ontario. If the ground there were 
as well cleared as at Root river, the shore line forms would 
probably be equally imposing. 

Sl'mmahy and Conclu.sioxs. 
The following table shows the altitude of the highest beach 
above sea level at the various localities described. The letter r 
stands for beach ridffe^ and t for terrace. The altitude given 
is in each case that of the upper limit of submergence. But 
where that distinction was not clearly made out, the altitude 
of the highest shore line observed is given as a doubtful upper 
limit. 

Aliitudei* of the highest Shore Line of the Month coaitt of hike Superior. 

Feet above the lea. 
Surface of lake Siiiwrior, moan, 1870-liS88, (U. S. Lake Sur- 
vey) mi 

Duliilh /• (Lawsoii) •. IKU 

Maple Rid<re /• IKW 

Inju Ki ver /• 1 1 55 ? 

Kimball t 1170 

1/Anse /• 1190 

Marqiielle r lUK) 

Hou^rhton r lOlO-l- r 

Allouez t 1000+? 

Sault Ste. Marie /• (Lawson) 1014 

The facts gathered from these two excursions may be 
summed up briefly thus : The highest mark of postglacial 
submergence extends from Duluth to Marquette at a nearly 
uniform level, rising only about 55 feet eastward. Its altitude 
as a whole, however, is rather higher than would be expected 
when compared with other parts of the highest shore line in 
the same basin. Those of Green bay, an account of which 
was given in the preceding number of this magazine, are 
much lower, and those at the east end of the lake are also 
lower. Professor Lawson reports only two strands or shore 
lines on the north coast, which exceed thehightson the south 
coast. Both are on Mt. Josephine, where he found terraces 



Abandoned Shore Lines of Lake Superior, — Taylor. 381 

at 587 and 607 feet above lake Superior. This single ease 
seems to indicate that the rule of the northward rise of shore 
lines holds good. But it is hardly evidence enough for a final 
test. To the west, the altitude of the Herman beach of lake 
Agassiz near Milnor, N. D. ( lat. 46° 15' ), according to Mr. Up- 
ham's observations, is 1084 feet above the sea, being 482 feet 
above lake Superior. It is not supposed by him that this 
beach has any direct connection with the highest beach in the 
Superior basin. Between the Red river and lake Winnipeg 
basin and that of lake Superior, a wide area of central and 
northern Minnesota rises 200 to 300 feet or more above these 
highest shore lines in the basins on each side; yet it would 
appear that the mountainous region of the south coast of lake 
Superior is one of considerable relative elevation, compared 
with the adjoining region on the west, as well as on the sputh 
and east of it. From Maple Ridge a southward descent of a 
little over four feet per mile would carry the beach over the 
St. Croix pass at Upper St. Croix lake, 468 feet above lake 
Superior. There can hardly be a doubt that the highest beach 
is up to that level. But it does not follow that the pass was 
an outlet of the water that filled the Superior basin at that 
time. 

While there is no question of the accuracy and high value 
of Prof. Lawson's observations on the abandoned strands of 
the north coast, I think it is a little unfortunate that his work 
was not prosecuted from a different point of view. He finds 
in substance, that the shore lines there do not indicate any 
deformation since they were made. After a careful perusal 
of his work I fail to see any safe basis for this inference. 
We should not expect much deformation of 'the lower lines, 
for they are the youngest of the series. The place to look 
for marked deformation is in the higher, older lines, and par- 
ticularly the highest line. On this point Prof. Lawson's work 
affords us almost no information. Judging by my own ex- 
perience in the highlands of the south coast, however, it is 
probable that, on account of the roughness of the higher 
country, it was impossible to gather much information as to 
the upper limit of submergence without the expenditure of 
more time than seemed Justifiable. 

There are only four places where it seems probable that 



882 I'he American 'Geologist, Jnne. 18M 

Prof. Lawson found the highest strand. These are at two 
localities in Diiluth, one on Mt. Josephine and one near Sault 
Ste. Marie. The northward component of distance from Du- 
luth to Mount Josephine is about 65 miles. The altitude of 
the highest beach at Duluth is given as 634 feet, and that on 
Mount Josephine as 607 feet ; showing a northward rise of 
73 feet, or a little over a foot per mile. This is about the 
same aa the northward rise of the Herman beach of lake 
Agassiz in Minnesota and in North Dakota. An examination 
of his table shows that out of forty-eight localities explored, 
beaches were observed in only twelve places at an altitude as 
high or higher than 890 feet above lake Superior. It seems 
improbable that the highest shore line can be as low as this 
at any point. In fact, I believe that that beach was seen 
only at the four places above mentioned, and two of these 
are within two miles of each other in the city of Duluth. I 
would therefore question the value of Prof. Lawson's table, 
so far as it tends to invite the conclusion that the higher 
beaches are not deformed. No proof is offered against the 
proposition that the highenf beach rises to the north, and that 
beach is much the most important of all. , In fact, the only 
instance bearing on the question shows a northward rise of 
more than a foot per mile, as just stated. 

Above strand XII,* which marks a hight of about 136 feet 
above the lake, the number of observations is much too few to 
warrant the conclusions advanced, especially in the absence 
of definite knowledge of the altitude of the highest strand. 
It is not safe to reason, because the low beaches are substan- 
tially horizontal, that the highestone must also be horizontal. 
The Nipissing beach rises about 25 feet from Marquette to 
Sault Ste. Marie, but between these points the highest beach 
falls about 175 feet in the same direction. Strands below the 
highest can not be safely extended by inference from place to 
place unless the points of observation are very close to each 
other, or the beach itself, like the Nipissing beach, has some 
marked and persistent peculiarity. For instance, in the table 
referred to, it is by no means sure that the strand at 486 feet 
in Duluth is the same as that at 489 feet at Grand Portage. 
On every probability except that suggested by the mere coin- 

*()p. cit.. I a bit* oi)|K>sit** pap' 2S(). 




Abandoned Shore Lines of Lake Superior, — Taylor, 883 

cidence of vertical interval, which is probably accidental, 
the8e two strandR are not the same. 

The very exceptional strength of the Nipissing beach all 
along the south shore led me to hope that it might be identi- 
fied among the beaches described by Prof. Lawson. Its rise 
to the north, as indicated between Marquette or L'Anse and 
Eagle Harbor, is very slight, and unless thrown out of place 
by very recent deformation it would be expected at an alti- 
tude somewhere between 50 and 100 feet along the north shore. 
Well developed beaches within this limit are described by 
Prof. Lawson. By a careful comparison of his descriptions of 
the lower beaches I think the Nipissing beach may be fol- 
lowed with tolerable certainty as far as Pie island, south of 
Port Arthur, where there is a beach like it at an altitude of 
48.6 feet, but beyond that its identity is very doubtful. At 
several places it was probably removed by a heavy wave-cut 
at a lower level. 

We shall not know the complete history of lake Superior in 
the great submergence until the highest shore line on the 
north coast has been definitely located at a number of points, 
and this will probably require a laborious investigation di- 
rected particularly to that end. When this is done it will 
probably disclose the existence of straits of considerable mag- 
nitude connecting the Superior basin with that of Hudson 
bay across the Hight of Land. One of these straits probably 
passes northeast over Missinaibi lake, and another north over 
lake Kenogami ; and there may be others across the watershed 
north of lake Nipigon. The discovery of a great strait over 
lake Nipissing, and the probable existence of another over 
lake Tamagaming, northeast of Lake Huron, add much 
strength to this supposition. There is proof enough that the 
highest beach from Duluth to North Bay is a unit, and that 
makes the several straits referred to all arms of one body. It 
would require several ice dams at widely separated places to 
hold this vast body of water up. If the existence of straits 
northward from lake Superior is established, it will settle the 
case for the upper lakes in favor of open marine connection 
as against ice dams. 



38*^ The American Geologist Jane, 18M 

THE KAMES OF THE ORISKANY VALLEY. 

By T. W. Habbi8« Cambridge, Mass. 

When the great North American ice-sheet, in the process of 
its disappearance, shrunk away from over the northern sec- 
tions of the United States, its retreating edge left exposed to 
view a varied topography of hills and valleys, the latter 
stretching across the country in many diiferent directions, de- 
pendent in their several cases upon a more or less complicated 
variety of considerations. In general, however, these con- 
siderations may be grouped into two great classes, ^r*^, the 
preglacial topography of river courses and intervening hills, 
which had been settled by the determining factors of decliv- 
ity, rock structure, etc. ; and second^ the distribution of the 
glacial detritus upon this more anciently sculptured surface. 

As the average thickness of the glacial deposits is relatively 
small, it is evident that where they were laid down upon a 
surface whose original topography manifested a considerable 
relief, they would produce but relatively slight modifications 
in the courses of streams, and in the general character of the 
drainage; while upon a surface of slight relief their effect in 
these respects might be very marked. A good example of 
this latter state of aifairs is afforded by the Charles and other 
rivers of eastern Massachusetts, which wander about over 
drift deposits, with occasional excursions upon rocky ledges, 
in little relation to the preglacial drainage systems of that 
region. 

The valleys of the Oriskany, the Genesee and other streams 
of central and western New York are, however, cut to a depth 
of several hundred feet in the horizontal Paleozoic formations 
of that region ; and the topography being thus well marked 
these streams have therefore maintained, for the most part, 
their preglacial courses, with few modifications of any great 
importance. The varied types of glacial deposit, therefore, 
instead of overwhelming the ancient topography and conceal- 
ing it under a new topography of their own devising, are 
themselves regulated and limited in distribution, according to 
the more powerful lines of environment, within which they 
find themselves laid* down, but ivithin which they can yet pro- 
duce a certain limited range of effect. Thus most of the riv- 
ers referred to still occupy their old valleys, but within those 




The Karnes of the Oriskany Valley, — Harris. 885 

valleyB have been subjected to considerable modification of 
character. 

The great trunk lines of the drainage of central and west- 
ern New York have in general a direction from west to east. 
They consist, in the main, of lakes Krie and Ontario and the 
Mohawk river on the north, and the upper branches of the 
Susquehanna on the south. Between these two lines the prin- 
cipal tributaries flow in general north and south. In many 
cases it is a noticeable fact that the sources of north and of south 
flowing streams stand opposite to one another in such a way 
that a traveler may ascend the course of the one and then, ar- 
riving at its source, continue his journey in the same line down 
the course of the other; the two streams in eflfect occupying 
the two halves of one valley, and draining the same in oppo- 
site directions. The Oriskany and the Chenango constitute a 
case in point. The cause of this phenomenon is probably the 
preglacial invasion of the valley of the stream having the 
more gradual slope and consequently less erosive power, by 
the other, which, on account of greater declivity, has more 
erosive power and being thereby enabled to extend its drain- 
age area more rapidly has succeeded in diverting or reversing 
the course and swallowing up a portion of the valley of the 
weaker stream, the evidence of the robbery being preserved in 
the area] relations of the valley whose drainage has been thus 
transferred. 

The diluvial relations of such streams are therefore pecul- 
iar. As the ice-sheet melted away, its edge, gradually moving 
back from south to north, would necessarily first expose the 
valleys of the south flowing streams and then the upper por- 
tions of the valleys of those which now flow toward the north. 
In the former valleys would flow rivers copiously supplied 
from the melting ice and along their courses would be laid 
down deposits of sand, gravel, etc., in that elongated, forward- 
strewn form of deposit characteristic of the flood-plains of 
streams, in which the detritus is constantly being urged along 
by the impetus of the current. But as the retreating ice va- 
cated the upper portions of the valleys which discharge north- 
ward those valleys would appear as enclosed basins, their 
natural outlets being blocked by the ice-mass which still oc- 
cupied their lower courses. These enclosed spaces would be 



386 The American Geologist, Jane, 1894 

filled with water from the melting ice and would obviously 
discharge across their cols, down the valleys of the corres- 
ponding south flowing streams, swelling the volume of the lat- 
ter and increasing their power as distributing agents for the 
detritus which they were obliged to disp(»se of. 

The Chenango valley is filled with such deposits, especially 
in the upper portion, near the town of Hamilton, w^here the floor 
of the valley is very level and where the current of the stream, 
even where swollen by these diluvial conditions, could not 
have had sufficient force to carry away nearly all the detrital 
material supplied to it. The col between this valley and that 
of the Oriskany is very slight, and in fact is concealed be- 
neath the broad meadow lands north of Hamilton, which are 
of the nature of a transition between the true flood-plain of 
the upper Chenango and a lake sediment, w^ith which the 
southern end of the Oriskany valley lake was filled in the 
early stages of its emergence from beneath the ice. 

But as we follow the Oriskany valley northward, we find 
that it ceases to be thus completely filled. The coarse gravels 
of the flood-plain occupy a relatively less and less portion of 
the cross section of the valley, and are seen to be distributed 
chiefly in mounds and ridges along its sides, while the middle 
part is occupied through the greater portion of its length, by 
a flood-plain of increasing width, composed of fine material, 
lying at a much lower level, and evidently formed by the 
stream which at the present day meanders through it north- 
ward to the Mohawk. 

The kames, or irregular deposits of gravel above alluded to, 
are best seen in the neighborhood of Oriskany Falls; and an 
excellent view of them is to be obtained from near the quarries, 
on the road which runs northward from that village along the 
west side of the valley. 

In dome cases they have the form of irregular mounds, but 
in many instances, they appear as short ridges, with undulat- 
ing crests, which extend out at intervals from the sides of the 
valley, diminishing in hight as they are followed toward its 
center, sometimes sinking below the level of the valley flood- 
plain, and sometimes coming to an abrupt end. 

As regards material, they consist of sand and water- worn 
pebbles of various sizes, composed chiefly of the Lower Hel- 




The Karnes of the Oriskany Valley, — Harris, 387 

derberg limestones, the Clinton and Salina shales, and the 
sandstones of the Clinton and Hudson River groups, which 
crop out along the course of the valley to the north. The 
sizes of these pebbles are various, ranging from that of a man's 
head, down. 

As regards structure, the kames are coarsely stratified in 
cross- bedded layers, which always slope southward, as is 
shown in numerous cuttings along the railroad which follows 
the valley. The gravel composing the kames, is often loosely 
cemented together by carbonate of lime, derived doubtless 
from the limestone pebbles which abound in the mass. 

The history of the formation of these kames is simple. As 
the ice margin retreated down the Oriskany valley, the basin, 
which it left open, was filled with water from the melting 
glacier, which it discharged southward over the col into the 
Chenango valley, after the manner of the classical example 
of this type of valley history, lake Agassiz, as described by 
Mr. Warren Upham (Geological Survey of Minnesota, 8th An- 
nual Report, p. 84). In the Chenango valley, a tolerably 
rapid and continuous current distributed the dotrital materials, 
which had been furnished from the ice, in the form of a long 
flood-plain ; but in the Oriskany valley, where the outlet was 
temporarily blocked, the stream assumed the form of a lake, 
through which the water flowed more slowly and without suf- 
ficient force to accomplish an even distribution of the coarse 
gravel which the subglacial streams cast forth. These streams 
must have been under a considerable head of pressure, and 
must hence have emerged from the ice with a considerable 
velocity. This is shown by the fact of their having trans- 
ported very coarse material; but, on coming to the light, their 
rapid movement was quickly cheeked in the quiet water of 
the lake, and their load of stones and earth was dumped just 
outside the ice margin. The irregularity of the deposits shows 
the fluctuating nature of the stream which brought them, 
sometimes making its exit from the ice at one spot, sometimes 
at another, according to the courses of the channels beneath 
the ice, or to the changes in the flow of water through them, 
as they became in turn choked with accumulated debris or 
were opened by the melting of the surrounding ice. This 
process must have continued so long as the glacier occupied 



888 The Americav Geologtsf. Jane, 18M 

the Oriskanj valley. When it had retreated to the Mohawk, 
or at least far enough to open an outlet in that direction at a 
lower level than the col at Hamilton, the direction of flow of 
the lake water was reversed ; and as the ice abandoned the 
mouth of the valley, the lake was drained, and the flow of the 
water which fell in the valley resumed its ancient direction. 
The Oriskany, shrunken to its present size, began work upon 
the drift deposits in the valley bottom, and gradually con- 
structed from their re-arranged material the low-level flood- 
plain that now borders the stream. 

Returning once more to the kames, several points of interest 
occur to the observer. In the first place, why should they ap- 
pear chiefly on the sufes of the valley, instead of being dis- 
tributed across its entire width? To this a number of an- 
swers may be given. It might be said, in the first place, that 
they do extend completely across the valley, but that they 
are concealed from view, as a rule, in the middle, by the flood- 
plain of the present stream. Their shape, however, shows 
that the mounds diminish in size toward the center of the 
valley ; so that, even if they do cover the entire valley bottom, 
they are largest at the sides. The same argument would ap- 
ply to the suggestion that they have been diminished through 
cutting away by the present stream. The appearance of oc- 
casional concavities in their outline shows that some cutting 
has been thus accomplished against them ; though the fact 
that the present stream is accumulating flood-plains of fine 
material along its course also testifies that it can not have 
been a very powerful eroding agent. But the fact that the 
actual sizes of the kames are greatest at the sides of the val- 
ley seems to show that the chief points of discharge of the 
subglacial streams were similarly situated. This may per- 
haps be best explained as follows: When the ice-sheot covered 
the country, it spread over hills and valleys alike; but when 
it melted away, being deepest and thickest in the valleys, it 
would obviously take longer to melt from them than from the 
neighboring hills. Hence the melting ice front would have 
an irregular outline, with tongues of ice stretching down the 
valleys. Many of the escaping streams of water, therefore, 
would come forth from the ice at the sides of those tongues, 
and, flowing along between the tongue and the adjacent hill. 




The Karnes of the Oriskany Valley, — Harris. 389 

would discharge into the lake, and build up detrital deposits 
at the sides of the valley. Doubtless there were also oppor- 
tunities for escape at the end of the ice-tongue, in the middle 
of the valley; but it must be remembered that the bottom of 
the ice-tongue lay submerged in the lake, and that this water 
would retard any subglacial stream which might discharge at 
that point, while the side currents, flowing down from a higher 
level, along the junction of ice and rock, would have a consider- 
able fall and a more rapid current, adequate to the transporta- 
tion of much more and much coarser detritus than could be fur- 
nished at the end of the tongue. It would be of interest, for 
any having the opportunity, to test this explanation by ob- 
serving the distribution of washed drift at the points of dis- 
charge of the streams from existing glaciers, could such be 
found under conditions which present a sufficiently close 
parallel. 

Another fact of interest emphasizes the close connection of 
these kames with glacial conditions. The materials of which 
they consist are exposed to view in numerous railroad cut- 
tings, and, as was said above, they contain, among other rock 
fragments, numerous pebbles of the red Salina shale, which 
occurs in place several miles further north. This shale is 
very soft and friable, even where its ledges are excavated to 
a depth of many feet, and the pebbles themselves are so frag- 
ile that it is exceedingly difficult to get one out of the gravel 
unbroken. Yet they are well rounded, showing that they 
have undergone considerable battering in their journey ; and 
they are in close association with pebbles of much harder ma- 
terials, with which they must have been brought into frequent 
collision on their way to their present resting place. It is 
easy^ therefore, to see that during the process of transporta- 
tion they must have been much harder than they now are. It 
is not impossible that their present softness may be due en- 
tirely to chemical decay, caused by substances brought by 
percolating water since their deposition; but the fragility of 
the shale where undisturbed, even in a fresh deep excavation, 
makes this at least questionable. It seems more probable that 
the shale rock had become saturated by percolating water 
from the surface when the ice sheet advanced over it, and 
that the low temperature due to the presence of the glacier 



390 



The American Geologist. 



JiiBe,18M 



r 



caused this water to freeze in the interstices of the rock and 
thereby to cement the rock particles firmly together. In due 
time the shale, thus frozen, was broken up by the ice, and 
fragments of it were carried southward in the till and by the 
currents of subglacial streams and were deposited, still frozen, 
in their present positions. The freezing and consequent ex- 
pansion of the water with which they were saturated must 
have loosened the already slight cohesion of the rock particles 
Ktill more, so that, upon the melting which followed the re- 
treat of the glacier, the pebbles were left in an extraordina- 
rily friable condition. A somewhat similar instance is men- 
tioned by Prof. J. W. Spencer, who has described (Amer. 
Naturalist, Oct., 1H87) the occurrence of sand boulders, which 
were broken up and transported in a frozen condition and 
then were deposited in stratified drift, thus being preserved 
In form after the ice, which had rendered this process possi- 
ble, had melted away. 



LAKB RONKONKOMA AND OTHER GLACIAL FEA- 
TURES OF LONG ISLAND. 

By Ji>HN BftYSO^i, BMtport, Long Island. 

A few Wirkn H^o the writer paid a visit to lake Ronkon- 
ki'Hifi, whieh Im MitUHted in the central part of Long Island, 
•I hold Hfi y titlleM from the city of Brooklyn. It lies in a val- 
l« V Im'I v*«MU the two moraines, and is celebrated for its beauty. 

I Im IhdluhH hud iiiHuy legends and superstitions in regard to 

II u« It MHn ihdUj^ht to have no bottom. An air of mystery 
riMI li>ih^« o\ei' It, UM Mclentists are unable to explain some of 
Mi( |i)m iioiiM nil eontieeted with this wonderful little lake. 
Oiily M yuti or two ii^o the water began to rise without any 
'<f«l<MMhl «MM«e, tliteatening to inundate the surrounding 

.•Willy liMl iMfdie luueh damage was done the water began 
r< .j<*.|i|« M« Mi\«h tlouMly HM it had risen. The lake is said 
i <!..../ hiMldi litlel nor outlet, and while this is true as to its 
ni • ImIkm llii'ie wiiM eertalnly a time when it had several 
tn , t,h M*: iStW M« eHluehtM. In fact, the formation of the 
Kn '|.i< |fi ilii iirttun <)f Mubglacial Streams that met at 
f, M.i I ItMfl htiiM >in«)ieeted this, and during my recent 



9" 



f 9 



.t. tA 



• Glacial Features of Long Island, — Bryson. 391 

visit it was gratifying to find this conjecture confirmed. It 
also proves, I think, what I have always maintained, that ket- 
tle-holes are really subglacial valleys ; for lake Ronkonkoma 
is only an enlarged kettle-hole. 

If the reader will examine a map of Long Island, it will be 
seen that there is quite a stream draining into Smithtown bay 
from the region of Ronkonkoma. It forms one of the largest 
indentations on the north side of the island, and if this de- 
pression is followed up it will be found connecting with the 
lake in question. During the glacial floods the water must 
have flowed southward through it into the ocean. The largest 
channel enters the lake on the north, and consists now of a 
marshy depression. This doubtless formed at one time the 
main inlet. There are other smaller depressions, or old chan- 
nels, entering the lake on both sides, and where the old 
streams met the lake is the widest. 

The depression at the south end was probably the main out- 
let, although there is little drainage, if any, through it at 
present ; but the old channel, or channels, can still be traced 
through the terminal moraine and southern plain to the Great 
South bay. The bottom of the lake is several feet below the 
present level of the sea (I have not the exact figures at hand),* 
and the theory of oscillation has been brought into requisi- 
tion to account for certain phenomena that cannot very well 
T)e explained on any other hypothesis, at present ; yet there 
are serious diflSculties in the way, even with this interpreta- 
tion. Prof. James D. Dana thinks that the island must have 
stood about 100 feet higher while the ice cap lay over it, and 
that it sank again to its present level when relieved of its 
burden. There are no signs of such changes having taken 
place, if we may Judge by the contour of the island, as the 
old water channels are united in such a way as to preclude 
the idea of oscillation, and yet there are certain phenomena 
that seem inexplicable without it. That is, it seems as if the 
land must have been higher or the sea lower during the gla- 

♦[Fmm Mr. L*pham*s description of the tvrminHl moraine forming? 
the ••backbone" of I-ioni? Inland, we are able to supply thes»» fif;urt>»: 
"Lake Ronkonkoma, the largest body of fresh water on the island, lies 
exactly in the course of this series of hills. Its area is stated to be 
about -1(50 acres; its hi^ht, fifty-ftuir feet above sea; and its extreme 
dfpth. eiphty-three feel." (Am. Jour. Sci.. Ill, v«»l. xvill, p. 8."), Auyr., 
1S71).)— Eiw.J 



892 The American Geologist, Jane. 18M 

cial floods, to account for the stratified deposits on the south- 
ern plain which extend more than 50D feet below the present 
level of the ocean, and there is every evidence that said de- 
posits were laid down by glacial streams and not by the waves 
of the sea. There are also stratified beds of sand and gravel 
on the north side of the island, reaching an altitude of nearly 
300 feet above the ocean level, and the evidence shows that 
the streams that laid down one deposited the other. 

On my recent excursion along the north side of the island, 
from Huntington to Port Jefferson, I was more than ever im- 
pressed with the evidence of a great deluge. The great banks 
of stratified material, as exposed in the railroad cuts and 
along the bay indentations, are perfectly astounding. In face 
of such evidence, 1 am not surprised that some writers look 
upon the glacial theory as a nightmare ; for the true till, or 
unmodified drift, is very slight in comparison with the vast 
accumulation of stratified material, especially on this portion 
of the island. Yet, the present writer cannot see how the 
whole of the drift phenomena can be explained without the 
presence of an ice-sheet, and it is a significant fact that those 
who have given the subject the closest study by personal ob- 
servation are the ones who favor the glacial theory. Looking 
at the phenomena as seen on Long Island, I have pictured to 
myself such a scene as may be witnessed in Alaska to-day. 
Professor Wright, in "The Ice Age in North America," page" 
54, gives a photograph that might have been taken on Long 
Island when the glacier was retreating from the Atlantic bor- 
der, and while lake Ronkonkoma, and other like depressions, 
were being formed. The lines of moraines, with their kettle- 
holes and valley depressions, the kame ridges and kame deltas, 
the boulder phenomena, and the almost universal mantle of 
silt that covers the stratified deposits, not to speak of the vast 
deposits of subglacial unmodified drift, tell us of a reign of 
ice as well as a deluge of water. 

With our present imperfect knowledge, there are many 
things we are unable to explain, even with the aid of the liv- 
ing glaciers of to-day ; yet the presence of an ice-cap is need- 
ed to render the drift phenomena intelligible. Any attempt 
to explain them on the diluvial theory alone must lead to dis- 
tortion and perversion of facts. 



The Origin of Drumlins.^Tarr, 893 

THE ORIGIN OF DRUMLINS. 

By Ralph B. Tarr. Itbaea, N. Y. 

CONTENTS. 

Page 

1. Stetoment of Tlieoriei SV8 

2. Obieotiona to thoM Theories 895 

3. lodioRtiona of Dettmctional Oriffia 897 

(a) DUtributioD 397 

(b) Beaemblanoe to Dramlinold Rook Hilla 896 

(c) Drumlinoid Form of OTerriddon Moraines 999 

(d) Flatingson DrumlinB 899 

4. (>>ostderation of Objections to Destraotional Hypothesis 399 

(a) Assumed Absence of Btnitified Drift 400 

i. General absence of sections 400 

ii. Moraines not always stratified 400 

iii. Dramlins containing stratified drift 4'il 

(b) Assamed Absence of Boulders iOS 

(c) Peculiarities of Distribution 401 

5. Re-statement of Destractional Hypothesis 404 

6. Sammary 408 

1. — Statement of Theories. 

Three theories to account for lenticular hills or drumlins 
have come prominently before geologists, and there is at pres- 
ent a division of opinion as to the value of these. Of late, 
however, there appears to be a tendency among the majority 
of glacialists to look upon one of these as more probable than 
the others; and there also appears to be a tendency to over- 
look the fact that there are strong reasons to suspect that one 
of the other theories may also furnish a true explanation. 
This paper is written, not with the object of advocating this 
theory to the exclusion of others, but to bring forward such 
arguments as the author finds, in his own mind, to be indica- 
tions that it cannot be neglected as a working hypothesis. 

As early as 1870 Professor Shaler* suggested that these pe- 
culiar drift hills, in thfe vicinity of Boston, were the remnants 
of a sheet of drift, modified by the action of rivers, waves, 
etc., and obtaining their two prevailing directions from un- 
derlying rock cores. He has more recently somewhat modified 
this view by supposing that a deposit of the first glacial 
epoch has been worked over and carved out chiefly by ice 
action.f 

A modification of this latter theory is that suggested by 

*Proc. Hoftton Soc. Nat. Hist., 1870, vol. xiit, pp. HM)-204: Illustrations 
of the Earth's Surface, 1881, p. ((3. 

tSeventh Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 321; Ninth Annual 
liepurt, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 550-551. 



894 The American Geologist. Jane, 18M 

Hitchcock* and Wrightf and held by some others. This sug- 
gests that a re-advance of the ice modified the terminal mo- 
raine deposits into drumlinoid forms. This theory seems to 
be generally abandoned, and apparently Wright, in one of his 
later publications,* is inclined to accept the next theory as 
more probable. It is this theory, however, which the author 
now brings forward again. 

The hypothesis at present most currently accepted was first 
suggested by Kinahan and Closeg to account for the drumlins 
of Ireland, and is also advocated by Geikie|| in England, and 
by Davis,** Chamberlinf f , Salisbury, J J and others, in America. 
This theory considers these hills to be of constructional rather 
than destructional origin. That is to say, by variations in 
current or drift-supply the ice is supposed to deposit more 
material at one point than at another and to produce the 
drumlins by successive additions, in a manner comparable 
with the formation of a sand bar in a river. Professor Cham- 
berlin,§§ and indeed others as well, has assumed the probable 
existence of a rock nucleus; but it is hardly probable that, 
in the light of later studies, these authors would now advo- 
cate this view. 

As has been said, Wright at present advocates this theory : 
and originally Upham|||| also believed this to be the origin of 
drumlins. At present, with the exceptions of Shaler, Hitch- 
cock, and Upham, there are, so far as I am able to ascertain, 
no American glacialists, who have expressed themselves on the 
subject, who do not accept this theory as at least the most 
probable; and some apparently consider it proven. 

♦Pn»c. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 187«, vol. xix, pp. (58-(i7. 

fProc. lioston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1870. vol. xix, p. 58: 1879, V(»l. xx. p. 217: 
The Ice Age in North America, Third Kd.. 1891, pp. '>.>J)-2<K). 

tMan and the Glacial Period. 1893. p. 7.">. 

^General Glaciation of Iar-('onnau>rht. Dublin. 1872. 

|The Great Ice Ajre, 1874. pp. 8vS. 97. 

♦♦Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hi.st., 1882, vol. xxii, p. 41: Am. .Tourn. Sci., 
third 8eri€»s, 1884. vol. xxviii, p. 41.5: Science, 1884. v(»l. iv, p. 420. 

tfGeologv of Wisconsin, 1873, vol. i, p. 283; Third Annual Uei>ort, U. 
S. (ieol. Survey, p. 30(5. 

JJNew Jersey Geol. Survey. Annual Reix)rt for 1891, pp. 71-75. 

gijSThird Annual Reix>rt, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 30(«. 

IIGeolojry of New Hampshire, vol. in. p. 308: Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. 
Hist., 1879," vol. XX, p. 2:J3, and also in later volumes. 



s 



The Origin of Dnnnlins, — Tari\ 895 

Recently Upham* has advanced the hypothesis that drum- 
lins are formed in the ice by a shearing motion and conse- 
quent Hccunuilation. 

2 — Objections to these Theouies. 

Numerous objections have been urged against the last theory, 
those by Chamberlinf and Davis* being particularly strong 
and proving, apparently, that it is not applicable, at least as 
a general explanation. Professor Davis suggests, however, 
that this may be one of several causes for a phenomenon 
which is conceivably capable of explanation by several dif- 
ferent theories. 

The explanation suggested by Professor Shaler appears to 
be open to a fatal objection. This is that, excepting near the 
surface, the drumlin drift shows no signs of disintegration, 
and is in no way different from the ordinary glacial drift. 
Unless the time of deglaciation, or the interglacial period, is 
conceived to be very brief this theory does not explain the 
facts. 

The problem is therefore reduced to the consideration of 
the two remaining hypotheses. With reference to the one 
most currently accepted, the constructional theory, it has al- 
ways been difticult for me to conceive the overburdening of ice 
in such a way that it may temporarily and locally deposit these 
narrow and comparatively small, though relatively deep drift 
deposits. By what action is this accomplished and in what 
manner does the process act? These are points which, after 
a careful study of the literature, I have been unable to under- 
stand. This is, I am aware, not necessarily a serious objec- 
tion to the hypothesis; but before accepting an hypothesis one 
must find in it either proof or possibility. 

If we grant this power to ice, it would appear that there 
should be some apparent cause for variation in currents and 
in deposition. But drumlins occur in regions so different 
that there seems to be no connection with topography or sup- 
ply. They are found in and south of hard crystalline rocks 

♦Am. (iKOLOOiHT. 1892, vol. x. jjp. :W9-3(52; Pmc, B<»8t(»n Sdc. Nat. 
Hist., 1892, vol. XXVI, pp. 2-17; Hull., (leol. Soc. Am., 189.S. vol. iv, 
pp. ». 10. 

fjournal <if (•♦'ol(»gy. 181KJ. vol. i. p. 25S». 

JProc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.. 1892. v(»l. xxvi, pp. 17-2:J. 



396 The American Geologist, Jane, 1894 

as well as in friable sedimentary strata; and they occur on 
plains as well as in the hilly and even mountainous region of 
New England. One has no difficulty in understanding how 
drift is accumulated in transverse valleys where the ice was 
nearly stagnant, nor the manner in which a drift slope may 
be accumulated on the southern end of a rock hill. There is 
here an apparent cause for deposition ; but it seems to me a 
much more difficult task to conceive of irregular currents or 
supply, for which there is no apparent cause, but which, in 
some manner, shall accumulate narrow and short hills of drift 
and often a series of complex summits and valleys. 

Another objection to this theory is that there are so few in- 
dications of lenticular stratification. If these hills are built 
up by successive additions it would seem that there should 
be, at least commonly, some indication of this growth by a 
kind of stratification or lamination parallel to the drumlin 
outline. While in some sections this is apparently present^ 
in general it is absent. Sections of drumlins usually exhibit 
either massive till or a mixture of till and stratified drift, 
morainic in aspect. 

The presence of stratified drift, which in the following pages 
is shown to be by no means uncommon, must be explained 
by any hypothesis which is put forward to account for 
drumlins. How is it possible by this theory to, explain the 
alternation of loose stratified gravels and compact till? The 
compactness indicates a weight of superincumbent ice. >Y^uld 
a sheet of ice sufficiently massive to cause the compression 
thus indicated, change its nature so tliat flowing water should 
deposit modified drift? And how does it happen that this 
peculiarity exists in the drumlins and is so generally absent 
in the general drift sheet near by ? 

The peculiarity of distribution should also be explained. 
They are local deposits, sometimes isolated, but more com- 
monly in clusters, and over large areas of glaciated country 
they are entirely absent. These facts are certainly remarka- 
ble ; and if drumlins are the result of variation in ice currents, 
or drift supply, it evidently requires peculiar conditions for 
the existence of these irregularities. Tiiese conditions should 
be apparent, or at least indicated ; but, so far as I know, no 




^ 



The Origin of Drumlins, — Tarr, 397 

one has discovered what they were, nor attempted to explain 
them. ' 

The more important objections to the hypothesis that drum- 
lins are forms produced by the partial destruction of some 
mass of moraine as a result of a re-advance of the ice, are 
found in the following sentences from Upham's recent paper."' 
He says. — 

"If this view were true, the till of the drumlins could not 
have its nearly uniform character, but would contain here and 
there remarkable aggregations of boulders ; and frequent ir- 
regular enclosures of sand and gravel would be found, repre- 
senting the kame deposits and lenticular beds of modified 
drift which so commonly make up considerable parts of the 
terminal moraines. Salisbury remarks that neither the dis- 
tribution nor the composition of the drumlins seems to favor 
this hypothesis, and he therefore believes that they were built 
up beneath the ice, not being fashioned from hills overridden 
by it." These objections may be left unanswered for the 
present, since they are considered below. 

3. — Indications of Destructional Origin. 

(a) Distribution, — There is every gradation between sheets 
of till and typical drumlins. Chamberlinf divides these un- 
stratified drift deposits into (a) till tumuli, (b) mammillary 
and lenticular hills, (c) elongated parallel ridges trending with 
the ice movement, (d) drift billows, (e) crag and tail, (f ) 
precrag and combings, (g) veneered hills, and unclassifiable 
till hills. Pointing out that they are somewhat allied to mo- 
raines, he says that there is "a richness of variety and inter- 
gradation that almost defy classification." 

This gradation, while in places very striking, is not always 
present and is not of itself proof that the drumlins are merely 
a stage in the accumulation of drift. It would be equally well 
explained by the opposite theory, that they are hills of de- 
structional origin derived from a preexisting moraine or from a 
drift sheet of irregular thickness. Indeed, the peculiarity of 
distribution of drumlins suggests to my mind the latter rather 
than the former origin. While there is every gradation be- 
tween the most perfect lenticular hill and the undifferentiated 

*Proc. Boston St)c. Nat. Hist., 181)2, vol. xxvi, p. 7. 
fProc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1886, vbl. xxxv, p. 204. 



398 The American Geologist, June, IBM 

ground moraine, the true drumlins and the drumlinoid till 
slopes of various kinds are strikingly local and irregular in 
distribution. 

The greater part of the drift-covered area is free from 
these hills ; and where they do occur they are generally bunched 
together. There is, moreover, in parts of New England, a 
striking parallelism between chains of drumlins and bands of 
moraine. While the individual hills have commonly a north 
and south extension, collectively they have an east and west 
grouping. • 

Also, just as the moraine is thicker in some places than in 
others, so they are more numerous and deeper in certain areas 
than in others. At times their depth is considerably greater 
than the deep part of the till sheet in the area. These facts 
suggest a certain likeness between moraines and drumlins 
which must be kept in mind in studying the origin of these 
peculiar hills. 

(b) Resemblance to Drumlinoid Rock //i7/*.-r-There can be 
no student of glacial geology who has not been struck by the 
marked resemblance between drumlins and drumlinoid rock 
hills in glaciated areas. In my own ease, although reared 
among the drumlins of the Boston region, I was, in my first 
glacial work in central Massachusetts, misled into classifying 
rock hills as drumlins on the basis of their form alone. The 
gneiss hills of New England are in many cases drumlinoid in 
outline ; and at times the resemblance between a thinly drift- 
coated hill and a drumlin is most striking. Even hills barren 
of till are frequently lenticular. 

While this is true for New England it is even more typi- 
cally shown in central New York. There are scores of hills in 
that region, which, in a photograph, could be easily passed for 
typical drumlins and which need a visit to prove that they 
are not drift hills. 

There is a certain rhythm of ice erosion which expresses it- 
self on a small scale in the production of roches moutonnffen^ 

4 

on a larger scale in the carving of drumlinoid rock hills, and, 
I believe, on a still larger scale, in alternations of erosion and 
comparative freedom from erosion at intervals of many miles.* 

♦This |i*)liit is |»r»»sent<'d in a paiMT in thi* Hull. (Jeol. Soc. America, 
vol. V, 181M, p. :i.Vi. 




The Oriyin of Drumlim ,—Ta n\ 399 

What the reaeon for this rbj^thmic action is, I am not pre- 
pared to say ; but that ice erosion normally distributes itself 
unevenly, with the ultimate result of producing rounded, len- 
ticular forms with axes in the direction of ice motion, it seems 
hardly probable that any one can question after seeing the 
rock hills of New York and New England. Nor is this due 
t^) differences in hardness or attitude of the rocks, for in cen- 
tral New York the strata are of comparative uniformity and 
nearly horizontal. It appears to be an expression of the effort 
of the moving ice to produce a slope of least resistance ; and 
this slope appears to be the flat drumlinoid slope. Depres- 
sions are filled with drift, and the projections are worn down ; 
and when the ice disappears the hill may be veneered* with 
drift. This curve of ice erosion is beautifully shown on the 
sides of some north and south valleys, one of the most typical 
instances known to the author being in the valley of Cayuga 
lake. I believe it can be stated that it is a law of ice erosion 
to produce rounded, lenticular slopes. 

(c) Drumlinoid Form of Overridden Moraines, — In the mo- 
raine at Cape Ann, Massachusetts, there are drumlinoid forms, 
not perfect drumlins it is true, but forms simulating these, 
with their axes in the direction of ice flow. That these are 
moulded by the ice as it formed the moraine seems evident ; 
and they appear to be illustrative of a stage between mo- 
raines and drumlins.f While these are not as perfect as true 
drumlins nor as drumlinoid rock hills, being in a moraine the 
resemblance is noteworthy. Others have pointed out the same 
lenticular tendency in morainic hills. 

(d) Flutings on Drumlins, — One other point which favors 
the destructional rather than the constructional theory is the 
presence of fluting on drumlins. In Massachusetts, benches 
and grooves, which from their small size appear to be grooves 
in reality, are frequently found on one side of the hills. At 
least it would seem to the author very difflcult to explain 
them by variations in currents. 

4. — Consideration op Objections to Destructional 

Hypothesis. 

There are certain objections which must first be explained 

before this theory can be generally accepted. At present 

fXinth Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. .m1. 



400 The American Geologist June, 18M 

these objections cannot be conclusively answered. More facts 
are necessary before this or any other theory for their origin 
can be considered proven ; but there are a sufficient number 
of facts in our possession to make it worth while to retain 
this theory in the list of possible explanations. Since the 
tendency is so strongly away from this hypothesis and since 
these facts have never been formulated, they are brought for- 
w^ard here. 

(a) Assumed Absence of StraiiJIed Drift. — ^It is said that 
if these hills are modified moraines they should show morainie 
structure. Instead of the dense till there should be a greater 
or less admixture of sand. 

/. General absence of sections. — It seems a question 
whether this objection is well taken. In the first place how 
many drumlins are there which have been exposed in com- 
plete section ? Railroads do not ordinarily cut through them, 
there are only^ a few upon the sea -coast and only rarely, near 
large cities, are they breached deeply for purposes of grading. 
Not one drumlin in a hundred has been cut to a sufficient depth 
to reveal its true structure. They may be prevailingly stratified 
in the core. If, therefore, it is shown that there are numerous 
instances where drumlins, when cut deeply, are found to be 
stratified, an important point has been gained in answering 
this objection, for this will show that a considerable percent- 
age of known cuts exhibit stratification. 

«7. Moraines not always stratified. — The point just made 
is strengthened by the fact that moraines are by no means 
universally stratified. The islandof Cape Ann, Massachusetts^ 
is covered by as distinct a moraine as one could desire; yet, 
in the hundreds of sections, no stratified drift is found in the 
true moraine. On the moraine and in front of it there is 
modified drift; but the morainie peaks are unstratified. The 
same feature is noticed in central Massachusetts. These re- 
treatal moraines, formed during a brief stand of the ice, ap- 
pear to have been dumped with very little modification ex- 
cepting in the valleys. Even the terminal moraine of the 
second glacial epoch, in the vicinity of Ithaca in central New 
York, is very frequently shown to be unstratified on the up- 
lands and to be composed of true, compact till. Therefore it 
is not necessary to assume that all drumlins should be strati- 




The Origin of DrumUns. — Tarr, 401 

tied ; and, even if this were necessary, we have a right to ask 
that proof be furnished that they are not commonly stratified 
in the core. 

Hi, Drumlins containing stratified drift. — We have very 
few descriptions of drumlin sections, but those which we have 
are mainly of drumlins containing stratified drift. This is 
natural since the current assumption is that these hills are 
composed of unmodified till; and variations from this are 
naturally noted, whereas verifications of the assumption are 
often not considered worth recording. It is, therefore, not fair 
to place too much stress upon the preponderance of this class 
of references. The author, in a rather extensive stud}'' of the 
drumlin areas of Massachusetts and Connecticut, has rarely 
seen deep artificial sections in drumlins; but such sections as 
have been observed are mainly in compact till. In the nu- 
merous sections naturally exposed in the sea cliffs of the Boston 
Bay region, till is, in many places, found even in the core. 

Nevertheless, where deep cuts have been made in drumlins, 
stratification quite unlike that found in true till has been fre- 
quently observed. Upham* describes the two drumlins at 
tScituate, Mass., which, where they are breached by the sea, are 
called Third and Fourth cliffs. These are undoubted drumlins, 
yet they have a core of stratified gravel intimately mixed with 
unmodified drift arranged in more or less parallel layers. 
There are no signs of shoving action, and Upham considers 
that these deposits furnish evidence of rapid subglaciai (his 
belief is now that they are englacial) accumulations. But it 
appears ditWcult to account for the association of the very 
compact till with stratified drift, since the one must have been 
deposited under considerable ice pressure and the other under 
the opposite conditions and from running water. That these 
alternations of conditions should have taken place, and par- 
ticularly that they should have occurred in the narrow drum- 
lin areas is certainly remarkable. It would seem that there 
is a much better accordance of the fact* with the theory that 
these alternations are morainic and that the hills are modifi- 
cations of a morainal mass. 

The same author saysf that some of the New Hampshire 

♦Pr«>c. J^niton .S«»c. Nat. Hist.. 1S81). vol. xxiv. pp. ll^'ZAL 
fProo. BoKttin S«>c. Nat. Hist., 1880, vol. xxiv. p. 'i^vS. 



402 The American Geologist. Jane, laN 

drumlinB are in part stratified. He also observes that a 
drumlin in Soniervilie shows stratification, and that, accord- 
ing to Mr. W. W, Dodge,* the drumlin of Fort Hill, Boston, 
was shown to be stratified when it was partly cut away some 
years ago. Dodgef also states that Great Head at Winthrop, 
Massachusetts, has a stratified center; and this induced him to 
conclude that, although the hill had a drumlinoid form, it v/as 
not in reality a drumlin. At Revere, Massachusetts, near the 
line of the Eastern railroad, there are two drumlins which, a 
few years ago, showed much stratified drift in sections. 
. The best instance of a drumlin with a stratified core, and 
one more suggestive of morainic origin than any other seen by 
me, was found four years ago at Gardner, in central Massa- 
chusetts. The description of this has never been published; 
but it will appear with the atlas sheet of that region in the 
forthcoming series published by the United States Geological 
Survey and prepared under the direction of Prof. Shaler. The 
hill in question is a typical drumlin in the western outskitts 
of the town of Gardner. At the time when it was studied 
there was a gravel pit in the southern end, and in this pit there 
was revealed the most typical morainic structure. Beneath 
fifteen or twenty feet of the dense till so characteristic of the 
normal drumlin surface, there was a confused, cross-bedded 
gravel, with alternate layers of till, all arranged in a con- 
fused manner. There was no sign of lenticular stratification, 
but the gravel had the shoved appearance so common in mo- 
raines, and the surface was irregularly eroded so that the till 
covering was irregular in thickness. At the time I was con- 
vinced that it was an overridden moraine; and, as I have con- 
■sidered the problem since then, the conviction has grown as 
other similar evidence has accumulated. 

In describing the drumlins near Syracuse, New York, John- 
son^ states that they are stratified; but he accepts Geikie's 
interpretation of the origin of this class of hills. In refer- 
ring to the same region, Upham^ quotes Davis as follows: 



♦Ibid., p. 2:J7. 

f Am. .lourii. Si'i. {l\), 1SH8, vol. xxxvi, p. oO. Sm* al.H<» Upham, Prt)C. 
Koston S<»c. Nat. Hist., 18811. vol. xxiv, pp. 132,2:J7. 

t Annals Nf»w York Acad. Sci., 1882, vol. ii, p. 2.')7. 

J^Proc. I^wlon Soc. Nat. His!., 188», vol. xxiv, p. 2:W. 




The Origin of Drumh'ns, — Tan\ 408 

•*Profe88or Davis tells me also that in the southern part of 
the belt of very abundant drumlins in central New York, their 
sections frequently show stratified gravel and sand under- 
lying the till, and that often the relationship of these forma- 
tions is such as to prove that the stratified beds were some- 
what eroded before the accumulation of the till, as by an ad- 
vance of the ice-sheet over a preglacial or interglacial de- 
posit." 

( b) A)tsume<i A bsetice of Boulders, — The absence of abund- 
ant boulders in these drift hills is also appealed to as evidence 
against this theory. In the first place, boulders are not always 
so infrequent as at first sight they appear to be. At times an 
abundance of boulders appear on or in the drumlins. Upham* 
states that there are plentiful boulders in the drumlin of Col- 
lege Hill, Medford, Massachusetts, and Johnsonf says that 
there are numerous boulders on the drumlins of central New 
York. For reasons of location and soil, the drumlins, in New 
England at least, have been converted into farms and the 
boulders, which were undoubtedly originally strewn over the 
surface, have in part been incorporated into stone walls and 
foundations for buildings. 

That many and often large boulders occur in drumlins is 
proven, in the Boston Bay region, where the sea has en- 
croached upon them. The sea clitf is faced with boulders at 
its base, and where, as has sometimes happened, the hill has 
been nearly completely destroyed by the waves, there some- 
times exists a line of large boulders marking the drumlin site. 

But, so far as my observations extend, the boulder-strewn 
moraine is the exception rather than the rule. Only where 
peculiar conditions of supply and transportation existed, are 
the boulders numerous. Hence ordinarily, the drumlins, if of 
morainic origin, need not contain a much larger percentage 
of boulders than does ordinary till. In the particularly rocky 
moraine of Cape Ann, Massachusetts, the greater part of the 
boulders are on the surface, and these, at the first advance of 
the ice would be swept away. Moreover, if the theory here 
presented is true, such boulders as remained would be buried 



♦Prt)C. lioston Soc. Xat. Hist., 1889. vol. xxiv, p. 'Wi. 

lAnnnls, N«'W York Acad. Scl., 1882, vol. ii, p. 2.>.>; Trans., X<'W York 
Acad. Nat. Sci., 1882, vol, i, pp. 77-80. 



404 The American Geologist. June, 1894 

beneath a till sheet not unlike that which forms the great 
ground moraine. 

(c ) Peculiarities of Distribution, — It has been stated* that 
the distribution of drumlins does not favor this hypothesis 
but, so far as I can ascertain, no condusive reasons have been 
put forward. Certain reasons have been suggested in an 
earlier part of this paper why the author draws exactJy the 
opposite conclusion. These reasons need not be more fully 
referred to here; but it may be remarked that, if the distribu- 
tion of drumlins is opposed to the theory under discussion, a 
statement of the reasons is called for. 

5. — Restatkment of Destruction al Hypothesis. 

There seems to the author to be a sufficient body of fact, 
and a sufficient number of indications favoring the destruc- 
tional hypothesis, to call for u reconsideration of it. Taken 
in connection with the form of rock hills these indications 
form an argument which must at least be answered. It in 
certain that glacial erosion can produce drumlinoid forms \ is 
there any other kind of ice work of which as much can be 
said? 

Grant a deposit of drift, a moraine let us say of variable 
thickness and composition, overridden by the ice during a 
re-advance; in what manner would its removal be accom- 
plished? and would there be any diiference between the forms, 
produced from a drift sheet and those resulting from the ero- 
sion of an irregular but uniform rock mass? 

The first question which arises is, would ice erode equally 
in all parts of such a till mass? or would not some point be 
erodexl more rapidly than others, either by reason of softness, 
or original form, or abundance of erosive material in the 
grasp of the ice? Once an irregularity of work is begun, 
would it not continue? and would not the resulting form be 
the same as that which is produced in a rock of uniform tex- 
ture? In the latter case the forms produced are gently irreg- 
ular lenticular slopes of least resistance, rounded rock hills 
whose size and details of outline depend upon the swing 
of the erosion curve. The same form is present in drumlins, 
and it is a fair question to ask if it is not probable that the 
same cause has operated. 

♦K. I>. Salisbury. Aniiiial Ht'iKirl. Now.ItTSoy <m'i)I. Survey, 1891. p. 73. 



The Origin of Drumlins, — Tarr. 405 

Rivers for a similar reason meander through their flood- 
plains in a series of beautiful curves changing in form and 
position. Ice is commonly compared to rivers in its modes of 
action, and this has been done even in connection with this 
very subject of drumlin formation ; and now 1 ask, may not 
ice have the same habit as meandering rivers? If this be so, 
drumlins are an expression of the alternating, rhythmic eros- 
ion curve — they are the boundaries of the ox-bow curves of 
the ice stream. 

This much for the general subject; we have even less that 
is explicit for the details of the process. But a moraine 
overridden by the ice would certainly be subjected to marked 
changes, and these, as the Writer' conceives them, are somewhat 
as follows. The surface portion would be ground finer, and, 
if stratified at the beginning, mighthave its stratification des- 
troyed and its sandy structure changed to true till by the 
grinding action of the ice. It would at the same time become 
more compact. This material, added to the ground moraine 
deposited by the retreating ice, might well leave a coating of 
true till with a depth of fifteen or even thirty feet, so that, un- 
less cut deeply, the original stratification would not appear in 
the drumlin. This is certainly the condition indicated at 
Gardner, Massachusetts, and may well be suspected in other 
drumlins. 

It is not the author's intention to insist that this theory is 
a true explanation, much less that it is the only explanation ; 
but, rather, to urge that it be not too easily put to one side. 
As investigations proceed, new facts will be discovered, and 
it is safe to predict that eventually the true explanation of 
drumlins will be found. In the meantime, if this theory does 
furnish the real explanation, the proof of it will be more easily 
and more quickly discovered if investigators bear in mind that 
it is by no means a disproved theory, as some students of gla- 
cial geology seem to assume. 

This can certainly be claimed for the theory : that it is not 
impossible, and that no vital objections have been urged 
against it; but that, on the contrary, it is the only theory 
that has more than mere hypothesis to support it. Rock hills 
of drumlinoid outline are thus carved by ice erosion ; and, if 
this be true of rock, why may it not also be true of incoherent 



ArAx'^" Thi*r^ %t^. <*^xrsk\^\j ffta**'»n..* cr» i^i-ip-^irc chat th_L* aLAj 

n;»i owCi^riail tti*J hAv^ h^is-n ^»',rAn<i or t^rmiiiAl nioraiii*^- 

^, — ^>r vJiJkftT, 

Br>rfy ♦t^ti^ri in ♦unamary. tt^- ar5r*ni»-nc of tktt pr*r^»«^iit pA- 
p*»'r M a* f»,..ow* : — ^Th*^ r.h«H^*ry for ch.*^ori«yin of dr^imiin* wKi-^n 
i"* m«»»»r> '^ irf»^r.r!y a/^^p-#^l ha* '^••-rtain. orij*-«-tI»;a* wki.-li m :»v 
ar Ua-»f h>«^ «ron*i/iKr^l atnd *-xplain*^L Th*r<Me- are, l5r*t, chr 
fa/»^ thaf f.h*^r^ Ka-* bis-f-n no ftfl<^r{iiac«e ^xplr»natl''»n of th.^ mjia- 
n^r in wr»>'ri th**- irr^^ils^r /^urrfrnt*^ »#'t in h.iilrlingr ih»-*^ drift 
hi..-*; *^<'on<L that th««'f««' i* no apf^ar^-nt a-^MP^-iattoD with r*>- 
ji«*'»^»pK5 or '^lipplj: fhird. that th*- dnim.in* »re -^ irr^eri- 
I^rlr di*f.riW!*f*'rl ; fojrth, that th^^r*- arfr ^» few *rgB^ of in- 
fernal lamination f>arallel to the dnimlin ^piitline: and^tifth. 
the pre^enee of *trafified |f<^rtion* in manr drumlin'*, 

A *ef'ond lYiory. tnat of orij^in bv a partial working over 
of moraini^r or other drift <lep^^it«. onrr#r prop^j*^, but n«»w 
tnorf: or le*4i (fenerallv a^mndoned. ha** rrertain fa«rt!» in «upp*>rt 
of it whieh apfy^'ar to be overUfffked. Attention i* called to 
the fnt't that dninilin^* are UpfrnWy and pe<:uliar]v dis^trihoted. 
Thev are in plaee^ parallel to moraines, and their irregularitv 
]<i often similar to morainie irrei^xilaritr. The drumlinoid 
rMitline of rorhfn $»to9ffottn/*:M and of rof-k hills ig alcK» pointed 
oritf a«i well a>« the pre^^ene*- of partly lenticular hi IN in moraines. 
The«w' H\9\H'Hr to \fi' irxpre*»»»ionJ» of an effort on the part of the 
jee to erMJe a nlojie of leant ref*i«tanee which is Htrikinglj like 
the eiirve of the drumlin. Thev are f-omparcrd Uy the action 
of a meandering river which i« carving ox-bow curves. 

Objeetionw to the theory are of three kinds: fin»t, the as- 
Miinied al>«eneeof h t rati fled drift ; second, the apparent ab- 
M-ncf of iKiulders: and third, the peculiarities of distribu- 
tion, A number of instances are cited from Boston bay. New 
Ifampuhire, central MaHsachusetts, and central New York, to 
ftliow that the phenomena of stratified drift and abundant 
^Miiilderw are present in many drumlins. It is also shown that 
deep sections in these hills are rare, and that a moraine over- 
ridden by the ice would probably be coated with till, which» 
without a deep section, might easily be assumed to be typical 
of the entire drumlin, while, in reality, the core might be 
Mt ratified moraine. Since many portions of moraines are 




Peculiarities of the Jfystic Coal Seam, — Bain. 407 

practically unstratified, the proportion of known drumlin sec- 
tions in which stratified drift is found is significantly large. 
The conclusion is, therefore, that this theory must be kept as 
a working hypothesis, even if it is not accepted as the most 
probable theory. 



PECULIARITIES OF THE MYSTIC COAL SEAM. 

By H. Foster Rain, of tbe Iowa Oooloirical Survey, Des Moine84 Iowa. 

The great simplicity of structure exhibited by the Paleo- 
zoic formations of the Mii^sissippi valley has been frequently 
emphasized. The earlier workers in the coal fields of this 
region, influenced largely by the then preconceived ideas of 
the close parallelism of beds, sought to find this same sim- 
plicity in the minutiae of the coal-bearing strata. A high 
stratigraphic value was given to the different coal seams upon 
the supposition, in part at least, that the individual veins were 
practically co-extensive with the Coal Measure area. Thus 
Owen* mentioned the finding of five coal seams in Iowa and 
doubted whether more would be found. Hallf regarded a 
certain limestone band in the Lower Coal Measures as recog- 
nizable from northeastern Ohio to Kansas. WorthenJ corre- 
lated the coals found at Peoria, Illinois, with those of the 
Kentucky section established by Owen,g and found, as he 
thought, a close agreement. 

Owen's scheme was the first attempt to classify the coal 
beds of the western basin and it was more or less extensively 
adopted by later writers. (.'ox|| discussed these correlations 
and showed that much confusion had resulted from them. 
The numbering or lettering of the different seams early at- 
tempted was of little value and led to such titles as A, A', 
A'"*, A*. White in Iowa attempted rather to name them, and 
in 1870 gave six coal seams as occurring in the "Middle" Coal 
Measures,^ some of them being considered to extend from 
Guthrie county to Lucas county. 

♦(fi'<il. Sur. Wisconsin. Iowa. Minnesijla, p. 97, 1852. 

f(t«»olo^y of Iowa, vol. i, p. VM, 18.>8. 

}(fHoI. Sur. Illinoi.s, vol. i, p. X\ 18^50. 

55<i»H)I. Sur. Kentucky, vol. iii, pp. 18-24. 18.')7. 

|(J»»ol. Sur. Indiana, Ann. liept. 1870, p. 1(J8. 1871. 

■:(i(Hi!o>ry of Iowa. vol. n, p. 273. 1870. 



408 



The American Geologist 



June, 18M 



In this stat^ the attempts to correlate individual seams have 
not proven to be successful and have led to much confusion. 
Recently a complexity, rather than a simplicity, has been 
found to exist, and it has become recognized that the individ- 
ual beds of the Lower Coal Measures, at least in the Iowa-Miss- 
ouri field, are characteristically non-persistent. This was in 
some cases alluded to by the earlier workers, but little stress 
was placed upon it. Recently it has been elaborated quite 
fully and interpreted as the result of the conditions of depo- 
sition : the Lower Coal Measures being regarded as marginal 
depositions, and the Upper Coal Measures as representing the 
marine beds which were deposited, in part at least, contem- 
poraneously. 

Complexity of structure, due entirely to the non-persistent 
character of the beds themselves rather than to deformations, 
has been so widely recognized in Iowa and Missouri that it 
has been with extreme caution that particular coal seams have 
been correlated with those of other localities, and in no case 
hitherto described has the continuity of a single bed been as- 
cert^iined to extend more than a few miles. Natural expos- 
ures and connecting sections along streams show that the 
Lower C'oal Measures of Iowa are made up of a complex inter- 
locking series of beds of shaks, sandstones and limestones, 
with occasional coal seams. Although, as a rule, these are all 
prevailingly non-persistent, a few of the limestone bands and 
some of the sandstones have been found to cover considerable 
areas. The individual coal seams, however, are generally 
quite limited in arenl distribution. 

In marked contrast to this general character is a seam at 
present worked in Appanoose and adjoining counties in 
southern Iowa. As compared with other coal seams in the 
state, the extent of the one in question in quite exceptional. 
Its distribution so far as traced up to the present time is 
shown on the accompanying sketch map (fig. 1). It is known 
to extend over a distance of nearly fifty miles north and south 
and at least forty miles east and west. There is probably no 
other vein in the Lower Coal Measures of Iowa which extends 
unbroken over an equal stretch of territory. Throughout its 
extent it preserves nearly uniform characteristics which make 
its recognition easy and secure. 




Peciilian(ie» of the Myalie Cutil Seam.—Bttiti. 409 

At Myotic it ie typi<^ally exposed along WHiniit c-reek and 
a considerable mining industry hue been started. The details 
shown here are as follows: 

7. l.imcHtunc. mHssivi'. tiriiy. wi-ll I'xgKisi-il hI iIh- 

r^Kiwick mln.' ,' II 

(I, Sh«!.'. bituminous i 

.".. <'iml 1 « 

4. Cliiy tiKrlinic 2 



I. T.imi'stimf, K^ny. Hiibcr.VHlalliiii'. <'X|>iise<l in lli'- 
biulf. wht-r.' PrmlncliiM murii-atu. X, A P.. 
I'liiintle* mtmiluba N. A. P.. Alhjiriii argeiilrti 
Sill-]),, I'riidiirtnii rmitiil'ii' Siiwi-rby. htiiI "llii'r 

fi.rms, wi-r.' coli.-«:l.'«l '. 'J 1(1 

The character and thickness of these luyers vary but little. 
The upper limestone, called by the miners the "cap rock," 



Flu. 1. aictUh nap thawing Iht ana of the Jfyttfir roal kum, 

becomes in places, notably in the mine of the Seymour Coal 
Company in Wayne county, quite bituminous. It ie some- . 
times thicker and is usually immediately covered by a black 
pyritiferous shale. The shale under it (No. fl) shows perhaps 
the greatest variation. The upper portion frequently becomes 



k 



410 The American Geologint, Jane, 1894 

more argillaceous, quite soft, and is known as "clod." At 
Stahl, Adair county, Missouri, it is said to become two or 
three feet in thickness. The total thickness of the coal varies 
wnthin limits of only a few inches. The clay parting (No. 4) 
is especially notable in its persistency and uniformity. A 
second parting, from a half to three-quarters of an inch in 
thickness, is in many places present about three inches from 
the bottom of the low^er bench. In mining, the lower lime- 
stone is not always encountered, as the fire-clay frequently 
thickens considerably. 

Not less striking than the extent of the Mystic coal seam 
is the simplicity of the structure of the region. In addition 
to the two limestones mentioned above, there are two others, 
known locally as the "seventeen" and "fiftj'" foot limestones 
from their general occurrence at those hights above the coal. 
These levels are not'ab8olutelycort*ect, but the variation from 
them is usually slight. The intervening spaces are filled with 
various argillaceous shales. 

A section along the 0. R., I. & P. railroad from the east side 
of the Chariton river in Appanoose county to Harvard in 
Wayne county, is represented in figure 2. This shows the 



Fio . 2. Section from Sharon to Harvard. 

general simplicity of structure and the prevailing dip to the 
southwest. 

The coal is approximately level, yet it exhibits considerable 
variation in elevation. At Dean, in the southeastern corner of 
Appanoose county^, it is 825 feet above the sea level ; at Cin- 
cinnatifin the southern part, 995 feet ; at Centerville, in the cen- 
tral part, 880 feet; at Mystic, 908 feet; at Numa, seven miles 
southw*est, 900 feet; and from there it dips southwest nearly 
ten feet per mile to Seymour, where it is 889 feet above sea 
level. Thence it rises slightly to the west. It is thus seen 
that Numa and (Mncinnati are situated on the crest of a slight 
anticline, which apparently has a northwest to southeast di- 
rection. Other small anticlines are doubtless present in this 
field, but sufficient detailed work has not yet been done to 
locate them. 



^ 



Orujht of Anthracite, — Keyes, 411 

The ready discovery of folds in the Lower Coal Measures 
is, as a rule, a matter of considerable difficulty, and, indeed, 
they can only be accurately traced in exceptional cases, such 
us the one described, in whicjh easily recognizable beds are 
present over a considerable territory. 

Striking as the contrast between the Mystic and other coal 
seams of the region is, as regards the extent and simplicity of 
structure, the remarkable uniformitj' of its physical character- 
istics is no less noticeable. In hand specimens the coal, 
though rather soft, is clean, and presents a smooth, glistening 
surface with a luster almost indistinguishable from that of 
anthracite. It is intersected by numerous joint planes cross- 
ing one another at right angles and filled with thin films of 
calcite. 

It has been said that the limestones w^hich are found near 
the coal seams are quite fossil iferous. As might be expected, 
they present a well -marked .marine facies. In some instances 
certain of these species are found in the shale which immedi- 
ately overlies the coal. Frequently this shale graduates in- 
sensibly into a bituminous limestone. The peculiar constancy 
of physical character, exceptional in western coals, and the in- 
timate relations with marine strata, lend a certain suggestive 
interest to the theory proposed by Mohr* for the origin of coal 
under maritime conditions. While his idea that coal was 
formed from sea- weeds has never received much support in 
this country, it seems not impossible that for certain particu- 
lar seams, admittedly formed under peculiar circumstances, 
this may be found an adequate explanation. 



ORIGIN OF ANTHRACITE. 

B7 Chahlss RoLiiiH Keyks, Dm Moinec, Iowa. 

The transformation of woody tissue into ordinary coal in- 
volves a continual loss of the hydrocarbons w^hich go to make 
up so large a proportion of the original plant mass. As the 
ultimate result of the process anthracite is formed. While 
the exact physical conditions necessary to effect the changes 
are not yet perfectly understood, it is well known that the 
last stages of mineralization may be arrived at in a variety of 

♦(it»schiclitf der EnJt». ii<»mi, 1875. 



412 The American Geologist. Jane, 1894 

wayfl. JuBt which method has aBSumed greatest prominence 
in each particular case is difficult of ready solution, since it is 
quite probable that in most instances several very different 
agencies have acted simultaneously. 

The changes in character which vegetal materials undergo 
when shut off from the free access of the air. in the presence 
of moisture, with an even temperature or increased heat, and 
under some pressure, are very different from those which oc- 
cur when the muss is exposed to ordinary atmospheric influ- 
ences. Instead of rapid oxidation, as in the latter case, the 
variotis chemical components react among themselves, 
producing finally ordinary coal. The researches of Bischof* 
show clearly that the conversion of woody matter into coal is 
accomplished in at least three ways. By each method the 
carbonic acid escapes; the hydrogen goes off either as C H^ 
or II^O, in the latter case with or without the aid of meteoric 
oxygen. Both mining operations and stratigraphical work upon 
individual coal beds indicate plainly that a loss of the hydro- 
carbons is constantly going on ; that this loss is comparatively 
speedy in the beginning, or for a short period after the vegetal 
mass is buried ; but that graduall}* the rate becomes less and 
less rapid, until in the end the escape of the volatile matter 
ceases almost altogether. Additional pressure arising from 
the deposition of sediments upon the plant beds naturally 
hastens the normal pntcess of eliminating the continually 
giMierated gases. Increased temperature likewise tends to 
have the same effect. Still more favorable to the production 
of like rt»sults is the action of orogenic movements. 

In a rtH*ent pa|H»rf Stevenson has advanced some views on 
the anthracite of Pennsvlvania which differ materiallv from 
the commonly accept tnl opinions concerning the genesis of the 
Innis, In substance, thev are that from the northeastern cor- 
ner of the gri^at coal IhhI the old marsh extended westward itn 
advancing deltas, and that, consequently, along the marginal 
(H^rtions of the btnls the plant accumulations, being le>s rap- 
idly ctnereii up, were subjected to the ortUnary influences of 
deot^mpivsition for a much longer time than in the more central 
IH^rlions. In the middle «^f the swampy region rt^mnion 



Origin of Anthracite. — Keyes. 413 

bituminous coal was formed; along the edges, anthracite. 
According to the hypothesis advanced, the coal marshes must 
have skirted or fringed stationary or slowly rising shores, and 
the principal changes in the character of the plant masses 
are regarded as taking place before these were covered by sed- 
iments to any great extent. In consequence the vegetal 
deposits must have passed through practically no changes 
since the time of their original burial. 

In regard to the formation of coal marshes in general, 
nearly all evidence available goes to show that the plant re- 
mains accumulated along slowly sinking shores where the 
subsidence was interrupted somewhat from time to time. The 
swamps would thus be constantly advancing inland and not 
seaward, which last might be inferred from what has just been 
stated ; they would gradually creep up the shores, instead of 
outward with the growing deltas. Closely following the peri- 
pheral swamp deposits, the beds formed in the more open sea 
would extend farther and farther landward, as the sinking 
took place, slowly covering the areas formerly occupied by 
coastal marshes. This appears to be clearly the case in the 
Central and Western Int-erior coal fields, where the strati- 
graphical arrangement is much more simple than in the more 
eastern districts. Rut in the fields of the Mississippi basin, in 
Iowa and Missouri especially, there are coal beds which ap- 
pear to have originated under very difl'erent physical condi- 
tions from those under which most of the coal seams of the 
region were formed. A notable example of this kind is the 
Mystic vein, which is the most extensive individual bed at 
present known in the entire field. Its extent and continuity 
have been definitely made out for upwards of fifty miles in 
one direction and over forty in another. The veget«il accu- 
mulations were made under conditions manifestly maritime. 
Evenly bedded limestones a few feet in thickness occur a short 
distance above and below the coal? and other but thicker 
limestones exist seventeen and fifty feet above. Throughout 
the entire extent of the Mystic area there is a remarkable uni- 
formity in the thickness of the coal and its associate strata. 
Still more remarkable is the character of the coal itself. Al- 
though a bituminous variety, it has the subconchoidal frac- 
ture, the bright luster, and the fine uniform texture of 



414 The American Geologist, June, IBM 

authraeite; and at first glance might readily be mistaken for 
it. It is, hovever, much softer and more brittle. The percent- 
age of ash is very much less than in any other Iowa or" 
Missouri coals, and in other respects it may be regarded as the 
best grade found in either of the two states mentioned. 
These factors are suggestive that in the formation of certain 
coals, and especially those having the physical characters of 
anthracite, the original conditions of deposition may have 
played a more important part than has been generally supposed, 
and that the origin of the materials w^as quite different from 
that for many of the ordinary bituminous kinds. 

The implication that in the case of anthracite the coal- 
forming materials were almost entirely changed about the 
time of, or soon after, deposition, because of the longer ex- 
posure to atmospheric influences than in the case of the bitu- 
minous varieties, practically precludes any subsequent alter- 
ations after the plant remains have been covered up by sedi- 
ments. Few clastic rocks are not porous enough to permit of 
a more or less ready circulation of underground water. More- 
over, crustal deformation, no matter how small it is, gives 
rise to changes of some sort in the character of the beds ef- 
fected. Mineralogieal alterations in the mineral constituents 
are thus ever going on in the rocks. Indeed, the whole min- 
eralogieal composition and structure of stony aggregates are 
being modified continually; in some places slowly, in others 
more rapidly, according to the attending circumstances. The 
ever changing physical conditions invariably set up continu- 
ous molecular shiftings in every rock, no matter what its com- 
position or what its relations. 

It has been said that the changes undergone by rock masses 
have been occasioned by the natural tendencies of minerals to 
assume combinations more stable from those less stable. But 
the statement has not carried with it the full import and 
meaning that it should; for in any particular case, while 
there is an attempt towards adjustment to satisfy a certain 
set of conditions, the conditions themselves are continually 
changing, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another. 
In the production of these alterations in rock masses time 
does not necessarily enter as a factor, although ordinarily the 




Editorial Comment, 415 

oldet a rock is the greater is the chance for disguising its 
primitive character. 

The very nature of the hydrocarbons calls for a constant 
elimination, though at an ever decreasing rate, perhaps, of 
these compounds from the old vegetal accumulations. In re- 
gions affected by orogenic movements there would be com- 
monly a considerable acceleration of the process; and with 
the Pennsylvania anthracite, mountain-making forces must 
certainly have played an important role in hastening the 
change. But in comparing the eifects of tangential pressure 
upon coal beds and their associated strata in different parts 
of a field, many factors enter into consideration which in- 
volve great difficulties and require the most detailed exami- 
nations. 



EDITORIAL COMMENT. 



The U. S. Geolo<5ical Survey. 

Major Powell has resigned the directorship of the Geologi- 
cal Survey of the United States, and it is understood that the 
office will be tendered to Mr. C. D. Walcott, who has for many 
years held the position of palaeontologist and lately chief 
geologist of the survey. We trust that this change will augur 
the reorganization of the work on efficient and economical 
footing and that the survey will, under Mr. Walcott's manage- 
ment, stand as high in the esteem of the scientific world and 
the general public as befits so important a department of the 
government. 

The Columbian Exposition. 

GemSy yatice Jfetah, and other Rare Minerals, 

The mineraiogical collections on exhibition in the various 
departments of the World's Fair deserved, on the whole, a 
great deal of praise; but it was to be regretted that in some 
of the sections the arrangement was very unsystematic and 
the labeling often incorrect. If one were to attempt a review 
of each departmental exhibit, the work would assume vast 



Editorial Comment, 417 

North Carolina exhibited a large variety of gems, including 
ruby, sapphire, emerald, hiddenite, garnet and beryl. Mr. J. 
A. D. Stevenson, of Statesville, N. C, to whom is attributed 
the discovery of many localities of choice minerals and who 
lives only a few miles from the celebrated hiddenite locality, 
had an attractive collection of gems in this state's section. 

Idaho showed a good collection of gems from Hailey, some 
sapphires from Stanley Basin, small rubies in sand from Huy's 
Placer, and rather an extensive collection of rough opal from 
Owyhee county. Some of the opals were of large size and 
must weigh thirty to forty carats. 

Utah and New Mexico also exhibited opal ; and Utah had fine 
specimens of topaz. Magnificent specimens of turquoise from 
Los Cerrillos were seen in the New Mexico section, and in the 
Colorado section small specimens from Villa Grove. 

Montana had garnets, sapphires, and rubies which exhibited 
considerable brilliancy. 

Massachusetts and other eastern states had exhibits of cut 
and rough gems. Some noticeable ones were from Fitchburg, 
Mass. (beryl and tourmaline), and from South Paris, Maine. 

Montana and Colorado had unquestionably the most val- 
uable displays of native gold : and the former state exhibited 
a beautiful collection of crystallized gold, showing most of its 
known forms. Nevada had interesting specimens of native 
gold in quartz, in iron ore, in calcite, etc., and a handsome 
specimen of gold wire disseminated through gold quartz. The 
Argentine Republic had good nuggets from Chubut, and 
Ecuador a specimen of quartz entirely covered with native 
gold. New South Wales, Canada, Brazil, and other countries, 
also contributed gold specimens. One large specimen in 
quartz from New South Wales was valued at over £1,200. 
This country also displayed a large number of gold crystals, 
some of them having good octahedral forms. In the west gal- 
lery was seen the original gold discovered by Marshall at 
Sutter's Mill, California, in 1848, which caused the "gold 
fever of '49." 

Mexico exhibited native silver from Chihuahua, Zacatecas, 
Guanajuato, and other states, some of the specimens weighing 
several hundred pounds. Argentine had native silver from 
La Rivja and other provinces, and a strange form of native 



418 The American Geologist. Jane, 18B4 

silver and nickel. Idaho and Montana showed small quanti- 
ties, and the latter state had wire silver disseminated through 
ealcite, etc. Montana displayed native silver from Elkhorn 
and other localities, including a particularly noticeable speci- 
men of wire silver from the Butte and Boston mine. 

Michigan exhibited the largest collection of native copper, 
both crystalline and massive, some masses weighing several 
tons. Montana also had native copper, principally from 
Butte. 

Spain showed a fine collection of cinnabar, native mercury, 
and associated rocks, from Almaden. Mexico had this mer- 
cury sulphide from Guerrero, San Luis Potosi, etc. ; Nevada, 
from the Washoe district; and Russia, from the southern 
provinces. 

Canada showed the exceedingly rare platinum arsenide, 
sperrylite,* from the Vermillion mine of the Canadian Copper 
Company, which placed over one hundred grammes of this 
mineral on exhibition. New South Wales had platiniferous 
river sand and a small specimen of iridium. This country 
also gave the best exhibit of native bismuth and of bismutite, 
the carbonate. A nugget of platinum weighing over 150 
ounces was displayed in the Great Britain section, being ex- 
hibited by the celebrated firm, the Johnson-Matthey Co., of 
London. This firm also exhibited other rare elements, iridium, 
palladium, rhodium, osmium, etc. 

Pennsylvania exhibited beautiful radiating needle crystals 
of millerite (NiS), and massive pyrrhotite(Fej^ Si 2) contain- 
ing 2 to 5 per cent, of nickel, from the Gap mine, Lancas- 
ter county. Canada had a large display of nickeliferous 
pyrrhotite and associated minerals, from Sudbury; also 
specimens of niccolite (NiAs) and of gersdorffite (NiAsS). 
Oregon had beautiful specimens of garnierlte,f a hydrous 
nickel magnesium silicate, containing 20 to 30 per cent, of 
nickel, from the Excelsior district, Douglass county. This 
mineral from New Caledonia was exhibited in the New South 
Wales section, together with noumeaite and asbolite. 

Pennsylvania also showed calamine^ (H^ZngSiOj+Fe^Og), 

♦H. L. Wells, and S. L. Penfield, Am. Jour. Sci., Ill, vol. xxzvii, pp. 
07-7:i, Jan., 1881). 

fF. W. Clarke. Am. Jour. Sci., Ill, vol. xxxv, pp. 483-488, June, 1888. 

JJ. Kyerman. Am. Jour. Sci.. Ill, vol. xxxvii, p. 501. Juno, 1889. 



Editorial Comment. 419 

sphalerite (ZnS), and their associatione, from t\\e famous 
Friedensville mines. Wisconsin displayed a large quantity 
of zinc minerals, the principal being smithsonite (ZnCoj), a 
most unattractive looking mineral. Missouri had beautiful 
specimens of crystallized and massive sphalerite, calamine, 
and smithsonite. New Jersey exhibited a fairly good collec- 
tion of zinc minerals, including the beautiful zincite (ZnO), 
with its gorgeous coloring, associated with franklinite (Fe203 
+ ZnOMnO), and botryoidal smithsonite and calamine, all 
from Sussex county. But the zinc minerals, like those of lead, 
copper and iron, are so widely distributed throughout the 
country that nearly every exhibit contained many specimens, 
making it difficult to select the best and typical specimens in 
each section. 

Spain had an unique specimen of galenite, a cube contain- 
ing fully 60 cubic feet. 

Arizona displayed a very large block of the beautiful azu- 
rite, surmounting a base of malachite; some fine specimens of 
chrysocoUa. the copper silicate, associated with wad; magnifi- 
cent specimens of the beautiful minerals, vauadinite and 
descloizite; and some of the rarer lead and silver minerals, 
for which this state is now famous. 

Japan had a good collection of stibnite (Sb2S8), some very 
large and fairly well crystallized, but none equal, either in 
size or form, to some from the same localities now in our 
American collections. Native antimony was also exhibited. 
Nevada, and other western states, Canada, and New South 
Wales, also displayed native antimony and stibnite, and the 
latter country, auriferous stibnite. 

C-assiterite was exhibited from New South Wales, Mexico, 
South Dakota, and Wyoming. Orpiment and realgar were 
exhibited from Oregon. 

Large and well terminated quartz crystals were shown in 
the Japanese section ; one beautiful specimen with perfect 
terminations, from Kimpozan Kal, being nearly 40 cm. long, 
another about 18 cm. thick and over 65 cm. In length. 

Great Britain had a large collection of economic minerals, 
well arranged. Canada had a large number of collections of 
silicates, oxides, carbonates, sulphides, etc., representative not 



420 The American Geologist, Jane, 18M 

only of her own domain, but also of foreign countries, which 
allowed comparisons. 

Brazil had three small collections ; Argentine, several, rep- 
resenting principally the copper and lead minerals and associ- 
ates. 

New South Wales had a large collection, numbering many 
hundred specimens, representative of most of the known 
groups, besides a few specimens of meteorites. Indeed, this 
section was unquestionably the largest and best exhibit in the 
Mines and Mining building. 

While the mineralogy of the United States was very suc- 
cessfully displayed, it should have been more thoroughly rep- 
resentative. Too much poor material was exhibited, and this 
may perhaps have been due to the fact that the governors or 
commissions of several of the states did not exercise good 
judgment in selecting representatives for the department of 
scientific mineralogy. 



REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 

LITERATURE. 



On the aedimentary origin of iron ore deponts and itabirite {EinengHmmer- 
tfchufer). J. H. L. Vogt, Salten og Ranen, Kristiania, 1891. pp. 214- 
234. (Translated from the Zeitschrift fur praktische CJeologie, January, 
1894, pp. 30-35, by H. V. Winchell.) 

* 'Salten og Ranen'* ap[M*ared in 1891 as the first part of a geological 
description of the Norwegian province of Nordland, especially treating 
of the marble beds and ore de|)osits (iron ore, pyrite and chalcopyrite, 
argentiferous copiier ores, galena, etc.). 

The Tromst)e mica-marble group is always characterized by thick 
and extensive inclusions or interbedded deposits of iron ore (partly itabi- 
rite), which sustain a close relation with the immense limestone bed.s, 
and in the district e.xamined by the author appear usually as separate 
strata immediately below the limestone, but sometimes contained in it. 

At Xaeverhaugen thn ore deix)sit, consisting of hematite, quart/., etc.. 
in fine alternating layers, can be followed continuously for a distance of 
five miles. The thickness is variable, from 18 inches to ,'M) feet. Above 
it limestone sometimes occurs immediately; sometimes there is a layer 
eighteen inches to three feet thick of *'Skarnberg" schist. In the vicin- 
ity of the Naeverhaugen area the ore bed forms a peculiar, sharp S- 
curve, which reveals ils«»lf only by an overlap-fault, in the direction of 
the strike. 



1 



lieview of Recent Geological Literature, 421 

The bolt of itablrite in Ranen has a length of from twenty to twenty- 
flve miles. In Dunderlandsthal we mei't two immensely thick limestone 
.strata, corresponding to each other in every re8ix»ct, each of which is a 
limb of an anticlinal fold and has below it the bed of itabirite. The 
thickness of the latter is here about sixty to sevenly-flve feet on the av- 
era^t*: but at Kvitinge, where in other respects the stratum is lean, it is 
no less than 300 to 330 feet in thickness. 

There is also almost complete correspondence between the two iron 
ore strata at NaeverhaujC**n and those at Kanen. In both regions we find 
princiimlly hematite (FejOa). In Dunderlandsthal it is develojjed as 
the specular or micacfH)us variety, and there is but little magnetite; 
then quartz, with some hornblende, biotite, garnet, epidote, feldspar, 
very little calcitc, titanite. etc.: added to all of which is a mingling of 
apatite, amounting to about 1 per cent, on the average; very little sul- 
phur and titanium: less than 1 i)er cent, of manganese; even the slag- 
forming elements (SiO^, . AljOs. CaO, MgO. etc.) agree almctst iwr- 
fectly in thin section. 

The ore-bearing stratum consists of a series of layers varying widely 
in iron content, — from about 10 or 20 to 00 or 65 p*»r cent. Single layers 
are occasionally so rich as to be exploited, but as a whole the stratum 
must be considered, in most localities, rather ptxir in iron. Nevertheless 
the total content of iron (es(>ecially in Dunderlandsthal. where the itab- 
irite has a greater development than at any other locality known in 
Kurojie) is of great importance and can only bi» compared with the ircm 
mountains of northern Sweden, Gellivara. Kirunavara, etc. 

The Cambrian (r)iron on»sof Xordland And their closest analogy in 
Sweden with the so-called **Torrsten" ores ("Trockenerz." i, e., ore 
which gives a dry or siliceous slag on being smelted). K<ilh these ores 
are accompanied by a su[)erabundance of quartz and acid silicates: but 
by very small amounts of carbonates and basic silicates. In both cases 
there is usually considerable apatite, very little sulphur, comparatively 
little manganese, and verj' much hematite in proportion to the magne- 
tite. In fine, the **Torr8ten" or<»s are distinguished from the other Ar- 
chean iron ores by app<*aring mort* like normal strata and less like short 
lens-sha[)ed mass(*s. 

The '*Torrsten" ores ar«» also ri^lated to the other irt)n ores in central 
Sweden belonging to the same general division. We thus arrive at the 
conclusion that the Swedish Iron ores of the Dannemora-Persberg- 
Norberg-Grftngesb<»rg type, belonging to the Archean formation, as well 
as the Norwegian ores of the Arendal-Krageroe tyj:)e, were formed in 
the same manner as the apparently Cambrian ores of the Naeverhaugen- 
Dunderlandsthal type.* 

'BatidM this elaM of iroo ores, the foUowing are repreaented ia SoandinaTia: 1. 
Iron oret formed by paeamatolytie prooetfee : 2. Segrecations in iHMio eroptiTe roeke ; 
alio, the ore depoeite of the GeUiTara-KimnaTara type, which are not aeioeiated 
with limeetooe and do not oorreepond with the Dannemora-Perebecv-Arendal- 
MaeTerhaoceo type in that reepeet. For this reaaon no attention ie paid here to the 
iron ores of northern Sweden, nor to the ores oocarring in the "tiefen Urgneiee** of 
Norway. 



422 The American Geologist, Jime,i8M 

It is by Swt'des and Americans, and partly also by German investif^a- 
tors, that it has been shown that the extensive iron ores of the Cambrian 
and upper part of the Archean are of sedimentary' origin. This con- 
clusion rests upon the following facts: 

1. The ores are always parallel with the bedding and participate in 
all folds and flexures. A general strike contrary to that of the rocks 
has not been proven. 

2. Tfhe ore deposits are bedded in a typical manner, consisting prin- 
cipally of a series of abruptly changing layers, chemically and miner- 
alogically in strong contrast. 

3. Each single rock series, or each stratigraphic horizon, is charac- 
terized by a definite t3'pe of iron ore bed. 

4. The ore deposits occur in close connection with beds of limestone 
and dolomite, which are of rare occurrence, especially in the Archean. 

5. They form a limited class, well characterized mineralogically, 
and still b<»tter chemically, by the metal-combination Fe andMn, which 
can be sharply distinguished from the group of ore deposits formed by 
processes of emanation (containing chiefly Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, Pb, Ag, Sn, 
Fe, etc.). 

(5. One definite class of iron ore deposits, viz., the basic and at the 
same time manganiferous ore, is often marked by the presence of graph- 
ite or organic matter; and in some Archean ore deposits of the United 
States we even find a combination of sideriteand carbon or organic mat- 
ter, corresponding to the "Kohleneisenstein" or blackband ironstone. 

7. In all the younger formations undoubtedly sedimentary iron ore 
depo.sit8 occur (e. g. meadow, lake, and bog ore, at the present time; 
(K)litic iron ore, of the Jurassic; blackband ironstone, in the Carbonifer- 
ous). A pritm we should expect to find corresi)onding deposits in the 
oldest sediments. 

8. In conclusion, it may also be mentioned that this class of iron ore 
deposits, unlike the majority of other ore de[M)sits, has no direct connec- 
ti(m with any eruptive rock. 

That these iron ores cannot be supposed to be intrusive eruptive sheets 
needs no further proof. It maj' be attempted to prove that the ores un- 
der discussion were formed by pneumatolytic processes. As the most 
imiKirtant sup[)ort for this theory, it must be shown that our ores, min- 
eralogically as well as structurally, are distinguished partly by the 
identical mineral combinations (garnet, epidote, different augit«?s, and 
vesuvianiU' and sca[M)lite, as exceptions), which would be produced in 
the limestone and calciferous schists by contact metamorphism, as 
well as by metamorphism accompanied by i»neumatolytic processes. It 
may however be mentioned that the latter minerals b<*Iong to almost 
any primary limestone, whether it be accompanied by iron ore beds or 
not. That is, the minerals an' formed not only as a result of that spe- 
cial contact metamorphism, but also as a result of that general meta- 
morphism which the Archean formations have undergone. Further- 
more, that very siliceous mineral, viz., quartz, which is most abundant 
in our iron ores, does not belong to the group of minerals formed by 



Review of Recent Geological Literature, 423 

Contact metamorphism in limestones and calcitic schists. The forma- 
tion by pneumatolytic processes would conflict sharply with the char- 
acteristics mentioned under 2, 3, 5-and U; and would not explain those 
under 1, 4, 7. and 6. 

That our iron ores cannot be ascribed to metasomatic action (e. g., by 
the percolation of Fe(H)j solutions through limestone, by which CaCOj 
is dissolved and FeCOg de|X)8ited) is explained in detail in the original 
work, pp. 137, 138. . 

The numerous different phenomena of these ores ditTer widely' , it is 
true, but still the following series of general criteria can be deduced, to 
which a genetic significance may be ascribed. 

1. The inm ore beds appear most frequently, although not always, 
together with or in the immediate vicinity of limestone or dolomite. In 
individual instances (Nordland, for example), it can be shown that the 
iron ore was formed at an earlier epoch than the accompanying lime- 
stone or dolomite. 

2. In spite of this intimate association, the iron ores (magnetite and 
hematite) occur only sparingly in the limestone or dolomite, but are 
much more commonly mingled with quartz, or rather with acidic sili- 
cates. 

3. Mingled with the iron ores there is nearly always some manganese, 
while, on the other hand, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, As, Sb, Bi, etc., occur only 
sporadically, or are entirely wanting; very little TiOj and Si; but t)C- 
casionally some native gold. 

4. Apatite and other phosphatic minerals are present in varying 
amount, on the whole somewhat more abundant than in the neighbor- 
ing schists and limestones. 

B«'caus<' of the intimate connection between our irf)n ores and the 
limestone and dolomite beds, and further because of the analogy be- 
tween the Archean and Cambrian magnetite and hematite beds, on the 
one hand, and nhe siderite, pyrolusite, and hematite deposits of the 
younger formations, besides the recent lake and bog ores, on the other 
hand, the conclusion is reached that our ores icere formed by preHpitatum 
from solutumM of ferrouti carbonate. We may state in advance that these 
carbonated solutions in earlier times, as at pres4*nt, have arisen princi- 
pally through the destruction of rocks already in existence. Fe 
COg shows, as is well known, a strong tendency t4)ward higher oxida- 
tion, for example, through the oxygen dissolved in water. The separa- 
tion of FeCO can thus only take place when oxidation is hindered or 
prevented by carbon or organisms. That the iron was precipitated di- 
rectly as orifle, hydrous or anhydrous, in the Archean and Cambrian de- 
liosits, in the same manner as in recent lake ores, is shown by the fact 
that we often meet beds of iron ore wholly free from lime and magnesia, 
on the one hand, and of limestone and dolomite almost wholly free from 
iron, on the other, sharply distinct from each other and yet intimately 
intermingled, and these contain in most cases no trace of organic mat- 
ter which could have prevented the oxidation. Only in rare instances 
corresijonding to the blackband ironstone (e, g. in Archean deposits of 



424 The American Geologist. Jane, 1894 

siderite mingled with carbon, and in some Swedish "Blandstenar,** i. e. 
man^aniferous iron ores mingled with carbonates and in many cases 
also with organic matter) can we establish the probability of an original 
separation as carbonate of iron. 

By oxidation according to the formula, 2FeC08+0=Fe208+2C()2, 
free carbonic oxide is produced. By this: 

(a) The separation of CaCOs (and MgOOg)* nnd at the same time of 
Fe2(>8» is hindered. 

{b) The precipitation of silicH is facilitated. 

(e) The phosphoric acid present in the solution is wholly or partly 
thrown down, if iron oxide (or hydrate) is suspended in the water. 

{d) Mauganous carbonate is not so quickly oxidised as the correspond- 
ing salt of iron. Hence the principal part of the manganese will be 
thrown down at a later period, depending on the local conditions, as oxide 
(hyperoxide), hydrous oxide, or carbonate (together with some of the 
CaCO and MgCOa). 

That the precipitations must actually occur in the order given. — 
viz., first, oxide of iron, with silica and phosphoric acid, together with 
part of the manganese; next, the bulk of the manganese; and finally, 
calcium and magnesium carbonates, — is proven by many concordant 
observations regarding the deposits of hot springs, salt wells, etc. 

For the sake of comparison it may be said that the lake and bog ores, 
which owe their origin chiefly to separation by the oxidation of carbon- 
ated solutions, really consist of hydrated iron oxides, with considerable 
silica and P2^>6» but on the other hand with very little carbonate, man- 
ganese in increasingly greater proportion, and occasionally traces of 
Ti02, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, As, etc. Moreover, at the bottom of the ocean 
have been found manganese concretions, comparable to the lake ores, 
and probably formed by analogous processes. 

Those chemical reactions which follow as a direct result of the oxida- 
tion of ferrous (and manganous) carbonates explain why 

(1) The Archean and Cambrian magnetite and hematite (in the Uni- 
ted States also siderite) deposits occur in clos<» relation with limestone 
(and dolomite). 

(2) The precipitation of the iron ore-limestone-dolomite series was al- 
ways in many places accompanied by the separation of the iron ore beds. 

{'A) The iron ore, although occurring so often in and near limestone 
(or dolomite), nevertheless is not mingled principally with carbonates 
but with silicates, especially quartz and acidic silicates. The silica 
which was separated at the same time with some of the alumina, lime, 
magnesia, etc.. was precipitated under the same conditions as the sili- 
cates present in the granular limestone, and later underwent the same 
metamorphism; hence the mineralogical and structural analogy. 

(4) The ircm ores almost always contain some manganese, partly in 
proportionately significant amount, while Cu, Pb. Zn, Ni, C-o, etc., are 
almost wholly absent. 

(5) We occasionally find in one and the same l(»cality (L&ngban, 
Nordmarken) .separated indei)endent beds (a) of siliceous and (b) of 




JReciew of liecent Geological Literature. 425 

man^am^se ore, poor in iron oxide but rich in CaCOg and MgCOj. It 
also explains why the limestones and dolomites adjoining the ore are on 
the whole richer in manganese and poorer in iron than the iron ores. 

<B) These iron ores, like the r«'cent lake and bog or«»s, are marked as a 
whole, though with numerous exceptions, by a larger apatite or phos- 
phorus content than the associated schists and limestones. 

(7) Of the rare elements, it is singular that gold alone in the native 
state is <K*casionally found in a relatively large amount in the iron ore 
(e. g. in the itabirite in Hraxil, Carolina, Africa, and Sweden). This is 
easily explained by the reducing action of ferrous carbonate (instead of 
the sulphate as in the metallurgical practice) upon AuClg. AnaU)gy\ 
Native gold is frequently found in stalactites of manganese ore in Aus- 
tralia. 

(8) Finally, it may b<» remarked that the lenticular shape of our mag- 
netite and hematite de[)osits is explained by their anah)gy with the ir- 
regularly shaped beds of lake ore in relatively deep lakes. 

The sedimentary iron ore defH)sits occurring in Sweden and Norway 
may be divided into a series t)f sub-groups (with the Swedish names): 
♦•Torrsten," *'Quicksten" with "Knb&rt gAeode," "Blandsten," and 
"Manganmalme,** which are distinguished in the order named by (a) a 
decrease in the .silica content and an increase in the content of basic 
silicates and carbonates, as regards their slag-producing constituents. 
We also find, in general, (b) an increa.s«M)f manganese, and (c) a decrea.se 
of apatite content. 

The chemical evidence is re[)eated so often that we must ascribe to it 
a theoretical significance. It appan*ntly sustains the most intimate re- 
lation with the details of the succession of precipitates. Under normal 
I)roces8es of oxidation ('iFeCXhi + <)), Fe2 O3, with relatively large 
amounts of Si()2 and PaOs but with very little Mn, is separated, and 
there may thus result a *'Torrsten'* even out of a solution rich in Mn. 
On the other hand, where, for any reason whatever (e. g. by the presence 
of organic matter), oxidation is prevented or delayed and precipitation 
can only be accomplished by the aid of an excess of carbonic acid, we 
have contemporaneous de(K)sition of iron, of a large part of the Mn con- 
tent, and also of some lime (and magnesia) carNmate. We obtain thus 
a manganiferous irtm ore mingled with carbonates and basic silicates. 
AnnUtgy: the primarily formed siderite deposits of the later formations 
are distinguished by a relatively larger Mn content than the primary 
limonite and hematite deposits in the same formations. 

The Tttenty- First Annual Report of the (wrologieal and Natural History 
Surrey of Minnesota, for f fie year 189J. 8vo, 171 pages; Minneapolis, 1893. 
The report is divided into seven parts, as follows: 1. Summary state- 
ment and comparative nomenclature, by the state geologist, N. H. 
Winchell. Accompanying this is a table of pre-Silurian rocks of Min- 
nesota with their equivalents in adjacent territory*. This table will be 
of value in giving a conci.se statement of the nomenclature used by the 
Minnesota survey, and in showing the harmony and lack of harmony 



426 The American Geologist, Jone,i894 

that exist in the naming and corrHation of the older rocks of the Lake 
Superior region. II. The geology of Kekequabic lake in northeastern 
Minnesota, with special reference to an aiigite S(xla-granite, by U. S. 
Grant. This gives a geological description of a limited area and a (te* 
trographical description of the eruptive rocks, the most important of 
which are an augite-soda-granite and a hornblende-porphyrite. III. 
Catalogue of rock specimens collected in northeastern Minnesota in 1802, 
by U. S. Grant. IV. Preliminary report of a reconnoissance in north- 
western Minnesota in 1892, by J. E. Todd. Here are given notes of a 
summer*s work on the glacial geology and topography of the northwest- 
ern part of the state. Xo exposures of rocks older than the drift were 
seen except where the Archean outcrops on the south shore of the Lake 
of the Woods. V. Field observations of N. H. Winchell in 1892. This 
contains: notes on the Mesabi iron range; manganese oxide at Monti- 
cello; Republic and Ishf^eming, Mich.: Potsdam, N. Y.; Morrison county, 
Minn.; some problems of the Mesabi iron ore:* and remarks on the so- 
called muscovadyte or muscovado rock. A number of pages is given to 
a review of the question of the first recognition of the unconformity 
between the two great iron-bearing formations (Ui)per and Lower Hu- 
ronian) in the lake Superior region, and esi)eciany in the Marquette dis- 
trict: the author thinks that he was the first to recognize this break and 
to appreciate its importance, and that Prof. R. D. Irving did not recog- 
nize it. In his notes on the Potsdam region Prof. Winchell seems in- 
clined to put the true Potsdam .sandstone where it is usually placed by 
geologists, at the base of the Upper Cambrian, and not at the base of 
the Ijower Cambrian where he has heretofore insisted that it belonged. 
He thus no longer regards ihe Sioux quartzite and the quartzite at the 
base of the Animikie as the western equivalents of the Potsdam of New 
York. VI. Additional rock samples collected in 1892. to illustrate the 
notes of N. H. Winchell. VII. Additions to the library since the report 
for 1891. G. 

Tfie Trap Diken of the Lake ChampUiin Itigivn. By J. F. Kemp and 
V. F. Marsters. r. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin 107: 62 pages, 4 plates, 
1893. In the vicinity of lakeChamplain, andest)ecially abundant along 
the shores of the middle part of the lake, are numerous dikes of light 
colored acid rocks, feldspathic i)orphyries or trachytes (bostonites), and 
darker basic ones. The latter include diabases, camptonites, monchi- 
quites and fourchites. The diabase dikes are very numerous in the 
older rocks on the west side of Ihe lake and frequently cut the iron ore 
bodies; they pass into camptonites, which are also quite common. The 
monchiquite and fourchite dikes are not so plentiful, of the latter 
only one being known. A petrographical description of each of these 
rock tyjjes is given and there are some remarks on the classification of 
dike rocks, the following divisions of the more basic dike rocks being 
made: A. Syenitic lamprophyres, including (1) minettes and (2) voge- 
sites: B. Dioritic lamprophyres, including (1) kersantites, (2) campton- 

*Already pabluhed in the Akkrioam Gbolooist, vol, x, pp. 1($9-179, Sept., 1^2. 




-\ 



lieciew of liecent Geological Litem tttre. 427 

ilfsand (3) dtabasos: V. Monchiquit^'s: I). Fourchites. Alltht' strata of 
the shores of lake Champlain, up to and including the l^tica slate, are 
cut by these dikes, and since their intrusion they have sutfered practi- 
cally no deformation. From the fact that camptonites. monchiquites 
and fourchites are almost invariably associated with eleolite syenite, 
the authors think that this rock may ix'rhaps be found in the Adiron- 
dacks, or that possibly these dikef) rt»present the extreme southern 
manifestation of the eruptive action that produced the nepheline rocks 
near Montreal, whos<» time of intrusion was between th<' Tr<*nton and 
Lower Helderberjf. (i. 

Tlte Oraniteat Mountn Adam and AV, Wanrirk, Orange Co., X. V., 
and iVjt eontart pJiemnnena. By .1. F. Kemp and ARTurii Hollick. An- 
nals N. Y. Acad. Sci.. vol. 7, pp. (^8-054, pis. 2 and :i, 181)4. The granite 
is of a basic hornblendic typ<', almost a quart/, diorite: it has intruded 
the white limestone, and at the juncti<m of the two is a well deveU»i>»»d 
contact zone with minerals jn^culiar to granite-limestone contacts else- 
where. On approaching the limestone the granite becomes richer in 
pyroxene (malacolite) and at the c(mtact is a distinct scatK)lite zone, be- 
yond which the limestone is charged with aggregates of silicates. The 
two limestones (whitv and blue) are regarded by the authors as probably 
one, the former being a more metamor])hosed phase of the latter. The 
same opinion is held by F. L. Nason for the southward extenson of these 
limestones in Xew Jersey, where the blue is found to be of Cambrian 
age. The pajM-r is accompanied by a **List and Bibliography of the 
Minerals occurring in Warwick township,'' by Heinrich Uies. {». 

On the Cryntallizatiitn of Herderite. By S. L. Pen field. Amer. .Tour. 
Sci.. H. vol. 47. pp. 329-*{39, pi. 8, May, 181)4. An examination of some 
si)ecimens fn»m Paris, Me., which proved to be monoclinic, led to a 
study of specimens from other localities with the result that herderite 
was found to be alwavs monoclinic and not orthorhombic as hitherto 
thought. In this mineral ttu<»rine and hydroxyl are isomorphous and 
occur in different projKirt ions: some of the physical pn»i)«'rties of herder- 
ite vary as the amount of hydroxyl increases or diminishes. (•. 

On the Chemical Compwiition and Related Phjftnral I^opertien of Topaz. 
By S. L. Pen'field and J. (\ Minok. Jr. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3, vol. 47, 
pp. 387-'i0<$, May, 1894. Topaz is found t<i contain a small and variabh* 
jjercentage of hydroxyl which is isomorphous with and partly replaces 
the tlourine. As the pr(»iK)rti(»n of these* two substances ^vary there is 
found to be a decided change in some of the physical ])roi)erties of the 
mineral; thus, as the proportion of hydroxyl increases the sjwciflc grav- 
ity, the strength of the double refraction; the divergence of the optic 
axes and the length of the crystallographlc axes a and r decreases while 
the indices of refraction increase. (i. 

DeToni»rhe Vertiteinerungen ton Lagtfinha in Matio OnMuto(Brasilien); by 
Li'D^w, VON Ammon. (Zeilschr. der (lesell.sch. ftlr Erdkunde zu Berlin. 
vt»l. xxviit, 18JV4.) 



428 The American Geologist. Jone,i8M 

Theso descriptions are based upon fossils collected by Vogel in the region 
from which Herbert Smith obtained the material described by Orville 
Derby in 1890. The locality is u{K)n the Chapada-plateau, in the Taqua- 
rassu region, about 40 miles east of C'uyaba, capital of the state of 
Matto Grosso: the rock principally a yellowish or rusty brown sand- 
stone (like most of the fossil-bearing Devonian strata of South America), 
with intercalated clay shales. The following fauna is described: 

Harpea sp. Chonetes falklandica Morris and SharjH*. 

PhttcopH brazilienifis Clarke. Spirifer rogeli, nov.(cf. duodtnariun Hall ), 

BeUerophon chapadentiiH, no v. Leptoro'lia flabelliteH (V)nrad. 

TentaruliteH bdluluM Hall. 

(yrbiculindm bnini Shari)e. 

Derby correlated the fauna on the basis of species identified by him 
with the middle Devonian or Erere fauna of the Ama/.onas, but v. Am- 
mon finds in it a closer similarity with the lower Devonian or Maecuru 
fauna of that region. 

Duslia, nn^ 7wue Vhitonidmyattuny nun drm bUhmvichen Untertdlur, nebnt 
einigen Bemerkungen Uber die gattung Trutpus Barr. By J. J. Jahn. (Sitz- 
ungsber. der kais. Akad. di*r Wissensch. in Wien. Dec, 1893.) 

Dwtlia is a genus founded upon entire individuals strikingly similar 
in certain structural features to .some of the recent Chitons, while all 
other of the older paleozoic remains which have been referred to the 
genus Chiton are more widely dissimilar from typical forms of that 
genus. The author regards Harrande's genus Tnopun, described as a 
trilobite, also one of the Chitonidff. 

Notes Paleontologi4/uejt; I. Cnnttarefi, By J. Bkkgeron (Bull, de la S<»c. 
G6ol. de France. .3d ser. vol. xxi, pp. 3.33-347, pis. vii, viii). In this 
paper the writer gives a i)recise account of his trilobite genus Asaphdina, 
which is an asaphid from the Arenig horizon, principally characterized 
by a pair of long pygidial spines. Further, the sp<*cies AnthracopeltiH 
rrepini Boulay, from the ct»al measures of Bully-cirenay, is r<*dt*scribed 

with figures, and shown ti> be a I^eMfioirhia. 

• 

7'he Appendages of tJie Pygidium of Triarthrua. By C. E. Beecheh. 
(American .liuirnal of Science, April. 1894, pp. 2J)8-300, pl.-vii.) The 
author continues his elucidation of the ventral anatomy of the Trilobite 
by demonstrating that the endo{M>dite and e.voiwdile of the thoracic 
legs, which are adapted r**s|)ectively to crawling and swimming (soe 
Am. (Ieolooist, January, 1894) become progressively modified ixistvri- 
orly, and u|M)n reaching th<' pygidium the proximal S(*gments of the 
endo[XK]ite become greatly expanded, forming a paddle-like organ, 
whose form implies a modification of function, from crawling to swim- 
ming. The form of the pygidial exoiM)dite is modified only in the 
greater development of the fin-like and fimbriated ba.sal joint. 

lieruritm der otftbaltiHrhert Milurixchett Trilobiten. Abtheilung IV: t^nlym- 
mrniden, Proetiden, Bronteiden, Harpedideiu Trinueleiden, Remapleuridtfi, 
und Agno&tiden. By Friedrich Schmidt. (Mem. de T Acad. Imp.desSci. 



Review of Recent Geological Literature, 429 

<lr St. IVtersb., 7th sor., vol. xLii. No. 5, pp. SK{, pi. MJ, 18JM.) This 
roiitiiiUHtion of the author's ehiborati* study of the Sihiriaii trilo- 
bitic faunas of liu.ssia embraces the consideration of .'J8 siH'cies and va- 
rieties of \\\ jfenera and subjrenera behm^in^^ to the families mentioned. 
Ftmrteen of the stx'cies and varieties are new. A precise redefinition of 
the ^enuK (^tiff/mmffif (the author follows Undstrom in the adoption of 
the double m) restricts it to forms with rounded (fiMial an^lfs, cephalic 
mar^rin without serrations, irlabella reachin<r the anterior iHtrder and 
b«*arin$; 3-5 pairs of lobes, thoracic pleune with triangular articulating; 
surfaces, py^idial pleurie 5 on each side (ly|M». C tuhtrfuhta HrQn- 
nich). This limitation of the ^enus ofMMis the way f<ir the emi)loyment 
of Corda's term Pharontoma for a sub>;eneric division, to include sjM'cies 
havin^r the ^enal extremities prcnhiced into spines, border<»f the glabella 
t<M»thed, glabella short, not reaching; the anterior border and with 2 
pairs of low lobes on each side, dorsal furrows with a pit at each anteri- 
or extremity and a subcircular expansion Ixdiind. and thoracic pleura* 
without trian^rular art iculatinif surfaces. A single new term is intro- 
duced in a similar capacity, that is. as a subgenus of Cttlprnmene, viz.: 
I^jfethnnetitpuM, for the s|K'cies (\ rolborthi^ nov., which is characterized 
by elevated ridges extending? aUm^ the anterior facial sutures to the 
anterior submar$;inal jrroove. Of the s|H>cies described behmjr to (^ti- 
lymmtne, \\ to P/iaroMfofmi, 1 U) l^ychometopUH, i\ io liroNteuH, S to PrtH-tntt, 
*2 to Ci/p/taxpifi, 1 t(i Mfuorephftlun, 1 to Harpide*^ 2 t(» Ilarpfjt, \ to 7W- 
hurleuft, .") t<» AiupffX.W to HetnoplturidrM^ and 1 to Af/tioMfUM. 

(rfohf/irttl Stfrrrt/ of (^ttnada. Annual lifport {nfir wriV*), rol. V, for 
lSiHf'*;U. Alfkkd U. C\ Selwyn, ('. M. (i.. Director. Two parts, con- 
taining thirteen re[M>rts; pp. xlvi, 1.121, with 58 plates ('M bein^^ maps, 
sections and views: and 2-4 statistical diagrams of the mineral resourc«*s 
of Canada). Ottawa, 180.'<. In this very comprehensive yearly rejMirt 
much varied information is presi'Uted. concernintj the j^eolojry, tofw*;;- 
raphy and natural ri'.scmrces of various parts of British America in 
which s|H*cial explorations have been in projrress. The summary reiMirts 
i»f the work of the surv<»v durin<; ISIMI and 1S91, by thedirech»r, occupy 
178 pa^es. 

Mr. K. («. Mil'iiNNKfiL next has a re|)ort of iu pair>*s <in the ])ortit»n of 
the District of Athabasca between the Peace and Athabasca rivi-rs 
north of Lesser Slave lak(». Devonian limestones on ihi»se rixers dip 
prevailin^rly threi* or four Jeet jM^r mile northward, and an* apparently 
succeeded <*onformably by the Creiaceoiis series. X'^** ^''^^^ interval of 
time between tliesf in^rimls is, so far as obs»'rve<l, unn*pn*.sented, i'ith»*r 
by df|>osiiion or erosion, from which the area is thou<rht to havi» be«*n 
durin;; all that time the bed of an abyssal ocean. f<K) far from its shores 
to receive appreciable s«*diment.s. The Cretaceous section ranires frt»m 
th«* Dakota up to the Laramie, the former beinj,^ n*presented by the im'- 
culiar Tar san<ls, 140 to 22.") feel thick, which have become saturated 
with bituminous matter rising from somewhat deeply underlyin*; D«*- 
vonian strata. "The Tar sands evidence an ut)wellin^of |M*troleum tt> 



430 T'he American Geologist, June, 18M 

tlu* siirfacf iiii«'()iialc(1 <'ls«*wln'n* in th«' worWK bii! tlicnKirc v(>)ati)t> and 
valuable ronstitiicnis of the oil have lon<r sinn* clisapiM^anHl. and the 
Tivcks from which it issued are j>robablv exiiausted us the flow has 
ceased." 

Mr. .1. W. TvKKKLLconlrihut<*s a memoir of •>:{."> pa jres. on northwestern 
Manit(»ba and |K>rtions of t)ie adjacent Districts of Assinilxtia and Sas- 
katchewan. Durinj; the Tertiary era jjreat denu<lation of the Creta- 
ceous strata of that re«rion was formin«r th»' present valleys of tlie 
Saskatchewan, \ivi\ Deer, Swan. Valley, and Assiniboine rivers, and the 
broad lowland plain which holds in its extensive but shallow depressions 
lakes Winni]M><r. Manitoba, and Winni'iM'ifosis. From this plain of the 
jrreat Manitolia lakes th<'('retace*ius rocks were almttst entirelv denuded 
down to the underlyin<r tl<H>r <»f Paleozoic Ifmeston^s. The main stream 
<if the river system effectinjr this er(»siou ap|H'ars to have flowed north- 
westerly throu«rh Manitoba. Farther north it pnibably traversed the 
prestMit areas of Huds4in bay and strait, having beU»n»re<l to a time of 
jrradual uplift of the continent much at)ove its present hiirht, preced- 
inirand finally producinjr the Ici- ajre. The oV)servationsof <;lacial .strin* 
show that the ice-sheet flowed stMilhward across the hijrh .\ssinil)oia 
jilains. and soul hea.st ward over the Manil(»ba lake district. Till thinl\ 
c<»vers the I'aleozoic nu'ksof that district: but it is thicker, and is fre- 
tpiently accomjmnied by <iverlyin:r b«'ds of mtKlifled drift uimiu the vast 
jilateau of Oetace<ius shales <»n the west. 

The re|)ort of Dr. Kobkut Mkll. on the Sudbury minin^r district, oc- 
cupies \)7} patfes, includini; four at»|M'mlixe.s. The accompanyin«r map is 
sheet KiO of the Ontario series of the Survey. co\erin;r 7*2 miles from 
east to west h\ 4M miles from north to south, and comprisinjr the nickel 
deiH)sits which ha\i* become so celebrated during the last f<*w\ears. 
The rocks are successiv»'l\ <if Laurent ian. liuronian. and probably 
Lt»wer Cambrian ajre. with larp' areas of pyritiferous «rrei»nston«*s in th** 
Huron ian series. The ores (»f nickel are always found in association 
with i»yrrh*>tite. which forms brecciated masses in the ^'-reenstones or at 
their contact with <)ther rocks. The avera^re am<iunt <»f nickel in this 
iron sulphiile is only two to three per cent., but richer ores are foutul in 
small (pntntities. Dr. liell considers that the nickelifenms j)> rrliotite 
has resultetl from a state of fusion. Amonjr other economic mineral 
of the tlistrict, ores of copper, lead. /.iiu\ and jfold are enumerated.- 

Hunters' Island, a larjre Archean tract, almost ctimpletely surnuinded 
In can<H*able streams and lakes, adjoinin<; the northern boundary of 
Minnesota, is de«icribed by the late Mr. W. H. ('. Smith. The srneisses 
and schists ctmimtmly pres<'nt the toiMVirraphic features of rtuindetl 
hills antl rofhen moutonimt*, with ))lentiful drift. Courses of ;:lacial stri- 
ation ranife fn>m S. *2° W. to S. WV^ W. 

I Xescribinjr the .southern |)ort ions of Port neuf, Quel)ec. and Montmor- 
ency c<»unties. which reach fn»m tlie watershed south tif lake St. .Itihn 
to the St. Lawrence. Mr. A. P. Low remarks the nearly due S4mth 
course of all f he jrlacial strije on the c(»mparative|y low country north 
of that lake, which is .ViO feet above the sea. Thence the ice-sheet car* 



r 



Reeoit PtthUcadonn, 481 

Hrcl Tn'iilon iimf>Kt(im* IxHiUhTs up 1,1()0 frot in n distiiiiro or tJ<> mih»s 
s<mtliwur<l on tin* Arcln'Hn hi^rhlHuds. Approaching thv St. Liiwr«*nn', 
the Ktriation is found to be murli influenced by minor toiM>^raphic 
forms *>r valleys and hills. Till is spread over the whole rt»jjioii. cover- 
ing to a j:reat«*r or less thickness the rounded Archenn hills: and only 
ah>n«? the stream valleys is if concealed by jrravels. sands and clays, of 
llu' miMlif1«>d drift and of later alluvial ori^cin. The end of thetilacial 
IH'riiKl was attendf>d by a deprt*ssion of this pari of the continent about 
<MH) feet below its present elevation, as shown h\ terraces and deltas of 
fossiliferous stratified marine cla>s and sands. formin<; |Nirtions of the 
miHtifled drift, which rest on the slopes of the till aloni; the rixer val- 
levs. 

Other re|M>rls in this volume are b\ I,. W . Hah.kv and \\ . McIXNKs, 
on the counliesof Temiscouata and Kimouski. in the province of Que- 
bec, and on adjoinlntr areas in New Hruiiswick and Maine (2H pu^res): by 
Hl<ill Ki.KTillKK. on the counties of Pictouand Colchester, No\a Scotia 
(lu:{ pap*s):b\ H. P. H. HiitMKtJ.. on natural >ras and petrohMim in ()n- 
Tari(» [\)\ patfes): by (J. C. Hofkmax. on the chemical work of the survey 
Ci'l iMures): and b\ K. D. Inoai.i.. on mineral statistics and mines. ft>r 
IHiHMind ISDI (toirether 10! paKes). 



RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 



/. (iortrunnnf and Stntt Ji*jHtrffi. 

Annual Report of the Moard of U<'<rentsof the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion. IHJU. contains: .St»me applications of ph\sics and mathematics 
to k^eolojr> . ('. ChrtM': Orijrin of the rock jjressure of natural <:as in the 
Trenton limest<ine of Ohio an<l Indiana. Kdward Orton: (ie^sers. W. H. 
Wet'd: The (Julf Stream. Alexaiitler Airas^iz: On the absiilute measure 
t»f hardness. F. Auerhach: The fjtiw of solids. <»r tin* behavior of solids 
un<ler hijrh pressure, Wm. Hullock. 

UulletiiMif the Tnited States (teolojrical Surve\. No. 1(M5. The Colo- 
ra<h> formation and its invertebrate fauna. T. \V, Stanton. 

(fetUojrical Survey of Alabama: Keiwirt on the (\ml Measures of 
HiiHint mountain, with ma|> and se(*fions, by A. M. <iibson. Svo.. pp. 
l-SO. ISJW. 

I<»wa <Jeoio^ical Survey, vol. *i: Coal de|M»sits of luwa. by C. \{. KeM-s. 
XM \miivs, IS plates. I81M. 

Kiirhteenlh Annual Ke|Hirt of the State (ieoloifisi of Indiana, con- 
tains: IntHMluctory. S. S. (iorby: (Jeoloir\ of Noble county, C. U. Dryer: 
Fh»raof Noble county. \V. H. Van Citirder: !{eport upon the >reolo>ry «d' 
Lajfrantfe county. C. K, Dryer: The drift of thi' Wabash-Krie region. 
i\ \i. Dryer: Report of the inspector of mines. Thomas McQuade: Ke- 
jK^rt i»f the state supervisor of oils. N. J Hyde: Ke|M)rt of the state 



432 I'he American Geologist. Jaiie,i§94 

suiHTvisor of imtiirH] j,'a.s, E. T. .1. Jordan: IncliHiia's structural fea- 
tun»s as revealod by the drill, E. P. ('ubb»*rl\ : Paleontolosry, S. A. Mil- 
li*r: Natural ^as and oil maf). 

(leolo^ical and Natural History Surwyof Minn(\sota, tilst Ann. Krpt.* 
contains: Summary slatcnu'nt and comparativ<* nomenclature (with a 
table of the Pre-Silurian rocks of Minnesota); The «;eolojry of Kekequa- 
bic lake in norlheastern Minnesota, with s|N'Cial reference to an aujrile- 
soda "granite, V. S. (irant: Catalojrue of rock sjM'cimens collected in 
northeastern Minnesota in 1802, V. S. Grant: Preliminary report of a re- 
connoissance in northwestern Minnesota in 18i)2, ,1. E. Todd; Field ob- 
servations of N. H. Winchell in 18U2: Additional rock samples ct»llected 
in 1802, to illustrate the rejxjrt of N. H. \Vinch«'ll. 

//. Ih'oi'rediutjH of Sric/itijir SiteidieM. 

Bulletin of the (Jeolo>cical Society of America, vol. •), pp. 71-51-4, con- 
tains: Evidences t)f the derivation <)f the kames, eskers, and moraines 
of the North American ice-sheet from its en»:lacial drift, Warren Ui)- 
ham, pp. 71-8(): The succession of the Pleistocene formations in th»* 
Mississippi and Nelson river basins, Warren I'jjham. i)p. 87-10(): Some- 
recent discussions in «reolojry, .1. W. Dawson, pp. 101-110; (i<u»]o^ical 
notes on some of the coasts and islands of Berinjr sea and vicinity, (i. 
M. Dawson, pp. 117-140: (Vnozoic jreolojry alonjf tlie Atjalachicola river,. 
W. H. Dall and ,). Stanley-Brown, pp. 147-170: Paleozoic overlaps in 
Montgomery and Pulaski counties, Virjrinia, M. U. Campbell, pp. 171- 
IJK): Paleozoic intra-formational conglomerates, ('. I). Walcott, pp. 101- 
108; Pleistocene distortions of the Atlantic seacoast, N. S. Shaler, p|). 
100-202: Relation <»f mountain-jrn»wth to formation of continent.s, N. 
S. Shaler. i)p. 203-20(>: Phenomena t»f beach and dune sands. N. S> 
Shaler, pp. 207-212: (Jabbros of the western shore of lake C'hamplain. 
.]. F. Kemp, pp. 213-224: Intrusive sandsttme dikes in j^ranite, Whitman 
Cross, pp. 225-2I{0: Crustal adjustment in the upper Mississip]>i valley, 
C. H. Keyes, pp. 2iU-242; Ajfe of th«» auriferous jTravels of the Sierra 
Nevada, .1. P. Smith, pp. 24.V258: (>eolo&;icaI activity of the earth's oriir- 
inally absorbed jrases, A. C. Lane. pp. 2.1t>-280: Extramorainic drift be- 
tween the D<«laware and tlu' Schuylkill. E. H. Williams. Jr.. pp. 281- 
21MJ: (h'olo^y of parts of Texas. Indian Territory and Arkan.sas adjacent to- 
Red river, iV T. Hill, pp. 207-:«8: Lak«' CaynK** » «*<»ck basin, R. S. Tarr. 
pp. JnO-;j.")0: Pre-Paleozoic decay of crystallint' rocks north of lake Hunm, 
Robert Bell. pp. 3.*)7-.'{(W): (Jeolojfic relations from (ireen jiond. New 
.Jersey, to Skuniiemunk mountain, New Y<irk, N. H. Darton, pp. .^(57- 
304: Trias and Jura in the western states. Alpheiis Hyatt, pp. 305-434: 
The Shasta-Chico series, J. S. Diller and T. W. Stanton, pp. 435.464: 
(re<»lojry <»f a |)orlion of the CiM)sa valley in (ieorjria and Alabama. C. W. 
Hayes, pp. 4(>5-480: Mica deiKisits in the Laurentian of the Ottawa dis- 
trict, R. W. Ells, pp. 481-488: (ieolojjical sketch of Lower California, S. 
F. Emmcms and (i. P. Merrill, pp. 480-514. 

The National (Jeojrraphic Mapizine, vol. 5. pp. l.*)4-l(M). Jan. 31. 1804. 
contains: The relations ()f «reol<»«ry to physiciirraphy ii» our e<lucationaIi 
svstem, T. C. Chamberlin. 



Recent Pnhlications, 433 

The Journal of tht* (Miiciiinati S<ici*»t\ of Natural History, vol. 10, 
no. 4, .Ian.. 1894, contains: Mineral synthesis, (i. P. (Jrimsley; Manual 
of the paleontology of the Cincinnati jrroup. Part V. .). F. James. 

Transactions of the Texas Academy ()f Science, vol. 1, no. 2. con- 
tains: The non-metallic mineral resources <»f the state of Texas. \\. II. 
V(»n Streeruwitz. 

Journal of the Klisha Mitchell Sci. Soc, 10th year, Isl |mrl. 18!W. con- 
tains: Notes on tin* detlective effect of the «'arth's rotation as shown in 
streams. Collier Cohh. 

///. PfiprtM in Saftiiifir Journal. 

Journal t)f ttrolo^y. Vol. *2» No. 1, Jan.-Feh., IHtM. contains: The 
distribution of ancient volcanic rocks alonjr the eastern txirder of Ntirth 
America. (J. H. Williams: Revolution in the to|M)^raphy of the Pacific 
coast siiu'e the auriferous jjravel jM*riod. J. S. Diller; The name "New- 
ark*' in American stratiirrajihy: a joint discussion. («. K. ^filbert and 
H. S. Kyman: An abamloned PleistoCHnt* river channel in eastern Indi- 
ana. C. S, IVachler: Studies for stu<lents: — Physical ^eo^rraphy in the 
university, Wm. M. Davis: Summary of current Pre-Cambrian North 
American literature. C. K. Van Hise. 

Journal of (teolojry, vol, 2. no. 2, Feb. -March. 18!I4. contains: The 
glacial succession in Ntirway. A. M. Hansen: Dual nomenclature in 
^eolo^ical classification, H. S. Williams: Ori^rin and classification of the 
^re«Misands of New Jersey. W. B. Clark: The nature of coal horizon.s, 
C. U. Keyes: The Arkansas Coal Measures in their relation to the Pa- 
cific Carboniferous province. J. P. Smith: Pseudr»-cols. T. C. Cham- 
berlin: Note on the Kn^lisii ecpiivalent of Schupp«'nstruktur. W. H. 
Hobbs: (feolo<rical surveys of Missouri, Arthur Winslow. 

American Journal tif Science. Vol. 47. Feb., 181)4. contains: Chemi- 
cal comfN>sition <tf staurolite, and the rejrular arran^rement of its carbo- 
naceous inclusions, S. L. Penfield and J. H. Pratt: Carboniferous in- 
sects of Commentry, France, S. H. Scudder: Ha rrisburjj terraces. H. H. 
Hashons Additional si)i»cies of Pleistocene fossils from Winthroj), Mass., 
R. E. IXnljfe: Amount of glacial erosion in the Finifer-hake rejfion of 
New York. D. F. Lincoln: Basalts of Kula. H. S. Washington: Fishing 
banks between CajM* (\k1 and Newf<nindland» AVarren l*pham. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 47, March, 1894, contains: Continuity of the 
(rlacial p<»ri<Kl, (?. F. Wri;;ht: Chemical ct»miK)siti<»n of chondrtKlite, 
humiteand clinohumite. S. L. Penfield and W. T. H. Howe: Deform- 
atitm of the Lundy beach and birth of lake Krte. J. W. Spencer: Crys- 
tallixation of enar^ite, h. V. Pirsson: Relations <if the Lower Menom- 
inee and I^iwer Marquette series in Michi;;an (Preliminary). H. L. 
Smyth: Rest(»ration of Camptosaurus. (). C. Marsh. 

The same, v«»l. 47, April, 1894, cimtains: Further studies of the 
drainage features of the up|>er (Hiio basin, T. C. Chamberlin and Frank 
Leverett: The P(»st-K<»cene formati<ms of theCoa.stal plain of Alabama, 
E. A. Smith: Variscile from Ttah. R. L. Packard: The ap|)enda^es 
iif the py^idium <if Triarthrus, C. E. IttM'cher: On the pMtlo^rlcal |iosi- 



484 2'he American Geologist. June, 1894 

ti(»n of thf KocM'Dt* d(')K>.sit.s of Maryland ami Virginia, H. 1>. Harris; 
(Vmtributions to Ihi^ crystallization of willemile, S. L. Penfiold: On 
tho occnrnMice of OltMiellus in the (irfMMi Pond Mountain st»rit»8of north- 
ern New .Jersey, with a note on the conjflomerates, V. 1). AValcott; Notes 
on the nickeliferous pyrite from Murray mine, Sudbury, Ont., T. L. 
Walker. 

American Naturalist, vol. 28. March, 18J)4. contains: On a small col- 
lection of vertebrat(* fossils from the Loup Fork ImhIs of northwestern 
Nebraska, with note on the jyeolo^y of the n»<cion, J. H. Hatcher. 

IV. K-rrffptH and fndiridufil PubHrutUmn, 

The ore deiKisits at Franklin Furnace and Offdensburjr. N. J., .1. F. 
Kemp; Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. \\\, pp. 7(M)8. 

Observations on the jreolotyy and botany of Martha's Vineyard. Arthur 
Hollick: Trans. N. V. Acad. Sci.. vol. \X pp. 8-*>2. 

The Deviffiian section of central New York ahuijr the I'nadilla river, 
C. S. Pros.srr: I'ith Ann. Kept, of the State (Jeolo^rist (N«'w York) for 
181)2, :C> pajres, 18$»4, 

A^e of the Newark brownstone, H. S. Lyman: Proc. Amer. Pliilos. 
Soc. vol. X\, pp. .VIO, 18J)4. 

t^irt her observations \\\M,n\ the occurrence <»f diamonds in meteorites, 
O. AV. Huntington: Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. 21). pf». 
204-211, 2 plates. 

The work and .sco|H' of tlu' («tM»l<ijrical Survey. (\ R. K^yes. Jowa 
(Jeol. Survey, vol. :j, Ann. Kept, for 181):J, pp. 47-J)8. 

Th«' miKle of occurrence of «rold in the ores of the Cripple ('re«*k dis- 
trict, Richard Pearce. Proc. Colorado Scientific Soc. 

S«'ct)nd K.\i)edition to Mount St. Klias, in 1891, I. C. Russell. Kith 
Ann. Rept. V. S. (ieol. Survey, pp. 1-S)1, IJ) plates, 18?)4. 

R««|K)rl of the State (J»H)lotrist. K. T. Dumble. 4th Ann. Rept. (}eol. 
Survey of Texas, pp. i-xxxv, 18J)H. 

Carboniferous CephaloiK>ds. sec(»nd paiM^r. Alpheus Hyatt, 1th Aim. 
Rept. (ieol. Survey of Texas, pj). H7J)^74, 18!)4. 

Shawan^unk Mountain. N. H. Darton. National (leojrraphic Ma^., 
v«il. «. pp. 2:MU. :J plates. 181U. 

Note on some HpiM»nda^es of the trilobites. C. I). Walcott. Phk*. t>f 
the Biological S(m\ <if Washinjrton. vol. 9. pp. 81)-J)7. plate L March 30, 
1894. 

The Coal Measures of M ism »uri. By .Arthur Winslow. Mineral Re- 
sources of the r. S.. 1892. pp. 229-2:i«. 189H. 

Contributions to thf morphology <»r Cladoselache (Cladinlus). By 
Ba.shford iVan. .l(»urnalof Morpholo<ry. vol. ix. No. 1. f»p, 87-112, 1894. 

The torsional theorv of joints. \\\ (J. F". Becker. Trans. Amer. Inst. 
Mining Knj;.. VIrjrinia Beach Meeting:. Feb.. 1894. 

V. Fnrriyn PuhlirntvmM. 

Annual Rep. Can. Inst., Vol. 5, 1892-93, contains: Archieological re- 
port, D. Boyle; Catalogue of specimens shown at Columbian Exposition, 



Recent Pttbltcafiofn*. 435 

Chicago; The Sooth wold Earthwork and the country of Neutrals, J. H. 
Coyne. 

Proc. Liverpool GeoL Soc., Vol. 7, Pt 1, 1892-93, contains: The phys- 
ical conditions of the Aralo-Caspian region, as bearing on the conditions 
under which the Triassic rocks were formed, W. Hewitt; The drift beds 
of the Moel Tryfaen area of the North Wales coast, T. M. Reade; The 
Qiacial deposits on the shore of the Mersey, between Hale Head and 
Decoy Marsh, J. Lomas; Some observations on mountain debris, L. 
Gumming; On some conditions existing during the formation of the 
older Carboniferous rooks, C. Ricketts; Note on section at Skillaw 
Clough, near Parbold, E. Dickson; Remarks on the formation of clay, 
P. Holland and E. Dickson; on some faults exposed in Arno quarry, J. 
Lomas and Capt. A. R. Dwerryhouse. 

Bull, de la Soc. Oeol. de France, t. 20, No. 8, 1892, contains: Cr^tac^ 
de la region sous-Pyren^enne, DeOrossouvre; Composition et structure 
des Corbi^res et de le region adjacent des Pyrenees, L. Carez; Existence 
d'une masse de r^couvrement dans les environs de Toulon, M. Zurcher. 

(leol. Sur. Can., vol.5, 1890-1891, contains: Summary reports on 
the operations of the (leological Survey for the years 1890-1891, A. 
R. C. Selwyn; On a portion of the District of Athabasca, comprising 
the country between Peace river and Athabasca river, R.G.McConnell: 
On Northwestern Manitoba, with portions of Assiniboia and Saskatch- 
ewan, J. B. Tyrrell; On the Sudbury mining district, R. Bell; On the 
geology of Hunters* Island and adjacent country, W. H. C. Smith; On 
the geology and economic minerals of the southern portion of Portneuf, 
Quebec and Montmorency counties, Quebec, A. P. Low; On portions 
of the Province of Quebec and adjoining areas in New Brunswick and 
Maine, L. W. Bailey and W. Mclnnes; On geological surveys and explor- 
ations in the counties of Pictou and Colchester, Nova Sootia, H. Fletcher; 
On natural gas and petroleum in Ontario prior to 1891,H.P.H.Brumell; 
Chemical contributions to the geology of Canada from the laboratory 
of the Survey, G.C. Hoffman; Division of mineral statistics and mines, 
E. D. Ingall and H. P. H. Brumell. 

Maps to accompany the annual report of the Geological Survey of 
Canada, vol. 5, 1890-1891. A. R. C. Selwyn, Director. 

Berichte der Naturf. Gesell. zu Freiburg, vol. 7, No. 1, June, 1893, 
contains: Unlersuchungen fiber die geoiogisohen VerbAltnisse zwischen 
Kandern und Lorrach in badischen Oberlande. Fr. Pfaff. 

The Genesis of mountain ranges, T. Mellard Reade. Nat. Sci., vol. 3, 
Nov., 1898. 

Review of **Palwontology of New York,'* vol. 8, pt. 2, by Agnes Crane. 
Greol. Magazine, vol. 10, Nov., 1893. 

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, vol. 24, 1893, 
contains: Recent developments of the Hamilton coalfield, R T. Moore. 

Bulletin de la Soci^t^ G<^ologique de France, 3rd series, vol. 21, no. 3, 
contains: Etude sur les Oppelia du groupe du Nims et les Sonneratia 
du groupe du birunratun et du rarfHulvatnH, Ch. Sarasin; Le genre 
Bathysiphon k V ^tat foasile, F. Sacco; Sur la classification et le par- 



436 The American Geologist. Jiine,i8M 

allelisme du gyst^me mioc^ne, Ch. Dep^ret; Quelques mots sur 1' Ox- 
fordieo et le Corallieo dee bords de la Serre, Abb^ Buorgeat. 

Ueber Gangdiabase der Gegend von Rio de Janeiro und fkber Salit 
von Sala in Scbweden, E. O. Hovey. Sep.-abdruck aus Tschermak's 
Miner, und petrograph. Mittheil., 1893. 

Annals of British geology, 1892. A digest of the books and papers 
published during the year— with occasional notes. By J. F. Blake. 
Pp. i-xliv, 1-310; London, 1893. 

Ueber ein neues Vorkommnis von Kugelgranit unfern Wirvik bet 
Borg& in Finland, nebst Bemerkungen tiber &hnliche Btldungen. By 
Benj. FrosteruB. DLssertation, Royal Alexandrian University of Fin- 
land, pp. 1 -34, 2 pis.; Helsingfors, 1893. 

Handbuch der Palaeontologie. By Karl A. ZitteJ. 3rd part of vol. 4; 
Mdnchen and Leipzig, 1893. 

La Terre avant Tapparition de Thorn me. By Fernand Priem. Pp. 1- 
192; Paris. 

Eologse Geologicfe Helvetiae, Vol. 4, No. 1, Dec, 1893, contains: Etude 
stratigraphique sur les terrains du JuraBernois (Partie septentrionale), 
— Nouvelles coupes du Tertiaire Jurassien, Louis Rollier; Coup d*a*il 
sur la structure g^ologique des environs de Montreux, H. Schardt; 
Programme d'excursion au Chablais; Geologic des Pr^alpes de la Savoie, 
Addresse Pr^sidentielle, E. Renevi^r; Compte-rendu de la Reunion de 
Lausanne. 

The Geological Magazine, New Series, Decade IV, Vol. I, No. 1, Jan., 
1894, contains: Coral in the '^Dolomites" of South Tyrol, Miss Maria 
M. Ogilvte; On the identity of Ellipaolites compressua J. Sowerby, with 
Ammonite» Henslowi J. Sowerby, A. H. Foord; Note on a new species 
of ACpyoruis {jE, titan), C. W. Andrews; Augen-structure in relation 
to the origin of the eruptive roclEs and gneiss, J. G. Gk>odchild; On the 
three glaciations in Switzerland, C. S. Du R. Preller; Notes on the com- 
positions of clays, slates, etc., and on some points in their contact-meta- 
morphtsm, W. M. Hutchings; Level of lake Leman, M. Hall; Volcanic 
series in the Malvern hills, H. D. Acland. 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



NoTK ON TiiK CiiKHALis Saxdstoxk. Tlu' writor liM(l occasion n*- 
cciillv to siMMul H day at thi' tt»wn <»f ('ht'halis, Washin(;ton. Whil«» 
thi»pe h«* found somv fossils. theoccurrenc«* of which it may bf of st»r- 
vicH tt» record. On thf east side of the town is a low ranjfe of hills. 
On the east side of the ridjre nearest the town a reservoir has been con- 
structed. From the reservoir th<* water is piped throujrli the rid>re b\ 
means of a tunnel. It was the dump of this tunnel which attracted 
the writer's attention as a favorable s|Hit to ascertain somethinjr of the 
ireolojrical character of the rid^re. The rock thrown out t»f the tunnel 



Correspondence. 437 

is H SHiulstoiHM>f variabh' rharHCU'r. Fnr thr in<ist imrt it is soft and 
friabli*. It is ^iMicrally clayi'v. and its color varies from bluish Kf^y <<> 
vc)l(»wiKh, according: to th«* stajri* of oxidation. A s«*(Mion is t»x|M>s<*d in 
I hi* cutting abov<* th«' rt*s«*rvoir, but th«* biMldinjr is indistinct. Tho 
r<K*ks in pMU'ral an* very similar t<i the soft sandstones which have 
thick and extensive beds of li^rnite associate<l with them in the vicinity 
of Chelialis. It is very probable that the sandstones in which the fos- 
.sils <K*cur and those in which the lignites <»cfur are part of the same 
);<M)|o^ical series. The fos.sils have l>een submitted to Mr. T, AV. Stan- 
ton of the r. S. <teolo<rical Survev, wht» has kindiv examin(*d them. 
He rejKirts that "they tiiclu(h> sjM'cies of Soleu. IJda. Tellina, Venus, 
Fusus. I>entalium, and others. As these are all marine forms they can- 
not be comi>ared with tlie l^rackish water fauna of the Pujret jrroiip. 
Two <ir three of the si>ecies resemble Tejon (Kocen**) forms, but as the 
material is not sutticient for iK>sitive identification, and as close I v re- 
laled s|M*cies al.s«i occur in the Miocene, it is not iHjssible to assign them 
Jo a definit** horizon. Thev are either Kocene t»r Miocene." 

The Interest attaching' to these fossils is their l)earin^ on the correla- 
tion of the Pup't >;roup. which comprises the li^niite-bearin^ forma- 
tions of Washington. Tlie sediments comiMisin^' it are very voluminous, 
aiMl the presence of the li>;niles tfives it consi(h*rable economic imixirt- 
ance. So far, however, llie aj?e of the Pujret jrroup has not l>een pre- 
cisely (h'termined. from the fact that the fossils found in it are not ma- 
rine and are therefore not easily compared with those of [)ossil)ly equiv- 
ah^nt formations of the coast. Here, at Chehalis, we have marine fos- 
sils, which are either Kocein' or Miocene, in a {xirtion, apparently, of 
the litrnite-bearin^j series. If the occurrence of lignites in thick and 
re|H'ated b«»ds may be taken as a diapiostic feature of the Putfet ^r«>up, 
we wem here to have the marine extension of the estuarine formations 
reco<fnixed Ity Dr. White asconstitutin;; the bulk of that ^nmp of strata. 
The fossils here refKirted were ctillected hurriedly in h'ss than an hour. 
A mon* careful examination of the field wotdd tloublless yield sufficient 
fossils to determine definitelv whether the Chehalis sandstone is of 
Eocene or Miocene a^fe, and it is the writer's hy|H)thesis that this would 
also determini* the ajre of the Pujfet ^roup. 

Ani>kkw ('. L.\wsox. 

f-t(of. LttlMtrdfor/f, I'tiir. t*f (*al{forhui, /hrir'ftj. f*iif., Jan. ^.K tHl^, 

Note on tiik Kkwkkxawax iumks ok (ikaxd Poktaok island, xohth 
co.\.'<T t»F L.\KK Sri»KKioK. In his monograph on the copiN^r-bearin^ rtn-ks, 
Prof. U, I). Ir\in;< states that tui this island can be .M'en the junction l)e- 
tween the KeweiMiawan and the up|M>rmost beds of the Animikie (rp|N*r 
Huronian.)* Since then little lijrht has lH*en thrown on the relations of 
these two .series in Minne.s(»ta. and the writer is awan* of no other imb- 
lished interpretation than that ^iven by lrvin«r havinir been put on the 
rocks of this island. 



*The Copmr>Bo«rinff Rook* of Lake Superior: V. 8. (tool. Sarvoy, Mpn. V, pp. 297, 
:«7. 405, and fiff. 1« on p. 297 : \r^\. 



438 lite American Geologist, Jone, 1W4 

(iraiid I\>rtaj;t* island lios in thi* mouth of a bay of tht* samo namt' \\\ 
T. ()8-($E., Cook county. Minni'sota. Th<* roclvS of lhi» island hav»» bt»en 
d<»scribpd by Prof. N. H. Winchell:* they consist of she«ts of s»»dim<'nt- 
ary and i^^noous rocks dippin<^ south(*astwaAliy at a small an;?le into the 
lake. The lowest beds exposed are at the northeast corner of the island; 
they consist of coarse and tine <rrHin(>d sandstones and arenaceous slates. 
They are cut and overlain by sheets of basic igneous rocks (at least a 
considerable part t>f which are effusive), which dip in entire con form ilyf 
with the underlying: elastics. The lowest expo.sed layers of the sand- 
stone are decidedly con>flomeratic, the foreijjn piecesoften beinjr several 
inches across. These conjrlomeratic bt»ds are comj>osed largely of fraia:- 
ments of (piartx. ^ray and reddish (piartzite. silice(nis slate, a dark flinty 
rock, red (piart/. por])hyry and red granite. Mt)st of these, more i^s\w- 
cially the (piart/. pebbles which make up the bulk of the rock, are 
clearly water-worn and w«»ll rounded. The (piartxite and slate pieces 
are similar to those occurrintr just to the north and northeast in the 
'Animikie strata, and the same can be said of the <piart/. j)orphyry and 
jrranitic pebbles. In fact all the pebbles of the conj^lomerale can be 
matched in the Animikie strata near by. The red quart/ porphyry and 
jrranite have been shown to be, at least in their present c«»ndition. later 
Ihan tlie Animikie.^ and nicks of this nature, which could have fur- 
nished thi* pebbles in the conjriomerate under discussion, do nt)t seem to 
be known in this rejjion. except in the Animikie and later .series. More- 
over, the alteration and recrystallization of the Animikie sandstones. 
I»ebbles referable io which occur in the conj^lomerate. date from the 
same time as the quart/, porphyry and *jranite. In addition to the fact 
that the |M»bbles of the conjrlomerate can be referred to the Animikie 
rocks close at hand much better than to anv others, is the fact that the 
sandstone and cou'rhimerate of (Jrand Porta^je island do not show evi- 
dence of havin^^ been subject<'d to metamorphosing? forces, as (h) the 
sandstones of lh<' Animikie in the immediate vicinltv. 

It thus seems evident that the elastics of (traml Portage island can 
n(»t be referred to the Animikie. as has been done hitherto, but that they 
probably ^'present tnie of the h>wer parts, if not tlw lt>wesl, of the Ke- 
wt»i'nawan in this locality: and that the contact formerly considered as 
here existing between the Animikie elastics and the Keweenawan erup- 
tives is really that between two parts of the Keweenawan itself. For a 
c<»nsiderable distance to the west of this place the lowest nicks of the 
Keweenawan as far as known are entirely eruptlves, but where the 
lower part of the Keweenawan first occurs to the east (on the east side of 
Thiinder bay) the lower member consists of a considerable thickness of 
sandstones, and it is with thesr that the elastics of (irand Portajfe are 
f»robably to l)e correlated. 

The above only ser\»*s to emphasize the existt»nce. already ajrreed 

•(Kh>1. and Nat. Hitt. 8ury. of Minn., 10th (1.H81) Ann. Kept., pp. 4.V46; l>s82. 

tR. D. Inring; op, cit,^ p. :i67. 

^ W. 8- Rayley ; The Eruptive and Sedimentary Rnrku on Pigeon Point, Minnesota,, 
and their Contact Phenomena; U. 8. (ieol. Sarvey, Bull. 109; 1S93. 



PevifoHal and Scitntijic Xcirs, 489 

iilN>ii by Kak*' Su|KTi<>r >?iM>Io>risfs, of un erosion inierviil b<'fw«M*n th<* 
Animikif* ami Khw»m»iihwhii; ami it also, if wr prdviKitniaily asKumf' that 
thf (jrand Pt>rtap* island iM)n>f!i»m«»rale n»prfs<'iits tlif «*arlit*st part of 
tlv K«*w<*fnawan, [h>IiiIs to tin* intrusion of tin* ;rn'at ;;abl)n> or diabase 
dikes of l*i«reon |>oint and (irand P<irla>?e an<l the ctMiseijnent modiflca- 
tion of the Animikie strata at a date earlier than the Keweenawan, very 
probably diirin^c the p-^ritKl of elevation in which the Animikie sedi- 
ments were rais<»d above the wa. Although it is likely that the elastic 
rocks of (r rand l*t)rlajre island represent tin* earliest pari of the KewiM*- 
ikHwan. still this is not pmven. 

Prof. N. M. Winchell. whom the writer accompanied to the locality 
al)ove described under the auspices «>f the (ieolo«;ical and Natural His- 
tory Survey of Minnesota, fully ajrrees with the opinion here expressed 
in rejrard to the ajre of the elastics «if < irand Porta;re island. 

Mtunrfipi>/i\ ,)fttiN., Mtlif Sth, ISU/i, V, S. (iKANT. 



PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 



llAN!>mH>K t)F THE BKACHH»pt)i>A. There probably was never 
a more striking and admirable illustration of persistence and 
success in a tedious seientific research, crowned at last with a 
perfect finale, according to the long cherished design and am- 
bition of its author, than the Handbook' of the Jiravhiopoda 
lately issued by Prof. James Hall. From time to time Dr. 
Hall has given, in his papers, glimpses of his work and of his 
success, and all students of the paleozoic faunas have taken a 
keen interest in his progress, and have lamented the occasional 
and very discouraging delay's which he has experienced. Only 
the first part of the work has been issued. It illustrates the 
educational value of the long researches in which Prof. Hall 
has been engaged. When it is completed, which is promised in 
the next annual report of the state geologist, it will be a valu- 
able book to put into the hand of every student of geology, 
and its publication will be a most fortunate event for American 
geology. The book in every respect maintains the creditable 
position which New York st^ite has long held in geological 
science. The authorship is essentially that of Prof. Hall, but 
he has had various assistants, and latterly Prof. J. M. (/larke 
has been closely associated with his work. Without attempt- 
ing a review of the work, we can here only express our con- 
viction that this manual has nowhere its equal as an exposi- 
tion of the brachiop(»da. We hope that the veteran geologist 
will meet with no ftirther obstacles to the completion of his 
plan. 



4'40 The American Geologist. Jone, l»M 

An expedition to (tkeenland, under the command of Dr. F. 
A. Cook, the ethnologist of the Peary expedition, will sail 
from New York about June 25th, expecting to reach Melville 
bay and the Pea 1*3' headquarters about a month later. Prof. 
G. F. Wright of Oberlin, O., Prof. B. C. Jillson of Pittsburg, 
Pa., and Mr. Dove of Andover, Masn., will go with the expedi- 
tion, to devote a month or more to explorations of the borders 
of the Greenland ice-sheet. On their return it is expected to 
reach New York about Sept. 10th. 

Mu. Chaules R. Keyes, late assistant geologist of Iowa, has 
beeii appointed state geologist of Missouri, in place of Arthur 
Winslow. 

Du. Joseph de Szabo, the distinguished geologist and pe- 
trographer, professor in the University arjd president of the 
Geological Society of Budapest, Hungary, died at his home in 
that city April 10th, 1894, in his 78rd year. 

The death of Mu. Chaules S. Bea<'hlek of Crawfordsville, 
Ind., which occurred April 5 at his home, deprives the State 
of Indiana of one of her most promising 3'oung geologists. It 
was due to a complication of diseases affecting the heart and 
lungs. He had been known for some time as an industrious 
and discriminating local student of the geology of Indiana, 
and as a collector <»f fossils from the Lower Carboniferous. 
Several of his papers have been published in the Geologist, 
others have appeared in the American Naturalist, and his 
latest was in the Journal of Geolog3\ He was carefully la}^- 
ing the foundation for a successful if not a brilliant career as 
an American geologist. 

We have the Fi'RTHEn SAD INTELLIGENCE of the death of Mr. 
W. H. Scofield, of Cannon Falls, Minn., which occurred at his 
home in April. He had been a diligent collector of the 
Lower Silurian fossils in his neighborhood for many years, 
and had a wide correspondence with the paheontologists of 
this country. He had aided the Minnesota Survey in the 
preparation of Vol. Ill of the final report soon to be pub- 
lished, and is joint author with Mr. Ulrich of a chapter on 
the Gasteropoda of the Lower Silurian of Minnesota. Origi- 
nally a teacher, he engaged later in mercantile affairs, and 
went to the quarries and the bluffs as recreation from busi- 
ness. He was mayor of Cannon Falls. He took great inter- 
est in the construction of the new high school building, just 
completed, of which he was the guiding, inspiring and con- 
trolling spirit. He declined nomination to the last state 
legislature of Minnes(»ta, his brother being nominated and 
elected in his place. He was sympathetic in his nature, and 
respected and even loved by every citizen. At his funeral the 
whole community was in grief. 



441 



INDEX TO VOL. XIII. 



AgaBsiz. A., Expedition to Bahamas, Ul. 
Aigw^ Valae of eupposod, as geolosical 

crnides, J. F. Jamm, 05. 
AnalyAoa. Phosphate rooks, Tennpssse, 

lOH ; New Jersey limostones, 154; Sierra 

Nevada rocks, 240, SOS, 907, 300. 812, 314. 
Anthracite, OriKio of, C. R. Keyes, 411. 
Arizona, ores, 419; petrified forest, 291. 
Aut<»detUB, American species of, and some 

Paramorphic shells from the Devonian, 

John M. Clarke. 327. 



Baekstrom, H.. Cauies of Mamnatic Dif- 
ferentiation. IM. 

Bahamas, A. Agassis, 141. 

Bain. H. F., Peculiarities of the Hyetio 
tic coal seam, 407. 

Baldwin, 8. Prentiss, Pleistocene history 
of the Champlain valley, 170. 

Barlow, A. E.. Belations of Laurentian 
and Haroniaia rocks north of lake Hu- 
ron, 63. 

Barton, O. H., Channels on Drumlins, 
224. 

Baecom, F., The structures, ori^n and 
nomenclature of the acid volcanic rooks 
of South Mountain, 122. 

Bather, F. A.. Crinoidea of Gotland, 355. 

Boachler. (\ S., obituary, 440. 

Beecher, C. £., On the mode of ooonr- 
rence, and the struotnrs and develop- 
ment of TriarihruB becki, :-8. 

Bell, Robert, Pre-paleozoic decay of erj's. 
talline rocks north of lake Huron, 214 ; 
Sudbury mining district, 490. 

Bennettites dacotensis Macbrlde, Geo- 
lo(tical position, 8. Calvin. 79. 

B«<ring sea, G. M. Dawscm, 137. 

Blake, J. F., Annals of British Geology, 

Bolivia, ores, 4M. 

Boston basin. W. O. Crosby, 192. 

Brachiopoda, Revised classification of the 

apirt^-Dearing, C« 8chuchert. 102. 12^; 

Handbook, 19:). 4S9; Evolution, Agnrn 

Crane, 194. 
Brachiopudsand Crinoidsof the Missouri 

Hamilton. R. R. Rowley, 151. 
Brazil, ores, 49, 417, 420; Devonian fossils, 

427. 
British Drift Theories, Warren Upliam, 

275, 

Rrnmoll, H. P.H., 214, 4SL 

Bryson, John, Lake Ronkonkoma and 

other Glacial Features of Long Island, 

390. 
Bucking, H.. Sulfoborit. 359. 



Callaway, (\, Conversion of chlorite into 

biotite. 2SS. 
C«lvin, Samuel. Geologicnl Position of 

Bennettites daootensis Macbride, 79; 

Friable Mndstone In which the grains 

are enlarged by leoondary deposition of 

sUioa. 225. 
Campbell, M. R., Paieosoic overlaps in 

Montgomery and Pnlaski counties, Vir* 

ginia, 147. 
Canada, ores, 52, 418, 419: Annual report 

of the Geol. Survey, 429. 



Canadian Ice Age, J. W. Dawson, 110. 
Carcinoeoma, A new species, E. W. Clay- 
pole, 77. 
Cliamberlin,T. C, Pseudo-cols, 217; (and 

F. Leverett) Past drainage systems of 

the upper Ohio river, 217. 
Champlain valley, Pleistooene history, 8. 

Prentiss Baldwin, 170; trap dikes, J. F. 

Kemp and V. F. Marsters, 426. 
Chemioal composition of some of the 

white limestones of Sussex county, N. 

J., f. L. Nason, 154. 
Chile, ores, 49. 
Clark. W. B., Climate of Maryland, 139; 

Green wnds of N. J., 210. 
Clarke, Jolui M., New York reports, 193, 

439; Composite generic f nndamenta, 2h6. 
Clay pole, fi. W., A new species of Carcin- 
oeoma, 77. 
Clendenin, W. W., KS. # 

(^<»al deposits of Iowa, C. R. Keyes, 358. 
Coleman, A. P.* Interglacial fossils from 

the Don valley, Toronto, t(5. 
Columbian ExpoeiTioN. 

Gems, Native Metals, and other Rare 
Minerals, 415. 

Harvard University geological exhibit, 
279. 

Notes of Ploistooene geology, 109. 

Notes on someMesozoio and Tertiary 
exhibiU, 185; T. W. Stanton, 2K9. 

Notes on various exhibits relative to 
Mineralogy and Petrography, G. H. 
Williams, 345. 

Ores of the noble and useful metals, AA. 

Vertebrate palteontology, John Eyer- 
man. 47 
(^>mp(»site generic fundaments, J. M. 

Clarke, 2N}. 
Coon botte, Arizona, 115. 

Cob BEMPON DBNCB. 

Additional facts about Nicollet, H. V. 
Winchell. 126. 

8pire.bearing genera of the Palaeozoic 
Brachiopnda, C. Sohnchert, 128. 

Some conditions of Ripple- mark, T. A . 
Jaggar, Jr., 199. ^ 

Oscillation and Bingle-ourrent Ripple- 
marks. J. E. Spnrr. 201. 

(Composite generic fundaments, J. M. 
Clarke. 286. 

'*rhe Columbian Exposition ; Notes on 
some Meeozoio and Tertiary Exhib- 
iU,*' T. W. Stanton. 289. 

Discovery of Diceratlierium. the two- 
horned Rhinoceros, in the White river 
beds of South Dakota, J. B. Hatcher, 
860. 

Economic Geologj-of the l^nite<l States; 
Reply to Dr. Penrose's Review, R S. 
Tarr, 381. 

Early Man in Minnoiota, Warren Cp- 
haro, 368. 

Note on the Chehalls sandstone, .\. (\ 
Lawson, 43S. 

Note on the Keweenawan rooks of 
Grand Portage island, north coast of 
lake Superior, V, S. Grant. 487. 
Cragin, F. W., Contribution to the inver- 
tebrate paleontology of the Texas Cre- 
taceous, 124; 289. 
Crane, Agnes, Evolution of the 3rachio- 

poda, 194. . 



442 



Index, 



GriDoidea of Gotland, F. A. Bather. 353. 

Crinoids and Brachiopoda from the Mia- 
soari Hamilton, B. n. Kowley, 151. 

Crosby, W. O., Geology of the Boston 
basin, 192; 205; Origin of pegmatites, 
215; Claasiilcation of economic geologi- 
cal depoBita, 249. 

CrosB. Whitman, Handetone dikes, 215. 

CroBskey, H. W., obitaary, 75. 

(.'Oba, ores, 57. 

D 

Dall, W. H. (and J. Stanley-Brown), Ap- 
paiachicola ri^er, 137. 

Darton, N. H., Geologic relatione in the 
belt from Green Pond. N. J-, to 8kan- 
nomank monntain, N. Y., 211. 

Davis. W. M. (and L. 8. Griawold), East- 
ern boundary of the Connecticut Trias- 
sic, 145; Geographical work foB state 

geological surveys, 14G; Facetted peb- 
les on Cape Cod, 146; Elementary 
Meteorology. 354. 
Dawson, George M., Bering sea, 137. 
Dawson, 8ir J. W., Tlie Canadian Ice 
Age, 116; Some recent discnssions in 

geology, 1S5; New discoveries <»f Par- 
oniferons butmcliians, 137: 140. 

Dean, Bashford, Dinichthys, :i57. 

Diamonds, 349, 416; in meteorites, 284. 

Diller, J. 8., Shaata-Chico series, 208; 
Revolution in the Topography of the 
Pacific Coast since the Anriferoas 
Gravel period, 3.'>4. 

Drumlins, Madison type, W. Upham,222; 
Channels on, caused by erosion of gla- 
cial streams, G. H. Barton, 224; Origin 
of, R. 8. Tarr, 303. 

E 
Earthquake in central Japan, B. Koto. 65. 
Economic geological deposits, classifica- 
tion, W. O. Crosby. 249. 
Economic Geology of the United States, 

R.8.Tarr, lh9, :W1. 
BIcuador, ores, 49. 
Editorial Comment. 
Colombian Exposition, Ores in the 
Mines and Bfining building, 48 ; Notes 
of Pleistocene geology, 109 ; Note's on 
some Mesozoic and Tertiary exhibits, 
IKi ; The Harvard University ge<»logi- 
cal exhibit. 279; Gems, Native Metals, 
and other Rare Minerals, 415. 
The U. S. (teological Survey ,415. 
Ells, R. W., Mica in the Lanrentian of 

the Ottawa district, 214. 
Emerson, B. K., 194. 

Emmons, 8. F. (and G. P. Merrill), Geol- 
ogy of Ixiwer California, 209. 
Eurvpterina. Malcolm Laurie, 125. 
Evolution of the Brachiopoda, Agn^s 
Crane, 194; of Teeth in Mammalia, H. 
F. Osborn, 357. 
Eyerman, John. Vertebrate palfpontology 
at the Columbian Exposition, 47. 

F 

False bedding in stratified drift deposits, 
J. E. Spurr, 4S. 

Fossils. 
Algie, 95; Aaaphelina, 428; AuceUa, 215; 
Autodetus, 327; A. beecheri, 3S4; A. 
lindstra*nii, 334; Batrachiana, 187; 
Bennettites dacotensis, 79; Braebioi). 
oda. 102, 128, 151, 198, 194 ; Carbonifer- 
ous flora of Missouri, 288; Carcinoso- 
ma ingens. 77; Cretaceous, 1S5, 193, 208. 
237. 289; Crinoids, 124, 151, 355; Devon- 
ian, Brazil, 427; Dioeratherium proa- 
vitiim« 360; Dinichthys, 857; Doslia, 
428; Eurypt^rina, 125; Earypterus 



douvillii, 284; Fraxinns quadrangu- 
lata, 94; Interglaoial. 85, 221 ; Inverte- 
brate, of Texas, 124*^ Jurassic, 148. 228; 
Leptodesma, 280; Lichaa (Uraliooas) 
ribeiroi, 284; Melocrinus lylJi, \ffl\ 
M. tersns, 151; Mesozoic, Columbian 
Exposition, 185, 289; Plesioeaurs, 206; 
Productella raurquessi, 153; Protoca- 
lyptra>a mar8halli,834; F. styliophila, 
8:{4 ; Quercus obtusiloba, 95 ; Rhinoc- 
eros species, 149, 860; Btrophonella 
craasa, 1.53 ; Taxocrinus conoavus, 15:i; 
Taxns baceata, var. canadensis, 94 ; 
Teleoceras major, 149; Tertiary, Col- 
umbian Exposition, 185. 289; Triar- 
thus becki. 38, 42vH; Triaasic, 148, 228; 
Trilobites, 38, 428. 
Fuller, K. T, Alterations of Silicates in 
gneiss, 214. 

G 

Geikie A., Text Book of Geology, 66. 

Gems, Columbian Exposition, 349, 415. 

Geological Society of America, Fifth An- 
nual Meeting,64; Sixth Annual Meeting, 
with notes of papers, 184, 206. 

Geological Hociety of Washington, 76. 

Gibson, ^. M., 284. 

Gilbert, G. K., Coon butte, Arizona, 115: 
Chemical equivalence of crystalline and 
sedimentary rocks, 213. 

Glacial drift. Illinois, 110; Chicago, 111 ; 
Ohio, 112; Missouri, 216; upper Ohio 
basin, 217; western Pennsylvania, 219; 
Germany, 221; Madison, Wis.. 222; 
southern boontlary in U. 8., 228; Mass- 
aohusetta, 2S4 ; Oriskany valley, N. Y., 
384; Long Island. 390. 

Glacial period, Continuity of the, G. F. 
Wright. 286. 

Gotland crinoids, F. A. Bather, &55. 

Grant, U. 8.. Keweenawan rocksof Grand 
Portage island, lake Superior, 487. 

Greenland expedition. 440. 

Greeneands of N. J., W. B. ('lark, 210. 

Gregory, J. W., African lakefe, 207. 

Griswoid, L. S.(and W. M. Davis), Boun- 
dary of (*4»nnc»cticnt Triasi^ic, 145. 

Gurley, W. F. E. (and 8. A. Miller), New 
species of Invertebrates from the Paleo- 

.zoic rocks of Illinois, 856. 

Guthrie, O., Chicago glacial drift, HI. 

H 

Hall, James, New York reports. 193: 
HandbrK)k of the Brachiopoda. 439. 

Harris, T. W., Karnes of the Oriskany 
valley, :{84. 

Hatcher, J. B., A median • homed Rlii- 
noceros from tiie Loup Fork beds of 
Nebraska, 149; Discovery of Dioera- 
therium. the two-homeil Rhinoceros, in 
the Wbit« River beds of South Dakota, 
360. 

Haves, C. W.. Coosa valley in Georgia and 
Alabama, 142. 

Hill, R.T., Geology of Indian Territory 
and Texas, 206. 

Hitchcock, C. H., Ancient eruptive rocks 
m the White mountains, 213. 

Hobbs, W. H., Housatonic valley, Mass., 
142 ; Volcatiit«, 314. 

HoUiok, A. (and J. F. Kemp), Gnnits at 
Mts. Adam and Eve, N. Y., 427. 

Hovey, E. O., Siliceous oolite, 228. 

Howe, W. T. H. (and 8. L. Penfield), 
Chondrodite, bumite and olinohumite, 
3,58. 

Huntington, O. W., Diamonds in meteor- 
ites, 284. 



Itufej'. 



443 



Hyatt, A., 1441; Trias and Jara of the 
Weatorn Btatee, 148. 

I 

Iddingv, J. P.,6eoetio relationshipaamonv 
IgnaooB Rncka, 1%. 

IIllnoiB, soils and subsoils, 1(18; geolofficai 
map and ecooomic resonrcas, 128; New 
species of Invertebrates from the Pale- 
ozoic rocks, SS6. 

Interfflacial fossils from the Don valley. 
Toronto, A. P. Coleman. 85. 

Interglacial scries of Germany, Dr. Alfred 
Jcntzah, 221. 

International (?oni?resB of Geologists, 292. 

Iowa Academy of Idcieuoa, 133. 

Iowa coal deiKwits. ( -. R. Keyos, S!V;). 

Iron ore deposits of Norway, 420. 

Iron ores of the Mesabi range, J. K. 
Bpurr, SX). 

Iron Range History, H. V. Winobell, 164. 

J 

Jaggar, T. A., Jr., Home conditions of 
iupple-mark., 199. 

James, J. F., Value of supposed AJgie as 
geological guidet>. 95. 

Japan, oroii, 56; 419; earthquake. 1S91. 65. 

Jeutzsoh, Dr. Alfred, Interglacial series 
of Germany, 221. 

K 

Kam(>s,Oriskany vslley. T.W. Harris. 3M. 

Kemp, J. F., Gabbros, lake Champlain, 
214; (and A. F. Marsters), Dikes, lake 
Champlain region, 426 ;(and A.Hollick), 
Mts. Adam and Eve, N. Y., 427. 

Kenne<ly, W., Geology of Jefferson Coun- 
ty. Toxas, 268. 

Koyes. C. R.. Marylaud granitot*, 63; Epi- 
dote as a Primary Compcment of erup- 
tive rocks, 6.'); Crustal adjastment in 
the upi>er Mississippi basin, 210; (^oal 
dppf>sits of Iowa, 35S ; Origin of Anthra- 
cite, 411; Missouri (ieol. Survey, 440. 

Knowlton. F. H., Alaska fossil flora, 137. 

Koto. B., Earthquake in .Japan, 6.*). 

Kunz. G. F..347.416. 

L 

Lane. A. C., The earth's originally ab- 
sorbed gases, i:)8. 

Laphani. IncreuM" Allen, N. H. Winchell, 
1; Bibliography, )&. 

Laurie. Malcolm, Kurypferina, 125. 

Lawson. A. C A multiple diabase dyke, 
293: Chehalifi sandstoue, 4.16. 

I>»verett, Frank. Soils sud Subsoils of Il- 
linois, 109; (and T. C Chamberlin). 
Psst drainage systems of the upper Ohio 
river. 217. - 

Logan, Mt., highest in N..\., 292. 

Low, A. P., G«tology of counties in the 
Province of Quebec, 430. 

Lydekker, R.. La Plata Museum, S58. 

Lyman, B. S., 2M. 

M 

Marsters, V. F. (and J. F. Kemp). Trap 
dikes of lake Champlain, 436. 

McConnell, R.G., Geology of Athabasca 
district, 429. 

Mead, D. W., Geological map. economic 
resources, and hydro-geology of Illi- 
nois. 12:1. 

Merrill, G. P. (and S. F. Emmons). Geol- 
ogy of Lower California, 209. 

Mesabi range. Iron ores, J. E. Bporr, 335. 

Mexico, ores, 54, 417, 

Miller^ 8. A. (and W. F. E. Gnrlsy). New 
sp«»cies of Invertebrates from the Pal- 
eozoic rocks of Illinois, 356. 

MiKKBALS. 

BioUts. 2S5; Chlorite, 2W: Cinnabar. 



i 



418; Collections at the Columbian Ex- 
position. 48. :)4cS. 415; Diamonda, 284, 
416; Enargite, 859: Epidote, 68; Garnie- 
rits, 41H; Gems, Native Metals, and 
other rare Minerals in the Columbian 
Exposition, 415, 349; Glauconite, AU; 
Herderite, 427; Hiddenite, 417; Ita- 
birite, 420: Native gold and silver, 417; 
Ores in the Columbian Exposition, 
48, 415; iimithsonite, 419; Sperrylite. 
418; Btaurolite, 285; Btibnite, 219; Bnl- 
f oborit. :)59 ; Topaz, 427. 
Minnesota, Early mau,d6:i: Geol. Survey, 

425; Academy of Natural Sciences, 75. 
Multiple diabase dyke, A. C. Lawson, 29S. 

N 
Nason. F. L., Chemical composition of 
some of the white limestones of Sussex 
county, N. J.. 154. 
New South Wales, 416. 418. 420. 
New species of Carcinosoma, E. >V. Clay- 
pole, 77 ; of Crinoids and Brachiopods 
from the Missouri Hamilton, R. R. 
Rowley. 151 ; of Invertebrates from the 
Paleozoic rocks of Illinois, S. A. MUler 
and W. F. E. Gurley, 3,VJ. 
New York State Geologist, Eleventh and 

twelfth annual reports, 193, 489. 
Nicollet, Additional facts about, H. V. 

Winchell, 126. 
Niles, W. H., 134, 211. 
Nipissing, ancient strait, F. R. Taylor, 

220; beach, 866. 
Norway^, iron ore deposits, 420. 

O 

Ohio, Glacial drift and Glacial man, 1 12. 

Ohio river, map of falls. Louisville, 15, 16. 

Ores of ths noble and useful metals, Co- 
lumbian Exposition, 4^. 

Origin of Anthracite, C. R. Keyos. 411. 

Origin of Drumlins, H. S. Tsrr, :W3. 

Osbom, H. F.. New Suborder of the An- 
cylopoda, Xtl\ Evolution of Teeth in 
Mammalia, 357. 

P 

Penfield, 8. L. (and J. H. Pratt). Stauro- 
lite, 285 : (Crystallization of Horderite, 
427; I ami J. C. Minor, Jr.). Topaz, 427; 
(and \V. T. H. Howe), Chondrodite. 
humite, ami clinobamite, S5s. 

Penhallow, D. P.. Interglacial plants 
from the Don valley, Toronto, 98. 

Penrose. R. A. F.. Jr.. 361. 

Personal and Scientific News, 75, 132, 206, 
291. 489. 

Phosphate-bearing rocks in middle Ten- 
nessee. .7. M. Safford, 107. 

Pleistocene geology, in the Columbian 
Exposition, 109: of Canada. 116; history. 
Champlain valley. 8. P. Baldwin, 170; 
problems in Missouri. J. E. Todd, 216. 

Poynting. J. H.. XitL 

Powell. Maj. J. W, 415. 

Pratt, J. H. (and 8. L. Penfield), Btauro- 
lite, 2h5. 

Prosser, C 8. , IM. 

Psendo^ois, t. C. Chamberlin. 217. 

R 

Recent Pnblicationa, 72, 196, 431. 

Reconnaissances of the Abandoned Bhore 
Lines of Green Bay and of the south 
coast of Lake Superior, F. B. Taylor. 
316, 865. 

Rhinoceros, median homed, from the 
Loup Fork beds of Nebraska, J. B. 
Hatcher, 149; Diceratherium, the two- 
homed, in the White River beds of 
South Dakota, J. B. Hatcher, 300. 



u^ 



Index 



Richards, R. H., PriBniatic Btadia tele- 
scope, 212. 

Ripple-marks, Some oonditioos of, T. A. 
Jagvar, Jr., 199; Oacillation and single- 
corrent. J. £. 8purr, 43, 201. 

Rowley, R. R., New species of Crinoids 
and Brachiopods from the Missouri 
Hamilton. 151. 

RusseU, I. C., 133, 292. 

S 

Safford, J. M., Pboephato-bearing rocks 
in middle Tennessee, 102. 

Schmidt, F., Revision of Trilobit<4, 428. 

Schoepff , Johann David, 140. 

Bchncnert, (^barles, Revised classification 
of the 8piro>bearing Brachiopoda, 102. 

Soofield. W. H., obitnary. 440. 

8cott, W. B., Later Tertiary lacustrine 
formations of the West, 141. 

Selwyn, A. R. C\ , Survey of Canada, 429. 

Bhaler, Tertiary dislocations of the At- 
lantic coast of the United States, 148; 
Relations of mountains to continents, 
144; Beach and dune sands, 144. 

Sierra Nevada, (ieolof^tcal Notes on the, 
H. W. Turner, 228. 297; Revolntion in 
Topography since the Anriferous Grav- 
el period, J. 8. DiUer, 354. 

Smith, J. P., Jurabildnngen des Kahl- 
beraes, 71 ; Aae of the Anriferous slates 
of the Sierra Nevada, 2ir>. 

Smith. W. H. (\, Archean rocks west of 
lake Soperior, 64 ; Hunters' Island, 430. 

Smyth, H. L., Lower Menominee and 
Marquette series in Michigan, 358. 

Spencer, J. W.. 206. 

Sporr, J. E., False bedding in stratified 
drift deiKMita, 43; Oscillation and sin- 
gle-corrsnt ripple-marks, 201; Iron ores 
of the Mesabi range. 3Hr>. 

Stanley-Browo, J. (and W. H. Dall), 
Appalacbicola river, 137. 

Stanton, T. \V., Cretaceous faunas, Shas- 
ta-Chico series. 208; Butte conn tv, Cali- 
fornia, 237; *'Tlie C^olumbian Exposi- 
tion; Not^e on some Mesozoic and Ter- 
Uary Exhibits,"2K9. 

Stein, Robert. Arctic expedition, 291. 

Stolley, E., Silnrische Sipiioneen, 125. 

Szabo, Joseph de, obituary, 440. 

T 

Tarr, R. S.. 206; 291 ; Economic (i(*ology 
of the United SUtes, 1.H9; do.. Reply to 
Dr. Penrose's Review, :)6l; Lake Cay- 
oga, 216; Origin of Drumlins, 393. 

Taylor, F. B.. The ancient strakat Nipis- 
sing, £90; Reconnaissances of the Aban- 
doned Shore Lines of Green Bay and of 
the coast of Lake Superior, 816, :{65. 

Texas CretacMius. Inveriebr«te paleon- 
tology, F. W . (^mgin, 124 : a<ijaoent to 
the Red river, R. T. Hill. 2(«; Jefferson 
county. W. Kennedy, 26s. 

Text Book of Geology. A. Geikie. 66. 

Todd. J. E., 182; Pleistocene problems in 
Missouri, 216. 



Triarthros becki, C. E. Beeoher, 88; Ap- 
pendages of the pygidium, 428. 

Trias and Jura of the Western States, A. 
Hyatt, 148. 

Trilobites, antennae and other appen- 
dages, 88, 428; revision of Silnrian, 428. 

Turner, H. Vi., Geologicsal notes on the 
Sierra Nevada. 228, 297. 

Tyrrell, J. B., Exploration west of Hud- 
son bay, 132 ; (Geology of northwestern 
Manitoba, 430. 

U 

United SUtes Geological Survey. 114, 185, 
415; topoyrraphic work in 1898, 291. 

Upham, barren, Madison type of Drum- 
lins, 222; Diversity of Drift along ito 
boundary, 223; British Drift Theories, 
275; Early Man in Minnesota, '36a. 



Veins, classification, W. O. Crosby, 257. 
Vertebrate Paleontology at the Colnm- 

bian Exposition, John Eyerman, 47. 
Vogt, J. n. L., Sedimentary origin of iron 

ores and itabirite in Norway, 420. 

W 

Walcott, (\ D., PaleoBolc intnuforma- 
tional conglomerates, 147; 415. 

Ward, H. A., 189, 352. 

Washin^n, H. S., Baaalto of Kala, 285. 

Wliite, David, Flora of Carboniferous 
basins, Missouri, 283. 

While, LC..2I9. 

Whiteaves. J.F., Cretaceous in Canada, 
193; Unio.like sbeUs in the Coal Meaa- 
nres, N.S.. 193. 

Whitfield, R. P., Lower Carboniferous 
(Mnoidea, 124. 

Williams, E. H., Extra-moratne drift, 221. 

Williams, G. H., Johann David Schoepff, 
144); Ancient volcanic rocks along the 
eastern border of N. A., 212 ; The Colnm. 
hian Expotiition: Notes on various ex- 
hibits relative to Mineralogy and Pfw 
trography, 345. 

Williams, H. S., Dual nomenclatare in 
geologic classification, 139. 

Willis, Bailey. Relations of srnclines of 
deiiosition to ancient shore lines, 1K>. 

Winchell. H. V., Additional facts about 
Nicollet, 126; A bit of Iron Ranfn^ His- 
tory, 164; Iron ore deposits and itabi- 
rite of Norway (translation), 42U. 

Winchell, N. H.. Increase Allen Lapham, 
I 1; MinnoM>ta Geol. Survey. 425. 
' Wisconsin, maps by Lapham, 16. 

Wolff, J. E., Hibemia fold. N. J., 142. 

WoodwoKli, J. B., Postirlacial eolian ac- 
tion in southern New England. 122. 

Wright, G. F.. (ilacial drift and Glacial 

' man in Ohio. 112; Supposed glaciated 

, stone axe. 217; western Pennsylvania. 

219; Continuity of the (tlacial period, 

2^6; expedition to Greenland, 44() 



ERRATA. 

On p. 94. line 14 from the bottom, for "diaturtwd,*' read distorted; 

line 6 from the bottom, for '^Peter'' read Pelee. 
On p. 95, line 7, for "qnercic," rsad generic. 



.^EOEMBER. 1B93. 



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{ Mines and Mining Building, 376. 

ILkview ok Recent Qkoixmjical LitekatuuI'. 
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Correspondence. 

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