THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
AMERICAN
Grape Grooving
WINE MAKING
BY
WITH SEVERAL ADDED CHAPTERS ON THE GRAPE IN-
DUSTRIES OF CALIFORNIA
FOURTH EDITION-REVISED AND REWRITTEN
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1902
//
COPYRIGHT, 1895,
BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
18"?
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.
Books are like men, they become old as rapidly as
their authors, and unless books are revised frequently and
kept abreast with the times, they fall behind and become
of little value. And as we, their authors, find that
toward the end of life time seems to travel with railway
speed and seemingly flies faster, thus crowding us with
events and their progress, we become aware that but a
short space is left us in which to record it.
When I look back over life's checkered journey, at
an age when many are called to join the silent army, the
wish becomes but natural to leave to those of my viti-
cultural friends (and I hope I have many throughout
this broad land) who have had patience with my several
efforts to become useful, especially to the beginner in
grape culture, a memento of which I need not be
ashamed. That even the revised and enlarged edition
which preceded this has become very old, that it is far
behind the times and their progress, no one knows bet-
ter than I. AVhen I think of the time when I, as a
youth of twenty, planted the first small vineyard I ever
took charge of, on my father's farm in the backwoods of
Missouri, in 1847, and find now that my pet fruit, the
grape, has spread over the whole Union, until there is
not a State or Territory in which its cultivation has not
been attempted in a more scientific and thorough man-
ner than my first crude attempt ; that the vineyards of
this broad land now cover millions of acres ; that we
have hundreds of varieties instead of the three or four
iii
iV PREFACE.
then known, and that the grape in some form has be-
come an article of daily diet for millions, the progress
seems almost incredible. Yet with all this progress, we
are still striving for advancement. This is as it should
be, and when we old men are gone, let us hope that our
children, inspired by the same love for the work which
urged us on, will take it as it drops from our hands and
carry it on to completion. It would seem then but a
natural desire to round out the work of a lifetime by a
retrospect of the past ten years the period which, has
elapsed since the preceding revision in noting the many
improvements in the way of new varieties, in pruning
and training, in marketing and in combating diseases
and insects injurious to the grape. But living at the
western extreme of the Union, where the Vinifera is
almost exclusively cultivated (the American varieties
being only used as stocks for grafting), I have been com-
pelled to draw on my Eastern friends for information,
which they have freely and kindly furnished, and have
thus made the second, the most interesting part of the
book. To them, one and all, I tender heartfelt thanks,
coupled with the hope that the new edition may be
generally helpful in the work we are striving to
advance.
The period elapsing since 1883 has witnessed great
changes in viticulture. At that date its friends were
almost discouraged by its manifold enemies of a fungous
nature, but remedies have kept pace with them until
now the cultivation of the Vinifera seems possible in
localities where heretofore only the most hardy of our
native sorts have been grown. Of course, winter protec-
tion is necessary in these localities, but the best varie-
ties are well worth the extra trouble. From several
parts of Texas and New Mexico I have already the as-
surance that they can furnish the earlier varieties of the
Vinifera by the beginning of May ; thus, when we join
PREFACE. V
North and South, we may hope for an almost continu-
ous supply of table grapes throughout the Union.
In new varieties of American origin, we have also
made remarkable progress. Prof. T. V. Munson of Den-
ison, Texas, lias accomplished wonderful results by cross-
breeding and hybridizing, and also by his classification
of vines. It has been my aim in this edition not to pub-
lish an immensely long list of varieties, but from the
many to cull the best varieties which have proved to be
an improvement on those described in the previous edi-
tion, and which, as wine or table grapes, have been suc-
cessful over the largest territory. That each of the
States of this immense country will have to grow the
varieties best suited either for table, market or wine, is
self-evident. The times when enthusiasts may predict
success for universal grapes are past, never to return.
We all know now that soil and climatic conditions change
the product, and that we cannot have a cosmopolitan
grape. I have therefore omitted classification for
localities.
Those who have the progress of humanity at heart,
are apt to indulge in daydreams which are seldom real-
ized. One of mine has been to see the American nation
a community where wine drinking has supplanted the
use of the more alcoholic beverages, such s whiskey,
brand v etc., and thereby advanced to a state of true
temperance I have endeavored to show, in the chapters
devoted to wine making, how every one can make a pure,
wholesome, light *vine, and I see no cause why I should
retract anything I nave said in that respect. I still be-
lieve that the pure, unadulterated juice of the grape is
the most wholesome of all stimulants, a gift of God to
man, too good to be abused by intemperance or excess.
But while I hold this belief, I have no fault to find with
that class of grape growers who consider it a perversion
and a snare to use the grape for any purpose but the
VI PREFACE,
table. If this be their conviction they have a right to
follow the dictates of their conscience, according to us
who entertain a different opinion, the same right. Let
us then exercise the broadest charity to each other and
unite in the desire to do the utmost good to the com-
munity by giving them the most healthful fruit to eat
and the most innocent of stimulants to drink.
No one will question the difficulties in the way of
writing a book which shall carry some useful informa-
tion to every one engaged in grape culture, in a country
so immense as this. The information contained in Part
II will furnish many reliable data to nearly every one
here, giving him, at least, a safe basis on which to start
his experiments. For all is as yet an experiment, and
happy will he be who, at the close of his life, can sift
from his numerous trials and experiments a few which
have been successful and which may serve as a basis for
further development of the science of viticulture. A
lifetime devoted to this science has clearly demonstrated
to me that I could spend another in the same field, find-
ing something new to acquire at every step.
Wishing all my viticultural brethren, far and near,
success in their efforts to advance our noble calling, and
that they may be able to glean something to assist them
from this last effort of my pen, I remain,
Theirs Fraternally,
GEORGE HUSMANN.
TALCOA VINEYARDS, NAPA, CALIFORNIA : 1896.
CONTENTS.
THE CULTURE OF AMERICAN GRAPES AND VARIETIES.
Chapter
Page
I.
Classification of Grapes, .....
3
II.
Propagation of the Vines By Seeds, . .
10
III.
Propagation by Cuttings in Open Air, .
13
IV.
Propagating the Vine by Layers,
15
V.
Grafting the Vine, ......
16
VI.
The Vineyard Location, Aspect and Soil,
25
VII.
27
VIII.
What Grapes to Plant Choice of Varieties,
29
IX.
Planting the Vine
41
X.
Treatment of Vine the First Summer,
44
XI.
Treatment During the Second Summer,
47
XII.
Treatment the Third Summer, ...
51
XIII.
Treatment the Foiirth Summer, ....
56
XIV.
Training Vines on Arbors and Walls, . .
58
XV.
59
The Kniffen System, ....
62
The Munson System, ....
64
XVI.
Diseases of the Vines,
67
XVII.
Insects Injurious to the Grape, ....
75
XVIII.
Frosts Winter Protection, ....
83
XIX.
Girdling, Thinning, and other matters,
85
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
II.
EXPERIENCES OF OTHER GRAPE GROWERS.
Grape Growing in Central Ohio,
Grape District of Central New York, .
Grape District of Hudson River Valley, .
Viticulture in Southwest Missouri,
Views of a Veteran, ....
Grape Culture in Mississippi,
Grape Culture in New Mexico,
Viticulture in Southern Texas, . .
vii
91
99
101
110
116
117
119
12)
Vlll
CONTENTS.
Chapter
XXVIII. Grape Growing on the Rio Grande, .
XXIX. Munson's New Varieties, .
XXX. The Chautauqua Grape Belt, .
Page
123
124
131
PART III.
AMERICAN WINE MAKING.
Chapter
XXXI. Wine Making,
XXXII. Dr. Gall's and Petiol's Methods,
XXXIII. Wine Making Rendered Easy, .
XXXIV. Concluding Remarks, .
Page
139
157
180
PART IV.
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING IN CALIFORNIA.
Chapter Page
XXXV. The Vine in California 187
XXXVI. Location, Aspect and Soil, .... 190
XXXVII. Propagation, 192
XXXVIII. Vineyard Planting, 194
XXXIX. Cultivation of the Young Vines, ... 196
XL. Selection of Varieties, 198
Grapes for Red Wine, .... 199
Grapes for White Wine, .... 202
Grapes for Sherry, .... 207
Grapes for Market, ..... 210
XLL Cultivation of the Vineyard, . 213
XLII. Diseases and Their Remedies, .... 221
XLIII. Insect and Other Enemies, .... 223
XLIV. Frosts, 224
XLV. Restoring Infested Vineyards, ... 225
XLVI. Marketing Grapes, 226
XLVII. Raisin Making, 228
XLVIII. Other Uses of Grapes 233
XLIX. Wine Making in California, , 236
L. Brandy, 248
LI. Necessary Cellar Implements, . . . 249
LII. Clarification, Filtering and Fining, ... 250
LIII. Aging Wine Bottling 253
LIV. Pure Wine and Temperance, .... 254
LV. Extent and Prospects of the Wine Industry, . 257
LVI. Wine Songs 261
PART I
THE CULTURE OF AMERICAN GRAPES
AND VARIETIES
CHAPTER I.
CLASSIFICATION OF GKAPES.
It is only within the last twenty years that much
attention has been given to the parentage and classifica-
tion of our native varieties, it being thought of little or
no importance whether a variety was derived from one
or another of the few native species. Recent experience
has shown that the varieties of a species, however widely
they may differ from one another in some respects, agree
in other points, and however far they may be removed
from the native type, they retain certain characteristics
which indicate a common parentage. On the other
hand, if we know from which species a variety is derived,
we can with some certainty predict its behavior in
cultivation, and to a certain degree its value. Especially
has this become of the first importance since the appear-
ance of our greatest insect enemy, the Phylloxera vasta-
trix, as we know from experience that certain species
are entirely exempt from, while others are to a certain ex-
tent subject to its ravages. This is so generally true that
the experienced viticulturists of the present day regard
the origin of the cultivated varieties as of first importance.
It is not in the character of the fruit alone that our vari-
eties differ, as they are derived from our native species.
The foliage, the wood, the tendrils, the roots and other
parts of the vine retain their peculiarities and hardiness,
not only as to the ability to endure cold, but also to
resist the attacks of parasitic plants and insects or what-
ever else affects the health of the plant all these traits
are now known to be transmitted with as much certainty
as are the form and quality of the fruit.
3
4 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
All our numerous varieties now on the list are
classed according to the species of Vitis, the generic
name of the grape, from which they are known to be
derived, and the name of the species is given to the class.
So when, for the sake of brevity, we speak of a variety
as an ^fflstivalis, a Vinifera, or Riparia, we simply mean
that it originated from the class, and bears the charac-
teristics of the species of that name. All the varieties
of the European grape are regarded as having had their
origin in Vitis vinifera of the old world, which, though
it has been cultivated from ancient times, is found no-
where in a wild state. The varieties of this, while gen-
erally unsuccessful east of the Rocky mountains, succeed
admirably on the Pacific coast and now seem to be suc-
cessful in Texas and Arizona. Their greatest enemies
seem to be the fungous diseases, to which they are ex-
ceedingly subject. But the many preventives and rem-
edies discovered in the past ten years may give them a
wider distribution. These varieties differ from our
native species in their leaves, which are more smooth
and delicate, and more deeply lobed ; the flesh of the
berries adheres to the skins, while the seeds have a nar-
rower and longer benk than any of the native varieties.
That most accomplished botanist and keen observer,
the late Doctor George Engclmann of St. Louis, deserves
the credit of first attempting a thorough classification of
our native species. It was he who first called attention
to the shape and size of the seeds. He classified them
into 14 species in the following order : 1. Labrusca
or Northern Fox ; 2. Candicans or Mustangensis ; 3.
Caribsea or Caloosa ; 4. Calif omica ; 5. Monticola or
Mountain grape; 6. Arizonica; 7. ^Estivalis or Sum-
mer grape; 8. Cincrca or Ashy Winter grape; 9. Cor-
difolia or Winter grape; 10. Palmata or Rubra ; 11.
Riparia or River grape ; 12. Rupestris, Sugar or Bash
grape; 13. Vinifera or European grape; 14. Rotundi-
AND WINE MAKING.
V LABRUSCA. TAYLOR. CLINTON. DELAWARE. V.CANDICANS.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. FiR 6.
V CANDICANS. V CARIBEA V.CAHFORNICA. V.MONTICOLA. V ARIZONICA
Fis.7. Pig. 8. FiR.9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13.
V ARIZONICA. V. JESTIVALIS
Fig.M. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17.
CINEREA. V. CORDIFOLIA.
Fig. 18. Fig. Id. Fig. 20.
V PALMATA V.RIPARIA. V. RIPARIA. V/RUPESTRIS.
Fig. 21 Fifr.22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 20. Fig. 27.
v VINIFERA. vms VIXIFERA. V. VULPINA
my Crap*. Fig. 29. Brusca. Fifi. 30. Riesling. Fig.Sl.Chasselas. FiK.32,Bl.HamV?. FiR.33.
TABLE OF GKAP15 SEEDS
b AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
folia, Vulpina or Southern Fox. The accompanying
illustration of the seeds on the preceding page will show
on what peculiarities he based his distinctions, and as
he was one of the keenest observers of nature, as well as
a most prominent botanist, his opinions are of great
weight. This is the old classification. Mr. T. V. Man-
son of Denison, Texas, has made an entirely new one.
To complete this, he has spent much time in studying
the various species in their native wilds. He has, in
addition to this work, produced an extremely valuable
collection of seedlings by skillful crossing and hybridizing.
THE MUNSON CLASSIFICATION.
It will be seen that in Series 5 he classes the Vitis
vinifera or European grape in the ^Estivalis series, and
also the Herbemont, Lenoir and Rulander, which have
been previously classed as natives or Southern ^Estivalis,
as South European or Vitis Bourquiniana. The latter
classification cannot be accepted as final for several rea-
sons. First, the structure of the roots is entirely differ-
ent, being very soft and subject to the attacks of the
phylloxera in the Vinifera, while in Bourquiniana; as he
classes them, the roots are very hard and resistant, and
have the peculiarity of only one or two starting from the
base of the cuttings, branching out into smaller rootlets,
and striking downwards like a bird's claw ; while in the
Vinifera the roots start all around the buds the whole
length of the cuttings, and generally do not branch
much. Second, the texture of the wood is also entirely
different, as all the Vinifera grow easily from cuttings,
while the Bourquiniana root with difficulty. Third, the
leaves are also different in structure and ability to resist
fungous diseases, being thick and leathery, while the
fruit is but little (if any) subject to mildew and rot ; on
the other hand, the Vinifera succumbs first of all, so
much so that their culture in the open air has had to be
AND WINE MAKING. 7
abandoned in the Eastern States. In the structure of
the roots, a greater affinity exists between Vinifera and
Calif ornica than between Vinifera and Bourquiniana, as
those of the two first named are soft and spongy, while
those of the Bourquiniana are hard and firm ; so much so
that Mr. Munson himself classes them as resistant. He
claims that he has traced Bourquiniana back to Southern
France. If this is correct, it seems very strange that
France especially should so largely order, as they did in
1874-7, from Texas and Missouri, the cuttings of Bour-
quiniana, because they found them resistant.
I have thought it iny duty to give the subject of
classification a great deal more room than it would
otherwise occupy, and to state my objections to a system
which, with the exceptions named, I consider the most
perfect and complete yet introduced. Professor Mun-
son deserves the thanks of all grape growers for his sys-
tematic efforts and for the large number of valuable
seedlings he has produced by crossing and hybridizing.
He may well feel an honorable pride in his achievements.
With these few introductory remarks, we will let his
classification and synopsis speak for themselves.
GENUS Vms (Tournefort, Linnaeus, in part).
Explanation: H., hardy north; H. H., half hardy
north; T., tender north.
SECTION 1. Euvites, Planchon.
SERIES 1. Riparia.
Vitis rupestris (Scheele), H. . 1
Vitis riparia (Michaux), synonym palmata, Vatel.
Vitis vulpina (Linnaeus), H. 2
Vitis Solonis (Hort. Berol.), H. 3
Vitis Doaniana (Munson), H. 4
All excellent for hybridizing other species.
SERIES 2. Occidentalism
Vitis Arizonica (Engelmann), H. H. The Canon grape
of Arizona ; var. glabra (Munson), H. H. 5
8 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Vitis Girdiana (Munson), T., the South California spe-
cies, mildews. 6
Vitis California (Bentham), T. The North Califor-
nia species, mildews. 7
SERIES 3. Coriacece.
Vitis Champini (Plaiichon), H. H., excellent, South-
west Texas. $
Vitis cmidicans (Engelmaim), H. II. Mustang grape,
Texas. 9
Vitis coriacea (Shuttle worth), South Florida. 10
SERIES 4. Labrusca.
Vitis labrusca (Linnaeus), H., to which Ives, Concord,
etc., belong. 11
SERIES 5. JEstwalis.
Vitis vinifera (Linnaeus), T. European and Asiatic
grape.
Vitis Bourquiniana (Munson), H. H. South European,
Ilerbemont, C.
Vitis Lincecumii (Buckley), H. Texas Post Oak grape,
large, fine. 12
Variety rjlauca (Munson), H. Northern Texas and
Missouri.
Vitis Ucolor (Leconte), II. Blue grape. Winter grape.
Ohio and Michigan. 13
Vitis cestu-alis (Michaux), H. Tennessee, Virginia
and Georgia. 14
Vitis Simpxonii (Munson), T. Florida. 15
SERIES 6. Cordifolia.
Vitis cordifolia (Michaux), H. Frost, "Possum."
grape. 16
Vitis rubra (Michaux), Vitis palmata (Engelmann),
Southern Illinois, ornamental. 17
Vitis monticola (Buckley), H. H. Sweet Mountain
grape. Southern Texas. 18
SERIES 7. Cinerascentes.
Vitis Bailey ana (Munson), synonym Vitis Virginiana,
H. Mountain streams Southwest Virginia. 19
AND WINE MAKING.
Vitis Berlandieri (Planchon), II. II. Chalky soils
Southwest Texas. 20
Vitis cinerea (Eiigelmann), II. Sweet winter grape.
Southwest Texas and eastward. 21
Variety Floridana (Munson). Florida and along gulf
coast.
Vitis Caribou (De Candolle), T. West Indies and
Eastern Mexico. 22
Vitis Blancoii (Munson), T. Sierra Madre moun-
tains, Mex. 23
SECTION 2. Puncticulosis.
SERIES 8. Muscadinice.
Vitis rotundifolia (Michaux), II. IF. Muscadine of the
South. 24
Vitis vulpina. Gray and Engelmaim.
Vitis Munsoniana (Simpson), II. II. Bird grape, Mus-
tang grape (Chapman), Southern Florida. 25
10 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER II.
PROPAGATION OF THE VINES. BY SEEDS.
While the raising of grape vines from the seed is more
a labor of love, than of actual profit, yet its influence on
grape culture generally has been so great, and we are
already indebted so largely to its zealous followers, that
it cannot be entirely omitted in a work like this. We
can not gain further perfection in varieties without this,
and the success which has already attended the labors
of Rogers, Wylie, Campbell, Ricketts, Muench, Miller,
Weydemeier, Langendoerfer, and especially Mr. Jacob
Rommel, in giving to us the Elvira, and other varieties
still more promising, affords hopes of even more impor-
tant results.
To begin then at the beginning : choose your seed from
a good stock. I am inclined to believe that only the
CBstivalis and cordifolia (or riparia, as Engelmann has
it) species will give us the true wine grapes of the country,
and if we can increase their size somewhat, they will also
be the best table grapes. We have them already as large
as the Catawba, and they are more juicy, of finer flavor,
and less pulpy than the varieties from the Labrusca
species, while they are much more healthy and hardy.
Remember that we have already too many varieties, and
that every new one we add should have some decided
merit over any of the old varieties, or else be discarded at
once.
Choose the best berries and the most perfect bunches,
from which to take the seed, and either sow in autumn,
and cover, or keep them over winter, mixing the seeds
with moist sand, when separated from the pulp, to insure
ready germination. Sow early in spring, in well pulver-
ized clay soil, in drills one foot apart, and drop the seeds
AND WINE MAKING. 11
about an inch apart in the rows, covering about three-
quarters of an inch deep, with finely pulverized soil.
When the young plants appear, keep them clean and wel]
cultivated through the summer; in the fall take them up
carefully, and put in well drained fine soil, so as to preserve
their roots in the most* perfect condition. It will be well,
during the summer, to look over them frequently, and ii
any of them show disease in the leaf, pull them up at
once, as it is useless to save such as are feeble and un-
healthy. It may also be well to shade the young vines
for the first month or so, to prevent the sun from scald-
ing them while yet young and tender, and if any of them
grow remarkably strong, give them small sticks for sup-
port. In the following spring they may be transplanted
to their permanent location in the vineyard or garden.
The ground for their reception should be moderately
light and rich, and loosened to the depth of at least
18 inches.
Make a hole about 8 inches deep, then throw in soil
so as to raise a small mound in the center of the hole,
about 2 inches high ; shorten the top of the young vine
to about 6 inches, and then place it on the mound,
spreading its roots well in all directions ; fill up with well
pulverized soil, until the upper eye is even with the sur-
face of the ground. Then press the soil lightly, place a
good stake about 4 feet high with each vine, and when the
buds start, allow but one sprout to grow, which is to be
tied neatly to the stake. The vines may be planted in
rows 6 feet apart, and 3 feet apart in the rows, as
many of them will prove worthless, and have to be dis-
carded. Allow all the laterals to grow on the young cane,
as this will make it stocky and short-jointed. Cultivate
well and frequently, keeping the soil loose and mellow.
The second season the seedlings will irenerally make
from 3 to 4 feet of short-jointed growth ; in the fall
of that year they should be cut back to about three
12 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
buds, and have the ground drawn up around them for
protection in winter. Should any of them look very
promising, fruit may be obtained a year sooner by graft-
ing the wood of the seedlings upon strong vines. Young
vines thus grafted will generally bear the next season (see
" Grafting," on another page). Next, spring, which will
be their third, remove the covering, and when the young
shoots appear, allow only two to grow. After these have
grown about 18 inches, pinch off the top of the weakest
of the two shoots, so as to throw the growth into the
strongest shoot, which is to be kept neatly tied to the
stake or trellis, treating it as the summer before, and
allowing all the laterals to grow. At the end of this
season's growth they should be strong enough to bear the
next summer. If they have made from eight to ten feet
of stocky growth, the leading cane may be cut back to
ten or twelve eyes, or buds, and the smaller one to a
spur of two eyes. If the vines will fruit at all, they will
show it the next summer, when only the most promising
ones should be kept, and the barren and worthless ones
discarded, Seedlings have this peculiarity : both the
berry and bunch will increase in size every year for the
first three or four years ; therefore, if the quality of the
fruit is only good, the size may come in time. The fruit
of the Elvira (of which more hereafter), which is now
about as large in bunch and berry as Catawba, was at first
not more than half its present size, it having increased in
dimensions every year for the last eight years.
AND WINE MAKING.
CHAPTER III.
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS IN THE OPEN AIR.
The easiest and most simple mode of propagating the
vino is by cuttings planted in the open ground ; it
can be successfully followed with
the majority of the Labrusca and
cordifolia varieties, and a few of
those from the cBstivalis, although
the latter will not take root
readily, and had better be propa-
gated by layering and grafting.
The most general method is the
following : In fall, when pruning
the vines, choose the best ripened
wood of medium size, which is
better than either the very large
or very small, and cut it into
lengths of from 9 to 12 inches,
cutting close below the lower
bud, and about an inch above the
upper, as in figure 1.
Figure 2 shows a cutting with
part of the old wood attached ;
cuttings of this kind will generally
root more readily than the other.
These cuttings will mostly average
three to four buds each ; tie them
in convenient bundles of 100 to
250 each, taking care to make
their lower ends even, and keep
them either in a cool, moist cellar,
or bury them out-doors in well
drained ground, with the upper ends downwards, cover-
ing up well with finely pulverized soil. The making of
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
CUTTINGS -AJ.L NEW AND
PAKT OLD WOOD.
14 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
cuttings may be continued during winter, although they
will root more readily if cut early, and there is also no
danger of frost injuring the buds.
In spring, so soon as the ground is dry enough, the
cutting bed should be prepared. Choose for this a light,
rich soil, pulverized at least a foot deep ; if not light and
rich enough, it can be made so by well-decomposed loaf
mould. Make a cut along the whole length of the bed
with the spade, deep enough to receive the whole length
of the cuttings, and press these well down into it, so that
the upper buds are even with the surface of the earth ;
fill up with loose soil, and press it down firmly with the
foot along the line, so as to pack it well around the cut-
tings. The cuttings may be put close in the row, say 1 to
2 inches apart, and the rows 2 to 3 feet apart, so as to
allow of cultivation either by hand, plow, or cultivator.
After the bed is finished, mulch with spent tan, sawdust,
or leaf mould, so as to protect the young shoots from the
sun; maintain a moist and even temperature during sum-
mer, and keep the soil open and porous.
Keep the soil of the cutting bed clean during the sum-
mer. The young vines will generally make a hard, firm
growth 1 to 4 feet in length the first summer ; they
will make their roots just where they ought to be, and
will be by far the best plants for general use, being pre-
ferable to vines raised either from single eyes or by
layers. In the fall they should be carefully taken up, and
heeled-in in well pulverized soil, deep enough to cover
the crowns, first assorting, so as to make them as even
in size as possible for planting. They are then ready for
setting in the vineyard, and a good strong one-year-old
vine is, beyond a doubt, the best for that purpose.
AND WINE MAKING. 15
CHAPTER IV.
PROPAGATING THE VINE BY LAYERS.
All varieties of the grape may be readily increased by
layering, but it is especially valuable for those hard-
wooded varieties of the c&stivalis species, which will not
grow readily from cuttings, and vines thus propagated
will, if handled rightly, make very good plants. To layer
a vine, shorten in the canes of the last season's growth to
about one-half their length, then, early in the spring, pre-
pare the ground by the use of the spade or fork, to
thoroughly pulverize it. Make a small furrow about an
inch deep, bend down the cane and fasten it firmly in the
bottom of the furrow, with wooden hooks or pegs. The
canes may be left thus until the young shoots have grown
from 6 to 12 inches, then fill up around them with fine
soil or leaf mould. Canes so layered will generally strike
root at every joint. The shoots may be tied to small
sticks, and when they have grown afoot, their tops should
be pinched to make them more stocky. In the fall take
them up carefully, commencing to dig at the end
furthest from the vine, and separate the plants, by cutting
between the joints, so that each shoot has a system of
roots by itself. They are then either planted immedi-
ately, or heeled in, as described for vines from cuttings,
to be planted in the spring.
36 AMERICAN GBAPE GROWING
CHAPTER V.
GRAFTING THE VINE.
The advantages to be gained by grafting are so evi-
dent that, although it was almost an unknown art forty
years ago when I began its practice, it has become a ne-
cessity to every grape grower. It is a little more diffi-
cult than the same operation on fruit trees, yet it is so
simple that any one familiar with the use of a sharp
knife can easily acquire the art. The experience of forty
years has taught me that the simplest methods of graft-
ing the vine are the best for common use, especially
where it must be done on a large scale, as a protection
against phylloxera, and where skillful hands are not
always available. When whole vineyards of resistant
stocks are to be grafted in a few weeks, the labor must
be divided. While each operation is simple in itself,
with only inexperienced labor at hand it is best to give
each a special task, which he can soon learn to success-
fully perform.
With these few preliminary remarks, we will first con-
sider the advantages to be gained by grafting; secondly,
the best time to do it; and thirdly, how to do it to be
most successful.
I. Its advantages. The facility with which new and
valuable varieties can be increased and their fruit tested :
If grafts of bearing wood are worked upon strong stocks,
they will bear a few bunches the same season and a full
crop the next. The ease by which healthy stocks of no
value can be changed into the most valuable bearing
kinds : Varieties which are difficult to grow from cut-
tings can be propagated with the greatest ease by graft-
ing. Increased fruitfulness : The temporary obstruction
by grafting seems to have the effect upon the graft of
AND WINE MAKING. 17
making it produce more and finer fruit than on its own
roots. Last, but not least, grafting affords us the only
means by which to combat successfully the phylloxera.
So far no discovery has been made entitling anyone to the
large prize offered by the French government for a rem-
edy or preventive of the ravages of that insect, yet the
greater part of the destroyed vineyards have been reha-
bilitated by replanting with American vines ; and while
it seems that they are even more particular as to soil
than the varieties of the Vinifera, no doubts are enter-
tained of their power as resistants when the proper soil
has been found.
II. The best time to perform the operation. I differ
with most of the writers on this subject. I have met
with the greatest success when the sap was flowing freely,
which will, of course, vary according to location. Here
our best time is about the middle of April, though I
have grafted with as good success up to the middle of
May, provided the cions were kept dormant in a cool,
shady place and were selected with the proper care.
When the sap is flowing freely the junction is immedi-
ate, and the sap at once ascends the graft. At this time
all bandages are superfluous, and even injurious, pro-
vided the stock is strong enough to hold the cion firmly.
No matter if the stock has already made shoots a foot in
length, there will be no perceptible difference, though it
is safe to commence when the buds are swelling and the
sap is in rapid circulation. As this involves also the
question of the age of the vine, let me here say that the
best success I have had was with vines from an inch to
an inch and a half in diameter, strong enough to hold
the cion firmly, and that absolutely nothing is gained by
grafting when the vines are smaller. "Wait until the
vine is strong enough, then give its energies full play by
inserting good strong cions, with buds sufficient to take
up the flow of sap ; few failures will occur, and you can
18
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
count upon a few clusters the same summer, with a full
crop the following season.
III. How to do it. Necessary implements : You need
a good, thin-bladed, sharp knife to cut the cions, a sharp
saw to cut off large stocks, the smaller ones
can be cut with good pruning shears, a chisel
for grafting, having a blade two and a half or
three inches broad in the middle and a wedge
on each side (see figure 3), a wooden mallet
and a few strings of raffia, or other bandage, in
case a stock should need tying, which is seldom
the case. Your cions should be of selected
wood, the size of a
lead pencil or some-
what larger, cut in
time in winter, tied
in bundles and bur- pia - 3 - GRAFTING CHISEL.
ied their entire length on the shady side of a
building or under a tree, to keep them dor-
mant. Short-jointed, firm wood is to be pre-
ferred. All can be carried in a basket, if
one intends to perform the operation alone. If
several are to work together, of course the tools
must be divided accordingly. We work here
generally in gangs of three, the first man clear-
ing away the ground from the stock, until he
comes to a smooth place for inserting the cion,
whether this be at the surface or slightly below.
The former is preferable if resistant vines are
to be grafted with non-resistant cions. He
FOR then cuts off the stock horizontally about an
GRAFTING. i nc h and a half above a knot or joint. The
next man cuts the cions to a smooth, long, sloping
wedge just below a bud (figure 4), then splits the stock,
either with pruning shears or chisel, according to its
size. If the stock is not more than an inch in diameter
FIG. 4.
AND WINE MAKING. 19
the shears are best, as only one cion is to be inserted.
Keep the blade of the shears on the side where the cion
is to join the stock, so as to prevent bruising, and make
a long, smooth, sloping cut, a little transversely if pos-
sible, as the junction will thereby become all the more
perfect. Then push the wedge of the cion firmly down
into the cleft, taking care that the inner bark or fiber
of stock and cion are well joined, as on this principally
depends the success of the operation. To open the cleft,
the wedges on the chisel are used if necessary. An ex-
pert will depend very little on these unless the stocks are
very heavy, but will open the cleft with knife or shears,
and then push down the cion to its proper place. The
inner side of the cion, opposite the bud, should be some-
what thinner, so that the stock will close firmly on it ;
the cion should also be inserted far enough so that the
bud is just above the horizontal cut on the stock. The
third man follows, presses a little moist earth on the
surface of the stock, and then hills up around the junc-
tion to the uppermost buds of the cion, with well-pul-
verized soil, taking care not to move the cion, and the
operation is finished. It becomes necessary sometimes
to tie the stock, when it is not large enough, or from
some defect in grafting it does not firmly hold the cion.
In such a case, pass a string of raffia or some other flat
bandage firmly around the stock and tie it, but in no
case use grafting wax or clay, as the strong flow of sap
from all the pores is apt to drown and sour the cion,
while without obstructing it, it will flow around the
stock, serving to keep the junction moist and facilitate
the union. As the whole operation is covered with
earth, there is no danger of drying up, as is sometimes
the case when fruit trees are top-grafted.
A very important consideration, to insure success, is to
equalize the stock and cion. If, therefore, large stocks
are to be grafted, we must have strong, well-developed
20 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
wood for the cions, and have buds enough to take up
the full flow of sap ; while small stocks, if used at all,
should be grafted with small cions of only two or three
buds. When the stocks are strong, I take two cions
and insert one on each side of the stock, of full length,
say from 14 to 16 inches, and with 6 to 8 buds each.
This has many advantages. The principal one is that
they will elaborate and work up the entire flow of sap.
Another is, that if the cions have well-developed fruit
buds they will produce quite a number of clusters from
the upper buds, and thus show the character of the fruit
the first year. I have already picked a thousand pounds
of grapes from an acre thus grafted, the first summer,
and a full crop of five or six tons per acre the following
season. Another advantage is that .it establishes the
crown of the graft at the right distance from the ground,
as the three upper buds will produce the canes for the
next season's bearing. If both cions grow, cut off the
weakest above the junction the next spring, leaving only
the strongest. I generally find that the whole surface
of the stock is covered by the new growth and that the
junction between stock and cion is perfect. Another
advantage is, especially in California, where we plow
and cultivate close to the vines, and where some of the
workmen are careless, they are more apt to run over and
disturb small grafts than the large ones, which are pro-
tected by hills of earth above the surface; nor are the
young shoots disturbed and broken so easily by careless
hands, or high winds.
I have been so explicit about this method, because I
have found it more successful and easier to perform than
any other. I take it for granted that the aim of every
practical grower is to reach the best results in the short-
est possible time. There are, of course, many other
methods, but better adapted to younger vines. Fore-
most among these is the whip, or so-called English cleft
AND WINE MAKING. 21
graft, which is familiar to most of my readers, and
which the French and Germans use both on cuttings
and on one-year-old plants, and which are packed away
in sand or sawdust after being grafted in the shop. I
have tried this method many times in former years, plant-
ing the grafts carefully in the nursery, but never had a
success worth mentioning, owing, I suppose, to the time
when it was done, and also because there is thus not
enough circulation of sap to form an immediate junction
and produce a thrifty growth.
This method is also practiced upon young vines in the
vineyard with better results, if done late enough. But
it is a more difficult operation, not so easily taught to
unskilled hands; necessitates tying, and the cions are
more easily moved out of place. So I have abandoned
it altogether. I wait until the vines are strong enough
to hold the cions firmly, which is generally the case the
third or fourth summer, then cleft graft as described,
and have at least ninety per cent, to grow, as well as a
crop the next summer. This is the most economical, as
well as the quickest and easiest way to obtain an even
vineyard. French experts concede that by their method
of grafting in shop and then planting the grafts in nurs-
ery for two years, where they are irrigated and then
transplanted into the vineyard, it takes six years to pro-
duce a bearing vineyard, while we can do it in four and
have but one transplanting to do. True, they claim
that experts can do the work, but we can get along with-
out experts, and must do so as they are seldom to be
had, and then only at high wages.
The so-called Champin graft, called thus after its in-
ventor, Aimee Champin, is only a variation of splice
grafting, and hardly needs a separate description.
A mode of grafting much in vogue in Germany and
Hungary, is the green or herbaceous, fully described
and illustrated in a treatise published by Prof. Herman
22 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
Goethe. I have not practiced it in the East, but tried it
in California thoroughly and without success. The
summers are too hot for it, and so it has to be done in
June and July, above ground. I believe that it will
never be generally practiced in America. To make it
succeed at all, the grafts must be shaded in some way.
As we must, in this practical country, try to reduce ex-
penses to a minimum and plan for quickest returns, the
method of cleft grafting described above will be found
to alone fulfill the desired conditions. I do not, there-
fore, consider it worth while to describe minutely other
methods of but little value to the practical grape grower.
I sum up briefly in a few rules, which I have taken as
my guide here, where grafting plays such a very im-
portant part in viticulture.
1. Let your stocks be chosen with a view of their
adaptation to the soil, and do not graft until they are
strong enough, say from an inch to an inch and a half
in diameter.
2. Choose your cions with great care, of medium,
short-jointed, well-ripened wood of last season's growth,
and keep them dormant, in a cool place, covered with
sand or earth.
3. Wait until the sap in the stock is in rapid motion,
at least until the buds swell, and then perform the oper-
ation quickly, taking care that the inner barks of stock
and cion fit closely.
4. Leave buds enough on the cion to elaborate and
circulate all the sap, thereby avoiding black knot and
all diseases which are apt to follow late frosts, excessive
pruning, etc.
5. Hill up around the junction so as to protect it
from drying out and to protect the graft, but do not tie
or put on grafting wax or clay, as by so doing you may
drown and rot the cion.
AND WINE MAKING. 23
After this short recapitulation of the principles which
should govern in grafting, we come to the
AFTER TREATMENT OF THE GRAFT.
This is very simple. A stake should be driven close
to the graft immediately after grafting is finished, and
the young shoots, when they appear, tied to it for sup-
port, as they generally start vigorously and are easily
broken off, or blown off by high winds. Do not be dis-
couraged if some time elapses before they start. I have
often had them remain dormant until July or August,
and then make a rapid growth. If suckers from the
stock appear, as is generally the case, they should be re-
moved at once, taking care to cut them close to the
stock, so as to have no stumps or dormant buds. When
young they generally come off easily. Tying and suck-
ering should be repeated every week or ten days at least.
As long as the cion remains fresh and green it may be-
gin growing at any time. Of course, care must be taken
not to disturb the cion. If everything does well, there
will be from three to four canes from the upper buds,
and these may be treated just as any other bearing vine,
in pruning.
AFFINITY OF STOCK AND CION.
A few remarks on this subject, suggested to me by
experience, may not be out of place. As a general rule,
vines of the same class will readily unite. For instance,
Labrusca on Labrusca, Kiparia on Eiparia, etc. I have
also found that ^Estivalis varieties will graft easily
on Labrusca for instance, Norton and Cynthiana graft
easily on Concord, Catawba, or Isabella. Most of the
Vinifera varieties also graft readily upon Eiparia, or
^stivalis, although there is a difference. Of the varie-
ties I have tried to graft, the easiest to take were Sau-
vignon Vert, Semillion, Marsanne, Green Hungarian or
Vert Longue, Franken Eiesling, Gamay Teinturier, Ma-
34 AMERICAN Gil APE GROWING
taro and Grosse Blane, while Sultana, Kefosco and Yel-
low Hosier did not take as readily, though a large per-
centage grew. On the Rupestris and Arizonica the
junction was still more difficult. I cannot recommend
these for stocks on account of their propensity to
sucker, and also because they show less adaptability to dif-
ferent soils than do Riparia and ^Estivalis. The Califor-
nica takes the graft very readily, but is not entirely re-
sistant and succeeds only on fertile, rather moist soils.
Budding has often been tried, but with scant success,
and I cannot recommend it.
I have given much space to this subject, because I
think it very important that every grape grower should
be familiar with the most practical mode of operation,
and any one who does not understand it cannot claim to
be advanced in his profession.
AND WINE MAKING. 25
CHAPTER VI.
THE VINEYARD LOCATION, ASPECT AND SOIL.
That the selection of a proper location, as well as the
best soil, is of great importance if the grower intends to
reach the best results, no one will deny. Generally it
may be said and taken as a rule, that locations free from
frosts, and exposed to a free circulation of air, are best
adapted to the grape, but they should also be underlaid
with the most suitable soil. That this should be nat-
urally very rich is not so important as that it should be
loose and friable, so that the roots of the vine can pene-
trate it easily and draw nourishment as well as moisture
from below. The best results will be obtained on a soil
which is naturally porous, so that it will drain easily
and not retain moisture on the surface. Such a soil will
also retain moisture well, and thus the vines will not
suffer, either from "wet feet "or extremes of drouth.
Soils underlaid by hardpan, especially where they con-
tain alkali, should be carefully avoided, as they will
never produce a large or healthy crop of good grapes.
Those locations which are free from malaria may gener-
ally be considered as safe for the grape, and where ma-
laria prevails we cannot expect to grow good and healthy
grapes of the best quality. This will apply in its closer
sense only to those who intend to make grape-growing
their business, either for market or wine. For the ama-
teur, who only wishes to grow grapes for family use, and
has already a homestead, it will be easy to choose a loca-
tion somewhere on his grounds as favorable as he can
find it, where he can grow grapes enough for his pur-
pose. Some varieties are so hardy and healthy that they
will succeed anywhere, and he ought to choose these,
contenting himself with them, even if they are not of
26 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
first quality. Steep hillsides, although they will gener-
ally produce quality, should be avoided by the profes-
sional grower, as they are difficult and expensive to work
and are liable to wash with heavy rains, which soon
carry off the surface soil. The aspect of the vineyard is
not of so much importance here as it is in Europe,
where the southern is preferred, because growers need all
the sun they can get to properly ripen their grapes. On
the contrary, in this country, except in the extreme
north, we suffer from sun-scald during July and August,
and as northern and eastern aspects generally have the
richest and deepest soil, they are usually preferred to
the southern and western, which are exposed to the full
rays of the noon and afternoon sun. As to the quality
of the soil, it may be presumed that any land which will
grow fair grain is rich enough for grapes, and contains
the elements necessary for their culture. I do not
think, however, that an extremely poor soil can be de-
pended upon to produce either quantity or quality. For
market we want a perfect fruit one that pleases the
taste as well as the eye ; and for wine we must have a
product rich in sugar, of fine flavor and quality. It
would seem unnatural to suppose that starved vines
could produce this, and as unreasonable to expect it
from a rank and therefore unhealthy growth on land
which is too rich. Therefore, a soil of medium fertility,
and well drained, will generally produce the best results.
AND WINE MAKING. 2?
CHAPTER VII.
PREPARING THE SOIL.
For the preparation of the soil, the foundation of his
work, the grape grower must be guided in his operations
by the condition in which he finds his ground. If it is
an old field, free from stumps and stones, or a piece of
prairie soil, it will be easily prepared. Break up the soil
with a good large turning plow and strong team to pull
it, and follow in the same farrow with a subsoil stirring
plow, which merely loosens the ground ; and do this as
deep as possible, if 20 inches, all the better, though 16
inches in all will do if you cannot go deeper.
If, however, the land is a new piece of forest soil, the
task will be much more difficult. This must be care-
fully grubbed of stumps and roots, and although the same
implements will, in a measure, suffice, yet the turning
plow should have a sharp coulter in front, and the sub-
soil plow should also have a strong and sharp coulter,
with merely a wedge-shaped, strong share to stir the
soil. Besides, much more power will be necessary. In
stony soil, the pick and shovel must take the place of the
plow, as it would be impossible to work it thoroughly
with the latter ; but I think there is no advantage in the
old method of trenching or inverting the soil. If we ex-
amine the wild vines of our forests, we will generally find
their roots running along in the surface soil. It is un-
natural to suppose that the vine, the most sun-loving of
all plants, should have its roots buried several feet below
the surface, where neither sun nor air can reach them.
Work the soil well and thoroughly, and as deep as you
can, it will be labor well invested ; will be the best pre-
ventive against drouth, and the best drainage in wet
weather, but leave it in its natural position, and do not
28 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
plant too deep. Rest assured if the roots find anything
congenial below, they will hunt it up. Should the soil
be very poor, it may be enriched by ashes, bone dust,'
manure, etc., but it will seldom be necessary, as most of
our soil is naturally rich enough, and it is not advisable
to stimulate the growth too mnch, as it will become rank
and unhealthy, and impair the quality of the fruit.
Wet spots may be drained by gutters filled with loose
stones or tiles, and then covered with earth. Surface
draining can be done by running a small ditch or furrow,
every sixth or eighth row, parallel with the hillside, and
leading into a main ditch at the middle or end of the
vineyard. Steep hillsides should be terraced or benched,
but as this is laborious and expensive, they should be
avoided.
AND WINE MAKING. 29
CHAPTER VIII.
WHAT GRAPES TO PLANT CHOICE OF VARIETIES.
Any one who attempts to advise beginners what vari-
eties of grapes to plant is treading on very hazardous
ground. Such advice is much more difficult to give
now than it was ten years ago, when the area planted to
grapes was far more limited, both East and West.
Comparatively few varieties of American grapes only
were cultivated east of the Rocky mountains, while to
the westward of them varieties of the Vitis vinifera
were exclusively grown. That is all changed now. The
geographical boundary between the American and the
Vinifera varieties is by no means sharply defined. Many
of the latter are now cultivated in some parts of Texas
with encouraging success, while vineyardists in the Pa-
cific States have to rely on American stocks at least for
their only security against the insidious and destructive
phylloxera. Grape culture has extended into regions
where it was not thought of ten years ago, and enterpris-
ing propagators have originated great numbers of new
varieties. A few of these have attained popularity as
standard sorts ; others are more or less promising ; and
a still greater number are on trial, or have proved un-
worthy of cultivation. Only time and patient trial can
determine the permanent value of these and the other
new varieties which nearly every year brings forth.
The nearer I approach to the boundaries of the "unseen
land," the more conservative do my views become, and
the greater my reluctance to offer dogmatic advice
which, however well intended, may prove misleading in
the end. The best advice that I can offer to beginners
in grape culture is to visit the vineyards of their neigh-
bors and learn what varieties have been successful there.
30 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Great results have been achieved by Munson and Jaeger,
in producing crosses between native varieties and hy-
brids of native and foreign origin. They are very prom-
ising, but have not been tried long enough to become
fully established. The veteran John Burr, of Leaven-
worth, Kansas, produced many new varieties, some of
which promise to be permanent memorials of his active
usefulness as a horticulturist. There are many others
who are entitled to the grateful consideration of grape
growers for their ceaseless endeavors to promote the cul-
ture of our native grapes. The results of their eiforts
are already seen in the increased success and confidence
which attend the business of grape growing and the large
increase of the area devoted to it.
Under the circumstances it does not seem advisable to
designate a list of varieties from the almost countless
numbers recommended in the catalogues of nurserymen,
but only to enumerate a few of the established varieties
which hold their position in public favor, and a selection
of newer varieties "promising well." It seems useless,
if not preposterous, to publish a list of nearly a hundred
varieties, as a firm has recently done, for the mere pur-
pose of "giving the public the most complete list ever
published." Such a list only serves to " make confusion
more confounded," and be more likely to mislead than
to help growers to make proper selections.
A few of the older varieties retain their ground and
are regarded as standard. They are so well known that
it is needless to describe them here. Persistent spray-
ing and intelligent care have greatly increased the health
and hardiness, and added to the prospect of success,
of many varieties formerly regarded as too tender or too
liable to disease for successful cultivation. The follow-
ing are well tried and generally known, viz. : Catawba,
Concord, Cynthiana, Delaware, Elvira, Goethe, Herbe-
mont, Herbert, Lady, Lindley, Martha, Norton's Vir-
AND WINE MAKING. 31
ginia, Pocklington, Triumph and Wilder. Let it be dis-
tinctly understood that I do not recommend these every-
where, but they have been cultivated so long and in so
wide an area that every person may easily learn whether
any one of them is likely to be successful in his own
locality.
VARIETIES PROMISING WELL.
Many of these may have been tried and proved in
some localities, while comparatively unknown in others.
My aim is to describe only the best of them, those which
I regard as worthy of general trial. There may be
others fully as good, which have either not been tried
long enough or in sufficiently extensive area to deter-
mine their merits. Among the most promising of all
are probably those of T. V. Munson and of Hermann
Jaeger, but as they open up a wholly new field, I have
preferred to let them speak for their seedlings, as they
do in Part II of this volume. I can assure the reader
that their statements are entitled to implicit confidence.
I have made no attempt to classify the following vari-
eties, but indicate the origin of each in parentheses, leav-
ing each reader to select such as may be desired for his
own locality.
BARRY (Hybrid). One of the best of Eogers' hy-
brids. Bunch full, medium, broad, mostly shouldered ;
berries large, round, black and tender ; ripens about
with Concord ; vigorous and productive.
BAY STATE (Hybrid). Grown by Wagener & Co.,
Pulteney, IS. Y. Seedling of Black Hamburg crossed
with Marion. Vigorous and hardy ; large, retentive
foliage ; bunch medium, shouldered, handsome ; berry
oblong, red, holds well to the stem, tender, pulp sweet,
sprightly and juicy ; early, but a good keeper.
BLACK DEFIANCE (Hybrid of Labrusca and Vinifera).
Originated by S. W. Underbill, Croton, N. Y. Large
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
and handsome ; bunch large, well shouldered, loose ; ber-
ries full, medium ; foliage good ; late, ripening about
with Catawba, or even a little later.
COLERAIN (Labrusca). Seedling of Concord, pro-
duced by D. Mundy, Colerain, Ohio. Very promising.
Vine a strong grower, healthy and hardy, and an abun-
dant bearer ; very early but hangs well to the vine ;
bunches shouldered, medium, as are the berries, which
are light green with delicate bloom ; skin thin ; very
juicy and sweet yet vinous ; generally but one seed to
each berry.
DIAMOND (Labrusca). Cross between Concord and
lona, produced by Jacob Moore, of New York. Vigor-
ous grower, retaining its leaves well, which are large and
light green. Bunch large, moderately compact, shoul-
dered ; berry about the same size as Concord, adhering
well to the bunch; greenish white, with yellow tinge;
flesh melting and juicy, sweet, free from foxiness. Very
hardy, and has produced good crops for ten consecutive
years. Considered superior to all the older white grapes.
DUCHESS. Cross between a white seedling of Concord
and Delaware, or Walter, by A. J. Caywood & Son,
Marlboro, N. Y. Bunch medium to large, long, shoul-
dered ; berries medium, white, transparent, juicy, fine
quality ; ripens about with Concord. In its original
habitat it is hardy and healthy, a strong grower, and pro-
ductive ; keeps and ships well.
EAKLY OHIO. Originated with R. A. Hunt, Euclid,
Ohio. A chance seedling, which attracted attention by
its early ripening. Earliest of all, ripening a week be-
fore Moore's Early and three weeks before Concord, and
consequently brings the highest price in the Cleveland
market. Bunch medium, shouldered ; berry black,
round, somewhat smaller than Concord, firm in texture .;
flavor spicy, pleasant; hangs well to the stem, and
therefore ships well.
AND WINE MAKING. 33
(Labrusca). Grown by Calvin Eaton, of Con-
cord, N. H. Vine a strong, rank grower, resembling
Concord, and the grape ripens about the same time with
it. Bunch large, sometimes weighing eighteen ounces,
compact-; berries very large, round, black, covered with
blue bloom. Very juicy, somewhat pulpy, not as sweet
as Concord, but less foxy.
ECLIPSE. Originated by John Burr, the indefatigable
experimenter, to whom we owe many valuable varieties
from unknown seed. Bunch large, doubly shouldered,
rather loose ; berry very large, white, tender and juicy,
sprightly, sweet, rich and vinous ; hardy and productive.
Ripens about the same time as Concord.
EARLY VICTOR (Lalrusca). Same origin. Bunch
medium, shouldered, compact ; berry medium, round,
black, juicy, sweet and sprightly. In quality one of the
best of the earlier varieties ; vigorous, hardy and produc-
tive ; very early ; has rotted in some locations.
EMPIRE STATE. Appears to be one of the most val-
uable of the many seedlings of J. H. Ricketts. Claimed
to be a cross between Hartford and Clinton. If so, it
has departed strangely from its parents, as it has a slight
Vinifera flavor. Bunch large and handsome, shouldered,
rather loose ; berry medium, white, tinged with yellow,
covered with white bloom ; rich, sweet and sprightly,
without foxiness ; productive and keeps well.
EUREKA.. Produced by Dr. Stayman, Leavenworth,
Kansas, from seed of Delaware. Good grower, hardy,
healthy and productive. Bunch large, shouldered, compact
and handsome ; berry red, medium, tender, sweet, spright-
ly and vinous. Claimed to be fully equal to Delaware, but
with heavier foliage and bunches ; medium early.
EXQUISITE. Same origin. Medium grower, healthy,
hardy and productive. Bunch medium, compact ; berry
below medium, red, very sweet, juicy and vinous, with-
out pulp ; ripens with Delaware.
3
34 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
GENEVA. Produced by Jacob Moore, of New York,
from a hybrid of Black Fox with Muscat of Alexandria,
and this hybrid recrossed with lona. Vine hardy and
productive ; bunch medium, not shouldered, rather loose ;
berry above medium, oblong, green, transparent, with
little bloom; pure flavor, and sprightly; medium early.
GREEN MOUNTAIN. Claimed to be at the head for
earliness, productiveness, good quality and vigorous
growth. It is a Labrusca, found in a garden on a slope
of the Green mountains, in Vermont. As it is one of
the lately introduced varieties, it needs further trial to
determine its actual merits. It is claimed for it that it
will mature in a wider territory than any other variety ;
that it resembles the Vinifera more than any other native
grape, and is the grape for every one to plant, being a
young and profuse bearer. Bunch full medium, hand-
somely shouldered ; berry medium, round, greenish
white ; skin thin ; pulp tender and sweet, slightly vin-
ous ; free from foxiness ; seeds small. Very early, ripen-
ing the last week in August. Stephen Hoyt's Sons,
Connecticut, are the introducers and propagators, and
if it fulfills one-half they say in its favor it will be a very
valuable grape.
HAYES (Labrusca). Produced by John B. Moore,
Concord, Mass. Same origin as Moore's Early. Bunch
medium, moderately compact, shouldered ; berry me-
dium, round, greenish white changing to amber yellow ;
flesh tender, juicy and delicate ; fine flavor, no foxiness.
Foliage thick and heavy ; vine vigorous, hardy and pro-
ductive ; ripens at least a week earlier than Concord.
HOSFORD (Labrusca). Seedling from Concord, grown
by Geo. Hosford, Ionia, Michigan. Vine a vigorous
grower, hardy and good bearer. Bunch large, shoul-
dered ; berry very large, round, black, with fine bloom;
pulp tender and juicy ; sweet and pure, not foxy ; skin
thin ; ripens a few days before Concord.
AND WINE MAKING. 35
IDEAL. This new grape has won very high praise
wherever it has been tried. Grown by John Burr from.
seed of Delaware. Vine strong, hardy, healthy and pro-
ductive ; bunch large, shouldered, rather compact ; berry
large, red, tender, juicy, rich, sweet and vinous, without
pulp. Claimed to be better than Delaware, and is much
more showy.
JEWEL. Same origin. Claimed to be the very best
early grape that has ever been fully tested. Vine mod-
erately vigorous, healthy and hardy; bunch medium,
compact, shouldered ; berry full medium, black, slightly
pulpy, sweet, rich and sprightly, of best quality; skin
rather tough. Eipcns a week before Moore's Early ; will
hang well on the vines and ships well.
JUMBO (Labruscci). Seedling from Concord, grown
by Mrs. R. Rose, Marlboro, N". Y. Bunch very large,
compact, shouldered ; have weighed as much as twenty
ounces each ; berry very large, blue black, with fine
bloom ; good quality and sells well on the New York
market. Earlier than Concord.
KEYSTONE (I/abrusca). Produced by John Kready,
Lancaster Co., Pa., and supposed to be a seedling of the
Concord. Vine a strong grower, healthy, holds its foliage
well. Bunches large, compact and shouldered ; berry
about size of Concord, black with blue bloom ; skin
tough ; ripens with Concord, but will keep in a cool,
dry place until March.
LIGHTFOOT. Produced by W. H. Lightfoot, Spring-
field, 111., from seed of Niagara. Vine vigorous and
healthy. Bunch medium to large, shouldered ; berry
full medium, roundish and uniform, with thin but tough
skin, and holding firmly to the stem; color light green,
changing to yellow when fully ripe, with delicate bloom ;
flesh melting without pulp ; pure flavor, juicy and sweet.
Ripens after Concord.
MAGNATE. Originated at Leavenworth, Kansas, and
36 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
is said to be a hybrid. Vine vigorous, hardy, and very
productive. Bunch very large, shouldered, compact ;
berry white, large, tender, sweet, with slight native
aroma. Said to be free from rot and mildew, and in
every way reliable. Ripens with Concord, but keeps
well on the vine.
MATCHLESS. Originated at Leavenworth, Kansas, by
John Burr, from unknown seed. Vine vigorous,
healthy and productive. Bunch very large, compact,
handsome ; berry very large, black, pure in flavor, sweet
and sprightly ; hangs well to the bunch after ripening ;
a very promising variety.
MILLS (Hybrid). Grown by "Wm. H. Mills, of Ham-
ilton, Ontario, and introduced by Ellwanger & Barry.
Cross of Muscat-Hamburg with Creveling. Vine vigor-
ous and productive ; foliage large and healthy. Bunch
very large, compact, shouldered. Berry round, large,
black, covered with thick bloom ; flesh firm, juicy,
breaking, with a brisk, sprightly flavor ; skin thick ; ber-
ries adhere well to the stem. Ripens somewhat later
than Concord and keeps well.
MOKTEFIORE. Gross of Elvira with Ives. Produced
by Jacob Rommell, of Morrison, Mo. Vine healthy and
hardy, very productive, and free from mildew and rot.
Ripens later than Concord, and makes a fine red wine.
NIAGARA. This is rather an old variety, introduced
about fifteen years ago by Hoag & Clark, Lockport,
N. Y., but reports concerning its success are so conflict-
ing that I have thought best to class it here with newer
varieties. It is largely planted in some localities, while
in others it is much subject to rot. Bunch very large
and handsome, mostly shouldered ; compact. Berries
full medium, round, white, with amber flush on sunny
side ; skin thin but tough ; carries well ; little pulp ;
sweet, with peculiar agreeable aroma. Ripens with Con-
cord, Vine vigorous and very productive.
AND WINE MAKING. 37
OWEGO. Origin questionable. Produced by John
Burr. Vine vigorous, hardy and productive. Bunch
medium, compact. Berry very large, red, tender, juicy,
sprightly and vinous ; quality best.
OSWEGO (Labrusca). Free from disease as far as
known. Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Bunch
very large, compact, shouldered. Berry large, tender,
juicy and sprightly; black, better than Concord, more
showy and keeps better. Much valued in Kansas. Ori-
gin unknown.
OZAEK (jEst ivalis). Originated with Dr. J. Stay-
man, Leavenworth, Kansas. Very vigorous, hardy and
productive. Bunch very large, compact, shouldered.
Berry large, black, rich and sprightly, with a peculiar,
pleasant flavor ; free from disease. Eipens later than
Concord, and will hang on the vines until frost. Re-
garded as one of the best market and wine grapes.
PARAGON. Produced by John Burr, from unknown
seed. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive and free from
disease. Bunch large, compact, shouldered ; berry
large, black, juicy, rich and vinous, without pulp;
ripens with Concord, but will hang and keep well on the
vine until late frost.
PEKFECTION. Originated by Dr. Stayman, from seed
of Delaware, and is called the best and earliest red grape
in Kansas. Hardy, healthy and productive. Bunch
long, shouldered, compact and handsome; berry medi-
um, tender and sprightly, with little pulp, or native
aroma; much like Delaware, but larger in bunch and
berry.
ROCHESTER. Produced by Ellwanger and Barry,
Rochester, N. Y., from seed of mixed varieties. Vine
healthy, hardy and productive ; bunch large, shouldered,
very compact ; berry full medium, round, dark purple,
peculiar color, with white bloom ; very sweet, vinous
and tender. Ripens first week in September.
38 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
SELMA. Produced by G. Segessmann, Amazonia, Mo.
Seedling of Elvira and probably Concord. Perfectly
hardy, productive and healthy. Bunches large and per-
fect, shouldered ; berry medium, black, nearly round,
adhering firmly to stem ; juicy and sprightly, pleasant
flavor; skin thick and firm. Ripens a few days after
Moore's Early, and makes a good claret wine.
SUPERB. Produced by A. F. Nice, Griswoldville, Ga.,
from seed of Enmelan, raised at Weymouth, Mass.
Hardy and a good grower; wood short-jointed and
stocky ; leaf large and healthy. Bunch large, compact;
berry medium, black, with blue bloom ; quality best,
sweet and rich ; pulp tender and juicy ; skin thin but
tough. It starts late, but ripens two weeks before Con-
cord ; keeps and ships well. Liable to overbear, and
needs thinning.
THOMAS (Rotund if olio). Introduced by D. Thomas.
Claimed to be an improvement on the old Scuppernong.
Berries large, oblong, purplish violet ; skin thin ; trans-
parent, tender, sweet and vinous. I simply repeat the
description here without recommending any of that class.
ULSTER PROLIFIC (Labrusca). Seedling of Catawba
crossed witli wild ^Estivalis, produced by A. J. Cay wood,
Marlboro, N. Y. Bunch medium, shouldered ; berry
medium ; skin thin, but tough ; sweet and of fine flavor.
Ripens with Concord ; keeps and carries well. Vine
very hardy, healthy and prolific.
VERGENNES. Originator, William E. Green, Vergen-
nes, Vermont. A chance seedling found in his garden.
Ripens after Concord. Bunch of medium size, shoul-
dered ; berry large, skin thin and tough ; good quality,
fine keeper and shipper ; good for late market. Vine
vigorous, healthy and hardy.
WHITE BEAUTY. Originated from Duchess, by Dr.
J. Stayman. Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy and very
productive. Bunch large, long, compact, shouldered
AND WINE MAKING. 39
and handsome; berry full medium, firm but tender,
sprightly and pure flavor. Claimed to be the most per-
fect white grape in Kansas, ripening with Concord, and
will hang until late frost. A good shipper.
WHITE JEWEL (Riparia). Introduced by Dr. Stay-
man. Seedling of Elvira. Very early claimed to be
the earliest grape in Kansas. Vine healthy and very
productive ; bunch medium, long, very compact, hand-
some. Berry medium, oblong, very juicy, sweet, spright-
ly, and of good quality.
WILLIE (Labrusca). Produced by Dr. L. C. Chis-
holm, Nashville, Term. Seedling of Northern Musca-
dine, crossed with Concord. Fruit larger than Concord,
both in bunch and berry; very showy ; black, with whit-
ish bloom ; skin not as thin as Concord ; vinous and
sprightly ; not foxy ; an excellent wine grape ; ripens
with Concord. Vigorous, healthy, and very productive.
WITT (Labrusca). Originated with Mr. Witt, Colum-
bus, Ohio. Healthy in growth and foliage ; very pro-
ductive. Bunch large and handsome ; berry large, pure
flavored and best in quality. Eipens early, but keeps
well. Claimed to be the best of the white seedlings of
Concord.
WOODRUFF KED (Labrusca). Originated with C. H.
Woodruff, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Chance seedling,
and probably a cross between Concord and Catawba.
Very hardy, strong grower, and healthy. Bunch large,
shouldered, heavy and compact. Berry large, sweet and
of fair quality, but somewhat foxy. Desirable for
market.
In the foregoing selection of varieties, I have been
obliged to depend mainly on Eastern sources for descrip-
tions. I have endeavored to cull the most promising
from an almost endless list, but must leave it wholly to
the discretion of the reader to decide what varieties, if
any, are suited to each particular locality. This is, of
40 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
course, only a partial list of American origin. There
may be others equally promising, among the seven hun-
dred varieties now before the public. I have not touched
upon the new varieties of my friends T. V. Munson and
Hermann Jaeger, which may be the most promising of
them all, as their originators will speak for them in Part
II of this volume.
RETROSPECTIVE.
This chapter on choice of varieties refers, of course,
only to American grapes, suitable for planting and cul-
tivation east of the Rocky mountains. It may not be
out of place here to glance backward over the last ten
years and observe the progress made in grape culture
during that period. That immense progress has been
made is beyond question. Throughout the country,
from Maine to Idaho, and from Florida to Texas, men
of skill and energy have been engaged in the work of
originating new varieties for the table, the market and
the wine-press. As a result the grape and its juices, in
some form or other, are no longer the exclusive luxuries
of the rich, but the common property of all. The
Southern States are prepared to enter the market as early
as May, and the State of New York ships its grapes until
as late as December, and as far as Denver and other
Colorado points. Fresh grapes are thus furnished for
eight months in the year. Great advance has also been
made in the quality of American grapes. What was re-
garded as good enough ten years ago, is so no longer.
The varieties originated by Miller, Rommell, Campbell,
Rogers, Cay wood and others are nearly all either cast
aside or used only for further experiments, only a few
remaining as remembrances. But the pioneer experi-
menters labored not in vain. They made the path clear
for those who were to follow, and we can, without envy
or bitterness, step aside while the succeeding generation
follows in our footsteps, even surpassing us in the work
AND WINE MAKING. 41
that we began. What we aimed to do may be accom-
plished by them. Let their motto be, as ours was, "Ex-
celsior," until this country becomes in truth, what the
pre-Columbian Northmen called it, a true Vineland.
CHAPTER IX.
PLANTING THE VINE.
The distance at which the vines may be planted, will,
of course, vary with the different varieties. The rows
may all be 6 feet apart, as this is the most convenient
distance for cultivating, and gives space enough for man,
horse and plow, or cultivator. Slow growing varieties,
such as Delaware, Catawba, or Alvey, may be planted 6
feet apart in the rows, but Concord, Norton's, Herbe-
mont, and all strong growing varieties, will need more
room, say from 8 to 10 feet, to give the vines ample space
to spread, and allow free circulation of air, one of the
first conditions of success. The next question is ; Shall
we plant cuttings or rooted plants ? The latter are by
far the best, as cuttings, even of the easiest growing va-
rieties, are uncertain, and we cannot expect to have so
even a growth as from rooted plants carefully assorted.
Choose, therefore, good, strong, one-year-old plants, the
best you can get, either from cuttings, layers, or single
eyes. Good plants should have plenty of strong, well-
ripened roots, which are smooth and firm for excres-
cences and warts upon the roots are a sign of Phylloxera
and have also well-ripened, short-jointed wood. They
should be of even size, so as to make a uniform growth,
and not have been forced by the propagator into rank
growth, for we cannot expect plants that have been petted
and pampered with artificial manures, to nourish with
42 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
the every day food they obtain in the vineyard. But
do not take second or third-rate plants, if you can help
it, for they will not make the thrifty growth of first-class
plants. The best are the cheapest even if they cost 9
little more. Especially important is this with such va-
rieties as Norton's or Delaware, which do not root readily,
and are always more difficult to transplant. Better pay
double the price for them and get good plants, as they
will make healthier vines and bear sooner.
But I also caution you against those who would sell
you "extra large layers for immediate bearing," and
whose plants are "better than any one else grows them,"
as their advertisements will term it. It is time that this
humbug should cease, and the public in general should
know that they cannot, in reason, expect fruit from a
vine transplanted the same season, and tlit those who
pretend it can be done without vital injury to the plant,
are only seeking to fill their pockets afc the cost of their
customers. They know well enough themselves, that it
cannot be done without fatally injuring the plant, but
they impose upon tho credulity of their customers ; sell
them large vines at extravagant prices, which these good
souls will buy, and perhaps obtain a few sickly bunches
the first season, but if they do, the vines will make a
feeble growth, not ripen their wood, and be winter-killed
next season. Therefore, if you look around for plants do
not go to those who advertise "layers for immediate
bearing," or "better grown than anyone's else," but send
to some honest, reliable nurseryman whom you can trust ;
one who is not afraid to let you see how he grows them,
and let him send you a sample of his plants. Choose
good, strong, healthy plants, one year old, plant care-
fully, and be content to wait two years for results ; but-
then, if you have cultivated the vines carefully, you will
get a crop of grapes that is worth gatnering. You can
not, in nature and reason, expect ii sooner.
AVINE MAKING.
43
If the ground has been prepared in the fall, so much
the better, and if it has been thrown into ridges, and is
dry enough, it may be planted in the fall. The advantages
of fall planting may be summed up as follows : The
Fig. 5. YOUNG VINE BEADY TO PLANT.
ground is generally in better condition than in spring
and will work better, as we usually have better weather,
and more time to spare ; the ground can settle among
the roots, which will be healed over and callused by
spring, when the plant is ready to start with full vigor.
Mark your ground, laying it off with a line, and put a
small stake where each plant is to be. A very convent
4.4 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ent plan is to tie a string, or piece of bark, into your line
at the proper distance for each plant, then you have an
even measure every time. Dig a hole, 8 or 10 inches
deep, as shown in figure 6, in a slanting direction, rais-
ing a small mound of well pulverized earth in the center;
then, having pruned your
plant, as in figure 5, with
its tops and roots shorten-
ed-in, as shown by the dot-
ted lines, lay it in, resting
the lower end on the
mound of earth ; spread
out its roots evenly to all
sides, and then fill in with
Fig. 6. -PLANTING THE VINE. well pulverized earth, leav-
ing the upper bud above
the ground. When planted in fall, raise a small mound
around each vine, so as to drain off the water, arid throw
a handful of mulch on top of the vines, to protect them.
All the work should be done when the ground is in good
condition, and dry and mellow enough to be worked in
well among the roots.
CHAPTER X.
TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE FIRST SUMMER.
The first summer after planting, nothing is necessary
but to keep the ground loose and mellow and free from
weeds, stirring it freely with hoe, rake, and plow, when-
ever necessary, but never when the ground is wet.
Should the vines grow strong, they may be tied to the
small stakes, to elevate them somewhat above the ground.
Allow but one shoot to grow, rubbing off all others as
AND WINE MAKING. 45
they appear, but allow all the laterals to grow on this
shoot, as it will make it short-jointed and stocky.
In the fall, prune the young vine back to three buds, if
it has grown well ; to one or two, if it is small. A fail-
growth for the first season, is from 3 to 4 feet. During
the winter, trellises should be provided, as this is the
most convenient and the cheapest method of training ;
and we expect our vines to grow from 10 to 15 feet the
coming summer. Procure good posts, 7 feet long, and
3 to 4 inches in diameter, of Red Cedar where it can be
had, as this is the most durable ; if that is not at hand,
use Osage Orange, Mulberry, Black Locust, or Post Oak.
Char the lower ends of the posts slightly, or dip them in
coal tar, as far as they go into the ground, to make them
more durable. Make holes with a post auger, placing
the first post in each row about 4 feet outside of the
last vine, and parallel with the row ; set the second post
midway between the second and third vines, and so on,
so that two vines always occupy the space between two
posts. If preferred, every other post can be omitted this
summer, and the intermediate ones may be set the next
fall, as the trellis will be strong enough to bear the young
growth, and that is all it will have to do the next
summer. Make the holes 2 feet deep and set the posts
firmly, pounding down the ground around them with a
small wooden pestle or crowbar. Brace the end post
firmly, by driving in a short stake 4 feet from the last
,post, fastening a wire to the top of the post and draw-
ing it down and around the stake, as shown in figure 17.
Procure No. 12 wire ; bore holes with a half-inch auger
through the end post (which should always be rather
heavier and square), one near the top of the post, and
one or two others, as you wish to make the trellis of two
or three wires. If the trellis is to be of only two wires,
make the next hole 2 feet below the upper one ; if three
wires are to be used, 20 inches below. The three-wire
46 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
trellis is somewhat more convenient in tying up the
young vines and lower canes, but is also costlier, while
the two-wire trellis is more economical, and when the
vines are once established in their proper shape, just
as good, while it is more convenient for cultivation be-
low, and allows freer circulation of air below the bearing
canes. Fasten your vine to the post at one end, drawing
it along the line, and pass it through the hole in the end
post. Have pieces of 1 inch boards, l ! / a inch broad, and
a foot long, with a hole bored through the center. Draw
your wire also through this, and then by turning the
board, you can, in wrapping the wire around it, tighten
that at your pleasure, and loosen it also, which should
always be done in the fall, as the cold contracts the wire,
and the strain would be too great. Now you can fasten
the wire to the intermediate posts by small staples, which
are manufactured for this purpose, and can be had in any
hardware store. If your vineyard slopes to the south,
and the rows run parallel with the hillside, fasten on the
south side ; if to the east, fasten to the east. Laths will,
of course, do instead of wires, but the posts must then be
set much closer ; laths always need repairing ; the wires
are much more convenient to tie to, and in the end
much cheaper. Many train to stakes. Where timber is
plenty, stakes may be cheaper, yet it is much more
labor to tie to them, and the vines are always in disorder,
while they will cling to the wires with their tendrils, thus
doing most of the tying themselves, and the bearing canes
can be distributed much more evenly, producing more
and better ripened fruit. I am satisfied that the addi-
tional cost of trellis will be more than paid by the larger
and better crop the first bearing season. Fill all va-
cancies, if any occur, with extra strong vines in the fall.
AND WINE MAKING. 47
CHAPTER XL
TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE SECOND SUMMER.
We find the young vine at the commencement of the
second summer pruned to three buds. From these we
may expect two or three strong shoots to ripen into bear-
ing canes for the next year. The first work will be to
cultivate the whole ground. This can be done by a com-
mon turning plow, first throwing away a furrow at each
side of the row, as in the first cultivation of corn, taking
care not to go too deep, so as to injure the vine or its
roots. Then hoe the space under and around the vines,
either with the two-pronged German hoe, or the Hexa-
mer hoe, stirring and inverting the soil to the depth of
about 3 inches. Then take the plow again and throw
the soil back to the vines, using care, however, not
to cover them ; stir the whole to a uniform depth, and
leaving a shallow furrow in the middle. The ground
should be dry enough to work well, and not clog ; rather
wait a few days than to stir the soil in wet weather. Of
the three shoots which may grow, leave two to grow un-
checked ; the weakest is to be pinched as soon as about
five or six leaves are developed, taking off the top of the
young shoot with your thumb and finger. The other
two, if Catawba or Delaware, you can let grow unchecked,
kit all the strong growing kinds, as Concord, Martha,
U(pthe, etc., and all the mtivalis and cordifolia class,
should also be pinched when the shoots have attained a
length of 3 feet, or just above the second wire from
above ; this will force the laterals into a stronger growth,
so that each will attain the size of a medium cane. On
these we intend to have our fruit the coming season, as
the shoots from buds on these laterals will produce more
and finer fruit than those on the main canes, if left un-
48
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
checked ; and they can also be kept under control much
better. Figure 7 will show the result of training the
second summer, with the method of bracing the trellis.
Fig. 7. THE VINE AT THE END OF THE SECOND SEASON.
Figure 8 gives the vine, pruned and tied, at the end
of the second season. Figure 9 represents the manner
of training and tying the Catawba and Delaware, or other
slow growing kinds.
The above method of training is a combination of the
single-cane and fan-training system, which I tried first
on the Concord from sheer necessity, when the results
pleased me so much, that I have since adopted it with all
Fig. 8. THE VINE PRUNED AND TIED.
the strong growing varieties. The circumstances which
led me to the trial of this method, were as follows : In
the summer of 1862, when mv young Concord vines were
AND WINE MAKING. 49
making their second season's growth, we had, in the be-
ginning of June, the most destructive hailstorm I have
ever seen here. The vines were not only stripped of all
their leaves, but the young succulent shoots were also cut
down to about 3 feet from the ground. The vines, being
young and vigorous, pushed out strong laterals, each of
them about the size of a fair, medium cane. In the fall,
when I came to prune them, the main cane was not long
enough, and I shortened in the laterals to from four to
six buds each. On these I had as fine a crop of grapes as
I ever saw, with large, well developed bunches and berries,
. TKAININu! SLOW GROWING VARIETIES.
and a great many of them, as each bud had produced its
fruit-bearing shoot. Since that time I have followed this
method altogether and have obtained the most satisfac-
tory results.
The ground should be kept loose and mellow during
the summer, cultivating as often as may become necessary
during dry weather, and the vines are to be tied neatly
to the trellis with bark or straw.
There are many other methods of training, as the old
bow and stake training, so much in vogue formerly. But
it crowds the whole mass of fruit and leaves so closely, that
mildew and rot will follow as a natural consequence ; it
should have been given up long ago. But we have a class
of grape growers who never learn or forget anything.
50 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
These will hardly prosper. The grape-grower, of all
others, should be a close observer of uature, a thinking
and reasoning being. He ought to experiment and try new
methods all the time, and should he find a better, be will-
ing to throw aside his old method, and adopt one more
suited to the wants of his vines. Only in this manner
can he expect to attain success.
There is also the arm system, of which we hear so
much, and which certainly looks very pretty on paper.
But paper is patient, and the advantages of the sys-
tem cannot be denied, if every shoot and spur could be
made to grow just as in drawings, with three fine bunches
to each shoot. Upon applying it, however, we find
that vines are stubborn, some shoots will outgrow others,
and before we hardly know how, the whole beautiful
system is out of order. It may do to follow with a
few vines in gardens, or on arbors, but 1 do not think
that it will ever be successfully adopted for vineyard cul-
ture, as it involves too much labor in tying, pruning, etc.
I think the method already described will more fully
meet the wants of the vine grower than any I have yet
seen ; it is so simple that an intelligent person can soon
become familiar with it, and gives us new, healthy bear-
ing-wood every season.
Pruning may be done in the fall, as soon as the leaves
have dropped, and continued, on mild days, during
the winter months.
AND WINE MAKING. 5]
CHAPTER XII.
TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE THIRD SUMMER.
At the beginning of the third season we find our vine
pruned to three spurs, of two buds each, and six shcrl,
lateral arms of four to six buds each. These are tied
firmly to the trellis, as shown in figure 8, for which pur-
pose small twigs of the Golden Willow, of which every
grape- grower should plant a supply, are the most con-
venient. In their absence, twigs of some of the wild
willows, or good strong twine, may be substituted, though
not near so convenient. The ground should be plowed
and hoed as before, taking care, however, not to plow
so deeply as to cut or tear the roots of the vines.
The vines being plowed and hoed, and, as we hope,
pushing young shoots vigorously, we come to one of the
most important and delicate operations to be performed
Oil the vine, one of as great, or even greater, importance
than pruning. This is summer-pruning, or pinching,
*. <?., thumb and finger pruning. Fall pruning, or cutting
back, is but the first step in the discipline to which the
vine is to be subjected ; summer pruning is the second ;
and one is useless and cannot be systematically followed
without the other. Look at the vine well before you
commence, and begin near the ground.
The time to commence is when the young shoots
are 6 to 8 inches long, and as soon as you can see all the
young bunches or buds, the embryo fruit. We com-
mence on the lower spur, having two shoots ; rubbing
off, at the same time, all suckers or wild shoots that may
have started from the crown of the vine below. From
the two buds two shoots have started. One of them
may serve as a bearing cane or reserve next summer, we,
therefore, leave it unchecked for the present. The other,
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
which is intended for a spur again next fall, we pinch
with thumb and finger, just beyond the last bunch or
button, taking out the leader between the last bunch and
the next leaf, as shown in figure 10, the cross line indicat-
ing where the leader is to be pinched. We now rub oil
all the shoots between the lower spur and the next lateral
cane, should any appear, as they generally produce im-
perfect fruit and are quite too near the ground. Next
take the spur on the cane, treating it precisely like the
lower one, leaving the strongest shoot unchecked for a
bearing cane next year, and pinching the other. Now go
over all the shoots on the lateral
canes, shortening each one to just
above the last promising looking
bunch. If a bud has started
two, or even three shoots, rub off
the weaker, leaving but one and
the strongest, and if any bud has
not started vigorously, rub it off
altogether. Go over the other
cane in the same manner, and if
you think there are still too many
bunches, take away the smallest.
A vine in its third season, how-
ever strong it may be, should not
be allowed to bear over 15 Ibs. of grapes, and if allowed
thirty to forty bunches it will have that quantity, pro-
vided it is not a variety which bears but small bunches.
Now is the time to thin the fruit, before it has abstracted
any strength from the vine. If any shoots are not suf-
ficiently developed to show their condition, we pass them
by, and go over the vine again after a few days.
This early pinching of the young ghoots has the ten-
dency to throw all the vigor -into the development of the
young bunches and the leaves remaining on the shoot,
which now develop with astonishing rapidity. It is a
Fig. 10. PINCHING.
AND WINE MAKING.
53
gentle checking, and leading the sap into other channels,
not the violent process which is often followed long after
the bloom, when the shoots have so hardened that the
knife must be used, and by which the plant is robbed
of a large part of its leaves, to the injury of both fruit
and vine. Let any one who wishes to satisfy himself,
summer-prune a vine according to this method, and leave
the next vine until after the bloom ; he will soon be con-
vinced which is best Since I first practised this method,
now about twenty years, it has added at least one-third
to the quantity and quality of my crop, and it is now fol-
lowed by most of the intelligent growers of my State.
It also gives an early opportunity to destroy the small
worms, a species of leaf -folder, which are very trouble-
some about this time, eating the young bunches and
leaves, and which generally
make their web among the
tender leaves at the end of the
shoot. The bearing shoots all
being pinched back, we can
leave the vines alone until after
the bloom, only tying up the
young canes from the spurs,
should this become necessary.
Do not tie them over and
among the bearing canes, but
lead them to the empty spaces
in the middle, as our ob-
ject must be to give the fruit
all the air and light we can.
When they have bloomed, the laterals will have start-
ed from the axils of the leaves on the bearing shoots.
Go over again, and pinch these back to one leaf, as shown
in figure 11, the cross lines showing where the laterals are
to be pinched. This will have the tendency to develop
the remaining leaf very rapidly, enabling it to serve as a
Fig. 11. PINCHING THE
LATERALS.
54 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
conductor and elaborator of sap to the young bunch op-
posite, and shading that when it becomes fully devel-
oped. The canes from the spurs, which we left un-
checked at first pinching, and which we design to bear
fruit the next season, may now also be stopped or pinched
when they are about 3 feet long, to start their laterals
into stronger growth. Pinch off all the tendrils unless
where they serve as supports to the young growth. This
is a very busy time for the vine dresser, and upon his
close attention and diligence now, depends, in a great
measure, the value of his crop. A vast deal of labor can
be saved by doing everything at its proper time.
This is about all that is necessary for this summer, ex-
cept tying the young growth along the top wires, and
an occasional tying of a fruit-bearing branch, if it should
become too heavy. The majority of the branches will,
however, be able to bear their fruit without tying, and
the young growth which may yet be made from the
laterals may be left unchecked, as it will serve to shade
the fruit when ripening. This short and early pinching
is also a partial preventive of mildew and rot, as it ad-
mits light and air to all parts of the vine. But I cannot
caution too strongly against late cutting back, one of the
first causes of disease, and ruinous to the vine, as the de-
foliation of the vine in August disturbs and violates all
its functions, and enfeebles it.
The reader will perceive that fall pruning, or shorten-
ing-in the ripe wood of the vine, and summer-pruning,
shortening-in and thinning the young growth, have one
and the same object in view, namely, to keep the vine with-
in proper bounds, and to concentrate all its energies for a
two-fold object, the production and ripening of the most
perfect fruit, and the production of strong and healthy
wood for next season's crop. Both operations are only dif-
ferent parts of the same system, of which summer-pruning
is the preparatory, and fall-pruning the finishing part.
AKD WINE MAKING. 55
If we think that a vine sets more fruit than it is able
to bear and ripen perfectly, we have it in our power to
thin it, by taking away all imperfect bunches and feeble
shoots. We should allow no more canes to grow for next
season's bearing than we need, if we allow three canes t:>
r;row where only two are needed, we waste the energies
of the vine, which should all be concentrated upon ripen-
ing its fruit in the most perfect manner, and producing
enough wood for next season's bearing, and of the best
and most vigorous kind, but no more. If we prune the
vine too long, we overtax its energies, making it bear
more fruit than it can well mature, and the result will be
poor, badly-ripened fruit, and imperfect wood. If we
prune the vine too short, we will have a rank, excessive
growth of wood and leaves, and encourage rot and mil-
dew. Only practice and experience will teach the true
medium, and the observing and thinking vine-dresser
will soon learn where the true medium is, be f ter than
he can be taught by volumes of advice. Different va-
rieties will, of course, require different treatment, and
it would be folly to prune them all alike. A compact,
slow grower, like the Delaware, will require different
treatment from a rank grower like Concord, and much
shorter pruning. The Delaware and Catawba fruit
well upon single canes, while the Concord, Martha, and
others, fruit better on spurs upon laterals, while most of
the cBstivalis and cordifolia classes, especially the Norton's,
Cynthiana, and Taylor, will fruit better if pruned to
spurs of two or three buds, on the old arms, than on
young canes. With the^e latter, the old arms should,
therefore, be retained as lon^ as they are sound and
vigorous, pruning all the healthy, good sized shoots to two
or three buds ; always, however, growing a young cane
to fall back upon, should the old one become diseased.
It is because so few of our common laborers will take the
pains to study the habits and nature of their vines, and
56 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
do a little thinking for themselves, that we find among
them but very few good vine dressers.
It is hardly necessary to state that the ground should
be kept mellow and clean through the summer, and
especially during the ripening of the fruit, but never
touch it in wet weather.
At the end of this season, we find our vines, if Concords
or similar varieties, with the old fruit-bearing canes, and
a spur on each side, from each of which we have a cane,
as the smaller one was stopped, like all oilier fruit-bear-
ing branches, and which we now prune to a spur of two
buds. The other, the young cane, which was stopped at
about 3 feet, on which the laterals were loft to grow un-
checked, we prune as last season, each lateral being cut
back to four to six buds, and the old canes which had borne
fruit, are cut away altogether. With Norton's, Cynthi-
an:i, Taylor, etc., the old arms are left, and the well de-
velopol shoots are cut back to two buds each, as before
mentioned, while the small, weak ones are cut away
altogether. This leaves us with an arm on each side, to
be tiezl the next spring, as shown in figure 18, and
ends oar operations for the season. Of the gathering of
the fruit, as well for market as for wine, I shall speak ir
another place.
CHAPTER XIII.
TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE FOURTH SUMMER.
We now consider the vine as established, able to bear a
full crop. The operations to be performed are precisely
the same as in its third year, only modifying the prun-
ing, fruiting, etc., according to the strength of the vine,
pruning shorter if the vine shows a decrease in vigor,
longer, if it grows too rank.
AJSD WINE MAKING. 57
Should the vines show a decrease in vigor, so as to in-
dicate the need of stimulants, they may be manured with
ashes, bone dust, compost, or still better, with surface
soil from the woods or prairies. This will serve to re-
plenish the soil which may have been washed off, and is
much more beneficial than stable manure. When the
latter is employed, a small trench may be dug in the
middle of the row just above the vine, the manure laid
in, and covered with soil. But an abundance of fresh
soil, drawn around the vine, is the best of all manures.
Should your vineyard have vacancies, they had best be
filled with layers from neighboring vines, made as follows:
.Dig a trench from the vine from which the layer is to be
made, to the empty place, about 8 or 10 inches deep ,
bend into this trench one of the canes of the vine which
has been left to grow unchecked for the purpose, and
pruned to the proper length. Let the end of this layer-
cane come out at the surface, where the new vine is want-
ed, and fill up the trench with well pulverized earth. It
will take root at every joint, and grow rapidly, but as it
draws a great deal of nourishment from the parent vine,
that must be pruned much shorter. When the layer is
well established, it is cut from the parent vine, either the
second or third season. Such layers will fill up much
better than if the vacancies are supplied by planting
young vines, as the latter do not grow very vigorous-
ly, if set among the others, after the second season.
Pruning is best done in fall, but can be done any time
during mild weather in winter, and here even as late as
the middle of March. Fall pruning will prevent flow of
sap, and the cuttings, if to be used for future plantations,
or sold, are also better if made in the fall, and buried in
the ground over winter, with their upper ends downwards.
All the sound, well-ripened wood of last season's growth
may be made into cuttings, and if they can be sold,
will largely add to the product of the vineyard.
58 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER XIV.
TRAINING THE VINE ON ARBORS AND WALLS.
This has a different purpose from culture in vineyards,
and, therefore, the vines require different treatment.
Vineyard culture has for its object the most perfect
fruit, and bringing the vine, with all its parts, within
easy reach of the cultivator. Arbor culture has for its
object the covering of a large space with foliage, for or-
nament and shade ; fruit being but a secondary considera-
tion, though a large quantity of fruit of fair quality can
also be produced, if the vines are judiciously treated.
The first aim should be to grow very strong plants, so
as to cover a large space. Prepare the border by digging a
trench 2 feet deep and 4 feet wide, and fill with rich soil,
rotten leaves, bones, ashes, etc. Set your plants in this,
in the manner already shown in vineyard planting.
Leave but one shoot to grow on them during the first
summer, which ought to become very strong. Cut this
cane back to three buds the next fall. Each of these
buds will produce a strong shoot the next spring, which
should be tied to the arbor and allowed to grow un-
checked. In the following fall, cut each of these three
canes back to three buds, as our first aim must be to get
a good basis for our vines. These will give nine canes
the next summer, and as the vine is now strong enough,
we can begin to demand a crop from it. We have now
three different sections or branches to the vine, each one
of which bears three canes. Cut one of these three canes
back to two eyes, and prune the other two canes to from
six to ten buds each, according to the strength of the
vine. Treat each of the three sections in the same man-
ner. Next spring tie these neatly to the trellis, divid-
AND WINE MAKING. 50
ing them equally, and when the young shoots appear,
thin out the weakest, leaving the others to grow un-
checked. Next fall cut back the weakest of the canes
to two buds each, the stronger ones to three or four buds,
the spurs at bottom to come in as a reserve, should any of
the main arms become diseased.
Others prefer the Thomery or horizontal arm training,
but I think it much more complicated and difficult.
Those who wish to inform themselves about it, I refer to
the books of Fuller and Mead, which are very explicit on
the subject.
CHAPTER XV.
OTHER METHODS OF TRAINING.
These are almost without number ; one of the most
common is to place three stakes around the vine, about a
foot from it, and to wind the canes or arms around them
spirally, until they reach the top. They are then
" spurred in " every season, and no young canes grown,
except to replace a decaying arm. This mode is much
more inconvenient than a trellis, and it crowds fruit
and foliage too much, inducing mildew. Another, much
in vogue in Europe, and also in California, is the so-
called bash or stool method of training. The vine is
made to form its crown, i. e ., the part from which the
branches start, from 12 to 18 inches above the ground
and all the young shoots are allowed to grow, but sum-
mer pruned or checked above the last bunch of grapes.
The next spring or fall all of the young shoots are
" spurred-in " to two buds ; this system of spurring-in is
kept up, and the vine will at last present the appearance
of a bush or miniature tree, producing all its fruit within
60 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
a foot from the crown, and without further support than
its own stem. Very old vines, sometimes, have from a
dozen to twenty spurs, and present, with their fruit
hanging all around their trunks, a pleasing, but odd
aspect. This method could not be applied here with any
chance of success to any other than very slow and stocky
growers. The Delaware, the Alvey, and also the Etimelan,
would be the most suitable, as they are very close-jointed,
stocky, and hardy. It would be useless to try it with
strong growers.
Another method of dwarfing the vine is practised to
form a pretty border along walks in gardens or along ter-
races, and is as follows : Plant the vines about 8 feet
apan, treat them the first season as in common vineyard
culture, but cut back to two buds. Provide posts 3 to
3'/ a feet long, and pointed at one end ; drive these into the
ground for 18 inches, and nail a lath on the top. This
is the trellis, and should be about 18 inches above the
ground, or 2 feet, if you prefer. Allow both of the
shoots from the vine to groAV unchecked, and when they
have reached the trellis, tie one to the right, the other to
the left, allowing them to grow at will along the lath.
The next fall, cut back to the proper length to meet the
other vine, and in spring, tie firmly to the lath. When
the young shoots appear, all are rubbed off below the trel-
lis, but all those above the trellis are pinched, as in vine-
yard culture, beyond the last bunch of grapes. The
trellis, with its garland of fruit, will look very pretty,
in the fall, all the shoots are " spurred-in " to one or
cwo buds, one being allowed to grow from each spur, to
produce fruit the next summer ; the same treatment is
repeated every year.
During: a trip among the vineyards of Western New
York, on the shores of Lake Erie and Keuka, or Crooked
Lake, I observed a method of training which seems to pro-
duce good results there, but which I think would not
AHD WIKE MAKING. 61
prove successful here, as our hot sun would scald the
leaves, and the grapes being so near the ground would
be more liable to rot. I can but think that even in
these localities the method described by me, would be
better, and save a good deal of labor.
Their method is as follows : They grow two canes on
each vine, which are tied horizontally to the lower wire,
one to the left, the other to the right, and also a spur on
each arm to produce a new cane for next year. The
shoots, which grow from the eyes on the two horizontal
canes, are left to grow unchecked, and when they have
become long enough to reach the second wire, are tied to
it, and from there to the upper wire, thus bearing the fruit
all between the lower and second wires. The next fall the
cane, which has borne the fruit the last summer, is cut off
close to the spur, and the new cane grown from it takes
the place of it the next summer. It is a very simple way
of renewal training, but were we to do it here, the leaves
which are on the main shoots would drop off, leaving the
fruit exposed - while with the system of summer-pruning
I follow, the young and vigorous leaves on the pinched
laterals shade the fruit perfectly, and remain fresh and
green. Besides, it takes an immense amount of tying and
tying material, and we can pinch four shoots in a shorter
time than we can tie one. As our pinched shoots be-
come very stocky, they will bear the weight of all the
fruit without tying, and the slanting direction in which
we tie will distribute the fruit more evenly. I believe,
therefore, that our New York growers would do well to
give this method a trial, and compare results.
I also saw the horizontal arm training in great perfec-
tion at Mr. H. E. Hooker's, at Eochester, and confess that
his arms of the Brighton, with their handsome clusters,
looked very handsome. He thinks he could carry an
arm to the distance of 50 feet in the same way. His
treatment consists simply in " spurring-in " the young
62 AMERICAN GllAPE GROWING
shoots on his canes along the first wire to one to two
eyes, growing his fruit on these, and leaving the old arm,
pruning back the young shoots to spurs every year, leav-
ing the bearing shoots unchecked, and tying them to the
wires above. While it succeeds there, I have my doubts
:LS to its applicability with us, for the reasons already
uiven, nor do 1 believe that he can grow any better fruit
even there, than could be obtained by our simpler method.
Prof. L. H. Bailey has written a little book on Amer-
ican Grape Training, a copy of which he has kindly
placed at my disposal, with permission to make such ex-
tracts as may be found useful for this volume. It dis-
cusses almost every method of training practiced in this
country except those set forth in the preceding chapters,
which are, however, still followed, to some extent,
everywhere.
THE KNIFFEN SYSTEM, so named after its originator,
William Kniffen, or some of its modifications, is largely
followed in many parts of the State of New York, at
least for strong growing varieties, as Concord, Worden
and Niagara. The fundamental idea underlying the
Knift'en system, in all its modifications, seems to me to
be the obtaining of grapes with the smallest amount of
labor. The method known as the four-cane Kniffen
seems to have been the original of the system. Two
wires are used, and as soon as the vine becomes strong
enough a spur and a cane are grown from the lower trel-
lis ; that is to say, four canes are grown from two spurs,
one on each side of the vine, of which one is cut back to
a spur when pruning, the other to a cane, which is car-
ried along the lower wire and tied. If the vine is
strong enough to be carried to the upper wire, it is
pruned in the same manner there, so that each of the
wires carries a separate load of wood and fruit. Both
tiers thus carry two spurs for renewal, two canes for
bearing, and the shoots from the bearing canes are
AND WINE MAKING. 63
allowed to droop down, without further pruning and
tying. Each of the spurs is supposed to produce two
canes, of which one is cut back to a spur, the other to a
bearing cane, and the cane which has produced the fruit
is cut off. A very simple form of renewal training, and
if it produces as good fruit as some more complicated
methods, it is well worth following. Modifications of it
are as follows :
THE Low, OR ONE-ARMED KNIFFEN. In this the
trellis is only three or four feet high, with a single wire.
A spur and a bearing cane are left on each side, and the
whole mass of bearing cane, fruit and foliage, is carried
by it. The advantages urged for this are (1), the pro-
tection of grapes from wind ; (2) larger size of the fruit,
in consequence of the small amount of bearing wood ;
(3) the ease of laying down the vine ; (4) the readiness
with which the top may be renewed from the root ;
(5) cheapness of the trellis.
THE HIGH, OR UMBRELLA KNTFFEN. In this method
the vine is carried, as soon as its strength permits, to
the upper wire, and the young cane cut back even with
it. The top is then formed from the upper four buds,
or rather, from their shoots, which appear during the
summer, of which two are led along each side of the
wire. In pruning them the next winter, one of them
on each side is cut back to a spur, the other to a cane of
a length corresponding to the strength of the vine,
which cane is bent from the upper wire to the lower,
forming a sweeping, or umbrella top. The renewal is
the same as with the other forms.
Six AND EIGHT CANE KNLFFEN. In these, which
require three, or even four wires, there is little if any
apparent difference from common fan training, as it dis-
tributes the growth of the vine over the whole trellis.
OVERHEAD KNIFFEN TRAINING. In this method
the vine is carried to the top of the trellis as soon as it
64 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
is strong enough. The trellis is made six feet high,
with strong posts, to which crosspieces are attached.
One wire is stretched from post to post, and one on each
side, the cross-bars being three feet long. These three
wires run parallel with each other, the bearing canes
are tied from the middle to the sides, and the young
canes along the middle of the trellis.
There are several other modifications of this system,
such as cross wire training, etc.
THE MuNSOisr SYSTEM. My friend Munson of Deni-
son, Texas, has invented another method, somewhat on
the same principle, which he finds very satisfactory.
He sets two posts in the same place, but with their tops
diverging from two to three feet. One wire is stretched
from the top of each post to the next, and a cross wire
a foot lower bears a third wire, to which the vines are
fastened. The canes are led over and fastened to the
middle wire, while the young growth from the spurs is
carried over on the side wires. Thus the whole forms a
V-shaped mass of foliage, the fruit hanging below. He
claims for this system the following advantages :
1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which
is a canopy to shade the roots and body of the vine and
fruit, without smothering.
2. New wood, formed by a sap which has never passed
through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop.
3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing
passage in any direction, circulation of air without dan-
ger of breaking tender shoots, ease of pruning, spraying,
cultivation and harvesting.
4. Perfect control of crop in pruning to suit the
capacity of the vine.
5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees with the
nature of American vines better than do short spurs.
6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine, being
pruned and not tied, being away from the posts, can be
AND WINE MAKING. 65
bent down to one side, earth thrown upon it, and in
spring can be easily raised and tied up.
7. Cheapness of construction ; ease of removing trellis
material, and using it again.
8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard.
The following explanation is by Professor Munson :
'The trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand up
at first, but soon droop over, and are supported by the
side wires. After the vines have flowered the bearing
laterals have their ends pinched off, and this is all the
summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off all eyes
that start on the body below the head, or crotch. Two
to four shoots, according to strength of vine, are started
from the spurs at the fork, or crotch, and trained over
the center wire for renewal canes. When pruning time
arrives, the entire bearing cane of the present year, with
till its laterals, is cut away at a point from where the
young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are
shortened back, according to strength of vine ; some,
such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four
shoots six or eight feet long with fine fruit, while Dela-
ware could not carry over three or four feet each way,
of one shoot only. The different varieties are set at
various distances apart, according as they are strong or
weak growers. Thus the trellis and system of pruning
are reduced to the simplest form. A few cuts to each
vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete the
task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well.
The trunk, or main stem, is secured to the middle wire,
along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning,
and from which the young laterals which produce the
crop are to spring. These laterals strike the outer wires,
soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best
possible position for spraying and gathering, and is still
shaded with the canopy of leaves. I have now used this
5
66 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines, and I am
more pleased with it every year."
I give all these methods for what they are claimed to
be worth, and for the consideration and trial of my read-
ers. Each of them may be adapted to certain varieties
and localities, and are worthy of a trial, as well as are
Mr. Cashin's methods of spiral and zigzag training.
On one point, however, I take issue with Professor
Bailey, and this is summer pruning, which he seems
to think of very little consequence. I think it very
important, especially in growing grapes for wine. I
have always found, where summer pruning was neg-
lected or done late, that the crop ripened very irreg-
ularly, the first bunch on the shoot ripening first,
the second somewhat after it, and the third or fourth
much later.
In growing grapes for market, several pickings may
be admissible, or even profitable, but to use them for
wine we want a uniformly ripened product, and this
we can obtain only by very early summer pruning, as
fully described in a former chapter. By late summer
pruning we accomplish just the reverse, unevenly
ripened fruit, and unevenly ripened wood. Better not
summer prune at all, and follow the lazy man's method
of allowing the vine to take care of itself after pruning
and tying, than to denude it of half its foliage and
wood by the barbarous use of the sickle or knife late in
the season.
Summer pruning must be a gentle checking early in
the season, to lead the abundant sap which flows
then, into other channels, developing laterals and
leaves to shade the young fruit, not lopping off the
tops at the most critical period, when all the foliage
is needed to perfect the fruit. Summer pruning early
in the season is beneficial ; late in the season it ruins the
crop and the vine.
AND WINE MAKING. 67
That all these systems of training are only applicable
to American vines, and the States east of the Eocky
mountains, is self-evident. The pruning and training
of the Vinifera will be treated on in Part IV of this
volume.
OHAPTEE XVI.
DISEASES OF THE VINE.
Fungous diseases of grapes and vines have become
very prevalent and destructive throughout the United
States, and are formidable indeed if left unchecked.
Fortunately, however, remedies have been discovered
which, when faithfully and skillfully applied, prove
effective as preventives. The grape growers of the
country are greatly indebted to the United States De-
partment of Agriculture for assistance and advice in
this direction. Its first secretary, Hon. Norman J.
Colman, was the first to introduce and recommend the
Bordeaux mixture, which had been tried in France by
Millardet, Foe'x and others. Under his successors, Sec-
retaries Rusk and Morton, the work of study and exper-
iments has been vigorously and intelligently prosecuted,
to the great advantage of all interested in the culture of
grapes and fruits of all kinds. The Bordeaux mixture
in greatly modified forms, and other fungicides, are now
so well established and understood that no one need fear
fungous diseases who has energy enough to apply the
remedies. The following are, in brief, the principal dis-
eases of grapes and vines.
BLACK ROT (Physalospora Lcestadia Bidwellii
Sacc. Viola and Rav.). This is, perhaps, the most
68 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
widely spread and destructive disease of grapes east of
the Kocky mountains, and for a time it threatened to
utterly destroy grape culture in some of the States. It
commonly appears in warm, moist weather, as a brown
spot, like the sting of an insect, on the berry when one-
half to two-thirds grown. It is, however, preceded by
brown spots on the leaves, which give the first warning
of its approach. These brown spots on the fruit in-
crease until they cover its surface, and spread rapidly
over all the grapes of the bunch, which become dry and
hard. As it affects all the leaves, and even the young
shoots of the vine, the wood naturally becomes un-
healthy. It fails to ripen well and is consequently more
liable to injury from frost the ensuing winter, and to
attacks of disease the next summer, especially if the
fallen leaves and diseased grapes are left in the vineyard.
The spores live through the winter, and only await the
advent of warm weather to spring into life and multiply
indefinitely. It is important, therefore, that all this
refuse be destroyed by fire, and an early spraying applied
to kill any spores that may remain. It should be borne
in mind that all fungicides are more effective as pre-
ventives. So destructive had black rot and downy mil-
dew become in Missouri that my old friend and corre-
spondent, Hermann Jaeger., of Neosho, one of the most
persevering of pioneers in grape culture in his section,
had abandoned about all the Labruscas and their hy-
brids and confined his efforts to such ironclads as Nor-
ton's Virginia and Oynthiana, with a few of the JEsti-
valis and Rupestris sections. Now, after thorough trials
since 1885, he finds that he can not only grow the varie-
ties of American origin liable to the disease, but has
hopes of success with some of the Vinifera, with some
protection in winter. He finds that with repeated spray-
ing he can not alone obtain a good crop, but also keep
the foliage in a healthy condition, thus promoting the
AND WINE MAKING. 69
ripening of the wood, and in consequence, the hardiness
of the vine in winter. His experience will be more fully
given in his own words in Part II of this work.
Prof. R. N. Price, of the Texas Agricultural and Me-
chanical College, has given the subject of black rot
much attention. He propagated the fungus from spores,
and published its life history in an illustrated bulletin,
which is the most complete treatise on the subject I
have yet seen. I regret that want of space forbids its
reproduction entire, in this volume, but some of his
experience will be given at the end of this chapter, as it
relates to nearly all fungous diseases of the grape, and
about the same remedies are applicable to all.
DOWNY MILDEW (Peronospora viticola). This is also
called "gray rot," as the young berries, when first
attacked, show marbling or veins of gray. This soon
changes to a uniform gray, entirely over the affected
berry, which shrinks and drops. It attacks all the green
parts of the vine, showing like a gray down on the under-
side of the leaves, and appearing as rusty blotches on
the upper side. It usually appears in warm, sultry
weather, after the berries are nearly grown, and as the
fungus spreads very rapidly it is one of the most destruc-
tive if left unchecked. The spores are produced on the
extremity of minute, threadlike stems, which protrude
through the underside of the leaf. They are contained
in small spherical sacs, which are blown about by the
wind, and alighting upon the soft green surface of the
leaves, soon burst and the liberated spores germinate,
spreading the disease to all parts of the vine. As gen-
eration follows generation with great rapidity, the spores
continue to spread through the entire vineyard until
autumn, when the hardy winter spores are formed in
small sacs with tough leathery coats which live through
the winter, and renew the work of infection in the
spring. The disease spreads very rapidly during cold,
70 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
wet weather, although any weakness of the vines caused
by overbearing, exhaustion of the soil, or other means,
may induce its development or increase its injurious
effects. The berries, when attacked by downy mildew,
seldom attain more than half size. The surface, after
the attack of the fungus, assumes a grayish color, which
soon turns to brown, thus producing a brown or gray
rot. The best preventive measures are to burn all in-
fected dry leaves and rubbish in the fall, and to thor-
oughly spray the vines in spring with Bordeaux mixture.
POWDERY MILDEW (Uncinula spitalis). Unlike
downy mildew, this disease nourishes with special energy
in dry, hot weather. It is not greatly destructive in the
Eastern and ^Northern States, but more so on the Pacific
coast. It draws its sustenance through filaments which
pierce the outer membrane of the leaves and fruit, and
presents the appearance of a dirty, powdery coating so
well known to vineyardists, rendering the grapes unfit
for market or for wine. The fungus is especially de-
structive in seasons of protracted drouth. In California,
where it is quite prevalent, the usual preventive is pow-
dered sulphur, dusted over and among the leaves, by
means of a fine wire sieve, or a bellows made for the
purpose. It is first applied when the young shoots are
about a foot long, and before blooming. Should it ap-
pear at a later period a second application will be neces-
sary. The disease often makes its appearance in June,
during the period of bloom, affecting the embryo shoots
and preventing their growth ; but more frequently, after
the vines have escaped an earlier attack, it appears dur-
ing protracted drouths, arresting the growth of the
young shoots and the development of the berries,
which crack, and attain only one-half their normal
size. The disease not only impairs the growth and
appearance of the grapes, but also prevents the fermen-
tation of the must, if they are pressed for wine. The
AND WINE MAKING. 71
winter spores doubtless remain uninjured on the vines
and fallen leaves, ready to spring into life the following
summer.
It is doubtful whether spraying with Bordeaux mix-
ture is a specific for powdery mildew. Experiments
have been made with sulphur and Bordeaux mixture
combined, but without success, as the sulphur was much
weakened by the combination. Mr. Hermann Jaeger
writes to me from Missouri that while the direct effect
of spraying with copper mixture may not be specifically
preventive of downy mildew, yet he finds that it pro-
motes the general health and vigor of the vine, and thus
assists it in resisting the attacks of fungus.
ANTHKACNOSE (Glceosporium ampelophagum). This
has never proved very destructive in California, though
it appears to a greater or less extent every year, on a few
of the vines. It is first seen during the latter part of
June, in some cases affecting only a part of the vine,
but more frequently infecting leaves, young shoots and
fruit, and proving ultimately fatal. It is, in this State,
also called Spanish measles, in reference to the light
brown or reddish spots which first appear, and from
which the disease spreads. The old Mission grape has
been more largely infected than any other variety. The
berries and branches are affected alike ; the former be-
come deformed and crack, and at length the affected
part, or in some cases the entire vine, dries up and dies.
The diseased parts should be promptly cut out and
burned to prevent the spread of the spores. Applica-
tions of powdered sulphur and air-slaked lime in equal
proportions are also recommended, as is also spraying
with the copper solution mixtures. A remedial prepa-
ration called Fortite has recently been introduced from
France, where the disease is much more prevalent and
destructive than here. That the disease is of fungus
origin there is no question, but the methods of success-
72 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
f al treatment are not as well determined as are those for
black rot and some other affections.
BITTER ROT (Greeneria fuliginea). This disease
takes its name from the bitter taste it imparts to grapes.
Ft generally appears when the berries begin to ripen, as
a brownish circle or spot, which enlarges until the en-
tire berry turns brown, though for a time it retains its
full size. Finally small, purplish pimples appear on the
surface ; the berry shrinks and falls.
WHITE EOT (Coniothyrium diplodiella). This disease
attacks the fruit and its pedicles, as well p s the stem of
the bunch, but not the leaves or branches. The pedicles
become brown, the berries are at first very juicy; small
gray or brownish pustules appear on the surface, and
the berries dry up, assuming a grayish- white color,
which distinctly marks the appearance of this disease
from that of black rot.
ROUGEOT is not a fungous disease, but is the result of
an interruption of the physiological processes in the
plant. It causes a break in the equilibrium which
should be maintained between absorption and transpira-
tion. In this trouble the leaves turn red or yellow in
spots or bands, and the vines are killed as a result of the
death of the leaves. The first reported appearance of
this disease on this side of the Atlantic was in 1890,
when it was observed in the central region of New
York. Its attack is marked by small, dark, irregular
blotches between the veins of the leaves. These spots
enlarge rapidly and darken to a dull purple or reddish
brown, which become confluent, the leaf-veins alone
remaining green or yellow. The contrast between the
affected parts and the green leaf- veins gives the foliage a
peculiar streaked appearance. In serious cases the leaves
at length curl up and fall, leaving the vine bare. This
denudation arrests at once the ripening of the fruit, and
leaves it flat, insipid and sour. In severe cases the ber-
AND WINE MAKING. 73
ries fall off, covering the ground beneath the vine with
worthless fruit, to which a few fibers of the diseased
pedicles still adhere. Even in mild attacks the berries
shell off badly from the bunches, rendering them unfit
for market, while the affected berries are of no value
for wine.
The disease is most prevalent upon cold, heavy clay
soils. Thorough underdraining of such soils will per-
haps be found the best preventive. There is no appar-
ent connection between the disease and sterility, for it
appears equally on lands which have been heavily ma-
nured, and those without fertilizers. That the vine, in
cases where its growth is materially checked by this dis-
ease, should be pruned very short, and possibly in ex-
treme cases cut wholly back, would appear to be logical
to every grape grower.
RIPE ROT (Glceosporium fructigenum). It is only
within the last five years that the disease has appeared
to any seriously damaging extent, but its increase is such
as to cause grave apprehensions. It commonly shows
itself at first upon one or two berries in close, compact
bunches, from which it spreads rapidly, especially in
close, hot weather. . In California it appears when the
grapes are ripening, manifesting itself only by discolora-
tion of the berries, and spreading to others. The qual-
ity is not affected for a time, as the grapes remain sweet
and unchanged. In the Eastern and Northern States
there appears to be a connection if not identity between
this disease and the "bitter rot "of apples. In fact,
the experts of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture have agreed that it is one and the same disease. It
certainly calls for the utmost vigilance on the part of
grape growers. Early and persistent spraying with
some of the mixtures recommended for black rot and
downy mildew may also prove efficient against this.
THE VALUE OF SPRAYING. There may even yet be
74 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
some skeptics who doubt the efficacy of spraying with
fungicides for the purpose of combating, or rather of
preventing, fungous diseases, but the experience of all
who have used it early, carefully and persistently is
wholly in its favor. The strongest proof of merit is its
rapid and extensive spread since it was first made known
to the public by Commissioner Norman J. Colman, of
the United States Department of Agriculture. At first
there may have been as many as fifty persons who
adopted and tried it ; now the number is not less than
fifty thousand. No new method could make such prog-
ress if it did not possess genuine merit. It should be
borne in mind, however, that spraying with any of the
proved fungicides is preventive rather than remedial.
The work must therefore begin in time, if it is to prove
effective. Early applications are, besides, the most
economical, as it requires less of the material to reach
all parts of the vine when in a dormant or partly devel-
oped condition, than when all the foliage and fruit are
fully grown. One of the earliest and most successful
advocates and practical exponents of spraying is my
friend, Hermann Jaeger, of J^eosho, Missouri, who had
given up, after long and patient trial, nearly all but the
ironclad varieties, Norton's and Cynthiana, when he
was appointed as agent of the United States Department
of Agriculture to conduct the experimental work in
Northwestern Missouri. His essay, read before the Mis-
souri Horticultural Society in December, 1892, gives his
experience so plainly that I cannot do better than to
insert it in Part II of this work, with added details of
his subsequent experience. He shows that greatly
diluted applications have been fully as efficient as the
stronger ones, and that the cost, aside from that for
labor, is thus reduced to a mere trifle in comparison
with the value of the vines and fruit thereby saved from
destruction.
AND WINE MAKING. 75
CHAPTER XVII.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE.
As the most destructive of all, because it works chiefly
underground, and the mischief it does will only be per-
ceived in its effects, I may consider the Phylloxera vasta-
irix or grapevine-root louse. Concerning the exist-
ence of this pest, we have for a long time been ignorant,
until the efforts of our State Entomologist, Prof. 0. V.
Riley, and of other entomologists, especially Prof.
PJanchon, of France, have enlightened us upon the
subject, and made us aware of the danger threatening
our vineyards, but especially those of Europe and Cali-
fornia, where the vinifera class had so far been cultivated
almost exclusively. It threatens now to sweep out of
existence that whole class, and it is a very noteworthy
fact that from this country, from which the fell destroyer
was imported into Europe, should also come the only
effective remedy so far found, namely, the introduction
of phylloxera-proof varieties of vines, which are found
chiefly in the cestivalis and cordifolia (or riparia)
classes. All other remedies, except inundation, seem to
have failed, and Prof. Planchon, in a letter to me, ex-
presses his firm belief that the only hope of saving that
great source of wealth to the French nation, their vine-
yards, is in the introduction and general cultivation of
our phylloxera-proof varieties of the grape, first as a stock
to graft the vinifera upon, and secondly to cultivate our
grapes for their fruit, if they can find varieties which
will make such wines as the popular taste there demands.
With this object in view millions upon millions of
American cuttings and plants have already been imported
76 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
into France, and the demand is still as active as ever.
The Lenoir, or Jacques as they call it there, for a time
promised to be all they wanted, as it was vigorous and
made an exquisite red wine. But the dry rot appeared
upon it ; the Cunningham and Herbemcnt were imported
largely, but it is feared they will not be quite hardy
enough for Northern France. Their attention is now
drawn towards the Taylor, as a very easy vine to propa-
gate, and an excellent stock to graft upon, and if we
once have varieties which have the phylloxera-proof
roots of the Taylor, and which besides are abundant
bearers, as we now seem to have in the Elvira and her
sisters, we have found what is desired, and the supposi-
tion is but natural that they will become in time the
wine grapes of the whole civilized world. It is indeed
wonderful that, when this insect threatens to destroy
the grapevines of the Old World, its remedy should be
found here in our Missouri vineyards, and it may truly
be called providential. It would require too much space
to give the full natural history of the insect, and I refer
those who wish to study it to the valuable Report* of
Prof. Riley, of which I copy the most important part :
How THE PHYLLOXERA AFFECTS THE VINE. Prof.
Riley says : "The result which follows the puncture oi
the root louse is an abnormal swelling, differing in fora
according to the particular part and texture of the root.
These swellings, which are generally commenced at thfi
tips of the rootlets, eventually rot, and the lice forsake
them and betake themselves to fresh ones. The decay
affects the parts adjacent to the swellings, and on the
more fibrous roots cuts off the supply of sap to all parts
beyond. As these last decompose, the lice congregate
* Sixth Annual Report on the Noxious, Beneficial, and Other Insects
of the State of Missouri, by C. V. Riley, State Entomologist. St. Louis,
Mo., 1874.
AND WINE MAKING. 77
on the larger ones, until at last the root system literally
wastes away.
" During the first year of* attack, there are scarcely any
outward manifestations of disease, though the fibrous
roots, if examined, will be found covered with nodosities,
particularly in the latter part of the growing season.
The disease is then in its incipient stage. The second
year all these fibrous roots vanish, and the lice not only
prevent the formation of new ones, but, as just stated,
settle on the larger roots, which they injure by causing
hypertrophy of the parts punctured, which also eventu-
ally become disorganized and rot. At this stage the out-
ward symptoms of the disease first become manifest, in a
sickly, yellowish appearance of the leaf and a reduced
growth of cane. As the roots continue to decay, these
symptoms become more acute, until by about the third
year the vine dies. When the vine is about dying it is
generally impossible to discover the cause of the death,
the lice, which had been so numerous the first and second
years of invasion, having left for fresh pasturage."
" The life-history of the Grape Phylloxera may be thus
epitomized : It hibernates mostly as a young larva, tor-
pidly attached to the roots of the vine, and so deepened
in color as generally to be of a dull brassy-brown, and,
therefore, with difficulty perceived, as the roots are often
of the same color. "With the renewal of vine growth in
t.ie spring, this larva moults, rapidly increases in size, and
coon commences laying eggs. These eggs, in due time,
give birth to young, which soon become virginal, egg-
laying mothers, like the first ; and, like them, always re-
main wingless. Five or six generations of these partheno-
genetic, egg-bearing, apterous mothers follow each other ;
when about the middle of July, in this latitude some
of the individuals begin to acquire wings. These are all
females, and like the wingless mothers, they are partheno-
genetic. Having issued from the ground, while in the
78 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
pupa state, they rise in the air and spread to new vine-
yards, where they deliver themselves of their issue in the
form of eggs or egg-like bodies usually two or three in
number, and not exceeding eight and then perish.
These eggs are of two sizes, the larger about 0.02 inch
long, and the smaller about three-fifths of that length.
In the course of a fortnight they produce the sexual indi-
vidual, the larger ones giving birth to females, the smaller
to males. These sexual individuals arc born for no other
purpose than the reproduction of their kind, and are
without means of flight, or of taking food, or excreting.
They are quite active and couple readily ; one male be-
ing capable, no doubt, of serving several females, as Bal-
biani found to be the case with the European quercus.
The abdomen of the female, after impregnation, en-
larges somewhat, and she is soon delivered of a solitary
egg, which differs from the ordinary eggs of the parthe-
nogenetic mother only in becoming somewhat darker.
This impregnated egg gives birth to a young louse, which
becomes a virginal, egg-bearing, wingless mother, and
thus recommences the cycle of tlio species' evolution.
But one of the most important discoveries of Balbiani is
that, during the latter part of the season, many of the
wingless, hypogean mothers perform the very same func-
tion as the winged one ; i. e., they lay a few eggs which
are of two sizes, and which produce males and females,
organized and constructed precisely as those born of the
winged females, and, lika them, producing the solitary
impregnated egg. Thus, the interesting fact is estab-
lished that even the winged form is by no means essen-
tial to the perpetuation of the species ; but that, if all
such winged individuals were destroyed as fast as they
issue from the ground, the species could still go on mul-
tiplying in a vineyard from year to year. We have,
therefore, the spectacle of an underground insect posses-
sing the power of continued existence, even when confined
AND WINE MAKING. 79
to its subterranean retreats. It spreads in the wingless
state from vine to vine, and from vineyard to vineyard,
when these are adjacent, either through passages in the
ground itself, or over the surface. At the same time it
is able, in the winged condition, to migrate to much
more distant points. The winged females, as before
stated, begin to appear in July, and continue to issue
from the ground until vine growth ceases in the fall.
Yet they are much more abundant in August than during
any other month, and on certain days may be said to lit-
erally swarm. Every piece of root a few inches long, and
having rootlets, taken from an infested vine at this sea-
son, will present a goodly proportion of pupae ; and an
ordinary quart preserve jar, filled with such roots and
tightly closed, will furnish daily, for two or three weeks,
a dozen or more of the winged females, which gather on
the sides of the jar toward the light. We may get some
idea, from this fact, of the immense numbers that dis-
perse through the air to new fields, from a single acre of
infected vines, in the course of the late summer and fall
months.
" If to the above account we add that occasionally
individuals abandon their normal underground habit, and
form galls upon the leaves of certain varieties of grape-
vine, we have, in a general way, the whole natural his-
tory of the species."
He takes the ground that it is the cause of most of the
diseases in the Labrusca class, and especially in the
Catawba, as a vine with a diseased root can not produce
healthy fruit, and these conclusions are certainly logical.
He advises grafting on Phylloxera proof roots as a reme-
dy, and to those wishing to save such varieties as the
Catawba and Delaware, this is certainly the best course.
But I think that they are already superseded by grapes
of better quality, and my advice is to plant none but
Phylloxera proof varieties. So far as I know, the follow-
SO AMEKICAH GfcAPE GROWING
ing varieties are especially subject to its ravages : Cataw-
ba, Delaware, Hartford, most of Rogers' Hybrids, lona,
Isabella, Creveling, Diana, Maxatawney, Cassady, Rebec-
ca, Croton. The following are not quite exempt, but are
so vigorous that they seem but little injured : Concord,
Martha, Goethe, Wilder, Ives, Perkins, Telegraph, Mary
Ann. The whole CBstivalis and cordifolia group appear
to be free from its ravages. It is strange, however, that
the gall-producing type of the insect \vill prefer the leaves
of the Taylor and Clinton, while the type which works
at the root does not affect them.
The other insect enemies, although very numerous, are
not so devastating as the Phylloxera.
The common Gray Cut-worm will often eat the tender
shoots of the young plantations, and draw them into the
ground below. It can be readily detected, so soon as its
ravages are seen, by stirring the ground about the vine,
when it will be found under some of the loose clods,
and easily killed.
The small worms, belonging to the leaf-folding class,
some of them white, some bluish-green, have already
been mentioned under "Summer-pruning." They
should be destroyed at that time ; closely watch them
when they make their webs among the young shoots, as
they will become very destructive if not checked in time.
Another leaf-folder comes about mid-summer, making
its web on the leaf, drawing it together, and then devour-
ing its own house. It is a small, whitish-gray, active
worm, which will drop to the ground as soon as disturbed.
I know of no other way but to catch and destroy it.
Several beetles will feed on the young buds before they
expand, one about the size and color of a hemp seed ; an-
other is of a steel-blue color; both are very active. They
can be caught in early morning, when they are yet torpid,
by spreading a newspaper under the vine and shaking it,
wlen they will drop upon the paper.
AKD WINE MAKING. 81
The Grape-vine Fidia, a small beetle, ashy-gray, some-
times comes in swarms, preying on the foliage, riddling
it completely, and even attacking the young fruit.
Hand-shaking, as above, in the morning, is also the best
treatment for these, as well as for the Grape Curculio.
The Thrip, a small, three-cornered, whitish insect, has
sometimes become very troublesome, as they eat the
under side of the leaves of some varieties, especially of
the CBstivalis class, when the leaf will show rusty specks
on the surface, and eventually drop. Carrying lighted
torches through the vineyard at night, and beating the
vines to disturb them, is one of the best remedies, as
they will fly into the flames. They are a great annoy-
ance and should be destroyed in time, before they get too
numerous, as they will defoliate whole vineyards. It is
strange that they have almost entirely disappeared in our
Missouri vineyards, where they were so numerous formerly,
and are now very annoying in the vineyards on Crooked
Lake, New York, where I saw them in great abundance.
The Aphis, or PJant Louse, covers the young shoots
of the vines occasionally, sucking their juice. The best
remedy is taking off the shoot, and crushing them under
foot.
The Grape-vine Sphinx is a large, green worm, with
black dots. It is very voracious, but can easily be found
and destroyed. The worms do a great deal of mischief,
but fortunately are not very numerous. The best remedy
against them, and all other caterpillars, is hand picking.
The Rocky Mountai' 1 Locust, or Grasshopper, as it is
generally called, is one of the most destructive insects
in those districts invaded by it, and ruined the crops
of nearly two seasons in some sections in 1875. Fortu-
nately its range is very limited, and it appears but rarely.
But when once it gets into a vineyard, not a green leaf
or shoot is left, and if this occurs as late as the first of
6
82 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
June, it stunts the vines for the next season. One of the
best remedies is to dig a trench 2 to 3 feet wide, at the
side of the vineyard from which they are expected, into
which they will tumble, and they should then be crushed
by dragging a log or roller along the ditch. If this is
done repeatedly they may be kept out.
Wasps and bees are sometimes very troublesome when
the fruit ripens, wounding the berries and sucking the
juice. A great many can be caught by hanging up bottles
with a little molasses, into which they will readily crawl
and seal their fate. But while there are many injuri-
ous insects, we may also count some of them among our
best friends, which will greatly assist in destroying the
others, and which we should hold in grateful remem-
brance. Among these is the little Lady Bug, the small
red or yellow and black beetle, which is always on the
lookout and very active in destroying the Aphis and
White Thrip. These should be fostered, and not de-
stroyed, as is done by many ignorant persons. The Man-
tis, the Rear Horse, or Devil's Horse, as it is often
called, but the correct name of which is Camel Cricket,
is the friend of the vine grower. It destroys countless
numbers of injurious insects, especially the native grass-
hoppers and katydids, which are so apt to cut off the
bunches just before ripening. They and their eggs,
which are often found on the vines glued together in a
mass, like a rather square cocoon, should be carefully
preserved, and even colonized. We place our common
toad among our friends, as it is a great destroyer of nox-
ious insects, and always on the hunt for bugs of all kinds.
The toads and our common active little lizards should
be treated with kindness by us, not killed, as they are
by many unthinking people who have a mistaken idea
that they are injurious and poisonous.
AND WINE MAKING. 83
CHAPTER XVIII.
FROSTS WINTER PROTECTION.
Our winters are rarely so severe as to injure or kill
the hardiest varieties, such as Concord and Goethe, al-
though the winters of 1863, 1873, 1874, and 1878, may
be cited as instances when even these and Norton's were in-
jured. They often, however, harm the Herbemont, Cun-
ningham, and Lenoir. These can be protected by bend-
ing the vines down in the fall, and covering them with
earth thrown on with the plow. To prepare them for
this, prune as soon as the wood is fully ripe, and after a
rain, when the canes bend easily, go through, and while
one man bends the canes down along the trellis, let the
other throw a few spadefuls of earth upon them, to keep
them down. Then follow with the plow, and they can
be easily covered. But do not take them up in spring
until danger of frost is over, for they will become more
tender by being under ground all winter, and even a
moderate frost will injure the buds. In taking up, run a
fork under them and lift them out. They should not be
covered too deep, a light protection is enough ; but to
merely bend them down without covering, as some advise^
is worse than leaving them on the trellis, as they are
more easily injured here, where we do not often have
snow to cover them. All hardy varieties should be cut
loose in fall, as wllen the wind can sway them about they
are not so apt to be injured. One of the surest preven-
tives of injury by frost is, however, to plant none but the
hardiest varieties. None of the cordt folia class, as far as
I know, have ever suffered, and here again the Elvira
stands pre-eminent, as not a bud was hurt, even during
the hard winters of 1872-74 and, '78.
84 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
But while we have methods to protect even the most
tender in winter, by a little extra labor, I know of no
generally effective means of protection against early frosts
in fall and late frosts in spring. We should, therefore,
avoid all locations subject to these, which are generally
those near small streams, creeks, and rivulets, while
locations on the large rivers, and on the high table lands,
are generally free from them, and have, in fact, a season
of a month earlier in spring, and a month later in fall,
free from frosts. This is certainly very important to the
grape-grower, and he should look to it closely before
choosing his location. It is sad and disheartening to see
the fair promise of early spring browned, wilted, and
blighted by a single night's frost. But if it dots occur,
as it sometimes will, even in the best locations, do not
become altogether discouraged. Every bud on the vine
is, in fact, a triple one. The main fruit bud in the center
will generally start first, and if this is destroyed, the two
secondary buds will often push, and although they will
not produce so many or as large bunches, will often yield
a pretty fair crop.
But the vines are threatened with the same clanger in
fall in these unfavorable locations ; to have one's grapes
and the still growing canes withered by an early frost in
fall, when just ripening, and fit for nothing but vinegar,
is a sad disappointment. Therefore look well to this,
and do not select an unfavorable location, when there is
an abundance of the best to be had.
AND WINE MAKING. 85
CHAPTER XIX.
GIRDLING, THINNING, AND MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS.
The method of girdling appears to have been invented
by Col. Buchatt, of Metz, in 1745. He claimed for it
that it would also greatly improve the quality of the fruit,
as well as hasten its maturity. It cannot be denied that
it accomplishes the latter ; it also seems to increase the
size of the berries, but I hardly think the fruit compares
in flavor with that ripened in a natural way. But it
may be of practical benefit to those who wish to grow the
fruit for early market, as it will enable them to supply
their customers a week earlier, and also make the fruit
look better. I will, therefore, describe it briefly. It
can be done either on the wood of last year's growth, or
upon the bearing shoot itself ; but in any case only upon
such as can be spared at next fall pruning. If you de-
sire to affect the fruit of a whole cane, or arm, cut away a
ring of bark by passing your knife all around it, and
make another circle about half an inch above the first,
taking out the ring of bark between them. It should be
done immediately after the fruit is set. The bunches of
fruit above the incision will become larger, and the fruit
ripen and color finely about a week before the fruit on
the other canes. If a single shoot only is to be affected,
make the ring just above its base. Of course, neither
cane nor shoot, thus girdled, can be used for bearing
next season, and must be cut away. About the same re-
sult is obtained by twisting a wire tightly around the
vine and thus arresting the flow of sap downwards, which
then develops the fruit much faster.
Eipening can also be hastened by planting against the
south side of a wall or board fence, where the reflection
of the rays of the sun will create a greater degree of
warmth.
86 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
But nothing is more absurd than the practice of some,
who will take away the leaves from the fruit, to hasten
maturity. The leaves are the lungs of the plant, the
conductors and elahorators of sap, and nothing can be more
injurious than to take them away at the very time when
most needed. The natural consequence is the withering
and wilting of the bunches, and should they ripen at all,
they will be flat and deficient in sugar and flavor. Tlio
injurious " cutting in " of the young growth late in
August, already referred to, is about of a pioce with this
folly, and will not only be detrimental to the fruit, but
also to tno ripening of the wood for next year. While
all crowding of the young growth with the bearing canes
should be avoided, t3 give free circulation of air, yot the
leafy canopy of the young canes over the top of the trellis,
will bo in the highest degree beneficial to the ripening of
the fruit. There is nothing more pleasing to the eye
than a vineyard in September, with its wealth of dark-
green foliage, and the rich clusters of the fruit beneath,
coyly peeping from under their leafy covering. Good
fruit will only ripen in partial shade, and such grapes
will have a rich bloom and color, as well as a thin skin
and a rich flavor, which those hanging in the scorching
rays of the sun can never attain.
THINNING THE FRUIT.
It will sometimes be necessary to thin the fruit, in
order to more thoroughly develop the remaining bunches.
The best thinning is the reduction of bunches and bear-
ing shoots, at the first summer-pruning, and which has
already been mentioned. Let the vine dresser always re-
member that one fine bunch is worth moro than two or
thre3 small, badly grown ones and, therefore, take away
all the small, imperfect bunches and weak shoots. If the
number of bunches on each fruit-bearing branch is re-
duced to two, it will do no injury, but make them so
AND WINE MAKING. 8?
much more heavy and perfect. Thinning of the berries
with a small pair of scissors, often resorted to with
grapes grown under glass, is a very laborious process to
follow in vineyard culture ; though it will certainly make
the remaining berries more perfect, it will hardly be
generally adopted.
RENEWING OLD VINES.
Should a vineyard become old and feeble, it can be re-
newed by layering. To prepare for this, prune all the
old wood from the vines, leaving but the thriftiest young
cane, then dig a trench from the vine along the trellis,
say 3 feet long and 10 inches deep, cut off the surface
roots of the vine and bend it down into the trench,
fastening with a hook, and let about three buds of the
young cane come out above the ground, at the end of
the trench. Then fill up with well pulverized soil. The
vine will make roots at every joint, become vigorous and
young again. Of course a season's crop will be lost, but
the vine will amply repay for it the season following.
A FEW NECESSARY IMPLEMENTS.
PRUNING SHEARS. These are very handy, as with
them the work can be done quicker and easier than with
Fig. 12. PRUNING SHEARS.
a knife, and but a slight pressure of the hand will cut
a strong vine. Figure 12 gives the shape of one for
heavy pruning. They are now m ide by several establish-
88
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ments, and can be had at nearly all good hardware stores.
The springs should be of brass, as steel, springs are apt to
break. A much lighter and smaller kind, with but one
spring, is very convenient for gathering grapes, clipping
out unripe or imperfect berries, and also in making cut-
tings. Shears will cut the stem easily and smoothly, with-
out jarring the vine, and are much superior to a knife.
No one who has tried them Avill want to use a knife again.
PRUNING SAWS. These are sometimes necessary to
cut out old, diseased stumps, although if a vine is well
managed this will seldom be necessary. Figure 13 shows
Fig. 13. PRUNING SAW.
a kind very convenient for the purpose, as also for orchard
pruning. The bow is of steel, the blade narrow, and so
connected with the wooden handle, that it can be turned
in any direction, and can be tightened by a screw and
nut above.
PART II.
EXPERIENCES OF OTHER GROWERS.
INTRODUCTORY.
The following is the result of correspondence with
prominent grape growers of other States men of high
standing and large experience in viticulture. It brings
down the record to more than ten years later than that
of the first edition of this work. Many of my co-labor-
ers in the early days of viticulture have passed away
men who have been an honor to the craft, such as Long-
worth, Buchanan, Bateham, Wilder, Barry, Muench,
Eikel, Dresel and Burr.
To all who have aided by their contributions, I tender
my hearty thanks I shall ever hold them in grateful
remembrance.
GEORGE HUSMANN,
CHAPTER XX.
GRAPE GROWING IN CENTRAL OHIO.
GBOKGE W. CAMPBELL,.
What I have to put on record in regard to this topic
will be founded mainly upon my own experience, in this,
a locality which is not specially adapted to grape grow-
ing. Frosts late in the spring often injure and some-
times destroy the grape crop, about the time of bloom-
ing, while early autumn frosts render the cultivation of
late ripening sorts unprofitable. I have not been able to
ripen the Catawba in full, open exposure in thirty years,
so my experience, it will be seen, has not been with late
ripening sorts.
A few words as to the behavior and character sustained
during the past twelve years by those mentioned in your
former edition, may not be without value to those wish-
ing to plant in localities similar to mine.
The LADY grape has fairly sustained its character, is
hardy, healthy, productive, and still among the best
early ripening white Concord seedlings. It ripens here
from the middle to the last of August, about ten days
earlier than Concord. In quality is good, color a light
greenish yellow, skin thin, pulp tender, seeds few and
small, flavor rich, sweet and slightly vinous. Berries a
shade larger than Concord, clusters smaller. Desirable
for near-by markets.
MARTHA has measurably given place to newer and
better varieties.
WORDEN has steadily increased in favor as a popular
grape. In many places it is regarded as superior to Con-
91
92 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
cord in size and quality, and equal in health and produc-
tiveness. In habit of growth and appearance it strongly
resembles Concord, but it ripens from ten to fourteen
days earlier. Its greatest fault is its thin and tender
skin, which breaks easily and makes it a poor shipping
grape.
MOORE'S EARLY has grown in public favor as a good,
early ripening black grape of the Concord type. The
vine is hardy, healthy and vigorous, a good and regular
bearer, and sufficiently productive. It ripens two weeks
earlier than the Concord. It is largely planted in the
Northern and Middle States.
CONCORD still holds the position of being the most
popular and most extensively planted variety.
BRIGHTON has deservedly maintained a fair degree of
popularity. Under favorable circumstances its growth
is very vigorous and its foliage healthy, clusters large
and quality very fine. It requires winter protection
here, being not quite hardy. The blossoms are some-
what imperfect, and the clusters are likely to be loose
and uneven if cool, rainy weather prevails at the time of
blooming. It is medium as to time of ripening.
PURITY, I regret to say, has not fulfilled its early
promise. I still grow it to some extent, but its small
clusters and the great difficulty in propagating it render
it unprofitable. Its quality is very fine and it is among
the earliest to ripen.
DELAWARE still holds its place among the best and
finest flavored of all our American grapes. Mildew cf
the foliage and a tendency to overbear prevent its success
in some localities. The former is being prevented by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture and other fungicides,
and the area of its successful cultivation is thus
being extended. Its high character will probably always
make the Delaware a favorite for the amateur as well as
profitable for market and wines.
AND WINE MAKING. 93
ELVIRA does not seem to have fulfilled the expecta-
tions of its introducers. It is not good enough for the
table and it has not attained sufficient popularity as a
wine grape to render its cultivation desirable or profitable.
NIAGARA was introduced with extraordinary claims
and under close restrictions and at' very high prices, but
it has not sustained the high character claimed for it by
its introducers, though it retains considerable popular-
ity and is profitably grown in some localities. The vine
is very vigorous and productive, clusters and berries
large and handsome, and quality, when fully ripened,
fairly good quite acceptable as a market variety. It is
not uniformly hardy in this section without winter pro-
tection or in most places north of 40 of latitude, and it
has seemed more inclined to rot than most other kinds.
It is reported as profitable in some parts of the South.
POCKLINGTON, which was introduced about the same
time as Niagara, has attained considerable popularity
and is being quite largely planted. It is a good, showy,
white, medium late, market grape. The vine is among
the hardiest and most productive of the so-called white
Concord seedlings. Its clusters and berries are among
the largest, and when well grown and well ripened, are
quite acceptable in quality. By reason of its hardiness,
it can be planted over a much larger territory than the
Niagara.
PRENTISS proved, upon extensive trial, to be a failure
in most places, and is now little planted or called for.
A single vine on a south wall sometimes gives me a few
handsome clusters of fine grapes, but it is generally
unproductive.
LADY WASHINGTON has never achieved general pop*
ularity and is little grown, except by amateurs. Judg-
ing from my own experience, it is quite unreliable.
JEFFERSON has many good qualities, but is not quite
hardy in severe winters and is too late in spring, for
i)4 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
most localities. It is a good grower, with healthy foli-
age, blossoms perfect, clusters large and handsome, often
double shouldered, very fine in quality, pure flavored,
resembling lona in its best condition. It sets more fruit
than it can mature, and to produce best results a portion
must be removed. By this means, a vine on a stone
wall with an eastern exposure gives me an annual crop of
fine grapes. It has been, with me, more reliable than
lona, either on the wall or in open exposure.
Among the more important later introductions tested
here since the publication of your first edition are the
following :
EMPIRE STATE, which was originated by J. H. Kick-
etts of Newburgh, N. Y., and highly commended in its
introduction, has not proved generally successful. It is
a white grape, handsome and of good quality when well
ripened. It has a tendency to overbear, or the inability
to carry a fair crop to maturity. It is a good grower,
with an abundant and healthy foliage, large clusters,
berries medium, seeds few and small, with a flavor sug-
gestive of the Muscats or Frontignans. Its originator
claims it to be a cross between Hartford and Clinton,
but I am inclined to the opinion that it is a cross or
hybrid, with too much of the foreign element in its
composition.
ULSTER (Ulster Prolific), originated by the late A. J.
Caywood, has many good qualities and will probably
attain a fair position among desirable varieties for gen-
eral use. The vine appears hardy and productive, of good
foliage, and is a moderate grower. The berries are me-
dium to large, with color like Catawba and a somewhat
similar flavor; medium early in ripening, and a good
keeper after being gathered.
NECTAR, another of Mr. Caywood's grapes, which is
said to be a seedling of Delaware and which was at first
called Black Delaware, seems a promising variety. The
AND WINE MAKING. 95
vine is healthy, hardy and productive ; a vigorous grower ;
berries and clusters medium large and well formed ; fla-
vor pure, sprightly, sweet and good. If it does as well
elsewhere as here, it will prove a valuable grape for gen-
eral use.
WITT, named for its originator, the late Michael Witt
of Columbus, Ohio, is among the best of the white Con-
cord seedlings. It has proven fully as hardy and healthy
as the Concord, not quite as vigorous in growth, but
quite productive. Berries large, oval ; skin rather thin ;
seeds few and small ; clusters medium to large ; pulp
tender ; flavor rich, sweet, sprightly ; quality good to
very good. Ripens early a little later than Lady. It
is difficult to propagate and is of slow growth until
established.
COLERAJN is another white Concord seedling, orig-
inating at Colerain, Ohio. The vine is healthy and vig-
orous, fairly productive ; clusters of medium size, early
and of fine quality.
DUCHESS has not proved generally useful, though it is
prized in {flaces where it can be successfully grown.
Here it is not hardy and is especially liable to mildew
and rot.
GREEN MOUNTAIN, from Vermont, is a recent intro-
duction, promising to be valuable as one of the earliest
ripening grapes of fine quality. Vine is moderately vig-
orous and hardy. Cluster and berry medium, color
light green, quality fine. A grape known in some sec-
tions as Winchell is said to be the same variety.
MOORE'S DIAMOND, originated by Jacob Moore of
Brighton, N. Y., highly commended generally, with me
has been too unproductive for profitable planting. It
seems as hardy as the Rogers' Hybrids or the Niagara,
with good foliage.
WOODRUFF RED is a large and attractive grape of the
Labrusca type and is said to be a Concord seedling. It
96 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
originated at Ann Arbor, Mich., and has attained pop-
ularity as a market grape. The vine is vigorous, hardy,
healthy and very productive. Though not of high qual-
ity, it is generally acceptable and may fairly claim a
place among standard varieties.
EATON, probably another Concord, or perhaps an Isa-
bella seedling, a very large and showy black grape, much
like the old Union Village, is now under trial. I do not
think it is a new variety, for I had it, or its double, in
my garden for some twenty years, and never regarded it
worthy of introduction. The vine and foliage are like
an exaggerated Concord, and the fruit also. In quality
it is not equal to Concord, and it is later. It is fairly
productive and may prove a profitable market grape.
VERGENNES has been favorably received and is a
handsome red grape of good quality, ripening a little
after Concord and keeping well after gathering.
MOYER, which originated in Canada, is a small red
grape, resembling Delaware, but with healthier foliage.
Moderately productive. In quality it is good, not equal
to Delaware.
JEWEL is a small black grape, originated by John
Burr of Kansas. It has too many imperfect clusters to
be valuable.
EARLY OHIO is a black grape of recent introduction.
As I have seen it, it appears to be inferior in quality,
and probably no earlier than the Champion.
Within the past few years I have received, through
the courtesy of Prof. T. V. Munson of Texas, some very
interesting specimens of the results he has already
achieved by growing seedlings from a great variety of
grapes, crossed both naturally and artificially. I ha^ve
found the grapes he has sent me, as a rule, of great ex-
cellence and beauty. I have grown but few of them
and fruited but one long enough to say anything posi-
tive. This is one he has named Brilliant. The vine is
AND WINE MAKING. 97
a strong grower ; foliage large and healthy, not subject
to mildew; hardy here when exposed to 10 below
zero. Cluster and berry of medium size, compact,
handsome, of quite dark, brilliant red color ; quality
nearly equaling Delaware. I regard it as a grape of
great promise.
Of my own comparatively small efforts, I wish to say
very little. Though I have been, for more than thirty
years, growing crosses between our native and foreign
grapes, re-crossing and combining, wherever the indica-
tions pointed to the results for which I was striving,
and though my disappointments have been many, the
pursuit has been interesting, and I believe I have learned
something as to the probabilities, as well as possibilities,
of success through the agencies which nature yields only
to him who carefully studies, and works in harmony
with her laws. My later efforts have been directed
toward the production of a grape that shall have all the
good points of the Concord, or Worden, combined with
better keeping and shipping qualities. This would re-
quire a more tenacious skin, and a little more firmness
of flesh, forming a berry not easily broken by ordinary
handling. Earlier ripening, especially if accompanied
by better keeping qualities, would be for many sections
most desirable. Vigor of growth, abundant productive-
ness, hardiness against severe winters, health of foliage,
resisting of mildew under all ordinary circumstances
would also be indispensable. If the clusters and berries
could be larger and more perfectly formed, and the qual-
ity higher and better, the combination would be still nearer
to the "perfect grape." I am now willing to say that,
after five years bearing, I believe I have accomplished
very nearly, if not quite, the hoped-for result, and that
I may reasonably exnect to offer a grape of the Labrusca
type, with the sanction of my own name and approval,
which will be of acknowledged worth and value, wherever
7
98 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
the vine and its noble fruit are prized by the horticultur-
ists of our Union.
A word as to the value of the discoveries, by scientific
men, of remedies against the encroachments of fungous
diseases and insect enemies, which have in so many places
injured or destroyed our grapes and other cultivated
fruits. That the timely and persistent application of
the Bordeaux mixture, " Eau Celeste," and kindred
remedies now easily attainable, will effectively prevent
the attacks of the greatest enemies the grape grower has
to contend with, there can be no doubt. And I believe
that through their use, many of the finer varieties can
be perfectly and successfully grown in many sections
where it has been heretofore impossible.
I do not think that vines in this section are as liable
to mildew of foliage and rotting, as in many other
places ; for I have always been able, by early applications
of sulphur and quicklime mixed in about equal parts,
and blown upon the foliage with an ordinary sulphuring
bellows, to prevent any serious injury from either. And
I have found this remedy, used as a preventive, very
nearly as effective as the later and more popular sulphate
of copper mixtures.
AND WINE MAKING. 99
CHAPTER XXL
THE GRAPE-GROWING DISTRICT OF CENTRAL NEW YORK.
D. BAUDEB, SECRETARY AND TREASURER PLEASANT VALLEY WINE
COMPANY.
This comprises what is locally known as the Lake
Keuka district, with about ten thousand acres; Canan-
daigua lake, including Naples, five thousand acres ; and
Seneca lake, five thousand acres. The average yield is
estimated at one ton of grapes per acre. The disposition
for the crop of 1893 was in the aggregate about as fol-
lows : Fourteen thousand tons shipped for table use ;
two thousand tons to wine makers in other places ; and
four thousand tons made into wine by local wine makers.
Two hundred thousand gallons of this wine were made
into champagne, producing about one million bottles.
The largest makers were the Pleasant Valley Wine Com-
pany, next the Urbana Wine Company, and a few others
of less importance. The champagne is made by the
long or French process.
The varieties grown and in quantity in the order
named are Concord, Catawba, Delaware, Isabella, Clin-
ton, Ives, Diana, Elvira, lona, Eumelan, Niagara, Nor-
ton, Moore's Diamond, and many others in small quan-
tities. A large percentage of the finer kinds, such as
Delaware, lona, Elvira, Eumelan and Isabella, form the
basis for the champagne cuvee ; Concord and Catawba
are for table, and the balance for still wines.
Prior to 1889 there had been but two seasons that the
crop was materially impaired by any disease or insect.
The season of 1889, being very wet, especially in June,
developed mildew or brown rot quite generally, and in
some places to an alarming extent, with a sprinkling of
100 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
black rot ; and later came powdery mildew. Ordinary
mildew, brown and black rot are too well understood to
need any comment or description. Powdery mildew
does not entirely destroy either foliage or fruit, but im-
pairs growth and ripening. Henry 0. Fairchild, a
prominent grower, made the first experiment with what
is known as the Bordeaux mixture, for the above-men-
tioned disease, and met with gratifying success. Other
growers soon followed and last year spraying with this
mixture became almost universal, and the result was an
average full crop.
This mixture is applied in the form of a spray made
by a peculiarly constructed nozzle under pressure.
Large and comparatively level vineyards use horse power,
others hand pump "knapsack sprayer." The first
spraying is done when the shoots are from six to eight
inches long, again immediately after blossoming, and
later as deemed necessary. It should be done carefully
and all parts of the vine covered. The mixture forms a
thin covering, on which the spores make no impression
and die. The mixture consists of eight pounds of sul-
phate of copper, six pounds of unslaked lime and forty-
five to fifty gallons of water. Many who cultivate table
grapes, for the late spraying substitute two quarts of
aqua ammonia in place of the lime, as this solution does
not stain the fruit. There is also a slight sprinkling of
anthracnose, usually found at or near the mouth of
gullies, which are numerous on the shores of all Central
New York lakes, and where the surface is quite wet.
Up to this time its ravages have been slight ; the Bor-
deaux mixture seems to check it materially.
Of insects we have but few ; while we have phylloxera,
yet the severe winters keep it in check, and no percepti-
ble damage has been noticeable. The thrip, a small
white fly, did some damage to the foliage of Delawares
and Isabellas, and less upon the Catawba; it has almost
AND WINE MAKING. 101
disappeared since the vines have been sprayed. The
steel beetle is the worst insect we have ; it attacks the
buds early in the spring, by boring a small hole, and
eats out the heart. This little insect does its greatest
damage in vineyards adjoining woods or uncultivated
fields. The only remedy that has proved effective is
daubing the buds with a solution of Paris green thick-
ened somewhat with flour ; this covers the bud with a
thin, varnish-like substance, and the little fellow gets
sick before he can do much damage.
The estimate of one ton per acre embraces good, bad
and indifferent vineyards. A well-cultivated vineyard
in a good location will yield from three to five tons of
Concords, two to three tons of Catawbas, one and a half
to two tons of Delawares, and so on.
CHAPTEK XXII.
GRAPE GROWING IN THE HUDSON RIVER VALLEY.
WILLIAM D. BARNS.
The early settlers of this region found the grape grow-
ing wild, and transplanted some of the better kinds to
their gardens, where they ministered to their wants.
No special progress was noted until 1816, when William
Prince, of Long Island, brought the Isabella grape from
the South and propagated it, soon after which it became
rapidly disseminated in this region. A few years later
the Catawba was introduced. In 1823 the first attempt
was made to record the merits of native grapes for cul-
tivation. In 1846 J. J. Thomas, in his " Fruit Guitar-
ist," mentioned only six "American hardy varieties."
Excepting the Isabella and Catawba, none of them are
J02 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
grown for market now. Their enormous crops and ex-
cellent quality made them popular, and ere long nearly
every residence had its grapevine. In 1853 the Concord
was brought to public notice, and almost immediately
found favor. Other varieties were produced from chance
seedlings and by hybridization, until now specimens of
probably three hundred varieties may be found in culti-
vation in this valley. The number considered profitable
to grow for market is comparatively small and at the
present time does not exceed twenty.
The introduction of the Concord in 1853 gave a great
impetus to grape growing. Its beauty, hardiness, vigor,
productiveness and quality commended it to the grape
growers of this region ; it soon took a leading place
among vineyardists, and is now produced in larger quan-
tities than all the other varieties combined. The Dela-
ware, from its superior quality, and the high price it
commanded, was a favorite with many, and is still
largely grown for market. The Diana, in spite of its
excellent keeping quality and beautiful appearance, be-
cause of its lateness in ripening has been discarded.
As the Rebecca could not be profitably grown on the
west side of the river, cultivators were anxious to find a
hardy white grape for market. The Martha was the
first to be introduced that seemed to fill the bill. This
variety is still grown to a considerable extent, although
the Niagara and Pocklington, from their superior ap-
pearance, are more prized and have been much more
largely grown in late years. Moore's Diamond, being
earlier than either, and quite as attractive in appearance
as well as of better quality, finds much favor. But since
its introduction the market demands seem to be more
for dark colored than light grapes. The Duchess is a
showy grape of very superior quality, but lacks hardi-
ness, and its cultivation for market has been nearly
abandoned.
AND WINE MAKING. 103
At present Concord, Champion, Cottage, Brighton,
Bacchus, Delaware, Elvira, Empire State, Hartford,
Moore's Early, Martha, Niagara, Pocklington, Duchess,
Worden, Wyoming, Red and Ulster comprise nearly all
the varieties that are grown for market.
TRAINING THE VINE.
When grape growing was commenced in this region,
there was no established method of training the vine.
The single or half dozen vines that had been grown for
family use were trained to the side of a building or over
a large arbor. For field culture the need of a different
system was imperative. Some tried the European plan
of short pruning and training to a single stake. The
difference in the habit of the native and foreign vine
made this method impracticable. Most growers used
numerous stakes set in the row of vines. When the
nature and requirements of the vine were carefully stud-
ied and this method of training skillfully done, it pro-
duced good results. Fuller's "Grape Culturist" in
1864 called attention to his modification of the European
plan, which still carries his name. This, however,
was followed in but few vineyards, as the Kniffin system,
which had been introduced ten years before, was given
the preference.
THE KNIFFIN SYSTEM was originated and practiced
by one of the pioneers of grape growing in the Hudson
River valley. William Kniffin of Clintondale, after
much consideration, adopted the system of training the
vine to two wires suspended and stretched, the one about
three and a half, the other about six feet from the
ground. A single main stalk is grown from the ground
to the upper wire. All buds or branches are broken
from this except four, the growth from which is trained
to grow along the wires. Usually two are left just below
each wire, and as each shoot grows it is loosely fastened
104 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
to the wire, one in each direction from the main stalk,
forming four arms. The next year each of these arms
is to be cut back to from four to eight buds, according
to the vigor of the vine. These shortened arms are to
be firmly tied to the wire, and shoots springing from
each bud encouraged to hang down with their clusters
of growing grapes.
This system of training the vine is believed to be the
most economical, and one of the most successful known.
It is almost universally used in the Hudson River valley.
Its methods and merits are being studied, and it is being
adopted in other sections of the State.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE KNIFFIN SYSTEM. One of
these is The Trunk System, where two stalks are grown
from root, and two arms trained from the one to the
lower, and from the other to the upper wire.
The Umbrella Training, where the trunk is tied to
each wire, and two arms with nine to fifteen buds each
are left at the upper wire, and none suffered to grow at
the lower one ; these long arms are, near their base, fas-
tened to the upper wire and then bent down and the top
fastened to the lower wire. This method finds consid-
erable favor.
The Overhead or Arbor Kniffin is another popular
modification of this system. The overhead arbor is
formed by spiking cross-bars three feet in length at right
angles to the row, to posts set in the row of vines, about
six feet from the ground. Three wires are stretched
the length of the row, and fastened equidistant on these
cross-bars. The vine is trained without branches to the
center wire, and six arms are trained, one in each direc-
tion on each wire. This method allows working both
ways with a horse, and the fruit hangs below the foliage,
and when ripening, becomes more perfectly covered with
bloom, it is claimed, than when grown by any other sys-
tem of training.
AND WINE MAKING. 105
The Cross- Wire System has small posts set by each
vine ; a single wire runs from post to post in each direc-
tion six and a half feet from the ground. The trunk of
the vine is tied to the post, and four arms are trained,
one along each wire. Lighter posts are required by this
system than any other, but the posts at the ends of the
rows have to be braced or anchored. It admits working
each way with a horse. This system is of recent intro-
duction, and possesses considerable merit.
DISEASES AND INSECTS.
The remarkable health, vigor and productiveness of
the vine led cultivators to believe that the various dis-
eases which had made grape growing unprofitable in so
many other localities would find no place here. Even
when reports of the ravages of black rot in New Jersey
reached us, cultivators of large experience, like ths late
A. J. Cay wood, believed that our favorable surroundings
would prevent the disease from causing serious injury here.
Others believed every precaution to prevent its intro-
duction and spread should be taken, and kept themselves
fully informed of the investigations and experiments
made by the direction of the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture. Before the black rot made its appearance here,
several persons had experimented with the Bordeaux
mixture as a preventive of mildew, and reported results
to the United States Department of Agriculture.
In the year 1887 black rot appeared to considerable
extent in some vineyards in the town of Gardner, Ulster
Co. The next year the crop of these vineyards was
nearly destroyed. In 1889 the disease made its appear-
ance in nearly every part of the valley of the Hudson.
With the inadequate facilities then possessed for spray-
ing, many vineyards had small blocks of vines sprayed
or sprinkled with the Bordeaux mixture. The results
were uniformly encouraging.
106 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
During the winter of 1889 the subject of black rot
and its prevention by spraying was discussed by the
press, in fruit growers' associations, and elsewhere. All
who had experimented the previous year urged all grape
growers to procure suitable outfits and spray thoroughly
the coming year. The few who did were richly paid, as
they saved nearly their entire crop, while those who did
not, lost from ten to ninety per cent.
The experience of 1890 fully demonstrated the value
of the practice as a preventive of both black rot and
mildew. One large grower claimed the operation saved
him one hundred tons of grapes. Instances were com-
mon where adjoining vineyards showed nearly complete
destruction by black rot in the unsprayed, and a perfect
crop where the vines had been sprayed. The foliage of
Delaware vines, where sprayed, was as healthy and clean
till frost came, as that of Concords.
The fact that applications of copper salts will prevent
other forms of fungus than black rot, makes the grow-
ing to perfection of many delicate hybrid grapes possible.
During a season of frequent heavy rains the successful
treatment of a vineyard is expensive, and in some cases
almost impossible.
Anthracnose has made its appearance in many vine-
yards, but while affecting the vitality of the vine more
seriously than does black rot, it does not spread so rapidly.
It yields to an application of a saturated solution of sul-
phate of iron to the trunk and arms of the vine before
the buds swell in the spring.
But few vineyards are damaged by phylloxera. In
some sections the steel beetle is destructive by eating into
and destroying the opening bud. Spraying with Paris
green is done for the destruction of this pest. The rose
bug, by eating the blossom and embryo grape, is occa-
sionally very destructive. Hand picking, and jarring
the insect into a basin of kerosene, in the cool of the
AND WINE MAKING. 107
morning, are the rather unsatisfactory methods adopted
for its destruction.
Occasionally the grape-leaf hopper, more commonly
known as thrips, appears in such numbers as to defoliate
a vineyard and inflict great injury. When the wind
blows across the rows of vines, on a hot day, millions of
these may be entrapped by tacking a large sheet of
heavy paper, smeared with tar, to a light frame carried
on the leeward side of the row, and suddenly jarring
the vine. The insects rise in a cloud and are carried by
the wind against the soft tar.
These named comprise the fungous diseases and
insect pests that are most prevalent in this region.
On the whole, the health and productiveness of the
vine are probably equal to that in any other grape-
growing section.
SEASON AND METHOD OF MARKETING.
From the location and environment of this region, the
crop of grapes ripens earlier in it than in any other sec-
tion of the State. The market requires a good table
grape. Hitherto the earlier in the season it could be
furnished the higher the price realized. For nearly
twenty years the Champion has been the earliest variety
that was marketable. Though prolific and handsome,
the quality is poor, and growers have earnestly sought a
kind possessing its merits and of better quality. Moore's
Early comes nearest to taking its place. Unfortunately,
this variety does not seem adapted to all locations, and
in some places is a shy bearer.
The high price paid for early grapes has tempted
many growers to ship grapes before they were fully ripe.
This always has a depressing effect on the market.
Now, profiting by experience, most shippers are careful
as to the quality as well as the appearance of their fruit
when placed in the market.
108 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
New York receives the bulk of the crop grown in this
region. Large shipments are made to Philadelphia,
Boston, Buffalo, Baltimore, Washington and intermedi-
ate places. Early in the history of this industry, the
crates made for carrying strawberries and raspberries
were used for shipping grapes. New York being a great
distributing point, buyers for shipping to other places
were seriously incommoded by the necessity of returning
the crates. To obviate this difficulty, baskets holding
five or ten pounds of grapes were introduced, and soon
came into quite general use. But as the supply of fruit
increased, and prices became lower, the cost of carting
from boat or car to the stores was felt to be a serious
handicap to the business. Then a cheap crate non-
returnable found favor. At this time crates contain-
ing eight light tills, and holding forty pounds of grapes
when filled, are generally used.
GIRDLING THE VINE.
According 'to Prof. L. H. Bailey, "girdling, or ring-
ing various fruit trees was certainly practiced by the
Komans, and the Agricultural Society of France awarded
a premium to Buchatt about a century and a half ago,
for a method of girdling the grapevine. * * * The
first valuable experiments made with ringing the grape-
vine in America was begun in 1877 at the Massachusetts
Agricultural College, and the practice has been em-
ployed more or less continuously since that time. * * *
Girdling usually hastens maturity and increases size of
the fruit ; it is supposed to lessen the quality of the
fruit ; its effect upon the vine has not been clearly de-
termined." Mr. John Burroughs, who resides in this
grape region, says: "My opinion of the practice of
girdling grapevines is, that on the whole it is poor busi-
ness." * * * "If all take to girdling, where is the
advantage ? It is like the crowd all getting up on chairs
at the show."
AND WINE MAKING. 109
Girdling, to hasten the ripening of grapes for market,
was commenced in the neighborhood of Highland about
thirteen years ago. The operation consists in removing
a ring of bark nearly an inch broad from the arm or
branch of the last year's wood. The practice has continued
since, and been adopted by many persons. Great dis-
cretion and care are requisite to make the operation a
success. The quality of some varieties is ruined by it.
Heavily loaded vines, if girdled, never ripen their fruit.
Feeble growing vines are seriously injured by the opera-
tion. Grapes of delicate flavor seem to suffer most in
loss of quality when the vine. is operated on. When
judiciously done it has doubtless increased the net re-
turns of the grower. But it is not probable or desirable
that the practice should be universally adopted.
WINE MAKING.
The price realized for table grapes until recently kept
the best quality out of the wine makers' hands, except
in limited quantities.
The cause of viticulture has been materially favored
by the labors of the late A. J. Caywood of Marlboro,
Dr. W. A. M. Culbert of Newburg, and James H.
Ricketts, formerly of Newburg and now of Washington,
D. C. In this region especially has their influence been
felt, while the valuable varieties originated by them are
known all over the United States.
110 AMERICAN GBAPE GROWIKQ
CHAPTER XXIII.
VITICULTURE IK SOUTHWEST MISSOURI.
HERMANN JAEGER, NEOSHO, MO.
When locating in Southwest Missouri, the first wild
grapes to attract my attention were those of the Lince-
cumii type of Vitis cestivalis, popularly known as
"Summer" grapes here, and "Post Oak" grapes in
Texas. Many of these I selected and cultivated. Some
had produced heavy loads of fruit in their wild state,
blooming near staminate vines of their species, while
under cultivation they proved shy bearers. Others pro-
duced well in the vineyard, and of these I still cultivate
some, like Neosho, Racine, Nos. 32, 52, 13 and 43.
Nos. 13 and 43 are as large as Ives and Concord re-
spectively, and while no better than these in quality, I
valued them as extremely hardy and prolific late grapes,
remaining sound where the Concord crop was entirely
ruined by black rot.
Vitis rupestris is another native of the Southwest
that attracted my attention, on account of the purity of
its grapes and their freedom from rot and mildew.
Some of these I sent to France to be tried as stocks
able to resist phylloxera. Their adaptation to the thin-
nest, dryest and stoniest soils ; their hardiness, superior
to all other vines, and their easy propagation, made them
very popular for grafting stocks. Even for the creation
of Franco-American hybrids onr French co-laborers pre-
fer the rupestris to other native species, because it is
free from any of the peculiar American flavors so objec-
tionable to those who formed their taste on European
grapes.
While searching for rupestris vines to export, I selected
some with large fruit to cultivate. Even these are only
AND WINE MAKING. Ill
similar to a currant in size of bunch and grape, anc|
therefore can not become popular. Yet repeatedly I
was glad to have these vines, covered with small bunches
capable of yielding a good claret, when nearly all other
grapes were destroyed by rot and mildew. Thanks to
spraying with copper solutions, both black rot and mil-
dew are now under our control, and we can do better
than grow rupestris grapes. To create new varieties of
extreme hardiness and to purify the flavor of our varie-
ties, the infusion of rupestris blood will remain of prime
importance.
The following I consider my best seedlings and hybrids:
Jaeger's No. 70 is a seedling of my lincecumii No. 43,
crossed with a male vine of Vitis rupestris. Most hardy
and productive ; black, bunch and berry as large as Ives
but less compact ; it colors early and ripens ten to twelve
days before Norton. When fully ripe it has some of the
peculiar lincecumii flavor, which remains in its wine, a
very dark, rich claret, much admired here for its
"fruity" aroma.
Jaeger's No. 72 is of the same parentage as 70. Foli-
age and wood retain more of the lincecumii character
than 70 (which resembles rupestris more). Grape black,
with pale bloom, and of Concord size. Bunch very com-
pact, of medium size. Ripens just before or with Nor-
ton, and, like 70, hangs long to vine. Flavor pure like
rupestris, sweet, a fine table grape, yielding a claret of
great purity and good color.
Jaeger's No. 100. A seedling of Elvira, as large as
Concord in bunch and berry. Color yellow to grayish
pink when very ripe. Quality and flavor similar to
Catawba ; ripens with Delaware. Vine of labrusca
character ; very hardy and productive. Uses : table
and white wine. Liable to crack when ripe, like Elvira.
This No. 100 I crossed with a male rupestris, and also
with a male vine of rupestris X cinerea. The first cross
112 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
gives early and the second late grapes of extreme hardi-
ness, fine quality and pure taste. A number of these
fruited, some twice. It is too soon to select the best.
Among the first hybrids I produced over fifteen years
ago are Nos. 50 and 56. They are crosses between a
large Summer or Post Oak grape and the delicious, but
very tender Herbemont. In quality, character of fruit
and vine, they have a close family resemblance with
various similar crosses evolved by Prof. T. V. Munson
of Denison, Texas.
Besides being very liable to rot and mildew, I found
Nos. 50 and 56 entirely too tender to stand our extreme
climate, and therefore never propagated or even pub-
licly mentioned them.
Of late years I find that spraying not only keeps them
free from rot and mildew, but that likewise (preserving
their foliage healthy till frost) it helps to ripen their
wood a great deal better. Thus these vines, which used
to suffer in our mildest winters, last January stood un-
protected and unharmed a temperature of 22 below
zero. Therefore I now consider Nos. 50 and 56 most
valuable grapes, especially so because they mature later
than Norton, are fine keepers, and may easily be made
to prolong our grape season from six to eight weeks.
No. 50 is a very compact, medium-sized bunch with
medium-sized grapes ; black, with light bloom ; as sweet
and pure and sprightly as Herbemont.
No. 56 is nearly of Concord size in bunch and berry.
Light Catawba color with white bloom. A sweet, pure,
beautiful and delicious grape, though not having all the
Herbemont sprightliness of No. 50. Both will no doubt
make fine white wine. These, as well as Mr. Hanson's
new grapes of similar origin and hardiness, I now con-
sider the most exquisite late varieties we can grow in
the Hiddle and Southern States.
AND WINE MAKING. 113
TREATMENT FOR MILDEW AND ROT.
An address to the Missouri State Horticultural Society.
P.Y HERMANN JAEGER.
Black rot and Peronospora, or downy mildew, have
been the two most formidable foes of American grape-
vines. The ravages of these microscopic mushrooms
discouraged and disheartened nearly all our grape grow-
ers. The few men that kept their vineyards, came to
the conclusion that profit from grape growing could not
be expected, except, perhaps, with very few varieties resist-
ing rot and mildew better than most others.
Nothing, therefore, could have pleased us better than
the fact established after three years' experimenting with
copper remedies, under the direction of our National
Department of Agriculture ; the fact, I say, that not
only mildew (as had already been proved in France), but
likewise the still more fatal pest of black rot, are under
our control, and can both be entirely prevented by cor-
rect spraying with Bordeaux mixture or other copper
solutions. This was in 1890. Our experience in 1891
fully verified this claim. The season of 1892, with an
extremely wet spring and early summer, proved that by
spraying we can succeed in most unfavorable years, not
only with Norton, Ives and Perkins, but with Rogers'
Hybrids, Delaware, Triumph, and the long list of varie-
ties that, even in fair seasons, used to be a mere source
of disappointment.
Last summer it required from five to eight sprayings
to keep our vines free from rot and mildew, while three
to five applications are quite sufficient in ordinary sea-
sons. A neighbor of ours who postponed his spraying,
because the incessant rains would be sure to wash off the
solution, made almost as complete a failure as another
neighbor who argued spraying was useless until dry
weather had set in, because "the rain would wash away
8
114 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
all rot and mildew from the fruit." Just such mistakes
as these are to blame for all failures in spraying grape-
vines, for wherever fruit and foliage are covered with a
copper solution, the germination of the spores or seeds
of the fungi causing rot and mildew is impossible. But
just as impossible it is for any spray to be of the least
benefit, if applied after this germination has taken place.
When by naked eye we can discover the least trace of
mildew or rot, it proves that we should have commenced
spraying at least ten days before.
Bordeaux mixture and the ammoniacal solution of
carbonate of copper, are now almost exclusively used.
For the last two years I have treated about eight acres
of vines with one, and eight acres with the other solu-
tion, and both with equally good success. I use a
Eureka knapsack sprayer with Vermorel nozzle. In va-
rious parts of my vineyards I dig holes to collect rain
water, and at these holes fill the knapsack, adding the
needed proportion of ammonia solution or concentrated
Bordeaux mixture. Thus water carrying is reduced to a
minimum. A Bordeaux mixture of one and one-half
pounds of bluestone to twenty-two gallons of water is
just as effective as the stronger solution formerly used.
This summer I allowed the Bordeaux mixture to settle,
using only the clear liquid for spraying. This avoids
clogging of the nozzle, makes spraying easier, and keeps
the fruit clean, without impairing the effectiveness of
the spray. To the sediment water may be added again,
and the bluish whitewash used for sprinkling strawber-
ries, melons, potatoes, tomatoes, etc.
Finally, I claim one more benefit for spraying; it
greatly improves the hardiness of our vines. Ability to
resist low temperature mostly depends on the perfect
ripening of the wood. The fruit, canes and buds can
only ripen while the foliage is sound. Well-sprayed
vines keep their leaves perfect till killed by a hard frost,
AKD WIHE MAKING. 115
and thus reach the highest possible degree of hardiness.
On the 19th of last January the thermometer at the
United States fish hatchery at Neosho, fell to 22 below
zero. This was sufficient to kill nearly all the fruit
buds on unsprayed Norton or Cynthiana vines, while all
those that had been well sprayed the summer before,
brought a fine crop. I mention the Norton because it is
perhaps less affected by mildew than any other vine.
Varieties subject to mildew show still more clearly the
benefit of spraying. European hybrids like Triumph,
Campbell, Brilliant, Goethe, Carman, and many others,
produced fine crops after standing last winter unpro-
tected. Still more agreeably was I surprised to get
grapes from my Nos. 50 and 56, two varieties produced
about fifteen years ago by crossing the delicious, but
very tender Herbemont, with one of our large wild Sum-
mer grapes (Vitis astivalis, type lincecumii), usually
called Post Oak grapes in Texas.
Nos. 50 and 56 are fine grapes and our very latest vari-
eties, but proved too tender to be valuable, and there-
fore were never propagated. Now I consider them about
as promising as any grapes we have, and I dare say that
in quality and appearance they closely resemble the vari-
eties Prof. T. V. Munson has originated by similar crosses.
Among that splendid list of twenty-nine new grapes,
by far the finest collection ever offered in America, now
being introduced by T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas,
eight of the most exquisite varieties are crosses of Herbe-
mont on wild Post Oak or Summer grapes of Texas and
Southwest Missouri. Mr. Munson, with his character-
istic conscientiousness, recommends these for the South
only.. I am glad to be able to state that four of them
were tried here and have stood 22 below zero, as well as
Nos. 50 and 56. It seems safe therefore, to conclude
that with good spraying these Southern grapes will prove
hardy enough for the latitude of Central Missouri. Mr.
116 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Munson's other grand acquisitions will succeed far north
of Missouri. His "America," for example, is a seedling
of Jaeger's No. 70, containing the blood of our large
native summer grape crossed with Vitis rupestris, and
consequently surpasses in hardiness any American vine
heretofore cultivated. Mr. Munson's great work insures
an immense improvement in the quality of our grapes,
and spraying with copper solutions has made their yield
so much more certain, that we can confidently look for-
ward to a great revival of American viticulture.
CHAPTER XXIV.
VIEWS OF A VETERAN.
SAMUEL MILLER, BLUFFTON, MO.
The following are. among the newer varieties of grapes
which appear to be promising in this section :
EMPIRE STATE (white). A strong grower, bears well,
perfectly hardy. Bunch large, long; berry above medi-
um, round, sweet, and of excellent quality.
MOORE'S DIAMOND (white). Vine strong, hardy,
healthy and productive ; bunch and berry large ; when
ripe almost translucent ; best quality of any white grape
we have
MILLER'S GOLDEN BEAUTY (white). Vine all right;
bunch and berry above medium; quality good; very
handsome.
The above varieties are all the white ones I care to
grow ; they fill the bill.
WOODRUFF'S RED (red) is a good grower; bunches
quite large; berries of the largest size. Very showy
and good
AND WINE MAKING. 117
VERGENNES (red) has fruited jusfc enough here to show
that it is a valuable one. Bunch and berry medium.
BRIGHTON (red). A large bunch and berry, above
medium. Superior quality, but the vine is not fully
hardy.
THE EATON (black) has been highly spoken of as to
size of bunch and berry, but the quality is said to be poor.
GARBER (black). Hardy and productive. Bunch
and berry a little below medium, of good quality, and
will undoubtedly make an excellent dark-red wine.
Among the earliest.
MINGO (black). A small bunch and berry, but ripens
before any other. Makes a heavy, very dark wine ; can
write with the juice and it would be taken for ink.
HERO (black). A sport of the Concord, nearly double
the size and of fair quality.
There are others on trial, but as they have not fruited
here I cannot say how they will do.
CHAPTER XXV.
GRAPE CULTURE IN MISSISSIPPI.
S. M. TRACY, MISSISSIPPI EXPERIMENT STATION, STARKVILLE.
Grape culture in Mississippi has been developed almost
wholly within the last ten years, and is now increasing
more rapidly there than is any other one branch of fruit
growing. In the northeastern part of the State, from
Booneville to Corinth, are many large vineyards, and in
the region about Stark ville, in the central part of the
State, are several covering from ten to fifty acres each,
while from along the Gulf coast large quantities of grapes
118 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
and small amounts of wine are shipped annually. The
long growing season in this State enables the vines to
make fully double the amount of wood which they can
make in the Northern States, or even in Missouri, and
the winters are so mild that the wood is never injured
by cold. The black rot, the downy mildew and the
powdery mildew are almost unknown, though the "ripe
grape rot" (Melanconium fuligineum) is often injurious
to the late-ripening shipping varieties, though it does not
attack the early-ripening market sorts, nor those of the
rupestris and lincecumii types recently introduced by
Munson. In the central part of the State, Champion
and other early sorts are ready for market from July 5
to 10, while from the Coast region they may be shipped
from a week to ten days earlier.
Among the more popular varieties for market are
Champion, Delaware, Herbemont, Ives, Moore's Early,
Niagara and Perkins. For table use Brilliant, Delaware,
Gold Coin, Green Mountain, Hermann Jaeger, Moyer,
Mrs. Nellie Munson and Rommell are among the more
popular sorts. Wine making is a rapidly growing indus-
try along the Gulf coast, where the Scuppernong varie-
ties grow to perfection. At Biloxi, Bay St. Louis, and
other points, several French colonies have been located
and are planting the Scupper nong quite largely, and are
said to be making wine of excellent quality.
The horizontal trellis has given us better satisfaction
than has any other which we have ever seen, and is the
one which we recommend for general use. In making
it, the posts are set as for the vertical trellis, the tops
are sawed off square at five feet from the ground, and a
crosspiece of 2x4, two feet long, is laid on the top of
each, and nailed at right angles to the direction of the
row. Three No. 12 wires are stapled to these cross-
pieces, one directly over the post, and the others one
inch from the ends of the crosspieces. The cost of ma-
AND WINE MAKING. 119
terial is the same as for the vertical trellis, with the ad-
dition of the crosspieces, which cost one cent each.
Our reasons for preferring the horizontal trellis are, that
it makes pruning much more simple and easy, that it
keeps the lower part of the vine free from sprouts and
branches which would interfere with cultivation, that it
affords much greater protection to the growing and
ripening fruit, that it holds the fruit where it can be
easily reached in spraying, and that it gives partial im-
munity from the attacks of fungous diseases. It is a
well-known fact that very few fungi can germinate ex-
cepting in the presence of moisture. With the horizon-
tal trellis, nearly all of the fruit is found hanging below
the wires, where it is protected from rain and dew by
the leaves, which are almost wholly above the wires, and
so the spread of disease is, to a large extent, held in
check. The overshadowing leaves also protect the fruit
from sun scald, from which many of the thin-skinned
varieties suffer severely. Whatever style of trellis may
be used, it should always run north and south, so that
the fruit may be protected from the sun during the hot-
test hours of the day.
CHAPTER XXVI.
GRAPE CULTURE IN NEW MEXICO.
N. SPATCIER, LAS CBUCES, N. M.
An active experience in the vineyard for the past
seven years has thoroughly convinced me of the para-
mount value of the Mission grape. It is hardy, requires
less labor and attention, and is productive. Brought
here by Jesuit missionaries 400 years ago (whence its
120 AMERICAN- GEAPE GROWING
name), I believe that a cutting from it to-day will pro-
duce as rank and healthy a growth as in its earliest days.
In the early days of my experience, owing to imposi-
tions and accidents in refilling vacant places in my vine-
yard and in enlarging it, I found vines of numerous
sorts, such as Muscat of Alexandria, Rose of Peru, and
others, mixed with my Missions. What at first seemed
a matter of regret was later one of congratulation, for
wherever the vines were mixed, there the fruit was better,
with larger clusters and berries, and a larger aggregate
of crop. I attribute this to the cross fertilization, the
workings of which were effectively aided by my Italian
honey bees, of which I keep twenty-five colonies. I
would not, for $500 per annum, deprive my orchards
and vineyards of the cooperation of my bees.
I practice close pruning, never leaving more than one
or two buds on a spur, although three may be left if it
is desired to build up a young vine. Leaving more will
increase the crop for the season, but is apt to impair
permanently the vitality and productiveness of the vine.
The wine-making industry is yet in its infancy here.
With a proper selection of grapes, we can have the best
of wine. Among these is the native early Muscatelle,
which makes one of the finest and most aromatic of
wines, and is especially useful for blending with other
wines to add to their bouquet. The Black Burgundy
grape is also an excellent kind for mixing with the Mis-
sion grape and for adding color to lighter wines from
other grapes.
AND WINE MAKING. 12]
CHAPTER XXVII.
VITICULTURE IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.
F. M. HALBEDL, SAN ANTONIO.
Texas is just beginning to comprehend the importance
and vast possibilities of viticulture within her borders.
Seven years ago I contemplated a visit to California with
a view to locating there, but changed my mind and trav-
eled instead through Texas, gathering information and
examining the soil. I found what I wanted along the
Southern Pacific railroad, near Harwood, nine miles east
of Luling, in Gonzales county. I bought land at $10 an
acre and planted a vineyard and an orchard. The first
year I set out 10,000 cuttings, nearly all of which took
root and made luxuriant growth ; since that I kept on
enlarging it from year to year. The soil is partly light,
partly dark, sandy loam, covered with Post oak, Black-
jack and hickory timber, and having a clay subsoil at
moderate depths varying from eighteen inches to three
feet.
My original intention was to raise grapes for wine, and
I therefore planted chiefly Herbemont, Black Spanish,
Black Eagle, Black July and Concord, all of which do
well in Texas. But I soon discovered it to be more
profitable to raise table grapes, and therefore imported
from Newcastle, Cal., the leading California varieties
for a trial. Of these I determined upon five as having
given the best results during three successive years.
They are the Fontainebleau, which begins to ripen about
the 24th of June, and forms perfect bunches and berries
free from disease; the Flaming Tokay, which makes
immense bunches, and berries as large as my El Paso
plums ; Malaga, Black Prince and Black Morocco. I
sent specimens of my Malaga to my brother-in-law, who
122 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWIKG
at that time owned a fruit ranch near Newcastle, Cali-
fornia, and he pronounced them superior to his own in
compactness and flavor. I propose to raise the above-
named varieties exclusively, feeling full assurance of
success. I have, so far, supplied the market of San
Antonio with my grapes, realizing twelve and a half
cents per pound, but am confident of obtaining better
prices in Northern markets when I begin to ship by the
carload. The shipping season extends from June 24 to
August 7, when there is no California grape in sight,
while the El Paso grapes from the Rio Grande region
are just beginning to come in, giving us, therefore, the
best opportunities to monopolize the market. The yield
of some varieties is enormous. For example, the Black
Spanish (Lenoir) yielded, without irrigation, during the
last two (dry) years, from 20 to 50 large bunches per
vine (vines 12 feet apart and trained on three wires) ;
next comes Herbemont, also a prolific bearer and safer
than the first, being immure from all disease, while the
first, in wet years, shows signs of black rot. Wet years,
though, are a rarity. Of late, there have been many
vineyards started in my vicinity for wine-making pur-
poses, also around Luling and other places. In fact,
throughout Central and Southwestern Texas down to
Corpus Christi on the Gulf, both soil and climate are
eminently adapted to viticulture, requiring no irrigation,
as the rainfall during winter and part of spring is suffi-
cient and the clay holds moisture long enough to insure
the crop.
I have also made wine, which I sell at one dollar a
gallon, but intend to abandon that branch except for
home use. My wines are made from the pure grape
juice, without the addition of sugar, water or anything
else, and are almost too alcoholic for my taste. Our
grapes contain much more sugar than the California
grapes now sold here, which taste watery.
AND WINE MAKING.
CHAPTER XXVIIL
ON THE RIO GRANDE.
CHARLES W. WILSON, LAREDO.
The grape industry in this section is in a compara-
tively early stage of development as yet, although suffi-
cient progress has been made to establish its adaptability
to the soil, climate and seasons, and in the early ripen-
ing of the grape to give it precedence o any other
section of the United States.
The varieties mostly grown are the Muscat of Alexan-
dria, Tokay, Black Morocco, Rose of Peru, Black Ham-
burg and Zinfindal. These are enumerated in the order
of the number of acres devoted to each, although the
Black Morocco is gaining in popularity as a profitable
shipping grape on account of its heavy yield. The
above-named grapes ripen in succession, from July I to
December 1. The Muscat is ready for market usually
about the middle of June, and some other varieties ma-
ture as early as the latter part of May.
The vines show a prodigious growth, but irrigation is
necessary to their culture, as the summers are long and
dry. The water is raised from the Rio Grande river by
steam pumps. On account of the cheapness of coal and
wood, this proves to be an economical method of hand-
ling the water. No particular diseases of the vine have
been made manifest thus far. A small fly has attacked
isolated vines in places, causing the leaf to turn brown
and present a mottled appearance. The area of vine-
yards at this time aboat Laredo is about 175 acres, and
many more acres will be planted.
The Thompson's Seedless grape has recently been in-
troduced, but has not reached bearing age yet. Much
124 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
hope is expressed that it will prove excellently adapted
to this locality. Altogether the culture of grapes prom-
ises to occupy an extensive and profitable field in South-
ern Texas.
CHAPTER XXIX.
T. V. MUNSON'S NEW VARIETIES.
DENISON, TEXAS, Feb. 21, 1894.
PROF. GEO. HUSMANN.
MY DEAR SIR : In accordance with your request, I
select from among my published and tested varieties of
grapes the following, which have received the commenda-
tion from critical disinterested parties in greater degree,
perhaps, than others in my numerous collection, and give
short, accurate descriptions of them, as requested by
von. They ripen in the succession here named, the first,
Brilliant, ripening here early in July, the last in
September.
Yours truly,
T. V. MUNSON.
VARIETIES. (Flowers all perfect.)
BRILLIANT. A seedling of Lindley pollinated with
Delaware, originated in 1883. Season of leafing out,
medium ; leaf large ; sheds foliage early. Flowers at
Denison, Texas, first week in May. Growth good;
healthy ; attacked by downy mildew about the same as
Delaware ; anthracnose none ; black rot little more than
Delaware. Appears to endure cold equally with Dela-
ware, and drouth as well as Rogers' Hybrids. Inclined
to overbear ; needs short pruning ; cuttings root well.
Size of cluster medium to large, cylindrical, often shoul-
AND WINE MAKING. 125
dered, fairly compact. Berry persistent, large, spher-
ical ; bright currant red at first, in ripening, becoming
bronzy red at full maturity, with covering of white
bloom. Skin thin, tough, pleasant to the taste; pulp
juicy, tender ; flavor very agreeable, sprightly and pure ;
very sweet ; seeds one to three, medium. It has re-
ceived high praise at the hands of critical testers at the
Georgia Experiment Station, also in New Jersey, New
York, Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, Missouri, Texas, etc.
ROMMELL. Parentage, Elvira pollinated by Triumph,
originated in 1885. Season of leafing, flowering, ripen-
ing and shedding leaves a few days later than Brilliant.
Leaf of medium size, coarse, sharp teeth, not lobed, of
good substance. Resists mildew and rot well; growth
good ; short jointed ; as hardy in cold and drouth as the
best of Rogers' ; overbears unless pruned short ; cuttings
root with ease. Cluster medium, cylindrical, often with
shoulder half as large as main cluster; compact; very
heavy, proportional to bulk. Berry persistent, round
or slightly oblate, large if well grown ; yellowish green
when ripe, without bloom ; skin very thin though tough,
much less inclined to crack than Elvira and its seed-
lings ; pulp very tender and exceedingly juicy and
sprightly, with fine, pure flavor; ranking as best when
well grown. Seed few, small, separating readily. It is
a splendid near-by market grape, but will not endure
long carriage so well as Brilliant. Very promising for a
delicate, white, light table wine.
AMERICA. A seedling of H. Jaeger's No. 70 (now
named T. V. Munson), which is Mr. Jaeger's best hy-
brid of V. lincecumii with F. rupestris, both natives of
Southwest Missouri. Produced in 1885. Leafs out and
flowers late, and holds foliage late ; ripens fruit about
with Concord ; growth vigorous ; neither mildew nor rot
yet observed on leaf or fruit. Endures severe and sud-
den cold with impunity, and heat and drouth well;
136 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
fully resistant to phylloxera ; prolific ; joints of medium
length ; cuttings grow with great ease. Cluster medium
to large, conical, compact enough, but not crowded;
oerry persistent, round, medium to large, jet black ;
skin thin, delicate, yet not inclined to crack ; pulp ten-
der, juicy, pure, with characteristic flavor, and exceed-
ing rich in violet coloring matter ; rich in wine proper-
ties. Hangs on well, and finally dries into a fair black
raisin. Seeds three to five, small, slender. For a
very dark red wine, this grape appears to have great
possibilities.
K. W. MUNSON. Hybrid; mother a very large-ber-
ried V. lincecumii, of Grayson County, Texas. Pol-
linated with Triumph, originated in 1887. Leafs out,
flowers, ripens fruit and sheds leaves late, shortly after
Concord ; growth strong, very vigorous, and drouth re-
sisting; little attacked by mildew or rot. Bunch en-
dures sudden changes of temperature better than Con-
cord, but vine will not endure such hard winters, yet it
appears hardier than Rogers' Hybrids; well suited to
the variable Southwestern climate ; cuttings root quite
well. Cluster medium to large, cylindrical, shouldered,
properly compact; berry persistent, large, coal black
with little or no bloom ; skin thin, tough ; pulp tender,
juicy, with very agreeable pure flavor, pronounced by many
persons, in a critical test, not knowing the name or ori-
gin of variety, far better than Concord ; juice red ; seeds
few, small. A variety well worthy of extensive trial.
BEACON. Parentage V. lincecumii , Northern Texas,
having large cluster and berry, pollinated with Concord.
Produced in 1887. Growth strong; very healthy, en-
during drouth and cold very well, and resistant in a
large degree to all maladies ; cuttings root well. Leafs
out late, holds foliage very late ; leaf large, of fine sub-
stance ; flowers a few days later than Concord and ripens
with it, but will hang on much longer. Clusters very
AND WINE MAKING. 12?
large, cylindrical, often haying a short shoulder. Berry
persistent, rather larger than Concord ; black, with less
bloom; skin rather thin, tough, underlaid with abun-
dant dark-red juice ; pulp more tender than in Concord,
freeing the two to four medium seeds easily; quality
purer and finer than Concord, yet having a degree of its
flavor, without the earthy taste of that variety, and hav-
ing a faint Concord odor, which is quite agreeable.
Altogether, the appearance and quality are superior to
Concord, and its carrying and keeping qualities much
better. It promises to succeed over a wide extent of
country, and to be one of "the grapes for the million."
It might bo said truly of this, that it is Concord im-
proved in both vine and fruit, with far better adaptation
to the South
DELICIOUS. Parentage, the same mother as Bea-
con, pollinated with Herbemont. Produced in 1887.
Growth very vigorous and healthy, well adapted to a
hot, dry country, yet endures cold much better than
Herbemont. More resistant to black rot than Herbe-
mont, otherwise very healthy ; cuttings root fairly well,
about equally with Herbemont. Loafs out late and re-
tains foliage very late, but matures its wood well ; leaf
of medium size, deeply three to five lobed, giving a very
characteristic appearance ; joints short ; very prolific.
Cluster medium to large, conical, compact but not
crowding ; berry persistent, medium ; the largest Post
Oak X Herbemont yet produced by me ; black ; skin
thin and tough ; pulp melting almost equally with Her-
bemont, with a delicious, refreshing, vinous flavor, about
best. Seeds small, one to three. Promising for table,
market, and especially for a light colored red wine of
much body. Name was suggested by Mr. H. Jaeger, in
describing the quality as "'delicious."
CARMAN. Parentage F. lincecumii (Post Oak grape
No. 1 of my finding in Grayson County, Texas), polli-
128 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
nated with Triumph. Produced in 1885. Growth very
vigorous and healthy, enduring drouth and cold to a
high degree, and resisting maladies almost perfectly ; cut-
tings root readily ; joints of medium length ; leaves of
good size and substance, sometimes shallow three-lobed,
with serrate margin. Leafs out and flowers late, after
Concord ; holds foliage - late ; ripens wood perfectly ;
fruit ripens about a week after Concord, and hangs on a
long time, improving in quality ; very prolific. Cluster
large to very large, conical, compact, with one, two or
three lobes ; very handsome, with strong, long peduncle ;
berry medium or above, persistent to a remarkable de-
gree ; black, little bloom ; skin thin but quite tough ;
of agreeable flavor, having little or no coloring beneath ;
pulp meaty but not tough, moderately juicy, separating
readily from the small, two to three seeds ; quality very
pure, agreeable and sweet ; really rich, and were the
pulp a little more melting, would rate as about best.
Dr. W. H. Morse, consulting chemist, who makes a
specialty of testing, having received a sample of the Car-
man from a person testing the variety in New Jersey, in
1893, voluntarily wrote me as follows concerning it :
' ' Last fall I was given the privilege of examining speci-
mens of the Carman grape. T did not know till I found
your advertisement in the Rural New-Yorker of this
week that you have the vines for sale. I am not a con-
noisseur, but the striking resemblance of the Carman to
the Saumur grapes, and the excellence of the Saumnr
wines, make for them the highest praise. The Carman
is a grape of great possibilities. I know nothing of its
vigor or prolific character ; my reference is to the qual-
ity of the fruit, especially that quality as estimated for
its wine production. The fruit resembles very closely
that of the variety from which the best wines of Saumur,
France, are manufactured ; and its wine should contain
in nearly the same proportion the substances character-
AND WINE MAKING. 129
istic of the clear, sparkling Saumur wine, which is nota-
ble for having champagne qualities. It is high praise to
give a grape, that it has champagne possibilities. The
value of the Carman is high-gauged."
W. B. MUNSON. Parentage F. lincecumii, of Gray-
son County, Texas, No. 3, pollinated with Triumph.
Produced in 1887. Growth vigorous, healthy, well
adapted to a hot, dry climate. Prolific ; cuttings root
readily; leafs out and sheds late; flowers a week later
than Concord; leaves medium jto large, handsome and
substantial ; cluster large, cylindrical, sometimes shoul-
dered ; berry medium, black, persistent ; skin thin,
tough ; red juice beneath ; pulp juicy, melting, sprightly,
of very fine quality, separating easily from the one to
three small seeds. In a critical comparison, by many
persons, was pronounced the best black grape in my
collection.
MUENCH. Parentage Jaeger's Neosho (a Missouri
Post Oak grape), pollinated with Herbemont. Very
late in leafing out, flowering, ripening and shedding
leaves. Produced in 1887. Growth very vigorous and
healthy ; well adapted to the South, and endures cold
better than Herbemont ; cuttings root about equally
well with Herbemont ; rather short jointed ; leaves
lanrer than those of Herbemont, resembling them some-
what, and of good substance ; cluster large, handsome,
cylindrical, or shouldered ; berry dark purple, round,
little below medium; persistent; skin thin, delicate,
tough ; pulp melting, juicy, very rich and sprightly ;
juice white; promising for a white wine of excellent
body; seeds few, small. It will probably be preferred
to Herbemont when better known, and will succeed
farther north.
GOLD COIN-. Parentage Cynthiana (Norton), polli-
nated by Martha. Produced in 1883. Late in leafing 1 ,
flowering and ripening; ripens wood well, and sheds
9
130 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
foliage late. Quite resistant to all maladies ; season as
late or later than Catawba; productive; cuttings rather
difficult to root; cluster medium, cylindrical, or ovoid,
often with a simple shoulder ; fairly compact ; berry
medium to large, persistent, round, yellow when fully
ripe ; skin thin, tough ; pulp rather tough, about same
as Concord ; juicy, mild, pleasant, very sweet, a trace of
Labrusca odor and flavor ; hardly sprightly enough for
a fastidious taste, yet liked well by most persons. It
takes well in market, owing to its rich, yellowish color ;
seeds rather small and few. It carries well, and is a
very certain cropper. It is thought that it will produce
a really good white wine of good keeping qualities.
FERN MUNSON. Parentage Post Oak No. 1 X Tri-
umph, produced in 1885, from same lot of seed as the
Carman. Very vigorous and healthy. Very late in leaf-
ing out, flowering, ripening and shedding foliage ; leaf
large and excellent; cuttings root fairly; cluster large,
conical, not very compact ; berry large, round, very per-
sistent; black, with some bloom ; skin thin, fairly tough,
with pale red juice beneath ; pulp very juicy, tender,
and sprightly ; best quality ; seeds few and small. Ripens
in Northern Texas in first part of September, and hangs
on with improving quality into October. A grape of
much promise for late market and wine. Sold in mar-
ket in Denison at same price as the Mission grape, when
that variety was abundant.
LAUSSEL. Parentage Post Oak No. 2, of Grayson
county, Texas, X Gold Coin, 1886. Vine of great vigor
and perfect health, enduring great extremes of heat and
cold. Very late in leafing out, flowering and shedding
foliage. Leaf large and fine ; fruit ripens in September
and holds on to late in October; cluster ovoid, often
shouldered, very compact, and heavy for its size ; berry
medium to large, round, very persistent ; skin thin, but
very tenacious, rarely cracking, causing the berries to
AND WINE MAKING. 131
compress one another ; dark purple or nearly black when
fully ripe, with pale red juice ; pulp juicy, tender, and
possessed of a rare, peculiar, pleasant flavor ; sprightly,
high quality ; seeds small, two to four. The vine is long
jointed and requires long pruning, to get a full crop ;
it will easily carry all it can be made to set. Prom-
ising for late market and a fine characteristic wine.
There are a number more of my varieties that will
take high rank among these, but these give a fine suc-
cession and variety in quality, all good.
CHAPTER XXX.
THE CHAUTAUQUA GRAPE BELT.
QEO. A. MARTIN, CHAUTAUQUA CO., N. Y.
A glance at a meteorological map of the State of New
York, on which the amount of precipitation is indicated
by depth of shading, will reveal a very light streak along
the southern shore of Lake Erie. That strip, extending
from a little west of Buffalo nearly to Erie, is the Chau-
tauqua grape belt. Its southeastern boundary is fixed
by the so-called "Chautauqua ridge," a hilly range five
to seven miles from the lake, with an average altitude of
over seven hundred feet above the level of the lake, and
about thirteen hundred above the ocean. Lake Erie is
the shallowest of all the Great Lakes. Its depth is only
from five to eight fathoms, save around Long Point,
which juts out like a wing-dam from the northern
shore, and the channel thus restricted has scoured out
the bottom to a depth of twelve fathoms. This shallow
body of water becomes warmed to tepidity in the glow-
132 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ing summer days, and gives out its heat slowly during
the autumn and early winter months, then freezes over
more or less completely.
The narrow belt of territory, green-walled on one side
by the Chautauqua ridge, and flanked on the other by
this immense reservoir, has a climate quite unlike that
of the region immediately south of it, or of the State at
large. In spring the chilly airs from the lake usually
retard the swelling buds until the season is well estab-
lished, and in autumn the breezes, coming across the
waters now, warmed by summer heats, protect the belt
from killing frosts. Another climatic peculiarity of the
region resulting from the proximity of the lake, is the
limited precipitation of rain and dew. The soil is clay,
or glacial drift on clay subsoil. The underlying rock is
soft argillaceous shale.
It will be readily seen that this region is peculiarly
well fitted, by soil and climate, for successful grape cul-
ture. Experience has proved it to be so, and flourishing
vineyards are found throughout its entire length and
breadth. Grapes were cultivated here more than thirty
years ago, but it is within the last half of that period
that the business has expanded to any great commercial
importance. There are now about twenty-six thousand
acres of the region planted to vineyards, and the annual
crop is worth over a million dollars.
The Concord is universally cultivated as the standard
sort, far more acreage being devoted to it than to all
others together, which are spoken of in a general way as
"varieties." All the other American grapes which have
been tried here succeed equally well, but the Concord is
so eminently successful as a leading market grape that
it is largely the favorite. Furthermore, it is beyond
question that the Concords grown in the Chautauqua
grape belt possess a finer and richer flavor than those
from other regions. Moore's Early is cultivated to some
AND WINE MAKING. 133
extent, and Champion still less. Worden is increasing in
favor. Catawba, Wyoming Red, Pocklington, Niagara,
Agawam, Delaware, Martha, and some others, are grown.
Of new varieties the Mover, Coleraine, Eaton and Dia-
mond are found in the vineyards of progressive growers.
Diamond has proved quite satisfactory in flavor, produc-
tiveness and shipping qualities, but its liability to attacks
of anthracnose renders faithful spraying necessary to its
successful cultivation.
In the early years of grape culture in this region, it
was the usual practice to set the roots at a distance of
eight feet, or even less, each way. But in the more
recently planted vineyards, Concord and other strong-
growing vines are placed nine feet apart both ways. It
is regarded as desirable to have the rows extend north-
erly and southerly, with a view to more uniform expo-
sure to sunshine. The so-called arm and renewal system
of pruning and training is almost invariably employed
in the Chautauqua grape belt. Posts of chestnut or oak,
seven or eight feet long, are set, one to every third vine
in the row. The spade and post-hole augur are little
used in modern practice. The posts are sharpened at
one end, and holes made by the aid of an iron bar, ter-
minating in a long slim cone of iron or steel, which is
cast on the bar and finished in a lathe. Into the hole
made by this bar the sharpened end of the post is driven
by a cast-iron maul weighing from fourteen to seven-
teen pounds. A recent successful method is to drive at
least every alternate post the first year after the roots
are planted, and string only the lower wire. Then all
of the first year's growth having been removed, except
one strong cane, this is cut back to the wire and tied
firmly. As the shoots start they are all rubbed off
except the two uppermost, which, in the course of the
season, grow along and cling to the wire, forming arms
for the future. The ensuing spring the trellis is com-
134 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
pleted by supplying the remaining posts and wires. A
more common practice is to cut the young vines back
to two or three buds, at the end of the first year's
growth, allowing the canes of the second year to trail on
the ground, an obstruction to the work of cultivation,
driving posts and stringing wire. The most usual form
of trellis consists of two No. 9 plain steel wires stapled
to the posts. Three wires possess many advantages, but
have not come into general use. Of course it is found
necessary to keep the vineyards thoroughly cultivated
and free from weeds and grass. Underd raining is also
indispensable to the highest success, except on those
soils composed of gravel drift. Spraying with fungi-
cides has never come into very general practice in the
Ohautauqua grape belt. The principal reason for this
is that the vineyards in that favored region have been
almost wholly exempt from mildew, black rot and other
fungous diseases. The Concord vines especially have,
in this region, always remained perfectly healthy with-
out spraying or other protection. There is a prevalent
idea that this comparative immunity is due to the pure
fresh breezes from Lake Erie. But it doubtless results
mainly from the restricted precipitation of rain and dew
through the growing season. Still, this exceptional
good fortune can hardly be expected to continue forever,
especially as some new and otherwise desirable varieties
are not entirely healthy in foliage and fruit, if left with-
out protective treatment. Wide-awake, progressive vine-
yardists are providing themselves with spraying outfits,
and learning to apply preventive treatment for fungus
and insect enemies.
The grape harvest begins in September. The grapes
are picked in crates two feet long, twelve inches wide
and six inches deep. When filled these are hauled to
the packing house, where they stand twenty-four hours
or more, before the grapes are packed in veneer baskets.
AND WINE MAKING. 135
For the general crop nine-pound baskets are used, the
"pony" baskets of four or five pounds being in little
demand, except for the early or extra sorts. The pack-
ing house is a feature of every grape farm, some being
very large and handsome. The work of picking and
packing furnishes employment to large numbers of men,
women and boys, many of whom come from a distance.
The grape harvest is a season of great activity and
care, mingled with not a little social pleasure. Women
and girls come singly, in groups, or even in car-loads,
mostly in pursuance of previous engagements. Between
this welcome element and the resident population social
ties are readily formed ; balls and other gatherings are
common, and many an acquaintance is begun which
afterwards ends in marriage. The great bulk of the
Chautauqua crop is marketed as table grapes, the amount
made into wine being a very small proportion. But the
preparation of unfermented grape juice is increasing,
and promises to attain commercial importance.
Many efforts have been put forth to secure effective
cooperation among the Chautauqua grape growers.
Several years ago the Chautauqua and Northeast Grape
Union, embracing the entire belt, was organized. For
several years it rendered valuable aid in marketing the
grapes. But it failed to receive hearty and general sup-
port, and after the close of the season of 1894 it was
disbanded. Several smaller organizations have since
been formed, either by voluntary association or legal
incorporation.
The output of table grapes from the Chautauqua belt
is from 40,000 to 50,000 tons yearly. The railroad ship-
ments of 1891 were 3100 carloads of twelve and a half
tons each; those of 1894 were 3600 carloads; of 1895,
notwithstanding the destructive freeze of May, they were
3200 carloads. The net receipts to growers were
$1,159,200 in 1894, and $1,209,600 in 1895, the in-
136 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
creased price more than compensating for the reduced
amount of the crop.
The freeze of May 13, 1895, WPS wholly exceptional,
nothing like it having occurred in thirty-six years.
The local meteorological conditions were overcome by
influences which extended over a large area, both east
and west. Yet severe as was the freeze, and although
the grapevines were just putting out their fruit buds,
they escaped with less damage than many other fruits,
forest trees, or even meadows. Dwarf pear trees were,
in some cases, frozen dead within fifty feet of Concord
grapevines, which survived and bore nearly a full crop
of fruit.
PART III.
AMERICAN WINE MAKING.
CHAPTER XXXI.
WINE MAKING.
It can hardly be expected, in a book which only aims
to be the guide of the average cultivator, and to render
grape growing and wine making easy for the masses, that
I should enter into the secrets of the wine dealer and
chemist, giving elaborate descriptions of the manufacture
of sparkling wines, and the artificial compounds of the
so-called sweet wines, vins de liqueur, etc. My chief
aim is to demonstrate in a simple and plain manner, the
rules which are necessary to success. Wine making is a
very simple art, which every one with sound common
sense may acquire, yet it can not be followed successfully
without a strict observance of these rules. I shall be as
concise as possible, and hope that this little volume may
enable every one, who wishes to do so, to make healthful
and palatable wine for his own use, and at the same time
to assist the owner of ten or twenty acres of vineyard to
convert the products of it into a salable article of
commerce.
THE CELLAR.
Before making wine, room should be provided to keep
it. If you want to make only a small quantity for your
own use, and have a common house-cellar, it will answer
the purpose, although not likely to be cool enough in
summer. The main consideration is to always have
the v.ino thoroughly fermented and finished during
(139)
- AMERICAK GRAPE GROWING
the first winter. If this is the case, it will keep even in a
temperature of 65, though 45 would be better. But if
one wishes to take up wine making as a business, and
manufacture several thousand gallons, a special building
for the purpojc is necessary.
A steep hillside, sloping towards the north, is the
most suitable locality, and the most economical and
most convenient building is one of three stories. The
lower one, for keeping the wine when finished, should be
completely underground, the second story, intended for
the fermenting cellar, partially so, at least, and the third,
intended for the press house, can be entirely above ground,
so that the grapes can be conveniently carried into it.
The lower story should be well walled and, if possible,
arched with stone, though this is not indispensable. If
arched, it should be about 18 feet wide by 12 feet high
from the floor to the middle of the arch, so that there is
room for casks 5 feet long in two rows, one on each side,
space enough between the casks and the wall to pass be-
hind them, and a passage of 5 to 6 feet in the center, to
allow space for drawing off wine, moving casks, etc.
The length can be suited to the wants of the builder ; the
entrance should, if possible, be even with the ground,
and if built into the hillside, it can easily be made so,
and the back part of the cellar slightly elevated, so that
it will drain towards the door. It is best to have a room
in front, so as to keep out the cold air ; this can be
used for storing empty casks, cellar utensils, etc. The
cellar should be well ventilated on the sides by air flues
built in the wall, and constructed somewhat like chim-
neys, commencing at the bottom and terminating above
the arch. These are to be closed by a grate and trap
door, so that they can be opened at will, to admit air and
light. The cellar is to be closed by strong double doors.
Place on each side two rows of beams, lengthwise, as
layers for the casks, one to be about 2 feet from the wall,
AOT WINE MAKIKG. .141
the other 4'/ 3 feet. It will be best if the floor is paved
with brick or flags.
The second story of the building is intended for the
fermenting cellar, and may be made either of stone, which
is certainly the most durable, or of wood, if cheaper and
more convenient ; it need not be arched. It should be,
at least, 9 feet high, and partly under ground, with its
entrance from the rear, as this will be more convenient.
There ought to be holes through the arch of the lower
cellar, large enough to admit the passage of a hose, by
which the wine can be racked from the casks in the
upper cellar into the casks below. This room need not
be arched, but should be so constructed that it is free
from frost, and can be heated by a stove, if necessary, to
regulate the temperature while the must is fermenting.
Place layers, or beams, to receive the casks, on both
sides, as in the lower cellar.
The third story is above the ground, and is calculated for
the press room, with the entrance from the back, and is
intended to contain the wine press, grape mill, and fer-
menting vats, together with all the necessary implements
for wine making. The whole is to be covered with a good
roof, and there should be a large cistern, to receive all the
water from it, and as convenient to the press room as
possible, so that the water can be drawn into the room by
a force pump. If the press room is so arranged as to be
heated by a stove, it will be found convenient in winter
as a shop in which to prepare cuttings, etc.
To sum up, there should be : 1st. A cellar to keep the
fermented wine altogether below ground, so that it will
remain at as even a temperature as possible. 2nd. A fer-
menting cellar, or good, air tight room, which need not
necessarily be below ground, if it can be kept free from
fro^t until about December 15th, to put the must through
a rapid and thorough fermentation. 3d. A press room for
receiving and washing the grapes, and, when necessary,
142 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
passing them through a light fermentation before pressing,
with sufficient room for all the implements. 4th. Plenty
of good cistern water for all purposes. All the stories., for
greater convenience in working, to be connected by hose.
As observed before, any one can make and keep a small
quantity of wine for home use, even without a regular
wine cellar. One of the most successful wine makers I
ever knew, and who afterwards made it by tens of thou-
sands of gallons, stored his first crop in a hole in the
ground, 8 feet deep, and planked inside, with a board
roof ; in this he placed his casks, and covered the whole
with earth. But for the cultivator who would make
grape growing and wine making his business, a separate
wine cellar will become absolutely necessary, and should
be built as soon as possible. The expense will be accord-
ing to the dimensions ; a building 30 by 18 feet would
cost here now about $1,500, and have a capacity of 5,000
gallons in the lower cellar, provided casks of not less than
500 gallons are used.
CELLAR FURNITURE.
We now come to the utensils necessary for wine mak-
ing. You need :
1st. A PRESS. The most convenient one for a medium-
sized establishment, to press say not over 5,000 gallons
per annum, I have found to be one made at Belleville,
111. It is compact, takes little space, and it has a fake
bottom, which can be easily taken off and cleaned.
The hopper is in the shape of a double-grooved ring, so
that the juice can flow off towards the middle, the out-
side, and the bottom ; it does the work quickly and well.
A strong iron screw is in the middle, and is worked by
a lever on top. It costs about $35 to $40. It is dura-
ble, easily cleaned, and takes little space. A small
quantity of grapes can, of course, be pressed with any
AND WINE MAKING. 143
kind of a cider press. One will press about a barrel at
a time, and twenty barrels can be worked off in a day.
2nd. THE MILL. For mashing grapes, a simple pair
of wooden rollers, connected by cog wheels, and running
against each other, so arranged that they can be set by
screws to any desired distance apart, will do the work
better than anything else, and a boy of ten years can turn
them. The rollers are in a frame which can be set over
the vat ; a hopper on top to receive the grapes, completes
the arrangement. The rollers can be either plain or
grooved, as desired, and the whole will cost from $12 to $15.
Small quantities may be mashed with a wooden pestle in
a tub. The rollers should be so set as to break the skins
of the berries, but not to crush the seeds or stems.
3d. FERMENTING VATS. These are best made of pop-
lar wood, and may be of any suitable size, with a capacity
of from 100 to 500 gallons. For a larger establishment
I would prefer them about 5 feet diameter by 5 feet high,
and somewhat narrower at the top than at bottom. They
should be well hooped and strong, made of r/ 2 -inch lum-
ber, and worked smoothly inside, so that they can be
easily cleaned, with a spigot hole near the botton to draw
off the must. Their probable cost is about five to six
cents per gallon.
4th. CASKS. These are wanted, of course, of all di-
mensions. Large casks save room, and are proportionally
cheaper ; fermentation progresses rapidly in them, but it
takes longer for the wine to fine and clear after fermen-
tation is over, than in small casks. They should be of
good, well seasoned white oak wood ; if steamed before
using, so that the tannin is drawn out, so much the
better. Larger casks should also have a so-called "man-
hole," so that a man or boy can slip in and thoroughly
clean them when used. I do not advise larger casks than
500 gallons, as it takes too long to fill them, and they are,
144
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Fig. 14. WOODEN FUNNEL.
therefore, unhandy, except for very large establishments.
These are about 5 feet long by 5 feet diameter, and should
be placed on strong beams
in the cellar, about 18 inch-
es above the floor and 15 to
18 inches from the wall, so
as to enable you to examine
them at any time and clean
them of mould or cobwebs.
Their cost at present is
about 7 cents per gallon.
Imported Ehenish wine
casks, holding from 80 to
160 gallons each, are also very good if they have not been
allowed to sour or become mouldy, but, of course, they
take up more room in proportion than
do large casks.
5th. A STRONG WOODEN FUNNEL.
This is oblong, with a copper pipe in
the bottom, and has two short wooden
legs, so that it will set firmly on the
cask. Any good cooper can make one.
See figure 14.
6th. TUBS TO BE USED IN PRESSING.
Any good pine or cedar tubs will do
for the purpose. Also clean tin or
wooden pails should be provided in
abundance.
7th. A SACCHAROMETER OR MUST
SCALE. This is important and you
can not do without, as they are the
only sure guides as to quality of the
must, and you can not make wine ra-
tionally or with certainty of success,
Fig. 15.
unless you know what amount of sugar and acid the
must contains. Oechsle's is the one most commonly
AND WINE MAKING.
145
used, and can be had in any optical establishment. They
are made of glass, platina, or silver, at prices ranging
from $3 to $10.
Figure 15 shows must scale (silver) and test tube. With
the scale you should also have a long glass, or tin tube
made for the purpose of holding the must while testing it.
AN ACIDIMETER. The one invented and patented by
Henry Twitchell is simple, and can be used with accuracy
Fig. Ifl. ACIDIMETER.
by beginners. It is a timely invention, as it took long
practice to work correctly with either Otto's or Geissler's.
It is accompanied with full directions for its use. Fig-
ure Ifi gives an illustration of the Acidimeter.
10
146 AMERICAK GFwlPE GROWING
GATHERING THE GRAPES.
Having our cellar built, and stocked with the necessary
implements, we can now proceed to gather the grapes.
The proper time to do this depends very much upon
the varieties. The (Bstivalis, and most of the cordifolia
class, in short, all grapes which have an agreeable flavor
one which we wish to have in its fullest development in
the must or wine we ought to have thoroughly ripe.
The riper the grapes, the more fully will their peculiar
flavor be developed, the less acid and the more sugar will
they contain. We must, therefore, learn the nature of
our grapes before we know when to gather them. In the va-
rieties of Labrusca, at least in most of them, their peculiar
flavor is not desirable m its highest development, and is
generally characterized as "foxy." A good many of
them also, for instance, Concord and Martha, do not
contain the proper amount of acid when fully ripe, to
bear the necessary dilution of this strong, foxy taste, and
as they must be "Gallized" at any rate, to be palatable, it
is not advisable to let them get over ripe. I would advise,
therefore, to take these, and, in short, all the varieties
with a strong, foxy, and disagreeable aroma, when fully
colored, and let those varieties with an agreeable aroma
hang long, in order to obtain their flavor in its full
perfection and delicacy ; and also to develop the greatest
amount of sugar and diminish the acid. The best evi-
dences of a grape being thoroughly ripe are : 1st. The
stem turns brown and begins to shrivel. 2d. The berry
begins to shrivel around the stem. 3d. The skin is thin
and transparent. 4th. The juice becomes very sweet,
and adheres to the fingers like honey or molasses.
It is often advisable to gather twice, as m^ny bu nches will
ripen later than others. If the ripest are gathered first, the
remainder will ripen quicker, and a uniform product can
thus be obtained. The first implement? needed for the
AND WINE MAKING.
147
gathering are clean wooden or tin pails, and sharp knives,
or better still, the small shears spoken of in a former
part of this work. Each gatherer is provided with a pail,
or two may go together, having a pail each, so that one
can empty and the other keep filling. If there are a good
many unripe berries on the bunches, these may be put
into a separate pail, and also all that are soft, as they
will make an inferior wine. The bunch is cut with as
short a stem as possible, as the
stems contain a great deal of
acid and tannin ; every unripe,
dry, or decayed berry is to be
picked out, so that none but per-
'fectly sound, ripe berries remain.
We also need a carrying vat,
to carry the grapes to the mill
or wagon, if the vineyard is any
distance from the cellar. This
is made of half-inch pine lum-
ber 3 feet high, 10 inches wide
at bottom, 20 inches at top,
being flat on one side, where it
comes against the back ; it is
bound with thin iron hoops. It
is carried by two leather straps
running over the shoulders, as shown in figure 17, and
will contain about 8 or 10 pails, or 2 to 2 1 /^ bushels
of grapes. The carrier can easily take it through the
rows and lean it against a post until filled, and then carry
the grapes directly to the press room, if close by, if too
far, place tubs or vats on the wagon, into which the
grapes may be emptied. The utmost cleanliness should
be observed in all the apparatus, and no tub, vat, or pail
should be used which is in the least mouldy, as the must
will at once acquire any foreign taste. Everything should
be perfectly clean and sweet, and a strict supervision
Fig. 17. CARRYING VAT.
148 AMERICAN OBAPE GEOWIKG
kept up, that the laborers do not drop crumbs of bread,
etc., among the grapes, as these will cause acetous fermen-
tation. The weather should be dry and fair, and the
grapes dry when gathered.
MAKING THE WINE.
The apparatus being all ready, we can commence opera-
tions, and here we must know, first and foremost, what
kind of wine we intend to make, whether light-colored
and smooth, or dark-colored and astringent. The char-
acter of the wine depends chiefly on its fermentation on
the husks, although of course we cannot make an entirely
white wine out of a grape with very dark juice, nor a red
wine, except by artificial coloring, out of a white grape,
or one with very light-colored juice. The general rule
is, however, that fermentation draws acid, tannin, color,
and flavor out of the skins and stems, so that if we desire
to develop the greatest amount of these, we must let the
must remain longer on the husks ; if, on the contrary,
we desire a mild, smooth wine, it should not ferment long
on the husks. Many of the red wines of Europe are left
on the husks for several months, and the wine is drawn
from them when it is about finished.
To make white, or light-colored, smooth wine, the
grapes which were gathered and mashed during the day
can be pressed and put into the cask during the following
night. The mill is placed above the fermenting vat,
and the grapes are mashed as soon as they are carried in,
or hauled to the press house. The vat is covered with a
cloth during the day. If the season has been good, and
you have a perfect grape to deal with, such a one as has
all the ingredients of a good wine in the proper propor-
tions, it will make good wine without any other addition.
If not, sugar, or sugar and water, must be added, but I
will speak of this in a separate chapter. With the Con-
cord grape, many make both a white and a red wine. The
AND WINE MAKING. 149
white is made by simply pressing very lightly as soon as
the grapes are mashed, so as to drain off the first run of
the juice before it has acquired any color from the skins.
TLe husks are then thrown into the fermenting vat,
water and sugar added, and fermented several days ; then
pressed, and thus a red wine is produced. I must say that
I prefer the wine gained by fermenting, say 24 hours,
in a temperature of 65 to 80 on the husks, and all
pressed together. It generally contains all the ingredi-
ents in better proportions, while the white wine seldom
has the due proportion of acid and tannin, and the red
generally has an excess of acid, tannin, and flavor. Of
course the temperature has a great influence on fermen-
tation, as in warm weather it progresses much more
rapidly, and the pressing should be done sooner than in
cool weather. It is entirely optional with the wine-mak-
er what kind of Avine he produces ; he can make it to suit
himself, and soon learns how to do it. The longer he
ferments his must, the more astringent and rough his
wine will be ; and the sooner and lighter he presses, the
less character will the wine acquire, though it will be
much more delicate and smooth.
Before filling the casks they should be well prepared.
They should be perfectly clean and sweet without the
slightest mouldiness. If new, they should be steamed, or
filled with pure water, and allowed to soak for several
days, then emptied, and scalded with two or three gallons
of boiling wine. This quantity is for a cask of say 500
gallons. Or, if this is not convenient, put in, say a peck
of unslaked lime, and about five gallons of water, then
put in the bung and turn the cask about, so that all parts
of it are touched by the mixture. Then pour out the
lime water, and wash with water, then rinse with a de-
coction of vine leaves, or warm wine, or better still, pour
in a pint of pure alcohol or grape brandy, and light
it by a match. The fumes of the burning brandy
150 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
will penetrate the wood, and make you secure against
any taint in the wine. But do not bung the cask
while the brandy is burning, or you may have an ex-
plosion before you know it. The same may be done
with mouldy casks, to make them fresh and service-
able again.
The casks can then be filled with the must, either
completely, if it is intended that the must should fer-
ment above, as it is called, or under, when the cask is
not completely filled, so that the husks, scums, etc.,
which the must will throw to the surface during fer-
mentation, will remain in the cask. Both methods
have their advantages, but after long practice, I now
follow the latter, leaving empty space enough until rapid
fermentation is over, so that all remains in the cask. As
long as fermentation lasts, and the gas escapes, all goes
right, and a few vine leaves over the bung-hole, on which
a small sack of sand is laid, are sufficient to close it. Of
course it must be closely watched, and the bung closed
as soon as fermentation ceases, when the casks must be
filled with wine kept for that purpose in a separate
. cask. If, during fermentation, cool weather should set in,
and the temperature fall below 60, the fermenting cel-
lar should be warmed by a stove. But this will rarely
be the case, as the vintage should be over before cold
weather sets in.
When violent fermentation has ceased, and the must
has become quiet, the cask should be closed with a tight
bung of white oak or poplar wood. To make dark-red
wine, the treatment differs, as it is the object, as before
remarked, to get a wine of the darkest color, highest
flavor, and of a certain astringency, which it will only
attain by fermenting on the husks. The must is, in that
case, allowed to ferment on the husks for from three to
six days, when the husks which rise to the surface should
often be pressed down and stirred through the must, to
AND WINE MAKING. 151
prevent their souring. The must is then drawn off below,
by a faucet, and the husks pressed. If it is desired to make
only a dark-colored wine, without so much astringency,
and of great body, the grapes are allowed to hang until
they are very ripe, even shrivelled ; and stemmed, as the
steins contain a large amount of acid and tannin, and
give the wine a rough and bitter taste. In this manner
the celebrated red wines of Burgundy, and the best
brands of France and Germany, are made. Many of them
are even allowed to go through the whole process of fer-
mentation before pressing, and the husks are filled into
the cask with the must, through a door above, and remain
there until the clear wine is drawn off. This is gener-
ally not desirable here, however, as our red grapes con-
tain sufficient astringency and color without this proceys.
After the wine has become quiet it is looked after fre-
quently, and the casks filled to the bung. As there
is more or less evaporation, this should be done every two
or three weeks, always using wine of the same or similar
character. In two to three months the wine ought to be
clear and bright, and should then be racked, i. e., drawn
from the lees by means of a faucet, and put into clean,
sweet casks. It is very important here, again, that the
casks into which it is drawn, are sweet and clean, or
(i wine green." For must, fresh brandy or whiskey casks
may be used ; but after the wine has fermented, it will
not do to use such, as the wine acquires the smell and
taste of the liquor. When a cask has been emptied, it
should be carefully cleaned, as before described, by en-
tering at the door or man-hole, or, with smaller casks, by
taking out the head, as the lees are very adhesive, and
will not wash out readily, but should be brushed off.
After it is thoroughly cleansed it may be fumigated
slightly, by burning a small piece of sulphured paper, or
a nutmeg in it, and then filled. To keep empty casks in
good condition, they should, after cleaning, be allowed
152 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
to become thoroughly dry, when they are sulphured,
closed tightly, and laid away in the cellar. The sulphur-
ing should be repeated every six weeks. When wanted
for use, they are rinsed with cold water.
For racking the wine we should have : 1st. A large,
brass or wooden faucet. 2d. Pails of a peculiar shape,
narrow at the top, to prevent wastage. 3d. A wooden
funnel, as described before, to hold about six gallons.
In racking, first loosen the bung of the cask. Then,
after loosening the wooden peg, and closing the tap hole,
let your assistant hold the pail opposite the hole. You
hold the faucet with your right hand, and with the left
withdraw the plug, inserting the faucet quickly ; drive it
in firmly and you are ready for the work.
Do not fully open the faucet at first, because the first
pailful is generally not quite clear, and should run
slowly. This, and the last from the lees, are generally
put into a cask together, and allowed to settle, when, in
a few weeks, it will become clear, and make a good wine.
As soon as the wine runs clear and limpid, it can be put
into the cask, and you can let it run as fast as the faucet
will allow, opening it to its fullest capacity. When the
wine has run off down to the tap hole, the cask may be
carefully raised at the other end, one inserting a piece of
board or a brick under it, while the other lifts slowly and
gently. This may be repeated several times, as long as
the wine runs clear, and when it becomes slightly cloudy,
keep the cloudy wine to put with what ran out first. As
soon as it becomes thick and muddy it is time to stop.
The door is then taken out of the cask and the lees
emptied out. They will, if distilled, make a fine flavored
and strong brandy. If your cellar is built according to
the plan already given, you can attach a hose to the faucet
and run your wine from the fermenting cellar into the
cellar and casks below, which is a great saving of time
and wastage. The must can also be run from the press-
AND WINE MAKING. 153
room into the casks in the fermenting cellar in the same
manner.
We should keep in mind, in all operations, the kind of
wine we intend to make. In white and light-colored
wines, we desire delicacy of bouquet and smoothness of
taste ; in red wines for medicinal or stomachic use, we de-
sire astringency, body, and a decided and characteristic
flavor. White and light-colored wines should, therefore,
be racked as soon as they are clear, while red wines may
remain longer on the lees. Both can be modified, by
treatment, to meet the peculiar taste ; a red wine may be
made smoother, and a white wine more astringent, by
longer or shorter fermentation on the husks and lees. We
can thus conform to the taste of the consumer. If the
prevailing taste is for light-colored, smooth and delicate
wines, we can make them so, by pressing soon, and rack-
ing soon and frequently. If a dark-colored, astringent
wine is desired, we can ferment on the husks, and leave
it on the lees a longer period. There is a medium course
in this, as in all things, and the intelligent wine-maker
will soon find the rules which should guide him, and
with a little practice discover the method which will give
him the best results with a certain variety.
Among the varieties suited for white wines, and which
should be treated as such, I will name the Elvira, Goethe,
Herbemont, Martha, Massasoit, Uhland, Catawba, Dela-
ware, and Taylor, and among the varieties for dark-red
wines, Cynthiana, Norton's Virginia, Lenoir, Alvey,
Clinton, and Ives' Seedling. The Concord can be used
for both, or can be made light-red. For Sherry wine, use
the Hermann, Kalander, and Cunningham. These latter
require a sort of medium treatment ; it is desirable to
develop their peculiar flavor ; it is not desirable to have
them astringent or dark-colored. Fermenting on the
husks 24 to 36 hours, in a temperature of 60 to 70, will
be about right for them. It' is very important that the
154 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
temperature should not vary much during fermenta-
tion, and that the first fermentation on the husks, and
for the tirst week following, should be rapid and unin-
terrupted. If the wine goes into the next summer fully
fermented and finished, clear and limpid, there is little
danger of its becoming cloudy and diseased afterwards,
even if it must be kept in a changeable temperature.
AFTER TREATMENT OF THE WINE.
Even if the wine was perfectly clear when drawn off,
in February and March, when it should be racked for the
second time, it will go through a second fermentation,
however slight this may be, as soon as warm weather
sets in, say in June and July. The clearer and better
developed the wine was when last racked, the slighter
this will be, for only the lees yet remaining in it which
the young wine has not entirely deposited will act as the
ferment. It is not safe or judicious, therefore, to bottle
the wine before this second fermentation is over. As
soon as the wine has become perfectly quiet and clear
again, generally about September, it can be bottled, or
sold by the cask. For bottling .wine we need : 1st.
Clean bottles. 2d. Good corks, which must be scalded
with hot water first, to draw out all impurities, and
soften them, and then be soaked in cold water. 3d. A
small funnel. 4th. A small faucet. 5th. A light,
wooden mallet to drive in the corks.
After the faucet has been inserted in the cask, fill your
bottles so that there will be about an inch of room be-
tween the cork and the wine. Let them stand a few
minutes before you drive in the cork, which should be of
full size, and made to fit by compressing at one end.
Then drive in the cork with the mallet, and lay the
bottles, either in sand on the cellar floor, or on a rack
made for that purpose. They should be so laid that the
wine covers the cork, to exclude all air. The greater bulk
AND WINE MAKING. 155
of the wine, however, can safely be sold now, or kept in
casks. All the wine to be kept should be racked once
about every six months, and the casks kept well filled.
DISEASES OF WINE AND THEIR REMEDIES.
Wine properly made, and with all ingredients in right
proportion, will seldom suffer from any disease. Cases
may arise, however, which may make it necessary to give
it a different treatment, or fine it by artificial means.
TREATMENT OF FLAT AND TURBID WINE.
The cause of flat wine is generally lack of tannin. If the
wine has a peculiar flat, soft taste, and looks cloudy, this
is uniformly the case. Draw the wine into another cask,
which has been well sulphured, and add some pulverized
tannin, which can be had at any drug store. The tan-
nin may be dissolved either in water or wine, about an
ounce to every two hundred gallons of wine, and poured
in at the bung, after which the wine should be well
stirred with a stick inserted through the bung-hole.
Should it not become clear in about three weeks, it must
be fined. This can be done by adding about an ounce of
powdered gum arabic, or isinglass, to each forty gallons.
The gum arabic will dissolve in cold water, but isinglass
requires hot water ; stir the wine well when it has been
poured in. Or take some wine out of the cask, and, for
each forty gallons of wine, add the whites of ten eggs,
whipped to foam with the wine taken out ; pour this
mixture into the cask, stir well, and bung tightly.
After a week the wine will generally be clear, and should
then be drawn off. An easier and speedier method to fine
is to put it through a filter filled with paper pulp, but
the apparatus is somewhat costly. As it is accompanied
by directions for use to those who purchase it, it would
be superfluous to describe it here. As stated before, if
the wine has been properly made and fermented, such
156 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
procedures will seldom be necessary, and the wine will be
sound and clear without any artificial means. The ob-
servant and rational wine-maker will seldom be troubled
by any mishaps, and his wines will be palatable and
bright without any such treatment.
USES OF THE HUSKS AND LEES.
These can be distilled, and will make a very strong, fine
flavored brandy. The husks are stamped down into
empty barrels or vats, as close as possible, with a cover of
clay made over them, to exclude the air. They will then
undergo a fermentation and be ready for distilling in
about a month. They should be taken fresh from the
press, for if they remain exposed to the air they become
mouldy. The lees can be distilled immediately. Good
fresh lees or husks from rather astringent wines or
grapes, are also an excellent remedy when the wine be-
comes flat, as described before. If such wine is ferment-
ed on the husks again for a day or two, it will generally
become sound and bright.
AND WINE MAKING.
CHAPTER XXXII.
DR. GALL'S AND PETIOL'S METHODS OF WINE MAKING.
So far, I have only spoken of the handling of the raw
product of Nature, taking for granted that we had a fair
must in good condition to work with. But this un-
fortunately is rarely the case, and the natural juice of
the grape seldom contains all the elementary constituents
of a good wine in the proper proportions. In fact, very
many of our American varieties are very imperfect even
in the best seasons, and contain generally a superabund-
ance of acid and flavoring matter or aroma. What then
is the intelligent operator to do ? Shall he use them as
they are, although he is aware they are imperfect, and
produce a poor, undrinkable, unsalable, and even un-
healthful article ? Or shall he, with the reason and
knowledge God has given him, seek to remedy Nature's
imperfections, dilute the acid and aroma, add sugar, if
necessary, and thus make a salable, pleasant, and
healthful beverage ? I think the intelligent wine-makers
and it is only for them I am writing, can not hesitate
which course to take.
I am aware that I am treading on dangerous ground,
that I have been severely censured for my advocacy of
Dr. Gall in my former little book, but truth remains
truth, whether assailed or not, and the laws of chemistry
will not change to please any of the " Simon Pure Natur-
alists," who rail against Gallizing, because they do not
know anything about its true principles. But let me
put myself right before my readers, before entering upon
the details of the operation. I advocate Gallizing only so
158 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
far as it is the best means of improving otherwise imper-
fect must, not as an indiscriminate means of increas-
ing the quantity at the expense of quality. Only so far
as by the additioi of water and sugar, an imperfect must
can be made the most perfect, is Gallizing not only justi-
fiable, but a necessity. As soon as it aims only at in-
creasing the quantity without regard to quality, it is rep-
rehensible, and should be frowned down. This may be
called yallonizmg, not Gallizing ; and that these gallon-
izers have done a great deal of mischief by bringing their
trash before the public, and calling it wine, can not be
denied. But those who, from a mistaken idea that a
wine to be good and healthful, must be natural, as they
call it, have made it as Nature gave it, and have, there-
fore, disgusted the palates of refined wine connoisseurs by
their pure, but weak, foxy, and acid Concords, and Ives,
etc., thus doing even more to bring American w r ines into
discredit than the gallonizers. Both of these, the natural
wine-makers and the gallonizers, have been the curse and
bane of our wine markets ; those who, in the inno-
cent belief that they were tasting fair samples of Ameri-
can wines, swallowed their compounds and were disgusted,
and when they met with good productions, were de-
terred from tasting again. The true course lies in
the middle, as usual. The wine-maker has certain un-
erring guides, which teach him, with a little practice
and experimenting, "thus far shalt thou go, but no
farther."
Having thus defined what we intend to do, which is
simply to improve our must, if deficient, let us, to see
our way clearly before us, examine as to the consti-
tuent parts of must or grape juice. A chemical analysis
of must shows the following result :
Grape juice contains water, sugar, free acids, tannin,
gummy and mucous substances or gluten, coloring mat-
ter, fragrant, or flavoring substances (aroma, bouquet).
AND WINE MAKING. 159
A good or normal must should contain all these ingredi-
ents in due proportion. If there is an excess of one, and
a lack of the other, it can not make a perfect wine.
This would seem apparent to every reasoning wine maker.
Must which contains all of these in exactly the right pro-
portion we call a perfect or normal must ; and only by
determining the amount of each of the ingredients in
this so-called normal must, can we gain the knowledge
that will enable us to improve must which has not
the necessary proportion of each. The frequency of
unfavorable seasons in Europe, set intelligent men to
thinking ; their grapes were sadly deficient in sugar, did
not ripen fully, and also lacked in flavor. How then
could this defect be remedied, and a grape crop which
was almost worthless from its want of sugar and excess
of acids, be made to yield at least a fair article, instead
of the sour and unsalable wine generally produced in
such seasons ? Among the foremost who experimented
with this, object in view I will here mention Chaptal,
Petiol, but especially Dr. Ludwig Gall, who has at last
reduced the whole science of wine making to such a
mathematical certainty, that we are amazed that so
simple a process should not have been discovered long
ago. It is the old story of the egg of Columbus, but the
poor wine-makers of Germany and France, and we in
this country also, are none the less indebted to those in-
telligent and persevering men for the incalculable benefits
they have conferred upon us.
The production of good wine is thus reduced to a
science ; though we cannot, perhaps, in a bad season,
produce as high flavored and delicate wines as in the
best years, we can now always make a fair article, by
following the simple rules laid down by Dr. Gall.
Nay, as most of our grapes, in a good season, contain
flavor in excess, we can often make fully as palatable
wine in a poor season, when that flavor is not so fully
1GO AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
developed, by merely adding water &nd sugar to dilute the
acid. In this respect we can make a more uniform pro-
duct from our strongly flavored varieties, than the Euro-
peans can from their delicately flavored varieties of vini-
fera, which are deficient in flavor in bad seasons.
When this method was first introduced, it was calumni-
ated and despised, called adulteration of wine, and even
prohibited by the governments of Europe, but Dr. Gall
fearlessly challenged his opponents to have his wines
analyzed by the most eminent chemists. This was re-
peatedly done, and the results showed that they could find
nothing but such ingredients as pure wine should con-
tain ; and since men like Von Babo, Dobereiner, and.
others, have openly endorsed and recommended Gallizing,
prejudice is giving way before the light of scientific
knowledge. The same will be the case here. Intelligent
men will see that there is nothing reprehensible in the
practice, and the public will, in time, prefer the properly
Gallized, and, therefore, more palatable and more health-
ful wines, to the foxy and acid productions of the stick-
lers for natural wines.
To determine the amount of sugar and acids in the
must, we need a few necessary implements. The first is
the must scale, or Saccharometer, already mentioned in
the necessary implements for wine making (see fig. 29.)
The most suitable one now in use is Oechsle's Must Scale,
constructed on the principle that the instrument sinks
the deeper into any fluid the thinner it is, or the less
sugar it contains. It is generally made of silver, or
German silver, although it is also made of glass. A
represents a hollow cylinder, best made of glass, filled with
must to the brim, into which place the must scale, B.
This is composed of the hollow float, a, which keeps it
suspended in the fluid ; of the weight, b, for holding it in
a perpendicular position, and the scale, divided by small
lines into from 50 to 100. Before the scale is placed
AND WINE MAKING.
in the must, draw it several times through the mouth to
moisten it, but allow no saliva to adhere to it. When
the scale ceases to descend, note the degree to which
it has sunk, after which, press it down with the finger a
few degrees further, and on its standing still again, the
line to which the must reaches, indicates its so-called
weight, expressed by degrees. The must should have a
temperature of 65 to 70, be weighed in an entirely fresh
state, before it shows any sign of fermentation, and should
be free from husks ; if strained through a piece of
mosquito bar, or small sieve all the better.
This instrument, which is indispensable to every one
who intends to make wine rationally, can now be had
from prominent opticians in nearly every large town. It
indicates the amount of sugar in the must, and its use is
so simple, that every one can soon become familiar with
it. The next step in the improvement of must was to
determine the amount of acids it contained, and this
problem has also been successfully solved by the inven-
tion of the Acidimeter.
As remarked before, Twitchell's Acidimeter is the best
now in use, and as it is accompanied by full directions
for use, 1 need not repeat them here, further than to say
that to ascertain the acidity of must, it should be tested
when pressed, as many of our pulpy grapes contain
nearly all their acid in the pulp, and the instrument
will, therefore, not give a fair indication until fermenta-
tion has drawn out the acid.
A normal must, to suit the prevailing taste here, should
contain about four-thousandths parts of acids, while in
Europe it varies from four and a half to seven-thousandths,
as the taste there is generally in favor of more acid
wines. I cannot do better here than quote from Dr.
Gall, who gives the following directions as a guide to
distinguish and determine the proportion of acids which
11
162 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
a must should contain to be still agreeable to the palate,
and good :
*' Chemists distinguish the acids contained in the grape
as the vinous, malic, grape, citric, tannic, gelatinous,
and para-citric acids. Whether all of these are contained
in the must, or which of them, is of small moment for
us to know. For the practical wine-maker it is sufficient
to know, with full certainty, that, as the grape ripens,
while the proportion of sugar increases, the quantity of
acids continually diminishes, and hence, by leaving the
grapes on the vines as long as possible, we have a double
means of improving their products, the must or wine.
" All wines, without exception, to be of good and
agreeable taste, must contain from four and a half to seven-
thousandths part of free acids, and each must containing
more than seven-thousandths part of free acids may be
considered as having too little water and sugar in propor-
tion to its acids.
" In all the wine-growing countries of Europe, for a
number of years past, experience has proved that a cor-
responding addition of sugar and water is the means of
converting the sourest must, not only into a good drink-
able wine, but also into as good a wine as can be produced
in favorable years, except in that peculiar and delicate
aroma found only in the must of well-ripened grapes,
and which must, and will, always distinguish the wines
made in the best seasons from those made in poor
seasons.
" The Saccharometer and Acidimeter, properly used,
will give us the exact knowledge of what the must con-
tains and what it lacks, and we have the means at hand,
by adding water, to reduce the acids to their proper pro-
portions, and by adding sugar, to increase the amount of
sugar the must should contain ; in other words, we can
change the poor must of indifferent seasons into the nor-
mal must of the best seasons in everything, except its
AHD WIKE MAKING. 163
bouquet or aroma, thereby converting an unwholesome and
disagreeable drink into an agreeable and healthful one. "
THE CHANGE OF THE MUST INTO WINE.
Let us glance for a few moments at this wonderful,
simple, and yet so complicated process, to give a clearer
insight into the functions which man has to perform to
assist Nature, and have her work for him, to attain the
desired end. I cannot do better than to quote again from
Dr. Gall. He says : " To form a correct opinion of
what may, and can, be done, in the manufacture of wine,
we must be thoroughly convinced that Nature, in her
operations, has other objects in view than merely to
serve man as his careful cook and butler. Had the high-
est object of the Creator, in the creation of the grape,
been simply to combine in the juice of the fruit nothing
but what is indispensable to the formation of the delicious
beverage for the accommodation of man, it might have
been still easier done for him by at once filling the ber-
ries with wine already made. But in the production of
fruits, the first object of all is to provide for the propaga-
tion and preservation of the species. Each fruit con-
tains the germ of a new plant, and a quantity of nu-
tritious matter surrounding and developing that germ.
The general belief is that this nutritious matter, and even
the peculiar combination in which it is found in the fruit,
has been made directly for the immediate use of man.
This, however, is a mistake. The nutritious matter of
the grape, as in the apple, pear, or any similar product,
is designed by Nature only to serve as the first nourish-
ment of the future plant, the germ of which lies in it.
There are thousand of fruits of no use whatever, and even
noxious to man, and there are thousands more, which,
before they can be used, must be divested of certain
parts, necessary, indeed, to the nutrition of the future
164 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING.
plant, but unfit, in their present state, for the use or
nourishment of man. For instance, barley contains
starch, mucilaginous sugar, gum, adhesive matter, vege-
table albumen, phosphate of lime, oil, fibre, and water.
All these are necessary for the formation of roots, stalks,
leaves, flowers, and the new grain ; but for the manufac-
ture of beer, the brewer needs only the first three sub-
stances. The same rule applies to the grape.
" In this use of the grape, all depends upon the judg-
ment of man to select such of its parts as he wishes, and
by his skill he adapts and applies them in the manner
beat for his purposes. In eating the grape he throws
away the skins and seeds ; for raisins, he evaporates the
water, retaining only the solid parts, from which, when
he uses them, he rejects the seeds. If he manufactures
must he lets the skins remain. In making wine he sets
free the carbonic acid contained in the must, and re-
moves the lees, gum, tartar, and, in short, everything
deposited during and immediately after fermentation, as
well as when it is put into casks and bottles. He not
only removes from the wine its. sediments, but watches
the fermentation and checks it as soon as vinous fer-
mentation is over, and the formation of vinegar about to
begin. He refines his wine by an addition of foreign sub-
stances; if necessary, he sulphurizes it, and, by one means
or another, remedies its diseases.
" The manufacture of wine is thus a many-sided art,
and he who does not understand it, or knows not how to
guide and direct the powers of Nature to his own pur-
poses, may as well give up all hopes of success in it."
So far Dr. Gall ; and to the intelligent and unbiased
mind, the truth and force of these remarks will be appar-
ent. How absurd then are the blind ravings of those
who speak of "natural" wines, and condemn as adul-
teration and fraud every addition of sugar and water to
the must by man, in seasons when Nature has not fully
AND WINE MAKING. 165
done her part. There is no such thing as " natural
wine," for wine, especially good wine, is the product of
art, and an artificial process from beginning to end. An
all-wise Creator gave us the raw materials for our suste-
nance and convenience, hut gave us also reasoning powers
to convert them to our use, and make them more whole-
some and palatable. Shall we eat the raw potato simply
because it is a natural production, or are we justified in
cooking and roasting it, to make it more palatable and
wholesome ? How would the "naturalist " stare if some
fine morning his good wife would set a cup filled with
raw coifee beans and some water before him, instead of
his usual fragrant beverage, and a dish of raw wheat in-
stead of the usual light rolls which tempt his appetite ?
Yet the making of coffee and bread are even less natural,
more artificial, than the addition of sugar and water to
the must. Would not the wine-maker act as foolishly as
the housewife who puts raw coffee and wheat upon the
table, instead of tbe fragrant cup and white roll, if he
has it in his power to remedy the deficiencies of Nature
by such means as she herself supplies in good seasons,
and which ought, and would be in the must, but for un-
favorable circumstances over which we have no control ?
Wine thus improved is just as pure as if the water and
sugar had naturally been in the grapes in the right pro-
portions, just as beneficial to health, and only the fanati-
cal numskull can call it adulterated. But these preju-
dices will disappear before the light of science and truth,
and have disappeared already, until there is not a single
establishment of any consequence, either here or in
Europe, where it is not followed, either secretly or open-
ly, and to the manifest improvement of their wines.
Yet, strange to say, these same "naturalists" will
enjoy sparkling wines with a great deal of gusto, although
they are a still more artificial product. And many of
them will smack their lips over some rare so-called, " Old
166 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Port," which has never seen a grape, but is some skillful
concoction of logwood, spices, tartaric acid, syrup, alco-
hol, and tannin. " Oh, consistency, thou art a jewel !"
Let us now observe the change which fermentation
makes in converting the must into wine. The nitro-
genous compounds vegetable albumen, gluten (which
are contained in the grape, and which are dissolved in
the must as completely as the sugar), under certain cir-
cumstances turn into the fermenting principle, and so
change the must into wine. This change is brought
about by the fermenting substance coming in contact
with the air, and receiving oxygen from it, in conse-
quence of which it coagulates, and shows itself in the
turbid state of must, or young wine. The coagulation
of the lees takes place but gradually, and just in the de-
gree that the exhausted lees settle. The sugar generally
turns into alcohol. The acids remain partly as tartaric
acid, are partly turned into ether, or settle with
the lees, crystallize, and adhere to the bottom of the
cask. The etheric oil or aroma remains, and develops
into bouquet, as does the tannin, to a certain degree. The
albumen .and gluten principally settle, although a small
portion of them remains in the wine. The coloring
matter and extractive principle remain, but change some-
what by fermentation.
Thus it is, that must containing a large amount of
sugar, needs a longer time to become clear, while that
containing but a small portion soon becomes clear. Many
southern wines retain a certain amount of sugar undecom-
posed ; such are called sweet, or liqueur wines, whereas
wines in which the whole of the sugar has been decom-
posed in the fermentation, are called sour or dry wines.
I have thought it necessary to be thus explicit to give
my readers an insight into the general principles which
should govern us in wine making. I have quoted freely
from the excellent work of Dr. Gall. We will now see
AND WINk MAKING. 167
how we can reduce these principles to practice. I will
illustrate by an example.
NORMAL, MUST.
Experiments continued for a number of years have
proved that, in favorable seasons, grape juice contains on
an average in 1,000 pounds :
Sugar 240 pounds.
Acids 6
Water T54 "
1,000
This proportion would constitute what I call a normal
must. But suppose that in an inferior season the must
contains, instead of the above, as follows :
Sugar 150 pounds.
Acids 9 "
Water... ...841
1,000
What should we do to bring such a must to the condi-
tion of a normal must ? We calculate thus : If, with 6
Ibs. of acids in a normal must, there is 240 Ibs. of sugar,
how much is wanted for 9 Ibs. of acids ? Answer. 360
Ibs. Our next problem is : If, with 6 Ibs. of acids in a
normal must, 754 Ibs. of water appear, how much water
is required for 9 pounds of acids ? Answer. 1,131 Ibs.
As, therefore, the must which we intend to improve by
neutralizing its acids, should contain 360 Ibs. of sugar, 9
Ibs. of acids, and 1,131 Ibs. of water, but contains already
150 Ibs. of sugar, 9 Ibs. of acid, and 841 Ibs. of water,
there remain to be added, 210 Ibs. of sugar, no acids, and
290 Ibs. of water.
By ameliorating a quantity of 1,000 Ibs. of must, by
210 Ibs. sugar, and 290 Ibs. of water, we obtain 1,500 Ibs.
of must, consisting of the same properties as the normal
must, which makes a first class wine.
This is wine making in Europe, according to Dr. Gall's
168 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
method. Now let us see how we can adapt it to Ameri-
can grapes and wines.
THE MUST OF AMERICAN GRAPES.
If we closely examine the musts of most of our American
grapes, we find that they not only contain an excess of
acids in inferior seasons, but even a greater superabund-
ance of flavor or aroma, and of tannin and coloring mat-
ter. There is such an abundance of flavor in many of
them, that, were the quantity doubled by addition of
sugar and water, there would still be an abundance.
With some varieties, such as Concord and Ives, if fer-
mented on the husks, it is so strongly foxy, as to be dis-
agreeable, and as the pulp of them is very tough and
slippery, they can not be pressed clean without fermen-
tation. We must, therefore, not only ameliorate the
acid, but also the flavor and astringency, of which the
tannin contained in the stems is the principal cause.
Therefore, it is even more important to us than to Euro-
pean wine-makers, to gain the knowledge to Gallize our
wines properly. By proper management we can change
must, which would otherwise make a disagreeable wine,
into one in which everything is in its right proportion,
and which will thus suit a customer to whose fastidious
taste it would otherwise be repugnant. True, our grapes
will ripen better here, so that we can, in most seasons,
produce a wine without a great excess of acids, but the
American taste requires a less acid wine any way, and we
must dilute the aroma to make our wines salable. Here
another difficulty presents itself. The riper a grape is, the
more of its peculiar aroma will it develop, and if we
would let our Concords hang until they are so ripe that
the acid has been reduced to the proper proportion, the
aroma becomes so strong that it is very repugnant to a
refined taste. What course remains then for us to take ?
Shall we let our grapes hang until the acid is reduced,
AND WINE MAKING. 1G9
and make an abominably,, foxy wine, which no one will
buy ? Or shall we gather our grapes when well colored,
Gallize the must until the acid and flavor are reduced to
the proper amount, and thus produce a very fair, light-
red wine, palatable to most, and a refreshing and in-
vigorating beverage to all ? I think the latter is the best
course, and the only reasonable one.
At that time the must of Concord grapes will gener-
ally weigh about 65 to 70 on Oechsle's Scale, and the
Acidimeter will indicate about 6. Now we make our
calculation as follows : A normal must, to suit the
palata here, should indicate about 80, and show 4 on
the Acidimeter. To reduce the acid to 4 we must add
one-third water, or, in other words, if we have 480 Ibs.
of Concord grapes, which would make 40 gallons
of pure juice, we must add 20 gallons of water.
To these 20 additional gallons of water, we must
add 40 Ibs. of the best crushed sugar, to bring the
water up to the ratio of normal must, 80. But we
have also a .discrepancy of 15 in the must if it indicated
65. To bring this also up to 80 we must add three-
eighths pound of sugar to every gallon of must, or 15 Ibs.
to the 40 gallons. The addition to 480 Ibs. of grapes
would then be as follows : 20 gallons of water, 55 Ibs. of
sugar, and no acid, making 60 gallons of must of normal
proportions, instead of 40 of pure juice. These will be
about the right proportions for a pleasant and hand-
3o;no wine, of good color, pleasant flavor, and not too
and to suit the general taste, with also the proper pro-
portion of tannin, which will be marketable sooner, and
at a much higher price, than if we had allowed the grapes
to hang a month longer, and then pressed the natural
must, which would, perhaps, not contain an excess of
acid then, but certainly an excess of foxy flavor and
tannin.
Different grapes Avill, of course, require different treat-
170 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ment. It is only by experimenting that we can find how
much each variety should be Gallized to produce the
best possible wine. Nor are the grapes alike in all sea-
sons, and one season's product of the same grape may re-
quire different treatment than the other. To illustrate a
case in point : While experimenting with varieties, I
had, in the summer of 1866, enough of Rulander grapes^
then a new variety, to make 5 gallons of pure juice,
which, when tried by the saccharometer, showed 104.
This was pressed and put into a 5-gallon cask. The
husks were thrown back into the fermenting vat, and 5
gallons of water, with 15 Ibs. of sugar added, bringing
the water up to 100, and fermented 48 hours, then
pressed and put into another 5-gallon cask. When press-
ing these my vintner thought that there was too much
flavor and character in the husks left to be thrown away,
and he once more added 5 gallons of water, with 15 Ibs. of
sugar, and fermented this three days and three nights,
then pressed, and put into a third 5-gallon cask. The
wines became clear at about the same time, had nearly
the same color, and when tested by several connoisseurs,
they pronounced all good, but No. 2 the smoothest and
finest wine ; No. 1 rather the fullest, but somewhat
more astringent, while No. 3 was but little inferior to
No. 2. This verdict was given without knowing how
the wines had been made. We then mixed the three
wines, equal parts, in a tumbler, and upon testing, found
the mixture a better wine than either was separately.
The three, after this trial, were put together, and made
a wine like very fine Golden Sherry, which took the first
premium as best light-colored wine of any variety, at the
Combined Exhibition of the Longworth Wine House and
the American Grape Growers' Association, at Cincinnati,
in 1867, in competition with over 30 samples of the finest
Catawbas, Delawares, and Herbemont, as well as numer-
ous other first premiums wherever exhibited. I have
AND WINE MAKING. 1?1
made hundreds of such experiments, modifying the treat-
ment with the character of the variety. I know, there-
fore, whereof I speak. Of course the above is an ex-
treme case ; but few varieties have so much flavor and
character as the Eulander, and the treatment which pro-
duced so fine a wine from this grape, would have made a
very flat " Maxatawney," a grape which has but little
character. When making such experiments I made it a
rule always to keep some of the pure juice by itself, for
comparison, and the tests were, therefore, made with the
greatest fairness, and with but one aim, that is, to ascer-
tain how the best possible wine could be made from any
variety. Were I to give more of these experiments here,
my readers would, perhaps, be even more astonished than
I was, at the results ; but facts are stubborn, and can not
be controverted. Seeing, and in this instance, tasting,
is believing, and as I kept a very careful record of all
cellar operations, there could be no mistakes.
I will here quote one of my first experiments made with
very imperfectly ripened Catawba grapes, made in 1865,
when that grape ripened very poorly, on account of mil-
dew and rot. I found, on testing the must, that it would
only show from 52 to 70, while a normal Catawba must
should weigh at least 80 in good seasons. My calcula-
tions for making the additions which I knew were imper-
atively necessary, were based upon the following reasons :
If normal must weighs 80, and this averages but 60,
there is a deficiency of half a pound of sugar to the gal-
lon of must. But there should also be an excess of acid
of at least one-third, as the Catawba has a superabund-
ance of acid in even the most favorable seasons. I must,
therefore, add at least one-third more water to dilute
the acid, and to this water add 2 Ibs. of sugar to each
gallon, so that the whole mixture will weigh 80. I did
so, fermented all on the husks 36 hours, and the result
was a very fine, golden-colored Catawba, which I sold
172 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
before it was six months old, at the highest figures Ca-
tawba wines were then bringing, to the first buyer who
came and tasted it.
As the Catawba constitutes yet, to a great extent, the
product of Eastern and Northern vineyards, it may be
well to give a few more hints to my readers on the man-
agement of Catawba must. This variety contains, as
already mentioned, a very large amount of acids, as well
as a great deal of tannin and flavor. This must be ap-
parent to every one who has ever eaten well-ripened Ca-
tawba grapes. It has besides a very tough and acid
center or pulp, of which every one can cbnAdnce himself
when eating even the most thoroughly ripened Catawba
grapes. The first taste is delightful, but let him press
the pulp and skins closely and he will find that the after
taste is sour and rough. Of course fermentation extracts
all this, and while the Catawba contains all the ingredi-
ents for a palatable wine, these two are present to a very-
great excess, and make the wine sour, astringent, and
unpalatable. What then is necessary ? We must simply
add water and sugar, even in the best vintages, to ameli-
orate this, and much more in inferior seasons, and we
will make better wines than are now in the market and
much more wholesome, than the so-called " Sweet Ca-
tawbas," which are villainous compounds of unripe grape
juice, raw spirits, and syrup added after fermentation,
and afford an excuse for the habitual tippler to say that
he drinks only wine, not whiskey. It would be better if
he did take spirits so far as the effects on his system are
concerned, for such mixtures intoxicate nearly as much,
and the deleterious stuff they contain is only glossed
over by the syrup. If Catawba wine is rationally Gall-
ized, it makes a very pleasant, high-flavored wine, and
those who prefer to have it still sweeter, can add sugar
when drinking it, to suit their taste. If this were done,
we would have no need of these " Sweet Catawbas "
AtfD WINE MAKING. 173
which now disgrace the wine trade of the country, and
pure, light wine would have a better chance to become
the universal beverage of the people. I do not pretend
to give fixed rules to do this ; even were I competent, the
product varies too much with the locality and the season.
I merely attempt to show the way. Let every one experi-
ment, and note the results, and he will soon see how
far he should go to make the best wine, for he should not
go farther. Let the best product always be his aim, not
quantity.
The Concord, now so generally grown, is another va-
riety which is immensely improved by Gallizing, and, as
before remarked, to make the most palatable wine, should
not be allowed to get too ripe. When the grapes are
fully and evenly colored on the bunch, it is time to
gather it, and I would rather add more sugar, than wait
until it is fully ripe, as then its flavor becomes too strong
and apparent. The same rule may be applied to the
Martha, which is best when fairly ripe, but when over-
ripe loses its sprightlkiess, and becomes foxy, while its
wine is, when made in time, fully as good as the best
Catawba. The addition of from one- third to one-half
water and sugar, or in other words, from two-thirds to
one gallon of water and sugar to every 12 los. of grapes,
and the whole mixture brought to 80 on Oechsle's Scale,
fermented about 36 to 48 hours on the husks, in a tem-
perature of 75, will generally make the most palatable
wine, from most of the Labrusca class and their hybrids.
The Goethe, under the same treatment, will make an ex-
cellent white wine, sprightly and pleasant, with just
enough of its fine Frontignan flavor to make it agreeable.
Those who wish to satisfy themselves, can easily make
the experiment, as I did, cautiously, and step by step.
Let them make a small quantity of pure juice-wine, so-
called, and compare it with wines made at the same
time, of the same grapes, but Gallixed more or less, and
174 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
keep a careful record of the operation. This was my
method, and I aimed always at improving the quality ;
so soon as I found the quality diminished, I considered
it time to stop, while so long as the quality improved, I
thought it safe to advance. Consider each variety a
separate subject for experiment, it will not do to trust
to surmises and guess work, nor can any rule be given
that will apply to all varieties alike.
So far I have spoken mostly of the Labruscas and their
hybrids. When we come to the cestivalis class we have
entirely diiferent material to deal with, and while we may,
and can, by judicious Gallizing, improve some of them, and
make them smoother and more palatable, yet with those
which are used chiefly for medical purposes [as Norton's
Virginia, which has become a great remedy for dysen-
tery, bowel complaints, and cholera infantum], it will be
better to let the grapes hang until they are dead ripe.
Stem them before crushing, add very little or no water,
and ferment on the husks for a week, or even longer.
Their flavor is not objectionable, and the object here is,
to make an astringent and heavy wine, and develop all
the medicinal qualities which that grape possesses in
such an eminent degree. To make simply a good Claret
from it, of course it can be Gallized, and will make even
a more pleasant wine for every day use. This class,
however, also differs as much in its varieties as the La-
brusca. I have already cited an example of the Rulander,
which has a decided Sherry flavor. The Hermann, a
seedling of the Norton's, is another with a strong Sherry
character, so marked that the pure juice has too strong a
flavor, yet when properly Gallized it makes a delightful
deep-yellow wine, equal to any Golden Sherry, and the
white seedling from it seems to be a still greater improve-
ment, as it is much more delicate and juicy than its
parent. And here let me make a prediction, to which
long years of careful observation have led me, and whicb
AND WINE MAKING. 175
is shared by all of the prominent grape-growers of the
State, so far as I know. It is this, that the grape-grow-
ers of the State, if they turn their attention chiefly to
the best of the cestivalis, the Cynthiana, Norton's Vir-
ginia, Neosho, and others, which have not been so fully
tried, will, at no distant day, excel the products of the
choicest vineyards of the European Continent, and may
safely challenge the world in the production of the
choicest Burgundies, Clarets, and Sherries, and the
sooner we turn our attention to them the better. Cali-
fornia, and even the East, may excel us in the quantity,
and rival us in the quality of white wines, but from aU
the information I can obtain, they can not come near to
our red wines, which are even now the equals of the
best wines of Burgundy. This is our proper field, and
the sooner we concentrate our energies upon it, the better
will it be for us. They are, at the same time, Phylloxera-
proof, and we need not fear that they will "go back"
upon us.
In the cordifolia we have still another material. The
grapes of this class may be said to occupy a position be-
tween the Labruscas and the cestivalis class. Nearly all
contain considerable acid, and an abundance of flavor,
and are much improved by judicious Gallizing ; but as
their skin and pulp is tender, they need not be fermented
on the husks for any length of time. Twenty-four hours
of lively fermentation will generally be sufficient for the
Elvira, Taylor, and Clinton. They pvomise to furnish
us another class of wines, and as they are also Phylloxera-
proof, we may consider these two classes as the founda-
tion of future grape growing. We have but just com-
menced experimenting with this class, but the great
success achieved by Mr. Rommel and others justify the
most sano-uine hopes. I was particularly struck with
some wines shown me by Mr. James Ricketts, from sev-
eral Clinton seedlings, foremost among which are the
176 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Bacchus and Ariadne. They show a new class of wines,
light red in color, of great body, and very peculiar flavor.
Should these varieties prove to be adapted to more gen-
eral culture, we may expect some remarkable wines from
them.
Of course these are only general hints, which are cal-
culated to show my wine-making friends the way they
must go, to make palatable and wholesome wines. I
shall not attempt to go into details about varieties, as
even these differ so much in different localities that no
rules for their treatment could be given ,to apply in all
cases. Nor do I pretend to be perfect, but I am convinced
more and more every day, how little I yet know, and
how much I have to learn.
In all my experiments I aimed to come as near the
normal must of the variety I experimented with as possi-
ble, in the specific gravity of the water and must, when
mixed. I have no doubt that we also have much to learn
yet in the judicious mixing of several kinds of grapes.
Experiments in that line have already shown astonishing
results, and the art of blending and cutting wines, so
well understood and practised in the best cellars of Eu-
rope, is yet in its infancy here, but will, no doubt, have
a great influence upon our future products. But this
art can only be based upon a thorough knowledge of the
characteristics of each individual variety, and he who
undertakes the task must bring to it a peculiar talent
and highly developed taste, as well as the nicest discrimi-
nation of the traits of each variety. If our grape growing
and wine making had the experience of several centuries
to look back upon, we could base our operations upon
certain knowledge. Now we are feeling our way. The
pioneers who first made the clearings in our woods,
greatly rejoiced when chey could eat the first hoe-cake
from the corn their industry had planted in the wilder-
ness, and still more enjoyed the rolls made of their first
AND WINE MAKING. 17?
wheat. Like them are we overjoyed at what ws have
achieved, and know that the grape, so lately but the
child of these same forests, is susceptible of as much im-
provement and as great a change, as that which converted
the old time clearing, with its simple log cabin, into the
pleasant homestead with its smiling and tasteful lawn and
orchard, rich with golden fruits. And those who intend
to be the winners in this race, must have the pluck and
perseverance of the old frontier pioneers, hoping always,
even in the most gloomy times, for brighter days, and
never doubting of the end.
Dr. Grail recommended grape sugar as the best to be
used for Gallizing. This is made from potato starch,
but all the samples I have yet tried are not pure enough,
and leave an unpleasant, bitter taste in the wine. I
have, therefore, used the best and purest cane sugar,
and as it also dissolves more readily in water, I prefer it,
and have found it to answer every purpose. I have lately
tasted a sugar made from the Minnesota or Early Amber
cane, which seems to be well adapted to the purpose, and
if the production of its sugar assumes the dimensions
it now promises, we may have an important advantage
over our former method, in a cheaper and better
article of sugar. The' best cane sugar when dissolved
in water in the proportion of 2 Ibs. of sugar to the gallon,
will show upon the scale about 80. In making additions
to Catawba, Goethe, Martha, Elvira, and all the lighter
wines, it takes about 2 Ibs. of sugar to the gallon of
water, to produce the weight of normal must of these va-
rieties. For Norton's Virginia, Cynthiana, Rulander, and
all the heavier wines, it will take, at least, 2 l / z Ibs. of
sugar to the gallon of water, as their normal must ranges
from 100 to 110, and sometimes 120, in the product
of the best seasons.
As a general rule it may be assumed, however, that
our native grapes, with their strong flavor and abundance
178 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
of tannin and coloring matter, will admit, nay, require,
much more Gallizing than the more delicate and finer
flavored grapes of Europe. How far we can go with each
variety I do not presume to say, and only experience can
safely guide us here. It must be apparent to every one
who is ever so slightly acquainted with wine making, how
widely different the varieties are in their characteristics
and constituents. I have tried only to give an out-
line of the necessary operations, as well as the prin-
ciples underlying the science of wine making, have
quoted facts, only so far as I have become familiar with
them through long practice and observation. No one
can be better convinced than I am, how much we have
yet to learn, and how wide the field that lies before us.
I have been severely censured for the open advocacy of the
method of Dr. Gall, even by those who have practised it as
zealously and not always confined themselves as much to
its true limits as I have tried to do. Many of our best
wine-makers think that we should keep the knowledge we
have gained to ourselves, and profit by it in secret, in-
stead of openly facing a prejudice which we know to exist.
But it has always been a deep-seated conviction with me
that knowledge, like God's sun, should be the common
property of all ; that it is a duty every citizen owes to the
community in which he lives, to impart freely what he
may know, to every one. Only thus can we progress in
this fast age, where progress is the watchword. Truth
and justice need never fear the light, they can only gain
by close investigation.
And here let us , look at the probable effects these
methods of improvement are likely to have upon grape
culture, and ask ourselves : Is there anything repre-
hensible in them, any reason why they should not be-
come generally known ? I think the answer is easily
*ound. Gallized wines contain nothing, which fermented
rape juice, in its purest and most perfect condition, does
AND WINE* MAKING. 179
not also contain. They are, therefore, as pure as any
grape juice can be, with the consideration in their favor,
that they contain all the ingredients in their proper pro-
portion.
It is a matter of course that careless and slovenly work-
ers have failed, and will continue to fail, in making good
wine by this, or any other method, but this cannot be
used as an argument against it. To make a good article
the peculiarities of each variety must be closely studied,
and we must not think that water and sugar will ac-
complish everything. Its use should be limited, and be-
comes abuse as soon as it oversteps that limit.
But I will hope that I have contributed my mite to the
fund of universal knowledge, and if this little volume
only aids every farmer in the land, who can grow grapes,
to make a few barrels of pure, light wine for family use,
to take the place of poor whiskey and brandy, now the
bane and curse of so many households, I am more than
repaid for the labor of many a lonely early morning hour
it has cost me. Mine has been an incessantly busy life,
and the time for these scribblings has been stolen mostly
from the "small, still hours." I know of no holidays,
and have often had to force exhausted nature to the
task. This must be my excuse for its many imperfec-
tions. But I flatter myself that I am not entirely mis-
taken, when I think I send it on a temperance mission,
perhaps more true and, therefore, more effective than any
Murphy movement. I have always looked upon the gen-
eral use of pure, light wine as the best temperance mea-
sure that could be adopted. A glass of wine, used early
in the morning, I have found to be the best preventive
against malaria, and nothing revives the sinking energies
of the worn out laborer better during a hot summer day,
as I know from actual experience. I have known it to
save life in dangerous diseases, and could cite many in-
stances did time and space permit.
180 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Let us all then further the cause of grape-culture.
The laborer by producing fruit, the mechanic by inven-
tions,, the scientist by improving our methods, the law-
giver by wise laws in its favor, and all others by using its
products in moderation, as one of the best gifts from the
fountain of all that is good, pure, and beautiful.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
WINE MAKING RENDERED EASY.
Perhaps it may have seemed as if I was only writing
for the benefit of those who can follow grape growing and
wine making on a larger scale, with abundant means at
their command, to build commodious cellars, plant large
vineyards, and hire laborers to do the work. This is not
the case, however. If I have given the outlines of
larger operations it is because our object should always
be to attain perfection in everything ; I have never for a
moment lost sight of the interests of those, who, like
myself, have to commence at the lowest round of the
ladder, who have to make a small beginning, and work
their way up through untold difficulties. There is not
an operation in the vineyard, from the clearing of the
unbroken forest and prairie, to the finishing touch given
to the wine at its last racking, which I have not performed
and am not thoroughly familiar with, and I can, there-
fore, fully sympathize with the poor laborer, who has
nothing but his industrious hands, and an honest in-
tention to succeed.
While it ni'iy hardly be advisable now, in these days of
low prices and light demand for wine, to begin grape
growing as a means of support, with the hope of realiz-
ing a handsome income from it in the course of a few
AND WINE MAKING. 181
years, yet there is no reason why every farmer should not
have a small vineyard, grow his own grapes, and make
his barrel or two of wine, or why every owner of a garden
should be without enough grapes for the use of the
family.
Grape-vines of the more common varieties are very cheap
now, and an outlay of $5 to $10 will buy one hundred to
two hundred vines enough to make a start with. Plant
these, at any rate, if you cannot do more, and grow your
own vines hereafter to enlarge your vineyard. Wire for
trellis is also very cheap now, and it is not needed the
first year or two. A few hundred vines can be easily
kept in order before breakfast ; let the children help you,
they can do a great deal of the lighter work, and will
learn to take a delight in it. And when your first crop
of grapes ripens, and you can make a few barrels of wine,
if you have no press or commodious collar, you can find a
cider press somewhere, and room in the cellar of one of your
neighbors to store it. One of our most successful wine-
growers commenced his operations with a simple hole in
the ground, dug under his house, and his first wine-press
was merely a large beam, let into a tree, which acted as a
lever upon the grapes, with a press bed, also of his own
making. His vineyard and wine cellars are now among
the best in the county, and although he no longer lives
to enjoy it, his family are left in affluent circumstances,
and grape growing alone has made them wealthy. Be-
sides, we have got down to the lowest prices, and as the
prospects for the grape-growers of the Old World, and
even of California, darken on account of the Phylloxera,
our own begin to brighten. We know that we have
something we can depend upon, and feel that better
days will come again for the grape-growers and wine-
makers of the country.
Of course it is not advisable to keep the wine over
summer in an indifferent cellar, but if it is good, as it
182 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ought to be, you can easily dispose of it as soon as clear.
Or you can dispose of your grapes, if you can not or will
not make them into wine, to some neighbor, or market
them yourself. Nearly all of our small country towns
afford a ready market for a small quantity, indeed often
a better one than do the large cities.
Another way to make grape growing and wine making
easy, is to form grape and fruit colonies. There are lo-
cations enough in all the States of the Union, where suit-
able lands for this purpose can be had cheap. The ad-
vantages of such colonies can be easily seen. If each one
has a small piece of suitable land (and he does not need a
large tract for this business), they can assist each other in
plowing and sub-soiling, and will thus be able to do with
fewer animals, by preparing the soil first for one, then for
the other, the ravages of birds and insects will hardly be
felt, the neighbors can join together in building a cellar,
where all can store their wine, and of which one can take
the management. They can market their product easier,
obtain better prices, and lower rates of transportation to
large cities, than single individuals, and also make a bet-
ter and more uniform product.
There are thousands of acres of land well adapted for
the purpose, in Missouri and other States, which could be
had at very low prices, where the virgin soil waits only the
bidding of intelligent and combined labor, to bring forth
the richest fruits. There is room for thousands may it
soon be filled with willing hearts and hands to undertake
the task.
AND WINE MAKING. 183
CHAPTER XXXIV.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
I have little to add regarding wine making in all those
sections where American grapes are the basis of the wine
industry. The principles remain the same, though
some of the many new varieties may need more or less
modification in their treatment to make palatable wine
from them. Some of the new varieties recently intro-
duced by Professor Munson, Hermann Jaeger and the
late John Burr, will probably yield better wines, if prop-
erly handled, than the old sorts. The seedlings and
crosses from the Herbemont and Uncecumii types will
furnish specially valuable material.
Here on the Pacific coast, where I have followed grape
growing for the last fifteen years, and introduced many
of our American varieties with high hopes of success,
the outcome has in most cases been disappointing. The
Norton and Cynthiana were total failures, not alone in
amount of production, but also in the quality of the
wine made from them. The fruit was only half the nor-
mal size and almost destitute of juice, so that here, where
gallizing is not practiced, they were wholly unprofitable.
The only American varieties which succeed, to any ex-
tent, are the Herbemont, Lenoir, Louisiana and Ru-
lander. These make a fair natural wine, without any
addition. The Herbemont, if pressed lightly, makes a
good white wine, sprightly, and of good aroma. The
Lenoir makes an exceedingly dark wine, which is con-
sidered valuable as- a so-called " doctor wine," to blend
with vinifera wines, and to impart color to claret and
burgundies. The Louisiana and Rulander make a nat-
ural sherry, about 160 gallons of which, made in my
vineyard last year, are of high promise as a natural
184 AMERICAN" GRAPE GROWING
liquor wine. But the varieties do not all yield the same
quality as similar vinifera varieties, and as they are, be-
sides, more costly to train and cultivate, they will hardly
become popular, except, perhaps, as stocks to graft upon.
Even for this purpose the wild riparia is generally pre-
ferred, as it has proved entirely resistant, and takes the
graft easily. The Elvira, and others of its class, were
alsc failures as direct producers, for the grapes are much
smaller, drop worse from the bunch, and are more foxy
than in the Eastern States. Still, they make good stocks
for grafting.
The progress made since the first edition of this work
was published maybe gathered from the "Experience of
Other Growers," in Part II. I can only thank the gen-
tlemen who have so kindly contributed to those pages.
They are, naturally, better guides than I can be in esti-
mating the value, for wine making, of the newly intro-
duced American varieties, who have observed their
growth and can judge of their quality better than any
person who is working, as I am, in an entirely different
field, with vinifera sorts as a basis for natural wine.
Their detailed experience shows that there is an inter-
mediate region in Western Texas and New Mexico where
both American and vinifera varieties succeed equally
well ; where the latter ripen as early as the last of May
and all through June, and large tracts are being planted
with them for early markets. Their wine-making qual-
ities remain to be tested.
PART IV.
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING
IN CALIFORNIA.
AND WINE MAKING. 187
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE VINE IN CALIFORNIA.
Grape culture in California differs so materially from
Eastern methods that there is hardly any comparison to
be made. That the vine has here found the most con-
genial climate, there can be no doubt. All the choicest
vinifera varieties nourished here with a luxuriance un-
known in Europe until the phylloxera made its appear-
ance and began its ravages. So far, no remedy has been
found, save grafting the vinifera on the American re-
sistant stocks. This method has been tested for fifteen
years, and the results are all that can be desired. Not
only do the viniferas nourish as well as formerly on their
own roots, but they are greater and more abundant bear-
ers, while the fruit produced is fully as good, if not of
superior quality. We have now fairly passed the experi-
mental stage, and know pretty well what to plant and
what to graft. With these introductory remarks, we
can proceed to the first stage of the work, which will be
the foundation of the vineyard and the choosing of the
different classes of grapes.
RESISTANT STOCKS.
VINIFERA. Of European or Asiatic origin. By far
the greater part of our vineyards, where they have not
been destroyed by the phylloxera, consist of these on
their own roots. It comprises nearly all the valuable
varieties for wine, table or raisins, and as all grow from
cuttings with the greatest ease, the establishment of a
vineyard was an easy and inexpensive task. Such plant-
ing is no longer safe the phylloxera has destroyed thou-
sands of acres of vineyards already, and the only safe
way is to plant resistant vines. These we will consider
188 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
in the order of their value and general adaptability, ease
of propagating and facility for grafting.
VITIS RIPARIA. This is at present the most popular
and preferred class, both in its wild form and some of
its cultivated varieties, of which the Elvira is perhaps
the most prominent. They have proven entirely resist-
ant, adapt themselves to the greatest variety of soil
and location, grow easily and rapidly from cuttings, and
take the graft readily, forming a complete junction.
Objection has been raised to the Riparia on account of
its slender growth, and it has been claimed that the graft
would outgrow the stock, but so far this has not been
the case, and vineyards grafted twelve years ago are yet
perfectly healthy and more productive than when on
their own roots. For a minute description of all classes,
the reader is referred to the first part of this book.
VITIS ./ESTJVALIS. This is perhaps next in value,
although the different varieties do not grow so readily
from cuttings, and it is also claimed by some writers
that they are not entirely resistant. This impression, I
think, had its origin in the method formerly employed,
of grafting below the surface. Thus grafted, the graft
made strong roots of its own, causing the stock to dwin-
dle and die, and as the roots of the graft were non-re-
sistant they were attacked and destroyed by the phyllox-
era. I am not afraid to risk ^Estivalis stock, if grafted
above the surface, as being entirely resistant, and as it
is a heavier grower than the riparia, it makes a good
stock. An impression prevails that it succeeds best on
rich, deep soils. It suckers less than any other Ameri-
can class, which is another point in its favor.
VITIS RUPESTRIS. This class has somewhat disap-
pointed the high expectations once entertained of it,
when it was thought it would prove specially adapted to
dry, shallow soils, as it is found on the dryest hillsides
in Southern Missouri, Arkansas and Texas. It does not
AND WINE MAKING. 189
flourish in dry locations here, and as it suckers profusely
and does not take the graft as readily as the two former
classes, it is not largely propagated.
VITIS LABRUSCA. This can hardly be called entirely
resistant, as the insect feeds on its roots to some extent,
though not to the extent that it does on the vinifera.
In the Simonton vineyard were some Catawbas and Isa-
bellas mixed in a block of old Mission vines, which re-
mained, to all appearances, healthy and produced fair
crops after the Mission had entirely succumbed to the
phylloxera. I would not, however, recommend it as a
resistant stock, as the whole class roots shallow, and is,
therefore, apt to suffer from drouth.
VITIS CALIFORNICA. This, our native wild grape,
found all along our creeks and ravines, was at one
time considered entirely resistant, although it was
suspected that its soft, spongy roots would be as sub-
ject to the attacks of the insect as those of the vinifera,
which they strongly resemble. This surmise proved
correct, and it is not considered a resistant to-day,
though its vigor and strong growth will doubtless en-
able it to resist longer than the vinifera, the attacks
of the phylloxera. Neither will it flourish in dry, shal-
low soils. It takes the graft readily, perhaps more so
than any other class, but does not make so good a junc-
tion as riparia.
VITIS ARIZONICA. This seems to be an intermediate
between riparia and Calif or nica, of upright growth and
shining leaves. It never seemed to flourish well and
has not been fully tried.
The Solonis, Vialla, Berlandieri or Monticola, Doani-
ana, Champini and Lavata have their admirers in France,
and Professor Munson thinks highly of them as resist-
ants, but they have not been fully tried in this State.
I believe, from experience up to date, that the riparia
will be safest to plant and graft. Cuttings of the riparia
190 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
can now be had at from two to three dollars per thou-
sand, and rooted plants at about twelve dollars per thou-
sand. Hence there is but little gained here, by growing
young plants in a nursery.
CHAPTER XXXVL
LOCATION, ASPECT AND SOIL.
Vineyards are more easily planted and cultivated in
valleys than on hillsides, and on the rich bottom lands
are generally more productive ; yet to those who desire
fine quality, the hillsides are to be preferred. Vineyards
in the valley are more liable to damage from late frosts
in the spring and early frosts in autumn, and the fruit
is naturally inferior. Our best wines, in the future, will
have to come from the hillsides, from light, rich, warm
soils, and from small growers, not the immense whole-
sale cellars where hundreds of tons are crushed in a day,
handled pellmell and mixed up without regard to qual-
ity. But it would be equally unreasonable to suppose
that fine wines could be made from vines planted on the
bed rock, or in locations which will nofc support even a
moderate growth of grass, as we often see them on our
southern hillsides. What the vine wants, here as else-
where, is a deep, moderately rich soil, which will enable
it to send its roots down to elaborate its food. This is
generally found on the hillsides sloping to the north or
northwest and southwest, where the redwood, manzanita,
mountain laurel and hazel form the natural growth. If
such a hillside is not too steep, there is the location for
the vineyard not on the southern, slope, where the soil
AND WINE MAKING. 191
is generally shallow and poor, and where the vines
are subjected to the rays of the afternoon sun, the
dews of the night having already been dried up. We
must remember that our vines are expected to do with-
out rain from May to September, and when they are
constantly exposed to the afternoon sun, they are apt to
become sun-scalded, while on the northern slopes they
have the full benefit of the sun in the forenoon, when
the foliage is fresh from dew, which enables them to re-
main fresh all day. Only from a vine in full vigor can
we expect to get its most perfect product not from
starved specimens. There are exceptions to every rule,
and we have southern slopes with deep soil where vines
will do well ; but the hot afternoon sun is always an ob-
jection to the best of these locations, and where they are
finally chosen, the varieties planted or grafted should be
such as are least subject to sun-scald. The Zinfindal
will hardly do in such situations, as its foliage and fruit
are very tender. Steep hillsides should always be
avoided, as cultivation and fruit gathering on them are
more expensive.
The foregoing applies only to wine grapes'. For mar-
ket and for raisins, the rich bottom lands may be prefer-
able, as they will produce larger and more showy fruit.
But if even for these purposes, the frost question should
be carefully considered. Any one who has closely ob-
served? the effects of frost, will have noted the great dif-
ference existing between the lowlands and the hillsides
above them.
192 AMEBICAN GEAPE GROWING
CHAPTER XXXVIL
PROPAGATION.
By reason of our rainless summers, cuttings, or even
rooted vines, do not make much growth the first season,
but they become established, and after the rains of the
following winter and spring, start into vigorous growth.
Many, therefore, plant cuttings at once in the vineyard,
taking the precaution to put two at each stake, some-
what diverging at the base, so that if both grow, one
can be removed to fill vacancies where both have died.
Here, I think this is perhaps the best method, as it saves
the labor of planting cuttings in the nursery, digging
and transplanting; in addition, the cutting has made
its roots and sent them into the most congenial soil, and
it receives no check by transplanting. If care be taken
to plant only the best cuttings, made of medium, well-
ripened wood, if possible with a heel of the old wood
attached, there will be but few failures, and it saves a
great amount of work. I have seen vineyards, lately,
partly planted with rooted riparias and partly riparia
cuttings, and the difference was scarcely perceptible
after two years. Both were grafted the same spring,
about 95 per cent, of the grafts living, and some of the
grafts produced from eight to ten clusters of fruit. This
very gratifying result was reached under the personal
supervision of the proprietor, on a rich piece of soil care-
fully prepared, and he may expect a crop of three tons
to the acre the fourth season after planting, with graft-
ing intervening. That cuttings planted in the vineyard
where they can occupy the space alone, instead of being
crowded in nursery rows, will develop better and make a
stronger growth, is self-evident. The main condition to
this success is clean cultivation and frequent stirring
AND WINE MAKING. 193
of the soil to induce moisture. Without this, it is
impossible.
As to making the cuttings, the rules given in the firsu
part of the book will hold good here. It may be well,
however, to make them somewhat longer, say thirteen to
fifteen inches, and have about two buds above the
ground. To prevent suckering after grafting, the lower
buds may be cut off with a sharp knife, leaving the up-
per three buds, when there will be no further trouble.
To plant in nursery, the same rules as to length of cut-
tings, cultivation, etc., will apply, with the single ex-
ception that the cuttings are slanted more in planting,
to facilitate digging, while in the vineyard they are
planted almost perpendicularly. Cuttings can be pro-
cured for three dollars per thousand, but it is safer to
prepare them yourself. This can be done at any time
during the winter, as long as the wood is dormant, but
they should be kept fresh -from the time the wood is
taken from the vines. They can be prepared during
rainy days, tied in convenient bundles and heeled in in
a shady place to keep them dormant until wanted for
planting, which is generally in March or the early part
of April, by which date ample opportunity will have
been given for preparing the soil in the best manner and
allowing it to be warmed up by the rays of the sun.
If it is convenient to irrigate the nursery, it can be
made a great help, but do not do it until July or August.
To irrigate earlier is unnecessary, as the soil contains
enough moisture for growth, whereas irrigation cools
the ground below the surface so much that the forma-
tion of callus and roots is retarded. Warmth is needed
then, as well as moisture. But whether planted in vine-
yard or nursery, do not fail to keep the lower ends
moist. This is best done by keeping them in a bucket
of water while planting, and when planted, by firming
the soil well around their base by trampling it down
13
194 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
compactly after filling with well-pulverized earth. When
covered and firmed to the depth of three inches, the re-
mainder of the earth may be pulled in loosely, but should
also be well firmed.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
VINEYARD PLANTING.
This is generally done in the spring, as soon as the.
ground is dry and warm enough, the time varying in
different parts of the State. We prefer to plant in
blocks of two and a half acres, with avenues intervening,
to facilitate hauling the grapes. In the old plantations
the vines were planted in squares^ 7x7 or 8x8 feet, which
admitted of cultivation both ways, but plan ting at a greater
distance one way and a lesser space the other is of late
more generally preferred. It is urged for the latter
method, and no doubt justly, that it admits of more
thorough cultivation. At the old distance only two or
three furrows could be plowed between rows, while by
the latter, five can be made with double teams. The
latter method also facilitates picking and hauling, as
teams can pass between the row, and it gives more air
and light to the vines, thereby making them more
healthy and luxuriant. In most plantations vines are
now set 6x10 feet, which gives the same number of vines
to the acre as when set 8x8, with the wider rows running
parallel with the hillside, if hillside there be, making it
more convenient to haul on fertilizers and to remove
grapes and brush from the vines.
The ground should be deeply plowed and pulverized,
as described in Part I. After the ground has been thor-
AND WINE MAKING. 195
oughly evened by rolling, or dragging, it must be marked
off. For that purpose, about 1200 markers are needed,
small redwood sticks a foot in length, and lines, two to
reach lengthways and one crossways. First mark the
avenues one way, to the most convenient location for
delivering the grapes, twelve feet wide, then the inter-
secting or cross avenues, by placing a marker along the
outside line every six feet and every ten feet on the in-
tersecting line. After thus laying off into blocks, or
squares, each containing about two acres, we can mark
all the squares. This is most accurately and quickly
done by four men (two of whom stretch two lines, one
on each side of the block, commencing at the second
marker), who also take charge of the cross line, the other
two doing the marking. The cross line is now stretched
from the second marker, drawn tightly and straight,
and markers are placed at each intersection. The line
is then moved to marker three, which is similarly marked,
and so on to the end of the block.
When the marking is finished, planting is in order,
assuming that the ground has been well prepared. Small
holes are dug with the spade, always on the upper side
of the marker, toward the hill, if hill there be, as nearly
perpendicular as possible, and about a foot in depth.
The vines or cuttings, as the case may be, should be
kept in water while planting. The planters follow the
diggers, placing the plant or cutting at the bottom of
the hole, the upper end above ground just at the marker.
The roots must be covered with well-pulverized, moist
earth, firmed around them by pressure with the foot.
This is quickly done if the ground has been well pre-
pared. All that now remains to be done during the first
summer is to keep the ground loose and moist by a fre-
quent use of the cultivator, plow and hoe.
196 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER
CULTIVATION OF THE YOUNG PLANTS.
GRAFTING.
Little pruning will be needed on the young vines the
following year, as we suppose they are all resistant
stocks it would be the hight of folly to plant any
other. Cultivation should be thorough by deep plowing
in early spring, and frequent stirring of the soil during
summer. The young plants need no staking or tying
until grafted, and no pruning unless they grow extra
strong ; in that case the growth of last year may be cut
back to three or four buds, and the stronger growth
used for cuttings.
Opinions vary widely as to the proper season for graft-
ing. Some contend that grafting should be done early
in order to make a complete junction. The French
have carried this theory so far as to graft the cuttings in
the shop. After forty years' experience in grafting the
grape, I have reached the following conclusions :
1. There is no time gained by grafting when the
stock is too small to hold the graft firmly. On the con-
trary, grafts, to succeed at all, must be firmly tied, as
otherwise there is danger of moving the cion. The
operation materially retards the growth of the stock,
and without a vigorous stock to start with, there can be
no complete success. A stock of an inch or an inch and
a half in diameter is preferable, and this is not often ob-
tained before the third year after planting.
2. The cions should be prepared through the winter,
of medium sized, short jointed, well ripened wood, and
carefully stored away in a cool, shady place to retard
their growth. They should be at least fifteen inches in
length, and from an inch to an inch and a half of wood
AND WINE MAKING. 197
should be left below the lowest bud. Too much care
cannot be exercised in their selection.
3. In grafting viniferas on resistant stocks, the oper-
ation should be performed above ground, at a smooth
place nearest or above the surface. This will prevent the
graft from forming roots, which would be non-resistant.
The ground should be well drawn up around the graft to
prevent drying out.
4. The best time for the operation is when the sap is
in rapid motion, which will vary with the locality. If
the cions have been kept dormant, it may be performed
in California as late as May, but any time in April is
preferable. Grafting too early is apt to cause stagnation
and souring of sap.
Having laid down the general principles, the opera-
tion itself is next in order. This is best done after the
first plowing, when the soil is turned away from the
vines and it can be conveniently divided between three,
or even four men. The first clears the earth away from
the vine, cuts of? che stock with a pair of sharp pruning
shears about one or one and a half inches above a joint
or node, and if cleft grafting is the mode practiced, he
can make the longitudinal cleft or cut, taking care not
to bruise the bark on the side where the cion is to be
inserted.
The grafter comes next, with his tools and cions in a
basket, and should be the most careful man of all. He
needs a sharp, fchin-bladed knife to cut the cions to a
long, sloping wedge, just below the bud, as already ex-
plained in Part I, and if the stocks are too large to be
split with shears, a grafting chisel and wooden mallet
should be used. Generally these are not necessary in
young vineyards. The cion is pushed down firmly into
the cleft, and if the stock closes well around it, needs no
tying or bandaging. It is wise for the grafter to carry
tying material with him, as it will be needed in occa-
198 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
sional cases where the split in the stock extends so far
down that it will not hold the stock firmly. The suc-
cess of the operation depends mainly on a close junction
of stock and cion from the top to the bottom of the cleft.
The third man follows, drawing well-pulverized earth
around the base of the cion, or the junction, pressing it
on and around the cleft and the top of the stock, and
then drawing well-pulverized earth around the cion,
leaving only the two upper buds exposed. This finishes
the operation. It is wise to drive a stake at each graft
soon after the operation. It serves as a protection to
the young graft, and the young, tender growth, when it
appears, should at frequent intervals be tied to the stake.
Suckers from the stock should be promptly removed.
CHAPTER XL.
SELECTION OF VARIETIES.
The whole success of the vineyard may depend on a
proper selection of varieties. It is, however, almost im-
possible to give general rules, as some soils are especially
adapted for producing the choicest red wines, while
others will give that delicacy of flavor, that sprightliness
and fullness especially admired in the Hocks and Sau-
ternes, of which the Riesling and the Semillion may be
considered the leading types. Generally we expect the
finest red wines from soils rich in iron, to give them the
fine, violet color, the tannin and fine bouquet, while the
finest white wines are generally produced on lighter col-
ored, gravelly soils. That there is an immense difference
in soil and location goes without saying. The cultivator
AND WINE MAKING. 199
who comes into an unfamiliar locality would be wise to
consult neighbors with similar soil, who have had experi-
ence with it, as to what varieties to plant. Unfortu-
nately there has been too little of that reciprocity among
growers. A tendency to ape French and Italian meth-
ods has also unwisely prevailed, presumably because
grape growers have so often been told that California is
the France or Italy of America, forgetting that entirely
different conditions here prevail. The varieties of the
vinifera in California are almost without number they
may reach 500 or more, imported from all parts of the
globe. That many of these have proved comparatively
worthless is but natural. In a book like this, it is im-
possible to describe any except the most prominent,
classifying them under their uses, for red wine, white
wine, sherry, port, brandy, for table and market and
for raisins.
GRAPES FOB BED WINE.
The demand for red wines exceeds that for white, and
descriptions here follow, taking first those which pro-
duce red wines of the highest grades but which are mod-
erate bearers, following with varieties used for the more
common wines, but which are very productive.
CABERNET SAUVIGNON. Synonym Carbenet. The
highest type of Bordeaux wines, but a rather shy bearer.
Vine a rather thin, straggling grower, with deeply lobed
and serrated foliage, downy beneath. Clusters rather
small, loose, shouldered ; berry small, round, black, cov-
ered with blue bloom, juicy and sweet, with a peculiar
aroma, somewhat resembling the frost grape. This
flavor is strongly perceptible in the wine, so as to become
almost disagreeable, although it becomes milder with
age. Its true province is in blending with other and
softer varieties, such as the Carignane and Mataro,
which are abundant bearers, but lack sprightliness.
200 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
CABERNET FRANC. This is closely related to the
Sauvignon, but the leaves are not so deeply lobed and it
is rather more productive, though perhaps not so high
in quality. Grafting on the riparia has improved the
bearing of both of the Cabernets, many who thus^grow
them reporting yields of three tons to the acre. As
these grapes are always worth double the price of com-
mon varieties, such a yield would be satisfactory.
BECLA.N. Makes one of the choicest red wines, smooth
and of delicate flavor. Vine a fair grower and bearer ;
cluster rather small, shouldered and compact; berry
rather small, long, black, rather thick skin, fine flavor.
VALDEPENAS. A Spanish grape of high character,
making a true claret wine of the sprightly t} T pe. Vine
vigorous and productive ; cluster long and loose, shoul-
dered ; berry medium, round, black, with blue bloom ;
very valuable.
PETIT SYRAH. Synonym Serine. Strong grower and
productive, making a fine claret wine of high character.
Cluster rather long and loose, shouldered ; berry slightly
oblong, medium, black, with blue bloom.
GAMAY TETNTURIER. A moderate grower, with dark
foliage ; very productive. Cluster compact, shouldered ;
berry below medium, oblong, black, with very dark
juice ; very refreshing and sprightly. It is one of the
coloring grapes, and can be used to great advantage to
ferment with other varieties which lack color, though it
makes a fine, sprightly wine by itself. It would make a
fine blend with the following :
BLACK PINOT. Synonyms, Chauche Noir, Blauer Bur-
gunder. Vine a strong grower but moderate bearer,
subject to coulure sometimes. Cluster and berry rather
small, compact, ripening early and developing a high
percentage of sugar ; black, with rather thick skin, and
very agreeable flavor. Makes a very full, smooth wine,
but lacks color and sprightliness, both of which would
AND WINE MAKING. 201
be imparted by the Gamay, which ripens at the same
time.
MEUNIER. Synonyms, Miller's Burgundy, Miillerrebe.
Moderate grower and bearer, as most of the Pinots
are, but makes an excellent wine. The foliage is a light
green', covered with a white bloom, looking as if dusted
with flower, hence its name. Cluster small, slightly
shouldered; berry rathsr small, slightly oblong, also
covered with white bloom ; delicate and sprightly.
KEFOSCO. Synonym, Crabb's Black Burgundy. This
is a strong grower, very productive in some locations,
subject to coulure in others. Leaf heart-shaped, covered
with gray furze beneath. Cluster medium, shouldered;
berry medium, slightly oblong, with thick skin and dark
juice, making an excellent, full-bodied wine.
The following I would classify not as high as the fore-
going, but as making very good red wines in their proper
location : St. Macaire, Spanna or Nebbiolo, Tannat,
Carignane, Fresa, Petit Bouschet. The last is especially
cultivated because it contains a great amount of color
and tannin, which makes it very valuable for blending.
ZINFANDEL. As this was the first grape of which
good red wine was made here, and it yet occupies a large
part, if not a majority, of our vineyards, a more com-
plete description of it is given its good qualities and its
faults. If planted on soils rich in iron, along our hill-
sides, especially on northern slopes with deep soil, it
will develop abundance of sugar and fine flavor. Such
Zinfandel wine will reach perfection in about two years,
and should not be kept over three, as it will then lose
that fine raspberry flavor and sprightliness which char-
acterize it when young. Grown on rich valley lands, it
is a wine of little color and character, and becomes a
very indifferent beverage. Its good qualities are early
productiveness, easy training and sure crops, which have
given it the name of the "poor man's grape." Its faults
202 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
are, uneven ripening, some of the berries drying up long
before the others are ripe, which makes fermentation
very difficult ; liability to sunscald of foliage and fruit ;
liability to frost and over-productiveness. It is not sat-
isfied with producing one crop, but will sometimes pro-
duce two or three more from the laterals on the bearing
shoots. "With all its faults, we love it still," and a
Zinfandel claret from locations best adapted to it, care-
fully made, is good enough for any one. Unfortunately
there is much made not up to these standards, hence
the many complaints about inferior red wines. The
three following are very productive and make very fair
wines :
Mondeuse, or Gros Syrah, Mataro, and Charbonneau.
The last makes a wine of very deep color, but of very
rough character, and the color fades with age. Grenache
may also be classified with these, being very productive,
even on poor soil, and makes a fair wine. Of course there
are other varieties which have their merits, for instance
Grosse Blaue or Koelner, Blauer Portugieser, and a host
of others, but not all have been sufficiently tried, and it
is not well to cultivate too many varieties. The above
are some of the best, and comprise both quality and
quantity.
Among the varieties which make the finest port, but
which are rather unproductive, is the Trousseau or
Trussieux.
GRAPES FOR WHITE WINE.
Owing to the importation of many of the best types of
vines from the Rhine and from France, the white wines
of California won a reputation at an earlier date than
did the red wines, a better grade being produced. Hock
from the Mission grape, and the white wine made from
the first run of the so-called Black Malvasia, were not
calculated to raise their reputation. They were too fiery,
aiid lacked the delicacy of flavor and the smoothness of
AND WINE MAKING. 203
the better whites, now made from the Riesling and some
of the French Sauterne types. It may, however, be
justly claimed that our white wines average better than
our red and are better adapted to our lighter soils.
SKMILLION. Synonym, Colomhar. This is one of
the leading Sauterne grapes. In France, it made its
record long ago. As a blend with this, the Sauvignon
Blanc and the Muscadelle de Bordelais make the most
famous of Haut Sauternes the celebrated Chateau
Yquem. The vine is a handsome and vigorous grower
with good and persistent foliage, very productive. Clus-
ter long, rather loose, heavily shouldered; berry full
medium, round, transparent, Avhite or pale yellow, chang-
ing to a light amber when very ripe, juicy, sweet, and
high flavored. A perfect grape in every respect, making
a very fine, delicate wine by itself, which is easily handled
and keeps well.
SAUVIGNON BLANC. Synonym, Panechiou. This
grape naturally follows Semillion, being often used with
it. It is only a moderate bearer; cluster rather small,
shouldered ; berry below medium, pale yellow, round,
transparent, very sweet and delicate.
MUSCADELLE DE BORDELAIS. Synonyms, Raisinote,
Cadillac. Vine a strong grower but shy bearer; cluster
small, shouldered ; berry small, slightly oblong, trans-
parent, pale yellow, sweet, and high flavored, which
mnkcs it of great value for the blend above referred to.
It is especially cultivated for that purpose, as it would
hardly pay otherwise. Only a small proportion of it is
ne?ded in a blend to impart its peculiar flavor.
WHITE BURGUNDY. Synonyms, Chablis, Melon Blanc,
Chardenot. This is the celebrated wine grape of Bur-
gundy, France, from which many of the champagnes are
made, and also some of the best dry wines. The vine is
a moderate grower, with fine dark green foliage, uni-
formly healthy and productive. Cluster medium, shoul-
204 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
dered, compact; berry roundish oblong, pale yellow,
below medium size, very delicate, sweet and juicy.
SAUVIGNON VERTE. It is questionable if this is the
true name of this variety, but it has become so well es-
tablished tbat it seems fruitless to use any other. It is
supposed to be Pedro Ximenes, and is also known in some
sections as Colomhar and White Green Riesling, both
of which are erroneous. It is one of the most produc-
tive and hardy of all grapes, a strong grower, and as it
starts late, not much subject to frosts. These qualities
have made it one of the leading grapes, but its wine,
though agreeable and of fine flavor, is hard to handle and
keep, needing a blend with some other variety. Cluster
long, rather loose, shouldered ; berry medium, greenish-
yellow, very juicy and thin skinned, sweet and luscious
These are the leading varieties of French origin which
seem to be more perfectly at home here than the Rhenish
varieties. There are many others, such as Roussanne,
Marsanne and Clairette Blanche, but they are not so well
known and esteemed. Of the Chasselas or Gutedel, we
have three varieties of prominence the Chasselas Fon-
tainebleau, known and cultivated as Gutedel in Germany,
a good and uniform bearer, making a very good, smooth
wine, but not of the highest character; the Chasselas
Violette or Koenigsgutedel, of which the foliage, and
even the berries take on a brown and violet tinge when
small, making a good wine and a great deal of it, as it is
a good and constant bearer ; the Victoria Chasselas or
Queen Victoria, a short, stocky grower, with immense
bunches, sometimes weighing six pounds each; berry
round, violet, juicy and fine flavored, making an excel-
lent wine which will improve with nge. While these
three varieties arc not of the highest excellence, they are
very useful and well deserve cultivation.
RIESLING. Of else Rhenish type, making the most
famous wines of Germany, the most prominent is the
AND WINE MAKING. 205
true Riesling, Johannisberg Riesling, as it is generally
called in California. The vine is a rather slender grower,
with thin, deeply lobed foliage, moderately productive
with long pruning; cluster small, shouldered; berry
small, round, pale yellow, sometimes changing to light
violet when very ripe, with peculiar gray dots, very
sweet, sprightly and high flavored ; needs long pruning.
TRAMINER. Synonym, Bother Klaevner. This grape
has given high character to the wines of the Palatinate,
and produces a high grade wine here, more full and
smooth than, though not so sprightly as, the Riesling.
The vine is a moderate grower and bearer, needs long
pruning to make it productive, but is of such superior
quality that it should be in every vineyard. Cluster
small, compact, shouldered, resembling the Delaware of
the East ; berry oblong, small, pale red, with rather thick
skin but a honied sweetness.
RED VELTLINER. Synonym, Fleischtraube. This
was disseminated under the name of Traminer, but it is
an entirely different variety, requiring different treat-
ment altogether, though the wine resembles very much
that of Traminer, in flavor and character. The vine is
a very abundant bearer, requiring short pruning ; foli-
age large, dark green with violet points, grayish beneath,
a strong grower. Cluster large and heavily shouldered,
compact ; berry below medium, slightly oval, pale red or
violet, rather thick skin, very sweet and of fine flavor.
It has not been widely disseminated, but when better
known, will become one of the leading white grapes. It
makes one of the finest liqueur wines, if allowed to hang
on the vines until it is overripe, which its tough skin
makes practicable, and it develops such an exquisite
flavor that good connoisseurs have said they have tasted
no better Haut Sauternes at $3.00 per bottle.
FRANKEN RIESLING. Synonyms, Sylvaner, Oester-
reicher. This variety has been widely disseminated in
206 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
California, and its wine is generally called Eiesling, but
it is not equal to the true Riesling in quality, lacking
its sprightliness and high flavor. It is a valuable grape
and a good bearer, if the true variety is obtained. Un-
fortunately it is mixed almost everywhere with a sport
very closely resembling it, but which is very unproduc-
tive. The vine is a strong grower, and with long pruning
bears abundantly ; cluster medium, compact, generally
shouldered ; berry below medium, round, pale yellow,
transparent, sweet and juicy.
ORLEANS EIESLING. Synonym, Yellow Orleans.
This variety will hardly class with the true Rieslings,
as it ripens much later and the berry is double the size.
It is, however, known by that name, and as it has many
good qualities and makes a fine wine, it is worthy a
description. The vine is moderately vigorous, a com-
pact, short-jointed grower, with pale green, deeply
lobed foliage. Cluster large, shouldered, compact ; berry
above medium, oblong, with firm flesh and skin ; ripens
two weeks later than the Rieslings ; makes a very nice
wine ; very productive, needs a warm soil to bring it to
perfection. There is a variety cultivated in some sec-
tions under the name of Moselle Riesling, which as yet
is not identified. It is claimed to be a good bearer, and
wines tested from it have proven to be very good.
GREEN HUNGARIAN. Synonyms, Long Green, Verte
Longue. This is one of the healthiest and most produc-
tive varieties, and is vory valuable. Its strong point
is not high quality, which differs greatly in different
localities and soils, but immense productiveness, strong
growth and beautiful foliage, and its great ease of fer-
mentation, which it imparts to other wines more difficult
to ferment. It requires short, or stool pruning, as it is
apt to overbear. Cluster long, moderately compact,
heavily shouldered ; berry medium, round, pale greenish
yellow ; makes a fine wine in some locations, resembling
AND WINE MAKING. 207
Riesling in bouquet, while in others the wine is light
and indifferent in quality. It requires a high location
to develop its best qualities.
FOLLE BLANCHE. Synonyms, La Folle, Enrageat.
This is so called in France because of its extreme pro-
ductiveness, and it is there especially valued for making
high flavored, delicate brandies. It fully sustains its
reputation in that respect in California, some of the
finest brandies being made from it. It also makes a
good delicate, light wine, as it attains a higher degree
of sugar than in France. The vine is a moderate grower,
leaf medium, thin, pale green ; cluster large, with ber-
ries of uneven size; berry oblong, small, transparently
yellow, very juicy, covered with gray bloom.
BURGER. Synonyms, Putzscheare, White Tokay.
This is another of the quantity grapes light in saccha-
rine, but immensely productive and valuable in the fer-
mentation of heavier musts. It requires short pruning.
Its foliage is very delicate, making it liable to sunscald.
In the southern part of California and on the hillsides,
its wine improves and becomes very palatable. The vine
is a good grower, with thin, light-green foliage, deeply
lobed. Cluster very large, shouldered ; berry full me-
dium, round, pale yellow, ripens late, with watery juice
and very tender skin. It has repeatedly produced seven-
teen tons to the acre.
GRAPES FOR SHEKRY.
The following special sherry grapes of foreign origin
also make good dry wines :
PALOMINO. Synonyms, Listan, erroneously called
Golden Chasselas in Napa county. A very valuable
grape and a heavy bearer with short pruning. Vine vig-
orous and hardy, foliage deeply lobed, light green, downy
beneath ; cluster large and loose, shouldered ; berry full
medium, round, pale yellow, juicy and sweet ; makes a
208 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
fine dry wine of good flavor, which will develop into a
natural sherry in time.
WEST'S WHITE PROLIFIC. Introduced by Mr. West
of Stockton, Cal. Its true name has never been discov-
ered, but it evidently belongs to the Spanish type of
grapes. The vine is a good grower, and very productive
with short or stool pruning. It makes a delicate, high
flavored wine, also an excellent brandy, said to be equal
to the best French Cognac.
YELLOW MOSLER. Synonym, Formit, erroneously
called Pedro Ximenes. This variety evidently belongs
to the same class as one previously described. It makes
the Tokay, the celebrated Hungarian wine. It has been
cultivated with varying success, succeeding well in some
seasons, in others subject to coulure. It is a strong
grower, requires long pruning, and is certainly a grape
of exquisite quality. Cluster long and loose, shouldered ;
berry full medium, oblong, transparent, pale yellow. It
will hang long and dry up on the vine, thus making the
famous liqueur wine which is known as Tokay all over
the world.
SULTANA. This is one of the famous seedless grapes
of the Mediterranean, and is best known as a raisin grape,
though it makes a fine, delicate, white wine, which will
develop a sherry flavor. The vine is a vigorous grower,
and needs high stakes and long pruning to bring large
crops. Cluster long and loose, shouldered ; berry small
or below medium, pale-yellow and transparent, without
seeds.
THOMPSON'S SEEDLESS. Synonym, Lady de Coverly.
This was received from the nursery of Ellwanger &
Barry of Rochester, N. Y., by a Mr. Thompson of Sutter
county, and was first cultivated by him. As it proved
a shy bearer with short pruning, he gave it little atten-
tion. Some grafts were given to Mr. Onstott, who dis-
seminated it, after discovering that it bore heavy crops
AND WINE MAKING. $09
with spur pruning on long canes. It makes a splendid,
very delicate raisin, surpassing the Sultana, to which
the vine bears a strong resemblance. Excellent wine
has been made from it, and it is one of the finest table
grapes, bearing shipment to the most distant markets.
The vine is a very strong grower of long-jointed yellow
wood. The young canes should be pinched when they
reach the top of the stake, to develop the laterals, on
which it bears the best fruit the following year. The
cluster is very large, long and loose, so that every berry
can develop fully ; berry below medium, oblong, pale
golden yellow, transparent, without seeds, of most ex-
quisite flavor, very juicy and sweet, with a mingling of
sprightly acid which makes it very refreshing and
palatable.
These comprise the most desirable and best known of
the varieties for white wine, and make a list comprehen-
sive enough for any one. There are many more which
have their admirers and advocates, such as the Chauche
Gris, generally called Gray Riesling, the White Elben
or Kleinbereger, Clairette Blanche, Steinschiller, Rn-
lander, and many more. One other should be added,
the White Muscatelle, of which the French niake their
most renowned sweet wine. It is also known as German
Muscateller and Muscat de Frontignan. This grape has
a pronounced Muscatelle flavor, but it is not rank or dis-
agreeable, as in the Muscat of Alexandria. It is a strong
grower and good bearer with long pruning. The vine
has a light green foliage, downy beneath ; cluster long
and compact, cylindrical, shouldered ; berry round,
greenish yellow, medium, very sweet when fully ripe,
fleshy, with an agreeable flavor. Will make a good dry
wine, which is relished by many, and if allowed to hang
long on the vines, a good sweet wine.
14
210 AMEEICAK GBA.PE GROWIHG
FOB TABLE, MARKET AKD RAISINS.
These are classed together, as some of the best market
grapes make good raisins, and vice versa. The growing
and shipping of grapes to market, and the curing of
them into raisins, are very important branches of the
grape industry. Planting vineyards for raisins has alone
assumed vast proportions, and especially in Fresno, San
Diego, Tulare and other southern counties, so much so
as to almost overshadow the wine industry. For those
who like grape culture but who have conscientious scru-
ples against wine making, either of these other branches
furnishes an ample field.
The shipping of grapes to distant markets, especially
to the North and East, has very much increased during
the past five years of better facilities and lower
freights. Many varieties, excellent for the home, will
not answer for long distance shipping. For this busi-
ness, we must confine ourselves mostly to those varieties
which combine an attractive appearance with a tough
skin and a firm flesh. Quality is a secondary considera-
tion. Most of our grapes are good for the home table,
and in many instances the most delicate wine grapes are
also among the choicest eating kinds.
In the choice of varieties, climatic conditions must
govern largely in a State where a difference of a month
is noticed in the ripening of the same variety, though in
localities only a few miles apart.
FOR EARLY MARKET.
The Chasselas Fontainebleau, commonly called Sweet-
water, is about the earliest ripening variety, and also car-
ries well to market. Next in ripening comes the Black
Malvasia, so called, a strong grower and good bearer ;
cluster heavy, compact, shouldered ; berry large, oblong,
black, with blue bloom, tough skin, meaty and juicy
and presenting an attractive appeai-ance.
AND WINE MAKING.
FOB LATE MARKET.
The favorite for this purpose is the Flame Tokay,
which combines fine color, handsome appearance, size
of bunch and berry and good shipping qualities. Clus-
ter very large, shouldered; berry very large, oblong,
pale red, covered with violet bloom, very firm and
meaty.
BLACK FERRARA. A strong grower, and productive.
Cluster medium, compact ; berry round, black with blue
bloom, tough skin, carries well to market.
BLACK DAMASCUS. Medium grower and fair bearer.
Cluster large, loose, shouldered; berry very large, ob-
long, dark blue, covered with lighter bloom, meaty,
thick skin ; ripens late.
EMPEROR. A strong grower but rather shy bearer,
better adapted to Southern than Northern localities, as
it ripens late. Cluster long and loose, shouldered, very
large ; berry large, oblong, purplish black, covered with
fine lilac bloom, thick skin, firm.
BLACK CORXUCHON. The vine is a strong but stocky
grower, leaf large and thick, deeply lobed ;' cluster very
large, loose, shouldered, with long stems ; berry large,
long, dark blue with lighter dots, fleshy, thick skin ;
very late.
BLACK MOROCCO. This is used as a shipping grape
in the South, not being adapted to the North, as it
ripens late and unevenly. The vine is a straggling
grower, with many laterals which bring an abundant
second crop. Cluster very large, compact, heavily shoul-
dered ; berry very large, black, round, fleshy, of rather
poor quality.
MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA. Synonym, Muscatelle
Gordo Blanco. There is yet a doubt as to the identity
of these two grapes, many claiming that the latter is
more round in berry and a better grape. The vine is a
low, straggling grower, an abundant bearer, often bear
212 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ing more second than first crop ; the wood is short and
stocky. It is a leading raisin grape, both here and
abroad, and it is also an important shipping grape. It
carries well, looks well, and many admire its peculiar
flavor. It is sometimes used for sweet wines, such as An-
gelica and Muscat, but its flavor is rather too prominent.
Cluster very long and loose, sometimes shouldered ; berry
oblong, large, light yellow when fully matured, trans-
parent, fleshy, with thick skin, and a very sweet, musky
flavor ; liked by some and disliked by others.
MALAGA. Vine a strong grower, productive. Clus-
ter very large, loose, shouldered, long; berry very large,
oval, yellowish green, covered with white bloom, thick
skin, fleshy. Ripens rather early, and also makes good
raisins.
VERBAL. A strong grower with long joints, leaf
large, deeply lobed ; cluster rather short, heavily shoul-
dered ; berry oblong, yellowish green, covered with
white bloom ; very late, productive.
WHITE CORNICHON. The vine is a strong and stocky
grower, and very productive ; leaf thin, light green,
tomentose below ; cluster very large, loose, with long,
drooping shoulders ; berry oblong, golden yellow with
light dots, thick skin, fleshy and transparent ; ripens
late.
The Sultana and Thompson's Seedless have already
been described. Both make the finest raisins and both
ship well, the latter being the more showy and delicate.
As they ripen rather early, they come between the earli-
est and late varieties.
The black and white Corinths, from which the so-
called Zante currants are made, do not succeed gener-
ally, and the two foregoing are much preferable for seed-
less raisins.
AND WINE MAKING. 213
CHAPTEE XLI.
CULTIVATION OF THE VINEYARD.
IMPLEMENTS.
If the ground has been well prepared, it will need no
deep plowing the first summer after planting. Frequent
stirring of the surface with cultivator or horse hoe, with
an occasional loosening of the soil around the young
plants with the hoe, will be all that is required. The
first plowing the next spring is done with the two-horse
plow, beginning in the center of the row and throwing
the two middle furrows together. If the vines were
planted 6x10 feet, take the wider rows first, running
parallel with the hill, and plowing as many furrows with
the two-horse team as can be done without injuring the
vines ; then follow with a one-horse plow and take the
remaining furrows on each side. This will leave a very
narrow strip along the vines, which should be loosened
with hoe or spade. A harrow is then run over the
plowed land, followed with a sled, drag or crusher, so
that all the ground becomes well pulverized. For the
second, or cross plowing, the operation is reversed the
single plow comes first, throwing a furrow to each
side of the row towards the vines, and the middle is fin-
ished out the same way with the two-horse plow. This
should leave the land in fine condition, so that r,o more
deep plowing will be needed through the summer. The
surface must be kept loose and clean by the cultivator,
and the hoe must be used to keep weeds from growing
about the young vines. The same method is followed
every year, except as the vines become larger we must
wait until after pruning is finished and the clippings are
removed.
214 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Many implements have been invented to facilitate op-
erations, especially in large vineyards on level lands,
such as gang plows with two, and even four, shares to
stir the middle of the row. The shares are fastened to
an iron frame with iron clamps and bolts, so that they
can be removed at will, and throw the earth either
toward or from the vines. These need more power,
especially in heavy soils. They are so constructed that
by operating a lever, they can be made to run deep or
shallow, as preferred. Mr. H. Hortop of Eutherford,
Napa county, has invented several useful implements
for this work. Among them is a plow with two shares,
running on one side of the row first and returning on
the other, with a wheel to regulate the depth ; also a one-
horse plow with movable beam which can be so set as to
run very close to the vines. He has also excellent plows
for preparing the ground, as well as cultivators specially
adapted to the work.
PRUNING, STAKING AND TRAINING.
If resistant vines have been planted, but little pruning
will be needed for the first two or three years they
flourish best when left undisturbed. Should they grow
very strong the second year, the growth may be cut
back so as to reduce the number of buds, make cultiva-
tion easier and make stronger cuttings, if any are needed,
but no particular system need be followed. The third
spring, if the vines are strong enough, they may be
grafted, following which they should be staked to sup-
port the growth from the graft. The size of the stakes
needed will depend on the varieties grafted. For those
adapted to stool or spur pruning, four-foot stakes will
answer; for half-long or short cane pruning, five-foot
stakes, and for a few varieties requiring long pruning,
six-foot stakes will be required. The following prices
are paid for stakes at Napa, one and a half inches in
AND WINE MAKING. 215
diameter, per 1000 : Four foot, $14.25 ; five foot, $18 ;
six foot, $21.50. These should be pointed and driven in
with a sledge, as close to the graft as is safe and on the
side exposed to the prevailing winds in summer, so that
the vine has a slight leaning against them. If fifteen-
inch cions have been used in grafting, the head of the
vine can be formed at once from the three or four upper
buds from which the shoots are allowed to grow all
below them should be rubbed off as soon as they appear.
These upper shoots are then tied to the stake, very
loosely, so as not to hinder their growth. The best and
most economical ties are made from the common dracaena,
grown very frequently as an ornamental tree, and of
which every vineyardist should plant a good supply.
The dead leaves can be taken off every spring, scalded in
hot water to make them soft and pliable, and then di-
vided into strips, of which each leaf furnishes from three
to five. They are stronger and better than the so-called
grape twine, and a single tree will furnish material for
tying three or four acres of vines. All the dracsenas and
yuccas furnish excellent material for tying, as well as
the Phormium tenax or New Zealand flax. The latter is
gratuitously distributed by our State university, but re-
quires to be planted near some spring or brook to flourish
well, while the dracaenas and yuccas will grow on dry soil.
These details are given because thousands of dollars are
spent annually for twine which may just as well be saved,
and further, because the materials named are more con-
venient and are not so hard on the fingers in tying. The
next pruning after grafting, will find the vine established,
if it was strong enough when grafted, with the head es-
tablished where it ought to be, about a foot from the
ground. We are now to determine definitely the plan
of pruning to be adopted, stool or goblet, half -long or
long, though this is supposed to be settled by the length
of the stakes used in staking the vines.
216 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
STOOL OB GOBLET PRUNING.
This mode of pruning is calculated to make of each
vine a small tree or bush, and as soon as the trunk or
stem becomes strong enough to be self-supporting, the
stakes may be removed to other plantations. Let us
suppose these strong branches are grown from the three
uppermost buds and in three different directions if four
and sufficiently strong, so much the better. Each of
these is cut back to two buds, and after pruning, the
vine is tied firmly to the stake. For this purpose, No.
16 annealed wire answers admirably. Cut it into proper
lengths with shears or cold chisel, make a hook on
each end, then pass it around the vine and hook
the ends together, allowing space enough for the
natural expansion by growth. When no longer needed
they can be removed, and in other places used again and
again. Pruning may be done at any time in the winter
after the leaves have fallen. The vine ha,s now six or
eight buds, from which will grow six or eight branches,
diverging from the main head in all directions, but hav-
ing the center open in the shape of a goblet. Each of
these branches will bear from two to three clusters of
fruit, according to the character of the vine, which will
give us from twelve to twenty-four bunches. The
branches or shoots are not tied up, but allowed to droop.
The main point is to get the vine well balanced and open
to sun and air.
The next winter the vine has the double number of
shoots or branches. It would tax too heavily the vine's
bearing powers to cut these back to as many spurs of
two buds each, unless it should be very strong. There-
fore, cut the upper shoot or branch on each original
spur entirely away, at or just above the bunch closest to
the head, and cut this back to two buds, always having
in view the proposed shape and balance of the head.
This eort of pruning is followed every year, with varia-
AND WINE MAKING. 217
tions suggested by the good sense of the primer, who
should be more than a machine. Summer pruning will
be treated in a separate chapter.
This sort of pruning is equally adapted to the heavy
bearing varieties such as Zinfandel, Portugieser, Carig-
nane, Mataro, Gamay, Charbonneau, Petit Bouschet,
Ked Veltliner, Chasselas Foritainebleau, Victoria Ohas-
selas, Palomino, Green Hungarian, West's White Prolific
and Folle Blanche.
MEDIUM OR HALF-LONG TRAINING.
Many varieties are not adapted to spur or stool prun-
ing, but require a medium course. Some of these are so
constituted that they will not fruit well from the first
two or three buds at the base of a cane, while they will
bear abundantly from the fourth to the tenth, and
among these are some of the most valuable varieties.
These should be trained to five-foot stakes, commencing
just the same as for stool pruning, with three canes the
next spring after grafting, but having them from 15 to
18 inches in length. After pruning tie them firmly to
the stake, just below the upper bud, leaving all the
canes about the same length. When the young growth
appears, leave one of the strongest at the base of each
cane to form the future cane and one for a spur, rubbing
out all the weaker buds below. When you come to the
fourth or fifth bud, leave all the strong shoots above.
The next spring, the old cane which has borne the fruit
is cut off just above that destined for a spur, this reduced
to two buds, and the strongest cane from the base
pruned back to 15 or 18 inches. This leaves three canes
again, which are tied to the stake as before. The canes
for the next year's bearing we expect from the three
spurs, as well as another spur, cutting the old cane off
entirely and thus renewing them every year. A modifi-
cation of this training is to leave but one cane for bear-
218 AMERICAN" GRAPE GROWING
ing but make it somewhat longer, with more spurs
around the head of the vine or from the strongest later-
als. Wire may be used for the upper tying, and a loose
band of dracaena passed around the middle of the canes
to prevent their spreading when heavy with fruit.
Varieties adapted for this training are Sauvignon
Verte, Semillion, White Burgundy, Chauche Gris, Tram-
mer, Chasselas Violette, White Elben, White MuscateJler,
Grosse Blaue, Monde use, Petit Syrah, Meunier, Tannat,
Beclan, Valdepenas, Refosco, Gamay and many others.
Another modification of this training, called the bal-
loon, is sometimes used. Four caries are grown int-tead
of thre ' fjom opposite sides of tie vine, jind bent
together in the middle, where they ;ire fastened by a
wire and thus rmiclc self-supporting, with most of the
fruit hanging in the middle. This method has its ad-
vantages ami its disadvantages. The ciicular form in
which the vines are bent distributes the sap more evenly,
while in the upright training it goes more into the up-
per buds on canes and spurs The disadvantages are
that it takes more room in the vineyard, does not per-
mit as close working, and unless the canes are of equal
size and equally loaded, they swerve to the heavy side.
LONG PRUNING AND TRAINING.
Some varieties are shy bearers, even with the latter
method of pruning, and need still longer training. The
method is the same, the difference being only in detail.
Six-foot stakes are used and the canes made long enough
to reach to the top. Exception must be made of a few
varieties which should have the young shoots for cunes
pinched during the previous summer, when they have
reached t'-c tops of the stikes. This forces out the lat-
erals int > stronger growth, which are then pruned back
to two buds. The varieties bearing best under this
treatment are Rie-ling, Sultana, Thompson's Seedless,
ASTD WIKTE MAKING. 219
Yellow Hosier, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc,
Emperor, Trusseaux, Herbemont and Lenoir. Some of
these will even bear better if the old canes are left for
permanent arms as long as they are healthy and vigor-
ous, and all the strong shoots of the previous year cut
back to two or three buds. A little practice and obser-
vation will soon show what modifications are needed to
make each variety do its best, and no wine grower can
succeed who is not a close observer. Practice alone
makes perfect.
There are many other methods of training in vogue in
Germany, France and other countries, which have been
tried in California to some extent, but as they all more
or less obstruct cultivation, have found little favor.
The implements used in pruning are the best kinds of
pruning shears and a short saw of a semicircular form,
with teeth set toward the handle, to cut in drawing.
The latter is used to cut out old and dry stumps and
very heavy wood, but anyone who understands using
pruning shears to advantage will seldom need the saw.
SUMMER PRUNING, OR PINCHING AND SUCKERING.
Much difference of opinion exists as to the value of
the practice of shortening in the bearing shoots, many
contending that it is injurious, but all agree that sucker-
ing should be done as early as possible. This consists
in rubbing off all shoots below the head of the vine, and
also all the shoots which may grow from the wood of
the previous years shoots in the middle of the head,
also called water sprouts, and which seldom bear any
fruit, and also all the unfruitful shoots and double buds
from the canes or spurs. Each well-developej* bud is a
triple one, the main or fruit bud being the central or
longest one ; the two smaller or auxiliary buds will often
not develop at all, but if they do, only rob the main bud
of strength. The best time to do this work is when the
220 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
shoots have made a growth of from six to eight inches,
when the whole vine can be looked over easily and the
superfluous parts removed. If delayed for only a week
the work is doubled, and cannot be so well done, as the
mass of foliage obscures the work.
I am decidedly in favor of pinching or shortening in the
bearing shoots, if it be done early which is the main
point. If delayed until the young growth becomes hard
and woody, it is decidedly detrimental. The right time
is when the young shoots are about eighteen inches long
and are yet tender. It makes the growth more stocky,
develops the young fruit which is then forming more
evenly, and brings out the laterals to shade it when it
most needs shade. It will also prevent the blowing off of
the shoots by high winds and make late cultivation
easier, the vine being more compact. Those who object
to the practice claim that it forces out too much second
growth, which is not desirable, and that it prevents the
setting of the fruit. These objections mainly arise be-
cause the work is done too late then it is injurious,
bringing stagnation of sap and uneven ripening of fruit.
But where the vines are topped when the young growth
is tender, and no more than six inches taken off, it
aids in the even and perfect development of the young
fruit, gently checking the sap and leading it into the
young fruit and the dormant lateral buds.
AND WINE MAKING. 221
CHAPTER XLII.
DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES.
The common mildew (O'idium Tuckeri) prevails to
some extent, but can be controlled by the use of pow-
dered sulphur dusted over and through the vine by
means of bellows or small wire sieves shaken by hand.
It commonly appears after foggy weather, and the first
application should be made when the young shoots are
about eight inches long, or just before the bloom. A
second application may become necessary should the dis-
ease again appear. This will stop it effectually.
COULURE, or imperfect setting of the fruit. This
often prevails to a considerable extent, but is, I think,
the consequence of mildew and. can be prevented, to a
great extent, by early and careful sulphuring. It gen-
erally follows late rains and damp, foggy weather accom-
panied by sultry heat. Possibly the copper mixtures
may be of service against this, as also the ripe rot, which
has attacked our grapes to some extent when rains have
set in early in September. The varieties which have
very compact bunches and tender skins are most liable
to attack. After a rainless summer the autumnal rains
swell the berries, and where they grow compactly, crack
them, when myriads of fungus spores find lodgment,
and speedy decomposition ensues.
THE PERONOSPORA, from which the vineyards of
Europe have suffered seriously, and the black rot of the
Eastern States are, so far as I am aware, unknown here.
The most formidable malady of grapes is the so-called
Anaheim disease, but it has not, so far, reached our
Northern vineyards. It originated, or rather was first
observed, at Anaheim, Orange county, hence the name.
This disease is the more to be dreaded, as all researches
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
by experts have failed to find a remedy. In its aspect, its
sudden and deadly effects and rapid spread, it resembles
the Eastern pear blight, and may originate in a sudden
stagnation of sap. Lately, however, it seems to have
spent its force, and very little is heard of its ravages.
BLACK KNOT. This disease, which is also called
grape cancer, is caused by sudden stagnation of sap.
This may be the result of excessive pruning, late frosts,
or other causes which renders the vine powerless to elab-
orate all the flow of sap from the roots, which therefore
ruptures the sap vessels, stagnates and forms black ex-
crescences, frequently causing the death of the vine.
The remedies, or rather preventives, are longer pruning
and the use of longer cions in grafting. It would be
unreasonable to suppose that a vine which is vigorous
enough to produce a hundred feet of wood in a season
could be restricted to a dozen buds in pruning, or three
buds in grafting, and with them perform all the func-
tions which require as many hundred buds. When a
vine, otherwise vigorous, is badly affected by black knot
above ground, it is frequently saved by grafting it with
long cions below the diseased part.
ANTHRACNOSE, OR SPANISH MEASLES. This does
not prevail here to any great extent. The leaves show
red spots, wilt and die off. An application or two of
Bordeaux mixture is said to check it.
A2TD WINE MAKING.
CHAPTER XTJTL
INSECT AND OTHER ENEMIES OF THE VINE.
The most destructive insect is the phylloxera, which
is fully described in the first part of this book. We also
have most of the other insects injurious to the vine
which are common in the East, except the grape curcu-
lio, which has never been seen here as yet. Grasshop-
pers have been very destructive in some sections of the
Pacific slope, and had to be combated by the same means
employed east of the Rockies. Some dug ditches, in
which the grasshoppers were crushed by heavy logs
dragged along ; others kept heavy rollers moving along
the side of the vineyard frdm which the invading hosts
approached. Such visitations are very rare, however,
and occur only at long intervals and in certain localities.
Cutworms have been very destructive in some of the
raisin vineyards, eating the young shoots at night.
Thousands were poisoned by a mixture of Paris green in
water and bran, scattered in small doses under the vines.
Of birds, the linnet and California quail are among
the enemies of the grape. Ground squirrels are very
troublesome and destructive, but may be kept in check
by poisoned wheat thrown into their holes. When they
are not very numerous a shot gun in hands that can use
it, is a sufficient defense. The large California hare, or
jack-rabbit, is hard on young vines and grafts. They
are not very numerous in the northern counties, but in
the southern ones are such a nuisance that it is found
necessary to start great "rabbit drives," in which the
men of an entire neighborhood take part, and thousands
of the rabbits are killed.
224 AMERICAN GEAPE GROWING
CHAPTER XLIV.
FROSTS.
Late spring frosts, when they come, are quite destruc-
tive, hut they are mostly confined to the low lands, an
elevation of a few feet often securing exemption. At
times, however, they occur even on the hillsides, striking
vineyards that have been untouched hy frost for years.
They come late in April, and sometimes as late as the
middle of May. Eaising a dense smoke in the vineyard
during the night is advocated hy some as a means of
protection, but it has few adherents. If a general
smudge is created in a large number of adjoining vine-
yards, so as to fill the pir with smoke, it may aid in
repelling frost, but small, isolated efforts in this direc-
tion are of little or no value.
That frosty situations should be avoided for grape cul-
ture, is self-evident. It is very disheartening to see a
promising vineyard browned by frost in a night. Late
pruning is advocated by some as a remedy, and not
without reason, for the upper buds always start first,
while the lower ones remain dormant. But if the vine
is pruned so late every year as to cause profuse bleeding,
it is quite likely to cause more serious injury than is
occasioned by the partial loss of the crop once in four or
five years. I have found long pruning in winter much
preferable leaving spurs of three or four buds, and also
somewhat longer canes. Then if the frost strikes and
kills the shoots which have started from the upper buds,
the dormant lower ones will start into active growth, as
will also the secondary buds on each side of the frost-
bitten shoot, and produce a fair crop, though somewhat
later and of smaller bunches. Should no frost come,
the shoots which bear the fruit must be thinned out in
AND WINE MAKING. 225
time, the weakest being removed to avoid overloading the
vine. In case of frost the removal of the frozen shoots
as soon as possible will facilitate the growth from the
dormant buds, and also keep the vine in healthier and
more vigorous condition. This can be done well and
expeditiously by clipping them close to the base of the
shoots, with the small shears used in picking grapes.
Eight years of experience with this treatment have
shown it to be the best I have ever tried to secure a fail-
crop, even in the most frosty season.
Some varieties are hardier than others and start later
in spring. These should be planted or grafted in local-
ities subject to late frosts. Among these varieties are
the Sauvignon Verte, Semillion, Mataro, Marsanne and
Green Hungarian. The Zinfandel is one of the tender-
est, and this, as well as the Pinots, is unsuitable for
frosty situations.
CHAPTER XLV.
RESTORING INFESTED VINEYARDS.
When the phylloxera has begun its devastation in a
block, it is, in my opinion, best to let it finish its work.
Cultivate the vines as long as any of them will yield a
fair crop, and then tear them all out. This is easily
done by a pair of steady horses or mules in winter, when
the ground is soft from rains. Then plow the land
deeply and thoroughly the following spring, and sow it
to oats or some other grain for a year or two. After it
has been thus well mellowed and loosened, prepare it in
the same way as for a new vineyard, lay it off and plant,
as described heretofore. I regard this as much better
U
226 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
than trying patchwork, as many have done, in planting
non-resistant vines in place of those killed out by the
phylloxera. It cannot reasonably be expected that a
young vine would flourish in a soil impoverished by the
growth, for fifteen to twenty years, of vines which took
from the soil the same elements required by the young
vine. There is, in fact, no time gained by replanting
among older vines, and it is simply impossible to obtain
an even stand where it is practiced. Such management
has done much to bring non-resistant vines into bad
repute. Let the land rest for a year or two, giving it
careful and thorough cultivation, then plant it with
first-class roots or cuttings, and they will make better
growth in two years than patchwork planting will make
in four. Let the new vines attain sufficient strength,
then graft them at or near the surface, with the best
wood for the purpose. If it is necessary to plant sooner,
to keep up a vineyard better, take a new piece of ground,
and let the others have a much-needed rest. I write
from personal experience, having tried both methods
and seen them tried by my neighbors.
CHAPTER XLVL
MARKETING GRAPES.
The varieties suitable for the market have been de-
scribed on foregoing pages. The process of picking and
packing may be described in few words : The grapes
are generally picked one day and packed the next, to
give the stems a slight wilting so they will pack more
snugly. When picked they are carried to the packing
house, where, the next day, all small, imperfect or dam-
AKB WINE MAKIKG. 227
aged berries are clipped out with small scissors, and the
bunches packed in live-pound baskets, which are put
into slatted crates, to admit plenty of air. The grapes
must be well colored, and ripe, but not overripe. If
they are not fully ripened the stems and berries wilt too
much, and will not present the same handsome appear-
ance as fully ripe grapes. The more the natural
bloom is preserved in handling, the better the grapes will
look and sell.
Judging by the latest advices I have received from
parts of Texas, Arizona and New Mexico, 1 deem it the
best policy for California vineyardists to cultivate the
late varieties for market, as those regions can bring in
ripe grapes in June and July, and thus control the early
markets, while some sections of California can furnish
grapes fresh from the vines as late as December and even
the early part of January. Successful marketing of
grapes may be summed up somewhat as follows :
1. Market the grapes when they are in the best
condition.
2. Grow the best and most attractive varieties.
3. Handle and pack carefully, and send to market
over the best and quickest route.
4. Get them to market at the right time, at home or
abroad, and in the most convenient and attractive
packages.
5. Supply a fine article throughout and establish a
good name.
228 AMEKICA^ GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER XLVII.
RAISIN" MAKING.
As remarked before, we have but few varieties of
grapes with the qualities for making fine raisins. Of
those with large berries there are but two : the Muscat
of Alexandria, or Muscatelle Gordo Blanco, and the
Malaga. Authorities are still in doubt whether the
Muscat or Muscatelle, and Gordo Blanco are identical.
It is claimed by some that the Muscatelle has a rounder
and sweeter berry, sets better, and that the berries are
more uniform in size. I do not claim to be an authority
in this matter, but leave it as it stands, and refer the
readers to the very elaborate work of Prof. Gu stave
Eisen on the Raisin Industry of California. The Mal-
aga also has a large berry, but without the musky flavor
of the Muscat. The latter is, however, the leading vari-
ety, from which all the largest and most showy raisins
are made, the musky flavor being rather an attraction to
most palates. Fresno is the banner county of the raisin
industry, where immense vineyards of raisin grapes have
been planted within recent years, some parties planting
as many as two to four hundred acres in a single season.
While Fresno is the leading county, a good many raisin
grapes are grown in Tulare, Kern, San Diego, Ventura
and Yolo counties, while Yuba and Sutter have more or
less. As it is claimed that an average crop is from
eight to ten tons per acre, it is difficult to foresee what
will be the outcome of this rapid rush into an industry
which has scarcely become established or organized.
There is reason for grave fears of overproduction and
ruinously low prices. For the last two years they have,
fortunately perhaps, had only partial crops, yet the
market is already glutted. Should all the young vine-
AND WINE MAKING.
yards come into bearing and produce full crops, ifc is dif-
ficult to see how prices could be maintained sufficient to
cover the cost of production.
The culture of the Muscat and the process of drying
into raisins, as pursued in California, are very simple.
The vine is, perhaps, the most dwarfish of all varieties
and is grown with very low heads, only about one foot
high, which when once formed are cut back to spurs, as
heretofore described in stool or goblet pruning. Thus
the bunches of the first crop hang around the head, or
stool, sometimes resting on the ground. In that dry,
sandy soil the vines are generally irrigated once or twice
during the summer, for which purpose the soil must
have been leveled and ditched before planting. The
Muscat has a strong tendency to bear a second crop from
the laterals sometimes as heavy as the first, but ripen-
ing much later. The first crop is ordinarily ripe about
the middle or last of August. The process of curing
them is thus described by the kte K. B. Blowers, one of
the veterans in the business :
" The grapes should be allowed to remain on the vine
until quite ripe, showing a yellowish or golden color, and
becoming quite translucent. Then they should be care-
fully picked and placed upon a drying tray, usually two
by three feet in size, made of light lattice work, and
exposed with an inclination toward the sun, between the
rows of the vineyard. After being sufficiently exposed
to become about half dry they are turned by two men,
who take an empty tray, place it on a full one, holding
them together firmly, and with a swinging motion turn
them over, replacing the turned grapes in their former
position. This should be done in the morning, before
the dew is quite dried off ; then, when they have become
so dry as to lose their ashy appearance, some being a
little too green and others quite dry enough, they are,
after removing those that are entirely too green, slid
230 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
from the trays into large sweat boxes, having a thick
sheet of paper between every twenty-five or thirty pounds
of raisins ; then they are removed to the storeroom,
where they should remain two weeks or more. When
ready to pack, it will be found that those which were
too moist, have parted with their surplus moisture,
which has been absorbed by the stems and drier raisins.
The stems are now tough, and the raisins soft and ready
to pack. They are carefully placed in frames made of
iron or steel, the large and fair ones being carefully
placed in the bottom of the frames and the surplus stems
and berries cut away ; then the average raisins are ar-
ranged in and weighed, placing five pounds in each
frame, and pressed, but not enough to break the skins.
They are then passed to an inspector, who examines the
exposed sides of the raisins, removing all imperfect ones,
then placing the wrapper paper on the frame, holds it in
place with a wooden or steel plate, turns it bottom up,
drops the left end into the box, slides the plate quickly
from under the raisins, and they drop into the box;
then pressing slightly upon the movable bottom of the
frame, the frame is removed. The bottom of the frame
is then pressed more firmly, to cause the raisins to fill
the space formerly occupied by the sides and ends of the
frame ; then it is removed, and the face of the latter is
exposed, all imperfect or too wet berries are removed,
and all vacancies or hollows filled with large, loose
raisins. The label of the proprietor is then placed on
the face, the ends of the wrapper and the sides are folded
over, the box cover is nailed on, and they are ready for
market."
There is a difference of opinion yet among raisin
growers as to whether irrigation is absolutely necessary.
The irrigationists claim that the berries are larger,
more uniform and showy ; while the other side claims
finer flavor, more sugar, and more delicate bloom.
AND WINE MAKING. 231
being a raisin grower myself, I am unable to decide who
is right, but most of the raisins so far have been pro-
duced under a system of irrigation. Judging from other
fruits, I am inclined to the latter opinion ; although
irrigation may produce more pounds, I would suppose
quality to be with the non-irrigated article.
The Sultana and Thompson's Seedless belong to an
entirely different class of grapes, and require different
treatment. The vines are strong growers, and require
long pruning and high stakes to produce well, but under
this treatment they are immense bearers, as single vines
have been known to produce over one hundred pounds.
They have the further advantage of drying much more
quickly and easily, having much smaller berries and
loose bunches. They are also much more delicate, with
a pure flavor, and a slight mingling of acidity, which
makes them much more sprightly. They are therefore
admirably suitable for cooking purposes, especially as
they have thin skins and no seeds. As they are earlier
than the Muscat, and will dry in half the time, they
may be grown further north than that variety can be
expected to succeed. Furthermore, they make an excel-
lent, delicate white wine, and are delightful as table
fruit, while the Muscat wine and fruit are too feline to
suit all palates. On the whole they are decidedly pref-
erable, at least for Northern localities ; and of the two,
judging from present experience, the Thompson is the
finest and most productive. The little seedless raisins
made from these varieties are stemmed, when dry, and
packed loosely, either in small sacks or pressed into neat
boxes for the trade. If it were not for the American
propensity for "big things," I would predict larger and
more profitable sales for them as soon as they become
better known, than for the Muscat raisins. The little
white and black grapes of Zante and Corinth, of which
the currants of commerce are made ? have not touncl
232 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
much favor here, and there is no reason why they should.
The varieties referred to above are immeasurably superior
to the dirty imported product, which has only the very
questionable recommendation of being "far fetched and
dear bought."
It is an open question whether it is better to dry by
sun or artificial heat in a dryer. Without discussing
the question we may rejoice in the undisputed fact that
we can make raisins without artificial heat.
Since the beginning of the raisin industry manifold
improvements have been made in selecting, curing and
packing in an attractive style, and California raisins are
now fully equal, if not superior, to the best imported
brands, and they can be produced as cheaply. American
ngenuity has brought out many machines and appli-
nnces, by means of which enough more can be accom-
plished to overcome the competition of cheap foreign
labor. The only apparent danger which threatens the
industry is the imminent one that overproduction may
force prices down below cost. Whether the combina-
tions which have been entered into by the growers and
manufacturers will suffice to avert this, remains to be
seen. We can only hope for the best.
AND WINE MAKING. 233
CHAPTER XLVIII.
OTHER USES OF GRAPES*
DRIED GRAPES.
When the prices of wine and wine grapes went down
so low, a few years ago, that wine making was no longer
profitable, the drying of wine grapes for culinary pur-
poses was resorted to, on a somewhat limited scale. It
was found that three tons of fresh grapes would make a
ton of dried, which could be packed in plain white sacks
and shipped for cooking or making wine. Many low-
grade grapes were thus dried and shipped to the East,
where they were sold for an average of about three cents
per pound. Such dried grapes are very nice, and many
were thus utilized. But the movement proved to be
only a makeshift, as the dried grapes replaced many
other fruits in the kitchen, and interfered with their
sale, while the wine made from them in the East, where
water and sugar were added to increase the wine product,
also interfered with the sale of our pure wines made
from grape juice alone. Finally, it proved difficult in
the North to dry our juicy wine grapes, when a sudden
shower would sometimes come at the inopportune time
and spoil them. So it has been gradually abandoned,
until very little is heard of it to-day.
CONDENSED MUST.
Another of the expedients attempted with a view to
making a market for our grapes in seasons of low prices, is
to partially evaporate the must and ship the condensed
product. The Spring-Muehl system, which is calcu-
lated to work up large quantities, is a process for con-
densing the fresh must of the grapes, especially red vari-
eties, in a vacuum pan, to about one-third of its volume ;
234 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
then mixed with the fresh pomace of the grapes, in bar-
rels, it is shipped abroad, for wine making. In England
and other countries water is added, and the whole re-
fermented into wine. It is claimed that quite as good
wine can be made there from this material as from fresh
grapes, and this claim would seem to be reasonable.
But the first shipments were only partially successful,
as the must began to ferment on the way. Later ship-
ments have given better satisfaction, yet the process has
not given as good results as were hoped for. The busi-
ness has not attained any considerable magnitude, though
the reduced cost of transportation secured by it, is ap-
parently in its favor.
GRAPE MILK, OR UNFERMENTKD GRAPE JUICE.
To those who have conscientious scruples against the
use of fermented wine, however pure, this lias been
offered as a substitute. Fermentation is suppressed by
the use of sulphur, salycilic acid, or some other chemical
agent, best known to those who make it. None of them
are entirely harmless, being more or less injurious to
health. For obvious reasons I do not recommend them ;
and that pure, fermented wine is far more wholesome,
all authorities agree. Yet it is worthy of mention here,
for a considerable amount of it is made and consumed
by the public under the idea that it is harmless. The
product of our vineyards is doubtless as good, and per-
haps better than the similar article manufactured at the
East as "Sweet Concord" or "unfermented" wine.
GRAPE 8YRTTP.
This is the pure juice of the grape, simply condensed
by boiling, and is certainly far preferable to the last-
mentioned article. Moreover, it can be made to serve
the same purposes by diluting with water. It has the
additional advantage of easier and cheaper transporta-
tion, provided it is properly managed in boiling down.
AND WINE MAKING. 235
Both products retain, to a certain extent, the pleasant
acidity and the sugar contained in the grape, yet neither
can compare for refreshing, invigorating qualities, with
pure, fermented wine, and are only poor substitutes
for it.
THE GRAPE CURE.
The State of California has numerous summer and
health resorts, where the wealthy and wearied denizens
of the cities go with their families, during the warm
months, to recruit their energies, impaired hy the activ-
ities of business and city life. Yet strangely little has
ever been done, either by the managers of the summer
resorts or the physicians, to bring grapes into consump-
tion as a hygienic agent. They are the most healthful
fruit known, and are universally recognized as such in
Europe, and recommended by the most eminent physi-
cians. Yet a hygienic article of diet would seem to be
more needed on this dyspeptic continent than in any
part of Europe. Thousands flock annually to vine-
growing districts of the Rhine, the Danube and the
Moselle, for the grapes, which are regarded as a univer-
sal remedy for impaired digestion, and diseases of the
bowels and kidneys. Each one begins with half a pound
daily, eaten fresh from the vines, increasing gradu-
ally to four or five pounds a day, before the season is
over. Is it not strange that here, where so many suffer
from gastric derangement, and the remedy is at their
door, pure, fresh and palatable, it is so little used, and
so rarely recommended by physicians ? If the proprie-
tors of our summer resorts would each have a few acres
of vineyard, which would furnish their guests with
grapes at all times through the autumnal months, fresh
and cool every morning, it would be safe to predict that
their mineral waters would enjoy greater celebrity and
their resorts more popularity. But as long as Americans
subsist on hot biscuit, pies and divers abominations from
236 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
the frying pan, washed down with scalding tea or coffee,
or whisky and poor brandy, so long will it continue to
be a nation of dyspeptics. When in place of these, good,
simple, wholesome fare is their daily food, and sound,
pure, light wines their daily beverage, we may hope for
an improvement in the public health. Especially will
this be likely if the dietetic change is accompanied by
judicious exercise, walking and horseback riding.
CHAPTER XLIX.
WINE MAKING IN CALIFORNIA.
This is quite a different matter from making wine in
the States east of the Eocky mountains. The grapes
are of a widely different species, and the climate is
wholly unlike any other on the continent. Our dry
summers mature our grapes and develop a sufficient
amount of sugar to make good, sound, dry wine, without
resort to the practices of Gall, Petiol and others, so nec-
essary in the East. Our grapes do not contain an excess
of either flavor or acids, and usually supply a perfect
must, which needs no manipulation aside from being
well fermented and kept in a cool cellar, to develop into
a good, sound wine. We have suffered more from im-
proper and interrupted fermentation than from all other
causes. It is those which have given a bad reputation
to our lower grades of wine and led to the hasty conclu-
sions arrived at by some of our soi disant experts that
" wine could be made anywhere, even under an old shed
or an oak tree." Such talk has done more harm to the
industry than all the competition it has met with from
abroad. In a State where every little valley has its own
climate, and where the product and temperature vary so
AND WINE MAKING. 237
greatly, it becomes necessary to take into account all
these differences, weigh them rationally, and conform
the treatment of the young must to them.
The construction of the cellar and the fermenting
room is the first object for consideration. The cellar
for keeping the wine, after it is fermented, should
be under ground, so as to maintain an even temper-
ature the year around. Our hillsides afford abun-
dant good and convenient sites for cellars, and the
northern slope of a hill inclining toward the south
or southeast, would be my choice. If building stone
is conveniently attainable, that is, of course, the best
and most durable material. In its absence good double
walls of redwood or concrete may be used. The en-
trance to the cellar should be level with the lower side
of the slope upon which the house is built, so that any
water which may find access in winter can drain off.
From this the slope should rise twelve or fourteen
feet, so that all but the front of the lower story shall
be wholly below the ground. The width and length
must depend upon the capacity desired. Forty feet
wide by sixty feet long will give ample room for thirty
thousand gallons, which may be increased to forty
thousand if thousand-gallon casks are used for the lower
tier, with smaller casks on top of them. This will
admit of four rows of thousand-gallon casks, five on
each side, two rows in the middle, and one at the end,
with walks in and around the middle, ample room for
racking and working, and necessary space to get around
the casks next to the walls. These casks should be of
oak, as that wood is much better for keeping wine of
any kind. New oak casks can be bought for seven to
eight cents per wine gallon, though second-hand casks
in good condition can often be obtained at much lower
rates, and are even preferable to new, provided they have
been kept sweet and in good condition.
238 AMERICAH GRAPE GROWING
The second story designed for a fermenting room is of
the same length and width as the cellar, and ten feet
high in the clear. Stone is the best material for the
walls, but if necessary they may be built of redwood,
double walls, or filled in with sawdust or some other non-
conducting material. The entrance is at the opposite
end from that to the cellar, so as to bring it on a level
with the upper part of the slope, and thus both may be
entered from the ground. The earth excavated from
the cellar may be used to bank up against the side walls
of the second story. This second floor will aif ord room for
a row of fermenting tanks all around the sides, and one in
the middle, with walks between in which to perform the
pumping, racking, etc. The fermenting tanks may be
of redwood or oak, comparatively shallow for the breadth.
Tanks ten feet wide and four feet deep will hold about
two thousand wine gallons each. Redwood tanks will
cost about two and a half cents a gallon. Of course the
capacity can be increased by increasing the depth, but
fermentation is much more thorough in shallow tanks
with free circulation of air, than in deeper ones, where,
besides the retarded fermentation, there is liability of
heating the pomace. The floor of the second story
should be double, of very strong planks, the sleepers rest-
ing on heavy timbers extending lengthwise, with a double
row, ten feet from each wall, supported by strong pillars
based on broad stones, as they have to sustain all the
superincumbent weight. This is as good as arching, and
much cheaper. A layer of tarred paper is generally
placed between the floors, to prevent leakage to the room
below. Ventilation of both stories is secured by holes
left in the wall, which may be opened or closed at will
from the outside. Strong doors, either double folding
doors or one sliding door, wide enough to admit the
large casks and fermenting vats, for both rooms, com-
plete the outside arrangements. Inside, large beams of
AND WINE MAKIKO. 239
sawed timber, six by eight inches, laid about three feet
apart lengthwise, and resting on crosspieces,, form the
foundations for the casks and vats. There will be room
enough under the roof, above the middle of the second
story, for the crasher, stemmer, pumps, elevator, and
all the machinery needed. Twenty feet wide of flooring
extending the length of the building and properly sup-
ported, will afford all the space needed. The machinery
may be operated by steam or by hand. The two rows of
fermenting vats on each side will suffice to receive all
the crushed grapes, and a row of casks or. tanks with
double bottoms may be placed in the center of the fer-
menting room, into which the young wine can be
pumped as soon as fermentation is complete. From
these it can be conducted, by means of hose, into the
casks below, immediately after the first racking, which
should be done as soon as it has deposited most of the
lees and become quiet and transparent. There are sev-
eral establishments in the State which manufacture the
machinery for wine making, in sufficient variety to suit
a large or small business. One of the most complete is
that of Mr. Ileald, of Benicia, Solano county.
PICKING THE GRAPES.
The grapes must be fully ripe, but how ripe depends
somewhat on the character of the wine to be made. For
the common grades of clarets and white wines they are
ripe enough when the stems become brown, and the berries
evenly colored and translucent. But the best test is the
saccharornoter, of which Balling's is the scale most com-
monly used, and of which one degree is about equal to
four degrees of Oechsle's, which is generally used in the
East and in Germany. Whenever our common grapes
show 22 to 24 Balling, they are considered ripe enough
to make good dry wine. But when it is desired to make
a Haut Sauterne from such varieties as Sauvignon,
240 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Semillion, Chablis or Veltliner, or a high-grade Bur-
gundy, they should be allowed to hang longer, until
some of the berries are shriveled, and they show from
26 to 32 Balling. There is a growing taste and increas-
ing demand, among the American public, for full-fla-
vored, heavy wines, retaining a slight degree of sweet-
ness when fermented. Manifestly it costs more to make
such wines, but if the consumer is willing to pay for the
extra labor, smaller yield and higher quality, we can
make them. It is only recently that there has been
much inducement offered by the trade or the public for
making them. But for about a thousand gallons of this
grade, made in 1893, we had no difficulty in obtaining
double the price of common dry wines, as they proved
equal, in quality and bouquet, to the finest Haut Sau-
terne. That convinced me that we can fully rival the
French in this.
The vintage begins with us, in Napa county, about
the 15th of September, and continues, with slight inter-
missions, until some time in November, or even until
the first week in December, if there are no severe frosts,
and the second crop of grapes has fair weather in which
to ripen. In young, vigorous vineyards, and with some
varieties, this crop is iilmost as heavy as the first, though
not as high in quality. We generally have a few showers
of rain in September, which have some influence on the
crop. A few light rains are beneficial, as they freshen
the fruit and promote a more active fermentation. But
if the rains continue, ripe-rot is likely to ensue, which is
deleterious, especially on the red grapes, though white
grapes are little, if any, injured. It is even held, by the
best authorities in Europe, that this so-called "noble
rot" (EdelfcBule) improves the quality of white wines,
and that the choicest vintages are made from such grapes.
Of course they must be picked before any acetic acid has
developed in the berries. With black grapes, however*
AND WINE MAKING.
ripe-rot is regarded as injurious, for it diminishes color
and tannin. All black grapes stricken with ripe-rot
must be carefully removed as they are picked.
Grapes are here picked into boxes holding forty to
fifty pounds each, which are carried, as fast as filled, to
the avenues dividing the blocks. Thence they are con-
veyed, in wagons, to the winery, and crushed as soon as
they arrive. Most of the larger wineries have stemmers
and crushers combined, where the stems are rem-oved
first, and drop before they are carried into the crusher.
Any attempted description of the different machines
used in this State would lead beyond the limits of this
book. Suffice it to say that some wineries have appara-
tus which enables them to prepare the material for mil-
lions of gallons of wine, within six weeks. Others are
content to make from 10,000 to 25,000 gallons with a
common hand crusher, and a screen for a stemmer,
upon which the bunches are rubbed, the berries falling
below. Some even do the work without stemming. As
a general thing the wines made in these smaller cellars
are of superior quality, because they are more carefully
and skillfully handled than those in the large cellars. In
those it is often impossible to grade and watch the prod-
uct sufficiently to secure the highest quality. It is
from the smaller cellars, where the proprietor personally
watches and manipulates everything, that we must con-
tinue to expect our choicest product.
MAKING WHITE WINE.
The process of making white wine is materially differ-
ent from that of making red wine. In white wines we
desire smoothness and delicacy ; in red wine, color and a
certain proportion of tannin and astringency. To make
wine from the light-colored varieties, which are the
white wine grapes proper, is a very simple matter. In
crushing the grapes into a fermenting vat the crusher
If
242 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
must be adjusted to break the skins without crushing
the stems and seeds, as they would impart too much
tannin. The whole mass is then generally allowed to
stand from twelve to twenty-four hours, until fermenta-
tion sets in, and then pressed as dry as possible. To
facilitate this, the juice is drawn off first through a spigot
in the bottom of the vat, and the must filled into barrels,
puncheons or casks in the fermenting room, which, how-
ever, should not be quite full, as a precaution against
running over. Some makers, who aim for a very deli-
cate wine, press immediately after crushing, but I regard
it as safer to allow it to first begin fermentation. The
fermenting room should be kept at a temperature of 60
to 70, and as soon as violent fermentation is over, which
will generally be at the end of four to six days, the casks
should be filled up with the same must, kept in a sepa-
rate cask, which is closed lightly to guard against flies
and impurities. As long as carbonic acid gas escapes
there is no danger for the young wine, but when it be-
comes quiet it should be closed, though not firmly at
first. In six weeks or two months the sediment will be
deposited and the wine become transparent, when it is
to be racked off into casks in the cellar, taking care to
keep back as much as possible all the lees. Rather put
the cloudy wine, which runs last, into a separate pack-
age, than run it with the clear wine. From this time
on it is important to keep the casks well filled, and
closed air-tight with round oak or maple bungs.
MAKING WHITE WINE FROM BLACK GRAPES.
This is not practiced as much as formerly, because
the Mission and Malvasia, which formerly occupied a
large part of our vineyards, have almost disappeared and
are not valued for wine making. We have some other
varieties Zinfandel in the valley lands, for example
and also the Black Pinot, which will hardly give color
AND WINE MAKING. 243
enough without taking off the first run of the juice.
Immediately after the grapes are crushed they are either
pressed yery lightly, or the juice is run off without
pressing and filled into casks to ferment as white wine.
The pomace is then thrown into the fermenting vat and
treated as red wine. I do not recommend this practice
under any other than the exceptional conditions men-
tioned above. The first run of the juice is generally
the best in quality, and while the red wine may gain in
color and astringency, it will lose in soundness and qual-
ity. Location is all-important for the finest wines. A
really fine red wine cannot be expected, save from a soil
rich in iron and other essential elements. On such
soils there will be no deficiency in sugar, color and
tannin, nor in fine flavor, if all the juice is fermented
together.
MAKING BED WINE.
The process of making red wine is quite distinct, and
from different material, yet the difference is not as great
as many suppose. Formerly the public taste was or
was supposed to be in favor of very dark, astringent
wines, containing the greatest possible amount of tannin.
This, in the opinion of our wine makers, required long
fermentation on the skins, and red grapes were often
left for two weeks in the fermenting vat, until they had
become entirely quiet, and a heavy crust had formed on
the top, sometimes moldy and acid. True, these wines
were very rough, provided they did not spoil altogether.
The result was loss of bouquet and of all the better
qualities a fine red wine ought to possess, and nothing
was added to the color, which will be acquired by a fer-
mentation of four or five days. These flat, rough wines
have done more to damage the reputation of California
wines than anything else. Fortunately a better and
more discriminating taste prevails, and the public re-
244 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
quirement is for smooth, full-bodied wines, of sprightli-
ness and bouquet. With proper management we can
make them from the varieties of grapes now at our com-
mand. Of the processes of fermentation by means of
false bottoms, in closed casks, and others which have
their advocates, I have found none better than the sim-
ple treatment of fermenting in open vats, which I have
practiced while I have been in the State. The grapes
are crushed into the vat, and left there until fermenta-
tion ensues, which is generally in from twelve to twenty-
four hours, according to the temperature. The entire
mass should be evened out, so that the berries are sub-
merged in the liquid. As soon as active fermentation
appears they should be thoroughly stirred three or four
times a day, so that no crust can form, and they are
kept wholly submerged. This is the main point,
frequent working, so that no 'part of the mass has a
chance to develop acetic acid. Fermentation will set in
rapidly and violently, but it generally subsides the fourth
or fifth day, when the seething mass will lose its pun-
gency and sweetness, and become quiet and cooler.
Draw some of the young wine, and if it has acquired a
slight bitterness, now is the time to draw off the fluid
from below into fresh casks, and press the pomace.
Even if it should retain a slight sweetness, as is usual
with rich musts, it is better to rack it than to let it be-
come flat in the vat. A slight fermentation will con-
tinue in the cask, all the saccharine will be changed to
alcohol, and the fine bouquet and freshness aimed for
will be developed. If it changes its character and color
every week for the next month or so, no harm is done.
This is a peculiarity of young red wines, and they come
out all right if the casks, vats, and everything else have
been kept sweet and clean. It is, in fact, one of the
most important conditions of wine making that every-
thing is kept scrupulously clean.
AND WINE MAKING. 245
The after treatment is about the same as for white
wines, or like that described in the first part of this
book. There is this difference, however, that the Cali-
fornia wines, being pure juice of the grape, contain
more gluten and albumen than gallized or petiotized
wines, and therefore require more time to become clear
and matured. This is especially true of our white wines,
which do not contain as much tannin, and thus have
arisen complaints that they become cloudy when shipped
long distances, and do not keep well. The remedy, or
rather, preventive, is frequent racking. After the first
racking in November or December, there should be
another in fair weather in February or March. If they
are then perfectly clear and limpid and remain so until
the beginning of May, they may perhaps be trusted to
lie through the summer, but generally it is best to rack
them again early in May. In most cases, however, they
are sold to a dealer when six months old, which obviates
this necessity. The latter is, perhaps, the best course,
if a fair price can be obtained.
Of Haut Sauternes and heavy Burgundies I have
already made mention. Their treatment is the same as
for other red wines, only we do not wait for all sweetness
to disappear. But when violent fermentation is over
they are racked from the fermenting vats, and the Haut
Sauternes are left in the cask until they have become
clear. Such wines are so heavy in alcohol, developed by
fermentation from the sugar they contain, that there is
less liability of clouding or other trouble.
FORTIFIED WINES.
The so-called "sweet" wines are, in fact, not true
wines, that is, pure fermented juice of the grape. All
have alcohol in some form added to them, increasing
their strength and keeping them in that sweet condition
so palatable to many. As I know little about them, my
246 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
notes upon them will necessarily be brief. They are of
four kinds : port, sherry, Angelica and sweet Muscat.
The last two are made in a similar manner. Angelica is
made from the first run of the juice of Mission grapes ;
sweet Muscat from Muscat of Alexandria, and a finer
grade from the German Muscatelle or Frontignan. The
grapes are allowed to hang until very ripe, then crushed
and immediately pressed ; then a gallon of quicklime is
added to every hundred gallon weight, and about a quart
of grape brandy to each gallon of the must. These addi-
tions are made in an open vat, and the liquid is allowed
to stand until it is clear, which, as the wine and brandy
suppress fermentation, is generally in two or three days.
It is then racked into casks, as aU the lees have settled
to the bottom, and with another racking in two months
is ready for use, although it becomes more mellow
with age.
Port is commonly made from the red wine of Mission
and Malvasia grapes, though other red wines are also
used. The Trousseau makes the finest port of any.
The fluid is fortified by adding brandy or alcohol up to
23 or 24 per cent. Grape syrup, made by boiling down
sweet must, is also added.
Sherry is made in a similar manner, fortified, but not
made so sweet, and then kept in a room or oven heated
to a temperature of 140 to 160 for about six weeks.
This gives it the peculiar aged taste and flavor which
many admire. This is quite different from the methods
employed in Spain. There, special varieties of grapes
are used and the sherry flavor is acquired from them,
and from being aged in bodegas, or storage houses, for a
number of years. It is scarcely to be expected that this
method will ever be generally followed in this country,
as our people have not the patience to wait ten or twelve
years for results. But we have many of the best sherry
grapes which will develop the true flavor in a few years.
AND WINE MAKING. 247
Even our common Mission grapes will do so, and the
riper the grapes are when crushed the sooner this flavor
will appear. We have made a very fine natural sherry
from the Louisiana, ripened until the must showed 32.
It retains quite enough sweetness, and is- as much supe-
rior to the artificial sherries as a fine Haut Sauterne is
to the fortified Angelica and Muscat. In this matter,
as in many others, there is a wide field for experiment.
SPARKLING WINES.
These are made both after the French method of de-
veloping carbonic acid gas in the bottle, which requires
age, and also by the speedy method of charging the wine.
A third method, now pursued by the California Cham-
pagne Company, is the Reihlen process, of creating the
gas in the cask, which gives the speediest and best results.
All the wines made by this process seem to have a last-
ing mousseux, a pure flavor and sprightlinesg, equal to
good French or German sparkling wines, and are sold at
about half the price. Mr. Arpad Hareszthy has the old-
est establishment in the State in which the mousseux is
developed in the bottle, and his wines, after long exper-
imenting, seem to give general satisfaction. There are
several other establishments in the State, and we may
confidently hope that, when proper blending and manip-
ulation have been fully studied, this branch of the busi-
ness will attain much larger dimensions in the future.
248 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER L.
BRANDY.
A great deal of brandy may be made of the wash, lees
and pomace, but such is not always of the desired fine
quality. The best brandy in California has been made
from West's White Prolific and Folle Blanche. The
latter forms the basis of all the fine Cognacs of France.
Were it not for the revenue laws, which make distilling
a perplexing business to engage in, even for the strictly
honest distiller, while the rogues do not find it very dif-
ficult to circumvent them in one way or another, the
manufacture of brandy would afford some relief to those
who have a surplus of wines. As it is, after paying
ninety cents a gallon and incurring all the risk of evap-
oration and leakage, while the product is stored in gov-
ernment bonded warehouses, there is little profit left
after selling the brandy at $1.35 or $1.40 per gallon. It
requires five gallons of wine on an average to produce a
gallon of brandy, and besides, there are the labor and
fuel. That we can make as good brandy here as any-
where has been repeatedly proved. That our brandy is
better than the cheap whiskies and brandies manufac-
tured abroad and brought here is also a conceded fact.
But where is the inducement to make it at forty-five to
fifty-five cents a gallon above the internal revenue tax ?
It is the old, old story : that home production is discour-
aged .and suppressed in every possible way ; and that
"far-fetched and dear bought" find ready demand, while
home products go begging for a market. England, Ger-
many and the northern countries are our best customers
now. They can appreciate what we make, while our
own countrymen turn up their noses at anything which
has not a foreign label.
AND WINE MAKING. 249
CHAPTER LI.
A FEW NECESSARY CELLAR IMPLEMENTS.
Besides casks, barrels and kegs of various sizes, of
which the smaller ones can be placed upon and between
the larger to save room, many other appliances are
needed. Faucets of different sizes for racking, rubber
hose with couplings which can be screwed to the faucets,
and pumps, are among the things needed. The pump
most commonly in use is the Challenge, which may
easily be worked by one man. A small jack-screw for
lifting heavy casks, is also a convenience. A few buck-
ets, made of strong tin, smaller at the top than at the
bottom, with a spout on one side and a handle on the
other ; tubs to be used in racking ; a filling can, with a
long spout bent down at the farther end, used to keep
the casks full ; and rods to be used in stirring the wine
when fining becomes necessary, are required in every
cellar. Other implements, which have been described
in a previous chapter, are as useful here as in the East.
250 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
CHAPTER LIL
CLARIFICATION, FILTERING AND FINING.
If wine has been well fermented, and carefully racked
twice, this process will rarely be necessary, and it is
never desirable. Bat it happens with our pure juice
wines, that they will not become bright. This is be-
cause they contain more tannin and albumen than the
wines made at the East. When wine is turbid it must
be made bright by some process, as cloudy wine is un-
salable, however good it may be otherwise. Filtering is
a purely mechanical process, which takes out all the im-
purities suspended in the wine, without imparting any
other foreign matter to it. Paper and paper pulp are
very common materials for filtering, and a paper filter
invented by Mr. A. Beck, San Francisco, possesses the
advantages of low cost, and self-action, by gravity alone,
which saves much labor. The wine to be filtered is con-
tained in a cask, v hich is elevated on a platform a few
feet above the niter. The wine flows through a faucet
and hose to the bottom of the filter, which contains a
number of flannel bags, drawn over spiral springs to
keep them suspended. The wine is forced upward in
the filter by the pressure of the fluid in the cask above,
is pressed through the bags and a false bottom which
holds them in position, and flows thence through a
hose, into a cask below. It takes about twelve hours,
with a filter of ten-gallon capacity, to filter a puncheon
of 160 gallons. The apparatus, when once started, needs
no looking after until the next morning, when the most
turbid wine will have come out bright and clear. The
sacks, when they become clotted, can readily be taken
out and washed, or rinsed by forcing water through
them.
AND WINE MAKING. 251
FINING WITH CHEMICALS.
Gelatine and isinglass are the most common and the
best finings for white wine. The former is manufactured
from the cartilages, skins and tendons of animals, and
comes in tablets or sheets. It is one of the most power-
ful of finings and takes with it a great deal of tannin
and color. It should therefore not be used for red wines
unless it is desired to relieve them from an excess of
color and tannin. It precipitates more sediment than
any other fining, and wines treated with it should be
racked as soon as they are clear, which will generally be
within three weeks. It is generally used to clarify com-
mon wines, and if they are somewhat flat, tannin should
be added to them. Gelatine is used at the rate of one
ounce to each hundred gallons of wine. Soak the gelatine
a few hours in tepid water, then dissolve in a dish over a
slow fire, in a little water, stirring it constantly, and do
not allow it to boil.
Isinglass, or fish glue, is made from the air-bladder of
the sturgeon, and comes chiefly from Kussia. It is the
best fining for fine white wines. One ounce, for each
hundred gallons of wine, is broken into small fragments,
by pounding it with a hammer on a block of wood. Put
into an earthen vessel, and pour over it enough of the
wine that is to be fined to cover it. Add a little more
after an hour or two, when the first will have been ab-
sorbed. In about twenty-four hours it will have become
a jelly, and may be thinned by adding more of the wine,
and is to be worked with the hands until it is wholly
dissolved. Then strain it through a piece of linen,
with pressure enough to force all the mucilage through.
If too thick it must be whipped or beaten and
more wine added, before using. It may be kept in bot-
tles for some time after it is prepared, if a little brandy
is added.
252 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
1
FOB BED WINES.
The whites of eggs are the best fining for red wines.
The albumen in them coagulates by the action of the
alcohol and tannin, and forms a precipitate heavier than
the liquid, carrying with it as it falls the matters held
in suspension. Only strictly fresh eggs can be used,
and the yolks must be carefully kept out, as they dis-
color the wine. The whites of a dozen eggs are required
for each hundred gallons of wine, beaten thoroughly
with a small quantity of the wine. For sweet wines,
containing so little spirit that the finings will not act,
alcohol must be added. But such wines are rarely found
here, the deficiency, if any, being in tannin, and that in
white wines. This is supplied by adding from half an
ounce to an ounce of tannin to every hundred gallons of
wine. Dissolve one-half pound of tannin in a quart of
strong alcohol, by shaking it thoroughly ; let it stand
twenty-four hours, then strain through a cloth. One
gill of the solution contains about one ounce of tannic
acid. After the finings have been prepared as above,
two or three gallons are drawn from the bunghole
of the cask of wine to be treated, and added to the
finings, and the whole well mixed. The mixing may be
done by means of a stick split into several prongs, or a
wire or bristle brush. The mixture is then poured into
the cask until it is full, and left to rest until the wine is
bright, which will generally be in two or three weeks.
Just as soon as the wine is clear it should be racked off,
or it will acquire a bad taste.
AND WINE MAKING. 253
CHAPTER MIL
AGING WINE BOTTLING.
A great deal has been said about the importance of
age for wines, and the evils of selling California wines
too young. There is doubtless some foundation for all
this, but it is greatly exaggerated. There are great dif-
ferences in varieties, some ripening in much less time
than others, and all depending largely on their treat-
ment. Strong, full-bodied wines require more time to
develop their best qualities than light wines, which are
bright and clear after a season or two. I regard a wine
as old when it is perfectly bright and clear, having de-
posited all its impurities, developed its flavor and bou-
quet, and attained its highest degree of perfection.
When it has arrived at this stage it should be bottled or
sold. In bottles it will retain its good qualities, and we
cannot look for further improvement in casks. It is
better, under ordinary circumstances, to sell as soon as a
reasonable offer can be obtained. It is seldom to the
interest of the producer to bottle the wine, for bottling
is, in fact, a distinct branch of the business. To age
wines is more properly the business of the dealer, but
the producer will, under ordinary circumstances, find it
better to sell as soon as the wine has reached maturity.
It will enable him to prepare for the next vintage, and
to save room and cooperage. If he wishes to retain any
wines for experiment or other purpose, he can reserve
them. If, for any reason, it should become desirable to
bottle wine, the one essential requirement is that it
shall be perfectly clear. There are differences in varie-
ties and locations. For example, our Zinfandels, even
from the choicest locations, are at their best when two
years old, and lose their sprightliness and fine bouquet
254 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
when kept over three years, while Cabernet Sauvignon,
Burgundy, Riesling and Traminer will need more time
to bring out their best qualities. Wines that had per-
fect fermentation are in no danger of disease.
CHAPTER LIV.
PURE WINE AS A PROMOTER OF TEMPERANCE.
I have no fault to find with those who honestly be-
lieve that they should abstain from everything which
contains the least particle of alcohol, yet I desire to
enter a solemn protest against denouncing wine as nec-
essarily a source of drunkenness. It is not the moder-
ate use, but the abuse of any article of daily food or
drink, which constitutes intemperance, and I am as sin-
cerely and strongly opposed to such abuse of wine as any
one can be. I regard wine as one of the best gifts of a
beneficent Creator to mankind. The same Being who
"causeth the grass to grow for the cattle and herb for
the service of man," also gives "wine that maketh glad
the heart of man" (Ps. 104; v. 14, 15). This gift is
too good to be abased, but is designed to be used, like
other good things, in moderation ; to promote health
and happiness, and not to degrade to the level of the
brute. It should drive out of use such fiery, alcoholic
drinks as poor whisky, brandy, and those vile decoctions
which are sold under the names of sweet Catawba, An-
gelica, port and sherry, which often contain as much
spirit in disguise as the first-named. Pure light wine as
a general beverage is one of the most effective promoters
of temperance that can be found, and the nations with
whom it is in common use are the most sober and temper-
AND WINE MAKING. 255
ate. When I mention wine the reference is to "the cup
that cheers but not inebriates," such as our Savior Him-
self created by His first miracle, at Cana in Galilee, con-
secrated at His holy supper and ordained to be used in
the sacrament in loving remembrance of Him. Our
total-abstinence friends seem to forget this when they
claim to be His followers, and yet denounce the cup
which He consecrated and appointed to perpetuate His
memory on earth. St. Paul exhorted Timothy : "Use
a little wine for the stomach's sake and thine often in-
firmities. " And in many other places the Holy Scriptures
show how fallacious is the idea that they forbid its use.
Martin Luther, the great reformer and the very highest
type of clear-headed independent manhood, wrote :
" Who loves not woman, wine and song,
Will be a fool his whole life long."
Surely he did not go down to a drunkard's grave, nor
was he ever charged with drunkenness.
Human nature is so constituted that it craves some
kind of a stimulant. Why not furnish it the most in-
vigorating, health-giving, pure light wine, instead of
enervating tea and coffee. All eminent physicians agree
that it assists digestion when taken with the food, and
it can now be had as cheaply as tea and coffee. If pro-
hibitory laws have failed to prohibit, it is because their
authors do not recognize the inherent wants of human
nature, nor the truth of the maxim that "forbidden
fruit is the sweetest." If, instead of- futile prohibitory
legislation, we had laws (and they were enforced) making
drunkenness a crime which brings upon the transgressor
infamy and punishment, I would heartily rejoice. But
I cannot see the justice of laws which prescribe equal
punishment for the innocent and the guilty, and forbid
everyone to use wine in moderation and with bene-
ficial effects, because another abuses it, or makes a beast
of himself by drinking bad whisky.
256 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Wine has become so cheap in California that any fam-
ily may, by purchasing in five-gallon kegs, have good,
sound, light wine at a cost of twenty-five cents per gal-
lon, delivered at their door. This is cheaper than tea
or coffee, and should be kept in every house as a daily
table beverage with the meals, for lemonades, etc. It
would be much better for the community if it were thus
made a part of the household supplies, to be drunk only
at home, instead of leaving it to be had only in the
drinking saloons, where it costs five to ten cents a glass,
and where the abominable practice of "treating" pre-
vails. As to this so-called custom of "treating," I hold
it responsible for more drunkenness, broken constitu-
tions and moral ruin than any other cause, especially
among young men. A party of them will go to a saloon,
where one of them invites the others to "take a drink."
They do so, and then another one of them feels under a
sort of moral obligation to return the compliment.
Thus it goes around until everyone has, in turn, " stood
treat," and spent his money to be even with the others,
and the liquor enters their heads. They call this "hav-
ing a good time," which it may be for the bartender but
not for them. It means heavy heads and empty pockets
if kept up, and ruins many a promising young man.
How much better would it be if each took his glass of
light wine at home, with his food, at one-tenth the
price. I have labored in the cause of true temperance
(as I understand it) all my life, and my dearest wish has
been to see this nation the freest and happiest on earth,
which it can never be until it is one of the most temper-
ate. I firmly believe that the general use of light wines
would be one of the chief agents in bringing this about.
I may not live to see it, but after the experience of a
lifetime I have no reason to retract a word that I have
ever written or spoken in the cause of true temperance.
AND WINE MAKING.
257
CHAPTER LV.
EXTENT AND PKOSPECTS OF THE INDUSTBY.
It is difficult to give accurate figures showing the
acreage devoted to grapes in California. Several years
ago the estimated amount was 150,000 acres, of which
about 90,000 acres were in wine grapes and 60,000 in
table and raisin grapes. I do not think the acreage has
changed greatly since then. Thousands of acres have
been destroyed by phylloxera and the Anaheim disease,
but to make up for this other, thousands of acres have
been planted to raisin grapes. The decrease has been
in the acreage of wine grapes, and it is still decreasing.
The magnitude of the wine industry is shown by the
fact that about $60,000,000 are invested in vineyards,
cellars and fixtures, giving employment to about 15,000
persons. I am unable to give exact figures, though the
State Board of Viticulture has tried hard to collect them
every year. They doubtless fall short of the reality, as
many of the small vineyards and cellars are hidden away
in the mountains or little valleys, where they were over-
looked. The following are the estimates, showing the
increase since 1876 :
YEAR.
GALLONS.
YEAR.
GALLONS.
18?6
3,750,000
1885
9,000,000
1877
4,000,000
1886
18,000,000
1878
5,000,000
1887
18,000,000
1879
5,000.000
1888
25,000,000
1880
8,500,000
1889
24,000,000
1881
7,000,000
1890
23,000,000
1882
10,000,000
1891
26,000,000
1883
8,500,000
1892
23,000,000
1884
15,000,000
1893
21,000,000
The extremely low prices which have prevailed during
the last few years have discouraged thousands from
planting, until it now seems that the acreage of wine
grapes would fall off at the rate of 2,000 acres per
17
258 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
annum. Many, despairing of its future, have planted
fruit trees among the failing vines, with the intention of
eradicating the latter. This has been more largely done
in the counties of Napa and Sonoma, which produce the
finest light wines, and only a few have replanted with
resistant vines, trusting to the future to bring a change
for the better. As I am one of those few, I will give
the reasons why I still have faith in the eventual success
of the wine industry here. Though there has been an
overproduction of inferior wines for several years, yet the
consumption of wine is increasing. It has increased
in the State to over six million gallons annually, while
the outside demand has also increased in an equal ratio.
A great deal of inferior wine has been manufactured into
brandy, and thus taken out of the market. The quality
of our wines is improving rapidly, as we cultivate better
varieties of grapes and have learned how to handle them.
The time is not very remote in the future when Califor-
nia wines will have to be sold under their own labels,
instead of those borrowed from the French and Germans,
as has so often been done. The phylloxera, great as have
been its devastations, may prove to be a blessing in dis-
guise, as it will destroy our old vineyards of inferior
varieties, which will be replaced, if at all, by the very
best. Thus, while the quantity may be diminished,
the quality will be improved. And when the demand
exceeds the supply, prices must advance, as they did
in 1878-81, when there was not enough sound wine
in the State to meet the demand. When the new and
increased demand comes, we are ready to meet it with
better wines, which will command better prices and
more permanent sales. At the period referred to there
were but few varieties, limited knowledge and imperfect
apparatus. We certainly can do much better now.
One of the most prominent factors in bringing about
a favorable change is, in my opinion, the wine syndicate,
AND WINE MAKING. 259
comprising a combination of producers and dealers,
which has recently been organized and incorporated
under the name of "California Wine Association," with
a capital stock of $10,000,000. The directors are, Henry
Epstein, Charles Carpy, Henry Kohler, Henry Van Ber-
gen, J. J. Weglein, E. C. Priber, Henry Lachmann, J.
Frauenfeld, A. L. Tubbs, Hans H. Kohler and Percy T.
Morgan, who have taken stock to the amount of $2,600,-
000. Officers of the association : President, C. Carpy ;
Vice Presidents, Henry Epstein, Henry Van Bergen,
Henry Lachmann ; Treasurer, J. Frauenfeld ; Secretary,
Hans H. Kohler. The object of the association is to
control the product of the vineyards in the State. With
this in view they have entered into contracts with the
producers for options on their products wines on hand,
grapes of the coming crops and wines made from them,
for five years. These products are to be delivered at
their destination within a stated time, at prices which
are gradually increased year by year one-third to be
paid on delivery, one-third with acceptance in three,
and the remainder in six months. The wines and grapes
are to be graded in four classes at different prices for
bottom and hill products, and also for different varieties.
Due distinction is thus made as to quality the first
step that has been taken in that direction. This combi-
nation was the outcome of an evident necessity for self-
defense, to save the industry, we may say, from
ruin. Previously every one had acted for himself.
There was no concert; all sold at such prices as they
saw fit, underbidding one another in the market. While
the dealers were engaged in this cut-throat business, the
unfortunate producer was forced to sell to them at such
prices as they felt disposed to offer, which was some-
times far below the cost of production. But the dealers
saw that this could not continue, that they were killing
the goose which had laid golden eggs for them, and that
260 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
they must raise prices to a living basis if the vineyards
were to be kept up. It was very clear to them that their
immense storage houses, casks and machinery, and all
the capital it had cost to build up their trade, would be
wholly unremunerative if the vineyards died out, and
they would be in worse plight than the producers, who
had at least their lands, to cultivate in some other crops.
As about eighty per cent, of the producers have en-
tered into contract with the association, it will be able
to control the market and fix prices. Most of the other
producers will find it to their interest to come in, and
the dealers who are not in the syndicate will also join or
be compelled, at least, to pay the same prices. In this
move I see the dawn of a new and better era in California
grape culture. We have the finest climate in the world,
and are reasonably sure of a fair crop of salable products
every year. There is no apparent reason why this should
not again become, as it once was, a leading industry of
the Golden State.
My task is ended perhaps the last of the kind that I
shall ever undertake. Whether it is well done is for
those to say who read these pages. They may find their
way into many a vintner's cottage, and if faults and
oversights are found in them it is hoped the readers will
think as kindly of the author as he thinks of everyone
who grows the noble grape, and that it may prove help-
ful to them after he has been laid to rest in California's
soil. But while life lasts, so long will continue undimin-
ished his predilection for grapes and wine, and for his
brothers, the producers.
AND WINE MAKING. 261
CHAPTER LVL
WINE SONGS.
"Wine maketh glad the heart of man." Can it sur-
prise us, therefore, if all nations which produce it have
had their poets who glorified it in song, and that sing-
ing and merriment prevail during the vintage ? But
none has more of them than Germany, the fatherland of
song ; while America, the coming Wineland, is singu-
larly deficient in this respect. Let us hope that, when
good wine is more appreciated than it has been so far,
some of our poets will also immortalize it in song. My
poetic vein has long ceased to flow, or I would try. But
at the end of a book devoted to grape culture and wine
making, I cannot forego the pleasure of attaching a few
translations of German songs, nearly as good as the orig-
inal in their quaint humor and deep meaning.
FATHER NOAH, THE FIRST WINE GROWER.
1. When Noah left his floating frame,
Our Lord to Father Noah came.
He prized his pious offering,
And said, " Thou'st done a goodly thing,
And to reward thy piety,
Thou may'st e'en choose a boon from me."
2. Then to the Lord old Noah said,
" The water now tastes rather had,
The whilst there have been drowned therein
All beasts and mankind in their sin.
'Tis therefore, Lord, I even think
I should prefer some other drink."
9. Thereat the Lord to Eden went,
And brought him thence the grapevine's plant,
And gave him counsel and advice
To tend this shrub of Paradise,
And bade him nurse it carefully.
It pleased old Noah wondrously.
262 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
4. He made a solemn household call
And summoned wife and child and all,
And planted vines where'er they'd grow.
Forsooth old Noah was not slow.
He pressed the grape, and built a cave,
And put it into casks to save.
5. Old Noah, grateful for the boon,
Cask upon cask did open soon ;
And with sincerest piety,
Did empty them most willingly ;
And drank yet, since the flood was o'er,
Three hundred years, and fifty more.
6. This to each prudent man does show,
From drinking wine no harm can flow,
And Christian folks it warns, moreo'er,
No water in their wine to pour,
The whilst there have been drowned therein
All beasts and mankind in their sin.
(from the German of Kopish, translated by J. A. Schmidt.)
NOAH'S LEGACY.
1. When Noah felt approach his end
He said, " I'll make my testament."
He counted over all his stocks,
His cattle, donkeys, goats and bucks,
The sheep, camels, and all the rest
With which so richly he was blest.
2. This done, he said, " I wish to see,
At once, my friend the notary."
To him he spoke, " You shall divide
My property. Now do it right ;
Let all my children have their share,
And take, yourself, what's just and fair."
3. Thus they divided all. But still,
Before the lawyer signed the will
(He was, as clerks in average,
Fond of a pleasant beverage),
He said : " But now, beloved sir,
Who of your wine shall be the heir?"
4. Said Noah : "In daylight and here
We can't decide that question, dear!
Let to the cellar us descend
And see, how there, the case may stand.
AND WINE MAKING.
Don't fear pains." " What my duty is,"
The lawyer said, " I never miss."
5. A generous man old Noah was,
And freely filled the lawyer's glass.
They drew a sample everywhere,
They tasted here, they tasted there;
And when they had the stock gone through,
Took an inventory anew.
6. Back came to Noah youth and life,
He thought no more of child and wife.
" Dear.friend," said he, " now put thatgdown,
And head it with a golden crown.
Of all the wine that here you see,
The human race the heir shall he.
7. " No death bells ! Let the goblets ring,
And jolly boys my requiem sing.
Each cask filled with the golden wine
Shall be a monument of mine.
Write this, and make, dear notary,
Eternal thus my memory."
(German text by Oruner, translated by J. A. Schmidt.)
There is a deep significance to me in the following, as
I look back through the past, and think of the genial
spirit now laid at rest, old "Father Muench," as he was
familiarly called by his friends, to the closer circle of
whom it was my privilege to belong. One of the pio-
neers of German descent in Missouri, who served his
adopted country in its legislative halls through all the
stormy period of the late war, and yet more by his nu-
merous writings in various fields of literature, he was
one of the first who followed the then new industry of
grape culture ; and his earliest beginnings date back to
1846. His "American Vintner's School," a text-book
for the beginner, attained a deserved popularity, and
was translated from the German into English. Many
pleasant hours have we spent together at his homestead
and at mine. At my farewell visit in 1881, he expressed
the wish to "die in harness/' without any previous ill-
264 AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
ness. His wish was gratified by an all-wise Providence.
He was found dead among his heloved vines, one fine win-
ter's morning of that year, with the pruning shears still
in his hand, in his 84th year. Peace be to his memory.
One of the best and most genial of men, he yet lives
eternal in the memory of his many friends.
AMERICAN VINTNER'S SONG.
BY FREDERICK MUENCH (FAR WEST).
(Translated from the German by Mrs. Wlstar.)
Plant the vine ! Plant the vine !
Generous fount of ruby wine!
In the sunlight gladly playing,
Richly all your toil repaying,
Will the smiling clusters shine.
Eve and dawn! Eve and dawn!
Still must find us working on,
Digging, cutting, pruning, binding,
Round their props the tendrils twining,
Sweet the mite of labor done.
Sun and air ! Sun and air !
Leafy green and odors fair ;
Then the berries, luscious treasure,
Fill the inmost soul with pleasure,
Leaves and fruit and blossoms fair,
Then at last ! Then at last !
Left below, our labors past,
Let us, o'er the mountains straying,
Where the air's mild breath is playing,
Down the vale our glances cast.
Gather in ! Gather in !
Let our harvest now begin.
Now the purple juice, dark glowing,
Full and free, in streams is flowing.
Young and old, come, gather in.'
Hear it foam ! Hear it foaml
Surging in its narrow home ;
Let it seethe and bubble rightly
Till it sparkles, clear and brightly
Here within its narrow home.
AND WINE MAKING. 365
Now come on ! Now come on I
For our hardest task is done.
Now we pour the wine's rich treasure,
Gods might envy us the pleasure ;
Clink your glasses, every one.
Freedom's landl Freedom's land!
Where anon my home I planned;
Lo, I drink to thee, brave nation;
Comrades, join in this ovation:
Hail, our chosen Fatherland!
266
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
INDEX.
Page
Acidimeter, Twitchell's ...145, 161
yEstivalis class 8, 188
" " for wines 10, 146
Aging wines 253
American grapes, must of 168
" varieties of grapes.. 4, 10
" wines, future of '-'58
Anthracnpse 71, 222
Arbors, vines upon 58
Arizonica Vitis 189
Bailey, Prof. L. H., on grape
training 62
Bailey, Prof. L. H., on girdling, 108
Barnes, "NY. D., Hudson River
district 101
Baskets for marketing 107, 135
Bander, D., Central New Y 7 ork
district 99
Bitter rot in California 222
Black rot 67
" " in Hudson River vine-
yards 105
Bordeaux mixture 67, 100, 114
Bottling wine T~3
Brandy 2^
Buchatt, Col., girdling 85
Bugs 82
California, cultivation of
grapes in 213-221
California grapes for wines, 199-210
" " market,210-212
" raisin making in, 228-233
wine making . . 236-248
" " industry 257-261
California, Vitis 189
Campbell, (4eo. W-, Central Ohio
district 91
Catawba must 171-175
Cashin's grape training 66
Casks 143
Cellars, wine 139, 237
Cellar implements 249
Central New York grape dis-
trict 99-101
Champagne, New York 99
California 247
Champin graft 21
Chautauqua grape belt 131
Page
Chemicals, fining with 251
Choice of varieties 29,40, 198
Cions 17, 23
Clarification 250
Classes of grapes, Munson's 6
Cleft graft, English 20
Colman, Hon. Norman J 67
Concord, introduction of 102
" must gallrzed 146,158
" vines, training of 47
Cordif olia class g
" for wines 10, 175
" phylloxera proof ... 75
Coulure 221
Cuttings 13
" grafted 16
Cutworm, gray 80
Decrease i n vigor 57
" of viticulture in Cal-
ifornia 257
Department of Agriculture 67
Delaware vines, training of 47
Desirable varieties 30
Discarded " 30
Diseases of vines 67-75
" " along Hudson
river 105
Diseases of vines in Missouri, 113-115
" " in California, 221
" of wine 155
Downy mildew 69
Eastern methods of grape cul-
ture 187
Eastern varieties of grapes. . .29, 40
Eau Celeste 98
Eggs, in wine making 252
Engel man n's, Dr., classification, 4
European vines 4, 187
Extent of California grape in-
dustry 257
Fermentation 148
changes caused, 163- 166
" second 154
Fermenting vats 143
" on the husks 156
Filtering wine 250
Fining with chemicals 261
AND WINE MAKING.
267
Page
Fortified wines .................. 245
Fruit, thinning .................. 86
Frosts ............................ 83
Fungicides ....................... 67
Gall, Dr., on wine making ...... 157
Gallizing ..................... 158, 168
' J elat i ne in wine making ....... 251
Girdling .......................... 85
(ioblet pruning, or stool ........ 216
(i rafting, advantages of ........ 16
best time for ......... 17
" methods of ........... 18
" i 11 California vine-
yards ...................... 196-198
Grape culture in California 187
in Central N. Y. 99
" in Central Ohio, 91
" " in Chautauqua
belt ........................... 131
Grape culture in Hudson river
valley ........................ 101
Grape culture in Mississippi. . . 117
" in Missouri... 110, 116
" " in New Mexico.. 119
" on Rio Grande .. 123
" " in Southern
Texas ..................... 121, 124
Grapes, Munson's classification 6-7
" Engelmsnn's " 4
" European in California, 187
" for California wines, 183,185
" forP^astern wines. ...199-210
" preparing soil for ...... 27
" east of Rocky moun-
tains ........................ 29, 40
Grapes, kinds promising well, 31
" time to gather. . . 146, 239
" what to plant ........... 29
Grape cuttings .................. 13
cure ...................... 235
milk ...................... 234
" seeds ..................... 5, 10
" sugar ..................... 177
syrup ..................... 234
Gray cutworm ................... 80
Half long training in Califor-
nia ............... . ............ 217
Horizontal-arm training ........ 61
Husks and iees .............. 153, 156
Implements used in California
vineyards . .. ................ 213
Infested vineyards, restoring.. 225
Insects injurious to the grape, 75
" aphis ..................... 81
" beetles ................... 80
" bees ...................... 82
" camel cricket ........... 82
" cutworm .............. 80, 223
" grapevine fidia .......... 81
" sphinx ....... 81
leaf folders .............. 80
hlloxera .............. 76
ky mountain locust. 81
Page
Insects,thrips .., 81
" wasps 82
Isinglass in wine making 251
Jaeger, Herman, viticulture in
iMissouri 119
Jaeger 011 mildew and rot 113
Keuka Lake vineyards 99
Kniffeii system of training.. 62, 103
" " modifications
of 104
Labrusca class 8
Laterals, treatment of 53 55
Layers, propagation by 15
Leaves, spraying 106
" disease of 68
Location for vineyards 25
Marketing grapes 226
Martin, Geo. A., Chautauqua
grape belt 131
Mill for grapes 143, 148
Mississippi, grape growing in . . 117
Missouri, grape growing in 110
Mildew and ioi,treatmeiitof ,131,221
' downy 69
" powdery 70
Must,its change in to wine,150,154,163
American grape 168
California grape 242
Normal 159, 167
Must-scale 144, 160
New Mexico, grape growing in, 119
New varieties, Munson's 124
no, g
tral.
rape growing in Cen-
phyll
Rock
Old vines, renewing of 87
Packages for marketing 108, 227
Peronospora 221
Phylloxera, life history of 77-79
Pinching 52
Planting the vines 41
" in California 194
Pleasant Valley Wine Co 99
Powdery mildew 70
Press for grapes 142
Propagation by cuttings 13
by grafting 16
by layers.. 15
" by seeds 10
Protection in winter 83
Pruning and training 47
Pruning saw 88
" shears 87
Racking the wine 152
Raisin making 228
Rio Grande, grape growing on, 123
Riley,Prof.C.V.,on phylloxera, 76
Riparia class, Engelmann 4, 10
" seeds of
268
AMERICAN GRAPE GROWING
Page
Ripening, girdling to hasten, 85, 109
Roi .. bitter 72
" black 67
" ripe 73
" treatment of 113
Rougeot 72
Saccharometer 144, 160
Seeds, propagation by 10
Seedlings 12
Sherry grapes and wine 207-209
Soil and local ion 25
Soil preparation 27
Spores 68
Spraying, value of 73-75
Stocks, resistant grape 187
vinifera 187
Vitis ^stiv^iis 188
>i Arizonica. 189
" " Californica 189
" Riparia 188
" " Rnpestris 188
Texas, grape growing in south-
ern 121
Thinning the fruit 86
Training the vines 48
" vines on arbors and
walls 58
Training vines in California, 215-219
" " in Central X. Y., 60
" " in Chaulauqua
belt 133
Training vines in Hudson River
valley 103
Training vines, Kniifen system, 62
" " Munson system, 62
Trellis 45
Tying vines 51
Urbana Wine Co 99
Vacancies in vineyard, fill 47
Vats for carrying grapes 147
" fermenting 143
Varieties, Munson's new 124
America 125
Beacon 126
Brilliant 124
Carman 127
Delicious 127
Fern Munson, 130
Gold Coin 129
Laussell 130
Muench 129
Rommell 125
" W. B. Munson 129
Varieties, Standard : Catawba,
Concord, Cynthiana, Dela-
ware, Elvira, Goethe, Herbe-
mont, Herbert, Lady, Lind-
ley, Martha, Norton's Vir-
ginia, Poc kl in gton , Tri-
umph, Wilder 30-31
Varieties promising well : Bar-
ry, Bay State, Black Defi-
ance, Colerain, Diamond,
Page
Duchess, Early Ohio, Eaton,
Eclipse, Early Victor, Em-
pire State, Eureka, Exqui-
site, Geneva, Green Moun-
tain, Hayes, Hosford, Ideal,
Jewel, Jumbo, Keystone,
Lightfoot, Magnate, Match-
less, Mills, Montefiore, Ni-
agara, (Jwego, U s w ego,
Ozark, Paragon, Perfection,
Rochester, Selma, Superb,
Thomas, Ulster Prolific.Ver-
gennes,WhiteBeauty, White
Jewel, Willie, Witt, Wood-
ruff Red 31-40
Varieties commonly grown in
Central X. Y. : Concord, Ca-
tawba, Delaware, Isabella,
Clinton, Ives, Diana. Elvira,
Ion a, Eurnelan, Niagara,
Norton, Moore's Diamond.. 99
Varieties commonly grown in
Central Ohio : Concord, Del-
aware, Moore's Early, Wor-
den, Lady, Colerain, Eaton,
Vergennes 91-95
Varieties commonly grown in
the Chautauqua belt : Con-
cord, Moore's Early, Cham-
pion, Catawba, Wyoming
Red, Pocklington, Niagara,
Agawam, De I a w a re and
Martha in order named .132-133
Varieties grown in Hudson Riv-
er valley: Concord, Cham-
pion, Cottage, Brighton, Bac-
chus, Delaware, Elvira, Em-
pire State,Hart ford, Moore's
Early, Martha, Niagara,
Pocklington, Duchess, Wor-
den, Wyoming Red and Ul-
ster 103
Varieties grown in Mississippi
for market: Champion, Del-
aware, Herbemont, Ives,
Moore's Early, Niagara and
Perkins. For table use:
Brilliant, Delaware, Gold
Coin, Green Mountain, Her-
man Jaeger, Moyer, Nellie
Munson and Rommell. For
wine making : Scupper-
nong 118
Varieties grown in Missouri:
See Herman Jaeger's list of
seedlings and hybrids . ..111-116
Varieties grown in New Mexico,
principally Mission grape,
also Muscat of Alexandria,
Rose of Peru and Black Bur-
gundy 119
Varieties grown on Rio Grande :
Muscat of Alexandria, To-
kay, Black Morocco, Rose of
Peru, Black Hamburg and
Zinfandel 123
AND WINE MAKING.
269
Page
Varieties grown in Southern
Texas: Herbemont, Black
Spanish, Black Eagle, Black
July, Concord, Fontaine-
bleau, Black Morocco, Black
Prince, El Paso and Malaga, 121
Varieties grown in California:
for market 210
for red wine 199
for white wine 202
for sherry 207
Vines to plant 29
" treatment first summer.. 44
" " second " 47
" " third 51
" " fourth " 5G
Vineyard, planting of, in the
East 25,41
Vineyard, planting of, in Cali-
fornia 194
Vineyard, cultivation of ...196, 213
" location and soil 190
restoring infected... 225
" selection of Eastern
varieties 29
Vineyard, selection of Europe-
an varieties 198
Page
Wine, American grapes for 146
aging 253
bottling 253
cellar 139
diseases 155
flat and turbid 155
grapes for 199-210
pure 254
racking 152
red 243
sparkling 99, 247
sweet, or fortified 245
white 241
making in California.... 236
*' Eastern States, 148
" filtering and fin-
ing 250
Wine making, Gall's and Peti-
ol's method 157
Wine making made easy 180
" " sugar and watei in 164
" association 259
" industry, extent of 257
" songs 261
Winter protection 83, 224
Wires for trellis 45, 134
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Hew methods in education
Art, Real Manual Training. Nature Study. Explaining Processes t
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By 1* Liberty tadfl
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BASED on twenty-two years' experience with thousands of
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the leaves and flowers ; a system that teachesthe pupils thatthey
are in th( plan and part of life, and enables them to work out
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Over the Tadd methods which this book enables them to put into
practice. Not a hackneyed thought nor a stale picture. Fresh,
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FREDERICK \VINSOR-Head master The Country School for Boy H of Baltimore
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1811 Sch001 ' K c " y -
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College.
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my and Profit in My uarcren.
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American Fruit Culturist.
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Grape Culturist.
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How Crops Grow.
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Market Gardening and Farm Notes.
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The Fruit Garden.
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The Nut Culturist.
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American Grape Growing: and Wine Making.
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Treat's Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden.
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Harris on the Pig.
By Joseph Harris. New editldR. Revised and enlarged
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Pear Culture for Profit.
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I'he Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and
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Money in the Garden.
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