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PUBLIC  LIBRARY 
FORT  WAYNE  C  ALLEN  GO.  INt) 


GENEAL.Ut,y    COLLECTION 


3ASEMENT 


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GENEALOGY 
973.006 

I39292A 
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THE 

AMERICAN  HISTORICAL 
REVIEW 


BOARD  OF  EDITORS 
CARL  BECKER  WILLIAM    E.   DODD 

ARCHIBALD  C.    COOLIDGE  GUY   S.    FORD 

J.   FRANKLIN   JAMESON 


MANAGING  EDITOR 
J.  FRANKLIN  JAMESON 


VOLUME  XXVII 
OCTOBER    192 1    TO   JULY    1922 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  Ltd. 
1922 


122984 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  XXVII 


ARTICLES 

Edwakd  R.  Turner 


October,  192 


English  Coal  Industry  in  the  Sev- 
enteenth and  Eighteenth  Cen- 


Carl    Becker 
Fiske  Kimbal 


NOTES  AND  SUGGESTIONS 
J.   F.  Jameson 

Verner  W.  Crane 

DOCUMENT— Journal    of   a    French 
REVIEWS   OF  BOOKS 
HISTORICAL  NEWS        . 


A  Letter  from  Danton  to  Mane 
Antoinette     .... 

Architecture  in  the  History  of 
the  Colonies  and  of  the  Re- 
public .... 

The  Anglo-American  Conference 
of    Professors    of    History 

The  Philanthropists  and  the  Gen- 
esis   of    Georgia    . 
Traveller   in   the    Colonies,    1765,    II. 


ARTICLES 

Dexter   Perkins 


Herbert   D.   Foster 


DOCUMENT— Washington    in    1834: 


REVIEWS    OF   BOOKS 
HISTORICAL    NEWS 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and 
the  Monroe  Doctrine      . 

Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  as 
reported  by  an  American  Dip- 
lomat .... 

Webster's      Seventh      of      March 
Speech     and     the     Secession 
Movement,    1S50    . 
Letter    of    Robert    C.    Caldwell,    con- 
tributed by  George  M.  Whicher 


Number  3.     April,  1922 


J.  J.  Jusserand 
Samuel  F.   Bemis 

NOTES  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

James   T.  Adams 
John    C.    Fitzpatrick 

Edgar  Dawson 


The     Meeting     of    the     American 

Historical    Association   at   St. 

Louis  .... 

The    School    for    Ambassadors 

Jay's    Treaty    and    the    Northwest 

Boundary    Gap 

On   the   Term   "  British    Empire  " 
A    Rough    Secret    Journal    of    the 

Continental    Congress    . 
National    Council    for    the    Social 

Studies  .... 


Contents 


DOCUMENTS— Lord   Sackville's   Papers  respecting  Virginia,    1613-1631,   I.  493 

REVIEWS    OF   BOOKS 539 

COMMUNICATION 626 

HISTORICAL   NEWS 627 


Number  4.     July,   1922 
ARTICLES 

Charles   H.   Haskins  Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Em- 

peror   Frederick    II.        .  .      669 

N.  S.  B.  Gras  The  Development  of  Metropolitan 

Economy      in      Europe      and 
America         ....      695 
Louis   M.   Sears  Slidell    and    Buchanan  .  .      709 

NOTES  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

D.  C.   Munro  Did   the   Emperor   Alexius   I.   ask 

for    Aid    at    the    Council    of 
Piacenza,     1095?  .  .      731 

William   H.   Allison  The  First  Endowed  Professorship 

of   History   and   its   First   In- 
cumbent        .  .  .  .733 
DOCUMENTS— Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia,   1613-1631,  II.     73S 

REVIEWS  OF  BOOKS 766 

HISTORICAL    NEWS 838 

INDEX  874 


INDEX 

AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

VOLUME  XXVII 


The    names    of    contributors   are    printed    in    small    capitals.     (R)    indicates 
that  the  contribution   is  a  review. 


Abbott,  F.  F.,  (R)  Petersson's  "Cic- 
ero ",  97. 
Abbott,  W.  C,  (R)  Rawlinson's  "Brit- 
ish Beginnings  in  Western  India", 
144;  (R)  Foster's  "Early  Travels 
in  India,  1583-1619  ",  296;  (R) 
Foster's  "  English  Factories  in  In- 
dia, 1655-1660",  296;  (R)  Post- 
gate's  "Revolution  from  1789  to 
1906  ",    554- 

Constitutional  History 
reviewed,   106. 
Baxter,   prize,   award- 


Adams,  G:  B 

of  England 
Adams,   Herb 

ed,  421. 
Adams,  J.  T.,  "  Founding  of  New  Eng- 


On  the  Term 

485-489;     (R) 

of    Long    Is- 

by      Holland 


Mitch- 


land  ",  reviewed, 
"  British  Empire 
Gabriel's  "  Evolu 
land  ",   614. 

"  Age      of      Inventic 

Thompson,   reviewed,   623 

Agricultural   history,   papers 

"Air  Force,  Our",  by   Will 
ell,    reviewed,   599. 

Aiton,   A.   S.,   paper  by,   411. 

Aiyangar,  S.  K.,  "  South  India  and  her 
Muhammadan  Invaders  ",  reviewed, 
825. 

Alexander   I.,    Russia,   214,   216,   218. 

Alexius  I.j  and  the  Council  of  Pia- 
cenza,    731-733- 

Alington,  Cyril,  "  Twenty  Years :  the 
Party  System,  1815-1835  ",  reviewed, 
35°- 

"  Allied  Shipping  Control :  an  Experi- 
ment in  International  Administra- 
tion ",  by  J.  A.  Salter,  reviewed,  565. 

Allison,  J.  M.  S.,  paper  by,  414. 

(874) 


Allison,  W:  H.,  The  First  Endowed 
Professorship  of  History  and  its 
First  Incumbent,  733-737- 

Alvord,  C.  W.,  paper  by,  415;  (ed.) 
"  Governor  Edward  Coles ",  re- 
viewed, 615. 

Ambassadors,  School  for,  by  J.  J. 
Jusserand,    426-464. 

America,  Development  of  Metropol- 
itan Economy  in  Europe  and,  by  N. 
S.  B.  Gras,  695-708. 

"  American  Church  History,  Source 
Book  for  ",  by  P.  G.  Mode,  reviewed, 
582. 

American  Geographical  Society,  "  Re- 
search Series  ",  no.  3,  reviewed,  563. 

American  Historical  Association,  "  An- 
nual Report  ",  1918,  I.,  reviewed, 
602;  II.,  "Autobiography  of  Martin 
Van  Buren  ",  ed.  J :  C.  Fitzpatrick, 
reviewed,    133. 

American  Historical  Association,  Meet- 
ing at  St.  Louis,  405-425  ;  diversity 
of  programme,  405 ;  meetings  of 
other  historical  societies,  406 ;  en- 
tertainments, 406-407 ;  conference  on 
teaching  of  history  in  schools,  408; 
of  archivists,  408 ;  of  historical  so- 
cieties, 409;  luncheon  conferences. 
409-411;  papers  on  history  of  civ- 
ilization, 411-412;  on  economic  his- 
tory, 412;  on  ancient  history,  412; 
on  medieval  history,  413;  on  history 
of  France,  413;  on  Europe  after 
Congress  of  Vienna,  414;  on  mil- 
itary history,  414;  on  American  his- 
tory, 415-419;  business  meeting, 
419;    treasurer's    report,    420,    422- 


America  875 

dian  Magazine,  April)  ;  Sir  John  Willison,  The  Correspondence  of  Sir 
John  A.  Macdonald  (Dalhousie  Review,  April);  T.  T.  Waterman,  The 
Geographic  Names  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  Coast  (Geographic 
Review,  April)  ;  H.  de  Hoon,  La  Doctrine  de  Monroe  (Revue  de  l'Uni- 
versite  de  Bruxelles,  December,  1921-January,  1922)  ;  C.  E.  Chapman,  A 
Monroe  Doctrine  Divided  (Political  Science  Quarterly,  March);  H.  T. 
Collings,  The  Economic  Basis  of  Federation  in  Central  America  (Amer- 
ican Economic  Review,  March,  Supplement)  ;  F.  G.  de  Valle,  Paginas 
para  la  Historia  de  Cuba:  Document os  para  la  Biografia  de  Jose  de  la 
Lus  y  Caballero  (Cuba  Contemporanea,  April,  May)  ;  L.  M.  Perez,  Las 
Relaciones  Economicas  entre  Cuba  y  los  Estados  Unidos  (ibid.,  April)  ; 
Julio  Tello,  Prehistoric  Peru  (Inter- America,  April)  ;  C.  A.  Vivanco, 
The  Ecuadorian  Campaign,  1821-1822,  II.  (ibid.,  June)  ;  A.  de  Galvao 
Bueno,  The  Bandeirantes:  their  Deeds  and  Descendants  (Bulletin  of 
the  Pan-American  Union,  May). 


Index 


875 


423 ;  constitutional  amendment,  420, 
421 ;  reports  of  committees,  420 ; 
officers    and    committees,    423-425. 

"American  History,  Study  of",  by 
Viscount   Bryce,   reviewed,   826. 

"  American  Philosophy  of  Govern- 
ment ",  by  A.  H.  Snow,  reviewed, 
826. 

"  American  Portrait  Painters  in  Min- 
iature, Early ",  by  Theodore  Bolton, 
reviewed,   615. 

"  American  Railroad  Problem  :  a  Study 
in  War  and  Reconstruction ",  by  I. 
L.  Sharfman,  reviewed,  597. 

"  American  Revolution,  Artemas  Ward, 
the  First  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  ",  by  Charles  Martyn,  reviewed, 
362. 

American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
at  Athens,  publication  reviewed,  810. 

American  Society  of  Church  History, 
"  Papers ",  2d  ser.  VI.,  reviewed, 
157- 

"  American  Spirit  in  Education  ",  by 
E.   E.   Slosson,   reviewed,   622. 

"  American  Treaties,  Leading  ",  by  C  : 
E.   Hill,   reviewed,   827. 

Ancient  history,  Bouchier's  "  Short 
History  of  Antioch  ",  reviewed,  96  ; 
papers   on,  412. 

Anderson,  D.  R.,  (R)  Farrand's  Fa- 
thers of  the  Constitution  ",  585  ;  (R) 
Johnson's  "  Jefferson  and  his  Col- 
leagues ",   585. 

Anderson,  F.  M.,  (R)  Moon's  "Labor 
Problem  and  the  Social  Catholic 
Movement  in  France",  310;  (R) 
Simond's  "  Histoire  de  la  Troisieme 
Republique",  I.-III.,  353;  (R)  Seig- 
nobos's  "  L'Evolution  de  la  Troisieme 
Republique  "     (Lavisse,    VIII.),    560. 

Anderson,  William,  "  History  of  the 
Constitution  of  Minnesota  ",  re- 
viewed,  367. 

Andrassy,  Julius,  count,  "  Diplomacy 
and   War ",   reviewed,   795. 

Andrews,  C  :  M.,  investigations  by,  415  ; 
(ed.)  "  Journal  of  a  Lady  of  Qual- 
ity ",   reviewed,  801. 

Andrews,  Evangeline  W.,  (ed.)  "Jour- 
nal of  a  Lady  of  Quality  ",  reviewed, 


Anglo-American  Conference  of  Pro- 
fessors of  History,  58-63. 

Anne  of  Beaujeu,  Bridge's  "  History 
of  France  from  the  Death  of  Louis 
XL",  I.,  reviewed,  816. 

Anthropology,  Murray's  "  Witch-Cult 
in   Western   Europe  ",  reviewed,   780. 

"  Antioch,  Short  History  of  ",  by  E.  S. 
Bouchier,   reviewed,  96. 

"  Arabian  Medicine ",  by  E :  G. 
Browne,   reviewed,   338. 

"  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  1821- 
1921  ",  by  J  :  H.  Lamott,  reviewed, 
159. 

Architecture  in  the  History  of  the  Col- 
onies and  of  the  Republic,  by  Fiske 
Kimball,  47-57 ;  art  a  significant 
aspect  of  American  development,  47  ; 
misconceptions  of  colonial  architec- 
ture, 48-50 ;  comparison  with  hum- 
bler contemporary  English  homes, 
50-53 ;  churches,  materials,  53-55 ; 
classicism  of  early  republic,  our  real 
national  contribution,  56-57. 

Archivists,  conference  of,  408. 

Armament,  Conference  on  the  Limita- 
tion of,  Willoughby's  "  China  at  the 
Conference  ",  reviewed,  798. 

Army,  British,  Atkinson's  "  Marlbor- 
ough and  the  Rise  of  the  British 
Army  ",   reviewed,   790. 

"Art  of  War  in  Italy,  1494-1529",  by 
F.  L.  Taylor,  reviewed,   144. 

Askenazy,  Simon,  "  Prince  Joseph 
Poniatowski  ",    reviewed,   821. 

Atkinson,  C.  T.,  "  Marlborough  and 
the  Rise  of  the  British  Army  ",  re- 
viewed,  790. 

"  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe,  Macmil- 
lan's  Historical  ",  ed.  F.  J.  C.  Hearn- 
shaw,  reviewed,   143. 

"  Ausland  im  Weltkrieg:  seine  innere 
Entwicklung  seit  19 14  ",  I.,  reviewed, 
153. 

Austria,  attitude  toward  Spanish-Amer- 
ican states,  208,  212-214;  Windisch- 
graetz's  "  My  Memoirs  ",  reviewed, 
318;  Count  Andrassy's  "Diplomacy 
and  War  ",  reviewed,  795  ;  Kanner's 
"  Kaiserliche  Katastrophenpolitik  ", 
reviewed,    824. 

Aviation,  Mitchell's  "  Our  Air  Force  ", 
reviewed,   599. 


876 


Index 


Babcock,  K.  C,  (R)  Wood's  "  Select 
British  Documents  of  the  Canadian 
War  of  1812",  I.,  588;  (R)  Fol- 
well's  "  History  of  Minnesota ",  I., 
807. 

Baldwin,  J.  F.,  (R)  Pollard's  "  Evo- 
lution of  Parliament",  10S;  (R) 
"  Oxford  Studies  in  Social  and  Le- 
gal History",  VI.,  548;  (R)  Reid's 
"  King's  Council  in  the  North  ",  550. 

Baluze,  Etienne,  "  Vitae  Paparum 
Avenionensium  ",  I.,  III.,  reviewed, 
605. 

Barbour,  Violet,  (R)  Higham's  "  De- 
velopment of  the  Leeward  Islands 
under   the   Restoration  ",    162. 

Barnes,  H.  E.,  paper  by,  412;  "Social 
History  of  the  Western  World  ",  re- 
viewed,  603. 

Barrington,  Daines,  (trans.)  Mou- 
relle's  "  Voyage  of  the  Sonora  ",  re- 
viewed,  360. 

"  Bataille  devant  Souville  ",  by  Henri 
Bordeaux,    reviewed,    155. 

Bates,  A.  C,  (ed.)  "Pitkin  Papers", 
reviewed,   833. 

Bates,  F.  G.,  (R)  Buffalo  Historical 
Society,  "  Publications  ",  XXIV.,  158. 

"  Battlefields  of  the  World  War,  West- 
ern and  Southern  Fronts ",  by  D. 
W.   Johnson,   reviewed,   563. 

Batz,  Baron,  plot,  32,  39. 

Baxter,  J.   P.,  deceased,   165. 

Beardsley,  F.  G.,  "  Builders  of  a  Na- 
tion :  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  ",  reviewed. 
360. 

Becker,  Carl,  A  Letter  from  Danton 
to  Marie  Antoinette,  24-46 ;  inves- 
tigations by,  415. 

Bedier,  Joseph,  "  Histoire  de  la  Nation 
Franchise  ",  XII.,  reviewed,   547. 

Beer,   George  Louis,  prize,  421. 

Belgian  History,  Royal  Commission  of, 
Grob's  "  Denombrements  des  Feux 
des  Duche  de  Luxembourg  et  Comte 
de   Chiny  ",   I.,   reviewed,   777. 

Belgium,  Pirenne's  "Histoire  de  Bel- 
gique ",  V.,  reviewed,  294 ;  Van  der 
Essen's  "  L'Universite  de  Louvain  ", 
reviewed,   341. 

Bell,  J.  C,  "  Opening  a  Highway  to 
the   Pacific",   reviewed,   331. 


Belmont,  August,   714. 

Bemis,  S :  F.,  Jay's  Treaty  and  the 
Northwest    Boundary    Gap,    465-484. 

Benns,  F.  L.,  awarded  Justin  Winsor 
Prize,   421. 

Benton,  Thomas   Hart,   709,   725. 

Berdahl,  C.  A.,  "War  Powers  of  the 
Executive  in  the  United  States ", 
reviewed,   330. 

Berr,  Henri,  (ed.)  "  L'Evolution  de 
l'Humanite  ",  reviewed,   539. 

Bethmann  Hollweg,  Th.  von,  "  Be- 
trachtungen  zum  Weltkriege ",  pt. 
II.,    reviewed,    610. 

"  Betrachtungen  zum  Weltkriege  ",  pt. 
II.,  by  Th.  von  Bethmann  Hollweg, 
reviewed,   610. 

"  Big  Four  and  Others  of  the  Peace 
Conference  ",  by  Robert  Lansing,  re- 
viewed,  612. 

Bigelow,  John,  (R)  Vignaud's  "  Le 
Vrai    Christophe    Colomb  ",    577. 

Bismarck,    Otto    von,   prince,   462,   463. 

"  Bismarck,  Der  Missverstandene  ",  by 
Otto   Hammann,   reviewed,    152. 

"  Bismarck,  Kaiser  vs.",  introd.  C :  D. 
Hazen,  reviewed,   11S. 

Bixio,  Col.  Nino,  231. 

Blegen,  C.  W.,  "  Korakou  ",  reviewed, 
810. 

Blegen,  T.  C,  paper  by,  417. 

Bliss,  F:  J.,  (R)  Bouchier's  "Short 
History   of   Antioch ",   96. 

Boak,  A.  E.  R.,  paper  by,  412. 

Bogart,  E.  L.,  "  Modern  Common- 
wealth ",   reviewed,   806. 

Boissy  d'Anglas,  F.  A.  de,  "  Memoirs  ", 
33. 

Bolton,  H.  E.,  "  Spanish  Borderlands  ", 
reviewed,   580. 

Bolton,  Theodore,  "  Early  American 
Portrait  Painters  in  Miniature  ",  re- 
viewed, 615. 

"  Bolts,  William,  a  Dutch  Adventur- 
er ",  by  N.  L.  Hallward,  reviewed, 
348. 

Bonatti,  Guido,   682-683. 

Bond,   B.  W.,  jr.,  paper  by,  411. 

"  Boot  and  Shoe  Industry  in  Massa- 
chusetts before  1875,  Organization 
of  the  ",   by   Blanche  E.   Hazard,  re- 


Index 


877 


Booth,  Cecily,  "  Cosimo  I.,  Duke  of 
Florence  ",  reviewed,  343. 

Bordeaux,  Henri,  "  Bataille  devant 
Souville  ",   reviewed,    155. 

Bouchier,  E.  S.,  "  Short  History  of 
Antioch  ",   reviewed,   96. 

Boundaries,  Bemis's  Jay's  Treaty  and 
the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap,  465- 
484. 

Bourne,  H:  E.,  (R)  Caiman's  "  Ledru- 
Rollin  apres  1848",  151;  (R)  La- 
visse's  "  Histoire  de  France  Con- 
temporaine ",    I.,    II.,    301. 

Bowman,  Isaiah,  "New  World:  Prob- 
lems in  Political  Geography ",  re- 
viewed,  56S. 

Boyd,  W :  K.,  (R)  "Journal  of  a  Lady 
of  Quality  ",  801. 

Braun,  Conrad,  435,  440. 

Bray,  Rev.  Thomas,  63-69. 

Brazil,  Wat j  en's  "  Das  Hollandische 
Kolonialreich  in  Brasilien  ",  re- 
viewed,  836. 

Breasted,  J.  H.,  address  by,  410;  paper 
by,   411. 

Breck,  Edward,  (R)  Hurd's  "  Mer- 
chant Navy",  I.,  122;  (R)  Corbett's 
"Naval  Operations",  II.,  562. 

Breckinridge,  J  :   C,   724. 

Bridge,  J :  S.  C,  "  History  of  France 
from  the  Death  of  Louis  XI.",  I., 
reviewed,   816. 

"  British  Archives,  Repertory  of  ",  pt. 
I.,  comp.  Hubert  Hall,  reviewed,  813. 

"  British  Beginnings  in  Western  India, 
1579-1657  ",  by  H.  G.  Rawlinson,  re- 
viewed,   144. 

"British  Empire",  On  the  Term,  by 
J.  T.  Adams,  485-489. 

"  British  Policy  and  Opinion  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  ",  by  Dora 
N.    Raymond,    reviewed,    352. 

Britsch,  Amedee,  "  Marechal  Lyautey  ", 
reviewed,   356. 

Broadus,  E.  K.,  ."  Laureateship  ",  re- 
viewed,   814. 

Browne,  E :  G,  "  Arabian  Medicine  ", 
reviewed,   338. 

Broxap,  Ernest,  (ed.)  "  Chetham  Mis- 
cellanies ",    IV.,   reviewed,   340. 

Bruce,  P.  A.,  "  University  of  Vir- 
ginia ",  III.,  IV.,  reviewed,   132;   (R) 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 58. 


Riley's  "  General  Robert  E.  Lee  after 
Appomattox  ",   830. 

Brunet,  Rene,  "  La  Constitution  Alle- 
mande  du  11  Aout  1919  ",  reviewed, 
357- 

Bryce,  James,  viscount,  deceased,  628; 
"  Modern  Democracies ",  reviewed, 
91;  "International  Relations",  re- 
viewed, 766 ;  "  Study  of  American 
History  ",    reviewed,   826. 

Buchanan,  Slidell  and,  by  L.  M.  Sears, 
709-730. 

"  Buddhism,  Hinduism  and ",  by  Sir 
Charles  Eliot,   reviewed,  572. 

Buffalo  Historical  Society,  "  Publica- 
tions ",  XXIV.,  XXV.,  ed.  F.  H.  Sev- 
erance, reviewed,   158,  834. 

"  Builders  of  a  Nation :  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers ",  by  F.  G.  Beardsley,  re- 
viewed, 360. 

Burnett,  E.  C,  (ed.)  "  Letters  of  Mem- 
bers of  the  Continental  Congress ", 
I.,  reviewed,  328. 

"  Burnham,  Daniel  H.,  Architect, 
Planner  of  Cities ",  by  Charles 
Moore,  reviewed,  596. 

Burr,  G:  L.,  24,  31,  46;  (R)  Pastor's 
"  Geschichte  der  Papste  seit  dem 
Ausgang  des  Mittelalters  ",  112;  (R) 
Murray's  "  Witch-Cult  in  Western 
Europe  ",   780. 

Butler,  Sir  Geoffrey,  "  Studies  in  State- 
craft, mainly  on  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury ",  reviewed,  m. 

Caldwell,  R.  C,  Washington  in  1834; 
Letter  of,  271-281. 

"  Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic, 
168c— 1681  ",  reviewed,  787. 

Calhoun,  J:   C,  247,   709,   710. 

"  California,  History  of :  the  Spanish 
Period ",  by  C :  E.  Chapman,  re- 
viewed,  804. 

Caiman,  A.  R.,  "  Ledru-Rollin  apres 
1848",  reviewed,   151. 

Cam,  Helen  M.,  "  Studies  in  the  Hun- 
dred Rolls:  some  Aspects  of  Thir- 
teenth-Century Administration  ",  re- 
viewed,  548. 

Canada,  Bemis's  Jay's  Treaty  and  the 
Northwest  Boundary  Gap,  465-484 ; 
"  Select    British    Documents    of    the 


878 


Index 


Canadian  War  of  1812  ",  I.,  ed.  Wil- 
liam Wood,  reviewed,  588 ;  "  Cor- 
respondence of  Sir  John  Macdon- 
ald  ",  reviewed,  799 ;  "  Rapport  de 
l'Archiviste  de  la  Province  de  Que- 
bec ",  reviewed,  83s. 

Canning,   George,  209,  212,  215,  217. 

"  Captains  of  the  Civil  War  ",  by  Wil- 
liam  Wood,    reviewed,    592. 

Carlson,  K.  E.,  "  Relations  of  the 
United  States  with  Sweden ",  re- 
viewed,  828. 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  International 
Peace,  Division  of  Economics  and 
History,  publication  reviewed,  565. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
Department  of  Historical  Research, 
publication  reviewed,  328. 

Carnoy,  Albert,  "  Les  Indo-Europeens  ", 
reviewed,   540. 

Carson,  W:  W.,  paper  by,  417. 

Cartellieri,  Alexander,  "  Geschichte 
der  Neueren  Revolutionen,  vom  Eng- 
lischen  Puritanismus  bis  zur  Pariser 
Kommune  ",   reviewed,    117. 

Cass,  Lewis,  official  correspondence, 
Gay's  Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Cam- 
paign as  reported  by  an  Amer- 
ican Diplomat,  219-244;  refer- 
ences to,  in  Slidell-Buchanan  letters, 
7",  7'3,  715,  716,  718,  723,  725,  728. 

Castlereagh,  Robert  Stewart,  viscount, 
209. 

"Catholic  Church  in  Chicago,  1673- 
1871  ",  by  G.  J.  Garraghan,  reviewed, 
834. 

Cauchie,  Alfred,  deceased,  629. 

Cavour,  Camillo  Benso,  count,  221, 
222,  225,  226,   230,  231,  239. 

"  Cazenove  Journal,  1794",  ed.  R.  W. 
Kelsey,    reviewed,    829. 

"  Ceylon  and  the  Portuguese  ",  by  P. 
E.   Pieris,  reviewed,  287. 

Chamoy,  Louis  Rousseau  de,  437,  445, 
446,  450,  451,  458. 

Champlain  Sdciety,  "  Publications  ", 
XIII.,  reviewed,  588. 

Chandler,   Joseph   R.,   239,   241-243. 

Channing,  Edward,  "  History  of  the 
United  States  ",  V.,  reviewed,  589. 

Chapman,  C:  E.,  (R)  Klein's  "  Mesta  ", 
285  ;   (R)   Mourelle's  "  Voyage  of  the 


Sonora",  360;  "History  of  Califor- 
nia ",  reviewed,  804. 

"  Charlemagne,  Etudes  Critiques  sur 
l'Histoire  de ",  by  Louis  Halphen, 
reviewed,   102. 

Charles  VIII.,  France,  Bridge's  "His- 
tory of  France  from  the  Death  of 
Louis  XL",  I.,  reviewed,   816. 

Charles  and  Jane,  ship,  capture  of, 
238-243. 

Charlety,  Sebastien,  "  Restauration " 
and"  Monarchie  de  Juillet  "  (Lavisse, 
IV.,  V.),  reviewed,  306. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  R.  A.,  vis- 
count,  208-212,  214-218. 

"  Chautauqua,  Story  of  ",  by  J.  L.  Hurl- 
but,   reviewed,   161. 

Cheng,  Sih-Gung,  "  Modern  China  ", 
reviewed,    125. 

Chester,  S.  B.,  "  Life  of  Venizelos ", 
reviewed,  320. 

"  Chetham  Miscellanies ",  IV.,  re- 
viewed,  340. 

"  Chicago,  The  Catholic  Church  in ", 
by  G.  J.  Garraghan,  reviewed,  834. 

China,,  Cordier's  "  Histoire  Generale 
de  la   Chine  ",   reviewed,   575. 

"  China,  Modern  ",  by  Sih-Gung  Cheng, 
reviewed,   125. 

"  China  at  the  Conference  ",  by  W.  W. 
Willoughby,  reviewed,   798. 

Chitwood,  O.  P.,  (R)  Smith's  "  His- 
tory of  Lewis  County,  West  Vir- 
ginia ",  363. 

Choiseul,   duchesse   de,   37. 

"  Christian  Theophagy,  Short  History 
of  ",  by  Preserved  Smith,  reviewed, 
811. 

Christianity,  Meyer's  "  Ursprung  und 
Anfange  des  Christentums  ",  I.,  re- 
viewed,   99. 

"  Christianity,  Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of ",  by  F.  J.  F.  Jackson,  re- 
viewed,  774. 

Christie,  F.  A.,  (R)  Meyer's  "Ur- 
sprung und  Anfange  des  Christen- 
tums ",  I.,  99 ;  (R)  Eekhof's  "  Theo- 
logische  Faculteit  te  Leiden  in  de  I7de 
Eeuw ",  345 ;  paper  by,  416 ;  (R) 
Mode's  "  Source  Book  for  American 
Church   History  ",    582. 

Christophelsmeier,    Carl,     (R)     Ma- 


Index 


879 


thiez's  "  Robespierre,  Terroriste  ", 
,48. 

"  Chronicles  of  America  ",  XIII.,  XV., 
XXIII.,  XXIV.,  XXXI.,  XXXIII., 
XXXVII.,  reviewed,  580,  585,  592, 
618,   622,   623. 

Church,  F.  C,  (R)  Rodocanachi's 
"  La  Reforme  en  Italie  ",  288. 

Church  history,  Delehaye's  "  Passions 
des   Martyrs  *',   reviewed,    100. 

"  Church  History,  American,  Source 
Book  for  ",  by  P.  G.  Mode,  reviewed, 
582. 

"  Cicero :  a  Biography  ",  by  Torsten 
Petersson,   reviewed,  97. 

"  Cincinnati,  Archdiocese  of,  1821- 
1921  ",  by  J  :  H.  Lamott,  reviewed, 
159. 

"  Civil  War,  Captains  of  the ",  by 
William   Wood,   reviewed,    592. 

"Civil  War,  Since  the",  by  C:  R. 
Lingley,   reviewed,   620. 

Civilization,  history  of,  Richet's  "  All- 
gemeine  Kulturgeschichte  ",  re- 
viewed,  90;   papers  on,  411-412. 

"  Civilization,  Origins  of ",  paper  by 
J.    H.   Breasted,   411. 

Clapham,  J.  H.,  "  Economic  Develop- 
ment of  France  and  Germany  ",  re- 
viewed, 556. 

Clark,  C:  U.,  "Greater  Roumania ", 
reviewed,   823. 

Clark,  V.  S.,  (R)  Kuiper's  "  Japan  en 
de  Buitenwereld  in  de  Achttiende 
Eeuw ",  156;  (R)  Pasvolsky's 
"  Economics  of  Communism  ",  356  ; 
(R)  Lippincott's  "  Economic  Devel- 
opment of  the  United  States  ",  583  ; 
(R)  Hazard's  "  Boot  and  Shoe  In- 
dustry in  Massachusetts  before  1875  ", 
601. 

"  Classical  Associations  of  Places  in 
Italy ",  by  Frances  E.  Sabin,  re- 
viewed, 605. 

Clemensha,  H.  W.,  (ed.)  "  Chetham 
Miscellanies ",   IV.,   reviewed,   340. 

Coal  Industry,  English,  in  the  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries, 
by  Raymond  Turner,   1-23. 

Colby,  Elbridge,  (R)  Atkinson's 
"  Marlborough  and  the  Rise  of  the 
British   Army  ",   790. 


"Colchester,  Court  Rolls  of  the  Bor- 
ough of ",  trans.  I.  H.  Jeayes,  re- 
viewed,  606. 

Cole,  A.  C,  paper  by,  416. 

"  Coleman  Deeds ",  comp.  Francis 
Green,  reviewed,  340. 

"  Coles,  Governor  Edward ",  ed.  C. 
W.  Alvord,  reviewed,  615. 

"  Collected  Papers,  Historical,  Liter- 
ary, Travel,  and  Miscellaneous  ",  I., 
II.,  by  Sir  A.  W:  Ward,  reviewed, 
355- 

Collier,  Theodore,  (R)  Pirenne's 
"  Histoire   de   Belgique  ",    V.,    294. 

Colonies,  Dutch,  Torchiana's  "  Trop- 
ical Holland  ",  reviewed,  347 ;  Wat- 
jen's  "  Das  Hollandische  Kolonial- 
reich    in    Brasilien ",    reviewed.    836. 

Colonies,  English,  Rawlinson's  "Brit- 
ish Beginnings  in  Western  India ", 
reviewed,  144;  Higham's  "Develop- 
ment of  the  Leeward  Islands  under 
the  Restoration",  reviewed,  162; 
Foster's  "  English  Factories  in  In- 
dia ",  id.  "  Early  Travels  in  India  ", 
reviewed,  296  ;  Hallward's  "  William 
Bolts  ",    reviewed,    348. 

Colonies,  English-American,  Kimball's 
Architecture  in  the  Colonies  and  the 
Republic,  47-57 ;  Crane's  Philan- 
thropists and  the  Genesis  of  Georgia, 
63-69 ;  Journal  of  a  French  Travel- 
ler in  the  Colonies,  1765  (doc),  II., 
70-89 ;  J.  T.  Adams's  "  Founding  of 
New  England",  reviewed,  129; 
Mayo's  "  John  Wentworth,  Gover- 
nor of  New  Hampshire  ",  reviewed, 
326;  Lord  Sackville's  Papers  re- 
specting Virginia,  1613-1631  (doc), 
I.,  II.,  493-538,  738-765;  "Journal 
of  a  Lady  of  Quality :  Journey  from 
Scotland  to  the  West  Indies,  North 
Carolina,  and  Portugal,  1774-1776  ", 
reviewed,  801. 

Colonization,  Schafer's  "  Kolonial- 
geschichte  ",  reviewed,  809. 

Colonization,  Spanish,  Bolton's 

"  Spanish  Borderlands  ",  reviewed, 
580. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  Vignaud's  "  Le 
Vrai  Christophe  Colomb  et  la  Le- 
gende  ",    reviewed,   577. 


88o 


Index 


Commines,   Philippe  de,  448. 

Committee  of  Public  Safety,  40,  45.  4°"- 

"  Commons  Debates  for  1629  ",  ed. 
Wallace  Notestein  and  Frances  H. 
Relf,   reviewed,   292. 

"  Communism,  Economics  of  ",  by  Leo 
Pasvolsky,    reviewed,    356. 

Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Arma- 
ment, Willoughby's  "  China  at  the 
Conference  ",   reviewed,    798. 

Connecticut,  "Pitkin  Papers,  1766- 
1769  ",   reviewed,   833. 

Connecticut  Historical  Society,  "  Col- 
lections ",    XIX.,    reviewed,   833. 

"  Conservative  Character  of  Martin 
Luther  ",  by  G :  M.  Stephenson,  re- 
viewed,  608. 

"  Constitution,  Influence  of  George  III. 
on  the  Development  of  the ",  by  A. 
M.   Davies,   reviewed,   822. 

"Constitution  Allemande  du  11  Aout 
1919  ",  by  Rene  Brunet,  reviewed, 
357- 

"  Constitution  of  Minnesota  ",  by  Wil- 
liam Anderson,  reviewed,   367. 

Constitutional  history,  Berdahl's  "  War 
Powers  of  the  Executive  in  the 
United  States",  reviewed,  330;  Far- 
rand's  "  Fathers  of  the  Constitution  ", 
reviewed,   583. 

"  Constitutional  History  of  England  ", 
by    G:    B.   Adams,   reviewed,    106. 

Constitutional  law,  Scott's  "  United 
States  of  America :  a  Study  in  In- 
ternational Organization  ",  reviewed, 
128. 

"  Consulat  et  l'Empire  "  (Lavisse,  III.), 
by    G.    Pariset,    reviewed,    304. 

Continental  Congress,  A  Rough  Secret 
Journal  of  the,  by  J  :  C.  Fitzpatrick, 
489-491. 

"  Continental  Congress,  Letters  of 
Members  of  the",  I.,  ed.  E.  C.  Bur- 
nett,  reviewed,   328. 

Conybeare,    F :    C,    "  Russian    Dissent- 
ers ",   reviewed,   313. 
Corbett,    J.    S.,    "  Naval    Operations ", 
II.,    reviewed,    562. 

Cordier,  Henri,  "  Histoire  Generale  de 
la    Chine ",    reviewed,    575- 

"  Corinth,  Korakou :   a  Prehistoric  Set- 


tlement near  ",  by  C.  W.  Blegen,  re- 
viewed,   810. 

"  Correspondence  of  Sir  John  Macdon- 
ald  ",  ed.  Sir  Joseph  Pope,  reviewed, 
799- 

Cortissoz,  Royal,  "  Life  of  Whitelaw 
Reid  ",  reviewed,    135. 

Corwin,  E :  S.,  (R)  Dodd's  "  Woodrow 
Wilson  and  his  Work  ",  334. 

"  Cosimo  I.,  Duke  of  Florence ",  by 
Cecily    Booth,    reviewed,    343. 

"  Cotton  Mills  in  the  South,  Rise  of  ", 
by   Broadus   Mitchell,   reviewed,   366. 

"  Courrier  de  M.  Thiers ",  ed.  Daniel 
Halevy,   reviewed,   558. 

"  Court  Rolls  of  the  Borough  of  Col- 
chester ",  trans.  I.  H.  Jeayes,  re- 
viewed, 606. 

Courtois,   E.   B.,   28-31,   36-39,   42,  43. 

Courtois,  Henri,  36,   37. 

Couthon,    Georges,    35,    42. 

Crane,  V.  W.,  Philanthropists  and  the 
Genesis  of  Georgia,  63-69. 

Crawford,   C.   C,   paper  by,  410. 

Crittenden,  J :  J.,  and  secession  sen- 
timent   in    1850,    253. 

Cross,  A.  L.,  (R)  Notestein  and  Relf's 
"Commons  Debates  for  1629",  292; 
address   by,   410. 

Crowell,  Benedict,  "  How  America 
Went  to  War",  I— III.,  reviewed, 
136. 

Cruikshank,  E.  A.,  (R)  Taylor's 
"  Wars   of   Marlborough  ",   298. 

"Crusade,  First",  ed.  A.  C.  Krey,  re- 
viewed,  339- 

Cuba,  agitation  for  annexation  in 
United   States,    712,    720-722. 

Cunningham,  W:  J.,  (R)  Sharfman's 
"  American  Railroad  Problem  ",   597- 

Curtler,  W.  H.  R.,  "  Enclosure  and 
Redistribution  of  our  Land ",  re- 
viewed,  109. 

Daenell,    Ernst,   deceased,    629. 

Dale,   E:    E.,  paper  by,   418. 

"  Danelaw,  Social  and  Economic  His- 
tory of  the  ",  ed.  F.  M.  Stenton,  re- 
viewed,   104. 

Danes,  Pierre,  bishop,  437,  445.  449. 
450,    452- 

Daniel,  J :  M.,  reports  concerning  Gari- 
baldi's   Sicilian    Campaign,    219-244. 


Index 


88 1 


Daniel],  F.  H.  B.,  (ed.)  "  Calendar  of 
State  Papers,  Domestic",  1680-1681, 
reviewed,  787. 

Danton,  A  Letter  from,  to  Marie  An- 
toinette,  by    Carl    Becker,   24-46. 

David,  C:  W.,  (R)  Halphen's  "Etudes 
Critiques  sur  l'Histoire  de  Charle- 
magne", 102;  (R)  Poupardin's  "  Re- 
cueil  des  Actes  des  Rois  de  Pro- 
vence",    141. 

Davidson,   G.   C,  deceased,   838. 

Davies,  A.  M.,  "  Influence  of  George 
III.  on  the  Development  of  the  Con- 
stitution ",   reviewed,   822. 

Davis,  Elmer,  "  History  of  the  New 
York   Times  ",   reviewed,   619. 

Day,  Clive,  (R)  Sartorius  von  Wal- 
tershausen's  "  Deutsche  Wirtschafts- 
geschichte  ",  308;  (R)  Clapham's 
"  Economic  Development  of  France 
and   Germany  ",   556. 

"  Declin  de  l'Empire  et  l'foablissement 
de  la  3e  Republique "  (Lavisse, 
VII.),  by  Charles  Seignobos,  reviewed, 
306. 

"  Defensor  Pads  of  Marsiglio  of 
Padua  ",  by  Ephraim  Emerton,  re- 
viewed,  607. 

Delehaye,  Hippolyte,  "  Passions  des 
Martyrs  ",   reviewed,    100. 

"  Democracies,  Modern  ",  by  Viscount 
Bryce,  reviewed,  91. 

De  Morgan,  Jacques,  "  L'Humanite 
Prehistorique  ",    reviewed,    539- 

Dennett,  Tyler,  (R)  Willoughby's 
"  China  at  the   Conference  ",  798. 

"  Denombrements  des  Feux  des  Duche 
de  Luxembourg  et  Comte  de  Chiny  ", 
I.,  comp.  Jacques  Grob,  reviewed,  777. 

De   Rohan,   William,   234-238. 

"  Deutsche  Wirtschaftsgeschichte,  1815- 
19 14",  by  A.  Sartorius  von  Wal- 
tershausen,  reviewed,  308. 

Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy 
in  Europe  and  America,  by  N.  S.  B. 
Gras,  695-708;  national  economy  as 
an  organization  in  economic  admin- 
istration, 695-697 ;  metropolitan 
economy  as  a  substitute  for  national 
economy  in  production,  698-700 ;  de- 
velopment of  London  from  town 
economy    to    metropolitan    economy, 


701^704;  growth  of  other  metro- 
politan centres,  705-706 ;  significance 
of   metropolitan   economy,   706-708. 

"  Development  of  the  Leeward  Islands 
under  the  Restoration  ",  by  C.  S.  S. 
Higham,   reviewed,    162. 

Did  the  Emperor  Alexius  I.  ask  for  Aid 
at  the  Council  of  Piacenza,  109 J.', 
by  D.  C.  Munro,  731-733. 

"  Diplomacy  and  War ",  by  Count 
Julius   Andrassy,   reviewed,   795. 

Diplomatic  history,  Perkins's  Europe, 
Spanish  America,  and  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  207-218;  Stuart's  "French 
Foreign  Policy  from  Fashoda  to  Sera- 
jevo  ",  reviewed,  317;  Raymond's 
"  British  Policy  and  Opinion  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War ",  re- 
viewed, 352  ;  J.  J.  Jusserand's  School 
for  Ambassadors,  426-464 ;  Bemis's 
Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest 
Boundary  Gap,  465-484 ;  Marchand's 
"  Un  Livre  Noir  ",  I.,  1910-1912,  re- 
viewed,   796. 

"  Discoverers  of  America,  Norse  ", 
trans.  G.  M.  Gathorne-Hardy,  re- 
viewed,  325. 

"  Doctrine  Schblastique  du  Droit  de 
Guerre ",  by  Alfred  Vanderpol,  re- 
viewed,   138. 

"  Documents  illustrative  of  the  Social 
and  Economic  History  of  the  Dane- 
law ",  ed.  F.  M.  Stenton,  reviewed, 
104. 

Dodd,  W.  F.,  (R)  Anderson  and  Lobb's 
"  Constitution  of  Minnesota  ",  367  ; 
(R)  "  Journal,  Missouri  Constitu- 
tional   Convention    of    1875  ",    367. 

Dodd,  W:  E.,  "  Woodrow  Wilson  and 
his   Work  ",   reviewed,   334. 

Dodge,  R.  E.  N.,  (R)  Broadus's  "  Lau- 
reateship  ",   814. 

Dolet,   fitienne,  433,   437,  448. 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  715,  716,  723- 
726,    728,    729. 

Dow,  C:  M.,  "Anthology  and  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Niagara  Falls  ",  reviewed, 
361. 

Dow,   E.  W.,  paper  by,  413. 

Driault,  Edouard.  "  Renaissance  de  1'- 
Hellenisme  ",    reviewed,    123. 

Duchesne,   Louis,   deceased,   838. 


882 


Index 


"D'Ulm  a  Iena",  by  M.-H.  Weil,  re- 
viewed, 349. 

"  Early  American  Portrait  Painters  in 
Miniature  ",  by  Theodore  Bolton,  re- 
viewed,  615. 

"  Early  Life  and  Education  of  John 
Evelyn  ",  ed.  H.  M.  Smith,  reviewed, 
146. 

"Early  Travels  in  India,  1583-1619", 
ed.  William  Foster,  reviewed,  296. 

"  Economic  Development  of  France 
and  Germany,  1815-1914  ",  by  J.  H. 
Clapham,   reviewed,   556. 

"  Economic  Development  of  the  United 
States ",  by  Isaac  Lippincott,  re- 
viewed,  583. 

Economic  history,  Turner's  English 
Coal  Industry  in  the  Seventeenth 
and  Eighteenth  Centuries,  1-23; 
"  Social  and  Economic  History  of 
England  and  Wales",  V.,  reviewed, 
104;  Curtler's  "Enclosure  and  Re- 
distribution of  our  Land  ",  reviewed, 
109;  Klein's  "  Mesta ",  reviewed, 
285;  Sartorius  von  Waltershausen's 
"  Deutsche  Wirtschaftsge9chichte  ", 
reviewed,  308 ;  Mitchell's  "  Rise  of 
Cotton  Mills  in  the  South ",  re- 
viewed, 366;  papers  on,  412;  Salter's 
"  Allied  Shipping  Control ",  re- 
viewed, 565  ;  Sharf man's  "  American 
Railroad  Problem",  reviewed,  597! 
Hazard's  "  Boot  and  Shoe  Industry 
in  Massachusetts  before  1875  ",  re- 
viewed, 601 ;  Gras's  Development  of 
Metropolitan  Economy  in  Europe 
and  America,  695-708;  Levy's  "Die 
Englische  Wirtschaft ",  reviewed, 
820. 

"  Economic  History  of  Ireland  from 
the  Union  to  the  Famine  ",  by  George 
O'Brien,   reviewed,   555. 

"  Economic  Reconstruction  and  Pro- 
tection of  Minorities  ["  History  of 
the  Peace  Conference  ",  IV.,  V.,  ed. 
H.  W.  V.  Temperley],  reviewed,  566. 

"  Economics  of  Communism  :  Russia's 
Experiment  ",  by  Leo  Pasvolsky,  re- 
viewed,  356- 

Edgerton,  Franklin,  (R)  Carnoy's  "  In- 


do-Europeens  ",  540;  (R)  Vendryes's 
"  Le  Langage  ",  772. 

Edmundson,  George,  "  History  of  Hol- 
land ",   reviewed,   815. 

Education,  Brace's  "  University  of 
Virginia",  III.,  IV.,  reviewed,  132; 
Shaw's  "  University  of  Michigan  ", 
reviewed,  160;  Hurlbut's  "  Story  of 
Chautauqua ",  reviewed,  161 ;  con- 
ference on  teaching  of  history  in 
schools,    408. 

"  Education,  American  Spirit  in  ",  by 
E.   E.  Slosson,   reviewed,   622. 

Edwards,  Martha  L.,  (R)  Lamott's 
"Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati",  159. 

Eekhof,  A.,  "  Theologische  Faculteit  te 
Leiden  in  de  I7de  Eeuw  ",  reviewed, 
345- 

Ehrlich,  Ludwik,  "  Proceedings  against 
the  Crown,  1216-1377 ",  reviewed, 
548- 

Eliot,  Sir  Charles,  "  Hinduism  and  Bud- 
dhism ",  reviewed,  572. 

Elizabeth,   Madame,  26,   30,   37- 

Emerton,  Ephraim,  "  Defensor  Pacis 
of  Marsiglio  of  Padua  ",  reviewed, 
607. 

"  Enclosure  and  Redistribution  of  our 
Land",  by  W.  H.  R.  Curtler,  re- 
viewed, T09. 

England,  Notestein  and  Relf's  "  Com- 
mons Debates  for  1629  ",  reviewed, 
292 ;  Taylor's  "  Wars  of  Marlbor- 
ough ",  reviewed,  298 ;  Raymond's 
"  Portraits  of  the  Nineties ",  re- 
viewed, 315;  "  Chetham  Miscel- 
lanies", IV.,  reviewed,  34°;  Aling- 
ton's  "  Twenty  Years ",  reviewed, 
350;  Strachey's  "Queen  Victoria", 
reviewed,  351;  Cam's  "Studies 
in  the  Hundred  Rolls:  some  As- 
pects of  Thirteenth-Century  Ad- 
ministration ",  reviewed,  548 ;  Ehr- 
lich's  "  Proceedings  against  the 
Crown,  1216-1377  ",  reviewed,  548; 
Reid's  "  King's  Council  in  the 
North",  reviewed,  550;  "Nicholas 
Papers",  IV.  (1657-1660),  reviewed, 
551;  Legg's  "Matthew  Prior",  re- 
viewed, 552 ;  "  Court  Rolls  of  the 
Borough  of  Colchester ",  reviewed, 
606 ;   Forbes's  "  Towns  of  New  Eng- 


Index 


883 


land  and  Old  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland",  reviewed,  613;  "Calen- 
dar of  State  Papers,  Domestic,  1680- 
1681  ",  reviewed,  787;  "Repertory 
of  British  Archives ",  pt.  I.,  re- 
viewed, 813;  Broadus's  "Laureate- 
ship",  reviewed,  814;  "Minutes  and 
Accounts  of  the  Corporation  of 
Stratford-upon-Avon",  I.,  1553-1566, 
reviewed,  819;  Levy's  "Die  Eng- 
lische  Wirtschaft  ",  reviewed,  820 ; 
Davies's  "  Influence  of  George  III. 
on  the  Development  of  the  Consti- 
tution ",  reviewed,  822. 

"  England,  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council 
of,  1613-1614  ",  reviewed,  785. 

"  England,  Constitutional  History  of  ", 
by  G:   B.  Adams,  reviewed,   106. 

"  England,  Influence  of  Oversea  Ex- 
pansion on,  to  1700  ",  by  J.  E.  Gilles- 
pie,  reviewed,    609. 

"  England  and  the  Englishman  in 
German  Literature  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  ",  by  J  :  A.  Kelly,  reviewed, 
147. 

"  Englische  Wirtschaft  ",  by  Hermann 
Levy,  reviewed,  820. 

English  Coal  Industry  in  the  Seven- 
teenth and  Eighteenth  Centuries,  by 
Raymonb  Turner,  1-23 ;  early  ref- 
erences to  use  of  coal,  1-6 ;  monop- 
olies at  source:  hostmen  and  keel- 
men,  7-13 ;  strikes  and  customs 
duties,  14-17;  transportation  mo- 
nopolies, 18-22;  regulations  never  ef- 
fective  against  combinations,  23. 

"  English  Factories  in  India,  1655— 
1660 ",  by  William  Foster,  reviewed, 
296. 

English   history,   conference   on,   410. 

English  literature,  Broadus's  "  Laure- 
ateship  ",  reviewed,   814. 

"  English  Parliamentary  Privilege ", 
by  Carl  Wittke,  reviewed,  290. 

"  Esquisse  d'une  Histoire  de  la  Tech- 
nique ",  by  A.  Vierendeel,  reviewed, 
809. 

"  Essays  on  the  Latin  Orient  ",  by  Wil- 
liam  Miller,    reviewed,    570. 

"  Etudes  Critiques  sur  l'Histoire  de 
Charlemagne ",  by  Louis  Halphen, 
reviewed,    102. 


"  Europe,  Modern,  Macmillaa's  His- 
torical Adas  of  ",  ed.  F.  J.  C  Hearn- 
shaw,  reviewed,   143. 

"Europe,  Modern,  Political  History 
of ",  by  Ferdinand  Schevill,  re- 
viewed, 342. 

Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine,  by  Dexter  Perkins, 
207-218;  French  policy  as  to  Span- 
ish-American states  (1822-1823), 
208-21 1 ;  French  attitude  toward 
United  States,  211-212;  policies  of 
other  European  powers,  212-214;  in- 
fluence of  Monroe's  message  upon 
European   policies  slight,   214-218. 

Europe  and  America,  Development  of 
Metropolitan  Economy  in,  by  N.  S. 
B.  Gras,  695-708. 

"Europe  since  1870",  by  E.  R.  Tur- 
ner,   reviewed,    311. 

"  Evelyn,  John,  Early  Life  and  Edu- 
cation of",  ed.  H.  M.  Smith,  re- 
viewed, 146. 

Everett,   Edward,   261,  266. 

"  Evolution  of  Industrial  Freedom  in 
Prussia,  1845-1849 ",  by  H.  C.  M. 
Wendel,  reviewed,  609. 

"  Evolution  of  Long  Island :  a  Story 
of  Land  and  Sea  ",  by  R.  H.  Gabriel, 
reviewed,  614. 

"  Evolution  of  Parliament ",  by  A.  F. 
Pollard,   reviewed,   108. 

"  Evolution  of  World-Peace ",  ed.  F. 
S.   Marvin,  reviewed,  282. 

"  Evolution  Religieuse  de  Luther  jus- 
qu'en  15 15  ",  by  Henri  Strohl,  re- 
viewed, 818. 

Exploration,  Mourelle's  "  Voyage  of 
the  Sonora  in  the  Second  Bucareli 
Expedition  ",  reviewed,  360. 

Fagnan,  E.,  (ed.)  Abou  Yousof  Ya'koub's 
"  Livre  de  l'lmpot  Foncier  (Kitab 
El-Kharadj)",    reviewed,    817. 

Falconry,  in  reign  of  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II.,  681,  687. 

Far  East,  Cheng's  "  Modern  China ", 
reviewed,  125;  Kuiper's  "Japan  en 
de  Buitenwereld  in  de  Achttiende 
Eeuw ",  reviewed,  156;  conference 
on  history  of,  411;  Cordier's  "His- 
toire   Generale    de    la    Chine ",    re- 


884 


Index 


viewed,  575;  Willoughby's  "China 
at  the  Conference ",  reviewed,  798. 
Farrand,  Max,  "  Fathers  of  the  Consti- 
tution ",  reviewed,  585  ;  (ed.)  "  United 
States",   III.,   reviewed,   620. 

"  Fasti  Triumphales  Populi  Romani  ", 
ed.  Ettore  Pais,  reviewed,  284. 

"  Fathers  of  the  Constitution  ",  by  Max 
Farrand,   reviewed,    585. 

Fay,  Bernard,  paper  by,  413. 

Fay,  S.  B.,  (R)  "Memoirs  of  Alex- 
ander Iswolsky  ",  120;  (R)  Win- 
dischgraetz's  "My  Memoirs",  318; 
(R)  Bethmann  Hollweg's  "  Betracht- 
ungen  zum  Weltkriege  ",  pt.  II., 
610;  (R)  Waddington's  "  Histoire 
de  Prusse",  II.,  788;  (R)  Ford's 
"  Stein  and  the  Era  of  Reform  in 
Prussia  ",    794. 

Fenlon,  J:  F.,  (R)  Delehaye's  "  Les 
Passions    des    Martyrs ",    100. 

Ferguson,  W.  S.,  (R)  Hazzidakis's 
"  Tylissos  a  l'Epoque  Minoenne ", 
604. 

Fife,  R.  H.,  (R)  "Kaiser  vs.  Bis- 
marck ",    118. 

"  First  Crusade ",  ed.  A.  C.  Krey,  re- 
viewed,  339. 

First  Endowed  Professorship  of  History 
and  its  First  Incumbent,  by  W:  H. 
Allison,  733-737- 

Fiske,  Rear-Adm.  B.  A.,  "  Invention, 
the  Master-Key  to  Progress ",  re- 
viewed, 541. 

Fitzpatrick,  J :  C,  (ed.)  "  Autobi- 
ography of  Martin  Van  Buren  ",  re- 
viewed, 133;  Rough  Secret  Journal 
of  the  Continental  Congress,  489-491. 

Fling,  F.  M.,  (R)  Lavisse's  "Histoire 
de  France  Contemporaine  ",  IV- 
VII.,  306;  paper  by,  414. 

"  Florence,  Cosimo  I.,  Duke  of ",  by 
Cecily   Booth,   reviewed,   343. 

Florida,  Bolton's  "  Spanish  Border- 
lands ",   reviewed,   580. 

Folwell,  W:  W.,  "History  of  Minne- 
sota ",  I.,  reviewed,  807. 

Foote,  H:  S.,  255,  263,  268. 

Forbes,  Allan,  "  Towns  of  New  England 
and  Old  England,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land ",   reviewed,   613. 

Ford,  G.  S.,  (R)   Koser's  "  Zur  Preus- 


sischen  und  Deutschen  Geschichte  ", 
300;  (R)  Weil's  "D'Ulm  a  Iena  ", 
349 ;  "  Stein  and  the  Era  of  Reform 
in   Prussia ",   reviewed,   794. 

Fortescue,  J.  W.,  (introd.)  Taylor's 
"  Wars  of  Marlborough  ",  reviewed, 
298. 

Foster,  H.  D.,  Webster's  Seventh  of 
March  Speech  and  the  Secession 
Movement,  1830,  245-270;  (R)  Ma- 
yo's  "  John  Wentworth  ",  326. 

Foster,  William,  "  English  Factories 
in  India,  1655-1660  ",  reviewed,  296; 
(ed.)  "  Early  Travels  in  India,  1583- 
1619  ",   reviewed,   296. 

"  Founding  of  New  England ",  by  J. 
T.  Adams,   reviewed,   129. 

Fouquier-Tinville,  A.  Q.,  26-29,  45,  46. 

Fox,  D.  R.,  (R)  Channing's  "History 
of  the  United  States  ",  V.,  589. 

Fox,  J.  J.,  (R)  Hayden's  "  Short  His- 
tory of  the  Irish  People  ",  783. 

France,  Halphen's  "  fitudes  Critiques 
sur  l'Histoire  de  Charlemagne  ",  re- 
viewed, 102;  Poupardin's  "  Recueil 
des  Actes  des  Rois  de  Provence ", 
reviewed,  141;  Caiman's  "  Ledru- 
Rollin  apres  1848  ",  reviewed,  151  ; 
policy  toward  Spanish-American 
states  (1822-1824),  208-212,  214, 
216-218;  Simond's  "  Troisieme  Re- 
publique ",  I.— III.,  reviewed,  353 ; 
papers  on  history  of,  413;  Hano- 
taux's  "Nation  Francaise",  XIII.. 
reviewed,  547;  Clapham's  "Econom- 
ic Development  of  France  and  Ger- 
many, 1815-1914",  reviewed,  556; 
Seignobos's  "  L'fivolution  de  la  Troi- 
sieme Republique,  1875-1914  (La- 
visse,  VIII.),  reviewed,  560;  La 
Gorce's  "  Histoire  Religieuse  de 
la  Revolution  Francaise ",  III.,  IV., 
reviewed,  791  ;  Marchand's  "  Un 
Livre  Noir  ",  I.,  1910-1912,  reviewed, 
796 ;  Askenazy's  "  Prince  Joseph 
Poniatowski,  Marechal  de  France, 
1763-1813",    reviewed,   821. 

"  France,  History  of,  from  the  Death 
of  Louis  XI.",  I.,  by  J:  S.  C. 
Bridge,   reviewed,   816. 

"  France,   Labor   Problem   and   the   So- 


Index 


885 


cial  Catholic  Movement  in  ",  by  P. 
T:   Moon,  reviewed,  310. 

"  France  Contemporaine  depuis  la 
Revolution  jusqu'a  la  Paix  de  1919  ", 
ed.  Ernest  Lavisse,  I— VIII.,  301, 
304,  306,  560. 

Francis  II.,  king  of  Two  Sicilies,  225. 

"Franco-Prussian  War,  British  Policy 
and  Opinion  during  the  ",  by  Dora 
N.  Raymond,  reviewed,  352. 

Franklin,  ship,  sent  to  aid  Garibaldi, 
233-237. 

Fhayer,  W:  A.,  (R)  Hearnshaw's 
"  Macmillan's  Historical  Atlas  of 
Modern  Europe  ",  143  ;  paper  by,  4'4- 

Frederick  II.,  Science  at  the  Court  of, 
by  C:  H.  Haskins,  669-694. 

"  Free  Negro  in  Maryland  ",  by  J.  M. 
Wright,   reviewed,   365. 

"  French  Foreign  Policy  from  Fashoda 
to  Serajevo  ",  by  G.  H.  Stuart,  re- 
viewed, 317. 

French  Revolution,  Becker's  Letter 
from  Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette, 
24-46;  Mathiez's  "Robespierre,  Ter- 
roriste ",  reviewed,  148;  Sagnac's 
"La  Revolution,  1 789-1 792"  and 
Pariset's  "La  Revolution,  1792- 
1799"  (Lavisse  I.,  II.),  reviewed, 
301  ;  La  Gorce's  "  Histoire  Religieuse 
de  la  Revolution  Francaise ",  III., 
IV.,   reviewed,  791. 

Fripp,  E.  I.,  (introd.)  "  Minutes  and 
Accounts  of  the  Corporation  of 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  1553-1620 ", 
reviewed,   819. 

Fryer,  C.  E.,  (R)  Strachey's  "Queen 
Victoria",  351;  (R">  O'Brien's 
"  Economic  History  of  Ireland ", 
SSS ;  (R)  Levy's  "  Die  Englische 
Wirtschaft ",  820. 
Fur  trade,  Canadian,  466-468,  477- 
478. 

Gabriel,  R.  H.,  "  Evolution  of  Long 
Island",    reviewed,   614. 

Gallatin,  Albert,   211. 

Gardiner,  H.  N.,  (R)  Robinson's 
"  The  Mind  in  the  Making  ",  767. 

Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  as  re- 
ported by  an  American  Diplomat, 
by  H.   N.   Gay,   219-244;   John   Mon- 


cure  Daniel,  219-220;  events  leading 
up  to  expedition,  221-226;  prepara- 
tions and  departure  of  Garibaldi, 
227-230;  diplomatic  protests,  231; 
Americans  aiding  Garibaldi,  232 ; 
voyage  of  Washington,  Franklin, 
and  Oregon,  233-237 ;  capture  and 
release  of  Charles  and  Jane,  238- 
243  ;  progress  of  campaign,  243-244. 

Garraghan,  G.  J.,  "  Catholic  Church  in 
Chicago,    1 673-1 87 1  ",   reviewed,   834. 

Gathorne-Hardy,  G.  M.,  (trans.)  "  Norse 
Discoverers  of  America  ",  reviewed, 
325. 

Gay,  H.  N.,  Garibaldis  Sicilian 
Campaign  as  reported  by  an  Amer- 
ican Diplomat,  219-244. 

"  General  Robert  E.  Lee  after  Appo- 
mattox ",  ed.  F.  L.  Riley,  reviewed, 
830. 

Gentili,  Alberico,  434,  440. 

Geography,  Bowman's  "  New  World  ", 
reviewed,   568. 

"  George  III.,  Influence  of,  on  the  De- 
velopment of  the  Constitution  ",  by 
A.  M.  Davies,  reviewed,  822. 

Georgia,  Philanthropists  and  the  Gene- 
sis of,  by  V.  W.  Crane,  63-69. 

"  German  Literature  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  England  and  the  English- 
man in  ",  by  J  :  A.  Kelly,  reviewed, 
147. 

Germany,  "  Kaiser  vs.  Bismarck  ",  re- 
viewed, 118;  Koser's  "  Zur  Preus- 
sischen  und  Deutschen  Geschichte  ", 
reviewed,  300;  Sartorius  von  Wal- 
tershausen's  "  Deutsche  Wirtschafts- 
geschichte  ",  reviewed,  308 ;  Brunet's 
"  La  Constitution  Allemande  du  1 1 
Aout  1919",  reviewed,  357;  Clap- 
ham's  "  Economic  Development  of 
France  and  Germany,  1815-1914  ",  re- 
viewed, 556  ;  Wendel's  "  Evolution  of 
Industrial  Freedom  in  Prussia,  1845- 
1849 ",  reviewed,  609 ;  Bethmann 
Hollweg's  "  Betrachtungen  zum 
Weltkriege  ",  pt.  II.,  reviewed,  610; 
Lange's  "  Der  Kronprinz  und  sein 
wahres  Gesicht ",  reviewed,  611; 
Stengel's  "  Nova  Alamanniae ",  I., 
reviewed,  778 ;  Ford's  "  Stein  and 
the  Era  of  Reform   in   Prussia  ",   re- 


886 


Index 


viewed,  794 ;  Kanner's  "  Kaiserliche 
Katastrophenpolitik  ",  reviewed,   824. 

Germonius,    Anastasius,   433,   438,   443. 

"  Geschichte  der  Neueren  Revolution- 
en,  vora  Englischen  Puritanismus  bis 
zur  Pariser  Kommune ",  by  Alex- 
ander Cartellieri,   reviewed,    117. 

"  Geschichte  der  Papste  seit  dem  Aus- 
gang  des  Mittelalters ",  VII.,  VIII., 
by  Ludwig  von  Pastor,  reviewed,  112. 

"  Geschichte  der  Vereinigten  Staaten 
von  Amerika ",  by  Friedrich  Luck- 
waldt,   reviewed,    127. 

Gillespie,  J.  E.,  "  Influence  of  Over- 
sea Expansion  on  England  to  1700  ", 
reviewed,  609  ;  (R)  Schafer's  "  Kolon- 
ialgeschichte  ",  809. 

Gipson,   L.   H.,  paper  by,   411. 

"  Globes,  Terrestrial  and  Celestial  ", 
by   E :    L.   Stevenson,   reviewed,    543. 

Godard,   G:   S.,  address  by,  408. 

Goodwin,   Cardinal,   paper  by,  419. 

"  Government,  American  Philosophy 
of ",  by  A.  H.  Snow,   reviewed,   826. 

Gras,  N.  S.  B.,  referred  to,  412;  Devel- 
opment of  Metropolitan  Economy  in 
Europe  and  America,  695-708. 

Great  Britain,  Spanish-American  pol- 
icy (1822-1824),  209,  215,  217; 
Bemis's  Jay's  Treaty  and  the  North- 
west Boundary  Gap,  465-484 ;  At- 
kinson's "  Marlborough  and  the  Rise 
of  the  British  Army  ",  reviewed,  790. 

Great  War,  Hurd's  "  Merchant  Navy  ", 
I.,  reviewed,  122 ;  Crowell  and  Wil- 
son's "  How  America  Went  to  War  ", 
I.— III.,  reviewed,  136;  "Das  Aus- 
land  im  Weltkrieg  ",  reviewed,  153; 
Marcovitch's  "  Serbia  and  Europe  ", 
reviewed,  154;  Bordeaux's  "La  Ba- 
taflle  devant  Souville  ",  reviewed, 
155  ;  Seymour's  "  Woodrow  Wilson  ", 
reviewed,  333 ;  Dodd's  "  Woodrow 
Wilson  and  his  Work ",  reviewed, 
334  ;  Britsch's  "  Marechal  Lyautey  ", 
reviewed,  356;  conference  on  his- 
tory of,  410;  Corbett's  "Naval 
Operations",  II.,  reviewed,  562; 
Johnson's  "  Battlefields  of  the  World 
War,  Western  and  Southern  Fronts  ", 
reviewed,  563 ;  Salter's  "  Allied  Ship- 
ping  Control  ",  reviewed,  565  ;   Mitch- 


ell's "  Our  Air  Force  ",  reviewed, 
599  ;  Bethmann  Hollweg's  "  Betracht- 
ungen  zum  Weltkriege ",  pt.  II.,  re- 
viewed, 610;  Howe's  "  Harvard  Dead 
in  the  War  against  Germany ",  re- 
viewed, 624 ;  Count  Andrassy's  "  Di- 
plomacy and  War  ",  reviewed,  795  ; 
Kanner's  "  Kaiserliche  Katastrophen- 
politik ",  reviewed,  824. 

"  Greater  Roumania  ",  by  C  :  U.  Clark, 
reviewed,   823. 

Greece,  Driault's  "  Renaissance  de 
l'Hellenisme  ",  reviewed,  123;  Ches- 
ter's "  Life  of  Venizelos  ",  reviewed, 
320;  Blegen's  "  Korakou  ",  reviewed, 
810. 

Greeley,  Horace,  258. 

Green,  Francis,  (comp.)  "  Calendar  of 
Deeds  and  Documents  in  the  Na- 
tional Library  of  Wales ",  I.,  re- 
viewed,   340. 

Green,  Rena  M.,  (ed.)  "  Memoirs  of 
Mary   A.    Maverick  ",   reviewed,   617. 

Grenville,  W :  W.,  baron,  negotiations 
with   Jay,  474-477- 

Grob,  Jacques,  (comp.)  "  Denombre- 
ments  des  Feux  des  Duche  de  Lux- 
embourg et  Comte  de  Chiny  ",  I.,  re- 
viewed, 777. 

Guerard,  A.  F.,  paper  by,  413. 

"  Guia  Historica  y  Descriptiva  del  Ar- 
chivo  General  de  Simancas ",  by 
Juan    Montero,   reviewed,   359. 

Guilday,  Peter,  (R)  Van  der  Essen's 
"  L'Universite  de  Louvain  ",  341. 

Haas,  G:  C.  O.,  (R)  Aiyangar's  "South 
India  and  her  Muhammadan  In- 
vaders ",   825. 

Hackett,  C:  W.,  paper  by,  411. 

Hagedorn,  Hermann,  "  Roosevelt  in  the 
Bad  Lands",  reviewed,  621. 

Halevy,  Daniel,  (ed.)  "  Le  Courrier 
de   M.  Thiers  ",   reviewed,   558. 

Hall,   F:   A.,   address  by,  406. 

Hall,  Hubert,  "  Repertory  of  British 
Archives  ",   pt.   I.,   reviewed,   813. 

Hall,  W.  P.,  (R)  Curtler's  "  Enclosure 
and  Redistribution  of  our  Land ", 
109. 

Hallward,  N.  L.,  "  William  Bolts  ",  re- 
viewed,  348. 


Index 


887 


Halphen,  Louis,  ".Etudes  Critiques  sur 
l'Histoire  de  Charlemagne ",  re- 
viewed,  102. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  and  the  north- 
west boundary,  472-474;  advocate 
of  Jay's  Treaty,  478. 

"  Hamilton,  Alexander,  the  Greatest 
American ",  by  A.  H.  Vandenberg, 
reviewed,   363. 

Hamilton,  J.  G.  de  R.,  (ed.)  "  Papers 
of  Thomas  Ruffin ",  IV.,  reviewed, 
803. 

Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.,  (R)  Moore's  "  Dan- 
iel  H.   Burnham  ",   596. 

Hammann,  Otto,  "  Der  Missverstan- 
dene    Bismarck ",    reviewed,    152. 

Hammond,  George,  and  the  northwest 
boundary,  468-474. 

Hanotaux,  Gabriel,  (ed.)  "  Histoire  de 
la  Nation  Francaise  ",  XII.,  reviewed, 
547. 

"  Harvard  Dead  in  the  War  against 
Germany ",  II.,  by  M.  A.  DeW. 
Howe,  reviewed,  624. 

Haskins,  C:  H.,  address  by,  410; 
Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emper- 
or Frederick  II.,  669-694. 

Haworth,  P.  L.,  "  Trailmakers  of  the 
Northwest",  reviewed,  364;  discus- 
sion by,   415. 

Hay,  T :  R.,  (R)  Wood's  "  Captains  of 
the  Civil  War",  592. 

Hayden,  Mary,  "  Short  History  of  the 
Irish   People  ",   reviewed,   783. 

Hazard,  Blanche  E.,  "  Boot  and  Shoe 
Industry  in  Massachusetts  before 
•875  ",   reviewed,   601. 

Hazen,  C :  D.,  (introd.)  "  Kaiser  vs. 
Bismarck",  reviewed,  118;  paper 
by,  414;  (R)  Halevy's  "  Courrier  de 
M.   Thiers",    558. 

Hazzidakis,  Joseph,  "  Tylissos  a  l'Epoque 
Minoenne  ",    reviewed,    604. 

Hearnshaw,  F.  J.  C,  ed.  "  Macmillan's 
Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe  ", 
reviewed,   143. 

Hewes,  Amy,  (R)  Kelso's  "  History  of 
Public  Poor  Relief  in  Massachu- 
setts ",    832. 

Heywood,  William,  "  History  of  Pisa, 
Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries ", 
reviewed,    775. 


Higginson,  Mary  T.,  (ed.)  "  Letters 
and  Journals  of  Thomas  Wentworth 
Higginson  ",  reviewed,  624. 

"  Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Let- 
ters and  Journals  of ",  ed.  Mary  T. 
Higginson,  624. 

Higham,  C.  S.  S.,  "  Development  of 
the  Leeward  Islands  under  the  Res- 
toration ",  reviewed,   162. 

Hill,  C :  E.,  "  Leading  American  Trea- 
ties ",  reviewed,  827. 

Hill,  Isaac,  266. 

"  Hinduism  and  Buddhism :  an  His- 
torical Sketch  ",  by  Sir  Charles  Eliot, 
reviewed,    572. 

Hispanic-American  history,  conference 
on,  411. 

"  Histoire  de  Belgique ",  V.,  by  H : 
Pirenne,    reviewed,    294. 

"  Histoire  de  France  Contemporaine  ", 
ed.  Ernest  Lavisse,  I.-VIIL,  re- 
viewed, 301,  304,  306,  560. 

"  Histoire  de  la  Nation  Francaise ", 
XII.,  by  Gabriel  Hanotaux,  reviewed, 
547- 

"  Histoire  de  la  Troisieme  Republique  ", 
I-— III.,  by  Emile  Simond,  reviewed, 
353. 

"  Histoire  de  Prusse ",  II.,  by  Albert 
Waddington,   reviewed,   788. 

"  Histoire  Generale  de  la  Chine,  et  de 
ses  Relations  avec  les  Pays  Etran- 
gers ",  by  Henri  Cordier,  reviewed, 
575- 

"  Histoire  Religieuse  de  la  Revolution 
Francaise",  III.,  IV.,  by  Pierre  de 
La   Gorce,   reviewed,   791. 

"  Historic  Houses  of  South  Carolina  ", 
by  Harriette  K.  Leiding,  reviewed, 
620. 

"  Historical  Source  Book  ",  by  Hutton 
Webster,  reviewed,  358. 

History,  Anglo-American  Conference 
of  Professors  of,  58-63. 

"  History  of  California :  the  Spanish 
Period ",  by  C :  E.  Chapman,  re- 
viewed, 804. 

"  History  of  France  from  the  Death 
of  Louis  XL",  I.,  by  J :  S.  C.  Bridge, 
reviewed,   816. 

"  History  of  Holland  ",  by  George  Ed- 
mundson,  reviewed,   815. 


Index 


"  History  of  Minnesota  ",  I.,  by  W  :  W. 

Folwell,   reviewed,   807. 
"  History      of      Pisa,      Eleventh      and 

Twelfth      Centuries",     by     William 

Heywood,  reviewed,  775. 
"  History     of     Public    Poor     Relief    in 

Massachusetts,     1620-1920  ",     by     R. 

W.  Kelso,  reviewed,  832. 
"  History    of    the    New    York    Times, 
1851-1921  ",    by    Elmer     Davis,    re- 
viewed, 619. 
"  History    of    the    Peace    Conference ", 

IV.,     V.,     ed.     H.     W.     V.     Temper- 
ley,   reviewed,   566. 
"  History    of    the    United    States  ",    by 

Edward  Channing,  V.,  reviewed,  589. 
Hoffmann,  P.  T.,  "  Der  Mittelalterliche 

Mensch  ",   reviewed,    812, 
"  Hollandische    Kolonialreich    in    Bra- 

silien :   ein  Kapitel  aus  der  Kolonial- 

geschichte  des  17.  Jahrhunderts  ",  by 

Hermann  Watjen,  reviewed,  836. 
Holland,   Sir  T:   E.,   "Letters   to   The 

Times    upon    War    and    Neutrality ", 

reviewed,   822. 
"  Holland,     History     of ",     by     George 

Edmundson,   reviewed,   815. 
"  Holland,    Tropical ",    by    H.    A.    van 

C.  Torchiana,  reviewed,  347. 
Holt,  W.  S.,  (R)   Mitchell's  "  Our  Air 

Force  ",  599. 
Holy  Alliance,  (1823),  213,  216,  218. 
Hopkins,  E.  W.,  (R)   Pieris's  "Ceylon 

and     the     Portuguese",     287;      (R) 

Eliot's   "  Hinduism    and    Buddhism  ", 

57-2- 
Hotman  de  Villiers,  Francois,  430,  434- 

436,    438,    44i,    442,    445.    448,    450- 

453- 
House,    R.    T.,     (R)     Lange's    "  Kron- 

prinz  und  sein  wahres  Gesicht  ",  611. 
"  How    America    Went    to    War ",    I.- 

III.,  by   Benedict   Crowell   and  R.  F. 

Wilson,   reviewed,    136. 
Howe,  M.  A.   DeW.,  "  Memoirs  of  the 

Harvard    Dead   in   the   War   against 

Germany ",    II.,    reviewed,   624. 
Howland,  A.  C,   (R)   Baluze's  "  Vitae 

Paparum   Avenionensium  ",   ed.   Mol- 

lat,  I.,  III.,  605. 
Howland,  Col.  C:   R.,  paper  by,  414. 
Howland,    Harold,    "  Theodore    Roose- 


velt and  his  Times  ",  reviewed,  333. 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  477,  479-480. 
Huebner,  G.  G.,    (R)    Salter's  "Allied 

Shipping   Control  ",   565. 
Hulbert,  A.  B.,  papers  by,  410,  417. 
"  Humanite  Prehistorique :  Esquisse  de 

Prehistoire    Gesnerale ",    by    Jacques 

de  Morgan,  reviewed,  539. 
Hurd,    Archibald,    "  Merchant    Navy  ", 

I.,  reviewed,   122. 
Hurlbut,  J.  L.,  "  Story  of  Chautauqua  ", 

reviewed,    161. 
Hyde,    C :    C,    "  International    Law  ", 

reviewed,   769. 

Illinois,  Bogart  and  Mathews's  "  Mod- 
ern  Commonwealth  ",   reviewed,   806. 

"  Illinois,  Centennial  History  of  ",  V., 
reviewed,    806. 

Illinois  State  Historical  Library,  "  Col- 
lections ",   XV.,   reviewed,    615. 

"  Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Medi- 
eval Thought  and  Learning  ",  by  R. 
L.  Poole,  reviewed,  142. 

"  India,  British  Beginnings  in  West- 
ern ",  by  H.  G.  Rawlinson,  reviewed, 
144. 

"India,  Early  Travels  in,  1583-1619", 
ed.  William  Foster,  reviewed,  296. 

"  India,  English  Factories  in,  1655- 
1660",  by  William  Foster,  reviewed, 
296. 

"  India,  South,  and  her  Muhammadan 
Invaders  ",  by  S.  K.  Aiyangar,  re- 
viewed,  825. 

"  Indo-Europeens :  Prehistoire  des 
Langues,  des  Moeurs,  et  des  Croy- 
ances  de  l'Europe  ",  by  Albert  Car- 
noy,  reviewed,   540. 

"  Influence  of  George  III.  on  the  De- 
velopment of  the  Constitution ",  by 
A.   M.   Davies,   reviewed,    822. 

"  Influence  of  Oversea  Expansion  on 
England  to  1700",  by  J.  E.  Gillespie, 
reviewed,    609, 

Institute  of  International  Affairs,  pub- 
lication reviewed,  566. 

International  law,  Vanderpol's  "  Doc- 
trine Scholastique  du  Droit  de 
Guerre",  reviewed,  138;  Holland's 
"  Letters  to  The  Times  upon  War 
and   Neutrality  ",   reviewed,   822. 


Index 


"  International  Law  ",  by  C :  C.  Hyde, 
reviewed,   769. 

International  relations,  Perkins's 
Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  the 
Monroe   Doctrine,   207-218. 

"  International  Relations ",  by  James 
Bryce,  Viscount  Bryce,  reviewed,  766. 

"  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Chris- 
tianity,590-i3i4  ",  by  F.  J.  F.  Jackson, 
reviewed,   774. 

"  Invention,  Age  of  ",  by  Holland 
Thompson,   reviewed,  623. 

"  Invention,  the  Master-Key  to  Prog- 
ress ",  by  Rear-Adm.  B.  A.  Fiske, 
reviewed,   541. 

"  Iranische  Erlosungsmysterium ",  by 
R.    Reitzenstein,    reviewed,    139. 

"  Ireland,  Economic  History  of,  from 
the  Union  to  the  Famine  ",  by  George 
O'Brien,  reviewed,  555. 

"  Ireland,  Puritans  in,  1647-1661  ",  by 
St.  J:  D.  Seymour,  reviewed,   146. 

"  Irish  People,  Short  History  of ",  by 
Mary  Hayden  and  G:  A.  Moonan, 
reviewed,    783. 

"  Islam,  New  World  of  ",  by  Lothrop 
Stoddard,  reviewed,  322. 

"  Iswolsky,  Alexander,  Memoirs  of  ", 
trans.    C:    L.   Seeger,    reviewed,    120. 

Italy,  Gay's  Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Cam- 
paign as  reported  by  an  American 
Diplomat,  219-244;  Rodocanachi's 
"  La  Reforme  en  Italie  ",  reviewed. 
288;  Mieli's  "  Gli  Scienziati  Ital- 
iani  ",  reviewed,  337;  Booth's 
"  Cosimo  I.,  Duke  of  Florence  ",  re- 
viewed,  343. 

"  Italy,  Art  of  War  in ",  by  F.  L. 
Taylor,    reviewed,    144. 

"  Italy,  Classical  Associations  of  Places 
in  ",  by  Frances  E.  Sabin,  reviewed, 
605. 

"  Ivernois,  Sir  Francis  d'  ",  by  Otto 
Karmin,   reviewed,    149. 

Jackson,  A.  V.  W.,  (R)  Reitzenstein's 
"  Das  Iranische  Erlosungsmyste- 
rium ",    139. 

Jackson,  F.  J.  F.,  "  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  Christianity,  590-1314", 
reviewed,   774. 

Jacobin  Club,  34. 


Jacobs,  H:  E.,  (R)  Stephenson's  "  Con- 
servative Character  of  Martin 
Luther  ",   608. 

"  Japan  en  de  Buitenwereld  in  de  Acht- 
tiende  Eeuw  ",  by  J.  F.  Kuiper,  re- 
viewed,  156. 

lay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Bound- 
ary Gap,  by  S :  F.  Bemis,  465-484; 
northern  boundary  line  set  in  1782, 
465 ;  Canadian  dissatisfaction  with 
boundary,  466-468;  British  minister's 
proposals  for  rectification,  468-474 ; 
Jay-Grenville  negotiations,  474-477 ; 
trading  privileges  under  Jay's  Treaty, 
477-478;  limits  of  Hudson's  '  Bay 
Company  and  the  Northwest  Bound- 
ary, 479-480 ;  David  Thompson's 
survey  for  North  West  Company, 
480-483  ;  importance  of  territory  in- 
volved in  Jay-Grenville  negotiations, 
483-484. 

Jeanroy,  Alfred,  "  Histoire  de  la  Na- 
tion  Frangaise  ",  XII.,  reviewed,  547. 

Jeayes,  I.  H.,  (trans.)  "  Court  Rolls  of 
the  Borough  of  Colchester ",  re- 
viewed,  606. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  and  the  northwest 
boundary,  471. 

"  Jefferson  and  his  Colleagues  ",  by 
Allen   Johnson,   reviewed,   585. 

Jewett,  J.  R.,  (R)  Ya'koub's  "  Livre 
de  lTmpot  Foncier  (Kitab  El-Kha- 
radj)",  817. 

John  of  Palermo,  674,  675. 

Johnson,  Allen,  "  Jefferson  and  his 
Colleagues  ",   reviewed.   585. 

Johnson,  D.  W.,  "  Battlefields  of  the 
World  War,  Western  and  Southern 
Fronts  ",  reviewed,  563. 

Jones,  T.  F.,  (R)  Booth's  "  Cosimo  I., 
Duke   of   Florence",   343. 

Joranson,  Einar,  awarded  Herbert  Bax- 
ter Adams  Prize,  421. 

Jordan,  J:  W.,  deceased,    165. 

"  Journal,  Missouri  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1875  ".  by  Isidor  Loeb, 
reviewed,   367. 

Journal  of  a  French  Traveller  in  the 
Colonies,  1765   (doc),   II.,   70-89. 

"Journal  of  a  Lady  of  Quality,  1774 
to  1776",  ed.  Evangeline  W.  and  C: 
M.    Andrews,    reviewed,    801. 


890 


Index 


Journalism,  Davis's  "  History  of  the 
New  York  Times  ",  reviewed,  619. 

Jusserand,  J.  J.,  presidential  address 
by,  407 ;  School  for  Ambassadors, 
426-464. 

"  Kaiser  vs.  Bismarck  ",  introd.  C :   D. 

Hazen,  reviewed,   118. 
"  Kaiserliche    Katastrophenpolitik  ",   by 
Heinrich  Kanner,  reviewed,  824. 

K^nner,  Heinrich,  "  Kaiserliche  Katas- 
trophenpolitik ",   reviewed,   824. 

Karmin,  Otto,  "  Sir  Francis  d'lver- 
nois  ",  reviewed,   149. 

Rell'ar,  H.  A.,  (R)  Thompson's  "Age 
of  Invention  ",   623. 

Kelly,  H.  A.,  (R)  Schachner's 
"  Ephraim  McDowell  ",  616. 

Kelly,  J :  A.,  "  England  and  the  Eng- 
lishman in  German  Literature  of  the 
Eighteenth    Century  ",    reviewed,  147. 

Kelsey,  R.  W.,  (ed.)  "  Cazenove  Jour- 
nal, 1794  ",  reviewed,  829. 

Kelso,  R.  W.,  "  History  of  Public  Poor 
Relief  in  Massachusetts  ",  reviewed, 
832. 

Kendrick,  B.  B.,  (R)  Paxson's  "  Re- 
cent History  of  the  United  States  ", 
594- 

Kerner,  R.  J.  (R)  Marcovitch's  "  Serbia 
and  Europe",   154;   paper  by,  414. 

Kimball,  Fiske,  Architecture  in  the 
History  of  the  Colonies  and  of  the 
Republic,  47-S7I  (R)  Leiding's 
"  Historic  Houses  of  South  Caro- 
lina ",  620. 

King,  H.  L.,  (R)  von  Srbik's  "  Wal- 
lenstein's  Ende  ",  115. 

"  King's  Council  in  the  North  ",  by  R. 
R.   Reid,  reviewed,  550. 

Klein,  Julius,  "  Mesta  ",  reviewed,  285. 

Knaplund,  Paul,  (R)  Raymond's 
"  British  Policy  and  Opinion  during 
the    Franco-Prussian   War ",   352. 

Kohlmeier,   A.   L.,  paper  by,   419. 

"  Kolonialgeschichte ",  by  Dietrich 
Schafer,   reviewed,   809. 

"  Korakou  :  Prehistoric  Settlement  near 
Corinth  ",  by  C.  W.  Blegen,  reviewed, 
810. 

Korff,  S.  A.,  baron,  (R)  Count  An- 
drassy's  "  Diplomacy  and  War  ",  795  ; 


(R)  Marchand's  "  Un  Livre  Noir ", 
I.,   1910-1912,  796. 

Koser,  Reinhold,  "  Zur  Preussischen 
und  Deutschen  Geschichte ",  re- 
viewed, 300. 

Krey,  A.  C,  "  First  Crusade ",  re- 
viewed, 339;  paper  by,  413. 

"  Kronprinz  und  sein  wahres  Gesicht  ", 
by  Carl  Lange,   reviewed,  611. 

Kuiper,  J.  F.,  "  Japan  en  de  Buiten- 
wereld  in  de  Achttiende  Eeuw  ",  re- 
viewed,   156. 

"  Kulturgeschichte,  Allgemeine  :  von  den 
Aeltesten  Tagen  bis  zur  Gegen- 
wart  ",  by  Charles  Richet,  reviewed, 
90. 

"  Labor  Problem  and  the  Social  Catho- 
lic Movement  in  France  ",  by  P.  T : 
Moon,   reviewed,    310. 

La  Gorce,  Pierre  de,  "  Histoire  Religi- 
euse  de  la  Revolution  Franchise ", 
III.,  IV.,  reviewed,  791. 

Lamott,  J :  H.,  "  Archdiocese  of  Cin- 
cinnati,   1821-1921  ",    reviewed,    159. 

"  Langage :  Introduction  Linguistique 
a  l'Histoire ",  by  J.  Vendryes,  re- 
viewed, 772. 

Lange,  Carl,  "  Der  Kronprinz  und  sein 
wahres  Gesicht  ",  reviewed,  611. 

Lansing,  Robert,  "  Big  Four  and  Others 
of  the  Peace  Conference  ",  reviewed, 
612. 

Lanza,  Col.  C.   H.,  paper  by,  414. 

"  Latin  Orient,  Essays  on  the ",  by 
William   Miller,   reviewed,    570. 

Latourette,  K.  S.,  (R)  Cordier's 
"  Histoire  Generale  de  la  Chine ", 
575- 

"  Laureateship :  a  Study  of  the  Office  ", 
by   E.   K.   Broadus,   reviewed,   814. 

Lavisse,  Ernest,  (ed.)  "  Histoire  de 
France  Contemporaine  ",  I.— VIII., 
reviewed,   301,   304,   306,    560. 

Law,  Wittke's  "  English  Parliamentary 
Privilege  ",   reviewed,   290. 

"  Leading  American  Treaties  ",  by  C  r 
E.   Hill,   reviewed,   827. 

League  of   Nations,   462. 

Learned,  H.  B.,  paper  by.  418. 

"  Ledru-Rollin   apres    1848   et   les    Pro- 


Index 


891 


scrits    Francais    en    Angleterre ",    by 
A.   R.   Caiman,   reviewed,   151. 
"Lee,   General   Robert   E.,   after  Appo- 
mattox", ed.   F.  L.   Riley,  reviewed, 
830. 
"  Legal  History,  Oxford  Studies  in  So- 
cial  and",   VI.,   ed.   Sir   Paul   Vino- 
gradoff,   reviewed,   548. 
Legg,    L.    G.    W.,    "  Matthew    Prior ". 

reviewed,   552. 
Lehmann,  F:  W.,  paper  by,  418. 
Leiding,  Harriette  K.,  "  Historic  Houses 
of    South    Carolina ",    reviewed,    620. 
Leland,  W.  G,   (R)   Forbes's  "Towns 
of   New   England   and   Old   England, 
Ireland,    and   Scotland ",    613. 
Leonard   of  Pisa,  67s,  684. 
Letter   from    Danton    to    Marie   Antoi- 
nette, by  Carl  Becker,  24-46 ;  the  let- 
ter and  its   apparent   history,   24-31 ; 
Denton's    "  royalism  "    and    current 
plots,  31-40;  tension  in  early  August, 
1793,    40-42;    patriotic    reasons    for 
saving  queen,  43-45  ;  hypotheses,  46. 
"  Letters    of    Members    of    the    Conti- 
nental Congress  ",  I.,  ed.  E.  C.   Bur- 
nett, reviewed,  328. 
"  Letters  to  The  Times  upon  War  and 
Neutrality,  1 881-1920",  by  Sir  T:  E. 
Holland,  reviewed,  822. 
Levermore,     C:      H.,     (R)      Marvin's 
"  Evolution    of    World-Peace ",    282. 
Levy,  Hermann,  "  Die  Englische  Wirt- 

schaft  ",  reviewed,   820. 
"  Lewis    County,    West    Virginia,    His- 
tory of  ",  by  E :   C.  Smith,  reviewed, 
365. 
"  Life    of    Artemas    Ward,    the    First 
Commander-in-Chief    of    the    Ameri- 
can Revolution  ",  by  Charles  Martyn, 
reviewed,   362. 
"  Life   of   Whitelaw   Reid ",   by   Royal 

Cortissoz,    reviewed,    135. 
Lincoln,  C:   H.,   (R)    Martyn's  "Life 

of  Artemas  Ward  ",  362. 
Lingelbach,    W:     E.,     (R)     Lavisse's 
"  Histoire      de      France      Contempo- 
raine  ",    III.,    304. 
Lingley,  C :  R.,  "  Since  the  Civil  War  " 
("United    States",    III.),    reviewed, 
620. 
Lippincott,    Isaac,    "  Economic    Devel- 


opment   of   the   United    States ",    re- 
viewed, 583. 
Literature,   Bedier,   Jeanroy,   and   Pica- 
vet's     "  Histoire     des     Lettres ",     I. 
(Hanotaux's     "  Nation      Frangaise ", 
XII.),  reviewed,   547. 
"  Livre   de  l'Impot   Foncier   (Kitab   El- 
Kharadj)",  by  Abou  Yousof  Ya'koub, 
reviewed,   817. 
"Livre  Noir ",  I.,   1910-1912,  reviewed, 

796. 
Lobb,   A.   J.,   "  History   of   the   Consti- 
tution of  Minnesota  ",  reviewed,  367. 
Loeb,   Isidor,    (introd.)    "  Journal,   Mis- 
souri   Constitutional    Convention    of 
1875  ",   reviewed,   367. 
London,  development  from  town   econ- 
omy  to   metropolitan   economy,   701- 
704. 
London    Times,    Holland's   "  Letters    to 
The  Times  upon  War  and  Neutrality, 
1881-1920",   reviewed,   822. 
"  Long  Island,  Evolution  of  ",  by  R.  H. 

Gabriel,  reviewed,  614. 
Lonn,  Ella,  paper  by,  417- 
Loofs,  Friedrich,  (pref.)   Sippell's  "  Zur 
Vorgeschichte  des  Quakertums  ",  re- 
viewed,  344. 
Lord,    R.    H.,     (R)     Bowman's    "  New 
World",       568;       (R)       Askenazy's 
"Prince    Joseph    Poniatowski ",    821. 
Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Vir- 
ginia,    1613-1631     (doc),     493-538, 
738-765- 
"  Louvain,   L'Universite   de  ",   by   Leon 

Van  der  Essen,  reviewed,  341. 
Luckwaldt,   Friedrich,  "  Geschichte  der 
Vereinigten   Staaten   von    Amerika  ", 
reviewed,  127. 
Lunt,  W.   E.,   (R)    "  Chetham   Miscel- 
lanies ",  IV,  340;  (R)  "Calendar  of 
Deeds  and  Documents  in  the  National 
Library    of    Wales",    L,    340;     (R) 
Alington's      "Twenty      Years:      the 
Party   System,    1815-1835  ",   35°- 
"  Luther,   Evolution   Religieuse  de  ",  by 

Henri  Strohl,  reviewed,  818. 
"  Luther,    Martin,    Conservative    Char- 
acter of",  by  G:  M.  Stephenson,  re- 
viewed, 608. 
Lutz,  R.  H.,  (R)  Wendel's  "  Evolution 


892 


Index 


of  Industrial  Freedom  in  Prussia, 
1845-1849  ",   609. 

Luxemburg,  "  Denombrements  des  Feux 
des  Duche  de  Luxembourg  et  Comte 
de   Chiny  ",   I.,   reviewed,   777. 

"  Lyautey,  Marechal ",  by  Amedee 
Britsch,  reviewed,  356. 

Lybyer,  A.  H.,  (R)  Driault's  "  Renais- 
sance de  1'Hellenisme ",  123;  (R) 
Stoddard's  "  New  World  of  Islam  ", 
322. 

Lynch,  W :   O.,  paper  by,  418. 

"  Macdonald,  Sir  John,  Correspond- 
ence of ",  ed.  Sir  Joseph  Pope,  re- 
viewed, 799. 

"  McDowell,  Ephraim  ",  by  August 
Schachner,    reviewed,    616. 

McElroy,  R.  M.,  (R)  Cheng's  "  Mod- 
ern China  ",  125. 

McFayden,  Donald,  (R)  Sedgwick's 
"Marcus  Aurelius  ",    141. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  '*  Voyages  ", 
quoted,    482-483. 

Mackinnon,  James,  "  Social  and  Indus- 
trial History  of  Scotland  ",  reviewed, 
346. 

"  Macmillan's  Historical  Atlas  of  Mod- 
ern Europe ",  ed.  F.  J.  C.  Hearn- 
shaw,   reviewed,   143. 

Magoffin,  R.  Van  D.,  (R)  Pais's  "  Fasti 
Triumphales   Populi   Romani ",   284. 

Manfred,   king,   692-694. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul,  assassination  of,  40. 

Marchand,  Rene,  (pref.)  "  Un  Livre 
Noir  ",  I.,  191c— 1912,  reviewed,  796. 

Marcovitch,  Lazar,  (ed.)  "  Serbia  and 
Europe  ",   reviewed,    154. 

"  Marcus  Aurelius  ",  by  H :  D.  Sedg- 
wick, reviewed,   141. 

Marcy,  W :  L.,  713.  714-716,  719,  721, 
722. 

"  Marechal  Lyautey ",  by  Amedee 
Britsch,  reviewed,  356. 

Marie  Antoinette,  Letter  from  Danton 
to,  by  Carl  Becker,  24-46. 

"  Maritime  History  of  Massachusetts, 
1 783-1 860",  by  S.  E.  Morison,  re- 
viewed,  600. 

"  Marlborough,  Wars  of ",  by  Frank- 
Taylor,  reviewed,   298. 

"  Marlborough    and    the    Rise    of    the 


British  Army  ",  by  C.  T.  Atkinson, 
reviewed,   790. 

Marsh,  F.  B.,  paper  by,  413. 

"  Marsiglio  of  Padua,  Defensor  Pads 
of  ",  by  Ephraim  Emerton,  reviewed, 
607. 

Martin,  P.  A.,  (R)  Watjen's  "  Das 
Hollandische  Kolonialreich  in  Brasil- 
ien  ",   836. 

Martyn,  Charles,  "  Life  of  Artemas 
Ward  ",   reviewed,   362. 

Marvin,  F.  S.,  (ed.)  "  Evolution  of 
World-Peace  ",   reviewed,   282. 

"  Maryland,  Free  Negro  in  ",  by  J.  M. 
Wright,   reviewed,   365. 

"  Massachusetts,  History  of  Public  Poor 
Relief  in",  by  R.  W.  Kelso,  re- 
viewed, 832. 

"  Massachusetts,  Maritime  History  of  ", 
by    S.    E.    Morison,    reviewed,    600. 

"  Massachusetts,  Organization  of  the 
Boot  and  Shoe  Industry  in,  before 
1875  ",  by  Blanche  E.  Hazard,  re- 
viewed,   601. 

Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  "  Pro- 
ceedings ",   LIV.,   reviewed,   832. 

Mathews,  J.  M.,  "  Modern  Common- 
wealth ",  reviewed,  806. 

Mathiez,  Albert,  27,  31;  "Robespierre, 
Terroriste  ",    reviewed,    148. 

"  Maverick,  Mary  A.,  Memoirs  of ", 
ed.  Rena  M.  Green,  reviewed,  617. 

Mayo,  L.  S.,  "John  Wentworth  ",  re- 
viewed,  326. 

Medical  history,  Schachner's  "  Ephraim 
McDowell  ",  reviewed,  616. 

Medici,  Col.  Giacomo,  233,  237. 

"  Medicine,  Arabian  ",  by  E :  G. 
Browne,   reviewed,   338. 

Medieval  history,  papers  on,  413; 
Munro's  "Middle  Ages,  395-1272", 
reviewed,  545  ;  Miller's  "  Essays  on 
the  Latin  Orient",  reviewed,  570; 
Baluze's  "  Vitae  Paparum  Avenio- 
nensium  ",  ed.  Mollat,  reviewed,  605  ; 
Emerton's  "  Defensor  Pads  of  Mar- 
siglio ",  reviewed,  607 ;  Haskins's 
Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  669-694 ;  Jack- 
son's "  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Christianity",  reviewed,  774;  Sten- 
gel's   "  Nova    Alamanniae ",     I.,    re- 


Index 


893 


viewed,  778 ;  Hoffmann's  "  Der  Mit- 
telalterliche   Mensch  ",   reviewed,  S12. 

"  Medieval  Thought  and  Learning,  Il- 
lustrations of  the  History  of ",  by 
R.   L.   Poole,  reviewed,   142. 

"  Memoirs  of  Mary  A.  Maverick  ",  ed. 
R.    M.    Green,    reviewed,    617. 

"  Memoirs  of  the  Harvard  Dead  in  the 
War   against    Germany  ",    II.,   by    M. 

A.  DeW.  Howe,  reviewed,   624. 

"  Merchant  Navy ",  I.,  by  Archibald 
Hurd,    reviewed,    122. 

Mereness,    N.   D.,   paper   by,   409. 

Merriam,  C.  E.,  (RJ  Snow's  "  Amer- 
ican Philosophy  of  Government  ", 
826. 

"  Mesta :  a  Study  in  Spanish  Economic 
History  ",  by  Julius  Klein,  reviewed, 

Metropolitan  Economy  in  Europe  and 
America,  Development   of,  by   N.   S. 

B.  Gras,  695-708. 

Metternich,  Furst  von,  policy  toward 
Spanish-American    states,    212-217. 

"  Mexican  War,  Texas  and  the ",  by 
N.  W.   Stephenson,   reviewed,   618. 

Meyer,  Eduard,  "  Ursprung  und  An- 
fange  des  Christentumsi ",  I.,  re- 
viewed,   99. 

"  Michigan,  University  of  ",  by  Wilfred 
Shaw,    reviewed,    160. 

"Middle  Ages,  395-1272",  by  D.  C. 
Munro,    reviewed,    545. 

Mieli,  Aldo,  (ed.)  "  Gli  Scienziati  Ital- 
iani  ",   reviewed,   337. 

Military  geography,  Johnson's  "  Battle- 
fields of  the  World  War,  Western 
and  Southern  Fronts  ",  reviewed,  563. 

Military  history,  F.  L.  Taylor's  "Art 
of  War  in  Italy",  reviewed,  144; 
Frank  Taylor's  "  Wars  of  Marlbor- 
ough ",  reviewed,  298 ;  Martyn's 
"  Life  of  Artemas  Ward  ",  reviewed, 
362;  papers  on,  414;  Johnson's 
"Battlefields  of  the  World  War, 
Western  and  Southern  Fronts  ",  re- 
viewed, 563  ;  Wood's  "  Select  Brit- 
ish Documents  of  the  Canadian  War 
of  1812  ",  I.,  reviewed,  588;  Wood's 
"  Captains  of  the  Civil  War ",  re- 
viewed,   592 ;    Atkinson's    "  Marlbor- 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 59. 


ough  and  the  Rise  of  the  British 
Army  ",    reviewed,    790. 

Miller,  William,  "  Essays  on  the  Latin 
Orient",  reviewed,  570. 

"  Mind  in  the  Making:  the  Relation  of 
Intelligence  to  Social  Reform ",  by 
J.  H.   Robinson,   reviewed,   767. 

"  Minnesota,  Constitution  of  ",  by  Wil- 
liam  Anderson,   reviewed,    367. 

"  Minnesota,  History  of  ",  I.,  by  W : 
W.    Folwell,   reviewed,    807. 

Minnesota,  University  of,  "  Research 
Publications,  Studies  in  the  Social 
Sciences  ",  nos.  10  and  15,  reviewed, 
292,    367. 

Minnesota  Historical  Society,  publica- 
tion reviewed,  807. 

"  Minutes  and  Accounts  of  the  Cor- 
poration of  Stratford-upon-Avon. 
1553-1620",  reviewed,  819. 

Mississippi  River,  Bemis's  Jay's  Treaty 
and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap, 
465-484. 

Missouri,  papers  on  history  of,  41S. 

"  Missouri  Constitutional  Convention 
of  1875,  Journal  ",  by  Isjdor  Loeb, 
reviewed,    367. 

"  Missverstandene  Bismarck  ",  by  Otto 
Hammann,    reviewed,    152. 

Mitchell,  Broadus,  "  Rise  of  Cotton 
Mills  in  the   South  ",   reviewed,   366. 

Mitchell,  William,  "Our  Air  Force", 
reviewed,    599. 

Mitchell's  Map   of   1755,  465. 

"  Mittelalterliche  Mensch  ",  by  P.  T. 
Hoffmann,    reviewed,    812. 

Mode,  P.  G,  "  Source  Book  and  Bibli- 
ographical Guide  for  American 
Church    History ",   reviewed,   582. 

"  Modern  China  ",  by  Sih-Gung  Cheng, 
reviewed,    125. 

"  Modern  Commonwealth,  1893-1918  ", 
by  E.  L.  Bogart  and  J  :  M.  Mathews, 
reviewed,    806. 

"  Modern  Democracies  ",  by  Viscount 
Bryce,   reviewed,    91. 

Mohammedan  law,  Abou  Yousof  Ya'- 
koub's  "  Livre  de  l'lmpot  Foncier  ", 
reviewed,   817. 

Mohammedanism,  Stoddard's  "  New 
World  of  Islam",  reviewed,  322. 

Mollat,      Guillaume,       (ed.)       Baluze's 


894 


Index 


"  Vitae  Paparum  Avenionensium  ", 
I.,  III.,  reviewed,  605. 

"  Monarchie  de  Juillet  "  (Lavisse,  V.), 
by  Sebastien  Charlety,  reviewed,  306. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  Europe,  Spanish 
America,  and  the,  by  Dexter  Per- 
kins, 207-218. 

Montelius,    Oscar,    deceased,    369. 

Montero,  Juan,  "  Guia  Historica  y 
Descriptiva  del  Archivo  General  de 
Simancas  ",   reviewed,   359. 

Montmorency,  Matthieu  de,  vicorate, 
208,  210. 

Moon,  P,  T :,  "  Labor  Problem  and  the 
Social  Catholic  Movement  in 
France",  reviewed,  310;  paper  by, 
414. 

Moonan,  G:  A.,  "Short  History  of 
the    Irish    People ",   reviewed,   783. 

Moore,  Charles,  "  Daniel  H.  Burn- 
ham  ",    reviewed,    596. 

Moore,  G:  F„  (R)  Smith's  "Short 
History  of  Christian  Theophagy  ",  811. 

Morgan,  W :  T:,  (R)  Legg's  "Mat- 
thew Prior  ",  reviewed,  552. 

Morison,  S:  E.,  (R)  J.  T.  Adams's 
"Founding  of  New  England",  129; 
"■  Maritime  History  of  Massachu- 
setts ",  reviewed,  600. 

Morris,  Gouverneur,   33,   35. 

Mourelle,  F.  A.,  "  Voyage  of  the 
Sonora  ",   reviewed,   360. 

Mumford,  A.  A.,  (ed.)  "  Chetham  Mis- 
cellanies ",  IV.,  reviewed,  340. 

Munro,  D.  C,  "  Middle  Ages,  395- 
1272  ",  reviewed,  545 ;  (R)  Miller's 
"Essays  on  the  Latin  Orient",  570; 
Did  the  Emperor  Alexius  I.  ask  for 
Aid  at  the  Council  of  Piacensa, 
logsf,  731-733- 

Murray,  Margaret  A.,  "  Witch-Cult  in 
Western    Europe  ",    reviewed,    780. 

"  My  Memoirs ",  by  Prinpe  Ludwig 
Windischgraetz,   reviewed,   318. 

Naples,    diplomatic    relations,    224-229, 

240-243. 
Napoleonic      era      and      wars,      Weil's 

"  D'Ulm  a   Iena  ",   reviewed,   349. 
Nashville   Convention,   252-256. 
National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies, 

note  respecting,  491-492. 


"  Naval  Operations  ",  II.,  by  Sir  J.  S. 
Corbett,   reviewed,   562. 

Navy,  British,  Corbett's  "  Naval  Oper- 
ations ",  II.  [History  of  the  Great 
War],  reviewed,  562;  Hurd's  "Mer- 
chant  Navy  ",   I.,   reviewed,   122. 

Near  East,  Bouchier's  "Short  History 
of    Antioch  ",    reviewed,    96. 

"  Negro,  Free,  in  Maryland  ",  by  J.  M. 
Wright,    reviewed,   365. 

Neilson,  Nellie,  (R)  Stenton's  "  Doc- 
uments illustrative  of  the  Social  and 
Economic  History  of  the  Danelaw  ", 
104. 

Nesselrode,    Karl    R.,    count,    216,    217. 

Netherlands,  Eekhof's  "  Theologische 
Faculteitte  Leiden  in  de  I7de  Eeuw  ", 
reviewed,    345. 

"  Neutrality,  Letters  to  The  Times  upon 
War  and  ",  by  Sir  T  :  E.  Holland,  re- 
viewed,   822. 

Nevins,    J.    W.,    235. 

New  England,  Forbes's  "  Towns  of 
New  England  and  Old  England,  Ire- 
land,  and   Scotland",   reviewed,   613. 

"  New  England,  Founding  of  ",  by  J. 
T.    Adams,    reviewed,    129. 

New  Hampshire,  Mayo's  "  John  Went- 
worth  ",   reviewed,   326. 

New  Jersey,  "  Cazenove  Journal, 
1794",  reviewed,   829. 

"  New  Stone  Age  in  Northern  Eu- 
rope ",  by  J :  M.  Tyler,  reviewed, 
94. 

"New  World  of  Islam",  by  Lothrop 
Stoddard,   reviewed,   322. 

"  New  World :  Problems  in  Political 
Geography  ",  by  Isaiah  Bowman,  re- 
viewed,  568. 

"  New  York  Times,  History  of  the ", 
by  Elmer  Davis,  reviewed,  619. 

Newhall,  R:  A.,  (R)  Krey's  "First 
Crusade",  339;  (R)  Bridge's  "His- 
tory of  France  from  the  Death  of 
Louis  XL",  I.,  816. 

"  Niagara  Falls,  Anthology  and  Bibli- 
ography of ",  by  C :  M.  Dow,  re- 
viewed,   361. 

Nice,   cession   to    France,   221-224. 

"  Nicholas  Papers :  Correspondence  of 
Sir    Edward    Nicholas,    Secretary    of 


Index 


895 


State",  IV.,  ed.  G:  F.  Warner,  re- 
viewed,   551. 

Nigra,  Costantino,  count,  letter  to 
Cavour,   232. 

"Norse  Discoverers  of  America", 
trans.  G.  M.  Gathorne-Hardy,  re- 
viewed,   325. 

North  Carolina,  "Journal  of  a  Lady 
of  Quality,  1774H1776  ".  reviewed, 
801 ;  "  Papers  of  Thomas  Ruffin  ", 
IV.,    reviewed,    803. 

North  Carolina  Historical  Commission, 
"  Publications  ",    reviewed,    803. 

"  Northwest,  Trailmakers  of  the  ",  by 
P.  L.  Haworth,  reviewed,  364. 

Northwest  Boundary  Gap,  Jay's  Treaty 
and  the,  by  S  :  F.  Bemis,  465-484. 

North  West  Company,  467,  480-483. 

Notestein,  Wallace,  (ed.)  "  Commons 
Debates  for   1629  ",  reviewed,   292. 

Notker  Teutonicus,  Hoffmann's  "  Der 
Mittelalterliche  Mensch,  gesehen  aus 
Welt  und  Umwelt  Notkers  des 
Deutschen  ",   reviewed,   812. 

"  Nova  Alamanniae  ",  I.,  by  Edmund 
Stengel,    reviewed,    77S. 

O'Brien,  George,  "  Economic  History 
of   Ireland  ",  reviewed,   555. 

Ogg,  F:  A.,  (R)  Bryce's  "Modern 
Democracies",  91;  (R)  Brunet's 
"  La  Constitution  Allemande  du  1 1 
Aout    1919  ",    357- 

Oldfather,  C:   H„  paper  by,  413. 

Oldfather,  W.  A.,  (R)  Chester  s 
"  Life  of  Venizelos  ",  320. 

Olson,  J.  E.,  (R)  Gathorne-Hardy 's 
"  Norse  Discoverers  of  America  ", 
325- 

"  Opening  a  Highway  to  the  Pacific  ", 
by  J.   C.   Bell,   reviewed,   331. 

Oregon,  ship,  sent  to  aid  Garibaldi, 
233-237- 

"Organization  of  the  Boot  and  Shoe 
Industry  in  Massachusetts  before 
1S75  ",  by  Blanche  E.  Hazard,  re- 
viewed,   601. 

"  Our  Air  Force :  the  Keystone  of  Na- 
tional Defense",  by  William  Mitch- 
ell,   reviewed,    599. 

"  Oxford   Studies   in    Social   and   Legal 


History  ",  VI.,  ed.  Sir  Paul  Vino- 
gradoff,  reviewed,   548. 

Oxford  University,  First  Endowed  Pro- 
fessorship of  History  and  its  First 
Incumbent,  by  W:  H.  Allison,  733- 
737- 

"  Pacific,  Opening  a  Highway  ts  the  ", 
by  J.   C.   Bell,  reviewed,   331. 

Packard,  L.  B.,  (R)  Stuart's  "  French 
Foreign  Policy  from  Fashoda  to 
Serajevo  ",    317- 

Paetow,  L.  J.,  paper  by,  413;  (R) 
Hoffmann's  "  Der  Mittelalterliche 
Mensch  ",    812. 

Pais,  Ettore,  (ed.)  "  Fasti  Trium- 
phales  Populi  Romani ",  reviewed, 
284. 

Palmer,  Capt.  J.  S.,  237,   23S,   241. 

Paltsits,  V.  H.,  paper  by,  408;  (R) 
Stevenson's  "  Terrestrial  and  Celes- 
tial   Globes  ",    543- 

"  Papers  of  Thomas  Ruffin  ",  IV,  ed. 
J.  G.  de'R.  Hamilton,  reviewed,  803. 

Paris,   N.   J.,   27,   45. 

Pariset,  Georges,  '"La  Revolution,  1792- 
1799"  (Lavisse,  II.),  reviewed,  301; 
"  Le  Consulat  et  l'Empire  "  (La- 
visse,   III.),    reviewed,    304. 

"  Parliament,  Evolution  of  ",  by  A.  F. 
Pollard,   reviewed,    108. 

"  Parliamentary  Privilege,  English  ", 
by    Carl    Wittke,    reviewed,    290. 

"  Passions  des  Martyrs  et  les  Genres 
Litteraires  ",  by  Hippolyte  Delehaye, 
reviewed,    100. 

Pastor,  Ludwig  von,  "  Geschichte  der 
Papste  seit  dem  Ausgang  des  Mit- 
telalters",  VII.,  VIII. ,  reviewed,  112. 

Pasvolsky,  Leo,  "  Economics  of  Com- 
munism ",    reviewed,    356. 

Patterson,  W.  L.,  letters  of,  234-235, 
238,    240. 

Paxson,  F:  L.,  (R)  Cortissoz's  "Life 
of  Whitelaw  Reid",  135;  (R>  How- 
land's  "  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  his 
Times  ",  333  ;  (R)  Seymour's  "  Wood- 
row  Wilson  and  the  World  War ", 
333  ;  "  Recent  History  of  the  United 
States",  reviewed,  594;  (R)  Hage- 
dorn's  "  Roosevelt  in  the  Bad  Lands  ", 
621  ;  (R)  Rainwater's  "  Play  Move- 
ment  in   the   United   States",   831. 


8g6 


Index 


"  Peace,    World-,    Evolution    of  ",    ed. 

F.    S.    Marvin,    reviewed,    282. 
"  Peace    Conference,    History    of   the  ", 

ed.    H.    W.   V.   Temperley,   reviewed, 

566. 
"  Peace  Conference,  The  Big  Four  and 

Others  of   the  ",   by   Robert   Lansing, 

reviewed,   612. 
Pease,    T.    C,   paper    by,   409. 
Pecquet,  Antoine,  428,  446,  453n,  454- 

460. 
Pennsylvania,        "  Cazenove        Journal, 

1794",   reviewed,    829. 
Perigord,    Paul,    (R)    Bordeaux's   "  La 

Bataille    devant    Souville ",    155. 
Perkins,  Clarence,  paper  by,  411. 
Perkins,     Dexter,     Europe,     Spanish 

America,   and   the   Monroe  Doctrine, 

207-218. 
Petersson,      Torsten,      "  Cicero  ",      re- 
viewed,   97- 
Philanthropists     and     the     Genesis     of 

Georgia,   by    V.    W.    Crane,    63-69. 
Phillips,   U.   B.,    (R)    Wright's  "  Free 

Negro     in      Maryland ",     365 ;      (R) 

Lingley's    "Since    the    Civil    War", 

620. 
Piacenza,   Council   of,   731-733. 
Picavet,   F.  J.,  "  Histoire  de  la   Nation 

Frangaise  ",  XII.,  reviewed,  547. 
Pierce,   Franklin,  718,   719,  721-725. 
Pieris,   P.   E.,  "  Ceylon  and  the  Portu- 
guese ",    reviewed,    287. 
"  Pilgrim    Fathers :    Builders    of   a    Na- 
tion ",  by  F.  G.   Beardsley,  reviewed, 

360. 
Pirenne,     Henri,     "  Histoire     de     Bel- 

gique  ",  V.,   reviewed,   294. 
"  Pisa,      History      of,      Eleventh      and 

Twelfth  Centuries  ",  by  William  Hey- 

wood,  reviewed,  77s. 
"Pitkin  Papers,   1 766-1 769  ",  reviewed, 

833. 
"  Play      Movement      in      the      United 

States  ",    by    C.    E.    Rainwater,    re- 
viewed,   831. 
Poland,     Askenazy's     "  Prince     Joseph 

Poniatowski  ",    reviewed,    821. 
Polignac,    Jules,    prince    de,    209,    211, 

214,   215. 
Political    geography,    Bowman's    "  The 

New  World  ",  reviewed,   568. 


"  Political  History  of  Modern  Europe  " 
by  Ferdinand  Schevill,  reviewed,  342 

Pollard,  A.  F.,  "  Evolution  of  Parlia- 
ment",    reviewed,    108. 

Pond,   Peter,   4S1. 

"  Poniatowski,  Le  Prince  Joseph,  Mare- 
chal  de  France ",  by  Simon  Asken- 
azy,    reviewed,    821. 

Poole,  R.  L.,  "  Illustrations  of  the  His 
tory  of  Medieval  Thought  and  Learn 
ing  ",    reviewed,    142. 

"  Poor  Relief  in  Massachusetts,  His 
tory  of  Public  ",  by  R.  W.  Kelso,  re 
viewed,   832. 

Pope,  Sir  Joseph,  (ed.)  "  Correspond 
ence  of  Sir  John  Macdonald ",  re- 
viewed,  799. 

Porritt,    Edward,   deceased,    369. 

"  Portraits  of  the  Nineties  ",  by  E.  T. 
Raymond,   reviewed,    315. 

"  Portuguese,  Ceylon  and  the "',  by 
P.   E.   Pieris,   reviewed,    287. 

Postgate,  R.  W.,  (ed.)  "Revolution 
from    1789   to    1906  ",   reviewed,   554. 

Poupardin,  Rene,  "  Recueil  des  Actes 
des  Rois  de  Provence ",  reviewed, 
141. 

Prehistory,  Tyler's  "  New  Stone  Age 
in  Northern  Europe  ",  reviewed,  94 ; 
De  Morgan's  "  L'Humanite  Prehis- 
torique  ",  reviewed,  539;  Carnoy's 
"  Les  Indo-Europeens  ",  reviewed, 
540;  Hazzidakis's  "  Tylissos  a 
1'Epoque  Minoenne  ",  reviewed,  604; 
Blegen's    "  Korakou  ",    reviewed,  810. 

"  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski,  Marechal 
de  France,  1763-1813  ",  by  Simon 
Askenazy,  reviewed,  821. 

"  Prior,  Matthew :  a  Study  of  his  Pub- 
lic Career  and  Correspondence  ",  by 
L.    G.    W.    Legg,    reviewed,    552. 

Professorship  of  History,  The  First 
Endowed,  and  its  First  Incumbent, 
by    W :    H.   Allison,    733-737- 

"  Provence,  Recueil  des  Actes  des 
Rois  de ",  ed.  Rene  Poupardin,  re- 
viewed,   141. 

"  Prusse,  Histoire  de  ",  II.,  by  Albert 
Waddington,   reviewed,   788. 

Prussia,  attitude  toward  Spanish-Amer- 
ican   colonies,    208 ;     Ford's    "  Stein 


hide: 


897 


and  the  Era  of  Reform  in  Prussia  ", 
reviewed,    794. 

"  Prussia,  Evolution  of  Industrial  Free- 
dom in,  1845-1849  ",  by  H.  C.  M. 
Wendel,   reviewed,   609. 

"  Public  Record  Office,  Calendar  of 
State  Papers,  Domestic,  1680- 1681, 
preserved   in  ",   reviewed,   787. 

"  Puritans  in  Ireland,  1 647-1 661  ",  by 
St.  J:  D.  Seymour,  reviewed,   146. 

Quakerism,  Sippell's  "  Zur  Vorge- 
schichte  des  Quakertums  ",  reviewed, 
344- 

"  Quebec,  Rapport  de  l'Archiviste  de 
la   Province  de ",  reviewed,   835. 

Quitman,  J :  A.,  and  secession  senti- 
ment  in    1850,    249. 

"  Railroad  Problem,  American  ",  by  I. 
L.   Sharfman,   reviewed,    597. 

Rainwater,  C.  E.,  "  Play  Movement  in 
the    United    States",    reviewed,    831. 

Rawlinson,  H.  G.,  "  British  Beginnings 
in  Western  India  ",  reviewed,   144. 

Raymond,  Dora  N.,  "  British  Policy  and 
Opinion  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War",   reviewed,   352. 

Raymond,  E.  T.,  "  Portraits  of  the 
Nineties",   reviewed,   315. 

"  Recent  History  of  the  United 
States",  by  F:  L.  Paxson,  reviewed, 
594- 

"Recollections  of  a  Foreign  Minister: 
Memoirs  of  Alexander  Iswolsky  ", 
trans.  C:  L.  Seeger,  reviewed,  120. 

"  Recueil  des  Actes  des  Rois  de  Prov- 
ence ",  ed.  Rene  Poupardin,  re- 
viewed,   141. 

Reeves,  J.  S.,  (R)  Holland's  "  Letters 
to  The  Times  upon  War  and  Neutral- 
ity ",    822. 

"  Reforme  en  Italie  ",  by  E.  Rodo- 
canachi,   reviewed,   288. 

Reid.  R.  R.,  "  King's  Council  in  the 
North  ",   reviewed,    550. 

"  Reid,  Whitelaw,  Life  of  ",  by  Royal 
Cortissoz,   reviewed,    135. 

Reinach,   Joseph,    deceased,    165. 

Reitzenstein,  R.,  "  Das  Iranische 
Erlosungsmysterium  ",   reviewed,    139. 

"  Relations   of  the   United   States   with 


Sweden  ",  by  K.  E.  Carlson,  re- 
viewed,  828. 

Relf,  Frances  H.,  (ed.)  "  Commons 
Debates  for  1629  ",  292;  (R)  "  Nich- 
olas  Papers",   IV.,   551. 

Religious  history,  Reitzenstein's  "  Iran- 
ische Erlosungsmysterium  ",  re- 
viewed, 139;  Amer.  Soc.  of  Church 
Hist.,  "  Papers  ",  2d  ser.  VI.,  re- 
viewed, 157;  Conybeare's  "Russian 
Dissenters",  reviewed,  313;  Sippell's 
"  Zur  Vorgeschichte  des  Quaker- 
turns  ™,  reviewed,  344 ;  Eekhof's 
"  Theologische  Faculteit  te  Leiden 
in  de  i7de  Eeuw  ",  reviewed,  345; 
Mode's  "  Source  Book  for  American 
Church  History  ",  reviewed,  582 ; 
Stephenson's  "  Conservative  Char- 
acter of  Martin  Luther ",  reviewed, 
608;  Smith's  "Short  History  of 
Christian  Theophagy  ",  reviewed,  811  ; 
Strohl's  "  L'Evolution  Religieuse  de 
Luther    jusqu'en     15 15",     reviewed, 

"  Renaissance  de  l'Hellenisme ",  by 
Edouard    Driault,   reviewed,    123. 

"  Repertory  of  British  Archives  ",  pt. 
I.,   "  England  ",   reviewed,    813. 

'"  Restauration  "  (Lavisse,  IV.),  by  S. 
Charlety,   reviewed,   306. 

Revolution,  Cartellieri's  "  Geschichte 
der  Neueren  Revolutionen  ",  re- 
viewed,   117. 

'"Revolution  de  1848:  Second  Em- 
pire" (Lavisse,  VI.),  by  Ch.  Seigno- 
bos.    reviewed,    306. 

"Revolution  from  1789  to  1906",  ed. 
R.    W.    Postgate,    reviewed.    554. 

Revolutionafry  Tribunal,  French,  26, 
27,    33,    36. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Emmanuel  du  Pies- 
sis,  duke  of,  210. 

Richet,  Charles,  "  Allgemeine  Kultur- 
geschichte  ",  reviewed,  90. 

Riley,  F.  L.,  (ed.)  "  General  Robert 
E.  Lee  after  Appomattox  ",  reviewed, 
830. 

Robertson,  J.  A.,  (R)  Bolton's  "  Span- 
ish  Borderlands  ",    580. 

RotJertson,  W:   S.,  paper  by,  411. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien,  28,  29,  33 
34,    4i,    45,    46. 


Index 


"  Robespierre,  Terroriste  ",  by  Albert 
Mathiez,   reviewed,   148. 

Robinson,  D:  M.,  (R)  Blegen's  "  Kora- 
kou  ",    810. 

Robinson,  Gertrude,  "  David  Urqu- 
hart ",    reviewed,    150. 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  "  The  Mind  in  the 
Making  ",  reviewed,  767. 

Rodocanachi,  Emmanuel  Pierre,  "  La 
Reforme  en  Italie  ",  reviewed,  288. 

Roger  II.,  Sicily,  670. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  Pastor's  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Papste  seit  dem  Ausgang 
des  Mittelalters  ",  VII.,  VIII.,  re- 
viewed, 112;  Lamott's  "Archdiocese 
of  Cincinnati",  reviewed,  159; 
Baluze's  "  Vitae  Paparum  Avenionen- 
sium  "  (ed.  Mollat),  I.,  III.,  reviewed, 
605 ;  La  Gorce's  "  Histoire  Religi- 
euse  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise  ", 
III.,  IV.,  reviewed,  791  ;  Garraghan's 
"  Catholic  Church  in  Chicago  ",  re- 
viewed,   834. 

Rome,  Petersson's  "  Cicero  ",  reviewed, 
97  ;  Sedgwick's  '-'  Marcus  Aurelius  ", 
reviewed,  141  ;  Pais's  "  Fasti 
Triumphales  Populi  Romani ",  re- 
viewed,   284. 

"  Roosevelt,  Theodore,  and  his  Times  ", 
by    Harold    Howland,    reviewed,    333. 

"  Roosevelt  in  the  Bad  Lands ",  by 
Hermann    Hagedorn,    reviewed,    621. 

Roo't,  W.  T.,  paper  by,  411. 

Rosier,  Bernard  du,  archbishop,  433> 
437,  449- 

Rostovtseff,  Michael,  (R)  Cony- 
beare's  "Russian  Dissenters",  313; 
paper  by,   411. 

"  Roumania,  Greater  ",  by  C :  U.  Clark, 
reviewed,    823. 

Rousseau  de  Chamoy,  437,  445,  446, 
450,   451,   458. 

Roy,  P.-G.,  "  Rapport  de  l'Archiviste 
de  la  Province  de  Quebec,  1920- 
1921  ",    reviewed,    835. 

Royal  Historical  Society,  publication, 
reviewed,   813. 

"  Ruffin,  Thomas,  Papers  of  ",  IV.,  ed.  J. 
G.  de  R.  Hamilton,  reviewed,   803. 

Russell,  T  :  C,  (ed.)  Mourelle's  "  Voy- 
age  of  the    Sonora  ",   reviewed,   360. 

Russia,   attitude   toward  Spanish-Amer- 


ican states,  208,  214-218;  Pasvolsky's 
"  Economics  of  Communism ",  re- 
viewed, 356;  "  Un  Livre  Noir  ",  I., 
191c— 1912,  reviewed,  796. 
"  Russian  Dissenters  ",  by  F :  C.  Cony- 
beare,   reviewed,   313. 

Sabin,  Frances  E.,  "  Classical  Associa- 
tions of  Places  in  Italy  ",  reviewed, 
605. 

Sackville,  Lord,  Papers  respecting  Vir- 
ginia, 1613-1631  (doc),  493-538, 
738-765- 

Sagnac,  Philippe,  "  La  Revolution, 
1789-1792  "  (Lavisse,  I.),  reviewed, 
301. 

Salter,  J.  A.,  "  Allied  Shipping  Con- 
trol ",   reviewed,   565. 

Sardinia,  relations  with  Naples,  225, 
228 ;  attitude  toward  Garibaldi's  ex- 
pedition, 227,  228,  231,  237,  239, 
240. 

Sartorius  von  Waltershausen,  A., 
"  Deutsche  Wirtschaftsgeschichte  ", 
reviewed,   308. 

Savage,  Richaird,  (cc.mp.)  "  Minutes 
and  Accounts  of  the  Corporation  of 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  15531-1620  ", 
reviewed,   819. 

Schachner,  August,  "  Ephraim  McDow- 
ell ",  reviewed,  616. 

bchafer,  Dietrich,  "  Kolonialge- 

schichte  ",    reviewed,    809. 

Schafer,  Joseph,  (R)  Bell's  "Opening 
a  Highway  to  the  Pacific  ",  331 ; 
paper  by,  417;  (R)  Chapman's  "  His- 
tory  of   California  ",   804. 

Schaw,  Janet,  "Journal,  1774-1776", 
reviewed,   801. 

Schevill,  Ferdinand,  "  Political  His- 
tory of  Modern  Europe  ",  reviewed, 
342;  paper  by,  412;  (R)  Heywood's 
"  History  of  Pisa,  Eleventh  and 
Twelfth  Centuries ",  775 ;  (R) 
Clark's  "  Greater  Roumania  ",  823. 

Schlesinger,  A.   M.,   remarks  by,  415. 

Schmitt,  B.  E.,  (R)  Gertrude  Robin- 
son's "David  Urquhart  ",   150. 

Schneider,  Franz,  jr.,  (R)  Crowell 
and  Wilson's  "  How  America  Went 
to  War  ",  I.-III.,   136. 

School    for    Ambassadors,    presidential 


Index 


899 


address,  by  J.  J.  J 
464 ;  early  manuals,  427-428 ;  tem- 
porary missions,  429-431  ;  develop- 
ment of  permanent  embassies,  431- 
433  ;  qualities  and  conduct  prescribed 
in  early  treatises,  433-453;  later 
manuals  show  changed  standards. 
454-460;  new  methods  and  aims  in 
international    relations,   461-464. 

Schuyler,  R.  L.,  (R)  Wittke's  "Eng- 
lish   Parliamentary    Privilege ",    290. 

Science,  history  of,  Mieli's  "  Gli  Sci- 
enziati  Italiani  ",  reviewed,  337;  con- 
ference on,   410. 

Science  at  the  Court  ef  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.,  by  C.  H.  Haskins, 
669-694 ;  scientific  activity  at  courts 
of  Frederick's  predecessors,  670; 
Michael  Scot  and  other  scholars  at 
Frederick's  court,  671-676;  royal 
regulation  of  universities,  676-677 ; 
Frederick's  relations  with  Jewish 
and  Mohammedan  scholars,  677- 
679 ;  interest  in  animals,  680-681  ; 
in  medicine,  682 ;  in  astrology,  as- 
tronomy, and  mathematics,  682-684  ; 
in  philosophy,  684-6S6 ;  experiments 
and  investigations,  686-688;  use  of 
questionnaires,  688-691  ;  rational- 
istic habit  of  mind,  691-692;  scien- 
tific activity  at  Manfred's  court,  692- 
694. 

"  Scienziati  Italiani  dall'Inizio  del 
Medio  Evo  ai  Nostri  Giorni ",  ed. 
Aldo   Mieli,   reviewed,   337. 

Scot,   Michael,   672,   685,   689,   691. 

"  Scotland,  Social  and  Industrial  His- 
tory of  ",  by  James  Mackinnon,  re- 
viewed,  346. 

Scott,  J  :  B.,  "  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica :  a  Study  in  International  Organ- 
ization ",   reviewed,    128. 

Sears,  L.  M.,  Slidell  and  Buchanan, 
709-730. 

Secession  Movement,  Webster's  Sev- 
enth of  March  Speech  and,  by  H.  D. 
Foster,  245-270. 

Sedgwick,  H :  D.,  "  Marcus  Aurelius  ", 
reviewed,    141. 

Seeger,  C :  L.,  (trans.)  "  Memoirs  of 
Alexander   Iswolsky  ",    reviewed,  120. 

Seeliger,   Gerhard,   deceased,   630. 


Seignobos,  Charles,  "  La  Revolution  de 
1848:  le  Second  Empire"  and  "  Le 
Declin  de  l'Empire  "  (Lavisse,  VI., 
VII.),  reviewed,  306;  "  L'Evolution 
de  la  Troisieme  Republique "  (La- 
visse, VIII.),  reviewed,  560. 

Seissel,   Claude   de,   447. 

"  Select  British  Documents  of  the 
Canadian  War  of  1812  ",  ed.  Wil- 
liam   Wood,    reviewed,   588. 

"  Serbia  and  Europe,  1914-1920 ",  ed. 
Lazar,  Marcovitch,  reviewed,  154. 

Severance,  F.  H.,  (ed.)  Buffalo  His- 
torical Society,  "  Publications  ",  re- 
viewed,  158,  834. 

Seymour,  Charles,  "  Woodrow  Wilson 
and  the  World  War  ",  reviewed,  333  ; 
(R)  Temperley's  "  History  of  the 
Peace  Conference",  IV,  V,  566; 
(R)  Lansing's  "  Big  Four  and  Others 
of  the   Peace   Conference  ",   612. 

Seymour,  St.  J  :  D.,  "  Puritans  in  Ire- 
land,   1 647-1 66 1  ",   reviewed,    146. 

Shapley,  John,  (R)  Bolton's  "  Early 
American  Portrait  Painters",  615. 

Sharfman,  I.  L.,  "  American  Railroad 
Problem  ",    reviewed,    597. 

Shaw,  Wilfred,  "  University  of  Michi- 
gan ",    reviewed,    160.     . 

Shearer,  A.  H.,  (R)  Dow's  "  Anthol- 
ogy and  Bibliography  of  Niagara 
Falls",   361. 

"  Shipping  Control,  Allied  ",  by  J.  A. 
Salter,    reviewed,    565. 

Shoemaker,   F.   C,  paper  by,  418. 

"  Short  History  of  Christian  The- 
ophagy  ",  by  Preserved  Smith,  re- 
viewed,   811. 

"Short  History  of  the  Irish  People", 
by  Mary  Hayden  and  G:  A.  Moonan, 
reviewed,    783. 

Shotwell,  J.  T.,  (ed.)  "  Economic  and 
Social  History  of  the  World  War, 
British    Series ",    reviewed,    565. 

Sicily,  Gay's  Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Cam- 
paign as  reported  by  an  American 
Diplomat,  219-244. 

Sidney,   Sir   Philip,  431. 

Simcoe,   J :    G.,   470. 

Simond,  Emile,  "Troisieme  Repub- 
lique ",   I.— III.,  reviewed,   353. 


900 


Index 


"  Since  the  Civil  War  ",  by  C :  R.  Ling- 
ley,    reviewed,    620. 

Sippell,  Theodor,  "  Zur  Vorgeschichte 
des    Quakertums  ",    reviewed,    344. 

"Sir  Francis  d'lvernois,  1757-1842", 
by   Otto   Karmin,   reviewed,    149. 

Slidell  and  Buchanan,  by  L.  M.  Sears, 
709-730;  Slidell's  early  hopes  of 
Presidency  for  Buchanan,  710-71 1; 
labors  to  secure  Buchanan's  nomina- 
tion in  1852,  712-717;  in  the  Sen- 
ate, 719-722;  ^reconvention  cam- 
paign of  1856,  723-724;  further  ac- 
tivity of  Slidell  for  Buchanan,  725- 
727  ;  his  suggestions  for  Cabinet  ap- 
pointments, 728-729;  continued  loy- 
alty,   730. 

Slosson,  E.  E.,  "  American  Spirit  in 
Education  ",   reviewed,    622. 

Smith,  E:  C,  "History  of  Lewis 
County,  West  Virginia ",  reviewed, 
365. 

Smith,  H.  M.,  "  Early  Life  and  Edu- 
cation of  John  Evelyn  ",  reviewed, 
146. 

Smith,  J.  H„  (R)  Stephenson's  "  Texas 
and   the   Mexican  War  ",   618. 

Smith,  Preserved,  "  Short  History  of 
Christian  Theophagy  ",  reviewed,  811  ; 
(R)  Strohl's  "  L  "Evolution  Religi- 
euse  de  Luther  jusqu'en   1315",  818. 

Smith,  T.  C,  paper  by,  416. 

Snow,  A.  H.,  "  American  Philosophy 
of   Government  ",   reviewed,  826. 

"  Social  and  Economic  History  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales",  V.,  ed.  F.  M. 
Stenton,   reviewed,    104. 

"  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  Scot- 
land ",  by  James  Mackinnon,  re- 
viewed,   346. 

"  Social  and  Legal  History,  Oxford 
Studies  in  ",  VI.,  ed.  Sir  Paul  Vino- 
gradoff,    reviewed,    548. 

Social  conditions  and  history,  Kim- 
ball's Architecture  in  the  Colonies 
and  the  Republic,  47-57 ;  Moon's 
"  Labor  Problem  and  the  Social 
Catholic  Movement  in  France  ",  re- 
viewed, 310;  papers  on  American 
social  conditions,  417;  Murray's 
"  Witch-Cult  in  Western  Europe ", 
reviewed,     780 ;     Rainwater's     "  Play 


Movement  in  the  United  States ", 
reviewed,    831. 

."Social  History  of  the  Western 
World  ",  by  H.  E.  Barnes,  reviewed, 
603. 

"Social  Reform,  The  Mind  in  the 
Making:  the  Relation  of  Intelligence 
to  ",  by  J.  H.  Robinson,  reviewed, 
767. 

Social  Studies,  National  Council  for 
the,  note  concerning,  491-492. 

"  Sociology,  Significance  of,  for  Eco- 
nomic and  Social  History ",  paper 
by   H.    E.   Barnes,   412. 

Soule,  Pierre,  710,  713,  715,  719-721, 
725- 

"  Source  Book  and  Bibliographical 
Guide  for  American  Church  His- 
tory ",    by    P.     G.     Mode,    reviewed, 

South  America,  Perkins's  Europe, 
Spanish  America,  and  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  207-218. 

"  South  Carolina,  Historic  Houses  of  ", 
by  Harriette  K.  Leiding,  reviewed, 
620. 

"  South  India  and  her  Muhammadan 
Invaders ",  by  S.  K.  Aiyangar,  re- 
viewed,   825, 

Souvay,  C  :  L.,  (R)  Garraghan's  "  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Chicago,  1673-1871  ", 
834. 

"  Souville,  La  Bataille  devant ",  by 
Henri    Bordeaux,   reviewed,    155. 

Spain,  Montero's  "  Guia  Historica  y 
Descriptiva  del  Archivo  General  de 
Simancas  ",   reviewed,   359. 

Spanish  America,  Perkins's  Europe, 
Spanish  America,  and  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,   207-218. 

"  Spanish  Borderlands :  a  Chronicle  of 
Old  Florida  and  the  Southwest  ", 
by  H.   E.   Bolton,  reviewed,   580. 

"Spanish  Economic  History:  the 
Mesta ",  by  Julius  Klein,  reviewed, 
285. 

Spaulding,  O.  L.,  jr.,  (R)  Johnson's 
"Battlefields  of  the  World  War", 
563. 

Spencer,  H:  R.,  (R)  Scott's  "United 
States  of  America :  a  Study  in  In- 
ternational   Organization  ",    128. 


Index 


901 


Sperry,  E.  E.,  (R)  Turner's  "  Europe 
since    1870",    311. 

Srbik,  Heinrich  von,  "  Wallenstein's 
Ende  ",   reviewed,    115. 

"  Statecraft,  Studies  in :  mainly  on  the 
Sixteenth  Century  ",  by  Sir  Geoffrey 
Butler,   reviewed,    III. 

"  Stein  and  the  Era  of  Reform  in 
Prussia ",  by  G.  S.  Ford,  reviewed, 
794- 

Stengel,  Edmund,  "  Nova  Alamanniae  ", 
I.,  reviewed,  778. 

Stenton,  F.  M.,  (ed.)  "  Documents  il- 
lustrative of  the  Social  and  Econom- 
ic History  of  the  Danelaw ",  re- 
viewed,   104. 

Stephens,  A.  H.,  and  secession  senti- 
ment  in    1850,   250,   251,   254,   258. 

Stephenson,  G :  M„  "  Conservative 
Character  of  Martin  Luther ",  re- 
viewed,   608. 

Stephenson,  N.  W.,  "Texas  and  the 
Mexican   War",   reviewed,   618. 

Stevens,  W.  E.,  (R)  Haworth's 
"  Trailmakers  of  the  Northwest  ", 
364;  paper  by,  410;  (R)  Alvord's 
"Governor   Edward   Coles",   615. 

Stevenson,  E :  L.,  "  Terrestrial  and 
Celestial    Globes  ",    reviewed,    543. 

Stiles,   C,   C,   address  by,  408. 

Stocks,  G.  A.,  (ed.)  '*  Chetham  Mis- 
cellanies ",   TV.,   reviewed,    340. 

Stoddard,  Lothrop,  "  New  World  of 
Islam  ",   reviewed,    322. 

Stowell,  E.  C,  (R)  Hyde's  "  Inter- 
national   Law  ",   769. 

Strachey,  Lytton,  "  Queen  Victoria ", 
reviewed,    351. 

"  Stratford-upon-Avon,  Minutes  and 
Accounts  of  the  Corporation  of ", 
reviewed,    819. 

Strohl,  Henri,  "  L'Evolution  Religieuse 
de  Luther  jusqu'en   15 15  ",  reviewed, 

Stuart,  G.  H.,  "  French  Foreign  Pol- 
icy from  Fashoda  to  Serajevo  ",  re- 
viewed,  317. 

"  Study  of  American  History  ",  by  Vis- 
count  Bryce,   reviewed,   826. 

Suarez,   P.   D.,  430. 

Surrey,   Mrs.  N.  M.  M.,  paper  by,  419. 

"Sweden,     Relations     of     the     United 


States  with  ",  by  K.  E.  Carlson,  re- 
viewed,   82S. 

Sweet,  A.  H.,  (R)  Jackson's  "Intro- 
duction to  the  History  of  Christian- 
ity ",    774- 

Swift,   Gen.   Eben,  paper  by,  412. 

Switzerland,  Karmin's  "  Sir  Francis 
d'lvernois  ",  reviewed,    149. 

Tait,  James,  (ed.)  "  Chetham  Miscel- 
lanies ",    IV.,    reviewed,    34°- 

Taylor,  F.  L.,  "  Art  of  War  in  Italy, 
1494-1529".   reviewed,    144. 

Taylor,  Frank,  "  Wars  of  Marlbor- 
ough ",    reviewed,    298. 

Taylor,  G.  W.,  (ed.)  Frank  Taylor's 
"  Wars  of  Marlborough  ",  reviewed, 
298. 

Taylor,   Zachary,   258. 

Technology,  Vierendeel's  "  Esquisse 
d'une  Histoire  de  la  Technique  ",  re- 
viewed,  809. 

Temperley,  H.  W.  V.,  (ed.)  "History 
of  the  Peace  Conference",  IV.,  V., 
reviewed,   566. 

"  Terrestrial  and  Celestial  Globes : 
their  History  and  Construction  ",  by 
E :   L,  Stevenson,  reviewed,  543- 

Texas,  "  Memoirs  of  Mary  A.  Mav- 
erick",    reviewed.    617. 

"  Texas  and  the  Mexican  War ",  by 
N.   W.    Stephenson,   reviewed,   618. 

Thacher,   J:    Boyd,    Collection,    31. 

Theodore,  "the  philosopher",  672- 
674,   682. 

"  Theologische  Faculteit  te  Leiden  in 
de  i7de  Eeuw  ",  by  A.  Eekhof,  re- 
viewed,   345. 

"  Thiers.  Le  Courrier  de  M.",  ed.  Dan- 
iel  Halevy,   reviewed,   558. 

Thomas,   Capt.   Shipley,   paper  by,   41°- 

Thompson,  David,  survey  of  upper 
Mississippi,   480-4S2. 

Thompson,  Holland,  "  Age  of  Inven- 
tion ",    reviewed,    623. 

Thompson,  J.  W..  (R)  Stengel's  "  Nova 
Alamanniae  ",  I..  778. 

Thorndike,  Lynn.  (R)  Midi's  "  Gli 
Scienziati  Italiani  ",  337;  paper  by, 
413- 

Toombs,  Robert,  250,  251,  258. 


902 


Index 


Torchiana,  H.  A.  van  C,  "  Tropical 
Holland  ",    reviewed,    347. 

Toucey,    Isaac,    729. 

"  Towns  of  New  England  and  Old  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  Scotland '',  by 
Allan   Forbes,  reviewed,   613. 

"  Trailraakers  of  the  Northwest ",  by 
P.  L.  Haworth,  reviewed,  364. 

"  Treaties,  Leading  American  ",  by  C : 
E.    Hill,    reviewed,    827. 

Trenholme,  N.  M.,  (R)  "  Court  Rolls 
of  the   Borough   of   Colchester  ",  606. 

Trent,  W.  P.,  (R)  Bruce's  "  History 
of  the  University  of  Virginia  ",  III., 
IV.,    132. 

"  Tropical  Holland  ",  by  H.  A.  van  C. 
Torchiana,    reviewed,    347. 

Trotter,  R.  G.,  (R)  Mackinnon's  "  So- 
cial and  Industrial  History  of  Scot- 
land ",    346. 

Tryon,  R.   M.,  paper  by,  408. 

Turner,  E.  R.,  English  Coal  Industry 
in  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth 
Centuries,  1-23;  (R)  G:  B.  Adams's 
"  Constitutional  History  of  Eng- 
land ",  106;  "Europe  since  1870", 
reviewed,   311. 

"  Twenty  Years :  the  Party  System, 
1815-1835  ",  by  Cyril  Alington,  re- 
viewed,   350. 

Tyler,  J :  M.,  "  New  Stone  Age  in 
Northern   Europe  ",   reviewed,   94. 

Tyler,  M.  W.,  (R)  "  Das  Ausland  im 
Weltkrieg  ",   I.,    153. 

"  Tylissos  a  l'Epoque  Minoenne  ",  by 
Joseph    Hazzidakis,   reviewed,    604. 

United  States,  Luckwaldt's  "  Geschichte 
der  Vereinigten  Staaten  ",  reviewed, 
127;  Bemis's  Jay's  Treaty  and  the 
Northwest  Boundary  Gap,  465-484; 
Mitchell's  "  Our  Air  Force  ",  re- 
viewed, 599 ;  Bryce's  "  Study  of 
American    History ",    reviewed,    826. 

"  United  States ",  III.,  ed.  Max  Fa,r- 
rand,    reviewed,    620. 

"  United  States,  Economic  Develop- 
ment of  the ",  by  Isaac  Lippincott, 
reviewed,   583. 

"  United  States,  History  of  the ",  V., 
by   Edward   Channing,  reviewed,  589. 


"  United  States,  International  Law, 
chiefly  as  interpreted  by  ",  by  C :  C. 
Hyde,    reviewed,    769. 

"United  States,  Play  Movement  in 
the  ",  by  C.  E.  Rainwater,  reviewed, 
831. 

"  United  States,  Recent  History  of ", 
by   F :    L.    Paxson,   reviewed,   594- 

"  United  States,  Relations  of  the,  with 
Sweden  ",  by  K.  E.  Carlson,  reviewed. 
828. 

"  United  States  of  America :  a  Study 
in  International  Organization ",  by 
J  :   B.   Scott,  reviewed,   128. 

"  Universite  de  Louvain  ",  by  Leon 
Van   der   Essen,   reviewed,   341. 

"  University  of  Michigan  ",  by  Wil- 
fred   Shaw,    reviewed,    160. 

"University  of  Virginia ",  III.,  IV., 
by   P.  A.  Bruce,  reviewed,    132. 

"  Urquhart,  David :  a  Victorian  Knight- 
Errant  ",  by  Gertrude  Robinson,  re- 
viewed,   150. 

"  Ursprung  und  Anfiinge  des  Christen- 
tums ",  I.,  by  Eduard  Meyer,  re- 
viewed,   99. 

Usher,  R.  G.,  (R)  "  Acts  of  the  Privy 
Council  of  England,  1613-1614  ",'785. 

"  Van  Buren,  Martin,  Autobiography 
of  ",  ed.  J  :  C.  Fitzpatrick,  reviewed, 
133. 

Vandenberg,  A.  H.,  "The  Greatest 
American,  Alexander  Hamilton  ",  re- 
viewed,  363. 

Van  der  Essen,  Leon,  "  L'Universite 
de  Louvain  ",  reviewed,   341. 

Vanderpol,  Alfred,  "  Doctrine  Scholas- 
tique  du  Droit  de  Guerre  ",  reviewed, 
138. 

Van  Metre,  T.  W.,  (R)  Morison's 
"  Maritime  History  of  Massachu- 
setts ",    600. 

Vannerus,  Jules,  (ed.)  "  Denombre- 
ments  des  Feux  des  Duche  de  Lux- 
embourg et  Comte  de  Chiny ",  re- 
viewed,   777. 

Van  Tyne,  C.  H.,  (R)  Burnett's  "  Let- 
ters of  Members  of  the  Continental 
Congress",  I.,  328;  paper  by,  415. 

Vendryes,  J.,  "  Le  Langage  ",  reviewed, 


Index 


903 


"Venizelos,  Life  of",  by  S.  B.  Ches- 
ter,   reviewed,    320. 

Vera  y  Cuniga,  Juan  Antonio  de,  428, 
433,    434,    441.    445- 

Verona,   Congress   of,   209. 

Vesey,  Constance,  (trans.)  Prince  Win- 
dischgraetz's  "  My  Memoirs ",  re- 
viewed,  31S. 

Victor  Emmanuel   II.,  225. 

"  Victoria,  Queen  ",  by  Lytton  Strachey, 
reviewed,    351. 

Vierendeel,  A.,  "  Esquisse  d'une  His- 
toire  de  la  Technique ",  reviewed, 
809. 

Vigna,   Piero  della,  674. 

Vignaud,  Henry,  "  Le  Vrai  Christophe 
Colomb  et  la  Legende ",  reviewed, 
577- 

Villele,   Joachim   de,   208,   210-212. 

Vincent,  J:  M.,  (R)  Karmin's  "Sir 
Francis   d'lvernois  ",    149. 

Vinogradoff,  Sir  Paul,  (ed.)  "Oxford 
Studies  in  Social  and  Legal  His- 
tory ",    VI.,    reviewed,     548. 

Violette,  E.  M.,  paper  by,  408. 

"  Virginia,  History  of  the  University 
of",  III.,  IV,  by  P.  A.  Bruce,  re- 
viewed,   132. 

Virginia,  Lord  Sackville's  Papers  re- 
specting, 1613-1631  (doc).  493- 
538,    738-765. 

"  Virginia  Dynasty,  Jefferson  and  his 
Colleagues:  a  Chronicle  of  the", by 
Allen  Johnson,   reviewed,   585. 

"  Vitae  Paparum  Avenionensium  ",  by 
Etienne  Baluze,  ed.  Mollat,  I  ,  III., 
reviewed,   605. 

Von  Klenze,  Camillo,  (R)  Kelly's 
"  England  and  the  Englishman  in 
German  Literature  of  t'l .:  Eighteenth 
Century  ",    147, 

"  Vorgeschichte  des  Quakertums  ",  by 
Theodor   Sippell,   reviewed,   344. 

"  Voyage  of  the  Sonora  in  the  Second 
Bucareli  Expedition  ",  by  F.  A.  Mour- 
elle,  reviewed,   360. 

"  Vrai  Christophe  Colomb  et  la  Le- 
gende ",  by  Henry  Vignaud,  reviewed, 
577- 

Waddington,  Alb;:t,  "  Histoire  de 
Prusse ",   II.,   reviswcd.   788. 


Watjen,  Hermann,  "  Das  Hollandische 
Kolonialreich  in  Brasilien  ",  reviewed, 
836. 

"  Wales,  National  Library  of,  Calendar 
of  Deeds  and  Documents  in  the  ",  I., 
comp.   Francis   Green,   reviewed,   340. 

Walker,  R.  J.,   710,  713,   725,   726,   728. 

Walker,  Williston,  deceased,  628; 
(R)  Seymour's  "  Puritans  in  Ire- 
land ",     146. 

"  Wallenstein's  Ende ",  by  Heinrich 
von   Srbik,   reviewed,   115. 

Walsh,  J.  J.,  address  by,  406. 

"  War  and  Neutrality,  Letters  to  The 
Times  upon  ",  by  Sir  T  :  E.  Holland, 
reviewed,  822. 

"  War  in  Italy,  Art  of  ",  by  F. 
L.    Taylor,    reviewed,    144. 

"War  of  1812,  Select  British  Docu- 
ments of  the  Canadian  ",  I.,  ed.  Wil- 
liam   Wood,   reviewed,    5S8. 

"  War  Powers  of  the  Executive  in  the 
United  States ",  by  C.  A.  Berdahl, 
reviewed,   330. 

Ward,  Sir  A.  W :,  "  Collected  Papers  ", 
I.,   II.,   reviewed,   355. 

"  Ward,  Artemas,  Life  of,  the  First 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  American 
Revolution  ",  by  Charles  Martyn,  re- 
viewed,   362. 

Warner,  G:  F.,  (ed.)  "Nicholas 
Papers",  IV.,  reviewed,  551. 

Warner,   Langdon,  paper  by,  411. 

Warren,  F.  M.,  (R)  Hanotaux's  "  His- 
toire de  la  Nation  Franchise  ",  XII., 
547- 

"  Wars  of  Marlborough  ",  by  Frank 
Taylor,  reviewed,  298. 

Washington,  George,  and  the  northwest 
boundary,   474. 

Washington,  ship,  sent  to  aid  Garibaldi, 
233-237. 

Washington  in  1834;  Letter  of  Robert 
C.    Caldwell    (doc.),   271-281. 

Watson,   J.   W.,   240-242. 

Webster,  Hutton,  "  Historical  Source 
Book  ",  reviewed,  358. 

Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech 
and  the  Secession  Movement,  1850, 
by  H.  D.  Foster,  245-270 ;  new 
material  available,  245-246  ;  disunion 
sentiment   prior   to   speech,   246-252; 


9°4 


Index 


the  Nashville  Convention,  252-255 ; 
influence  of  Webster's  policy  on 
South,  255-256;  Northern  opinion  as 
to  Southern  sentiment,  256-262;  pur- 
pose and  character  of  speech,  262- 
264 ;  contemporary  approval  of 
speech,  264-268 ;  gains  from  post- 
ponement  of  secession,   268-270. 

Weil,  M.-H.,  "  D'Ulm  a  Iena  ",  re- 
viewed,  349. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  1st  duke 
of,  209,  213. 

Wei  vert,   Eugene,   24,    31. 

Wendel,  H.  C.  M.,  "Evolution  of  In- 
dustrial Freedom  in  Prussia,  1845- 
1849  ",   reviewed,   609. 

"  Wentworth,  John  ",  by  L.  S.  Mayo, 
reviewed,  326. 

West,  Elizabeth  H.,  (R)  Maverick's 
"  Memoirs  of  Mary  A.  Maverick  ", 
617. 

West  Indies,  Higham's  "  Development 
of  the  Leeward  Islands  under  the 
Restoration",  reviewed,  162;  "Jour- 
nal of  a  Lady  of  Quality,  1 774-1 776  ", 
reviewed,  Soi. 

"  West  Virginia,  History  of  Lewis 
County  ",  by  E :  C.  Smith,  reviewed, 
365. 

Westermann,  W:  L.,  paper  by,  412. 

Whear,  Degory,  735-737. 

White,   M.  J.,  paper  by,  418. 

Willoughby,  W.  W.,  "  China  at  the 
Conference  ",  reviewed,   798. 

Wilson,  G:  G.,  (R)  Bryce's  "Inter- 
national Relations",  766;  (R)  Hill's 
"  Leading   American   Treaties  ",   827. 

Wilson,  R.  F.,  "How  America  Went 
to   War",    I.— III.,   reviewed.    136. 

"  Wilson,  Woodrow,  and  his  Work  ",  by 
W:    E:    Dodd,   reviewed,    334. 


"  Wilson,  Woodrow,  and  the  World 
War ",  by  Charles  Seymour,  re- 
viewed, 333. 

Windischgraetz,  Prince  Ludwig,  "  My 
Memoirs",    reviewed,    318. 

Winsor,   Justin,   prize,   awarded,   421. 

"  Witch-Cult  in  Western  Europe  ",  by 
Margaret   A.   Murray,   reviewed,   780. 

Wittke,  Carl,  (R)  Luckwaldt's  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Vereinigten  Staaten  von 
Amerikal",  127;  "English  Parlia- 
mentary   Privilege  ",    reviewed,    290. 

Wood,  William,  (ed.)  "Select  British 
Documents  of  the  Canadian  War  of 
1812",  I.,  reviewed,  588;  "Captains 
of    the    Civil    War ",    reviewed,    592. 

Woodward,  R.  S.,  (R)  Fiske's  "  In- 
vention ",    541. 

Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  439. 

Wright,  H.  F.,  (R)  Vanderpol's 
"  Doctrine  Scholastique  du  Droit  de 
Guerre  ",   13S. 

Wright,  J.  M.,  "  Free  Negro  in  Mary- 
land ",  reviewed,  365. 

Wrong,  G:  M.,  (R)  "Correspondence 
of  Sir  John  Macdonald  ",  799. 

Wyckoff,  C:  T„  (R)  Bogart  and 
Mathew's  "  Modern  Common- 

wealth ",    S06. 

Ya'koub,  Abou  Yousof,  "  Livre  de  11m- 
pot  Foncier  (Kitab  El-Kharadj)",  re- 
viewed,  817. 

Zook,  G:  F.,  (R)  Hallward's  "Wil- 
liam Bolts",  348;  (R)  Slosson's 
"  American  Spirit  in  Education  ", 
622. 

"  Zur  Preussischen  und  Deutschen 
Geschichte  ",  by  Reinhold  Koser,  re- 
viewed, 300. 


Volume  XXVII]        October,  iQ2i  [Number 


&h* 


mmtm  M&tmt&l  Witvitw 


ENGLISH  COAL  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH 
AND  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURIES 

IN  England  the  mining  of  coal  is  of  great  antiquity.1  Coal  was  in 
use  among  the  Saxons,  apparently,  for  the  burning  of  lime  and 
the  shaping  of  iron.2  At  an  early  time  it  came  into  use  as  fuel.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Newminster  chartulary  about  1236;  and  in  T306. 
according  to  the  antiquarian  Frynne,  it  was  much  employed  by 
London  artificers  in  place  of  charcoal  and  wood,  and  caused  such 
intolerable  smoke  that  the  king  forbade  it  to  be  used  there.3  About 
the  time  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt  a  chronicler  speaks  of  coal  which 
grows  under  the  ground  in  Wales.4  Before  this  time  it  seems  to 
have  been  exported.5  During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
there  is  much  information  to  show  that  coal  was  mined  at  New- 
castle and  Gateshead,  that  it  was  largely  used,  and  that  considerable 
quantities  were  borne  by  sea  to  London,  becoming  thus  the  sea-coal 

1  For  an  admirable  account,  filled  with  antiquarian  learning,  and  with  copious 
references  and  annotations,  see  John  Brand,  The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
To-.vn  and  County  of  the  Town  of  Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  including  an  Account 
of  the  Coal  Trade  of  that  Place,  etc.  (London,  1789),  II.  241-311  :  also  Matthias 
Dunn,  An  Historical,  Geological,  and  Descriptive  View  of  the  Coal  Trade  of  the 
North  of  England,  etc.  (Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  1844)  ;  Mark  Archer,  A  Sketch  of 
the  History  of  the  Coal  Trade  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  (London,  [1897]  ), 
pt.  I.;  also  R.  L.  Galloway,  Papers  relating  to  the  History  of  the  Coal  Trade  and 
the  Invention  of  the  Steam  Engine,  etc.   (London,   1906),  pp.  1 5— 24- 

2  Archer,  op.  cit.,  pp.  3-5. 

S  Surtees  Society,  Publications,  LXVI.  (1876)  55,  201.  "Jam  de  novo  praeter 
solitum  ex  Carbone  marino  concremant  et  componunt ;  de  quo  tantus  et  talis 
prosilit  foetor  intolerabilis,  quod  diffundens  se  per  loca  vicina,  aer  ibidem  in- 
ficitur  in  immensum:  .  .  ."  William  Prynne,  Brief  Animadversions  on  .  .  .  the 
Fourth  Part  of  Coke's  Institutes  (London,  1669),  p.  182,  quoting  "  Pat.  35  Edward 
I.  m.  4.  dorso  ". 

*  Trevisa-Higden,  Polychronicon  (Rolls  Series),  I.  399- 

=  Petition  of  Thomas  Rente  of  Pontoise,  1325-  Rotuli  Parliamentorum,  I. 
433  ;     Brand,   II.   255. 

AM.   HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.  — I.  (i) 


2  E.  R.   Turner 

of  common  parlance.6  This  traffic  may  have  been  subject  to  cus- 
toms payment  for  a  long  time,  but  express  mention  is  made  of  it  in 
the  time  of  Henry  V.7  During  this  and  the  following  century  there 
were  probably  numerous  mines,  many  of  them  doubtless  small,  in 
the  north  country.8  Aeneas  Sylvius,  speaking  of  the  wonders  of 
Scotland,  of  the  winter  days  only  three  hours  long,  and  of  fruits 
which  change  into  birds,  tells  also  of  the  wondrous  stones  which 
poorly  clad  beggars  accept  in  lieu  of  alms,  and  which  they  joyfully 
burn  instead  of  wood.9  A  hundred  years  later  the  Venetian  am- 
bassador sends  back  a  quaint  account  of  the  wide  use  of  coal  in 
industry.10  Sea-coal,  stone-coal,  and  moor-coal  are  all  mentioned, 
and  the  mines  were  sources  of  revenue  to  many  a  landowner  and 
ecclesiastic.11  A  monopoly  of  sea-coals  was  one  of  the  measures 
of  James  I.,  and  was  planned  also  in  the  reign  following,  while  by 
this  time  the  customs  upon  coal  were  recognized  as  "an  ancient 
Revenue  of  the  Crown  ".12 

This  coal  was  obtained  in  various  places.  There  was  a  coal-pit 
eight  fathoms  deep  in  Somersetshire  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.13  At  this  time  there  was  no  little  activity  in  the 
Midlands,  while  Scottish  coal  is  mentioned  also.14  Trade  was  car- 
ried on  from  Hull,  Yarmouth,  and  "Larpoole"  in  Lancashire;15 
most  of  all,  however,  from  the  Tyne.  "  The  greatest  Part  of  this 
Kingdom,  and  more  especially  the  City  of  London,  and  most  Mari- 

«  Richard  Welford,  History  of  Newcastle  and  Gateshead  in  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Centuries   (London,   1884,   1887). 

'  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  II.  208 ;  Brand,  op.  cit.,  II.  270. 

s  Welford,  loc.  cit.,  I.,  II. 

9 "  Nam  pauperes  pene  nudos  ad  templa  mendicantes,  acceptis  rapidibus 
eleemosynae  gratia  datis,  laetos  abiisse  conspeximus:  id  genus  lapidis  sive  sul- 
phurea  sive  alia  pingui  materia  praeditum,  pro  ligno,  quo  regio  nuda  est,  com- 
buritur."  Aeneae  Sylvii  Piccolominei  .  .  .  Opera  (Basel,  1551),  P-  443;  Brand, 
op.  cit.,  II.  263. 

10  "  Nelle  parti  del  Nord,  che  e  il  paese  confinante  colla  Scozia,  si  ritrova 
certa  sorta  di  terra  quasi  come  miniera,  e  brucia  come  il  carbone,  e  se  ne  usa 
da  molti  e  massime  dalli  fabbri ;  e  se  non  lasciasse  un  non  so  che  di  mal  sentore. 
facendo  gran  fazione  e  costando  poco,  si  userebbe  ancora  piu."  "  Relazione  di 
Giacomo  Soranzo ",  in  Eugenio  Alberi,  Relazioni  dello  Impero  Britannico  nel 
Secolo  XVI.  serine  da  Veneti  Ambasciatori  (Florence,  1852),  pt.  II.,  p.  50;  Wel- 
ford, op.  cit.,  II.  318. 

11  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  vol.  IV.,  pt.  I.,  p.  410;  Welford,  op.  cit.,  II.  83. 
104,  in. 

12  Commons'  Journals,  I.  685  ;  "  Many  monopolies  spoken  of,  among  others, 
one  that  only  10  men  may  sell  sea-coal  throughout  England"  (1637).  Historical 
Manuscripts  Commission,  Tenth  Report,  III.   163;    Commons'  Journals,  I.  778. 

13  Hist.  MSS.  Comm,  Twelfth  Report,  I.  71   (Coke  MSS.). 
14/rf.,  IV.  499,  500;  Fifteenth  Report,  X.  156. 

is  Commons'  Journals,  II.  90. 


English  Coal  Industry  3 

time  Towns,  are  served  and  furnished  with  Coals  from  the  Town 
of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  the  adjacent  Parts  of  Northumber- 
land, and  the  Bishoprick  of  Durham",  says  a  declaration  of  1643.10 
Somewhat  earlier  the  author  of  a  pamphlet  declares  that  200  ships 
carry  coal  from  Newcastle  to  London,  while  as  many  more  serve 
the  other  seacoast  towns,  great  and  small.  "  Hither  even  to  the 
Mines  mouth,  come  all  our  Neighbour  countrey  Nations  with  their 
Shippes  continually."  French  ships  came  in  fleets  of  forty  or  fifty 
sail,  serving  the  ports  of  northern  France,  and  others  from  Germany 
and  Holland  carried  on  the  trade  with  Flanders  and  beyond.17  "  An 
other  Commodity  that  this  River  bringeth  forth,  is  Coale  in  great 
abundance;  most  of  the  People  that  liveth  in  these  parts,  lives  by 
the  benefit  of  Coales,  and  are  carried  out  of  this  River  into  most 
parts  of  England  South- Ward,  into  Germany,  and  other  transmarine 
Countries."18     And  a  rhymester  bursting  forth  in  exultant  doggerel 


"  England's  a  perfect  World !  has  Indies  too  ! 
Correct  your  Maps :  New-Castle  is  Peru." 

The  protection  of  this  sea  trade,  and  particularly  the  uninter- 
rupted transport  of  coals  to  London,  was  a  matter  of  great  solicitude 
to  the  authorities.  A  navy  paper  of  1629,  endorsed  by  Sir  J.  Coke, 
"  Proposition  for  a  fleet  of  5  squadrons  ",  assigns  one  of  them  to 
guard  "  the  Coal  Fleets  of  Newcastle  ".20  In  1640  there  were  appre- 
hensions that  the  trade  might  be  interrupted  by  the  Scots;  and  two 
years  later  Parliament,  narrating  things  done  by  the  king's  evil 
counsellors,  spoke  of  their  fortifying  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  so  that 
ail  the  Newcastle  coal  traffic  could  be  stopped  whenever  his  Majesty 
pleased,  which  would  bring  great  burden  and  distress  to  the  city  of 
London  and  many  parts  of  the  kingdom.21  After  the  Restoration, 
whenever  there  was  danger  from  abroad,  hundreds  of  colliers  sailed 
together  under  the  convoy  of  war-ships,  and  numerous  communica- 
tions about  their  movements  were  sent  to  the  commissioners  of  the 
navy  and  the  clerk  of  the  privy  council.22 

16  Lords'  Journals,  VI.  82. 

I'  The  Trades  Increase  (London,  1615),  pp.  10,  11;  also  Hist.  MSS.  Comm., 
Eleventh  Report,  VII.  291. 

is  William  Grey,  Chorographia;  or,  a  Survey  of  Newcastle  upon  Tyne  (1649, 
ed.  Newcastle,  1818),  p.  32. 

19  News  from  Newcastle  (London,  1651),  p.   1. 

20  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Twelfth  Report,  I.  379   (Coke  MSS.). 

21  Hardwicke  State  Papers,  II.  173;  Parliamentary  History,  II.  1411. 

22  "  Yesterday  the  Flyeing  Grayhounde  sayled  from  this  porte  [Newcastle] 
in  the  Companie  of  the  Convoy  and  neere  400  sayle  of  Colliers  ".     State  Papers 


4  E.  R.   Turner 

During  the  seventeenth  century  coal  was  more  and  more  used  in 
various  manufactures,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century  it  had  become 
indispensable.  "  Iron  may  be  made  with  Sea-coal,  and  Pit-coal ", 
says  a  speaker  in  1614.23  A  little  later  coal  was  to  be  used  in  the 
making  of  tobacco  pipes.24  In  1690  the  brewers  of  London  were 
suffering  in  their  trade  because  of  the  high  price  of  coals.25  Two 
years  after,  the  attorney-general  reported  in  favor  of  the  incor- 
poration of  a  company  to  smelt  iron  with  pit-coal.26  In  1696  the 
glass-workers  of  Southwark  petitioned  that  a  duty  might  be  re- 
moved, lest  their  manufacture  be  ruined,  and  the  woolen-dyers  of 
London  declared  that  "  they  cannot  carry  on  their  Trade  without 
great  Quantities  of  Coals  ".27  It  was  employed  likewise  in  the 
manufacture  of  salt.28  Many  trades  made  use  of  it  as  time  went 
on.  In  1731  a  petition  of  brewers,  distillers,  dyers,  glass-makers, 
smiths,  and  sugar-bakers,  had  to  do  with  the  use  of  coal.20  Shortly 
after,  a  petition  against  its  high  cost  came  from  these  same,  together 
with  soap-boilers,  "and  other  considerable  Consumers".30  In  1739 
high  prices  occasioned  protest  from  brewers,  brick-makers,  calico- 
printers,  distillers,  dyers,  founders,  glass-makers,  lime-burners, 
smiths,  soap-boilers,  and  sugar-bakers,  "  who  are  Consumers  of 
large  Quantities  of  Coals  ".31 

A  great  part  of  it  was  used  for  fuel.  In  1641  payment  is  made 
by  the  corporation  of  Bridgnorth  "  To  Humf rey  Parkes  for  halfe  a 
tonne  of  coales  for  a  great  fire  that  watch  night  which  was  made 
nere  the  Cross  in  the  high  streete  of  this  Town".32  "  Winter  draws 
on  and  never  was  less  provision  of  coals  here  than  now;  'tis  likely 
many  a  house  will  be  pulled  down  and  burnt  for  want  of  firing", 
writes  a  correspondent  from  Dublin  in  1643. 3S  In  1662  arrange- 
ment is  made  for  the  purchase  of  £500  worth  of  sea-coal  for  the 
king's  garrison  at  Tangier.34     Above  all  it  was  so  used  in  London. 

Domestic,  Charles  II.,  CLXVIII.,  Aug.  25,  '666.  See  id.,  CCCV.,  Apr.  13,  1672: 
CCCXII.,  June  24,  1672;  and  CCCXIII.,  CCCXIV.,  passim.  "This  day  wee  have 
news  of  14  Colliers  being  taken  by  three  dutch  Capers  aft  of  Hornesey  ".  Id., 
CCCXXXVT.,  pt.  I.,  June  13,   1673. 

23  Commons'  Journals,  I.  480. 

2*  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Fourteenth  Report,  II.  69  (Portland  MSS.). 

20  Commons'  Journals,  X.  491. 

2«  Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic,  1691-1693,  pp.  518,  523,  524. 

"t  Commons'  Journals,  XI.  391,  394. 

28  Id.,  XII.  587. 

29  Id..  XXI.  739,  74°- 
so/fci'd.,  p.   155. 

si  Id.,  XXIII.  263.  . 

32  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Tenth  Report,  IV.  434- 

33  Id.,  Thirteenth  Report,  I.  133  (Portland  MSS.). 

34  Privy   Council   Register,   LVI.,  Aug.   16,    1662. 


English  Coal  Industry  5 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  Parliament  commanded  the  lord 
mayor  to  ascertain,  "  What  Quantities  of  Coals  are  in  and  about  the 
City  of  London,  and  for  what  Time  the  Store  will  continue ;  and  to 
consider  what  moderate  Price  and  Rate  may  be  set  upon  the  Coals 
that  are  now  in  Store,  in  Consideration  of  the  Poor  ".33  In  the 
following  year,  when  trade  with  Newcastle  was  stopped,  "  all  the 
poore  in  the  City  .  .  .  are  fear  full  they  must  sit  and  blow  their 
nailes  the  rest  of  this  Winter  for  cold,  unlesse  some  new  project  .  .  . 
be  found  out,  to  make  the  Bricks  and  balls  of  Clay  burne."36  "  All 
the  morning  in  the  cellar  with  the  colliers,  removing  the  coles  out  of 
the  old  cole  hole  into  the  new  one",  writes  Pepys  in  1662;  and  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Holland  he  notes  the  great  misery  the  city  and 
kingdom  are  like  to  suffer  soon,  with  the  Dutch  in  command  of  the 
sea,  and  able  to  burn  the  ships  at  Newcastle.37 

Lowering  the  price  of  coals,  or  affording  a  substitute,  engaged 
the  attention  of  charlatans  and  statesmen ;  and  during  the  South  Sea 
period  one  of  the  projects  was  "  A  Subscription  of  £1,000.000  for  a 
Joint  Stock,  to  be  employed  in  carrying  on  the  Navigation  and 
Traffick  of  Coals  from  Newcastle  to  London  ".3S  Huge  quantities 
were  brought  down  the  coast.  In  1690  an  investigation  showed 
that  during  the  two  past  years  650,000  chaldrons  had  been  conveyed 
to  London.30  About  1704,  400,000  chaldrons  were  entered  from 
Newcastle,  and  for  some  time  this  seems  to  have  been  the  amount 
imported  annually.40  About  1730  a  writer  declares.  "  There  are 
above  a  Thousand  Sail  of  Ships  constantly  imployed  in  Carrying 
Coals  to  the  different  Parts  of  England,  Ireland.  Spain,  Portugal, 
Germany,  France,  Flanders,  and  Holland ;  and  the  Market  at  Lon- 

30  Commons'  Journals,  II.  905. 

36  Sea-Coale,  Char-Coale,  and  Small-Coale :  or  a  Discourse  betweene  a  New- 
castle Collier,  a  Small-Coale-Man,  and  a  Collier  of  Croydon:  concerning  the  Pro- 
hibition of  Trade  with  New-Castle,  and  the  Fearful!  Complaint  of  the  Poore  of 
the  Citie  of  London,  for  the  Inhancing  the  Price  of  Sea-Coales  (London,  1643), 
p.  4. 

3T  Diary,  Feb.  8,  1661/2,  June  23,  1667. 

38  Broadside,  "  Expedients  proposed  for  the  easing  and  advantaging-  the  Coal- 
trade,  and  lessening  the  price  of  Coles  in  London  and  other  places  ".  St.  P.  Dom., 
Charles  II.,  CCCLXXIV.  107;  Good  News  for  the  Poor,  or  an  Expedient  Humbly 
Offered  for  Supplying  the  Want  and  Bringing  Down  the  Price  of  Coles:  Dis- 
covering a  New  Invention  for  Maintaining  good  Fires  at  an  easie  Charge,  not- 
withstanding the  present  War,  or  any  the  like  Exigency,  etc.  (London,  1674)  ; 
Commons'  Journals,  XIX.   341. 

39  Hist.  MSS.  Coram,  Thirteenth  Report,  V.  26  (House  of  Lords  MSS.1. 
The  content  of  a  chaldron  was  different  at  different  times:  42  cwt.  before  1678; 
52J4  cwt.,  1678-1695  ;  53  cwt.  from  1696.  See  Surtees  Society.  Publications, 
CV.  260. 

■">  St.  P.  Dom.,  Anne.  IV..  May   iS,   1704:  Commons'  Journals,  XXL  370,  517. 


6  E.  R.  Turner 

don  is  the  Standard,  and  settles  the  Price,  for  the  most  Part,  for  all 
other  Markets."41  By  the  middle  of  the  century  500,000  chaldrons 
of  coal  were  imported  into  London  annually,  most  of  which  was  used 
in  the  trades.42  Lesser  quantities  were  consumed  in  other  places. 
In  1696  the  officials  of  Norfolk  declared  that  the  fuel  of  their  county 
was  almost  entirely  coal.43  There  was  a  considerable  trade  from 
the  pits  to  inland  towns.  Many  thousand  families  got  their  living 
by  transporting  it  in  wagons  over  the  roads  in  good  weather.  This 
coal  was  said  to  be  less  good  than  the  sea-coal  brought  to  London.44 
Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  mining  and  the  coal  trade  had  become 
important  industries  at  this  time.  "  Many  .  .  .  are  imployed  in  this 
trade  of  Coales;"  says  a  seventeenth-century  writer,  "many  live  by 
working  of  them  in  the  Pits ;  many  live  by  conveying  them  in  Wag- 
gons and  Waines  to  the  River  Tine ;  many  men  are  employed  in 
conveying  the  Coals  in  Keels  from  the  Stathes  aboard  the  Ships."45 
And  another,  writing  later,  says  that  there  were  employed  in  his  time 
1200  ships  with  15,000  men  to  navigate  them,  and  that  on  land 
100,000  persons  were  engaged  above  the  ground  and  under  it.46  In 
these  industries  the  government  had  unusual  and  growing  interest. 
Constantly  increasing  duties  were  levied,  which,  though  they  were 
difficult  to  collect,  were  a  noticeable  item  in  public  revenue,  and 
helped  to  rebuild  St.  Paul's  and  repair  Westminster  Abbey.47  The 
shipping  of  coals  along  the  coast  was  always  considered  important  in 
the  interests  of  the  navy.  "  Plantations,  the  Fishery,  and  Coal  trade, 
are  the  three  great  nurseries  of  seamen  ",  said  Sir  George  Downing.48 
In  1696  a  petition  stated  that  "  the  Coal-Trade  .  .  .  now  is  the 
chief  est  Nursery  for  Seamen  ",  and  the  same  thing  was  said  half  a 
century  later.49  Charles  Povey  asserted  that  to  his  certain  knowl- 
edge the  colliery  trade  bred  up  more  mariners  than  all  of  England's 
commerce  with  other  countries.50     In  addition  to  the  fact  that  the 

41  The  Case  of  the  Owners  and  Masters  of  Ships  Imployed  in  the  Coal-Trade 
(1730?);  also  Commons'  Journals,  XXI.  516,  where  it  is  stated  that  400  ships 
were  engaged  in  the  London  trade. 

*2  Considerations  on  the  Coal  Trade,  etc.  (1748  ?). 

43  Commons'  Journals,  XI.  421. 

**  Reasons  Humbly  Offered;  to  shew,  that  a  Duty  upon  In-land  Coals,  will  be 
no  Advantage  to  His  Majesty,  but  a  great  Grievance  to  his  Subjects  (n.  p.,  n.  d.). 

46  Grey,  Chorographia,  p.  34. 

«  The  Case  of  the  Owners  of  Ships  concerned  in  the  Coal-Trade,  etc.  (n.  p., 
n,  d.). 

*7  St.   P.   Dora.,   Charles   II.,   CCCCXII.   97;   Additional   MSS.   30504. 

48  In    1675.      Grey,  Debates,  III.   333- 

40  Commons'  Journals,  XI.  382,  XXI.  465. 

so  Charles  Povey,  The  Unhappiness  of  England,  as  to  its  Trade  by  Sea  and 
Land,  Truly  Stated  (London,   1701).  p.  4. 


English  Coal  Industry  7 

government  had  for  its  own  sake  great  interest  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  trade,  whenever  anything  interfered  with  the  obtaining  or 
distribution  of  the  commodity  the  authorities  were  assailed  with  such 
insistent  and  vociferous  complaints,  that  they  were  never  willing  to 
tolerate  interference  of  any  kind. 

The  assistance  of  the  government  was  usually  invoked  to  reduce 
exorbitant  prices.  There  was  constant  tendency  for  the  cost  to 
increase  to  consumers  along  with  a  rise  in  other  prices,  and  also  for 
reasons  to  be  discussed  below.  In  1690  complaint  was  made  that 
the  high  price  of  coals  was  harming  London  manufacturers  and 
making  the  poor  suffer  for  want  of  firing.51  In  1702  a  committee 
investigated  the  cause  of  excessive  prices  then  prevailing,  and  there 
were  many  complaints  and  attempted  remedies  as  time  went  on.52 
This  dearness  was  due  among  other  things  to  the  duties  levied  upon 
coal  both  at  the  port  of  departure  and  at  the  port  where  it  was 
unloaded  again,  but  it  must  be  explained  largely  as  a  result  of  re- 
straint of  trade  arising  from  numerous  devices  practised  by  both 
employers  and  employes,  where  the  coal  was  produced  and  where  it 
was  finally  sold  for  consumption. 

As  regards  the  capitalists  in  places  where  the  coal  was  obtained, 
it  may  be  said  at  once  that  power  tended  always  to  get  into  the 
hands  of  those  who  controlled  transportation.  But  whereas  in  the 
nineteenth  century  mastery  in  many  places  fell  to  those  who  directed 
the  railroads,  in  England  in  the  eighteenth  century  control  of  the 
coal  trade  came  into  the  possession  not  of  the  ship-owners,  but  of 
those  who  held  terminal  facilities,  such  as  way-leaves  and  wharf 
rights.  Here  the  typical  instance  is  the  powerful  organization  of 
the  hostmen  of  Newcastle. 

In  the  north  of  England,  as  elsewhere  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  hostelers  or  hostmen  were  free  inhabitant  householders,  to 
whom  was  assigned  the  entertaining  of  merchant  strangers,  with 
responsibility  for  their  conduct,  and  who  had  among  other  privileges 
the  right  to  sell  such  supplies  as  were  not  monopolized  by  the  local 
trading  gilds.  At  Newcastle  the  vend  of  coal  and  grindstones  came 
into  their  hands,  and  by  1600  they  had  obtained  as  the  result  of 
long  custom  a  practical  monopoly.  In  return  for  an  increased  duty 
upon  coal  exported,  Elizabeth  incorporated  their  company,  and  con- 
firmed ambiguously  the  privileges  which  they  alleged  to  be  theirs; 
after  which,  vigorous  action  and  able  management  upheld,  for  a 
long  time,   what   they   affirmed   to  be  their   right.53     A   statute  of 

5i  Commons'  Journals,  X.  491. 

52  Id.,  XIV.  19. 

53  F.  W.  Dendy,  Extracts  from  the  Records  of  the  Company  of  Hostmen  of 


8  E.  R.  Turner 

Tudor  times  making  Newcastle  the  emporium  of  this  district  ren- 
dered it  easier  for  the  hostmen  to  obtain  a  monopoly.54  Except  for 
a  brief  period,  they  maintained  intact  their  exclusive  privileges 
throughout  the  seventeenth  century  and  for  a  while  in  the  century 
following,  until  rising  sentiment  in  favor  of  free  trade  in  towns 
gradually  broke  it  down/'5 

Having  established  firmly  their  monopoly  of  selling  at  New- 
castle, they  began  to  reach  out  for  the  ownership  or  the  control  of 
the  coal  mines  nearby.  In  1638  an  owner  near  Newcastle,  seeking 
to  obtain  from  the  king  permission  to  sell  certain  mines,  declared 
that  no  one  could  make  a  gain  by  them  save  the  free  hostmen.56 
During  the  period  of  the  Protectorate  they  were  vigorously  and 
almost  successfully  assailed  by  independent  interests  through  an 
able  pamphleteer,  in  whose  denunciations  as  well  as  in  their  own 
records  their  methods  of  procedure  are  revealed.57  According  to 
this  writer,  they  are 

Ingrossers  of  all  Coals,  and  other  commodities,  into  their  own  hands, 
from  the  Inheritors  .  .  .  with  other  irresistable  Oppressions,  like  to  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  .  .  .  And  what  they  cannot  do  by  force  of  their 
Charter  amongst  themselves,  against  any  private  person  opposing,  then 
by  Combination  ruin  them  at  Law,  by  their  Delatory  Plea,  and  out-purs- 
ing them,  to  the  high  dishonor  of  God.  .  .  .  They  will  not  suffer  any  of 
the  Coal  Owners  in  any  of  the  two  Counties  to  sell  their  own  Coals,  but 
the  Owners  must  either  sel  their  Coals  to  the  free  Hoast-men,  at  what 
price  they  please,  and  then  all  ships  must  give  them  their  own  price,  or 
get  none.  This  it  is  which  makes  coals  so  dear:  they  either  hoard  or 
sell  at  excessive  rates,  and  so  reduce  the  people  to  miserable  condition.58 

The  ownership  of  the  neighboring  coal-mines  had  by  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century  come  largely  into  the  hands  of  the 
hostmen.  Owners  who  were  not  of  this  society  labored  under  great 
disadvantage  in  getting  their  coal  to  market  and  disposing  of  it. 
Sometimes  it  was  a  matter  of  much  difficulty  and  expense  to  make 
possible  the  transportation  of  coal  from  colliery  to  river  front.  In 
1732  a  traveller  notes  the  pains  which  had  been  taken  to  prepare  a 
way  from  the  Blackburn  mine,  seven  miles  from  Newcastle,  and  the 
huge  arch  built  over  a  small  stream,  to  make  the  proper  incline  all 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne  (Surtees  Society,  CV.,  1901).  The  author's  admirable 
introduction  is  the  principal  authority  upon  the  subject. 

5*21  Henry  VIII.  c.  18;   Dendy,  op.  cit.,  pp.  xxx,  xxxi. 

5^  Dendy,  op.  cit.,  pp.  xxxiii-xxxvi. 

se  Welford,  op.  cit.,  III.  343- 

57  Ralph  Gardiner,  Englands  Grievance  Discovered,  in  relation  to  the  Coal- 
Trade,  etc.  (London,  1655). 

58  Ibid.,  introduction,  and  p.  64. 


English  Coal  Industry  9 

the  way.50  Even  when  there  were  no  natural  obstacles,  it  was  often 
necessary  to  pay  exorbitant  prices  to  obtain  right  of  way.  "  An- 
other thing  that  is  remarkable  is  their  way-leaves,"  says  Roger 
North,  "  for  when  men  have  pieces  of  ground  between  the  colliery 
and  the  river,  they  sell  leave  to  lead  coals  over  their  ground ;  and 
so  dear  that  the  owner  of  a  rood  of  ground  will  expect  £20  per 
annum  for  this  leave."60  In  1739  a  pamphleteer  inveighed  against 
the  abuses  connected  with  this.  He  declared  that  the  value  of  the 
land  over  which  many  of  the  ways  were  constructed  did  not  exceed 
twenty  shillings  an  acre,  and  some  of  it  was  not  worth  two.61  At 
Wickham  Moor  a  rent  of  £3000  per  annum  was  for  a  long  while 
paid.  He  thought  it  extraordinary  that  a  single  acre  of  land 
should  sometimes,  because  of  its  lucky  situation,  be  of  more  value 
than  three  or  four  hundred  acres  of  better  land  nearby,  with  a  coal 
mine  besides.  Twenty-five  years'  purchase  was  the  ordinary  price 
of  land,  but  twenty-five  thousand  years'  value  for  an  annual  rent 
was  a  monstrous  thing.  He  proposed  that  the  public  authorities 
purchase  the  way-leaves  at  a  fair  valuation,  and  that  ways  be  con- 
structed where  necessary,  after  which  all  coal-owners  should  be 
admitted  to  use  them  on  payment  of  a  proper  share  of  the  cost.62 

The  monopolists  first  obtained  such  mines  as  they  wished,  and 
then  strove  to  crush  out  all  competition.  Many  collieries  they 
leased  from  the  proprietors ;  elsewhere  they  paid  the  possessors  an 
annual  consideration  to  let  their  mines  lie  unwrought.63  By  various 
means  owners  were  harassed  in  their  business.  A  statement 
printed  about  1740  recounts  two  instances  where  several  devices 
were  employed  to  prevent  the  working  of  mines,  which  ended  at 
last  with  their  being  flooded.64  It  was  at  this  time  that  a  statute 
was  passed  against  the  drowning  of  mines,  directed  against  those 

59  Diary  of  a  Tour  in  773.'  through  Parts  of  England,  Wales,  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  made  by  John  Loveday  of  Caversham  (Roxburghe  Club,  CVII.,  1890). 
p.   172. 

00  North,  Lives  of  the  Norths  (ed.  Jessopp,  London,  1890),  I.  176. 

01  "  There  is  a  small  Common,  not  exceeding  three  hundred  Yards  over;  the 
Herbage  of  the  whole  Common  is  not,  nor  ever  was,  worth  20s.  per  Annum. 
For  Leave  of  a  Way  over  this  small  Pittance  of  Ground,  otherwise  almost  use- 
less, the  late  Mr.  C — ,  as  I  am  credibly  informed,  received  annually,  for  some 
Years,  above  2500  /.  Impositions  of  the  like  Nature,  though,  perhaps,  not  alto- 
gether so  prodigious,  are  frequent,  and  scarce  a  Colliery  is  free  from  them." 
An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons  of  the  Advance  of  the  Price  of  Coals,  etc.  (London, 
1739),  PP.   17,   18. 

wibid.,  pp.  18,  22,  23,  24. 

"3  Ibid.,  p.  13. 

«*  The  Case  of  One  of  the  Petitioners  (n.  p.,  n.  d.). 


io  E.  R.  Turner 

who  wished  to  establish  a  monopoly.65  Above  all,  they  secured  the 
way-leaves,  for  which  in  many  instances  they  paid  dead  rents,  not 
to  use  them,  but  to  exclude  others  from  them,  so  that  proprietors 
must  either  let  their  mines  be  idle,  or  lease  them  on  the  terms 
offered.  "  The  aforesaid  Gentlemen  having,  by  these  Methods, 
secured  to  themselves  little  less  than  an  absolute  Monopoly  of  all 
Coals  about  Newcastle,  they  soon  found  it  in  their  Power  to  enhance 
the  Price."60 

In  course  of  time  it  was  found  that  possession  of  the  mines  was 
less  important  than  control  of  terminal  facilities  and  rights  of  way. 
The  result  of  this  was  that  gradually  within  the  society  of  hostmen 
the  fitters,  who  had  originally  been  apprentices  or  agents  for  unfree 
owners,  became  more  important  than  the  hostmen  who  were  owners ; 
and  the  composition  of  the  company  was  at  length  changed  alto- 
gether from  a  fraternity  of  coal-owners  to  a  fraternity  of  privileged 
fitters  or  agents,  whose  business  it  was  to  deliver  coal  from  the 
colliery  stathes  or  wharfs  to  the  ships  in  which  it  was  exported.67 
In  the  prosecution  of  their  plans,  besides  employing  the  devices 
already  mentioned,  they  got  possession  of  so  large  a  share  of  the 
lands  adjoining  the  Tyne  and  the  Wear  that  they  almost  totally 
debarred  other  persons  from  access  to  them.68  Moreover,  the  fitters 
not  only  owned  the  keels,  or  small  boats  in  which  the  coal  was  taken 

G5  "  Whereas  of  late  divers  evil-disposed  persons  possessed  of  or  interested 
in  collieries,  have  by  secret  and  subtil  devices  wilfully  and  maliciously  attempted 
to  drown  adjacent  collieries,  and  have  by  means  of  water  conveyed  or  obstructed 
for  that  purpose  destroyed  or  damaged  the  same,  intending  thereby  to  enhance 
the  price  of  coals,  and  gain  the  monopoly  thereof  ",  culprits  were  to  pay  treble 
damages  and  full  costs  of  the  suit.     13  George  II.  c.  21. 

00  An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons,  etc.,  pp.  13,  14. 

67  Dendy,  op.  cit.,  p.  xlviii.  "  The  Hostmen  or  Fitters  at  Newcastle  are  an 
incorporated  Company;  their  Business  is  to  load  Ships  with  Coals,  which  they 
carry  from  the  Coal  Owners  Staiths  or  Wharfs,  on  board  the  Ships  in  Keels ; 
these  Keels  are  a  kind  of  Lighters,  and  always  carry  eight  Newcastle  Chaldrons 
each."  An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons,  etc.,  p.  31.  By  1703  the  process  Was 
already  marked.  "  There  are  at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne  Men  called  Hoastmen  or 
Fitters  ...  it  is  now  become  a  practice  of  these  Hoastmen  to  buy  Coales  at 
certain  prices  of  the  owner  of  Colliery's  and  to  carry  them  in  Keels  and  Sell 
them  to  the  Ship  Masters,  and  Sometimes  they  are  paid  at  certain  Rates  for 
their  Negotiation  between  the  Owners  of  the  Adjacent  Collieries,  and  the  Ship 
Masters  .  .  .  they  (and  they  only)  now  Act  between  the  Colliery  Ownrs  and  the 
Ship  Masters  and  will  Suffer  none  so  to  Act  but  themselves,  nor  any  ownr  of  a 
Colliery  to  Act  without  them,  for  they  pretend  that  no  person  but  one  of  them 
(altho'  an  Ownr  of  a  Colliery)  can  carry  his  Coales  in  Boats  and  Sell  them  directly 
to  a  Ship  Mr,  so  that  all  the  Coale  Trade  at  Newcastle  must  come  thro'  the 
hands  of  these  Hoastmen  as  they  pretend."  Opinion  of  Edward  Northey,  at- 
torney-general.    Surtees  Society,  CV.   162. 

68 An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons,  etc.,  p.   13. 


English   Coal  Industry  1 1 

to  the  ships,  but  they  became  part  owners  of  the  ships,  and  then 
agreed  among  themselves  that  no  fitter  should  load  a  ship  in  which 
another  fitter  owned  even  a  small  share.09  Next  they  strove  by 
combination  and  agreement  not  only  to  regulate  prices  but  to  limit 
the  output.70  The  result  of  all  this  was  rising  prices  and  constant 
complaint  and  discontent. 

In  1704,  because  of  a  combination  at  Newcastle  to  keep  up  the 
price  of  coal,  the  queen  in  council  commanded  the  secretary  of 
state  to  write,  "  That  Her  Maty,  disapproves  all  sorts  of  Combina- 
tions of  the  like  Nature  ".71  Later  in  the  year  a  committee  of  the 
council  investigating  the  increase  of  price  could  learn  of  no  combi- 
nation of  merchants  at  Yarmouth,  and  doubted  whether  a  combina- 
tion of  colliery  owners  at  Newcastle  had  enhanced  the  price,  but 
asserted  that  "  the  Masters  of  Ships  and  the  Fitters  or  Hoastmen 
Perplex  the  Trade  by  all  the  Artifices  they  can".72  In  171 1  a  bill 
was  presented  in  the  Commons  to  dissolve  present  and  prevent 
future  "  Combinations  of  Coal-owners,  Lightermen,  Masters  of 
Ships,  and  others,  to  advance  the  Price  of  Coals  " ;  and  the  law 
which  was  passed  imposed  penalties  upon  the  owners,  the  fitters, 
and  the  ship-owners  who  entered  into  such  contracts.73  In  1739, 
however,  a  petition  of  numerous  manufacturers  of  London  alleged 
that  all  the  old  abuses  still  brought  them  grievance.74  A  writer, 
who  was  apparently  the  champion  of  the  complainants,  asserted 
that  the  monopoly  was  now  so  thoroughly  established  as  almost  to 
defy  opposition ;  that  the  mine-owners  were  not  now  at  greater  ex- 
pense in  digging  and  carrying  coals  than  previously,  but  that  the 
payment  of  dead  rents  increased  the  expense ;  that  the  total  cost  of 
coal  delivered  on  shipboard  was  not  more  than  7s.  6d.  per  chaldron ; 
that  it  might  be  sold  at  fair  profit  for  9s.  6d.,  and  was  sold  for  for- 
eign trade  at  Qs.     By  selling  it  for  13s.  6d.  monopolists  made  a  profit 

«»  Ibid.,  pp.  32-34- 

70  Dendy,  op.  cit.,  pp.  xliii-xlvi. 

"i  Privy  Council  Register.  LXXX..  May  25,   1704. 

"2  Id.,  Sept.  5,  1704. 

"3  Commons'  Journals,  XVI.  553  ;  9  Anne  c.  30. 

74 "  That  the  Price  of  Coals  at  Newcastle,  and  other  Places  in  the  North, 
hath,  of  late,  been  greatly  advanced  ;  which,  the  Petitioners  apprehend,  is  owing 
to  paying  Rents  for  Collieries  not  wrought ;  to  Wharves  or  Staiths  being  en- 
grossed by  a  few  ;  and  by  other  Persons  being  prevented  from  bringing  Coals  to, 
and  using  the  same;  by  giving  less  Measure  of  Coals  at  Newcastle  than  hereto- 
fore ;  and  by  reason  many  Persons  are  discouraged  from  working  their  Coal 
Mines,  for  want  of  convenient  Ways  or  Roads  to  the  Staiths,  which  they  are 
refused  or  prevented  from  using,  renting,  procuring,  or  having,  by  Methods  which 
tend  to  monopolize  the  same,  as  well  as  the  Coal  Trade."  Commons'  Journal t, 
XXIII.  263. 


i2  E.  R.  Turner 

of  more  than  sixty-five  per  cent. ;  and  thus  an  added  burden  of 
£83,500  a  year  was  placed  upon  the  kingdom.  This  profit  went  to 
a  very  few  men :  not  to  the  dealers  in  London,  nor  the  ship-owners, 
nor  the  miners,  nor  those  who  sold  materials  or  sunk  the  mines : 
but  to  the  monopolists — in  so  far  as  it  did  not  go  for  way-leaves, 
dead  rents,  and  lawsuits.  The  government  should  dissolve  such 
combinations,  and  forbid  those  devices  which  had  been  employed.75 

The  maintenance  of  the  monopoly  depended  also  on  controlling 
the  ship-owners.  This  was  done  partly  by  acquiring  an  interest  in 
the  ships,  and  partly  by  making  agreements  with  their  masters. 
The  lot  of  these  masters  was  not  a  happy  one,  for,  as  will  presently 
be  shown,  they  merely  carried  the  coal  from  the  monopoly  where  it 
was  produced  to  another  monopoly  where  it  was  sold.  In  1701  a 
writer  estimated  that  they  received  less  than  half  of  what  would 
have  been  the  fair  charge  for  freightage,  and  that  the  coal  shipping 
was  threatened  with  ruin.70  "  I  have  been  frequently  surprised  ",  he 
declares,  "  in  seeing  a  Fleet  of  one  or  two  hundred  Sail  arrive  in 
the  River,  and  the  Masters  sell  their  Coals  at  so  low  a  Rate,  that 
they  have  actually  lost  ten  or  fifteen  Pounds  in  their  Freight";  and 
he  says  that  the  masters  then  tried  to  grind  down  the  wages  of  those 
who  unloaded  their  vessels.77 

The  laborers,  that  is  to  say,  the  miners  who  dug  the  coal,  and 
the  keelmen  who  carried  it  from  the  wharves  to  the  ships,  present 
another  aspect  of  the  subject.  Of  the  miners  at  this  time  there  is 
little  to  be  said,  for  accounts  of  them  are  scanty  and  few.  Prob- 
ably they  belonged  to  the  lowest  class  of  the  population :  in  Scotland 
they  remained  villeins  attached  to  the  soil  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  north  of  England  they  were  hired  for 
the  year,  during  which  they  were  bound  for  certain  wages,  as  had 
been  the  case  since  the  days  of  the  Statute  of  Laborers.78  In  1739 
George   Whitefield  preached  to  the  savage  colliers  near   Bristol,79 

'5  An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons,  etc.,  pp.  8-io,  12,  13,  15,  16,  17,  28-3C 
This  attack  was  directed  rather  against  the  mine-owners  than  the  fitters. 

76  Coals  were  sold  at  London  for  about  18s.  per  chaldron;  the  masters 
purchased  them  for  about  6s.  at  Newcastle,  and  paid  isd.  for  various  charges 
there;  to  which  must  be  added  5s.  customs  to  the  king.  is.  6d.  for  the 
rebuilding  of  St.  Paul's,  is.  6d.  metage,  and  certain  charges  to  laborers,  making 
more  than  8s. ;  so  that  masters  had  no  more  than  3s.  for  themselves  ;  whereas  6s. 
in  summer. and  9s.  in  winter  would  have  been  a  fair  compensation.  Charles  Povey, 
The  Vnhappiness  of  England,  etc.,  pp.  11,   12. 

'''Ibid.,  p.  10.  In  1702,  however,  the  masters  had  complained  of  the  high 
wages  which  they  then  had  to  pay.     Commons'  Journals,  XIV.   10. 

'8  R.  N.  Boyd,  Coal  Pits  and  Pitmen,  a  Short  History  of  the  Coal  Trade  and 
the  Legislation  Affecting  It   (London,   1892),  p.  3. 

"»  When    Whitefield    spoke    of    going    forth    to    convert    savages,    friends    in 


English  Coal  Industry  13 

and  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  philosophic  writer 
pitied  the  miserable  condition  of  all  miners.80  Nearly  all  of  their 
labor  was  done  by  hand.  The  coal-hewers  worked  in  stagnant  at- 
mosphere and  amidst  poisonous  gases  with  ever  present  danger  of 
explosions,  though  many  of  the  mines  as  yet  were  carried  to  no 
great  depth. M  Drainage  was  poor  until  Newcomen's  steam  engine 
came  generally  into  use  about  1720.  The  coal  was  drawn  along 
miry  passages  in  corves  or  baskets,  or  later  in  cars,  and  was  raised 
up  the  shafts  by  horse  machines  or  gins,  or  by  hand-windlasses,  and 
sometimes  was  carried  up  ladders.  From  the  mines  to  the  wharves 
the  coal  was  drawn  over  rude  wooden  ways  in  ruder  wagons,  cast- 
iron  railways  appearing  in  the  latter  half  of  the  century.  In  the 
north  of  England  a  coal-hewer  received  is.  6d.  or  more  a  day. 
Some  women  worked  in  the  mines,  and  around  the  pit  mouths  and 
the  stathes  a  great  part  of  the  labor  was  performed  by  them.  They 
cleaned  the  coal,  and  harrowed  it  from  the  stathes  to  the  keels,  re- 
ceiving for  such  work  a  penny  or  a  penny  and  a  half  a  ton.  The 
toil  was  brutalizing,  and  the  hours  were  probably  long.82 

Apparently  there  are  instances  of  rudimentary  organization 
among  the  miners,  but  not  enough  to  ameliorate  their  condition. 
Remedy  they  sought  by  violence  and  uprising.  In  1738  there  was 
a  riot  of  coal-miners  at  Bristol,  in  which  they  attempted  to  stop  all 
supplies  .pf  coal  from  coming  to  the  city  whether  by  sea  or  land, 
and  in  the  midst  of  much  violence  levied  contributions  from  passers- 
by^ior  their-N- support.83  In  1754  there  was  another  riot  among 
them.84     Two  years  later,  in  a  season  of  backward  harvests,  when 

Bristol  said  to  him  :  "  What  need  of  going  abroad  for  this  ?  Have  we  not  Indians 
enough  at  home?  If  you  have  a  mind  to  convert  Indians,  there  are  colliers 
enough  in  Kingswood."  Robert  Southey.  Life  of  Wesley,  etc.  (third  ed.,  London, 
1846),  I.  197. 

80  "  I  suppose  that  there  are  in  Great  Britain  upwards  of  an  hundred  thousand 
People  employed  in  Lead,  Tin,  Iron,  Copper,  and  Coal  Mines;  these  unhappy 
Wretches  scarce  ever  see  the  Light  of  the  Sun  ;  they  are  buried  in  the  Bowels  of 
the  Earth  ;  there  they  work  at  a  severe  and  dismal  Task,  without  the  least  Pros- 
pect of  being  delivered  from  it ;  they  subsist  upon  the  coarsest  and  worst  sort 
of  Fare;  they  have  their  Health  miserably  impaired,  and  their  Lives  cut  short,  by 
being  perpetually  confined  in  the  close  Vapour  of  these  malignant  Minerals." 
[Edmund  Burke?],  A  Vindication  of  Natural  Society,  etc.  (London,  1756),  pp. 
90,  9". 

81  But  in  168S  Sir  Thomas  Lowther  writes:  ''In  the  morning  the  steward 
of  my  Colepitts  fell  downe  the  Pitt  34  yards  deep  ...  yet  by  God's  mercie  was 
not  killed."     Hist.  MSS.  Coram.,  Thirteenth  Report,  VII.  96   (Lonsdale  MSS.). 

82  The  best  account  which  I  have  noticed  is  in  Matthias  Dunn,  View  of  the 
Coal  Trade,  etc.,  pp.  39-44:    also  Boyd,  Coal  Pits  and  Pitmen,  p.   14. 

S3  St.   P.  Dora.,  Entry  Books,  CXXXL,  Oct.  9,    11,   13,   1738. 
"St.  P.  Dora.,  George  II.,  CXXV..  Jan.   17,    1754. 


14  E.  R.  Turner 

the  farmers  kept  for  their  own  work  the  wagons  in  which  the  coal 
was  hauled  to  market,  coal  masters  of  the  Midlands  stopped  work 
at  the  mines,  or  turned  off  great  numbers  of  men.  Then  the  miners 
gathered  together  at  Coventry,  at  Nuneaton,  and  also  at  Notting- 
ham, and  terrified  the  local  authorities  in  an  effort  to  reduce  the 
price  of  food.85  Their  clannishness  and  their  willingness  to  act 
together  made  it  difficult  to  deal  with  them;36  and  in  some  places 
they  had  a  measure  of  political  importance.87  The  severe  penalties 
imposed  upon  persons  who  drowned  or  set  fire  to  coal-mines  would 
seem  to  bear  witness  to  numerous  outrages  committed  against  such 
property  by  the  discontented;  and  repeated  legislation  suggests  the 
continuance  of  the  evil  and  the  difficulty  of  stamping  it  out.88 

More  picturesque  and  better  known  are  the  keelmen  of  New- 
castle, who  carried  the  coal  in  wherries  or  keels  from  the  wharves 
to  the  ships.  The  keelmen  with  their  distinctive  habits  and  dress, 
long  a  feature  of  life  by  the  Tyne,  were  largely  Scots  and  borderers. 
They  had  a  fellowship  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
which  became  well  known  in  later  times.89  A  church  and  a  school 
were  provided  for  them  by  the  corporation,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  they  agreed  that  regular  deductions  be  made 
from  their  wages  for  the  erection  of  a  hospital  and  the  maintaining 
of  charities  among  them.90  At  this  time  they  numbered  about 
1600. 91     These  keelmen  were  not  only  well  organized  in  their  asso- 


86  St.  P.  Dora.,  George  II.,  CXXXV.,  Aug.  25,  30,  1756. 


■jdj . 


86  "  I  need  not  observe,  that  the  Circumstances  of  Colliers-;  artJ'Very  Tfliferent 
to  any  other  Men  ;  not  only  as  they  all  act  in  League,  and  would  stand  by  one 
another,  throughout  the  Kingdom,  and  are  desperate  Fellows  (which  is  seen  by 
their  attacking  Gaols  to  release  any  that  are  confined,)  but  besides  this  they 
think  they  can,  at  any  time,  hide  themselves,  and  they  know  that  the  Kingdom 
cannot  do  without  Coals,  and  they  know  that  other  People  cannot  do  their  Work." 
Report,  ibid.,  Aug.  30,  1756. 

87  "  These  Colliers  are  always  let  loose  to  support  the  Freedom  of  Elections, 
and  therefore  now  all  the  Party  are  desirous  to  have  the  Colliers  now  in  prison 
rescued."     The  mayor  of  Nottingham,  id.,  Sept.  7,   1756. 

88  10  George  II.  c.  32;  17  George  II.  c.  40;  24  George  II.  c.  57;  31  George 
II.  c.  42. 

89  Dendy,  op.  cit.,  pp.  1,  li. 

90  "  It  has  been  already  represented,  that  the  Poor  Keel-men  have  raised  a 
voluntary  Contribution  of  Charity,  spared  out  of  their  Daily  Labour,  in  order 
to  Maintain  and  Support  their  own  Poor;  and  that  themselves,  when  by  Age  or 
Accidents,  to  which  their  hazardous  Employment  is  very  much  exposed,  are  past 
their  Labour,  may  not  perish  thro'  Want,  and  be  miserably  Starved."  A  Farther 
Case  Relating  to  the  Poor  Keel-men  of  Newcastle  (n.  p.,  n.  d.). 

"1  The  Case  of  the  Poor  Skippers  and  Keel-men  of  New-Castle,  Truly  Stated, 
etc  (n.  p.,  n.  d.),  p.  1  ;  The  Case  of  .  .  .  great  Numbers  of  the  Trading  Hoast- 
men,  commonly  called  Fitters,  .  .  .  of  New-Castle  upon  Tyne  (n.  p.,  n.  d.)  ; 
Dendy,  p.  Hi. 


English  Coal  Industry  i  5 

ciation,  but  were  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  fully  alive  to  the  oppor- 
tunities which  they  had  to  interrupt  the  coal  trade  when  they  desired 
to  express  their  dissatisfaction.  Accordingly  there  were  numerous 
disturbances. 

In  1671  there  was  "a  Riott  at  New  Castle",  when  the  keelmen 
assembled  to  disturb  the  peace  and  interrupt  trade,  so  that  the  privy 
council  ordered  the  leaders  to  be  imprisoned  until  the  next  assizes.92 
In  1 7 10  there  was  a  grave  disturbance  as  a  result  of  which  coal 
trade  on  the  Tyne  was  brought  to  a  stop.  The  civil  magistrates 
were  entirely  unable  to  cope  with  the  situation,  until  the  arrival  of 
troops  made  it  possible  to  force  the  strikers  back  to  their  work.93 
The  queen  in  council  considered  a  petition  "  from  the  poor  Keelmen 
and  others  concerned  in  the  Coal  Works  ",  and  ordered  an  investi- 
gation.94    The  mayor  of  Newcastle  wrote : 

We  have  examined  and  considered  some  of- their  Complaints  which 
relate  to  their  Wages  w'ch  they  wou'd  have  encreased  beyond  what  has 
been  paid  them  these  thirty  years — With  severall  extravagant  demands 
not  in  our  power  to  grant  them.  We  have  given  them  undr.  our  hands 
that  they  shall  have  their  just  and  usual  Wages  and  all  other  reasonable 
demands  soe  far  as  it  is  in  our  power  to  grant  yet  this  will  not  prevail 
with  them  to  goe  to  work.95 

The  queen  commanded  the  magistrates  to  "  Consider  of  the  Causes 
and  occasions  of  the  uneasiness  and  discontent  of  the  Keelmen  there, 
and  endeavour  to  find  out  some  expedient  for  satisfying  the  Minds 
of  those  People  " ;  and  appointed  a  committee  of  the  council  to  ex- 
amine the  affair,  "  as  this  matter  of  the  Coals  is  of  so  publick  a  Con- 
cern ".  The  result  was  a  settlement,  in  which  apparently  concessions 
were  made  on  both  sides.96 

In  1719  trouble  broke  out  afresh,  so  serious  that  it  seemed  to  the 
local  authorities  almost  a  rebellion.  The  strikers  demanded  an 
increase  of  wages  to  3s.  per  keel.97  This  was  refused  as  more  than 
the  trade  could  bear,  whereupon  navigation  upon  the  Tyne  and  the 
Wear  was  completely  stopped.  Not  only  did  they  refuse  to  work, 
but  they  would  not  let  the  fitters  make  use  of  the  keels.  Persuasion 
was  tried,  the  riot  act  was  read,  and  presently  some  of  the  leaders 

aa  Privy  Council  Register,  LXIII.,  June  9.  1671  ;  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Twelfth 
Report,  VII.  79  (Le  Fleming  MSS.). 

93  St.  P.  Dom.,  Entry  Books,  CIX.,  June  17,  27,  July  1,  1710;  St.  P.  Dom., 
Anne,  XII.,  June  23,  July  21,  1710. 

:>•>  Privy  Council  Register,  LXXXIII.,  June   15.  1710. 

as  St.   P.   Dom.,   Anne,  XII.,   July    11,    1710. 

»«  St.  P.  Dom.,  Entry  Books,  CIX.,  July  4,  Aug.  1,  17 10. 

07  Apparently  the  keel  contained  at  this  time  six  chaldrons.  St.  P.  Dom.. 
Regencies.  LXI.,  June  5,  1719-  Earlier  it  was  supposed  to  contain  ten.  Surteos 
Society,  CV.  44- 


1 6  /:'.   I\.   Turner 

were  seized  and  thrust  into  prison,  whereupon  great  numbers  of 
[heir  comrades  assembled  in  threatening  mien.  In  answer  to  ap- 
peals from  the  local  officials  the  lords  justices  of  the  regency  caused 
a  regiment  and  two  tenders  to  be  dispatched.  After  attempts  had 
been  made  to  reach  an  agreement,  the  keelmen,  with  their  leaders 
in  prison  and  themselves  reduced  to  destitution,  submitted.08  They 
complained  that  the  fitters  had  put  more  work  upon  them  than  was 
usual,  and  had  obliged  them  to  receive  part  of  their  wages  in  truck. 
This  the  magistrates  denied."0  Proceedings  were  begun  against  the 
strikers  for  restraining  trade  and  for  refusing  to  allow  others  to 
work,100  and  because,  after  contracting  to  work  at  certain  wages  for 
a  year,  they  had  insisted  upon  more,101  and  also  because  they  had 
entered  into  a  combination.  Prosecution,  against  all  but  a  school- 
master who  had  urged  the  keelmen  to  rise,  was  finally  stayed,  when 
they  made  entire  submission  and  expressed  their  sorrow.102 

In  1738  there  was  disturbance  again,  and  again  military  aid  was 
asked  for.10"  There  was  trouble  or  threatened  trouble  on  several 
occasions  after  this.10'1  In  1746  the  mayor  of  Newcastle  declared 
that  the  keelmen  "  are  too  ready  to  rise  and  become  tumultuous 
upon  the  least  pretence  "}"'-' 

The  experience  of  the  keelmen,  as  well  as  that  of  the  weavers 
and  the  tailors  at  this  time,  shows  that  the  attitude  of  the  authorities 
toward  workmen  was,  that  they  must  not  combine  in  clubs  or  asso- 
ciations, as  the  rudimentary  trade  unions  were  called ;  that  they  must 

08  St.  P.  Dora.,  Regencies,  LVII.,  May  15,  16,  17,  1719;  LXI.,  May  19,  21, 
June  4,  5,  9,   16,   1719;  LXII.,  May  30,   1719. 

00  St.  P.  Dom.,  Entry  Books,  CCLXXXI..  June  16,  1719;  St.  P.  Dom.,  Regen- 
cies, LXI.,  June  4,   .719. 

100  It  "  had  given  an  Interruption  of  several  Weeks  to  the  Coal  Trade  and 
the  Consequence  would  have  been  severely  felt  at  London  if  it  had  continued  ". 
Delafaye  to  Stanhope,  St.  P.  Dom.,  Regencies,  LXI.,  June  9,   1719- 

101  "  They  will  not  go  to  work  in  their  Keells  without  a  great  increase  of 
their  Wages,  altho  they  have  bound  themselves  to  the  Fitters  ...  for  certain 
Wages  for  a  Year  ending  at  Christmas  next,  which  are  duely  paid  them."  Letter 
of  the  magistrates  of  Newcastle,  id.,  LVII.,  May   16,   1719. 

102  St.  P.  Dom.,  Entry  Books,  CCLXXXI.,  July  23,   1719. 

103  "  Our  Keelmen  ...  on  pretence  of  some  grievencys  have  refused  to  go 
to  work  for  a  few  days  past  and  assembled  every  Night  in  great  Numbers  keep- 
ing Watch,  to  deter  and  hinder  those  of  the  well  disposed  among  them,  from 
Xavigating  their  Keels  to  the  entire  stoppage  of  the  Coal  Trade  on  the  River 
Tyne."  They  have  been  urged  to  return  to  their  duty,  and  some  seem  willing, 
"  but  express  their  fear  of  being  ill  treated  and  hindered  by  others  of  their  own 
Fraternity  ".  The  mayor  and  magistrates  of  Newcastle  to  the  secretary  of  state. 
Id.,  CXXX.,  May  16,   1738. 

104  Gentleman's  Magazine,  X.  (1740)  355;  Brand,  op.  cit.,  II.  520;  St.  P. 
Dom.,  George  II.,  LXXXIII.,  Apr.   17,  1746,  CXIL,  Apr.  30,   1750. 

ids  St.  P.  Dom.,  George  II.,  LXXXIII.,  Apr.   21,   1746. 


English  Coal  Industry  17 

not  assemble  together  for  the  purpose  of  altering  their  wages  or 
bettering  their  condition;  that  assembling  for  such  purposes  would 
be  regarded  as  unlawful,  and  disorder  accompanying  it  would  be 
dealt  with  as  riot.  This  was  not  merely  because  the  government 
represented  capitalists  and  the  upper  classes,  but  also  because  the 
authorities  continued  as  in  the  past  their  attempts  to  supervise  in- 
dustry and  regulate  wages.  If  the  justices  of  the  peace  tried  to 
enforce  wages  which  they  had  assessed  or  which  the  workmen  had 
contracted  for  during  a  certain  period,  and  if  the  central  and  the 
local  authorities  alike  frowned  upon  the  strike  and  the  meeting  to- 
gether of  workmen,  and  often  compelled  them  to  go  back  to  work, 
it  is  also  true  that  the  government  strove  to  regulate  the  prices  fixed 
by  capitalists  and  to  break  up  their  combinations  also.  That  its 
success  was  greater  with  respect  to  laborers  than  employers  was 
noticed  by  a  contemporary :  "  We  have  many  laws,  Sir  ",  he  said, 
"  for  preventing  combinations  amongst  poor  workmen,  but  few,  if 
any,  for  preventing  combinations  amongst  the  rich  masters  that 
employ  them:  the  one  I  take  to  be  as  necessary  as  the  other."106 

A  study  of  the  coal  industry  during  this  period  in  connection 
with  the  importation  and  distribution  of  the  commodity  reveals  the 
same  story  of  combination,  attempted  monopoly,  enhancement  of 
prices,  and  oppressed  and  discontented  labor.  As  Newcastle  was  the 
centre  of  the  industry  at  the  one  end,  so  was  London  at  the  other. 
From  London,  as  from  other  places,  came  constant  complaints  of 
the  exorbitant  and  increasing  cost  of  coal.  "  Nay,  I  doe  intend, 
neighbour  Sca-coale  .  .  .  and  so  does  all  the  poore  of  the  Citie,  to 
petition  that  a  constant  rate  may  be  set  upon  you  ",  says  a  pamphlet 
of  1643.107  The  trouble  was  owing  to  the  number  of  successive 
exchanges  involved  in  getting  the  coal  to  the  consumer,108  but  it 
was  moreover  due  to  the  increasing  duties  imposed,  and  to  the 
monopoly  which  the  woodmongers  or  importers  were  attempting  to 
establish  in  London. 

Customs  on  coal  were  increased  as  the  exigencies  of  the  govern- 
ment became  greater.  Elizabeth  imposed  a  shilling  duty  on  each 
chaldron  exported  from  Newcastle  for  English  consumption  at  the 

106  Thomas  Whichcot,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  Mar.  26,  1753.  Parliamen- 
tary History,  XIV.   1312. 

i°"  Sea-Coale,  Char-Coale,  and  Small-Coale,  etc.,  p.  8. 

108  "  A  Welch  Pedigree,  doth  not  descend  by  more  steps  and  degrees,  than 
the  propriety  of  their  Coals  is  varied  .  .  .  The  Owners  of  Collieries,  must  first 
sell  the  Coals  to  the  Magistrates  of  Newcastle,  the  Magistrates  to  the  Masters 
of  ships,  the  Master  of  ships  to  the  Woodmongers  or  Wharfingers,  and  they  to 
those  that  spend  them."     Gardiner,  Englands  Grievance  Discovered,  p.  201. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 2. 


1 8  E.  R.   Turner 

time  when  she  incorporated  the  hostmen.100  In  1695  the  duty  at 
London  was  made  5s.  per  chaldron,  and  immediately  the  price  of 
coal  at  Southwark  was  more  than  doubled.110  In  the  time  of  Anne 
and  afterward  statutes  were  repeatedly  passed,  followed  by  com- 
plaints of  the  heavy  burden.111  "  Coals  is  a  Thing  of  so  absolute 
Necessity,  that  it  is  impossible  to  preserve  the  Poor  from  perishing 
without  having  the  same  at  a  moderate  Price",  runs  a  broadside 
written  to  oppose  a  duty.112  Not  the  least  of  the  discontent  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  at  times  the  duty  was  less  on  coals  exported  to 
foreign  parts,  so  that  shipmasters  could  sell  cheaper  in  Holland 
and  France  than  in  the  port  of  London.113  In  addition  there  were 
duties  at  London  for  metage  or  measuring  and  for  the  rebuilding 
of  St.  Paul's.114  On  one  occasion  it  was  alleged  that  any  further 
imposition  would  give  great  advantage  to  the  Irish  and  the  men  of 
Hamburg,  and  carry  trade  away  from  England.115 

More  insistent  were  the  complaints  against  the  monopolists  in 
London.  As  the  hostmen  of  Newcastle  got  control  of  the  export, 
so  the  woodmongers  or  wharfingers  and  the  lightermen  attempted 
to  control  the  importation  into  London.  In  1664  a  report  to  the 
lord  mayor  and  aldermen  declared,  "  That  the  Citizens  and  Inhab- 
itants of  London,  and  Parts  adjacent,  do  lie  under  an  intollerable 
grievance  .  .  .  brought  upon  them  by  the  Wood-mongers  ",  who 
had  tried  to  get  into  their  hands  the  entire  retail  trade  of  the  city. 
They  had  got  possession  of  as  many  wharves  as  possible,  and  where 
they  themselves  could  not  use  them,  had  let  them  with  the  under- 
standing that  they  be  not  employed  for  the  landing  or  selling  of 
coals.  It  was  said  that  they  endeavored  to  compel  the  coal-ships  to 
unload  at  their,  wharves,  and  by  all  means  to  prevent  people  dealing 
with  the  ships  direct;  that  they  tried  to  suppress  others  who  dealt 
in  the  retailing  of  coals;  and  that  by  various  devices  they  manipu- 
lated the  supply  and  raised  prices.116  In  1669  Prynne  alludes  to  the 
excessive  prices  caused  by  a  confederacy  of  woodmongers.117 

109  Dendy,  op.  cit.,  p.  xxxii. 

"0  6  and  7  William  and  Mary  c.  iS;  9  William  III.  c.  13  ;  Commons'  Journals, 
XI.  390. 

«i  For  example,  6  Anne  c.  50 ;  8  Anne  c.  10;  9  Anne  cc.  6,  27;  30  George 
II.  c.  19,  sect.  28;  Commons'  Journals,  XVIII.  414,  XXIII.  263. 

112  Some  Considerations  Humbly  offered  to  the  Honourable  House  of  Com- 
mons against  Passing  the  Bill  for  laying  a  further  Duty  on   Coals   (n.  p.,  n.  d). 

"3  An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons  of  the  Advance,  etc.,  p.  37. 

«*  1  James  II.  c.  15  ;  9  Anne  c.  27;  Commons'  Journals,  X.  235. 

"s  Reasons,  Humbly  Offered  to  the  Honourable  House  of  Commons,  by  the 
Dyers,  against  laying  a  further  Duty  upon  Coals  (n.  p.,  n.  d.). 

"s  Some  Memorials  of  the  Controversie  with  the  Wood-Mongers,  or  Traders 


English  Coal  Industry  \g 

In  process  of  time  the  woodmongers  lost  their  power  to  the 
lightermen,  who,  at  first  employed  by  the  woodmongers,  presently 
began  to  furnish  coal  to  purchasers  direct.118  In  1700  they  were 
incorporated  as  the  Lightermen's  Company  of  London,11"  and  ac- 
quired a  certain  monopoly.  Previously  all  dealers  might  load  and 
carry  coals  in  their  own  lighters  anywhere  on  the  Thames,  but  the 
new  company  obtained  exclusive  privileges  as  to  the  use  of  lighters. 
and  other  dealers  were  debarred  from  employing  them  except  to 
carry  coals  from  the  ships  to  their  own  wharves,  with  the  result 
that  they  lost  many  of  their  customers,  while  the  lightermen  were 
able  to  engross  the  principal  part  of  the  trade.120  Thus  they  came 
to  be  able  to  unload  or  retard  a  fleet  of  coal-ships,  and  so  raise  or 
lower  the  price  as  suited  them. 

In  1702  a  committee  of  the  Commons  reported  that  several 
owners  of  collieries  at  Newcastle  had  made  a  contract  with  "  the 
Body  of  Lightermen  at  London  ",  by  which  the  proprietors  obliged 
themselves  to  pay  to  the  lightermen  3d.  per  chaldron  for  all  coals 
which  the  latter  sold  for  them,  while  the  lightermen  agreed  to  pay 
these  proprietors  6d.  for  each  chaldron  of  other  owners'  coals  sold 
before  theirs  was  disposed  of,  whereupon  the  price  was  immediately 
raised  at  Newcastle.121  In  1729  numerous  complaints  from  the 
trades  of  London  brought  to  light  agreements  and  combinations  of 
lightermen  and  shipmasters  to  enhance  the  price,  oppress  the  poor, 
and  lessen  the  public  revenue.122  In  the  next  year  shipmasters  of 
Scarborough,  Whitby,  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  and  Great  Yarmouth, 
who  were  employed  in  carrying  coal,  sought  relief  from  the  oppres- 
sive conduct  of  the  lightermen,  and  asked  that  the  trade  might  be 
open.123  The  Lightermen's  Company  was  now  thoroughly  investi- 
gated. Testimony  was  given  to  the  effect  that  half  of  all  the  coal 
brought  to  London  was  bought  by  twelve  lightermen,  and  the  other 
half  by  about  forty  more.  Few  coals  were  sold  to  persons  not  of 
the  company,  since  masters  feared  to  have  their  ships  marked,  and 
then  subjected  to  delays.     Two  or  three  lightermen  each  sold  more 

in  Fuel,  from  the  Year  1664  to  this  Time,  as  it  lieth  before  a  Committee  of  Com- 
mon Council  (1680),  pp.  2-4. 

117    Brief  Animadversions,  etc.,  p.    183. 

us  The  Case  of  the  Watermen  and  Lightermen  working  on  the  River  of 
Thames  (n.  p.,  n.  d.). 

us  11   William  III.  c.  21. 

120  The  Case  of  many  Persons  Keeping  Wharfs,  and  Others,  Dealing  in  Coals, 
in  the  Cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  and  the  Parts  Adjacent  (1730?). 

121  Commons'  Journals,  XIV.  19. 

122  Id.,  XXI.   34s.  368,  369-373- 
1=3  Ibid.,  pp.  465,  474. 


20  E.  R.   Turner 

than  30,000  chaldrons  a  year,  eight  or  nine  others  about  20,000  each. 
Sixteen  of  the  lightermen  maintained  a  fund  to  prosecute  persons 
who  kept  lighters  and  bought  coals  in  London.  Not  only  was  the 
price  advanced  to  consumers,  but  they  had  so  put  down  the  price 
paid  to  shipmasters  that  the  coal-ships  were  run  at  a  loss.124  The 
Commons  were  resolved  to  bring  this  to  an  end,  and  so  a  statute 
was  passed  which  declared  that  inasmuch  as  a  monopoly  in  the  coal 
tiade  had  almost  been  created  at  London,  thereafter  dealers  in  coals 
might  use  their  own  lighters,  and  anyone  attempting  to  act  as  an 
agent  for  a  shipmaster  should  be  heavily  fined.120  Thus  the  lighter- 
men's monopoly  was  brought  to  an  end,  while  the  shipmasters  were 
given  the  freedom  they  had  desired  to  dispose  of  their  coals,  and  the 
price  in  London  was  made  subject  to  the  regulation  of  the  local 
authorities.126 

Raising  prices  and  restraint  of  trade  were  not  the  only  abuses 
b\  those  seeking  profit  from  selling  of  coals.  Mixing  of  different 
grades,  false  measure,  and  under-weight  were  constant  evils.  Abuse 
in  the  sale  of  coals  was  noticed  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  1605. 127 
Some  years  later  a  paper  addressed  to  the  privy  council  complained 
of  "  the  corrupt  mixture  of  coales,  and  the  foule  abuse  and  deceipt 
thereby  ",128  At  the  end  of  the  century  Charles  Povey,  a  mer- 
chant of  London,  gives  his  own  account  how,  after  adopting  a 
device  to  unload  ships  directly  at  his  own  wharf,  he  was  sub- 
jected to  calumny  and  prosecution  because  he  lowered  the  price, 
gave  just  measure,  and  refused  to  bribe  officials.  In  1700  he  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  in  which  he  exposed  the  villainous  practices  of 
his  time.12"  Next  year  he  wrote  again,  explaining  how  the  struggle 
to  engross  the  trade  had  led  to  fraud,  that  prices  were  reduced  below 
the  point  where  profit  could  honestly  be  made,  and  then  short  meas- 
ure given,  so  that  twenty  chaldrons  were  sold  as  twenty-three, 
twenty-four,  or  twenty-five.  He  declared  that  dealers  undertook  to 
deliver  coals  for  only  three  shillings  more  than  they  paid  for  them, 
when  they  were  at  four  shillings'  expense.  "  The  World  is  now 
come  to  that  sad  pass,  that  an  Honest  Man  cannot  Live ;  for  if  he 
gives  to  every  one  his  due,  he  gains  nothing;  and  if  he  does  not 

124  Commons  Journals,  XXI.  517,  518. 
1253  George  II.  c.  26;  also  4  George  II.  c.  30. 

120  The  Case  of  the  Owners  and  Masters  of  Ships  Imployed  in  the  Coal- 
Trade ;  an  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons  of  the  Advance  of  the  Price  of  Coals,  p.  8 

127  Lords'  Journals,  II.  392. 

128  Add.  MSS.  12496,  f.  96  (1622). 

129/4  Discovery  of  Indirect  Practices  in  the  Coal-Trade,  or  a  Detection  of 
the  pernicious  Maxims  and  unfair  Dealings  of  a  certain  Combination  of  Men,  who 
affirm,  It  is  a  Cheat  to  be  Just,  and  Just  to  Cheat,  etc.  (London,  1700). 


English  Coal  Industry  21 

dispose  of  his  Goods  at  the  same  Rate  as  others  do,  he  shall  have 
no  Trade."  Officials  had  long  been  employed  to  see  that  full  meas- 
ure was  given,  but  there  was  private  correspondence  between  the 
officers  and  dishonest  dealers,  so  that  these  dealers  were  warned  and 
protected,  and  the  honest  maligned  and  harassed.130  That  these 
measurers  of  coals  were  themselves  subjected  to  troubles  if  they 
attempted  to  fulfil  their  duties  honestly  is  affirmed  by  a  complaint 
made  in  1714.  A  faithful  measurer  was  often  removed  from  the 
inspection  of  a  ship  on  complaint  to  his  superior.  "  And  after  a 
Vatt  is  filled,  the  Ships'  Crew  will  often  sweep  off  great  Quantities 
of  Coals,  and  the  Under-meter  taking  Notice  thereof  is  often  in 
danger  of  his  Life  for  so  doing."131 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  prevent  the  mixing  of  inferior  coal 
with  good,  and  then  selling  all  as  of  the  best  quality,  but  various 
means  were  found  to  evade  the  regulations.  It  was  asserted  that 
when  those  who  thus  cheated  their  customers  lost  standing,  they 
attempted  to  force  honest  dealers  to  imitate  their  conduct,  and  join 
in  a  combination  with  them,  and  that  after  a  war  of  price-cutting 
they  succeeded  in  doing  this,  after  which  prices  were  raised  and  the 
measure  lessened.132  About  the  middle  of  the  century  it  was  said 
that  where  the  inspection  of  the  public  meter  was  not  feared,  the 
fraud  amounted  to  three  bushels  in  the  chaldron;  though  at  the 
same  time  it  was  asserted  that  the  dealers  insisted  on  getting  over- 
weight from  the  lightermen :  "  It  is  notorious  that  Dealers  have  been 
hardy  enough  to  complain,  because  the  identical  Coals,  which  they 
have  bought  of  the  Lightermen  for  Twenty-one,  did  not  measure  out 
Twenty-four  Chaldrons."133 

The  story  of  the  laborers  where  coal  was  imported  is  a  record 
of  discontent  and  protest  against  oppression.  Prior  to  Elizabethan 
times  the  unloading  of  coal-ships  in  the  Thames  belonged  to  the 
society  of  "  Billingsgate  Porters ",  freemen  of  London  and  well 
organized.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  as  the  trade  greatly 
increased,  the  porters  ceased  to  do  the  actual  unloading  and  became 
occupied  with  other  parts  of  the  work,  after  which  the  unloading 
came  to  be  done  by  the  coal-heavers,  not  freemen  and  not  governed 
by  their  own  rulers.134 

iso  Charles  Povey.  op.  cit.,  pp.  28-30,  31,  32,  40,  41. 

131  The  Report  and  Order  Thereupon,  made  concerning  the  Coal-Meters,  and 
Their  Deputies  or  Under-Meters  (London,  1714),  p.  9. 

132  An  Enquiry  into  the  Reasons  of  the  Advance,  etc..  pp.   18-21. 

133  Consideration  on  the  Coal  Trade,  More  particularly  as  it  concerns  the  Con- 
sumers within  the  City  and  Liberty  of  Westminister,  etc.    ('1748?'). 

134  The  Coal-Heavers  Case  (1764?),  p.  1. 


22  E.  R.  Turner 

In  1696  the  coal-heavers  complained  of  new  impositions  laid 
upon  them  by  the  lord  mayor  and  the  aldermen  and  refused  to  work. 
Investigation  by  the  privy  council  showed  that  the  authorities  had 
"  Erected  a  Fellowship  or  Fraternity  "  to  unload  the  colliers,  that 
only  its  members  were  to  be  allowed  to  do  the  work,  at  a  certain 
rate  of  pay,  from  which  2d.  per  chaldron  was  to  be  deducted  for 
hospitals  and  other  uses.  Both  masters  of  ships  and  men  were  dis- 
contented at  these  restrictions,  and  work  was  stopped  until  the  old 
conditions  were  restored  by  the  lords  justices.135  In  1701  Povey 
noticed  the  mean  condition  to  which  the  coal-heavers  had  been  re- 
duced, they  receiving  now  7s.  where  formerly  they  had  20s. ;  "  and 
harder  Labour  there  cannot  be,  for  they  work  more  like  Gally-slaves 
than  Free-men".  As  matters  were,  there  was. constant  competition 
on  the  part  of  these  laborers  and  underbidding,  and  he  thought  that 
the  remedy  lay  in  the  government  settling  their  wages.136 

In  1708  the  coal-heavers  petitioned  the  queen  for  a  charter  of 
incorporation,  which  was  apparently  granted.137  But  half  a  century- 
after  their  condition  seems  to  have  improved  little,  for  they  com- 
plained to  Parliament  that  a  number  of  men  called  "  Undertakers  " 
had  established  a  monopoly  of  supplying  laborers  to  the  masters  of 
coal-ships,  from  whose  rules  and  exactions  they  prayed  relief.  They 
asked  that  Parliament  establish  an  office  for  supplying  laborers  and 
pass  a  law  to  regulate  their  wages,  "  that  they  might  be  enabled  to 
make  such  Provision  for  such  of  them  as  may  be  sick,  lame,  and 
past  their  Labour,  and  for  the  Relief  of  their  Widows  and  Orphans, 
as  should  be  thought  proper  ".  A  committee  reported  that  the  coal- 
heavers  did  hard  work  for  wages  which  ranged  from  is.  to  2s.  6d. 
per  twenty  chaldrons,  the  price  of  labor  varying  according  to  the 
number  of  ships  in  the  river.  Sometimes  when  wages  were  low  and 
a  great  number  of  ships  arrived,  the  laborers  insisted  on  higher 
wages  than  they  had  contracted  for,  without  which  they  would  leave 
the  ships  which  they  had  engaged  to  unload.  It  would  be  well  for 
the  trade  if  wages  were  regulated.  The  men,  the  report  declared, 
worked  in  groups  of  fifteen,  one  of  whom  was  called  the  "  Market- 
Man  ".  The  undertakers  agreed  with  the  masters  of  the  ships  for 
unloading  their  coals,  and  then  applied  to  the  market-men,  who 
furnished  the  laborers.  There  were  twenty  undertakers,  of  whom 
nineteen  kept  ale-houses  in  which  the  coal-heavers  were  obliged  to 
spend  part  of  their  wages  daily.     Under  one  pretext  or  another 

"r>  St.  P.  Dom.,  William  and  Mary,  VI.,  Aug.  n,  13,   1696. 

13«  The  Unhappiness  of  England,  pp.  46-48. 

i=7  St.  P.  Dom.,  Entry  Books,  CVI..  Sept.   14,   1708. 


English  Coal  Industry  23 

various  deductions  were  made  from  the  wages,  which  were  not  paid 
until  the  ship  was  cleared.  Complaint  was  also  made  about  a  com- 
bination of  the  undertakers  to  compel  the  coal-heavers  to  obtain 
from  them  their  shovels,  which  were  furnished  at  a  shilling  a  ship. 
The  result  was  that  in  1758  the  coal-heavers  secured  a  bill  for  their 
relief.138  An  office  for  the  registering  of  workers  was  now  erected, 
but  the  undertakers  by  intrigue  and  by  threat  sought  to  restrain  the 
men  from  enrolling,  so  that  later  the  office  was  closed  for  want  of 
support.139  "  It  can  be  proved  ",  said  a  protest,  "  that  all  those  who 
have  paid  into  that  Office,  have  punctually  received  One  Shilling  per 
Day  when  they  have  been  ill,  and  in  case  of  Death,  they  have  been 
buried  in  a  decent  and  Christian-like  Manner."140 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  in  the  English  coal  trade  before  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution  many  of  the  practices  which  obtained  afterward 
flourished  in  much  the  same  way  as  later.  Capitalists  strove  by 
various  devices,  particularly  by  combination,  to  destroy  competition, 
monopolize  markets,  and  fix  prices  as  they  desired.  The  greatest 
success  came  to  those  who  seized  the  routes  of  transportation  and 
terminal  facilities  for  export  and  import.  Against  all  such  devices 
the  government  strove,  after  its  traditional  policy  of  supervising 
industry  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  but  it  strove  ineffectively 
and  with  decreasing  success.  The  case  of  the  laborers  was  harder, 
for  trade  unions  were  just  feebly  beginning.  Then,  as  later,  work- 
men had  to  endure  long  hours,  low  wages,  dishonest  dealing,  and 
payment  in  truck.  The  lowly  miners,  keelmen,  and  coal-heavers 
could  easily  be  oppressed.  Frequently  they  protested,  but  they  could 
accomplish  little.  Government  attempted  to  intervene  in  their  be- 
half, but  it  also  forbade  them  to  strike,  and  it  broke  up  their  com- 
binations. The  day  of  these  laborers  had  not  yet  come.  The  eigh- 
teenth century  was  to  bring  them  no  amelioration,  but  in  the  nine- 
teenth an  enlightened  public  opinion  would  improve  their  condition 
while  they  and  their  fellows  slowly  got  more  and  more  control  of 
the  government  itself,  until  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  was  to 
find  them  more  powerful  than  the  capitalists  who  opposed  them,  and 
able,  when  they  rose  now,  to  shake  the  foundations  of  industrial 
society  in  their  country. 

Raymond  Turner. 

138  3I   George  II.  c.  76;  Commons'  Journals,  XXVIII.  73,  222,  259,  264,  265. 

139  The  Coal-Heavers  Case,  pp.  2,  3  ;  The  Case  of  the  Coal-Heavers,  Respect- 
ing the  Behaviour  of  the  Coal-Undertakers,  etc.   (1769?),  pp.   1,  2. 

«o  ibid.,  p.  3. 


A    LETTER    FROM    DANTON    TO    MARIE   ANTOINETTE 

Among  the  papers  of  the  late  Andrew  D.  White,  Professor 
George  L.  Burr  found  a  photographic  reproduction  of  a  letter,  which 
seems  to  be  in  the  hand  of  Danton,  addressed  to  Marie  Antoinette 
at  the  Conciergerie.     This  brief  and  curious  letter  reads  as  follows : 

A  la  citoyenne  Marie  Antoinette  Ci-devt  Reine  de  France  a  la  Con- 
ciergerie a  Paris  Citoyenne  vous  mettrez  sur  votre  porte  ces  mots — 
Unite  indivisibilite  de  la  Republique  liberte  egalite  fraternite  ou  la 
mort  Signe  Danton. 

Marie  Antoinette  was  confined  in  the  Conciergerie  from  Au- 
gust 2  to  October  16,  1793.  The  words  "4  aout  ",  written  by  an- 
other hand  in  the  margin,  give  the  probable  approximate  date  of  the 
letter.  At  that  time  Danton  was  president  of  the  Convention;  and 
the  recent  transfer  of  the  queen  from  the  Temple  to  the  Con- 
ciergerie meant  that  the  Convention  had  decided  to  bring  her  to 
trial,  which  in  turn  meant  that  her  execution  within  a  short  time 
was  practically  a  foregone  conclusion.  Under  these  circumstances, 
why  should  Danton  write  to  Marie  Antoinette?  Why  should  he 
wish  her  to  place  this  symbol  of  the  Republic  on  her  door?  Were 
these  words  on  the  door  intended  to  serve  in  some  conspiracy  to 
rescue  the  queen?  Were  they  intended  to  serve  as  a  protection 
against  outrage  or  assassination  at  the  hands  of  the  mob?  Was 
the  letter  forged  by  the  enemies  of  Danton  for  the  purpose  of  ruin- 
ing him?  What,  in  any  case,  became  of  the  letter?  Did  the  queen 
receive  it?  Was  it  used  against  Danton  at  his  trial?  Is  the  orig- 
inal still  in  existence?     Is  it  well  known  to  collectors  and  historians? 

I. 

It  may  be  said  at  once  that  the  letter  was  practically  unknown 
to  contemporaries  of  the  Revolution.  It  was  apparently  unknown 
to  modern  historians  until  1891,  when  Eugene  Welvert  printed  it 
in  his  La  Saisie  des  Papiers  du  Conventionnel  Courtois.  Since  then 
only  three  writers,  so  far  as  I  can  find,  have  quoted  the  letter,  all 
of  them  taking  it  from  Welvert.  All  four  of  these  printed  repro- 
ductions of  the  letter  are  inaccurate.  The  history  of  the  letter  is 
interesting,  therefore,  because  it  will  show  why  so  little  is  known 
about  it,  besides  furnishing  some  preliminary  data  for  its  further 
explanation. 

24 


O       M 

H       O 

z  u 


O      Jj 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  25 

The  letter  was  a  single  small  sheet,  folded  and  sealed,  and  appar- 
ently sent  by  post.  It  bears  three  circular  red  stamps.  One  is  com- 
posed of  the  letters  P.  B.  G.,  a  second  of  the  letters  P.  D..  and  the 
third  of  the  number  4.  Upon  the  stamp  P.  D.  is  superimposed  a 
black  triangular  stamp  P.  The  organization  of  the  Post  Office  at 
that  time  included  a  Bureau  General,  and  several  subordinate  bu- 
reaus, one  of  which  was  the  "  Bureau  pour  la  Distribution  des 
Lettres  Chargees,  Adressees  a  Paris  "-1  Gallois,  discussing  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Post  Office  at  an  earlier  date,  says  that  "  letters 
were  stamped  with  a  printed  stamp  peculiar  to  each  bureau  from 
which  they  were  sent.  Each  of  these  bureaus  was  designated  by  a 
letter  of  the  alphabet  represented  on  the  special  stamp  which  it 
used."2  It  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  P.  B.  G.  stood  for 
"  Poste :  Bureau  General ",  the  P.  D.  for  "  Pour  Distribution  ",  and 
the  superimposed  P.  for  "  Paris  ".  The  number  4  probably  indicates 
the  charge,  which  was  four  sous  for  simple  letters  of  one  quarter- 
ounce  or  less,  within  the  limits  of  a  single  department.3  A  fifth 
stamp  on  the  letter,  somewhat  illegible,  appears  to  be  "  6e  LVE."  Six- 
ieme  Levee  suggests  itself ;  but,  unfortunately  for  this  reading,  there 
were  at  most  only  three  collections  daily  at  the  time.4 

Although  it  seems  evident,  from  these  marks,  that  the  letter  went 
through  the  Post  Office,  this  very  fact,  if  it  be  one,  raises  a  signifi- 
cant question.  If  the  letter  was  a  forgery,  intended  to  ruin  Danton, 
one  can  well  understand  that  it  should  have  been  sent  by  post.  But 
if  the  letter  is  genuine,  if  Danton  wrote  the  letter  and  wished  to 
convey  it  to  the  queen,  one  asks  why  he  should  have  intrusted  it  to 
the  post.  Marie  Antoinette  was  carefully  guarded  at  the  Concier- 
gerie;  so  much  so  that  in  September  a  note  smuggled  in,  concealed 
in  a  bouquet  of  flowers,  was  nevertheless  discovered  by  the  guards.5 
It  might  seemingly  be  taken  for  granted  by  anyone,  certainly  by 
Danton,  that  all  letters  sent  through  the  Post  Office  addressed  to  the 

1  Almanac  National  (1793),  p.  483. 

2  La  Poste  et  les  Moyens  de  Communication  (Paris,  1894),  p.   120. 

3  Decree  of  August,  1791.  Collection  Generate  des  Lois,  etc.  (Paris,  1792), 
V.  934.  "  Seront  taxees  comme  lettres  simples  celles  sans  enveloppes  et  dont  le 
poids  n'excedera  un  quart  d'once."  Decree  of  July  23.  1793.  Collection  Gen- 
erate des  Lois,  etc.   (Paris,  An  II.),  XV.   180. 

*  Almanac  Royal  (1792),  p.  631.  Of  the  two  words  at  the  top  of  the  second 
half  of  the  sheet,  one,  which  I  take  to  be  inique,  seems  to  be  in  the  hand  of 
Fouquier;  the  other  may  be  perfide,  or,  what  seems  to  me  more  likely,  the  first 
four  letters  of  the  signature  of  L.  Lecointre. 

s  The  incident  was  known  as  "  La  Conspiration  de  l'Oeillet  ".  Revue  des 
Questions  Historiques,  XXXIX.  548;  Campardon,  Marie  Antoinette  a  la  Con- 
ciergerie,  p.  3;    Tuetey,  Sources  de  VHistoire  de  Paris,  vol.  IX.  p.  393,  no.   1303. 


26  Carl  Becker 

queen  would  as  a  matter  of  course  be  intercepted  and  turned  over 
to  the  government.0 

Such  in  fact  seems  to  have  been  the  fate  of  this  letter.  In  the 
first  place  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  queen  ever  received  it. 
There  are  several  contemporary  accounts  of  the  queen's  life  at  the 
Conciergerie  written  by  people  whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  or  serve 
her,  and  the  subject  has  been  minutely  investigated  by  historians 
since.7  None  of  these  accounts,  contemporary  or  secondary,  men- 
tions this  letter,  or  any  letter  which  might  have  been  this  one,  as 
having  been  either  received  by  the  queen  or  later  discovered  among 
her  effects.  In  the  second  place,  evidence  that  the  letter  was  turned 
over  to  the  government  is  contained  in  the  letter  itself ;  for  across 
the  face  of  the  letter  we  find  the  personal  signatures  of  five  men : 
A.  O.  Fouquier,  Massieu,  Legot,  Guffroy,  L.  Lecointre.  The  sig- 
nature of  Fouquier  indicates  that  the  letter  was  turned  over  to  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal.  Besides,  the  last  letter  written  by  Marie 
Antoinette,  the  famous  "  testament  "  addressed  to  her  sister  Madame 
Elizabeth,  which  also  bears  the  signature  of  Fouquier,  we  know  to 
have  been  turned  over  to  the  Tribunal.*  This  letter  the  queen 
entrusted  to  Bault,  the  concierge,  to  deliver.  That  evening  Bault 
said  to  his  wife:  "  Your  poor  Queen  has  written;  she  gave  me  her 
letter,  but  I  cannot  send  it  to  its  address.  It  is  necessary  to  carry 
it  to  Fouquier."9  It  thus  seems  to  have  been  an  understood  thing 
that  letters  written  by  the  queen  were  to  be  carried  to  Fouquier. 
The  presumption  is  that  it  was  equally  understood  that  all  letters 
written  to  her  were  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  same  way. 

Fouquier-Tinville  thus  came  into  possession  of  the  letter,  in  all 
probability  before  the  trial  of  Danton,  since  the  death  of  Marie 
Antoinette  fell  on  October  16,  1793,  and  the  trial  of  Danton  was 
not  until  April  2-5,  1794.     If  this  may  be  assumed,  it  is  difficult  to 

GA  decree  of  May  9,  i"93,  provided  for  the  examination  by  agents  of  the 
Commune  of  all  letters  at  the  Post  Office  addressed  to  persons  whose  names 
appeared  on  the  list  of  emigres.  This  list  included  most  suspects,  whether  they 
had  actually  emigrated  or  not.  Collection  Generate  des  Lois,  etc.  (Paris,  An  II.), 
XV.  307. 

7  Cf.  contemporary  narratives  given  by  Lenotre,  La  Captivite  et  la  Mort  de 
Marie  Antoinette,  pp.  215  ff ;  and  the  documents  used  by  Campardon  in  his  care- 
ful study,  Marie  Antoinette  a  la  Conciergerie.  For  the  bibliography  of  works  deal- 
ing with  Marie  Antoinette  at  the  Conciergerie,  see  Tourneux.  Bibliographic  de 
1'Histoire  de  Paris,  vol.  IV.,  nos.   21209-21254. 

8  Dunoyer,  Fouquier-Tinville,  p.  4 ;  Lenotre,  La  Captivite  et  la  Mort  de 
Marie  Antoinette,  pp.   386,   387. 

9  Recit  Exact  des  Derniers  Momens  de  .  .  .  la  Reine  ■  .  .  par  la  Dame  Bault 
(Paris,  1817),  p.  15.  Printed  in  full  in  Lenotre,  La  Captivite,  etc.,  pp.  277,  290. 
Quoted  in  Pallet,  La  Conciergerie,  p.   196. 


D  ant  on  to  Marie  Antoinette  27 

suppose  that  he  did  not  make  use  of  it  as  evidence  against  Danton. 
It  was  no  easy  matter  to  bring  the  jury  to  the  point  of  convicting 
Danton;  and  in  the  absence  of  definite  evidence  of  guilt,  this  letter 
would  have  been  precisely  suited  to  the  purpose  of  convincing  the 
jury.  The  trial  of  Danton  has  been  exhaustively  studied  by  his- 
torians having  access  to  all  the  available  evidence  ;10  but  no  one  has 
thus  far  found  in  the  sources  any  explicit  reference  to  the  Danton 
letter.  In  fact,  of  all  those  who  have  written  about  the  trial  of 
Danton,  no  one  except  Mathiez  appears  to  be  aware  that  such  a 
letter  is,  or  ever  was,  in  existence.  Mathiez  quotes  the  letter,  al- 
though inaccurately,  and  says  it  was  "  perhaps  "  one  of  the  "  secret 
documents  "  which  were  shown  to  the  jury  on  the  last  day  of  the 
trial.11  Our  knowledge  of  these  "  secret  documents  "  rests  upon  the 
statement  of  one  of  the  clerks  of  the  Tribunal,  N.  J.  Paris,  who 
afterwards,  at  the  trial  of  Fouquier-Tinville,  deposed  that  on  the 
last  day  of  Danton's  trial  one  of  the  jurors,  Topino-Lebrun,  "  me 
dit  qu'Herman  et  Fouquier  les  avaient  engages  a  declarer  qu'ils 
etaient  suffisamment  instruits  et  que,  pour  les  determiner,  ils  avaient 
peint  les  accuses  comme  des  scelerats,  des  conspirateurs,  et  leur 
avaient  presente  une  lettre  qu'ils  disaient  venir  de  letranger  et 
qu'etait  adressee  a  Danton  " }-  Such  a  letter  as  this  has  never  been 
discovered;  and  it  may  be  that  the  letter  which  Herman  and  Fou- 
quier showed  to  the  jury  was  this  one  of  Danton  to  Marie  Antoi- 
nette,, which  Paris  later,  at  the  trial  of  Fouquier,  remembered  as 
having  been,  or  as  having  been  reported  to  him  as  being  (there  is 
no  evidence  that  Paris  saw  the  letter,  whatever  it  was),  a  letter  from 
"  abroad  addressed  to  Danton  ". 

However  that  may  be  (I  shall  return  to  this  point  presently),  it 
is  certain  that  Fouquier  had  the  letter  before  or  after  the  trial  of 
Danton,  since  it  bears  his  signature.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
there  are  four  other  signatures  on  the  letter:  Massieu,  Legot,  Guf- 

i°  Cf.  the  careful  study  of  Robinet,  Le  Proces  des  Dantonistes  (Paris,  1879), 
based  upon  the  documents,  most  of  which  are  printed  in  the  appendix;  Beesley. 
Life  of  Danton  (London,  1899)  ;  Belloc,  Danton  (London,  1899)  ;  Madelin,  Dan- 
ton (Paris,  1914)  ;  Claretie,  Camille  Desmoulins,  Lucile  Desmoulins,  Etude  sur 
les  Dantonistes  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Mathiez,  Danton  et  la  Paix  (Paris,  1919).  For 
the  literature  of  the  Danton  trial,  see  Tuetey,  Sources,  vol.  XL,  p.  126,  nos. 
249-877. 

11  Danton  et  la  Paix,  p.  247. 

12  "  Declaration  de  Nicolas-Joseph  Paris,  dit  Fabricius.  au  Proces  de  Fou- 
quier-Tinville." Printed  in  full  in  Dunoyer,  Fouquier-Tinville,  pp.  322,  330;  and 
also,  with  slight  verbal  differences,  in  Robinet,  Proces  des  Dantonistes,  pp.  590, 
593.  See  especially,  on  this  matter,  Joseph  Reinach,  "  La  Piece  Secrete  du  Proces 
Danton  ",  in  his  Essais  de   Politique  et  d'Histoire,  p.   333. 


28  Carl  Becker 

froy,  L.  Lecointre.  These  four  men  were  members  of  the  Conven- 
tion ;  and  three  of  them  were  appointed,  23  Thermidor,  members  of 
a  commission  to  examine  the  "  papiers  de  Robespierre,  Saint-Just, 
Lebas  .  .  .  et  autre  complices  .  .  .  et  en  faire  un  rapport  a  la  Con- 
vention Nationale  ".13  Fouquier-Tinville  was  arrested  on  the  14 
Thermidor,  at  which  time  his  papers  were  placed  under  seals  ;14  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  commission  appointed  on  the  23d  to  examine 
the  papers  of  Robespierre  "  et  autre  complices  "  took  over  those  of 
Fouquier  also.  Thus  the  Danton  letter,  found  among  the  papers 
either  of  Robespierre  or  of  Fouquier,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
commission.  Of  this  commission,  the  secretary  or  recorder  was 
E.  B.  Courtois,  to  whom  the  commission  turned  over  the  papers  that 
came  into  its  possession,  in  order  that  he  might  prepare  a  report  to 
the  Convention.  Courtois  spent  some  months  in  preparing  his  re- 
port, which  was  finally  presented  January  5,  1795.15  The  report 
quotes  at  length  from  the  papers  in  Courtois's  possession,  but  it  does 
not  mention  the  Danton  letter.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Courtois 
was  a  friend  of  Danton,  and  the  purpose  of  the  report  was  to  make 

is  Moniteur,  24  Thermidor,  An  II.,  no.  324,  vol.  X.,  p.  1323.  The  full  com- 
mission appointed  on  the  23d  was  made  up  of  L.  Lecointre,  Bourdon  de  l'Oise, 
Charlier,  Guffroy,  Cales,  Beaupre,  Perrin  des  Vosges,  Massieu,  Clausel,  Gauthier, 
Ch.  Duval,  Audonin.  The  name  of  Legot,  one  of  the  four  whose  names  are  on 
the  Danton  letter,  is  not  in  the  list ;  but  it  is  probable  that  some  changes  in  the 
personnel  of  the  commission  were  made.  E.  B.  Courtois,  the  secretary  of  the 
commission,  said  in  1816  that  "  apres  la  mort  de  Robespierre,  il  y  eut  Succes- 
sivement  deux  Commissions  de  nommes.  ...  La  premiere,  n'ayant  pas,  par  esprit 
de  parti,  repondu  a  la  confiance  de  l'Assemblee  il  en  fut  nomine  une  seconde 
dont  je  fis  partie."  Lenotre,  La  Captivite  et  la  Mort  de  Marie  Antoinette,  p.  391  : 
Welvert,  Lendemains  Revolutionnaires,  p.  282.  I  have  not  found  any  record  of 
the  appointment  of  two  commissions ;  but  that  there  were  changes  in  personnel 
is  confirmed  by  the  pamphlet,  Discours  Prononce  par  Robespierre  a  la  Con- 
vention dans  la  Seance  du  8  Thermidor.  In  this  pamphlet  it  is  stated  that  the 
manuscript  was  found  among  the  papers  of  Robespierre,  by  the  commission,  and 
that  it  was  ordered  printed  by  the  commission.  This  statement  is  signed  :  Guffroy, 
president;  Lecointre,  Clausel,  Cales,  Massieu,  J.  Espert.  The  last  name,  Espert, 
like  that  of  Legot  on  the  Danton  letter,  is  not  among  the  list  of  commissioners 
appointed  on  the  23d.  That  Legot  became  a  member  of  the  commission  some  time 
after  its  original  creation  is  evident  enough,  since  his  signature  appears  not 
only  on  the  Danton  letter,  but  also  on  a  number  of  other  documents  found 
among  the  papers  of  Robespierre  or  Fouquier.     Cf.  Lenotre.  op.  cit..   p.   384. 

14  Dunoyer,  op.  cit.,  pp.  149,  155.  Moniteur,  15  Thermidor,  An  II.  (Aug. 
2,  1794).  no-  315-' 

Is  Moniteur,  An  III.,  no.  108.  The  report  is  printed  in  nos.  150-152,  154-162. 
It  was  also  printed  separately  as  a  pamphlet:  Rapport  fait  an  Norn  de  la  Com- 
mission chargce  de  I'Examen  des  Papiers  trouvis  chea  Robespierre  et  ses  Com- 
plices, par  E.  B.  Courtois  (Paris.  Nivose,  An  III.)  ;  printed  also  as  the  introduc- 
tion to  Papiers  Inedits  trouves  ches  Robespierre,  etc.   (Paris.    1S2S,  3  vols.). 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  29 

a  strong  case  against  Robespierre  and  his  associates,  whereas  the 
Danton  letter  would  rather  have  been  a  point  in  Robespierre's  favor. 
In  fact,  after  the  death  of  Robespierre,  all  of  those  who  are  known 
to  have  seen  the  Danton  letter,  with  the  one  exception  of  Fouquier- 
Tinville,10  had  sufficient  reasons  for  saying  nothing  about  it,  with 
the  result  that  there  seems  to  be  no  mention  of  the  letter  in  all  the 
contemporary  literature  of  the  Revolution. 

Not  until  1816  do  I  find  any  mention  of  it.  On  January  25  of 
that  year,  E.  B.  Courtois,  finding  himself,  as  one  of  the  regicides, 
in  imminent  danger  of  exile,  wrote  to  Councillor  of  State  Becquey 
a  letter  in  which  he  tried  to  make  his  peace  with  the  restored  Bour- 

16  Why  Fouquier  did  not  call  for  the  Danton  letter  in  his  own  defense  is 
an  interesting  question.  One  of  the  chief  charges  against  him  at  his  trial  was 
that  of  having  forced  the  condemnation  of  Danton  without  evidence.  One  would 
expect  him  to  make  some  reference  to  the  Danton  letter.  Perhaps  he  had  for- 
gotten it.  In  general,  his  defense  consisted  mainly  in  saying"  that  he  had  obeyed 
orders,  and  was  not  responsible.  For  a  full  account  of  Fouquier's  trial,  see 
Dunoyer,  Fouquier-Titwille.  Other  men  whose  interest  it  was  to  make  known 
the  Danton  letter  were  Barere,  Collot  d'Herbois,  and  Billaud-Varenne.  In  their 
long  and  losing  fight  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  particularly  in  connection  with 
the  denunciation  of  Lecointre,  and  the  subsequent  rehabilitation  of  Lecointre's 
charges  by  the  Commission  of  Twenty-One,  they  had  need  of  every  fact 
which  would  help  to  justify  the  execution  of  Danton,  which  was  a  capital  point 
in  the  charges  against  the  members  of  the  old  committee.  All  three  men  de- 
fended themselves  repeatedly,  both  in  the  Convention  and  in  printed  pamphlets. 
Their  defense,  in  respect  to  the  execution  of  Danton,  was  essentially  that  Danton 
was  a  traitor.  "  If  the  execution  of  Danton  is  a  crime  ",  said  Billaud,  "  I  accuse 
myself  of  it;  for  I  was  the  first  to  denounce  him.  I  saw  that  if  this  man  existed, 
liberty  would  perish.  If  he  were  alive  he  would  be  the  rallying  point  for  all  the 
counter-revolutionists."  Les  Crimes  de  Sept  Membres  des  Anciens  Comitcs, 
p.  25.  Here  was  the  obvious  opportunity  to  refer  to  the  Danton  letter,  if  Billaud 
knew  of  its  existence.  He  does  not  refer  to  it.  nor  do  any  of  the  others,  so  far 
as  I  can  find.  For  the  Lecointre  denunciation  and  debate,  see  Moniteur,  i4_I5 
Fructidor,  An  II.  (Aug.  29-30,  1794),  nos.  344,  345.  The  Commission  of  Twenty- 
One  was  appointed  Dec.  27,  1794,  to  examine  the  conduct  of  Billaud,  Collot, 
Barere,  and  Vadier.  Id.,  9  Xivose,  An  III.  Saladin  leported  for  the  com- 
mission on  the  12  Ventose  (Mar.  2,  1795).  Id.,  14  Ventose,  An  III.,  no.  164. 
The  charges  were  discussed  in  the  Convention  on  4-8  Germinal.  Id..  7-12 
Germinal,  An  III.,  nos.  187-192.  There  is  also  considerable  pamphlet  literature 
on  this  matter:  Rapport  an  nom  de  la  Commission  des  Vingt-un  (Paris,  28  Ven- 
tose, An  III.)  :  Ri'ponse  des  Membres  des  Deux  Anciens  Comitcs  aux  Pieces  com- 
muniques par  la  Commission  des  Vingt-un;  Reponse  de  J.  N.  Billaud  d  Laurent 
Lecointre ;  /.  M.  Collot  a  scs  Cotlcgues,  Reflexions  rapides  sur  I'lmprime  Publie 
par  Lecointre  contre  Sept  Membres  des  Anciens  Comitcs;  Defense  de  J.  M.  Col- 
lot Reprcsentant  du  Peuple;  Seconde  Suite  aux  Eclaircissemens  Necessaires, 
donn-cs  par  J.  M.  Collot;  Discours  fait  a  la  Convention  Xatianale  par  ].  M. 
Collot  .  .  .  -I  Germinal,  An  III.;  Discours  prononcc  par  Robert  Lindet  .  .  .  sur 
les  Denonciations  portees  contre  V Ancient  Comite  de  Salut  Public  et  le  Rapport 
de  la  Commission   des  21. 


30  Car!  Becker 

bon  government.  In  this  letter  he  asserted  that  he  had  in  his  pos- 
session certain  documents  and  articles  of  peculiar  interest  to  the 
royal  family;  documents  which,  he  says,  he  extracted  from  the 
Robespierre  papers  in  his  possession  in  1794,  and  which  he  had 
secretly  and  carefully  kept  ever  since  with  the  intention,  at  the 
proper  time,  of  restoring  them  to  the  Bourbon  family.  These  docu- 
ments and  articles,  of  which  there  were  ten,  he  enumerated  and 
described  in  his  letter  to  Becquey.  The  first  and  most  important 
was  the  famous  last  letter  of  Marie  Antoinette  to  her  sister  Madame 
Elizabeth.  The  last  one,  number  10,  Courtois  describes  as  "  une 
petite  lettre,  avec  la  pretendue  signature  de  Danton,  adressee  a  la 
Reine,  ainsi  conquer  ' Citoyenne,  Mettez  sur  votre  porte  ccs  mots: 
Unite,  indivisibUitc  de  la  Rcpubliquc.  liberie,  egalite,  fraternite  ou 
la  mart.  Signe  Danton.'  "1T  Courtois  did  not  have  the  letter  before 
him  when  he  wrote.  He  quoted  the  Danton  letter  from  memory, 
or  from  a  copy ;  and  it  is  important  to  note  that  he  quoted  it  incor- 
rectly: he  makes  it  read  mettez  sur  votre  porte,  instead  of  vous 
mettrez  sur  votre  porte. 

Courtois  did  not  succeed  in  saving  himself  from  exile;  and  mean- 
time his  residence  was  raided  by  the  police,  who  carried  off  all  his 
papers,  a  great  mass  of  documents  which  he  had  used  in  1794  for 
preparing  his  report  to  the  Convention,  including  the  ten  pieces  he 
had  enumerated  in  his  communication  to  the  Councillor  Becquey. 
These  ten  pieces,  all  relating  to  Marie  Antoinette,  were  turned  over 
to  Louis  XVIII.  The  king  at  once  made  known  the  discovery  of 
the  last  letter  of  Marie  Antoinette  to  her  sister,  which  was  ordered 
read  in  all  the  churches,  and  of  which  engraved  copies  were  made 
and  presented  to  the  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.18  But  the 
Danton  letter  was  not  published  or  made  known.  No  member  of 
the  Bourbon  family  would  wish  to  have  it  known  that  Marie  Antoi- 
nette had  been,  or  might  be  supposed  to  have  been,  under  obligation 
to  Danton.  The  letter  was  a  curiosity,  no  doubt,  and  one  which 
might  well  be  given,  as  such,  to  some  friend  who  cared  for  that 
kind  of  tiling;  and  in  fact  it  seems  that  the  king  gave  the  letter  to 
one  of  the  peers,  in  whose  family  archives  it  remained  until  it  was 

i"  This  letter  from  Courtois  to  Becquey  remained  in  the  archives,  appar- 
ently unknown  to  historians,  until  printed  in  1891  by  Eugene  Welvert  in  his 
book  La  Saisie  des  Papiers  du  Conventionnel  Courtois,  p.  17.  It  is  given  in  full 
by  Lenotre,  who  took  it  from  Welvert,  in  his  La  Captivite  el  la  Mart  de  Marie 
Antoinette,  p.  384;  and  in  Welvert,  Lendemains  Rcvolutionnaires,  p.  26S. 

33  Welvert,  La  Saisie  des  Papiers  du  Conventionnel  Courtois,  pp.  21,  27; 
Lenotre,  op.  cit.,  p.  393;  Campardon,  op.  cit..  p.  251.  The  Cornell  University 
Library  has  the  letter  in  a  printed  broadside  of  iSi6,  and  also  one  of  the  en- 
graved copies  of  the  original. 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  31 

purchased  for  an  American  collector,  the  late  John  Boyd  Thacher. 
As  part  of  the  Thacher  Collection  it  was  exhibited  in  1905  at  the 
Lenox  branch  of  the  New  York  Public  Library,  and  is  described 
and  accurately  quoted  in  the  printed  catalogue  of  that  exhibition.1" 
It  was  Air.  Thacher  who  had  the  photographic  reproduction  made 
which  Professor  Burr  found  among  the  papers  of  Mr.  White.  The 
original  is  now  in  Washington,  the  Thacher  Collection  having  been 
presented  recently  to  the  Library  of  Congress. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  astonishing  that  the  Danton 
letter  should  have  long  remained  practically  unknown.  So  far  as 
I  can  learn  few  historians  have  seen  the  original.  Apparently, 
no  French  historian  knew  of  the  existence  of  such  a  letter  until 
1891,  when  Eugene  Welvert  printed  the  inaccurate  copy  of  it  which 
Courtois  made  in  1816  in  his  letter  to  the  Councillor  of  State  Bec- 
quey.20  Since  then  the  letter  has  been  quoted  by  three  different 
historians,  Lenotre,21  Blottiere,22  and  Albert  Mathiez.23  Blottiere 
assures  his  readers  that  the  original  still  exists  and  that  facsimiles 
of  it  have  been  circulated.  Mathiez  says  that  he  has  seen  a  fac- 
simile. However  that  may  be,  all  three  writers,  including  Mathiez, 
have  evidently  taken  the  letter  from  Welvert,  for  they  quote  it  in 
part  only,  without  the  address ;  they  quote  it  inaccurately,  making  it 
read  mettes  instead  of  vous  mettrec;  and  they  quote  it  with  certain 
punctuation-marks  although  the  original  is  without  punctuation: 
that  is  to  say,  they  all  quote  the  letter  exactly  as  they  found  it  given 
in  Welvert,  who  in  turn  gave  it  as  he  found  it  in  the  Courtois  letter 
of  1816. 

II 

Such  briefly  is  the  history  of  the  Danton  letter.  What  was  its 
purpose?     Was  Danton  involved  in  some  plot  to  rescue  the  Queen 

19  Outlines  of  the  French  Revolution  told  in  Autographs  exhibited  at  the 
Lenox  Branch  of  the  New  York  Public  Library,  March  20,  1905.  No.  2S0. 
The  Danton  letter,  according  to  the  description  here  given,  "  came  into  the  pres- 
ent collection  from  a  Ducal  house  in  France,  the  first  Duke  receiving  it  from 
the  hands  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1816  ".  Mrs.  Thacher  does  not  remember  any- 
thing more  than  is  related  above  about  the  circumstances  under  which  her 
husband  came  into  possession  of  the  letter.  To  Mr.  W.  G.  Leland,  who  has 
compared  the  photographic  reproduction  with  the  original,  and  read  the  proofs  of 
this  article,   I   am  under  obligations   for  many  valuable  suggestions. 

20  La  Saisic  des  Papiers  du  Conventionnel  Courtois  (Paris.   1891),  p.   17. 
Welvert  printed  the  letter  of  Courtois  again  in   1907,  in  his  Lendemains  Rerolu- 
tionnaires,  p.  268. 

-1  La  Captivitc  et  la  Mort  de  Marie  Antoinette  (Paris,   1897),  p.   3S4. 
22  In  an  artirle  on  "  Courtois  et  la  Duchesse  de  Choiseul  ",  Annates  Revolu- 
V.  33. 
1  Danton  et  la  Paix  (Paris,   1919),  p.  247. 


3 2  Carl  Becker 

from  the  Conciergerie  ?  Or  was  his  purpose  merely  to  guard  her 
against  anticipated  assassination  at  the  hands  of  the  mob?  Let  us 
consider  the  first  of  these  suppositions. 

That  there  were  royalist  plots  to  rescue  the  queen  is  well  known. 
In  July,  1793,  there  was  a  carefully  worked-out  plot  known  to  have 
been  directed  by  Baron  Batz,  and  involving  among  others  a  certain 
Michonis,  a  police  commissioner  on  guard  at  the  Temple.  On  the 
evening  of  the  day  fixed  for  executing  the  plot,  a  note  was  found 
at  the  door  of  the  Temple  in  these  words :  "  Michonis  trahira  cette 
nuit.  Veillez."  Michonis  was  at  once  replaced  by  Simon,  and  the 
scheme  had  to  be  abandoned.  It  was  partly  as  a  consequence  of 
this  discovery  that  Marie  Antoinette  was  removed  from  the  Temple 
to  the  Conciergerie  on  August  2.  In  September  and  October  vari- 
ous schemes  were  in  hand,  under  the  direction  of  Count  Rougeville, 
for  removing  the  queen  from  the  Conciergerie.  All  these  efforts 
have  been  subject  to  a  good  deal  of  special  investigation ;  but  no  one 
has  brought  to  light  anything  in  the  nature  of  specific  contemporary 
evidence  which  implicates  Danton  in  the  Batz  plot  or  in  the  schemes 
of  Rougeville.24  At  the  time  of  his  trial  Danton  was  of  course 
charged  with  "  royalism  ".  This  was  the  stock  charge ;  but  in  the 
case  of  Danton  the  only  specific  evidence  publicly  brought  forward 
was  a  passage  in  a  letter  from  the  Spanish  ambassador  at  Venice  to 
Godoy,  dated  July  31,  1793.  The  passage  is  as  follows:  "The 
Commune  of  Paris  pretends  that  an  agent  of  the  Prince  of  Coburg 
has  communicated  with  the  Queen,  that  Danton  and  Lacroix,  who 

-*  For  a  careful  study  of  these  plots,  see  Lecestre,  "  Les  Tentatives  d'Eva- 
sion  de  Marie  Antoinette  au  Temple  et  a  la  Conciergerie  ",  Revue  des  Ques- 
tions Historiques,  XXXIX.  510-56S;  cf.  Campardon,  Marie  Antoinette  a  la 
Conciergerie,  ch.  I.,  pp.  139-161,  181-207;  Robinet,  Proces  des  Dantonistes,  p. 
311  ff.  Elie  Lacoste,  in  his  report  to  the  Convention,  June  13,  1794,  on  the  Batz 
conspiracy,  gave  a  list  of  some  thirty-five  people  supposed  to  be  implicated  with 
Batz.  He  mentions  the  Danton-Lacroix  faction  as  one  of  the  "  branches  de 
celle  dont  nous  venons  vous  devoiler  les  forfaits  ".  No  proof  of  this  is  offered 
except  the  statement  that  Danton  was  known  to  have  met  Batz  frequently.  Rap- 
port sur  la  Conspiration  de  Batz,  pp.  6,  9.  Moniteur,  zy  Prairial,  An  II.,  no. 
267.  Baron  Batz  denied  ever  having  seen  Danton.  "  Je  n'ai  vu  de  ma  vie  la 
figure  de  Danton,  ni  celle  de  Lacroix.  Je  n'ai  eu  relations  quelconques,  directes 
ni  indirectes  avec  eux."  La  Conjuration  de  1'Etranger  et  le  Baron  Batz,  quoted 
in  Robinet,  Proces  des  Dantonistes,  p.  325.  In  recent  years  Albert  Mathiez,  the 
valiant  defender  of  Robespierre,  has  had  a  sharp  eye  out  for  every  kind  of 
evidence  which  might  discredit  Danton's  loyalty  to  the  Revolution.  In  two 
recent  books  he  has  gathered  together  all  this  fragmentary  evidence ;  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  his  conclusions  reach  farther  than  the  facts,  and  in  any  case  he 
does  not  seem  to  have  advanced  any  specific  evidence  to  prove  that  Danton  was 
implicated  in  the  Batz  or  Rougeville  plots.  Cf.  La  Revolution  -ct  les  fitrangers. 
ch.  XI.;    Danton  ct  la  Pai.v,  chs.  VII.,  VIII. 


D  ant  on  to  Marie  Antoinette  33 

were  of  the  Mountain  party,  have  become  Girondins  and  have  had 
conferences  with  her  Majesty."-0  Saint-Just,  in  his  denunciation 
of  Danton  before  the  Convention  at  the  time  of  the  latter's  arrest, 
refers  to  this  letter  ;=6  but  if  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  had  further 
evidence  of  Danton's  complicity  in  the  royalist  plots  it  did  not  pro- 
duce it. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  Revolution  that  we  find  this  charge  of 
"'  royalism  "  in  its  most  circumstantial  form.  The  unprinted  "  Mem- 
oirs "  of  Boissy  d'Anglas,  written  probably  about  1798  during  the 
period  of  his  exile  after  the  18  Fructidor,  contain  this  passage: 

It  is  very  true  that  when  Danton  was  arrested  he  had  in  hand  the 
project  of  forcing-  the  Temple,  of  seizing  the  son  of  Louis  XVI.,  of  pro- 
claiming him  king  and  of  presenting  him  to  the  people  throughout  the 
city.  They  were  to  name  a  council  of  regency  of  which  Danton  was  to 
be  the  chief,  and  the  principles  of  humanity  which  have  reigned  since 
the  9  Thermidor  would  have  obtained  from  this  period.  .  .  .  Fabre 
d'Eglantine,  Heraut  [Herault],  Danton,  Lacroix,  and  Camille  Desmou- 
lins  were  the  authors  of  this  project.  Danton  was  to  have  presented 
the  child  to  the  people  and  to  the  army.  The  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  learned  of  the  project,  and  Saint-Just  said  a  few  words  about  it 
in  his  report  without,  however,  entering  into  details.  Before  this  period 
it  was  the  Duke  of  Orleans  whom  these  same  men  wished  to  place  on  the 
throne.27 

The  "Memoirs"  of  Boissy  d'Anglas  were  written  from  memory 
at  a  time  when  he  had  become  an  advocate  of  moderate  constitu- 
tional government ;  and  the  passage  quoted  is  obviously  inspired  by 
the  desire  to  throw  on  Robespierre  the  odium  of  the  Terror  and  the 
responsibility  for  delaying  the  establishment  of  a  more  moderate 
system.  His  version  of  Danton's  royalism  is  no  more  than  the  old 
charge  which  was  current  at  the  time  of  Danton's  arrest — the  story 
which  Boissy,  like  every  one  else,  was  familiar  with  at  the  time.  A 
brief  history  of  this  story  will  show,  I  think,  that  the  charge  of 
"royalism"  which  was  current  at  the  time  of  Danton's  execution, 
and  which  Boissy  revived  in  1798,  rested  upon  fragile  foundations. 

The  origin  of  this  story  takes  us  back  to  the  insurrection  of 
August  10,  1792.  Gouverneur  Morris,  writing  to  Jefferson,  Decem- 
ber 21,  1792,  says:  "Shortly  after  the  10th  of  August,  I  had  infor- 

25  The  original,  in  Spanish,  was  found  among  the  papers  of  Robespierre. 
The  letter  is  printed,  in  Spanish  and  French,  in  Papiers  Inedits  trouves  chez 
Robespierre  (Paris,  1828),  III.  3S8.  The  extract  is  quoted  in  Robinet,  Proces 
des  Dantonistes,  p.   312. 

-&  Moniteur,  u  Germinal,  An  II.  (Apr.  1,  1794),  no.  192,  p.  779.  Given 
also   in   Robinet,  Proces  des  Dantonistes,  p.  488. 

-~<  Intermediate  des  Chercheurs,  Mar.  30,  1901,  p.  529;  La  Revolution 
Francaise,  XL.   460. 

(M.   HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. —3. 


34  Carl  Becker 

mation  on  which  you  may  rely,  that  the  plan  of  Danton  was  to 
obtain  the  resignation  of  the  King,  to  get  himself  appointed  Chief 
of  a  Council  of  Regency,  composed  of  his  creatures,  during  the 
minority  of  the  Dauphin.  This  idea  has  never,  I  believe,  been 
wholly  abandoned."28  All  this,  it  will  be  remembered,  relates  to  the 
tenth  of  August,  1792,  before  the  Republic  had  been  established, 
before  the  king  had  been  executed,  when  everyone  was  asking  what 
was  to  be  done  with  him.  The  idea  of  a  regency  was  not  an  un- 
common one  at  that  time ;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Danton  was 
in  favor  of  it.  But  a  year  later  the  situation  had  wholly  changed. 
The  Republic  had  been  established,  the  king  had  been  executed,  the 
Terror  was  the  order  of  the  day.  In  August,  1792,  a  man  might 
well  be  a  patriot  and  still  openly  advocate  a  regency;  but  to  do  so 
in  August,  1793,  would  have  been  regarded  as  the  blackest  of 
treasons.  Yet  the  project  of  a  regency,  originally  attributed  to 
Danton  in  August,  1792,  continued  to  be  associated  with  his  name 
throughout  the  Revolution. 

On  December  3,  1793,  Robespierre  throws  a  curious  light  on  the 
status  of  the  story  at  that  time.  That  evening,  at  the  Jacobin  Club, 
Danton  was  attacked  by  Coupe,  and  Robespierre  made  a  speech  in 
his  defense: 

I  request  that  you  consent  to  make  these  grievances  against  him 
[Danton]  more  specific.  No  one  speaks?  Well  then,  I  will  do  it. 
Danton  !  You  (tu)  are  accused  of  having  emigrated;  they  say  that  you 
got  away  into  Switzerland;  that  your  illness  was  feigned  in  order  to  con- 
ceal your  flight  from  the  people;  they  say  that  your  ambition  was  to  be 
regent  under  Louis  XVII. ;  that  at  a  certain  date  everything  had  been 
prepared  for  proclaiming  him ;  that  you  were  the  chief  of  the  con- 
spiracy; that  neither  Pitt,  nor  Coburg,  nor  England,  nor  Austria,  nor 
Prussia  was  our  real  enemy,  but  that  you  alone  were.29 

The  tone  is  ironical.  The  implication  is  that  the  charges  are  so 
many,  so  contradictory,  and  so  absurd  that  they  refute  themselves : 
the  implication  is  that  these  are  commonplaces  with  which  everyone 
is  familiar  and  which  no  one  believes.  It  may  well  be  that  Robes- 
pierre's speech  had  a  hostile  intent;  that  he  wished  to  repeat  once 
more  these  charges  that  they  might  be  kept  alive  against  the  day 
when  they  could  be  used.  But  for  our  purpose  the  significance  of 
the  speech  is  the  same  in  any  case;  and  that  significance  is  that  in 

28  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  II.  261.  The  queen 
appears  to  have  relied  upon  Danton  during  the  crisis  of  August  10.  Cf.  Beau- 
chesne,  Louis  XVII.,  I.  182;  Lafayette,  Memoires,  III.  376;  Madelin,  Danton, 
p.  99.     See  also  the  Courtois  narrative  given  below,  pp.  37-38. 

28  Aulard,  Jacobins,  V.  543. 


H229S4 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  35 

December,  1793,  the  story  that  Danton  wished  to  be  regent  under 
Louis  XVII.  was  a  familiar  commonplace  which  could  not  be  taken 
seriously. 

Six  weeks  later  this  old  story  of  a  project  to  proclaim  the 
dauphin  is  related  by  Couthon  as  something  recently  unearthed. 
There  has  recently  been  discovered,  he  writes  on  January  18,  "  an 
infamous  project,  of  which  the  object  was  to  have  been,  at  that  time, 
to  drive  out  the  Mountain  deputies,  to  deliver  Marie  Antoinette, 
who  was  then  at  the  Conciergerie,  and  to  proclaim  at  once  the  petit 
Capet  king  of  France".30  Danton  is  not  yet  connected  with  this 
newly  discovered  project;  but  by  April  Danton  has  been  found  to 
be  the  prime  mover  in  it.  On  April  5,  the  last  day  of  Danton's  trial, 
Couthon  writes  that  the  plan  was  "to  go  to  the  Temple,  take  out 
the  child  Capet,  and  have  him  proclaimed,  as  had  long  since  been 
decreed  by  Danton  (the  Chancellor),  who,  within  a  few  hours,  will 
be  the  guillotined".31  Gouverneur  Morris  now  recalled  the  letter 
he  wrote  in  December,  1792,  in  which,  he  says,  "  I  mentioned  the 
plan  of  Danton,  adding  that  I  believed  that  it  had  never  been  wholly 
abandoned.  His  late  execution  will  show  that  faith  to  have  been 
well  founded."32     About  the  same  time  he  writes: 

Danton  always  believed,  and  .  .  .  always  maintained,  that  a  popular 
system  of  government  for  this  country  was  absurd ;  that  the  people  were 
too  ignorant,  too  inconstant,  and  too  corrupt  to  support  a  legal  admin- 
istration ;  that,  habituated  to  obey,  they  required  a  master.  .  .  .  The  Dan- 
tonists  supposed,  that  in  want  of  respect  for  the  rulers,  the  people  would 
readily  turn  on  the  little  prisoner  in  the  Temple,  that  enthusiastic  senti- 
ment so  congenial  to  the  heart  of  man,  so  essential  to  that  which  beats 
in  a  French  bosom.33 

Four  months  later  the  story  is  repeated,  with  variations,  by 
Mallet-du-Pan.  August  3,  1794,  he  writes,  apropos  of  Billaud- 
Varenne,  Collot  d'Herbois,  Robert  Lindet,  and  the  Conventionnels 
who  overthrew  Robespierre: 

I  know  that  their  ultimate  thought  tends  to  a  counter-revolution,  but 
made  in  their  own  manner,  and  not  in  that  of  the  Emigres  and  Mr. 
Burke.  Their  leaders  were  united  with  Danton,  executed  for  having 
intrigued  to  proclaim  the  king  Louis  XVII.  and  M.  Malesherbes  regent. 
They  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  Monsieur,  or  M.  Count  d'Artois. 
Probably  they  were  leagued  with  the  Constitutionals  and  Federalists.34 

•"0  Correspondance  de  Georges  Couthon,  p.  284. 

31  Ibid.,  p.  320. 

32  Life  and   Correspondence,   II.    427. 

33  Ibid.,  p.  424- 

3*  Mallet-du-Pan  to  the  Earl  of  Elgin.  Hist.  MSS.  Comm..  Fourteenth  Re- 
port, App.  V.,  p.  616. 


36  Carl  Becker 

It  is  no  longer  Danton  alone  who  would  have  proclaimed  the 
dauphin,  but  Collot  and  Billaud,  the  very  men  who  were  the  first 
to  denounce  Danton  for  this  crime;  it  is  no  longer  Danton  alone 
who  allied  himself  with  the  Girondins,  but  the  very  men  of  the 
Convention  who  destroyed  the  Girondins. 

It  needs  no  great  insight  to  detect  in  the  history  of  this  story 
the  familiar  operation  of  the  revolutionary  psychology  which  at- 
tributed in  succession,  to  each  faction  as  it  was  brought  to  the 
scaffold,  the  stock  charge  of  royalism.  Who  indeed  was  not 
charged  with  royalism?  If  we  are  to  believe  official  denunciators 
and  the  records  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  the  most  prominent 
royalists  are  to  be  found  among  the  leaders  of  the  Revolution : 
Barnave,  Dumouriez,  Lafayette,  Philippe  ligalite,  Brissot,  Roland, 
Madame  Roland,  Hebert,  Danton,  Robespierre — all  good  patriots 
in  their  day.  "As  for  the  proclamation  of  the  young  Capet  king 
of  France  ",  Lenotre  very  justly  says,  "  it  was,  in  this  terrible  epoch, 
an  accusation  so  banal  and  so  current  that  it  had  come  to  be  a 
commonplace."33  If  the  charge  against  Danton  is  more  precise  than 
it  is  against  others,  the  explanation  is  doubtless  that  in  August,  1792, 
he  had  perhaps  actually  proposed  a  regency  in  behalf  of  the  dauphin  ; 
a  proposal  which,  legitimate  enough  at  the  time  it  was  made,  was 
remembered  against  him  throughout  the  Revolution,  being,  so  to 
speak,  redated  to  suit  any  desired  occasion.  It  is  this  charge,  which 
in  December,  1793,  was  so  banal  that  no  one  believed  it,  and  which 
in  April,  1794,  was  without  further  proof  sufficiently  convincing  to 
send  Danton  to  the  guillotine — it  is  this  old  story,  and  no  more  than 
this,  that  Boissy  dAnglas  related  in  his  memoirs,  with  the  addition 
of  a  few  details  which  the  passage  of  time  perhaps  had  enabled  him 
to  recall. 

In  the  course  of  years  another  story,  somewhat  related  to  the 
old  one,  made  its  appearance.  The  source  of  this  new  story  is  E.  B. 
Courtois.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  1816  Courtois  tried  to 
make  his  peace  with  the  Bourbon  government,  and  that  the  govern- 
ment, instead  of  granting  him  the  amnesty  he  desired,  seized  and 
carried  off  his  papers.  In  1833,  his  son,  Henri  Courtois,  having 
failed  to  induce  the  government  to  return  to  him  his  father's  papers, 
brought  suit  to  compel  their  restoration.  The  suit  failed;  and  in 
1834  Henri  Courtois  published  a  curious  brochure,  now  rather  rare, 
entitled  L' Affaire  de  V ex-Conventionnel  Courtois.  In  this  work,  as 
in  his  previous  correspondence  with  the  government,  he  endeavored 
to  make  out  that  his  father — his  father,  who  had  voted  for  the 

Su  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Jan.  i,  1920,  p.   132. 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  37 

death  of  Louis  XVI. — was  a  royalist  sympathizer  even  during  the 
Revolution.  Referring  to  the  fact  that  his  father  had  carefully 
preserved  the  documents  relating  to  Marie  Antoinette,  he  says : 

'  One  can  the  better  understand  this  conduct  when  one  knows  that  an 
audacious  project  for  carrying  away  the  queen  was  to  have  been  at- 
tempted by  Danton  and  my  father,  who  was  the  soul  of  the  affair. 
Marie  Antoinette  and  Madame  Elizabeth  were  to  have  been  carried  off 
by  main  force  from  the  Temple,  and  transported  to  a  foreign  country. 
The  proof  of  this  fact  is  in  one  of  the  Danton  letters  which  was  seized 
by  the  police.  The  means  of  execution  are  there  described,  and  the> 
reveal  that  characteristic  audacity  which  distinguished  that  energetic 
man.315 

This  version  rests  on  the  word  of  Henri  Courtois.  which  is,  it 
seems,  to  be  taken  with  caution.37  He  refers  to  a  letter  of  Danton 
among  his  father's  papers  which  were  seized  b_\  the  police  in  1816. 
This  letter  is  probably  not  now  in  existence  ;38  but  in  some  rough 
manuscript  "notes"  which  the  elder  Courtois  prepared  from  the 
papers  in  his  possession  we  find  the  following  account  of  a  plan 
which  is  undoubtedly  the  one  referred  to  by  Henri  Courtois : 

A  short  time  before  the  ioth  of  August  [1792]  Danton  was  admitted, 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  king,  to  the  Tuileries,  by  the  Queen  Marie 
Antoinette,  who  seemed  not  to  realize  the  perils  that  menaced  her.  The 
future  appeared  to  her  so  far  from  alarming  that  in  dismissing  Danton 
she  said  to  him  gaily:  "Ah,  M.  Danton,  if  we  are  not  well-behaved  it 
will  be  necessary  to  shut  us  up  in  some  prison  for  a  few  months."  .  .  . 
Danton,  who  was  saddened  by  this  dangerous  security,  assured  the 
Queen,  in  taking  leave  of  her,  that  whatever  happened  he  and  his  friends 
would  watch  over  her  and  her  children.  [He  relates  that  the  Duchesse 
de  Choiseul,  soon  after  the  execution  of  the  king,  determined  to  rescue 
the  queen  on  account  of  the  menacing  attitude  of  the  Commune.]  With- 
out hesitating,  I  entered  into  her  plans  (je  m'associai  a  scs  idees),  and 

se  I  have  not  seen  H.  Courtois's  book.  The  extract  above  is  taken  from 
the  Intermediate  des  Chercheurs,  XXII.    (1889)    195. 

61  Cf.  Favret,  "  Proces  des  Papiers  de  Courtois  ",  Revue  Historique  de  la 
Revolution  Frangaise,  VI.  212;  and  Welvert,  Lendemains  Revolutionnaires,  p. 
249   ff. 

38  It  seems  not  entirely  clear  what  became  of  the  Courtois  papers,  but  it 
is  likely  that  many  of  them  were  destroyed  in  the  Paris  fire  of  1871.  Cf.  La 
Grande  Encyclopedic  (art.  Courtois)  ;  Intermediate  des  Chercheurs,  May  30, 
1904,  p.  779.  The  so-called  Robespierre  papers  taken  over  by  the  commission 
of  which  Courtois  was  secretary  in  1794,  and  which  presumably  made  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  "  Courtois  papers ",  were  published  in  three  volumes  in 
1828:  Papiers  Inedits  trouves  ches  Robespierre,  Saint-Just,  Payan,  etc.,  sup- 
priitu-s  ou  omis  par  Courtois;  precedes  du  Rapport  de  ce  Depute  a  la  Conven- 
tion Nationale  (Paris,  1828,  3  vols.).  According  to  Tourneux,  the  editor  was 
Denis-Alexandre  Martin,  who  left  a  part  of  the  original  papers  to  Jacques  Char- 
avay.     Tourneux,  Bib.  de  1'Hist.  de  Paris,  vol.   I.,  p.  392,  no.  4297. 


38  Carl  Becker 

Danton,  to  whom  I  recalled  the  promise  he  had  made  to  this  unhappy 
princess,  promised  to  aid  us.  The  entire  Convention  was  averse  to  the 
projects  of  the  Commune,  but  from  fear  they  left  the  w-ay  clear  to  the 
encroachments  of  this  power.  .  .  .  We  attempted  for  some  time  to 
arouse  certain  members  to  make  a  resistance ;  not  being  able  to  attain, 
this  end,  the  project  of  carrying  away  the  Queen  was  definitely  ar- 
ranged. .  .  .  The  interior  of  the  Temple  was  won  over,  and  in  spite  of 
the  surveillance  of  the  Commune,  two  of  its  members  aided  us.  The 
dispositions  were  so  well  made  that  the  alarm  would  not  have  been 
given  until  twenty-four  hours  after  the  flight.  A  few  days  only  were 
wanting  for  the  realization  of  our  wishes,  when  the  Duchesse  de  Choi- 
seul  .  .  .  conceived  the  design  of  carrying  the  Dauphin  away  with  his 
mother.  This  was  adding  much  to  the  difficulties  and  perils  of  the  en- 
terprise, since  the  child  had  already  been  separated  from  his  mother;  but 
I  at  once  put  my  hand  to  the  task.  Danton  .  .  .  rejected  this  idea  em- 
phatically, and  said  to  me  that  we  were  undoubtedly  being  made  the  in- 
struments of  some  dynastic  machination  or  other.  "  I  will  no  longer 
meddle  with  it ".  he  added ;  "  do  not  speak  to  me  again  of  this  affair." 
I  allowed  this  flurry  (bourasquc)  to  pass,  and  shortly  after  returned  to 
the  charge  by  recalling  to  him  his  promise  made  to  the  Queen,  and  by- 
saying  that  it  would  be  casting  reflections  on  the  Duchesse  de  Choiseul 
to  suppose  that  she  entertained  some  ulterior  idea  of  a  compromising 
intrigue.  Danton,  greatly  agitated,  strode  up  and  down  the  room ;  after 
half  an  hour  he  said  to  me :  "  Make  my  excuses  to  Madame  de  Choiseul 
and  continue  the  preparations.  This  is  a  question  of  preventing  useless, 
atrocious  crimes :  count  on  me." 

He  was  so  completely  freed  from  his  suspicions,  so  decided  to  dare 
all,  that  the  next  day  but  one  he  wrote  to  me :  "  My  dear  Courtois,  I 
dined  today  with  some  colleagues  whom  I  found  indifferent,  or  prepared 
to  submit  to  the  insolence  of  the  Commune.  We  must  therefore  hasten 
the  denouement.  The  bearer  of  this  is  the  trustworthy  fellow  (brave) 
who  will  accompany  the  fugitives;  put  him  in  touch  with  the  one  you 
have  chosen,  and  let  them  get  acquainted  like  boon  companions  (ct  qu'ils 
f assent  connaissance  le  verre  a  la  main).  No  luxury,  none  of  that 
baggage  which  betrayed  them  at  Varennes,  and  all  will  go  well.  The 
Commune  will  roar,  but  this  will  be  the  occasion  to  chastise  it  and  to 
renew  the  unity  of  power.  Once  successful,  every  one  will  be  for  us ; 
if  we  slip  up  the  contrary  will  be  true,  we  shall  have  to  defend  ourselves 
then  and  God  knows  what  will  happen.  We  must  be  ready  for  anything. 
Your  friend  Danton." 

Everything  seemed  to  favor  this  project,  which  was  on  the  point  of 
execution  when,  during  the  first  days  of  August,  the  Commune  .  .  .  be- 
came suspicious  and  suddenly  transferred  Marie  Antoinette  to  the  Con- 
ciergerie,  where  the  most  careful  surveillance  was  exercised.  From 
this  moment  all  hope  vanished;  rescue  was  henceforth  impossible.39 

The  story  is  very  circumstantial.  It  is  known  that  Courtois  was 
on  good  terms  with  the  Duchesse  de  Choiseul ;  and  there  are  letters 

39  Intermediaire  des  Cherchcurs,  Apr.  15,  1901,  p.  642;  La  Revolution  Fran- 
caise,  XL.  462.  For  the  character  of  the  Courtois  "notes",  see  La  Grande 
Encyclopedic  (art.  Courtois);  Annates  Revolutionnaires,  V.  29;  La  Revolution 
Francaise,  XII.  S06  ft'. 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  39 

extant  from  the  duchess  to  Courtois  in  which  she  declares  herself 
to  be  under  great  obligations  to  him  for  the  most  signal  services.40 
Undoubtedly  no  one  ever  suspected  Courtois  of  royalist  sympathies 
before  1814,  and  the  obvious  desire  of  the  man  after  that  date  to 
curry  favor  with  the  Bourbons  does  a  good  deal  to  discredit  his 
statements.  Yet  the  story  can  scarcely  be  dismissed  as  an  exaggera- 
tion due  to  faulty  memory  or  the  desire  to  present  himself  in  the 
light  of  a  royalist  sympathizer.  If  his  story  is  not  substantially 
true  it  must  have  been  in  the  main  deliberately  invented.  If  true, 
the  plot  obviously  belongs  to  late  July,  1793,  just  before  the  removal 
of  the  queen  to  the  Conciergerie.  This  was  also  the  exact  date  of 
the  Batz  plot.  Was  the  Courtois  scheme,  then,  a  part  of  the  Batz 
plot?  There  are  some  difficulties  in  thinking  so.  We  know  that 
the  Batz  plot  was  betrayed,  and  that  this  betrayal  was  a  cause  of 
removing  Marie  Antoinette  to  the  Conciergerie;  whereas  Courtois 
says  it  was  the  removal  of  the  queen  to  the  Conciergerie  that  caused 
the  failure  of  the  plot  in  which  he  and  Danton  were  involved. 
Furthermore,  Courtois  does  not  mention  Batz,  or  Michonis,  or  any- 
one else  known  to  have  been  connected  with  the  Batz  plot ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  none  of  the  evidence  on  which  our  knowledge  of 
the  Batz  plot  rests  mentions  Danton  or  Courtois,  either  as  leaders 
or  as  accessories.  Were  there  then  two  separate  plots  scheduled  to 
come  off  at  the  same  time? 

It  is  quite  possible,  but  for  our  purpose  the  point  need  not  be 
determined.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  even  if  Danton  were  en- 
gaged in  a  scheme  to  rescue  Marie  Antoinette  (a  supposition  not  at 
all  difficult  to  entertain),  his  motive  was,  by  Courtois's  account  of 
it,  not  to  restore  the  monarchy,  but  to  prevent  "  useless,  atrocious 
crimes  " — a  very  different  matter  indeed.  In  any  case,  the  Danton 
letter  to  the  queen,  with  which  we  are  chiefly  concerned,  seems  not 
to  be  connected  with  the  Batz  plot  or  the  Courtois-Danton  plot. 
The  Batz  plot  fell  through  before  the  queen  was  removed  from  the 
Temple;  the  Courtois-Danton  plot,  according  to  Courtois,  became 
impossible  of  execution  from  the  moment  of  her  removal;  yet  the 
Danton  letter  is  addressed  to  the  queen  at  the  Conciergerie  and  was 
written,  to  the  best  of  our  knowledge,  two  days  after  her  arrival 
there.  It  is  too  much  to  suppose  that  a  third  plot  could  have  been 
devised  within  two  days  after  the  event  which,  according  to  Cour- 
tois, destroyed  all  hope  of  attaining  their  ends. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  although  we  may  accept  the  hypothesis 
that  Danton  was  involved  in  a  plot  to  rescue  the  queen  in  order  to 

40  Annales  Revolntionnaires,  V.  23  ft'. 


4-0  Carl  Becker 

preserve  her  life,  there  is  no  evidence  which  would  lead  us  to  sup- 
pose that  the  letter  in  question  was  in  any  way  connected  with  that 
plot.  Let  us  then  seek  an  explanation  of  the  letter  on  the  assump- 
tion that,  the  project  of  a  rescue  having  failed,  Danton  was  still 
endeavoring  to  preserve  the  queen's  life  by  other  methods. 

III. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  date  of  the  letter  was  probably 
August  4,  1793.  Was  there  at  that  time  any  special  reason  to  sup- 
pose the  queen  might  be  in  danger  of  assassination?  That  such 
danger  was  commonly  supposed  to  exist  can  be  easily  shown.  The 
period  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August  was  one  of 
very  high  nervous  tension  at  Paris.  Generally  speaking,  this  was 
the  most  critical  stage  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Revolution.  France 
was  being  invaded  on  every  side  by  the  armed  coalition  of  Europe, 
while  serious  royalist  and  federalist  insurrections  existed  in  the 
north,  west,  and  south.  But  aside  from  the  general  situation,  there 
were  two  special  causes  of  excitement  and  alarm.  One  of  these 
was  the  assassination  of  Marat  on  July  13;  the  other  was  the  ap- 
proaching fete  of  August  10,  designed  as  a  solemn  celebration  of 
the  first  anniversary  of  the  fall  of  the  monarchy. 

The  assassination  of  Marat  was  planned  and  carried  out  by 
Charlotte  Corday  alone ;  but  in  the  public  mind  it  figured  as  clear 
and  ominous  evidence  of  the  presence  everywhere  in  France  of  spies 
in  the  pay  of  England,  whose  object  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Con- 
vention and  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy.  The  malevolent  in- 
fluence at  the  centre  of  this  wide-spread  conspiracy  was  thought  to 
be  the  queen;  and  the. popular  fury  aroused  by  the  death  of  Marat 
was  turned  toward  her  as  the  ultimate  cause  of  counter-revolu- 
tionary intrigue  in  all  its  forms.  The  popular  cry,  therefore,  was 
for  the  immediate  execution  of  the  queen.  On  the  evening  of 
July  14  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  was  informed  by  the  Com- 
mune "  of  the  existence  of  groups  in  which  so-called  patriots  had 
bound  themselves,  by  their  declarations,  to  revenge  the  death  of 
Marat  by  assassinating  the  widow  Capet  and  her  son."41  On 
July  16  some  men  came  before  the  Convention  demanding,  what 
Marat  had  formerly  demanded,  "  that  you  take  steps  against  the 
prisoners  in  the  Temple  ".4"     Throughout  this  period  the  popular 

41  Tuetey,   op.   cit.,  vol.   IX.,  p.  311,  no.    1081. 
«  Courier  de  Vtgalxtc,  July   17,   1793. 


D  ant  on  to  Marie  Antoinette  41 

hatred   of   the  queen   was  voiced   and   inflamed   by   the   scurrilous 
diatribes  of  Hebert  in  Le  Pere  Duchesne.43 

The  high  tension  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Marat  increased 
with  the  approach  of  the  proposed  fete  of  August  10.  This  was  to 
be  a  great  day,  not  only  because  it  was  the  anniversary  of  the  fall 
of  the  monarchy,  but  more  especially  because  on  that  day  repre- 
sentatives from  the  departments  were  coming  to  Paris  to  lay  before 
the  National  Convention  the  official  returns  of  the  vote  recently  cast 
in  favor  of  the  new  republican  constitution.  On  this  day  they  would 
therefore  celebrate,  not  only  the  fall  of  the  monarchy,  but  also  the 
formal  proclamation  of  the  Republic.  It  was  ardently  desired  that 
the  fete  should  be  a  great  success ;  but  there  was  much  uneasiness 
lest  the  enemies  of  the  Republic,  royalists  in  disguise  and  spies  in 
the  pay  of  England,  should  make  use  of  the  popular  excitement  to 
raise  disturbance,  organize  a  massacre  of  prisoners,  and  under  cover 
of  the  confusion  rescue  the  queen  and  the  dauphin.  The  news- 
papers reflect  this  feeling  of  apprehension.  "  Some  feeble  minds  ", 
says  the  Revolutions  de  Paris,  "  seem  to  fear  this  day,  and  consider 
whether  they  should  not  get  away  from  it."44  The  Journal  de  la 
Montague  was  filled  with  forebodings :  "  Let  us  repeat  that  August 
10  approaches ;  that  scoundrels  wish  to  prevent  it."45  In  the  scarcity 
of  bread  the  Journal  saw  a  royalist  intrigue,  the  work  of  those  who 
wished  to  "  precipitate  popular  movements,  and  to  prevent  the  fete 
of  the  10th  of  August.  Scoundrels  whom  nothing  teaches  say  under 
their  breath  that  there  will  be  a  coup  before  the  10th;  others,  more 
adroit  but  not  less  dangerous,  content  themselves  with  spreading  the 
rumor  of  this  coup,  with  feigning  to  fear  that  it  may  come  to  pass, 
and  this  precisely  in  order  to  bring  it  about."46  The  Moniteur 
speaks  of  the  "  unfortunate  inscriptions  along  the  roads,  designed  to 
create  terror  and  spread  the  most  alarming  rumors  ".4T  On  Au- 
gust 6,  Robespierre,  at  the  Jacobins,  spoke  at  length  of  the  English 

■»3  Characteristic  of  Hebert's  method  of  working  on  the  passions  of  the 
populace  is  his  account,  real  or  imaginary,  of  a  visit  to  the  prisons.  "  Je  trouvai 
la  Garce  aussi  insolente  que  coutume."  He  says  she  told  him:  "J'ai  des  amis 
par-tout  et  dans  la  Convention ;  ils  ont  la  patte  bien  graissee  pour  allonger  la 
courroie  et  pour  m'ouvrir,  un  beau  matin,  les  portes  de  cette  prison.  Oh,  je 
n'en  doute  pas,  coquine,  mais  le  peuple  est  la  ",  etc.  Pere  Duchesne,  no.  287,  p. 
7.  To  the  queen  he  attributes  the  most  bloodthirsty  purposes,  and  he  makes  her 
chiefly  responsible  for  all  counter-revolutionary  activities.  Cf.  nos.  259,  268, 
269,  293,  298,  299. 

«XVII.   42. 

*5july  25,   1793. 

"July  23,    1793. 

*'  Aug.  7,    1793- 


4 2  Carl  Becker 

plots,  which  he  said  had  three  objects,  one  of  which  was  to  start 
the  people  to  pillaging  the  stores,  another  to  "  lead  the  people  against 
the  prisons  and  to  renew  the  horrors  of  September  ".48  The  appre- 
hension of  a  new  massacre  of  prisoners  was  so  general  that  even 
Madame  Roland,  herself  a  prisoner  at  Sainte-Pelagie,  heard  of  it: 
"  The  tenth  of  August  approached ;  they  feared,  for  the  prisons,  a 
repetition  of  the  2  September."49 

The  republican  leaders  not  only  feared  an  uprising,  a  new 
massacre  of  prisoners,  they  wished  to  prevent  it;  not  because  of 
any  special  sympathy  with  the  prisoners,  but  partly  because  such  an 
uprising  would  be  the  opportunity  of  royalist  intriguers,  and  partly 
because  they  wished  the  celebration  of  August  10  to  demonstrate  to 
the  world  that  the  Republic  meant  stability,  restraint,  fraternity,  and 
good-will.  They  wished  to  demonstrate  to  the  world,  and  perhaps 
to  themselves,  that  the  morale  of  the  people  of  Paris  was  perfect 
even  in  this  crisis  of  the  Republic.  Couthon,  who  can  scarcely  be 
suspected  of  any  sympathy  with  the  prisoners,  certainly  not  with 
Marie  Antoinette,  assured  his  friends  that  "in  spite  of  all  the 
manoeuvres  of  the  evil-minded,  Paris  is  tranquil  and  the  fete  of  the 
10th  will  pass  off  joyously  ".50  On  the  13th  he  congratulates  them 
that  such  was  in  fact  the  case :  "  The  fete  of  the  10th  of  August 
passed  off  as  I  predicted,  without  any  misfortune.  The  men  of 
blood,  who  had  unsheathed  their  poniards  against  this  great  day, 
were  so  effectively  restrained  that  they  were  unable  to  execute  any 
of  their  frightful  projects."51  With  respect  to  this  day,  the  Courier 
de  I'Egalitc  expressed  the  general  desire  by  saying  that  "the  10th 
of  August  should  be  the  pledge  of  peace,  concord,  fraternity,  and 
the  epoch  of  general  felicity."52 

In  these  days  of  high  excitement,  when  a  massacre  of  prisoners 
was  feared  by  the  leaders  of  the  Republic,  and  when  the  leaders 
wished  for  the  good  name  of  the  Republic  to  prevent  it,  we  may 
suppose  that  Danton  was  no  less  keen  to  prevent  it  than  others.  If 
Courtois's  story  is  true  we  may  suppose  that  he  was  even  more  keen 

48  Journal  des  Dcbats  ■  .  .  des  Jacobins,  Aug.  g,  1793,  no.  467. 

is  Mcmoires  (ed.  Perroud),  I.  311,  The  prevailing  idea  of  the  danger  was 
expressed  by  Hebert :  "Plus  de  dix-mille  ehappes  [echappes]  de  la  Vendee  sont 
au  milieu  de  nous  pour  nous  diviser,  afin  d'empecher  la  reunion  fraternelle  qui 
aura  lieu  le  10  aout ;  je  sais  que  Ton  medite  encore  un  pillage,  afin  d'allumer  la 
guerre  civile  dans  Paris.  Tous  les  contre-revolutionnaires  doivent  profiter  de  ce 
moment,  pour  forcer  la  garde  du  Temple  et  enlever  le  petit  avorton  royal." 
Pi-re  Duchesne,  no.  259,  p.  7. 

50  Correspondance  de  Georges  Couthon,  p.   258. 

si  Ibid.,  p.   261. 

52  Aug.   6,    1793. 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  43 

to  prevent  it  than  others.  It  is  Courtois  who  tells  us  that  his  desire 
to  rescue  the  queen  was  due  precisely  to  the  wish  to  prevent  "  use- 
less, atrocious  crimes  ".  But  apart  from  Courtois's  story,  we  know 
that  of  all  the  chief  leaders  of  the  Revolution  Danton  was  more 
solicitous  than  any  other  for  the  safety  of  the  queen.  From  as 
early  a  date  as  May,  1793,  he  felt  that  the  Jacobins  were  being  car- 
ried away  by  a  dangerous  frenzy.  His  leading  idea  was  that  the 
factional  struggles  would  end  by  destroying  the  Revolution ;  and  he 
endeavored  to  bring  about  an  abandonment  of  these  struggles  in 
order  that  all  might  unite  solidly  against  the  foreign  coalition.  "  The 
enemy  is  at  our  gates  also  ",  he  cried.  "  and  we  are  destroying  each 
other!  Do  all  of  our  altercations  kill  a  single  Prussian?"53  He 
would  have  saved  the  Girondins  if  he  could.  He  was  opposed  to 
the  senseless  execution  of  men  on  suspicion  only,  without  substan- 
tial proof.  The  blind  fury  of  the  enrages,  who  saw  treason  every- 
where and  who  abandoned  political  methods  for  those  of  the  cru- 
sader, left  him  cold.  To  drive  the  Coalition  from  France,  to  obtain 
from  European  governments  a  recognition  of  the  Republic — these 
were  the  two  cardinal  points  of  his  policy ;  and  to  attain  these  ob- 
jects he  would  have  brought  diplomacy  to  the  aid  of  arms.  But  for 
the  diplomatist  seeking  concessions  from  the  Coalition,  the  strongest 
card  in  the  hands  of  the  Republic  was  Marie  Antoinette.  Marie 
Antoinette  alive  was  a  hostage  to  buy  recognition  with;  Marie  An- 
toinette dead  was  but  an  added  incentive  to  the  Coalition  to  persist 
in  the  war  until  the  Republic  was  destroyed.  "  In  sending  Marie 
Antoinette  to  the  scaffold  ",  Danton  said,  "  they  have  destroyed  the 
last  hope  of  treating  with  foreign  powers."54 

Thus,  in  the  early  days  of  August,  when  there  was  wide-spread 
fear  of  a  new  massacre  of  prisoners,  and  when  all  the  revolutionary 
leaders  wished  to  prevent  it,  Danton  had  particular  political  as  well 
as  humanitarian  reasons  for  wishing  to  protect  the  queen.  But 
why,  in  order  to  protect  her,  should  he  say  to  her :  "  You  will  place 
on  your  door  these  words :  Unity,  indivisibility  of  the  Republic,  lib- 
erty, equality,  fraternity,  or  death "  ?  The  reason  becomes  more 
apparent  when  we  discover  that  these  words,  which  constituted  the 
symbol  of  the  Republic,  were  words  which  all  good  patriots  were 
requested  to  place  over  their  doors.  On  June  29  the  Directory  of 
Paris  passed  a  decree  to  the  effect  that,  "  during  the  month  of  July 
at  latest,  the  proprietors  or  principal  inhabitants  shall  be  invited,  in 
the  name  of  patriotism,  in  the  name  of  liberty,  to  have  painted  on 

53  Fribourg,  Discours  de  Danton,  p.   626. 
5*  Madelin,  Danton,  p.   251. 


44  Carl  Becker 

the  f agades  of  their  houses,  in  large  characters,  these  words :  Unity, 
Indivisibility  of  the  Republic,  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity,  or 
Death."65  At  the  end  of  July  this  request  had  apparently  not  been 
generally  complied  with;  and  early  in  August  the  newspapers  car- 
ried a  special  request,  coming  from  the  Commune,  to  all  inhabitants 
to  see  to  it  that  the  decree  of  the  Department  be  carried  into  effect.56 
Nevertheless,  it  may  be  said,  this  was  a  device  for  patriots,  to 
stand  as  a  symbol  of  patriotism.  Could  it  be  supposed  that  this 
device,  placed  on  the  door  of  the  queen's  prison  cell,  would  demon- 
strate her  patriotism,  or  serve  to  protect  her  against  assassins? 
Undoubtedly  not,  if  the  queen  were  herself  to  write  these  words, 
and  these  words  only,  on  her  door.  But  I  think  it  was  not  Danton's 
intention  that  she  should  write  these  words  only  on  her  door.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  letter  closes  thus :  "  Signe  Da'nton  ". 
What  is  the  significance  of  the  word  "  Signe  "?  It  is  not  customary 
for  a  person,  signing  his  own  letters,  to  place  the  word  "  signed  "  be- 
fore his  signature.  It  is  a  word  used  by  copyists,- where  the  signature 
as  well  as  the  letter  is  copied.  I  think  the  significance  of  this  word 
in  the  present  letter  is  this :  Danton  wished  to  convey  to  the  queen 
that  she  was  to  "  place  "  on  her  door  the  words  indicated,  and  that 
she  was  also  to  place  under  them,  in  order  to  give  them  authority, 
these  other  two  words,  Signe  Danton.  It  may  be  of  some  signifi- 
cance that  Danton  did  not  say  "  you  will  write  on  your  door  " ;  he 
said  "you  will  place  on  your  door",  as  if  what  she  was  to  put  on 
the  door  were  some  material  object.  In  any  case,  that  part  of  the 
letter  beginning  with  the  word  "  Unite  "  is  distinctly  separated  from 
what  precedes  it  by  a  long  heavy  dash,  while  at  the  bottom,  below 
the  signature,  is  another  heavy  dash.  It  is  almost  as  if  Danton  had 
wished  to  say  to  the  queen:  This  is  what  you  are  to  place  on  your 
door,  this  which  I  have  so  clearly,  by  these  heavy  lines,  set  off  by 
itself.  Certainly  the  queen  could  have  carried  out  the  instructions 
given  in  the  first  part  of  the  letter  quite  literally  by  cutting  out  the 
lower  right-hand  quarter  of  the  sheet  and  "  placing "  that  on  her 
door.  If  she  had  done  so,  anyone  approaching  her  door  would 
have  been  confronted  with  the  following,  in  Danton's  well-known 
handwriting,  and  with  Danton's  signature  attached : 

Unite  indivisibilite 

de  la  Republique 

liberte  egalite   fraternite 

ou  la  mort 

Signe  Danton 

55  Lacroix,   Dcpartcmenl    dc   Paris,   p.    177. 

56  Journal  de  Perlet,  Aug.   5,    1793,  p.   37. 


Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  45 

Perhaps  it  was  the  intention  of  Danton  that  she  should  do  just  this. 
In  that  case  the  device  on  the  door,  with  Danton's  signature  attached, 
would  have  had  the  force  of  an  official  order;  and  the  meaning  of 
the  order  could  not  have  been  mistaken  by  anyone. 

This  interpretation  not  only  enables  us  to  understand  how  these 
words  on  the  door  might  have  been  thought  to  furnish  protection  to 
the  queen;  it  also  helps  to  clear  up  two  other  points  that  otherwise 
present  some  difficulty.  I  have  already  said  that  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  why  Danton  should  have  expected  such  a  letter  to  pass 
through  the  Post  Office  without  being  intercepted.  But  if  his  inten- 
tion was  that  his  own  name  should  be  used  to  give  a  semi-official 
authority  to  the  words,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  sent  the  letter  with 
the  knowledge  and  consent  of  Robespierre  or  other  members  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety ;  in  which  case  the  postal  officials  would  nat- 
urally have  been  instructed  to  pass  the  letter.  Why,  in  that  case, 
the  letter  did  not  reach  the  queen,  as  it  apparently  did  not,  remains 
a  question  to  which  no  answer  is  at  hand.  Some  light  would  per- 
haps be  thrown  on  these  questions  if  one  could  determine  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  word  which  appears  above  and  to  the  right  of  the 
address.  It  is  apparently  a  signature,  possibly  Duclos.  Whatever 
the  word,  it  may,  I  should  think,  have  been  placed  there  to  indicate 
cither  that  the  letter  was  to  be  passed  without  question  or  that  it 
was  to  be  intercepted.  A  more  relevant  question  is  why,  if  the 
placing  of  this  device  on  the  queen's  door  was  an  understood  thing, 
regarded  as  in  some  measure  a  semi-official  business,  the  Post  Office 
should  have  been  used  at  all.  Why  did  Danton  not  go  directly  to 
the  Conciergerie  and  place  these  words  on  the  door  himself,  or  send 
someone  to  do  it  ?     To  this  I  find  no  answer. 

The  other  question  which  this  interpretation  helps  to  clear  up  is 
the  question  already  raised  of  why  Fouquier.  if  he  had  this  letter  at 
the  time  of  Danton's  trial,  did  not  bring  it  forward  publicly  as  an 
effective  piece  of  evidence.  It  will  be  recalled  that  N.  J.  Paris,  some 
months  later,  at  the  trial  of  Fouquier,  deposed  that  Topino-Lebrun 
told  him  that  on  the  last  day  of  Danton's  trial  Fouquier  and  Herman 
showed  secretly  to  the  jury  a  letter  "  from  abroad  addressed  to 
Danton  '■'.  Since  no  such  letter  has  been  produced,  and  since  Paris 
testified,  months  after  the  event,  not  to  what  he  knew  but  to 
what  someone  told  him,  it  is  at  least  a  tenable  hypothesis  that  the 
letter  which  was  shown  secretly  to  the  jury  was  this  letter  from 
Danton  to  Marie  Antoinette  instead  of  a  letter  "  from  abroad 
addressed  to  Danton  ".  Now,  if  the  letter  in  question  was  such  a 
letter  as  Paris  describes  there  seems  to  be  no  very  good  reason  for 


46  Carl  Becker 

showing  it  to  the  jury  secretly.  But  if  the  letter  shown  to  the  jury 
was  the  Danton  letter,  and  if  the  Danton  letter  was,  as  I  have  sug- 
gested, prepared  and  sent  with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  Robe- 
spierre or  other  prominent  leaders  on  the  Committee  of  Safety,  then 
there  was  a  very  good  reason  for  showing  it  to  the  jury  secretly. 
In  that  case,  to  present  the  letter  in  open  trial  would  give  Danton  an 
opportunity  to  explain  it,  which  he  could  very  well  do.  If  Robe- 
spierre and  Fouquier,  for  example,  knew  that  the  letter  had  been 
sent  to  the  queen  with  the  sanction  of  the  committees  of  govern- 
ment, they  would  know  that  the  only  effective  use  that  could  be 
made  of  it  against  Danton  would  be  to  use  it  secretly ;  shown  secretly 
to  the  jury,  without  explanation,  it  could  be  made  to  seem  conclusive 
proof  that  Danton  had  had  secret  dealings  with  the  queen.  All 
this  is  hypothesis ;  but  it  is  an  hypothesis  in  the  light  of  which  a  good 
many  facts  are  made  somewhat  more  intelligible. 

The  question  of  the  genuineness  of  the  letter  is  one  which  I  feel 
incompetent  to  decide.  To  the  untrained  eye  the  handwriting  seems 
to  be  that  of  Danton ;  and  Professor  Burr,  whose  wide  knowledge 
and  critical  competence  have  been  a  constant  resource  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  paper,  sees  no  reason  to  doubt  the  genuineness  of  the 
letter  on  that  score.  If  the  letter  was  forged,  the  assumption  must 
be  that  it  was  forged  for  the  purpose  of  ruining  Danton.  But  on 
this  assumption  the  substance  of  the  letter  is  too  odd,  too  unusual. 
A  forger  would  have  written  a  letter  more  specific  in  its  implications, 
more  obviously  treasonable.  If  the  letter  is  false,  it  is,  in  point  of 
form,  extremely  clever;  in  point  of  content,  too  clever  by  half. 
Forged  letters  are  usually  commonplace  enough ;  this  one  is  so  nearly 
unique  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  it  could  have  been  invented. 

Carl  Becker. 


ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  COLONIES 
AND  OF  THE  REPUBLIC1 

The  artistic  aspects  of  American  history  have  received  but  scant 
attention  from  professional  historians,  and  consideration  of  them 
occupies  little  space  in  general  histories  of  the  United  States.  In 
this  respect  they  only  share  the  neglect  formerly  suffered  by  other 
aspects  than  the  political  and  military :  by  constitutional  and  institu- 
tional history,  by  economic  history  and  the  history  of  religions,  the 
study  of  which  has  given  great  enrichment  and  truer  perspective  to 
the  picture  of  historical  evolution.  For  certain  periods  of  the  past 
even  the  part  of  artistic  developments  in  this  evolution  is  now  well 
recognized  as  vital  and  significant :  for  ancient  Greece,  for  the  thir- 
teenth century,  for  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Appreciation  of  its  im- 
portance in  other  periods,  with  exact  study  of  its  character,  has 
increased  so  rapidly  also  during  recent  years  that  in  1909  Max 
Dvorak  could  suggest  in  seriousness  that  the  history  of  art  had 
assumed  a  leading  position,  such  as  had  been  held  by  the  history  of 
religions  ten  years  earlier,  by  cultural  and  political  history  in  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  by  economic  and  social 
history  in  the  second  half.2 

In  America  it  has  been  felt  that  the  arts  were  of  specially  small 
historical  importance,  both  because  of  the  magnitude  of  the  material 
problem  of  harnessing  the  new  continent  and  because  of  the  sup- 
posedly imitative  and  secondary  character  of  artistic  manifestations 
here  in  relation  to  those  of  Europe.  Such  a  generalization,  although 
it  contains  some  elements  of  truth,  has  been  derived  chiefly  a  priori, 
with  the  most  superficial  examination  of  the  artistic  developments 
themselves.  It  is  only  in  the  last  score  of  years,  indeed,  that  any 
great  beginning  has  been  made  even  to  provide  the  tools  for  serious 
study  of  the  arts  in  America.  Already  it  is  becoming  evident,  how- 
ever, that,  down  at  least  to  1830,  the  arts,  especially  architecture, 
occupied  a  place  of  much  importance  in  American  life,  and  that  the 
relationship  of  American  architecture  to  that  of  England  and  of 
Europe  was  by  no  means  always  backward  and  imitative. 

Under  the  division  of  historical  sources  customary  since  the  time 
of  Droysen — Uberreste  and  Tradition — none  of  the  Oberreste  from 

1 A  paper  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association, 
December  30,   1920. 

2  Bericht  des  Kunsthistorischen   Kougresses,   1909   (Munich),  p.   64. 


48  Fiske  Kimball 

the  colonial  period  of  an  institutional  nature  is  more  conspicuous 
than  the  physical  remains  of  colonial  architecture.  Even  as  an  eco- 
nomic matter  colonial  housebuilding  was  of  serious  consequence. 
The  first  settlers  of  New  Haven,  founded  1636,  were  reproached 
for  having  "  laid  out  too  much  of  their  stocks  and  .estates  in  building 
of  fair  and  stately  houses  ".3  The  cost  of  the  Miles  Brewton  house 
in  Charleston,  built  1765  to  1769,  is  given  by  Josiah  Ouincy,  jr.,  as 
£8000  sterling.4  Elias  Hasket  Derby,  the  great  merchant  of  Salem 
after  the  Revolution,  with  his  wife,  Elizabeth  Crowninshield,  had  a 
passion  for  building  not  surpassed  in  degree — extravagant  as  this 
may  sound — by  earlier  merchant  princes  like  the  Medici  themselves. 
Besides  the  fine  house  built  for  him  by  his  father,  he  undertook  in 
succession  three  other  splendid  town  houses.  Many  instances  of 
similar  enthusiasm  for  building  could  readily  be  cited,  both  in  the 
North  and  in  the  South. 

It  is  the  historical  relationships  between  early  American  archi- 
tecture and  that  of  Europe,  however,  with  which  we  shall  here  con- 
cern ourselves.  The  prevailing  belief  has  been  that  our  most  worthy 
architecture  was  produced  during  the  colonial  period,  and  that  con- 
ditions peculiar  to  America  at  that  time  gave  it  a  character  more 
nearly  our  own  than  that  of  any  later  phase  of  style.  In  the  zone 
of  pioneer  settlement,  frontier  conditions  are  thought  to  have  re- 
called primitive  types  into  being,  or  caused  borrowings  from  the 
Indians.  In  the  buildings  of  more  advanced  communities,  Puri- 
tanism is  believed  to  have  evoked  a  new  type  of  religious  edifice, 
and  adaptation  to  wood  as  a  building  material  is  supposed  to  have 
brought  appropriate  changes  in  the  proportions  of  classic  architec- 
tural forms.  Close  study  of  the  evidence  forces  the  conclusion,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  special  effect  of  these  factors  in  colonial  archi- 
tecture has  been  much  exaggerated.  Whether  in  the  first  primitive 
shelters,  or  in  the  later  buildings  of  the  colonies,  there  was  little  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic  which  did  not  find  its  origin  or  its  counter- 
part in  provincial  England  or  other  parts  of  Europe  of  the  same 
day.  A  truly  American  movement  in  architectural  style  appeared 
only  after  the  Revolution,  and  then  it  assumed  an  historical  impor- 
tance which  has  been  little  suspected. 

In  the  manifesto  of  frontier  significance  there  is  a  famous  pas- 
sage, which  reads  in  part :  "  The  wilderness  masters  the  colonist.  .  .  . 
It  puts  him  in  the  log  cabin  of  the  Cherokee  and  Iroquois  and  runs 

a  William  Hubbard.  History  of  New  England  (before  1682).  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  Collections,  second  ser.,  VI.  (1815)   334. 

*  D.  E.  H.  Smith,  Dwelling  Houses  of  Charleston  (1917),  PP-  372-375- 


Architecture  fit  Colonies  and  Republic  49 

an  Indian  palisade  around  him."6  Based  primarily  on  an  analysis  of 
later  Western  conditions,  this  formula  is  applied  also  to  the  first 
colonial  settlements.  There  it  appears,  however,  that  neither  the  first 
settlers  nor  the  Indians  of  their  day  lived  in  log  cabins  at  all.  In 
some  papers  read  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum  last  spring,  shortly 
to  be  published,  we  have  collected  the  contemporary  evidences 
regarding  the  first  shelters  of  the  colonists,  and  have  shown  the 
idea  that  they  lived  in  log  houses  to  have  been  an  assumption  of 
the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Contemporary  descriptions  also 
reveal  that  the  Indian  dwellings  of  the  time,  including  the  "  long- 
house  "  of  the  Iroquois,  bore  no  resemblance  to  the  log  cabin.  In 
the  case  of  the  Creek,  who  did  occasionally  employ  the  log  house  in 
the  later  eighteenth  century,  we  find  that,  like  so  many  other  things, 
it  was  borrowed  from  the  colonists.  Moreover,  the  log  house  itself 
was  no  invention  of  necessity  in  the  wilderness.  It  was  brought 
from  Europe  by  the  Swedes  and  Finns  of  the  Delaware,  in  whose 
country  it  was  then  the  ordinary  form  of  rural  dwelling,  and  was 
gradually  adopted  by  later  English  settlers  as  superior,  in  view  of 
the  cheapness  of  timber,  to  their  own  lighter  forms  of  construction — 
huts  of  branches  and  turf  in  conical  form,  of  wattle  and  clay,  or  of 
slabs  stood  vertically  in  the  ground. 

The  fundamental  conception  that  the  essence  of  American  de- 
velopment lies  in  the  return  to  primitive  conditions  along  a  frontier 
line  might,  of  course,  remain  unaffected  by  these  corrections  of 
detail.  So  far  as  it  has  been  held  to  apply  to  the  original  colonies, 
however,  it  involves  a  misconception  of  contemporary  English  con- 
ditions which  deprives  it  of  its  supposed  significance.  For  the 
colonial  leaders,  it  is  true,  the  primitive  conditions  were  unaccus- 
tomed, but  for  the  mass,  the  men  who  in  England  had  been  copy- 
holders and  agricultural  laborers,  they  were  not  more  than  a  con- 
tinuation of  conditions  at  home.  The  gloomy  picture  of  English 
agricultural  life  in  the  seventeenth  century  drawn  by  Thorold 
Rogers6  may  be  somewhat  exaggerated,  but  in  its  main  lines  it  is 
confirmed  by  the  researches  of  Hasbach7  and  other  scholars.  As 
late  as  1690,  over  five  hundred  thousand  houses  in  England,  more 
than  five-twelfths  the  total  number,  had  only  a  single  hearth.8     We 

^  F.  J.  Turner,  "  The  Significance  of  the  Frontier  in  American  History ", 
American  Historical   Association,  Annual  Report,   1893,  p.  201. 

6  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in   England,  V.    (1887),   esp.   77-91. 

'  A  History  of  the  English  Agricultural  Laborer,  Eng.  tr.  (1908),  esp.  pp. 
77    ff- 

8  The  returns  of  the  Hearth  Books,  Mar.  25,  1690,  are  given  by  Rogers,  V. 
1 20-121. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 4. 


50  Fiske  Kimball 

must  take  special  note  of  the  existence  of  large  numbers  of  "  bor- 
derers "  or  squatters  on  the  commons,  woods,  and  wastes,  where 
they  built  themselves  huts  and  perhaps  cleared  a  little  piece  of  land. 
Norden  wrote,  in  his  Surveyors'  Dialogues  in  1602:  "in  some  parts 
where  I  have  travelled,  where  great  and  spacious  wastes,  mountains, 
forests  and  heaths  are,  .  .  .  many  cottages  are  set  up,  the  people 
.  .  .  living  very  hardly  with  oaten  bread  and  sour  whey  and  goats' 
milk  ...  as  ignorant  of  God  or  of  any  civil  course  of  life  as  the 
very  savages."9 

The  natural  focusing  of  attention  on  the  more  pretentious  build- 
ings abroad  has  prevented  us  from  realizing  the  almost  inconceivable 
primitiveness  of  the  humbler  dwellings  there  at  the  time.  Recent 
English  students  have  shown  that  few  of  the  existing  cottages  were 
erected  before  the  seventeenth  century,  representing  a  rise  in  the 
culture  stage  of  the  higher  English  yeomanry,  and  replacing  huts  of 
just  such  character  as  those  which  the  colonists  first  built.  Indeed, 
it  is  clear  that  primitive  methods  of  construction  persisted  in  remote 
districts  of  England  long  after  they  had  vanished  from  the  older 
colonial  settlements.  Edward  Johnson  is  supported  by  much  other 
evidence,  when  he  writes  in  1654,  "  The  Lord  hath  been  pleased  to 
turn  all  the  wigwams,  huts,  and  hovels,  the  English  dwelt  in  at  their 
first  coming,  into  orderly,  fair  and  well  built  houses."10  In  Eng- 
land, on  the  other  hand,  in  the  huts  of  charcoal-burners  and  bark- 
peelers  we  see  types,  still  persisting  to  the  days  of  photography, 
which  were  used  by  the  first  comers  at  Jamestown  and  Charleston. 
It  would  seem  that  the  theory  of  the  frontier  as  distinctively  Ameri- 
can had  been  elaborated  without  sufficient  regard  for  historical  rela- 
tionships ;  that  the  concept  of  the  frontier  must  be  carried  back  into 
England  itself,  and  that  it  did  not  constitute  a  specific  differentia  of 
colonial  life. 

The  key  to  early  colonial  development  in  architecture,  indeed, 
would  seem  to  be,  not  the  handicaps,  but  rather  the  economic  ad- 
vantages of  the  common  man  in  America.  English  students  scarcely 
speak  of  emigration  from  economic  motives  as  occurring  before  the 
later  eighteenth  century,  or  even  before  the  nineteenth,  attributing 
the  earlier  migrations  to  the  colonies  to  religious  or  political  motives. 
These  were  the  motives  of  its  leaders,  to  be  sure,  and  of  large  num- 
bers of  freemen,  but  in  the  case  of  the  great  number  of  farm  labor- 
ers, indented  servants,  and  others  whose  passage  money  was  paid 
for  them,  it  was  the  prospect  of  better  conditions  of  life  which 

9  Cited   by   Hasbach,  op.   cit.,  p.   So. 

i«  Wonder-Working  Providence   (reprint  of   1867),  p.    174. 


Architecture  in  Colonics  and  Republic  5  1 

brought  them  to  the  New  World.  That  conditions  were  better  in 
fact  has  been  well  brought  out  by  Bruce,  in  his  Economic  History  of 
Virginia  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.11  We  are  apt  to  set  down  all 
the  claims  made  in  early  colonial  tracts  as  the  exaggerations  of 
promotion,  and  this  may  be  perhaps  urged  against  the  author  of 
Leah  and  Rachel  (1656),  who  speaks  of  "  the  dull  stupidity  of  people 
necessitated  in  England,  who  rather  then  [than]  they  will  remove 
themselves,  live  here  a  base,  slavish,  penurious  life.'.  .  .  Their  con- 
dition .  .  .  far  below  the  meanest  servant  in  Virginia  " ;  and  of  the 
buildings  in  Virginia,  so  contrived  "  that  your  ordinary  houses  in 
England  are  not  so  handsome  " }"  The  most  accurate  and  objective 
of  observers  in  New  England,  however,  William  Wood,  writes  in 
1634,  "  He  that  hath  understanding  and  industry,  with  a  stock  of 
£100,  shall  live  better  than  he  shall  do  here  [in  England]  of  £20  per 
annum",  and  adds,  "But  many,  I  know,  will  say,  If  it  be  thus  how- 
comes  it  to  pass  then  that  they  are  so  poor.  To  which  I  answer  that 
they  are  poor  but  in  comparison.  Compare  them  with  the  rich  mer- 
chants or  great  landed  men  in  England,  and  then  I  know  they  will 
seem  poor."13  To  all  below  the  richer  yeomen  the  free  grant  of 
virgin  and  wooded  land  in  America  meant  a  great  improvement  in 
their  economic  status,  and  even  members  of  the  lesser  gentry  who 
migrated  soon  found  their  means  greatly  increased. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find — in  contrast  with  the 
impression  generally  held — that  the  more  permanent  houses,  gen- 
erally framed  structures  of  wood,  which  superseded  the  first  shelters 
were  not  inferior'  in  construction  to  those  of  corresponding  social 
grades  in  the  Old  World.  Mr.  S.  O.  Addy,  a  pioneer  student  of 
humbler  English  dwellings,  writes,  "  In  historic  times  the  houses  of 
the  English  peasantry  were  mostly  built  of  wood,  stone  being  only 
used  where  wood  could  not  be  obtained.  .  .  .  Houses  were  built  of 
wood  even  in  places  where  stone  was  most  abundant,  and  this  kind 
of  building  continued  to  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century."14  Inno- 
cent fixes  the  seventeenth  century  as  the  time  during  which  other 
materials   tended   to   supplant   wood.15     The   use   of    wood   by   the 

11  I.  (1896)  575-589.  Cf.  also  E.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States, 
I.  (1905),  especially  pp.  214,  227,  note.  Channing's  account  of  conditions  in 
Virginia  is  by  no  means  rosy,  yet  he  says,  "  the  agricultural  laborer  was  much 
better  off  in  Virginia  than  he  was  in  England." 

12  Force,  Tracts,  vol.  III.   (1844),  no.   14,  pp.   17-18. 

13  New  England's  Prospect,  in  Young,  Chronicles  .  .  .  of  Massachusetts 
(1846),  p.  414. 

1*  The  Evolution  of  the  English  House  (1S98),  pp.  106-107;  Innocent,  Eng- 
lish Building  Construction   (1916),  p.    119. 

15  Ibid.,  pp.  76.   123.   150.     Cf.  also  Thorold   Rogers,  op.  cit.,  V.   529. 


52  Fiske  Kimball 

colonists  was  thus  not  the  adoption  of  an  inferior  material  due  to 
local  conditions,  but  the  perpetuation  of  English  custom  where  the 
need  for  abandoning  it  was  lacking.  For  the  poorer  man,  indeed, 
it  was  even  a  step  forward. 

The  walls  in  the  frame,  or  "  half-timber  ",  houses  of  England 
were  by  no  means  always  of  burned  brickwork  beneath  the  plaster, 
as  is  commonly  supposed  in  this  country ;  wattle  daubed  with  clay, 
laths  with  clay,  clay  alone,  "  cat  and  clay  "  rolled  with  straw,  as  well 
as  sun-dried  brick,  were  all  in  common  use  there  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  All  these  kinds  of  filling  were  also  employed  in  the  earliest 
American  houses,  but  in  the  English  colonies,  at  least  after  the  very 
first  years,  were  invariably  covered  with  weather-boarding.  This 
itself  was  not  an  American  invention,  but  a  feature  early  used  in 
Kent  and  other  English  districts,  even  without  any  filling.10  Its 
universal  adoption  in  America  was  perhaps  partly  the  result  of 
greater  severity  of  climate,  but  the  inadequacy  of  uncovered  half- 
timber  houses  was  felt  in  England  also,  and  later  led  to  widespread 
use  of  tiles  as  a  wall  covering.  The  colonial  covering  of  wood  may 
thus  represent  primarily  an  improvement  in  the  standard  of  con- 
struction, made  possible  by  the  greater  cheapness  of  lumber. 

The  same  certainty  applies  to  the  adoption  of  shingles  for  roof- 
ing. These,  no  new  invention,  were  not  so  much  a  poor  substitute 
for  slate  and  tile  as  a  better  substitute  for  thatch,  which  continued 
to  be  the  usual  roofing  for  humbler  dwellings  in  many  districts  of 
England  until  the  later  eighteenth  century,  and  still  remains  in  use 
there,  whereas  the  last  thatched  roofs  in  the  colonies  vanished  about 
1670.  Similarly,  the  wooden  chimneys  daubed  with  clay  used  in  the 
early  settlements  were  no  mere  makeshifts  of  the  frontier.  In- 
stances may  be  multiplied  where  they  remained  in  use  in  England 
in  the  nineteenth  century,17  long  after  their  disappearance  from  the 
older  settlements  on  this  side  of  the  ocean. 

In  the  matter  of  style,  at  least,  it  will  be  supposed  that  the 
seventeenth-century  houses  of  the  colonies — which  with  their  direct 
revelation  of  functional  elements,  their  steep  gables  and  leaded  case- 
ments, represent  in  general  a  survival  of  medieval  art — stood  in 
arrears  to  England.  It  is  true  that  Inigo  Jones  had  introduced  the 
academic  style  into  England,  with  the  Banqueting  House  at  White- 
hall, as  early  as  1619;  but  it  is  not  so  often  observed  how  few  and 
isolated  were  the  works  in  this  style  there,  down  to  the  Great  Fire. 

ir>  Innocent,  of.  cit.,  pp.  116-118.  He  also  writes  us,  coupling  with  his 
opinion  that  of  Mr.  J.  Kcnworthy  :  "  We  feel  sure  that  such  boarding-  was  in  use 
here  long  before  the  settlement  of  America." 

1-  Ibid.,  p.  269;   Addy,  Evolution  of  the  English  House,  p.   115. 


Architecture  in  Colonics  and  Republic  53 

The  number  of  country  houses  in  the  new  manner  before  the  Res- 
toration may  almost  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  The 
infiltration  of  the  academic  forms  in  the  architecture  of  the  prov- 
incial towns  and  small  manor-houses,  to  say  nothing  of  ordinary 
cottages,  was  slow.ls  The  persistence  of  the  leaded  casement  may 
be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  this.  Many  English  examples  of  mul- 
lioned  casements  are  as  late  as  1730.  The  introduction  of  sash 
windows  into  the  English  provinces  was  very  gradual.11'  Thus  the 
earlier  houses  of  the  colonies  represented  quite  an  equal  stage  of 
development  in  style  with  those  of  the  same  class  in  provincial 
England. 

The  same  was  true  of  the  churches,  whether  Anglican  or  dis- 
senting. The  only  American  church  of  the  Anglican  faith  remain- 
ing from  the  seventeenth  century,  St.  Luke's,  Smithfield,  Virginia. 
is,  to  be  sure,  essentially  Gothic  in  style,  with  projecting  buttresses, 
and  pointed  mullioned  arches;  and  the  foundations  of  the  church  at 
Jamestown,  built  1639-1647,  show  a  plan  wholly  Gothic.  This  is 
no  longer  surprising,  however,  when  we  realize  that  the  earliest 
academic  church  in  England,  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  by  Inigo 
Jones,  was  built  only  in  1631,  and  that  it  remained  unique  until  after 
the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  when  Wren  began  his  London  churches. 
Among  students  of  English  architecture20  it  is  a  commonplace  that 
Gothic  remained  the  prevailing  style  for  churches  outside  the  capital 
throughout  the  century. 

The  Puritan  meeting-house  of  the  colonies,  as  one  sees  it  in 
the  "Old  Ship"  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts,  built  1680-1682— a 
squarish,  bam-like  structure,  with  the  pulpit  on  one  of  the  longer 
sides  and  galleries  around  the  other  three — has  been  represented  in 
the  chief  discussions  of  American  churches  as  a  purely  native  cre- 
ation: "In  New  England  the  earliest  [church]  buildings  resembled 
no  English  buildings  at  all,  either  of  the  earlier  or  later  type,  but  a 
style  was  evolved  which  was  peculiar  to  the  period."21  "  The  meet- 
ing-house .  .  .  knew  no  architectural  tradition  .  .  .  for  any  exist- 
ing tradition  was  inseparable  from  the  religious  persecution  from 
which  the  early  settlers  had  fled."22     Such  statements  ignore,  com- 

i8  Cf.  Gotch,  The  English  House  from  Charles  I.  to  George  IF.  ( 1918),  pp.  99 
ff. ;  Field  and  Bunney,  English  Domestic  Architecture  of  the  Seventeenth  and 
Eighteenth   Centuries   (1905),  pp.   2,   9-10. 

19  Innocent,  op.  cit.,  p.  262. 

-0  E.  g.,  R.  Blomfield,  Renaissance  Architecture  in  England  (1897),  I.  136- 
148. 

21  A.  Embury,  Early  American  Churches   (1914),  p.  35. 

—  R.  F.  Bach,  "  Church  Planning  in  the  United  States  ",  Architectural  Rec- 
ord, XL.   (1916)    15. 


54  Fiske  Kimball 

pletely  the  existence  in  Europe  for  a  century  of  a  specifically  Protes- 
tant type  of  house  of  worship,  with  galleries  focussing  on  the  pulpit. 
It  had  its  beginnings  in  Luther's  chapel  at  Torgau,  1544,  and  was 
widely  diffused  in  France  after  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  the  most  notable 
example  there  being  the  "  Temple  "  at  Charenton,  built  in  1623.  In 
England  the  erection  of  such  buildings  was  rarer  down  to  1689,  first 
because  of  the  capture  of  the  official  church  by  Protestantism  and 
Puritanism,  then,  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Toleration  Act,  be- 
cause of  prohibitions  and  persecutions.  Examples  still  exist  there, 
however,  such  as  the  Friar's  Street  Chapel  at  Ipswich,23  with  its 
Gothic  casements,  which  reveal  that  the  type  was  familiar  there 
from  an  early  time.  Non-conformist  houses  of  worship  in  America 
and  in  England  were  thus  identical  in  scheme. 

The  change  to  the  academic  style  in  the  eighteenth  century  did 
not  affect  the  essential  parity  between  the  architecture  of  the  colonies 
and  that  of  provincial  England.  The  means  of  its  adoption,  as  any 
widespread  matter,  and  of  its  subsequent  transformations,  were  the 
same  in  both — the  books,  so  characteristic  of  the  period,  which  made 
its  forms  universally  accessible  to  intelligent  workmen  and  even  lay- 
men. Whereas  prior  to  1700  little  had  been  available  in  English 
works  except  the  forms  of  the  "  five  orders  ",  soon  after  that  date 
there  began  to  pour  forth  publications  of  contemporary  designs  both 
great  and  small.  James  Gibbs,  in  his  folio  Book  of  Architecture 
(1728),  expressed  the  hope  that  it  might  be  useful  to  gentlemen 
building  in  remote  parts  of  the  country,  "where  little  assistance  in 
design  is  to  be  secured  " ;  and  this  was  the  special  purpose  of  a  multi- 
tude of  smaller  works,  which  supplied  owners  of  less  means  with 
details  of  doorways,  chimney-pieces,  staircases,  ceilings,  and,  after 
1740,  plans  and  elevations  of  whole  houses  in  great  variety.  In  the 
phase  of  style  represented,  these  follow  the  changes  which  brought 
the  lavish  ornament  of  the  rococo  to  England,  and  then  replaced  it 
by  the  ever-cooling  chasteness  of  classicism.  Such  books  were  im- 
ported into  America  in  great  abundance,  at  dates  very  shortly  after 
their  publication.24  Comparison  shows  that  in  a  large  number  of 
specific  instances  details  of  colonial  buildings  were  copied  directly 
from  their  plates.  Every  new  English  fashion  had  thus  its  reflection 
in  the  colonies. 

The  success  and  rapidity  with  which  these  fashions  were  assimi- 
lated in  tbe  colonies  was  not  substantially  less  than  in  provincial 
England,  for  buildings  representing  the  same  social  grade.     Many 

23  R.   P.  Jones,  Non-Conformist  Church  Architecture   (1914),  p.   17  ff. 

24  Cf.  Kimball,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Architect  (1916),  PP-  20,  34-35,  90-roi. 


Architecture  in  Colonics  and  Republic  55 

colonial  buildings  have  details  of  the  classic  orders  applied  in  an 
isolated  and  ungrammatical  way,  but  English  buildings  from  the 
same  period  showing  similar  traits  may  readily  be  instanced.  On 
the  other  hand  American  houses  like  Mount  Airy,  1758 — entirely  of 
stone,  closely  akin  in  its  design  to  a  plate  of  Gibbs's  book — stand  on 
the  same  artistic  level  with  their  true  congeners,  the  best  houses  of 
the  smaller  English  gentry  of  the  day.  For  the  churches,  analogous 
relationships  prevail.  Thus  St.  Philip's,  Charleston,  built  in  1723, 
as  shown  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  June,  1753,  was  spoken 
of  by  an  English  contemporary  as  "  a  grand  church  resembling  one 
of  the  new  churches  of  London  ",25  and  its  three  tall  porticoes,  of  a 
type  adopted  there  only  about  1720,  give  this  much  justification. 

Difference  of  material  is  generally  supposed  to  have  brought 
modification  of  the  academic  style  in  the  colonies,  the  use  of  wood 
giving  the  orders  more  slender  proportions  and  the  detail  a  special 
delicacy.  This  idea,  an  outgrowth  of  nineteenth-century  biologic 
theory,  developed  at  a  time  when  attention  was  focused  chiefly  on 
the  colonial  buildings  of  New  England,  and  when  the  later  history 
of  English  architecture  was  little  known.  It  is  true  that  the  in- 
creasing cost  of  wood  rendered  frame-houses  a  rarity  in  England 
soon  after  the  adoption  of  the  academic  style,  whereas  they  con- 
tinued in  common  use  in  America.  Outside  New  England,  how- 
ever, the  great  majority  of  the  finest  colonial  houses  are  of  masonry, 
and  in  a  number,  of  these,  such  as  Stratford,  Carter's  Grove,  and 
the  Nelson  house  at  Yorktown,  doorways  and  other  details,  in  some 
cases  even  cornices,  are  of  brick  and  stone.  On  the  other  hand  many 
Georgian  houses  in  England  have  doorways  and  cornices  of  wood. 
In  neither  country  are  the  forms  and  proportions  of  wooden  details 
modified  in  the  direction  of  slenderness  prior  to  the  advent  of  the 
Adam  style.  This  attenuated  version  of  the  classic,  based  on  Pom- 
peian  decoration,  which  had  its  beginnings  only  about  1760,  appeared 
in  the  popular  handbooks  after  1780,  and  in  America  thus  after  the 
Revolution.  The  change  of  proportions  which  then  first  took  place 
was  English  in  its  origin  and  independent  of  material. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  refute  the  suggestion  of  a  reverse 
influence  of  colonial  architecture  on  that  of  England,  recently  put 
forward  by  an  English  writer.20  The  similarity  of  the  small  houses 
of  the  later  Georgian  period  in  England  with  contemporary  build- 
ings in  America,  which  he  remarks,  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the 

25  J.  Gillies,  Memoirs  of  Whitefield  (1772),  cited  by  Smith.  Dwelling  Houses 
of  Charleston,  p.  32. 

2«  S.  C.  Ramsey,  Small  Houses  of  the  Late  Georgian  Period   (1919),  p.  7. 


56  Fiskc  Kimball 

derivation  of  both  from  English  handbooks.  Such  a  theory  arises 
merely  because  appreciation  of  these  smaller  English  houses,  which 
have  been  eclipsed  by  their  great  neighbors,  has  only  come  after  the 
colonial  work  has  long  been  familiar. 

Despite  minor  local  traditions,  dialects,  which  existed  in  the 
colonies  as  in  different  English  districts,  the  colonial  style  had  thus 
always  as  its  ideal,  conformity  to  current  English  usage.  It  does 
not  constitute  America's  characteristic  achievement  in  architecture. 

A  true  contribution  to  artistic  development  in  the  world  at  large 
is  to  be  found  rather  in  the  classical  style  of  the  early  republic. 
The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  felt  by  its  authors  to  apply 
in  artistic  matters  also.  Thus  while  minor  craftsmen  for  a  time 
continued  traditions  essentially  colonial  and  English,  the  leaders 
sought  to  establish  an  architecture  which  should  not  be  borrowed 
from  contemporary  European  styles,  but  should  be  founded  on  the 
authority  of  the  ancients,  in  whose  republics  the  new  states  were 
felt  to  have  their  closest  analogy.  The  initiative  of  amateurs  and 
laymen  such  as  Jefferson  and  Nicholas  Biddle  established  the  form 
of  the  classic  temple  as  a  single  unconditional  ideal  for  all  classes 
of  buildings.  The  Capitol  at  Richmond  was  modelled  on  the  Maison 
Carree,  the  Library  of  the  University  of  Virginia  on  the  Pantheon 
in  Rome,  the  second  Bank  of  the  United  States  on  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens.  Jefferson  even  housed  the  professors  at  the  university  in 
little  temples,  and  Biddle  built  himself  a  residence  on  the  pattern  of 
the  "  Theseum". 

The  classical  revival  was,  to  be  sure,  a  movement  which  had  its 
beginnings  abroad,  and  which  there  also  had  the  same  ultimate  ideal, 
the  temple.  By  priority  in  embodiment  of  this  ideal,  however,  and 
by  greater  literalness  and  universality  in  its  realization,  America 
reveals  an  independent  initiative.  The  origin  and  antecedents  of 
American  classic  buildings  we  have  discussed  in  detail  elsewhere.27 
It  will  suffice  here  to  recall  that  the  Virginia  Capitol,  designed  in 
1785,  preceded  the  Madeleine  in  Paris,  first  of  the  great  European 
temple-reproductions,  by  twenty-two  years;  and  that  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States,  built  1819  to  1826,  antedated  the  corresponding 
foreign  versions  of  the  Parthenon,  the  National  Monument  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  Walhalla  at  Regensburg,  by  ten  years  or  more.  The 
adoption  of  the  temple  form  there  for  buildings  devoted  to  practical 
use  came  later,  in  the  Birmingham  Town  Hall  (1831).     Belief  that 

2'  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  First  Monument  of  the  Classic  Revival  in  Amer- 
ica (1915),  esp.  p.  48;  Thomas  Jefferson,  Architect,  esp.  p.  42;  "The  Bank 
of  Pennsylvania",  Architectural  Record,  XLIV.  (1918),  esp.   135-137. 


Architecture  in  Colonics  and  Republic  57 

American  example  was  influential  in  England  is  justified  by  a  refer- 
ence to  the  Rank  of  the  United  States  in  a  London  newspaper  of 
1837,  which  states  that  it  "  excels  in  elegance,  and  equals  in  utility, 
the  edifice,  not  only  of  the  Bank  of  England,  but  that  of  any  banking 
house  in  the  world  ".-s  American  domestic  buildings  of  the  second 
quarter  of  the  century,  from  "  Arlington  "  and  "  Andalusia "  to 
obscure  houses  of  the  Northwest,  represent  an  extreme  of  classicism 
which  has  no  parallel  elsewhere. 

Criticism  of  such  buildings  from  a  functional  viewpoint  is  irrele- 
vant to  historical  consideration,  which  is  concerned  only  with  deter- 
mining and  understanding  the  actual  course  of  evolution.  What- 
ever be  thought  of  them,  there  can  be  no  d.oubt  that  they  endowed 
America  with  an  architectural  tradition  unsurpassed  in  the  qualities 
of  monumentality  and  dignity. 

It  is  only  this  unequalled  heritage  of  classical  monuments  from 
the  formative  period  of  the  nation  which  can  explain  America's 
leadership  in  the  new  classical  revival  of  the  present.  When  this 
began  in  the  'nineties,  the  characteristic  striving  elsewhere  was  to- 
ward differentiation,  toward  original  forms  expressive  of  the  novel 
elements  in  modern  life,  rather  than  toward  unity,  and  emphasis  on 
the  elements  of  continuity  with  the  past.  The  influence  of  the  Chi- 
cago Exposition,  to  which  the  revival  is  usually  ascribed,  is  not 
enough  to  account  for  its  native  vitality,  or  for  the  distinguishing 
austerity  of  its  work.  These  are  due  to  familiarity  with,  and  to  the 
special  character  of,  the  early  buildings  of  the  republic — factors 
which  have  given  the  classical  revival  a  nationalistic  sanction. 

Abroad,  this  modern  architecture  of  America  has  made  a  deep 
impression  and,  at  least  in  England,  it  has  already  had  a  marked 
effect.  Many  of  the  most  gifted  of  the  younger  English  architects 
have  visited  this  country,  and  are  actively  engaged  in  promoting  at 
home  a  similar  return  to  the  classic  style  of  the  early  nineteenth 
century.  The  "  balance  of  trade  "  with  England  is  now  favorable 
to  America  in  artistic  influence  also. 

Thus  it  is  not  the  colonial  style,  but  the  classic  architecture  of  the 
republic,  in  its  two  incarnations,  old  and  new,  which  is  a  true  con- 
tribution of  America  to  universal  development,  a  contribution  well 
deserving  to  be  recognized,  even  by  the  general  historian. 

Fiske  Kimball. 

28  Morning  Chronicle,  July  u,  1837,  reprinted  in  Loudon's  Architectural  Mag- 
azine,   IV.    (,837)    544- 


NOTES  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

The  Anglo-American   Conference  of  Professors  of  History 

The  extraordinary  increase  in  the  amount  of  graduate  instruc- 
tion in  history  given  in  the  American  universities,  in  the  last  thirty 
or  forty  years,  and  the  great  improvement  in  its  quality  and  in  the 
means  for  conducting  it,  have  had  one  ill  effect,  in  the  striking 
diminution  of  the  number  of  students  who  go  to  Europe  in  its  pur- 
suit. Forty  years  ago,  the  student  who  desired  to  carry  his  educa- 
tion in  history  beyond  the  meagre  acquirements  which  he  had  ob- 
tained as  an  undergraduate,  seldom  had  any  other  thought  than  to 
resort  to  a  German  university.  Twenty  years  later,  graduate  in- 
struction in  the  universities  of  the  United  States  had  developed  to 
such  a  point  that  only  an  ambitious  minority  went  to  Europe  for 
additional  study — and  these  more  often  to  Paris  than  to  Germany. 
At  the  present  time,  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  American 
graduate  students  of  history  have  worked  in  a  European  university 
before  beginning  to  teach. 

The  reasons  for  this  state  of  things  are  two.  One  is  that  most 
students  cannot  afford  a  period  of  European  residence  and  study ; 
in  too  many  cases  they  feel  obliged  to  pursue  their  education  with  a 
minimum  of  expenditure,  and  even  to  seek  the  doctor's  degree  with 
a  thesis  which  can  be  composed  without  leaving  their  immediate 
locality.  The  other  reason  is,  the  greatly  improved  opportunities 
open  to  the  student  in  America.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  for 
the  first  year  of  graduate  work,  the  American  student  of  history 
had  better  go  to  one  of  the  best  American  universities  than  go  to 
Europe.  Such  is  the  general  testimony  of  those  qualified  to  make 
the  comparison  with  full  knowledge.  Besides  courses  appropriately 
supplementing  undergraduate  knowledge,  the  best  American  uni- 
versities afford  in  that  year  rather  more  of  systematic  instruction  in 
historical  method,  or  of  what  may  be  called  pro-seminar  training, 
than  the  migrating  student  is  likely  to  find  concentrated,  at  what  is 
for  him  the  most  advantageous  stage,  in  his  first  year  at  a  university 
in  Europe.  Making  no  comparison  of  the  talents  or  acquirements 
of  teachers,  it  can  reasonably  be  maintained  that  the  student  will 
learn  the  tools  and  elements  of  his  trade  more  quickly  in  familiar 
surroundings,  and  should  not  go  to  Europe  without  them,  and  also 
that  a  considerable  advantage  lies  for  him  in  the  superior  physical 
5S 


Jameson:   Anglo-American  Conference  59 

facilities  which  Yankee  inventiveness  and  resourcefulness  have 
known  how  to  give  to  American  libraries  and  seminar-rooms. 

But  if,  assuming  this  preliminary  training  to  have  been  secured, 
the  effect  of  our  improvement  is  to  be  that  few  of  our  students  of 
history  pursue  it  outside  the  borders  of  their  own  country,  the  result 
will  be  disastrous  indeed.  The  young  man  who  aspires  to  be  a 
professor  of  European  history  and  has  never  been  east  of  Boston, 
New  York,  or  Philadelphia,  is  as  defective  a  creature  as  the  one 
who  wishes  to  be  a  professor  of  American  history  and  has  never 
resided  west  of  those  estimable  cities.  To  say  nothing  of  the  emi- 
nent European  teachers,  there  are  elements  in  European  thought 
and  civilization  which  the  young  man  will  never  learn  rightly  to 
understand  except  through  contact ;  and  without  such  understanding 
(since  he  cannot  teach  what  he  does  not  know)  his  teaching  will 
lack  one  of  its  best  traits  of  usefulness,  the  power  to  make  young 
Americans  into  intelligent  citizens  of  the  world. 

Probably  it  will  still  remain  true  that  the  student  will  gain  the 
greatest  educational  benefit  by  going  to  the  schools  of  Paris,  or  to 
some  other  place  where  the  speech  is  not  hi?  own,  and  the  civiliza- 
tion and  the  ways  of  thinking  are  radically  different  from  those  to 
which  he  has  been  accustomed.  Yet  for  many  a  young  man  or 
young  woman,  either  by  reason  of  the  subject  on  which  he  is  em- 
barked and  the  materials  for  its  pursuit,  or  by  reason  of  the  rich 
learning  and  stimulating  thought  which  British  professors  place  at 
the  service  of  their  special  pupils,  the  expedient  course  will  be  either 
to  settle  down  for  a  period  of  study  in  the  University  of  London, 
where  historical  study  has  advanced  with  such  rapidity  in  recent 
years,  with  the  vast  resources  of  the  British  Museum  and  the  Public 
Record  Office  near  at  hand,  or  to  attach  himself  to  Professor  Tout's 
flourishing  school  of  medieval  studies  at  Manchester,  or  to  place 
himself  under  the  influence  of  the  ripe  scholarship  of  Oxford  or 
Cambridge.  At  all  events,  it  is  an  important  duty  of  those  already 
occupied  in  teaching,  and  especially  in  the  teaching  of  graduate 
students,  to  foster  close  relations  between  the  American  and  the 
British  universities,  and  to  welcome  all  occasions  that  bring  together 
those  responsible  for  the  teaching  of  history  in  the  universities  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  It  is  therefore  a  duty,  and 
certainly  it  is  a  great  pleasure,  to  lay  before  the  readers  of  this 
journal  some  account  of  the  first  Anglo-American  Conference  of 
Professors  of  History,  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of 
London  in  the  second  week  of  July  last,  July  11-16. 

The  immediate  occasion  for  the  conference  was  connected  with 


60  Arotcs  and  Suggestions 

the  opening  of  the  Institute  of  Historical  Research  established  by 
the  University  of  London.  The  building,  in  Malet  Street,  is  near 
University  College,  and  seven  or  eight  hundred  yards  from  the 
entrance  to  the  British  Museum.  It  is  a  temporary  building,  of 
somewhat  the  aspect  of  our  Y.  M.  C.  A.  "  huts  ",  but  of  more  sub- 
stantial construction  (urolite),  and  comprises  a  dozen  rooms,  of 
varying  sizes,  devoted  to  working  libraries  of  sources  and  the  con- 
duct of  seminars  in  English,  Continental,  London,  diplomatic,  naval, 
military,  colonial,  and  American  history,  but  with  flexible  and  pro- 
visional arrangements.  Besides  being  a  workshop  for  historical  re- 
search, it  is  intended  that  the  establishment,  for  the  inception  of 
which  the  chief  credit  is  understood  to  belong  to  Professor  A.  F. 
Pollard,  Professor  A.  P.  Newton,  Miss  E.  Jeffries  Davis,  and  an 
anonymous  donor,  shall  be  a  clearing-house  of  historical  informa- 
tion, open  to  students  of  all  universities  and  all  nations.  Of  its 
special  possibilities  of  usefulness  to  the  younger  sort  of  American 
students,  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  been 
familiar  with  the  defective  conditions  under  which  such  students 
have  hitherto  done  their  work  in  London. 

The  formal  opening  of  the  Institute  took  place  on  July  8,  when 
an  admirable  address  was  delivered  by  that  notable  historical  scholar, 
the  Minister  of  Education,  Mr.  Herbert  A.  L.  Fisher,  followed  by 
Lord  Bryce  in  a  speech  which  left  one  doubtful  whether  to  admire 
most  his  learning  and  kindly  wisdom,  or  his  physical  vigor  at  an  age 
of  which  the  only  evidence  is  to  be  found  in  books  of  reference. 
Most  of  the  exercises  of  the  ensuing  week's  conference  were  held 
in  the  rooms  of  the  new  building. 

In  general,  the  programme  of  those  exercises  was  of  a  highly 
practical  nature.  No  provision  was  made  for  rhetoric.  After  the 
formal  opening  meeting,  all  the  sessions  were  genuine  conferences, 
in  which  British  and  American  members  joined  in  the  informal 
discussion  of  points  of  method  or  of  questions  as  to  the  most  profit- 
able directions  for  research  in  the  near  future.  In  that  opening 
meeting,  the  Minister  of  Education  made  another  impressive  ad- 
dress, emphasizing  the  need  of  sympathetic  co-operation  between 
American  and  British  teachers  in  the  work  of  historical  education, 
and  arguing  in  favor  of  the  exchange  of  students,  not  of  mediocre 
but  of  superior  quality,  after  the  undergraduate  stage.1  According 
to  British  custom,  one  of  the  American  delegates  responded ;  inter- 
esting remarks  were  made  by  Cardinal  Gasquet,  prefect  of  the  Vati- 

1 A  considerable  part  of  Mr.  Fisher's  address  is  printed  in  Education  for 
July  is- 


Jameson:  Anglo-American  Conference  61 

can  library  and  archives,  concerning  those  collections  and  the  work 
which  he  has  set  on  foot  in  them ;  and  Professor  W.  R.  Shepherd, 
of  Columbia  University,  spoke  in  support  of  the  vote  of  thanks  to 
Mr.  Fisher,  proposed  by  Cardinal  Gasquet. 

The  meetings  which  followed,  on  each  of  the  four  ensuing  morn- 
ings, were  devoted  respectively  to  the  following  topics :  the  Objects 
of  the  Institute  of  Historical  Research.  Anglo-American  Co-opera- 
tion in  Publication  of  Documents  and  Results  of  Research,  How  to 
Conduct  a  Seminar  in  History,  and  Methods  of  Editing  Original 
Sources.  The  first,  after  a  general  exposition  by  Professor  Pollard, 
resolved  itself  into  sectional  meetings  for  the  consideration  of  un- 
explored fields,  in  medieval  administration,  in  English  ecclesiastical 
history,  in  colonial  history,  and  in  that  of  Eastern  Europe.  The 
second,  similarly,  after  some  general  proceedings,  divided  into  sec- 
tions discussing  what  might  be  done  in  the  fields  of  legal  records',  of 
medieval  science  and  thought,  of  diplomatic  documents,  of  colonial 
and  Indian  records,  and  of  naval  records.  A  permanent  committee, 
composed  of  members  from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and 
Canada,  was  formed  to  give  effect  to  the  notions  of  Anglo-American 
co-operation  which  had  emerged  from  the  discussions  of  this  latter 
occasion. 

Successful  as  the  conference  was  in  professional  respects,  noth- 
ing produced  a  more  gratifying  impression  on  the  American  minds 
than  its  social  aspect.  No  doubt,  too,  this  counted  for  much  with 
the  Britons,  for  such  gatherings  of  British  men  and  women  occu- 
pied with  historical  studies  have  not  been  frequent,  and  it  was  re- 
marked that  never  before  had  so  many  of  them  been  brought  to- 
gether, unless  at  the  time  of  the  International  Congress  of  Historical 
Studies  held  at  London  in  1913.  In  large  degree  the  conference 
was  composed  of  delegates  formally  appointed  by  the  various  British 
universities  and  university  colleges,  and  by  Canadian  and  American 
universities  and  colleges,  and  each  of  the  universities  of  the  United 
Kingdom  had  sent  representatives  whose  fame  is  abundant  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  whom  it  was  a  pleasure  to  Americans 
to  meet.  In  all,  nearly  two  hundred  members  of  the  conference 
were  present.  The  thirty  or  forty  Americans  and  Canadians  had 
probably  in  no  case  come  across  the  water  especially  to  attend  the 
conference;  they  were  already  in  Europe,  or  had  lately  come  to 
Europe,  for  purposes  of  research  or  travel,  but  they  formed  a  good 
representation,  mostly  of  the  middle  and  younger  elements  in  our 
profession,  and  endeavored  to  contribute  their  part  to  the  discussions. 

Nothing  impressed  them  more,  it  may  safely  be  said,  than  the 


e>2  Notes  and  Suggestions 

abounding  hospitality  with  which  they  were  entertained.  On  occa- 
sions open  to  British  and  American  delegates  alike,  but  from  the 
nature  of  the  case  planned  especially  for  the  pleasure  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, the  custodians  of  famous  collections  not  only  threw  them  open 
to  the  inspection  of  the  visitors,  but  were  at  much  pains  to  show 
and  explain  unusual  possessions.  Thus,  there  was  a  visit  to  the 
Public  Record  Office  by  invitation  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  an- 
other to  the  manuscripts  department  of  the  British  Museum  by 
invitation  of  the  director,  Sir  Frederic  Kenyon,  and  a  third  to  the 
Guildhall,  where  members  were  received  by  the  library  committee 
and  shown  the  records  of  the  corporation  of  London.  On  another 
afternoon  the  Royal  Historical  Society  invited  the  members  to  a 
very  agreeable  conversazione  in  its  building  and  in  the  gardens  of 
Russell  Square  opposite.  Another  afternoon  was  made  memorable 
by  a  visit  to  the  library  of  Lambeth  Palace,  where  the  librarian, 
Rev.  Claude  Jenkins,  gave  an  interesting  description  of  the  collec- 
tions, and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  Mrs.  Davidson  enter- 
tained the  visitors  at  tea.  Finally,  there  was  a  post-conference  ex- 
cursion to  Windsor  Castle,  where  the  King's  Librarian,  Hon.  John 
W.  Fortescue,  with  unwearied  kindness,  conducted  members  all 
about  the  castle  and  gave  full  and  interesting  explanations  of  rooms 
and  treasures  artistic  and  historical. 

There  was  also  abundance  of  private  hospitality,  in  the  form  of 
week-end  entertainment,  teas,  and  dinners,  among  which  the  dinner 
and  the  brilliant  reception  given  by  Lady  Astor,  and  specially  hon- 
ored by  the  presence  of  the  Duke  of  Connaught,  calls  for  particu- 
larly grateful  commemoration. 

On  the  final  evening  of  the  conference  the  British  government 
gave  to  the  members  a  very  handsome  dinner  at  the  Savoy  Hotel, 
at  which  the  Secretary  for  Scotland,  Mr.  Robert  Munro,  presided, 
and  at  which  excellent  speeches,  striking  precisely  the  right  note, 
were  made  by  him,  by  Professor  James  T.  Shotwell  of  Columbia 
University,  and  by  Professor  John  L.  Morison  of  Queen's  Uni- 
versity, Canada.  The  recent  action  of  President  Harding  in  calling 
the  Disarmament  Conference,  announced  in  just  those  days,  gave 
point  to  all  that  was  said  of  fraternal  relations  between  the  three 
nations,  and  of  that  peace  on  earth  which  historical  knowledge, 
properly  pursued  and  diffused,  can  do  so  much  to  promote. 

It  is  ardently  to  be  hoped  that  before  long  a  second  Anglo- 
American  Conference  of  Professors  of  History  may  in  some  form 
be  brought  about  on  our  side  of  the  ocean.  Such  will  certainly  be 
the  wish  of  all  those  who  attended  the  conference   of   last  July, 


Crane:  Genesis  of  Georgia  63 

though  it  must  be   confessed   that   British  hospitality   set   on  that 
occasion  a  standard  which  it  will  be  difficult  for  us  to  maintain. 

J.  F.  J. 

The  Philanthropists  and  the  Genesis  of  Georgia 

The  benevolent  activities  initiated  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Bray, 
founder  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge, 
and  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  are  familiar 
to  students  of  eighteenth-century  America.  In  the  absence  of  rec- 
ords of  the  inception  of  the  Georgia  enterprise,1  however,  it  has 
escaped  notice  that  another  philanthropic  society,  created  by  Bray 
circa  1724,  and  still  in  existence — the  Associates  of  the  Late  Rev. 
Dr.  Bray — became,  shortly  after  his  death  (February  15,  1730),  the 
parent  organization  of  the  Georgia  Trust. 

It  is  true  that  the  original  Associates,  though  they  included  the 
colonies  within  the  scope  of  their  benefactions,  in  no  sense  consti- 
tuted a  colonizing  society.  Their  objects  at  the  outset  were  two : 
the  founding  of  parochial  libraries  in  England  and  in  the  plantations, 
and  the  Christian  education  of  negroes.2  Both  were  philanthropies 
which  had  long  interested  Bray.  For  parochial  libraries  he  had 
generously  spenthis  own  income  as  well  as  gifts;  for  negro  educa- 
tion he  controlled  a  legacy  of  about  £900  from  M.  Abel  Tassin, 
sieur  d'Allone.  But  in  1723  ill-health  had  made  Bray  anxious  for 
the  perpetuation  of  these  benevolences.  He  had  therefore  joined 
with  himself  four  trustees,  John  Lord  Viscount  Percival,  William 
Belitha,  the  Rev.  Stephen  Hales,  and  his  brother  Robert  Hales,  of 
whom  the  first  three  later  became  charter  trustees  of  Georgia.3 

1  This  lack  has  now  been  supplied,  in  part,  by  the  publication  of  die  Diary 
of  Viscount  Percival,  afterwards  First  Earl  of  Egmont,  vol.  I.,  1730-1733.  'His- 
torical Manuscripts  Commission,  1920.)  The  attention  of  students  had  pre- 
viously been  called  to  this  valuable  source  for  the  early  history  of  Georgia  by 
Benjamin  Rand,  in  the  Nation,  C.  107. 

2  On  his  work  with  respect  to  libraries,  see  Dr.  B.  C.  Steiner's  article  in 
this  journal,  II.  59-75,  and  on  his  work  in  general,  the  same  writer's  monograph 
on  Dr.  Bray,  Maryland  Historical  Society,  Fund  Publication  no.  37. 

3  The  primary  source  for  the  life  of  Bray  is  a  biography  entitled  "  A  Short 
Historical  Account  of  Dr.  Bray's  Life  and  Designs"  (Rawlinson  MSS.,  Bodleian), 
printed  by  B.  C.  Steiner  as  Maryland  Historical  Society,  Fund  Publication 
no.  37  (1901),  pp.  11-50.  The  manuscript,  partly  in  the  hand  of  Richard  Rawlin- 
son, partly  in  that  of  his  amanuensis,  was  apparently  press  copy  for  the  tract, 
Publick  Spirit  illustrated  in  the  Life  and  Designs  of  Thomas  Bray,  London. 
1746,  of  which  a  second  edition  appeared  in  1808.  The  editor  of  the  second  edi- 
tion, H.  J.  Todd,  was  probably  correct  in  his  ascription  of  the  authorship  to  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Smith,  who  in  1730  became  an  Associate  and  one  of  the  secretaries 


64  Notes  and  Suggestions 

Lord  Percival  was  an  Irish  peer,  a  moderate  supporter  of  Wal- 
pole,  and  a  devoted  friend  of  George  Berkeley.4  Friendship  for 
Berkeley  led  him  to  accept  the  trusteeship:  he  expected  to  establish 
a  fellowship  for  the  instruction  of  negroes  in  Berkeley's  projected 
Bermuda  College.5  The  benevolent  aspirations  which  underlay 
Berkeley's  plan,  Percival,  with  his  strong  religious  bent,  naturally 
shared.  Though  of  practical  temper  he  also  shared  some  of  the 
Utopian  zeal  which  was  likewise  an  element  in  the  Dean  of  Dro- 
i.iore's  undertaking.6  Berkeley's  dream  was  soon  dissipated,  but  its 
passing  glamour  had  fixed  the  interest  of  Lord  Percival  in  America. 
To  Berkeley  in  Rhode  Island  he  wrote :  "  almost  you  persuade  me 
to  be  a  Rhodian."7  While  he  was  still  defending  Berkeley's  good 
faith  against  detractors,  he  was  approached  by  James  Oglethorpe  in 
behalf  of  a  design  which  appealed  to  the  same  mingled  charitable 
and  romantic  sentiments,  but  which,  "  being  entirely  calculated  for 
a  secular  interest  ",8  held  greater  promise  of  governmental  support. 

A  common  interest  in  imprisoned  debtors — possibly  inspired  in 

of  the  group.  From  the  journals  of  the  Associates  (apparently  not  now  extant 
for  the  period  before  1735)  Todd  cited  this  passage  under  date  June  17,  1731 : 
"  An  historical  Account  was  laid  by  Mr.  Smith  before  the  Associates,  of  Dr. 
Bray's  Life  and  Designs ;  and  with  some  alterations  the  whole  was  approved." 
There,  is  other  evidence,  internal  and  external,  that  1731  was  the  date  of  original 
composition  of  the  Life  ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  it  was  intended  to  be  the  official 
version  of  Bray's  career  as  viewed  by  the  Associates.  Dr.  Steiner's  assump- 
tion that  Richard  Rawlinson  was  the  author,  and  that  he  placed  his  manu- 
script in  the  hands  of  Smith,  is  not  well  substantiated.  Smith  was  in  a  position 
to  write  intimately  of  Bray's  life,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  non- 
juring  Bishop  Rawlinson  had  any  personal  contact  with  the  latitudinarian  Bray, 
or  with  the  group  which  carried  on  his  charities.  Rawlinson  produced  few  orig- 
inal works,  but  he  was  a  frequent  editor  as  well  as  a  great  collector  (see  article 
in  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  XLVII.  331)  ;  he  may  have  edited  the 
Life  for  publication  in  1746.  While  it  was  still  in  manuscript,  borrowings 
from  it  appeared  in  early  tracts  issued  by  the  society  {vis.,  statement  of  the  As- 
sociates' designs  appended  to  the  sermon  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Smith,  preached 
before  the  Associates  Feb.  23,  1731,  as  published  in  1733;  below,  note  20). 
"  A  Short  Historical  Account  "  as  printed  gives  the  date  of  Bray's  illness  as 
"Christmas  1725".  This  is  probably  a  misprint  for  "Christmas  1723",  the 
date  which  appears  in  Publick  Spirit  illustrated,  and  in  all  subsequent  accounts  ; 
1724  is  the  probable  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  original  group  of  Associates. 

4  For  their  correspondence,  see  Benjamin  Rand.  Berkeley  and  Percival 
(.9.4). 

=  Percival,  Diary,  I.  45.  Lord  Palmerston,  in  whose  hands  the  d'AHone 
legacy  had  been  placed,  was  likewise  a  patron  of  Berkeley,  and  used  his  influence 
to  merge  the  two- projects.     Rand,  Berkeley  and  Percival,  p.  229. 

"Rand,  Ibid.,  pp.   203-206,  223-225,  230-231,  245. 

-  Ibid.,  p.  248. 

s  Percival  to  Berkeley,  Dec.  23,    1730.     Ibid.,  p.  270. 


Crane:  Genesis  of  Georgia  65 

both  by  Dr.  Bray,  a  veteran  prison  reformer9 — had  brought  Percival 
and  Oglethorpe  together  in  Parliament,  despite  political  differences. 
It  was  a  large  committee  which  sat  in  1729  to  "enquire  into  the 
state  of  the  gaols  ".10  Oglethorpe  was  chairman  ("a  young  gentle- 
man of  very  public  spirit",  Percival  described  him  to  Berkeley)  j11 
among  the  members — a  nucleus  of  earnest  reformers — were  Lord 
Percival,  Robert  Hucks,  Rogers  Holland,  and  John  Laroche,  all  later 
joined  as  trustees  of  Georgia.  The  committee  exposed  flagrant 
abuses  at  the  Fleet  and  Marshalsea  prisons ;  it  secured  ameliorative 
legislation,  and  notably  an  act  which  released  large  numbers  of 
debtors  from  confinement.  But  Oglethorpe  was  not  satisfied,  and 
pressed,  successfully,  for  the  revival  of  the  committee.  As  restored 
r.nd  altered  in  1730  it  included,  with  one  omission,  the  whole  par- 
liamentary group  named  in  the  charter  as  trustees.12  While  the 
reforming  element  in  the  committee  was  being  strengthened  by  this 
reorganization,  Oglethorpe  and  Percival  were  effecting  a  parallel 
reconstruction  of  the  little  charitable  trust  which  Bray  had  estab- 
lished several  years  before. 

For  the  punishment  of  brutal  wardens  and  the  releasing  of  un- 
fortunates were  only  part  of  Oglethorpe's  humanitarian  programme. 
"  The  miserable  wretches  ...  let  out  of  Gaol  by  last  year's  Act  " 
he  found  "  starying  about  the  town  for  want  of  employment  "  ;  hun- 
dreds, he  told  Percival,  had  emigrated  to  Prussia  to  seek  economic 
opportunities  which  England  did  not  offer  them.13     In  1729  he  had 

9  Bray's  report  to  the  S.  P.  C.  K.  on  the  prisons  preceded  Oglethorpe's  inves- 
tigation by  more  than  a  quarter-century.  James  S.  Anderson,  History  of  the 
Colonial  Church,  IV.  74-76.  In  1727  Dr.  Bray  was  again  active  in  the  relief  of 
prisoners ;  this  time  he  raised  funds  to  supply  the  prisoners  of  Whitechapel  and 
Borough  Compter  with  provisions,  and  besides  sent  among  them  his  apprentice 
missionaries.  "  On  this  occasion  ",  declared  his  biographer,  "  the  sore  was  first 
opened  and  that  scene  of  inhumanity  imperfectly  discovered,  which  afterwards 
some  worthy  patriots  of  the  House  of  Commons  took  so  much  pains  to  enquire 
into  and  redress.  That  zeal  and  compassion,  which  led  them  to  carry  on  this 
inspection  and  regulate  many  gross  abuses,  could  not  but  procure  for  them  the 
largest  measure  of  esteem  of  one  distinguished  by  such  an  extensive  benevolence 
as  Dr.  Bray."  "  A  Short  Historical  Account  "  (ed.  Steiner),  Maryland  Hist.  Soc, 
Fund  Publ.,  no.  37,  p.  46. 

10  Commons'  Journals,  Feb.  25,   1729. 

11  Rand,  Berkeley  and  Percival,  p.  270. 

12  Percival,  Diary,  I.  46,  49,  50;  Commons'  Journals,  Feb.  17,  1730. 
Of  special  interest  for  its  bearing  upon  the  strategic  origins  of  Georgia  is  the 
fact  that  both  committees  included  several  members  of  the  Board  of  Trade;  the 
veteran  Martin  Bladen  sat  on  each.  Early  in  1730  the  Board  was  planning  the 
extension  of  settlement  in  South  Carolina  as  far  as  the  Altamaha.  The  location 
of  the  debtor  colony  was  probably  suggested  by  the  colonial  administration;  it 
was  a  logical  step  in  a  long-maturing  imperial  policy. 

13  Percival,  Diary,  I.  45,  90. 
AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 5. 


66  Notes  and  Suggestions 

formulated  a  plan  to  plant  a  hundred  or  so  beneficiaries  of  the 
recent  act  on  land  purchased  or  granted  somewhere  in  the  "  West 
Indies  ".li  In  1729,  moreover,  he  had  found  a  fund  suited  to  his 
purpose,  the  legacy  of  one  King,  a  haberdasher.  For  services  to 
two  of  the  executors,  in  preventing  a  fraud  by  the  third,  Oglethorpe 
had  been  promised  £5000  from  King's  legacy  of  £15,000,  for  his 
charitable  colony,  provided  it  should  be  annexed  to  some  trust 
already  in  existence. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Oglethorpe  appealed  to  Lord  Percival. 
King's  executors  had  agreed  that  the  Associates  were  "  proper  per- 
sons to  be  made  trustees  of  this  new  affair  ".  Apparently  Dr.  Bray 
had  already  consented  to  an  enlargement  of  the  group,  if  indeed  he 
had  not  first  proposed  it  independently.15  But  Dr.  Bray  was  on  his 
death-bed,  and  Lord  Percival  was  planning  to  withdraw  from  his 
trusteeship,  when  Oglethorpe  approached  him  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, February  13,  1730,  proposing  to  augment  the  number  of  the 
original  Associates  and  thus  to  merge  three  charities  in  the  one 
society.16  His  object  was  to  associate  the  reforming  group  in  Par- 
liament with  philanthropists  outside,  in  a  constructive  effort  on  be- 
half of  the  poor. 

Percival's  assent  secured  the  desired  organization  for  the  project 
of  a  charitable  colony.  Until  1742,  moreover,  Percival,  after  Ogle- 
thorpe, was  the  most  assiduous  promoter  of  the  plan.  In  April, 
1730,  he  took  legal  counsel  on  the  method  of  augmenting  the  trustee- 
ship;17  by   July,    apparently,    the    reorganization    was    completed.18 

1*  Diary,  I.  45.  In  Percival's  usage  "West  Indies"  was  sometimes  employed 
in  a  general  sense,  to  mean  America.  Even  after  Carolina  had  been  chosen  as 
the  site,  he  referred  to  the  new  colony  "  in  the  West  Indies  ".     Ibid.,  p.  99. 

is  The  author  of  "  A  Short  Historical  Account  "  credited  Bray  with  the  idea 
of  enlarging  the  original  trust ;  and  declared  that  an  interview  occurred  between 
Oglethorpe  and  Eray,  occasioned  by  the  parliamentary  inquiry,  in  the  course  of 
which  Bray  proposed  that  Oglethorpe  become  one  of  the  trustees ;  and  that  Ogle- 
thorpe consented  "  and  engaged  several  others,  some  of  the  first  distinction,  to  act 
with  him  and  the  former  Associates  in  it  ".  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  46-47.  This  is  not  to 
assert,  however,  that  Bray  first  suggested  the  new  charity.  For  a  later  tradition 
of  Bray's  active  agency  in  the  reorganization,  see  an  extract  from  Edward  Ben- 
tham's  memoir  of  the  Rev.  John  Burton,  in  Gentleman's  Magazine,  XLI.  307 
(i77i). 

is  Percival,  Diary,  I.  44~45- 

17  Ibid.,  p.  93. 

is  July  1  Percival  "  went  to  town  to  a  meeting  of  the  new  Society  for  ful- 
filling Mr.  Dalone's  will  in  the  conversion  of  negroes,  and  disposing  of  five  thou- 
sand pounds  ...  in  settling  some  hundred  of  families  in  Carolina  .  .  ."  Ibid., 
p.  98.  An  advertisement  of  "The  Associates  of  the  late  Dr.  Bray"  in  1737  re- 
ferred to  their  activities  "since  July,  1730".  John  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  II.  119. 


Crane:  Genesis  of  Georgia  67 

During  the  first  year  Oglethorpe  acted  as  chairman.  In  Percival's 
journal  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  naming  of  the  congldmerate 
society  ;19  the  varying  terminology  may  have  indicated,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  character  of  the  business  under  consideration.  But  it  is 
evident  that  all  three  charities  were  regulated  at  a  single  meeting. 
Moreover,  when  Bray's  anniversary  sermons  were  preached  before 
"the  associates  of  Dr.  Bray,  deceased,"  at  their  annual  meetings  in 
1731  and  1732,  the  discourses  dealt  with  "charitable  planting"  as 
well  as  with  Bray's  older  philanthropies.20  At  meetings  of  the  As- 
sociates, between  1730  and  1732,  the  colonizing  enterprise  gradually 
took  form  ;  it  was  at  a  meeting  of  the  Associates,  notably,  on  July  30, 
1730,  that  the  petition  to  the  crown  for  a  grant  of  lands  in  Carolina 
was  agreed  upon  and  partly  signed.21 

Analysis  of  the  personnel  of  the  society  strikingly  confirms  the 
other  evidence  that  the  enlarged  Associates  of  the  late  Rev.  Dr. 
Bray  formed  the  nidus  of  the  Georgia  board.22  The  Associates 
included  some  eight  individuals  who  never  served  as  trustees  of 
Georgia;  but  no  one  of  the  board  as  first  named  was  chosen  from 
outside  that  composite  charitable  society.  At  the  head  of  its  mem- 
bership were  three  of  the  original  group  of  Associates.  There  were 
fourteen  members  of  Parliament,  all  of  whom  but  Digby  (and  pos- 
sibly Lowther)  'had  served  on  at  least  the  revived  committee  on 
the  jails,  though  three  of  the  least  active  were  later  omitted  from 
the  trust.  There  were  seven  clergymen  (five  of  them  trustees), 
and  a   fourth  group  of   philanthropists,   most  of  whom,  with  the 

i"  Sec,  for  instance,  Diary,  I.  99,  273,  276. 

20  Ibid.,  pp.  224-226;  Gentleman's  Magazine,  February,  1731  (I.  80).  Both 
sermons,  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Smith  and  by  the  Rev.  John  Burton,  were  published, 
in  1733,  "at  the  desire  of  the  trustees  and  associates".  The  title-pages,  written 
after  the  separation  of  the  trusts,  obscure  their  earlier  identity ;  but  the  phrasing 
of  the  sermons  makes  this  very  plain. 

21  Percival,  Diary,  I.  99. 

22  The  list  of  the  Associates,  as  published  in  Biographia  Britannica  (1748), 
II.  976  n.,  follows.  With  only  a  few  omissions  the  list  may  be  confirmed  from 
references  in  Percival's  journal.  "  John  Lord  Viscount  Percival,  now  Earl  of 
Egmont.  The  reverend  Dr.  Stephen  Hales.  William  Belitha,  Esq.  The  honour- 
able Edward  Digby,  Esq.  The  Right  HoHourable  George  Lord  Carpenter. 
Major-General  Oglethorpe.  Edward  Harley,  Esq.  The  Honourable  James  Ver- 
non, Esq.  Edward  Hughes,  Esq.  Robert  Hucks,  Esq.  Thomas  Tower,  Esq. 
John  Laroche,  Esq.  Rogers  Holland,  Esq.  Major  Charles  Selwyn.  Robert 
More,  Esq.  William  Sloper,  Esq.  Oliver  St.  John,  Esq.  Henry  Hasting. 
Esq.  George  Heathcote,  Esq.  Francis  Eyles,  Esq.  Mr.  Adam  Anderson.  Sir 
James  Lowther.  Captain  Thomas  Coram.  The  Reverend  Mr.  Digby  Cotes.  The 
Reverend  Mr.  Arthur  Bedford.  The  Reverend  Mr.  Samuel  Smith.  The  Rever- 
end Mr.  Richard  Bundy.  The  Reverend  Mr.  John  Burton.  The  Reverend  Mr. 
Daniel  Somerscald  ",  etc. 


68  Notes  and  Suggestions 

clergymen,  represented  the  movement  outside  of  Parliament.  Cap- 
tain Thomas  Coram  was  one  of  these;  already  he  was  agitating  for 
the  great  foundling  hospital  which  became  his  monument.23  The 
Hon.  Edward  Digby  was  probably  drawn  in  as  the  nephew  of  that 
pious  Lord  Digby  who  had  been  a  lifelong  friend  and  patron  of 
Dr.  Bray.24 

Even  after  the  Georgia  charter  had  passed  the  seals,  for  a  time 
the  business  of  the  Associates  and  of  the  trustees  was  jointly  trans- 
acted.25 As  late  as  May,  1733,  the  Associates,  meeting  separately  at 
the  Georgia  Society  office,  were  pressing  for  an  accounting  of  funds, 
on  the  ground  that  "  these  trusts  are  to  be  separated  from  the  care 
and  management  of  the  Georgia  Trustees  in  general  ".26  Appar- 
ently the  formal  separation  occurred  in  that  year. 

In  1737  the  Associates  announced  that  since  July,  1730,  they  had 
"  erected  in  Great  Britain  and  the  Plantations,  twenty-three  libraries, 
larger  and  smaller  ",27  One  hundred  and  eighty-three  years  later 
the  society  was  still  maintaining  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  libraries 
in  England  and  Wales,  nearly  one  hundred  and  seventy  over-seas, 
mostly  scattered  among  the  dioceses  of  the  Empire,  besides  support- 
ing negro  schools  in  the  Bahamas.28     Despite  this  record  of  a  trust 

23  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  XII.  194.  Coram  was  regarded  also  as  an  expert  on 
America,  where  he  had  lived  and  traded.  Percival  said  "  he  knew  the  West 
Indies  well"  (.Diary,  I.  261)  ;  while  the  elder  Horace  Walpole  declared  him  "the 
Iionestest,  the  most  disinterested,  and  the  most  knowing  person  about  the  planta- 
tions, I  have  ever  talked  with".     Coxe,  Walpole  (1798),  III.  243. 

24  John  H.  Overton,  Life  in  the  English  Church,  1660-1714,  p.  123.  Edward 
Harley,  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  was  a  well-known  philanthropist;  in  1725 
he  had  been  named  chairman  of  the  trustees  for  the  charity-schools  of  London. 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  XXIV.  394.  Adam  Anderson  had  charitable  interests,  but  he 
was  probably  selected  because,  as  second  accountant  at  the  South  Sea  House,  he 
was  acquiring  that  reputation  as  a  trade  expert  which  his  authorship  of  the 
Origin  of  Commerce  (1764)  has  perpetuated.  Among  the  clergymen  the  best 
known,  besides  the  plant  physiologist  Hales,  was  John  Burton,  of  Oxford.  He 
and  Oglethorpe  had  been  of  the  same  generation  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  of 
which  Burton  was  now  a  fellow.     Id.,  VIII.  8. 

25  July  20,  1732,  "we  presented  them  [Pury  and  his  colonists]  with  a  small 
library  out  of  Dr.  Bray's  books,  of  which  we  are  trustees."  Record  of  meeting 
of  Georgia  board,  in  Percival,  Diary,  I.  286. 

2e  Ibid.,  p.  382. 

27  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes,  II.  119.  The  minute-books  from  1735  to  1808 
are  preserved  in  the  building  of  the  S.  P.  G.  in  London.  Andrews  and  Davenport, 
Guide  to  Manuscript  Materials  for  the  History  of  the  U.  S.,  to  1783,  in  the 
British  Museum,  etc.,  p.  334. 

28  Report  for  the  Year  1920  of  the  Association  Established  by  the  Late  Rev. 
Dr.  Bray  and  his  Associates  for  Libraries  for  the  Clergy,  with  an  Account  of  a 
Trust  for  Supporting  Negro  Schools  and  Brief  Notes  on  the  Life  of  Dr.  Bray. 
1921.  See  also  article  in  the  New  Schaff-Hcrzog  Religious  Encyclopedia  (1908), 
II.  255- 


Crane:  Genesis  of  Georgia  69 

so  long  executed  in  the  spirit  of  the  founder,  the  Associates  of  the 
Late  Rev.  Dr.  Bray  no  doubt  performed  their  most  notable  service 
between  1730  and  1732,  when  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the  last 
successful  English  enterprise  of  colonization  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

Institutionally,  as  well  as  in  its  spirit  of  charity,  Georgia  was  a 
product  of  the  religious-philanthropic  movement  in  the  era  of 
Walpole. 

Verner  W.  Crane. 


DOCUMENTS 
Journal  of  a  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,  1765,  II. 

Sunday  June  the  pth  [1765]  from  port  Royal  to  hoes  fery  on  Patow- 
mak,  18  miles.1  this  is  one  of  the  finest  rivers  on  the  Continent:  admiral 
Bradock  went  up  it  as  far  as  alexandria  with  his  whole  fleet  after  his 
Defeat  at  fort  william  henery,  in  Canada,  this  river  seperates  the  two 
provinces  of  Virginia  and  Maryland,  it  is  about  3  miles  broad  here.  I 
Crossed  this  fery  and  Dined  at  the  maryland  fery.2  Set  out  from 
thence3  for  Mr.  hunters,  missionary,  where  I  remain'd  all  next  Day 
and  night.  Mr.  hunter  is  a  Jesuit  and  superior  of  the  Mission  in 
this  part  of  the  Country.4  There  are  four  Clergy  men  belongs  and 
four  houses  like  this  in  the  province  the  fathers  go  about  the  Dif- 
ferent parts  to  atend  the  Dispersed  Catholiques.  Charles  County  has 
more  of  the  Cathol.  religion  than  any  other  but  are  poor  in  general. 
Lord  Baltimore  when  he  had  the  grant  of  maryland  was  himself  one,  but 
his  unworthy  Desendants  have  abondoned  his  principles  therefore  the 
poor  Catholiques  have  lost  most  of  their  privileges,  they  were  very 
much  treatend  in  the  begining  of  the  last  war.  father  hunter  tells 
me  there  are  about  10,000  Catholiques  still  in  the  Colony,  he  has  gen- 
erally from  800  to  a  th'd  at  his  Sundays  mass. 

June  the  nth.  from  mr.  hunters  to  portobacco  town,  2  m.  about  20 
houses,  from  hence  to  Piscatoway5  16  m.  much  such  another  place  as 
the  last.  Dined  here,  there  are  small  Creeks  from  patowmak  river  to 
Each  of  these  place  on  which  small  sloops  Com  to  them.  Some  mer- 
chants have  stores  or  shops  here  ful  of  all  Sorts  of  Dry  goods  which 
they  sell  at  an  intolarable  Dear  rate,  on  my  arival  in  maryland,  I 
thought  there  was  somthing  pleasanter  in  the  Country  than  in  Vir- 
ginia, it  is  not  a  Continual  flat  as  the  latter,  there  is  a  greater  variety, 
and  fine  prospects  from  the  riseings,  which  the  other  has  not  in  the  parts 
that  I  Came  thorough,  the  land  seems  beter  Cultivated  and  setled.  the 
roads  are  not  so  sandy. 

1  Matthias  Point.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  errors  in  the  next 
sentence,   respecting   "  Admiral  "   Braddock. 

2  Near  the  present  Port  Tobacco,  Md. 

3  I.e.,  from  the  Maryland  end  of  the  ferry  over  the  Potomac,  some  eight  miles 
below  Port  Tobacco,  in  Charles  County. 

*  Father  George  Hunter,  S.  J.  (1713-1779).  "  missionarius  in  Porto  Baccha  ", 
had  come  out  to  Maryland  in  1747,  and  since  1756  had  been  superior  of  the  Jes- 
uits in  Maryland.  Hughes,  History  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  North  America, 
Text,  II.  692-693.  In  view  of  the  data  he  gives  the'  diarist,  it  is  of  interest  to 
read  the  general  report  he  was  at  this  time  preparing,  on  Catholicism  in  Mary- 
land, and  which  he  sent  to  his  provincial  under  date  of  July  23.  Ibid.,  Docu- 
ments, I.  335-338.  Father  Hunter's  residence  is  described  in  J.  F.  D.  Smyth, 
Tour,  II.  179. 

5  On  Piscataway  Creek,  the  mouth  of  which  is  nearly  opposite  Mount  Vernon. 

70 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,   ij6^  71 

from  Piscatoway  to  mr.  Diggses,  12  m.6  this  is  a  Gentleman  of  the 
Roman  Catholique  Religion,  and  much  respected  In  the  Country  by  Every 
one  that  Knows  him.  he  has  a  Considerable  fortune.  Mr.  Thomas  Diggs 
his  Brother  is  a  Jesuit.7  he  lives  with  him  and  at  the  same  time  Does 
religious  Duty  all  round  in  this  part  of  the  Country,  he  Certainly  is  an 
honor  to  his  religion,  he  is  a  very  respectable  persson  in  Every  respect, 
amiable  in  the  Eyes  of  all  that  are  acquainted  with  him.  makes  those 
that  are  in  his  Company  happy,  he  is  a  learned  man  and  has  seen  much 
of  the  world. 

June  the  12th.  from  Mr.  Diggses  to  Marlborough  the  Capital  of 
Prince  Georges  County.8  here  I  Dined  and  after  Dinner  went  to  see 
tobaco  Inspected  at  the  ware  house  and  saw  some  of  the  bright  couloured 
tobaco  which  sels  So  Dear  in  foreign  markets,  it  is  of  a  light  yelow 
Coulour.  and  is  as  much  Esteemed  as  the  Virginia  Sweet  Sented:  it 
grows  but  in  particular  Soils,  the  Inhabitants  call  it  bright  tobacco, 
this  litle  town  is  the  senter  of  pleasures  in  maryland.  they  have  as- 
semblys  here  all  the  year  rownd:  it  is  situated  on  patuxent  river.  Non 
but  small  barques  Can  Come  to  it  which  is  suficient  to  Cary  of  its  Pro- 
duce. [In  margin :  four  miles  from  Marlboroug  I  Crossed  patux't 
river  fery,  at  a  place  called  mount  pleasant.]9  the  Inhabitants  of  mary- 
land go  very  much  on  farming.  Prince  Georges  County  is  Inhabited  by 
the  best  people  in  Maryland,  marlborough  is  15  miles  from  Piscatoway. 
from  hence  to  hords  ord'y  10  miles,     here  I  lay. 

June  the  13th.  from  hords  ord'y  to  london  town,  15  m.10  this  is  a 
very  Small  place  not  above  a  Dbz'n  houses,  it  is  on  what  the  Inhabi- 
tants Call  South  river  but  really  North  river  Communicating  to  the 
great  bay.  fine  Country  as  I  Came  along,  after  Dinner  Crossed  the 
south  river  fery  [In  margin:  this  fery  is  a  mile  broad]  and  to  annopolis 
4  miles,  this  is  the  capital  of  maryland,  a  prety  litle  town,  Beauti- 
fully situated  on  a  risein  grownd  beside  the  river  Severn.  Comunicateing 
to  the  Bay.  ships  of  any  Burthen  Can  Come  up  this  river,  and  Could 
formerly  Come  Close  to  the  town  into  a  little  mold  or  Bassen,  which  is  in 
the  Center  of  the  town,  but  this  Bassen  is  almost  filled  with  Dirt  for 
want  of  a  little  Care,  however  the  harbour  is  so  good  otherwise  that  the 
ships  Dont  feel  any  great  inconvenience  from  that  loss.  I  was  not 
above  an  hour  at  the  tavern  when  Joseph  Galoway  Esq'r  "  Came  to  en- 
quier  for  me.  my  good  friend  mr.  Christy 12  wrote  to  him  from  Wil- 
liamsburg Concerning  me.  We  suped  together  at  the  tavern  and  next 
Day  I  went  to  Dine  with  him.  after  Dinner  we  went  to  the  Court 
which  was  then  seting:  here  my  friend  Introduced  me  to  most  of  the 

R  Ignatius  Digges,  of  Melwood. 

'  Father  Thomas  Digges,  S.  J.  (1711-1805),  a  native  of  Maryland,  missionary 
there  since  1742,  superior  before  Father  Hunter. 

8  Upper  Marlborough,  on  the  western  branch  of  the  Patuxent. 

9  Near  the  present  Bayard,  Md. 

10  On  the  south  side  of  South  River. 

11  The  celebrated  Pennsylvania  magnate  and  lawyer  (1729-1803),  born  in 
Maryland,  speaker  of  the  Pennsylvania  assembly  1 766-1 774,  member  of  the  first 
Continental  Congress,  Loyalist.     Life  by  E.  H.  Baldwin   (Philadelphia.   1902). 

12  James  Christie,  of  Annapolis;  see  the  first  installment  of  this  journal,  note 
78. 


72  Documents 

gentlemen,  and  particularly  to  the  atorny  general  and  Chief  Justice.13 
we  spent  the  remainder  of  the  Court  time  (which  was  till  the  18)  very 
Chearfully.  there  was  a  large  and  agreable  Company  at  my  tavern, 
where  we  had  nothing  but  feasting  and  Drinking,  after  the  Kings 
health,  the  Virginia  assembly,  and  then  Damnation  to  the  Stamp  act  and 
a  great  Deal  to  that  purpose  in  fine  we  scarce  used  to  Go  to  bed  sober. 
June  the  igth,  went  with  J.  Galloway  to  his  Brothers  at  tulip  hill 
on  west  river,  a  very  fine  situation.14  Nothing  Can  be  Equal  to  the  . 
Civilities  I  received  from  these  Gentlemen,  this  place  is  12  miles  from 
the  town,  there  is  great  plenty  of  wheat  and  Indian  Corn  raised  in  this 
part  of  the  Country. 

June  the  20th.     we  went  to  a  fishing  party  out  in  the  Bay,  where  we 
Catched  a  prodigious  quantity  of  roks  which  is  a  fine  fish. 
Do.  the  21st.     Came  back  to  town. 

the  22d.  Crossed  the  Severn  (which  is  about  2  miles  broad)  and 
weated  on  the  governor  in  Company  with  both  Galloways,  he  lives 
about  6  m.  from  town  where  he  has  bought  a  farm  and  is  building  a 
prety  box  of  a  house  on  the  Bay  side,  which  he  Calls  white  hail.16  he 
is  but  lieutenant  governor,  the  proprietor  16  being  governor,  he  for- 
mally had  been  in  the  army,  he  is  a  batchelor  about  45  y's  old,  a  very 
agreable  sencible  gentleman,  wee  Came  to  town  after  Dinner  on 
Conditions  that  I  should  return  shortly  and  spend  some  time  with  his 
honour,  which  I  promised  with  pleasure,  for  I  liked  his  Company  much. 
June  the  23d.  Set  in  Comp'y  with  J.  Galloway,  Esqr.  for  Baltimore 
town.  Broke  fast  at  the  widow  rights,  15  m.  at  noon  arived  at  pa- 
tapsco  fery,17  where  we  met  with  some  ladys  and  gentlemen  that  were 
going  to  a  feast  aboard  a  ship  that  was  lying  at  anchor  in  the  river,  with 
several  others,  we  profited  of  the  opertunity  and  went  with  them,  it  is 
Custumary  for  all  ships  that  Come  to  the  Country  to  take  tobaco  on 
freight  home,  to  give  a  Dinner  to  which  they  generally  invite  the 
planters  and  familys,  Especially  those  who  freight  tobaco  on  board,  who 
take  Care  to  tell  of  it  in  their  Cups.  I've  shiped  so  much  says  one 
I've  shiped  so  much  says  another,  and  then  a  Dispute  would  rise  who 
shiped  moste,  which  would  have  turned  serious  at  last  if  somebody  very 
lukily  had  not  spoke  of  the  stamp  Dutys,  which  altered  the  Conver- 
sation imediately.  then  was  they  Darning  their  souls  if  they  would  pay 
and  Damn  them  but  they  would  fight  to  the  last  Drop  of  their  blood  be- 
fore they  would  Consent  to  any  such  slavery.  In  short  the  aproche 
of  night  finished  the   feast  and  wee  went  with  part  of  the  Comp.  to 

13  The  attorney-general  was  Edmund  Key  (d.  1766).  Maryland  Magazine  of 
History,  V.  196;  Maryland  Archives,  XIV.  128.  The  chief  justice  of  the  provin- 
cial court  was  John  Brice  (1714-1766),  of  Annapolis.  Md.  Archives,  XIV.  216; 
Richardson,  Side-Lights  on  Maryland  History,  pp.  357-359. 

J*  Near  Galloways,  Md. ;  the  home  of  Samuel  Galloway.  It  is  described  and 
pictured  in  J.  M.  Hammond,  Colonial  Mansions  of  Maryland  and  Delaware,  pp. 
138-143- 

15  It  is  described  and  pictured  in  Lady  Edgar's  A  Colonial  Governor  in  Mary- 
land, pp.  188-194,  245.  arid  in  Hammond,  pp.  77-87.  The  governor  mentioned 
was  of  course  Lieut-Col.  Horatio  Sharpe  (1718-1790),  governor  1753-1769. 

10  Frederick,  sixth  Lord  Baltimore. 

«  See  J.  D.  Schoepf,  Travels  in  the  Confederation,  I.  37'- 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,   ij6=>  75 

baltimore,  which  is  Considerable  for  the  short  time  since  its  first  Es- 
tablishment, which  is  owing  to  its  proximity  with  the  many  Iron  mines, 
and  works  in  its  Invirons,  the  situ'on  is  far  from  being  agreable,  it  is 
at  the  foot  of  a  hil  fronting  to  the  Southward,  a  Sandy  Soil  which 
makes  it  very  hot  in  the  Sumertime.  it  is  not  near  as  healthy  as  anap- 
olis.  the  ships  Cant  Come  within  a  mile  of  the  town,  here  I  met  my 
good  friend  Mr.  Christy  who  accompanied  us  the  24th  to  Charles 
Carol  Esq'r,18  about  three  miles  from  town,  where  he  has  Considerable 
Iron  works,  wee  went  to  see  them  but  unfortunately  the  furnais  was 
not  in  blast.  the  mines  that  belong  to  these  works  are  Considerable 
and  abundant  in  Iron,  they  belong  to  five  Gentlemen  and  are  at  present 
worth  500  ps.  per  annum  to  Each  of  [them]  altho  in  its  infancy.'9 
there  are  great  numbers  of  mines  about  this  part  of  the  Country  some 
of  which  are  Coper  and  very  rich  in  apearance  but  no[t]  wrought. 

Mr.  Carol  treated  us  with  all  the  Civility  Imaginable,  wee  staid 
here  all  the  24th. 

June  the  25th.    returned  to  anopolis.  Mr.  Christy  with  us. 

Do.  26th.  went  to  Marlbro  Court  where  there  was  a  Surprising 
Number  of  People.  Dined  at  the  tavern  in  a  large  Company,  the  Con- 
versation Continually  on  the  Stamp  Dutys.  I  was  realy  surprised  to 
here  the  people  talk  so  freely,  this  is  Common  in  all  the  Country,  and 
much  more  so  to  the  Northward,  the  Catholiques  seem  to  be  very 
Cautious  on  this  occasion,  we  went  to  ly  at  Mr.  Diggses  where  I  had 
again  the  pleasure  of  Conversing  with  the  Rever'd  father  thomas,  to  my 
great  satisfaction. 

Do.  27th.  Came  to  tulip  hil  In  Company  with  both  Galloways,  Mr. 
Stuard,  one  of  the  majistrates  of  anapolis,20  and  Mr.  Junifer  major  in 
the  militia.21  after  Dinner  as  the  botle  was  going  round  the  Con- 
versat'n  fell  on  the  Stamps,  and  as  the  wine  operated  the  rage 
against  the- proceedings  of  the  parlement  augment,  only  the  magestrate 
seemed  to  retain  himself,  and  took  the  part  of  the  ministry,  on  acc't  of 
his  Countryman  lord  Bute.22  in  the  hight  of  the  Conv'on  there  was 
something  said  about  takeing  up  arms,  that  if  the  americans  took  it  in 
head  they  were  able  to  Cope  with  Britain  in  america.  upon  which  the 
magestrate  said  that  non  but  Disafected  people,  or  Enemys  to  the  pres- 
ent government,  could  talk  in  such  a  manner,  but  notwithstanding  his 
loyalty,  he  out  with  it  at  last,  and  said  that  if  it  Came  to  the  push  he 
would  take  up  arms  himself  In  Defence  of  his  liberty  and  property,  upon 
which  he  had  a  huza  from  the  Company. 

18  Charles  Carroll  of  Annapolis  and  Elk  Ridge  (1702-1781),  father  of  Charles 
Carroll  of  Carrollton.  The  Patapsco  Iron  Works  were  at  the  mouth  of  Gwynn's 
Falls,  now  in  the  southwest  part  of  Baltimore. 

»9  Four  of  the  five  were  this  Charles  Carroll,  Charles  Carroll,  barrister,  Dan- 
iel Dulany,  and  Robert  Carter,  of  Nomini,  Va.  A  letter  of  the  first-named  to  his 
celebrated  son,  written  in  1764,  mentions  that  he  owns  a  fifth  of  these  iron- 
works.    Rowland,  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  I.  60. 

-0  Dr.  George  Stewart,  member  of  the  provincial  council.  See  Hanson.  Old 
Kent  of  Maryland,  pp.  262-264. 

2i  Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer,  afterward  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress and  signer  of  the  Constitution. 

22  Dr.  George  Stewart  was  born  in  Scotland. 


74  Documents 

It  is  Certain  that  this  act  has  made  a  great  alteration  in  the  americans 
Disposition  towards  greatbritain,23  and  will  have  a  very  Good  Efect 
with  regard  to  themselves,  it  has  already  set  them  on  raising  every- 
thing within  themselves,  which  they  would  never  have  thought  of  other- 
wise, for  they  hithertoo  were  the  greatest  spendtrifts  in  the  world,  sat- 
isfied if  at  the  years  End  the[y]  Could  make  both  Ends  meet,  they 
send  their  produce  home,  which  is  sold  by  the  merchants  at  their  own 
price,  and  aded  to  this  Considerable  Charges,  there  was  but  litle  Comeing 
to  the  poor  planter,  and  Even  that  litle  was  sent  out  to  him  in  some 
necessary  furniture  which  cost  him  as  Dear  in  proportion  as  his  tobaco 
was  sold  Cheap,  thus  the  Inhabitants  of  america  were  allways  from 
hand  to  mouth.  Indeed  they  have  this  happiness  well  for  them,  that  all 
necessarys  for  life,  abound  in  this  fine  Country  in  the  utmost  plenty: 
however  they  seem  already  to  be  intent  on  raising  manufactures,  spin- 
ning and  weaving  both  woolen  and  linnen,  and  more  Especially  to  the 
norw'd.  In  Boston  they  make  all  their  own  aparell.  In  so  much  that 
there  are  great  Complaints  in  England  of  the  few  goods  taken  of  their 
hands  this  last  year  by  the  Colony's:  if  they  put  this  resolution  in  Exe- 
cution it  must  be  a  fatal  stroke  to  England,  for  their  Chief  Dependance  is 
on  their  manufactures  to  which  these  Colonys  were  a  Considerable 
suport. 

June  the  28th.     remained  at  tulip  hill  with  Mr.  Junifer. 

the  30th.  went  to  a  fishing  party  to  the  Bay  Side  being  Invited  by 
a  Quaker  who  gave  a  feast  there. 

July  the  1st.  Came  with  Mr.  Junifer  to  annopolis  where  the  pro- 
vincial Court  begins  the  10th.  the  3d.  Do.  Dined  with  old  Squ'r  Carrol 
of  anopolis.24  he  is  looked  on  to  be  the  most  moneyed  man  in  maryland 
but  at  the  same  time  the  most  avaritious.  he  is  a  stanche  Roman  Catho- 
lique,  keeps  but  very  litle  Company  owing  perhaps  to  his  Distaste  to  the 
protestants.  I  was  never  genteeler  received  by  any  perssonne  than  I 
was  by  him.  he  has  no  family,  only  a  b.  son  who  he  Intends  to  make 
his  sole  heir,     he  had  part  of  his  Education  in  france. 

the  6th.  Dined  with  Mr.  Key,  atorney  general,  who  is  a  very  sen- 
cible  man. 

the  9th.  Dined  with  Barister  Carrol25  (who  Came  for  the  Court) 
in  Company  with  Several  Gentlemen,  who  were  the  top  of  the  province. 
they  were  all  scheming  how  to  rise  manufactures,  one  had  sent  home 
for  weavers,  another  for  spiners,  another,  other  things,  In  short  in  three 

!3C/.  the  letters  of  John  Beale  Bordley  in  J.  B.  Gilson,  Biographical  Sketches 
of  the  Bordley  Family,  pp.  82-85. 

-i  The  same  Charles  Carroll — of  Annapolis  or  Elk  Ridge  or  Doughoregan — 
referred  to  above,  note  18.  What  is  said  here  of  his  son's  birth  is  contradicted 
by  the  data  given  in  Miss  Rowland's  biography. 

=5  Charles  Carrol!,  barrister  (1723-1783),  a  distant  relative  of  Charles  Car- 
roll of  Carrollton  ;  he  was  afterward  a  member  of  several  of  the  revolutionary 
conventions  of  Maryland,  and  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

2<>  James  Tilghman,  elder  brother  of  Matthew  Tilghman,  M.  C.  C,  and  father 
of  Chief  Justice  William  Tilghman  of  Pennsylvania.  Md.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  I.  369. 
Governor  Sharpe,  in  a  letter  of  May  8,  1764,  speaks  of  him  as  "  Mr.  James  Tilgh- 
man, lately  Burgess  [member  of  the  assembly,  1763]  for  Talbot  and  one  of  our 
first-rate  lawyers,  but  now  settled  in  Philadelphia".  Md.  Archives,  XIV.  160. 
Barrister  Carroll  had  in   1763  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Matthew  Tilghman. 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,  i/6j         75 

years  time  they  would  not  have  a  farthings  worth  of  anything  from  Eng- 
land, there  was  one  Mr.  tilghman  here  from  Philadelphia 26  who  says 
that  the  people  in  Boston  are  highly  infla'd  against  the  mother  Country, 
and  that  their  first  toast  after  Dinner  is  the  Virginia  assembly,  that  they 
have  wrote  to  all  the  Different  assemblys  on  the  Continent  to  send  three 
members  from  Each,  to  meet  at  new  york  as  a  Comitee,  to  Consult  what 
measures  they  should  take  to  opose  the  Stamp  act.27  this  general  Comitee 
is  to  set  the  1st  of  8'bre,  And  is  the  best  method  they  Could  fall  on  the 
[to]  unite  the  sentiments  and  Interests  of  the  Different  Colonys  or  prov- 
inces into  one.  it  must  be  observed,  that  G.  B.  has  hithertoo,  Encouraged 
Disunion  as  much  as  possible  betwixt  the  Differ't  Colonys,  by  setleing 
here,  a  Kings  Government,  and  there  a  Propriatary  Gt.,  which  are  always 
oposit  in  their  sentiments,  the  Inhabitants  of  Ks.  Gts.  think  themselves 
much  hapyer  than  the  others,  and  they  again  are  of  quite  Diff't  op- 
pinon,  and  Youl  observe  the  many  Diff't  sects  and  sorts  of  worship 
amongst  them,  which  is  very  much  encouraged  from  Engl'd.  there  is 
for  Example  Carolina,  abounds  with  presbiterians,  Virginia,  hardly 
any  other  than  the  Church  of  England.  [In  margin :  except  about 
Norfolk.]  Maryl'd  were  formerly  all  Catholiques,  but  very  much  al- 
terd  since  the  Change  of  the  stupid  propietor.2S  pensilvania,  mostiy 
quakers,  I  hear,  but  they  begin  to  Dwindle  away,  the  new  Jersys  and 
York  governments  a  mixture  of  all  Sorts,  where  they  seem,  particularly 
In  new  York,  to  be  less  Bigoted  to  religion  than  any  other  part  of  the 
Continent  (Except  Charles  town  in  S.  Carolina)  by  what  I  learn. 
Rhode  Island  was  setled  first  by  people  Banished  from  Boston,  and  was 
for  some  years  the  general  asilum  for  such  as  sufered  from  the  spirit  of 
persecution  that  reigned  then  at  Boston,  those  were  Called  sectaries 
and  espoused  the  Covenant  of  Grace,  and  were  persecuted  by  those 
whom  held  the  Covenant  of  the  works:  so  that  there  are  Jensinists  and 
molinists  in  this  part  of  the  world  as  well  as  elsewhere,  but  under  Dif- 
ferent Denominations. 

In  Boston  they  are  ranck  Bigoted  presbiterians.  of  these  sort  of 
people  preserve  me  o  Lord. 

All  this  Ive  mentioned  only  to  shew  that  G.  B.  by  Encouraging  these 
Divisions  and  Differences  betwixt  the  Colonys,  think  they  Can  by  that 
means  keep  them  allways  at  vareance  amongst  themselves  and  Conse- 
quently wholely  Dependent  on  them  and  subject  to  their  will,  but  great 
is  their  mistake  in  this,  for  the  Inhabitants  of  north  america  Can  lay 
asside  their  religion,  when  their  Interest  requires  it,  as  well  as  the  Eng- 
lish Can,  and  allways  have  done. 

July  the  nth.  Dined  at  My  friend  the  Magestrates  Mr.  Stuart  in  a 
full  Company,  and  allways  the  old  Cause  but  with  moderation  on  acc't  of 
Mr.  Judge. 

July  the  13th.  Dined  at  Mr.  Dicks  mayor  of  London  town,  a  Clever 
old  gentleman.29 

Do.  14.  had  all  the  gentlemen  whom  shewed  me  Civilitys  to  Dine 
with  me  at  my  tavern  to  the  number  of  22. 

27  Resolutions  of  June  8. 

28  Meaning,  either  the  accession  of  the  unworthy  sixth  lord,  Frederick,  the 
present  proprietor,  or  the  renunciation  of  Catholicism  by  Benedict,  the  fourth 
lord. 

29  James  Dick,  of  the  firm  of  James  Dick  and  Stewart,  of  London  and  Anna- 
polis.    Md.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  III.  246. 


76  Documents 

Do.  15th.  the  assembly80  Disolved  for  want  of  Jurymen,  non  came 
to  town  for  fear  of  the  smallpox  which  is  now  bad  in  it. 

the  16th.  went  to  a  fishing  party  out  in  the  Bay  where  we  me[t] 
the  governor  and  several  others. 

the  20th.  went  with  a  large  Company  of  gentlefmen]  to  the  gover- 
nors, where  6  of  us,  namely  Navy31  Diggs  Esqr.,  the  two  Galloways,  Mr. 
Junifer,  the  atorney  general  and  myself,  Stayed  three  Days. 

the  23d.     came  back  from  the  governors  to  anopolis. 

the  25th.  went  with  a  large  Company  of  ladys  and  gentlemen,  to  the 
governors  to  a  barbicue.     Came  back  the  Same  even'g  to  town. 

Maryland  is  Divided  by  the  North  Extremity  of  Chesapeak  Bay  into 
two  parts,  called  the  Eastern  and  western  shores,  this  province  like 
Virginia  has  no  Consid'e  towns,  and  for  the  reason,  namely,  the 
number  of  its  navigable  Creeks  and  rivers,  the  staple  Comodity  of  mary- 
land  is  Chiefly  tobacco ;  and  the  planters  live  in  farms  scaterd  about 
the  Country,  and  have  the  same  Conveniency  as  the  Virginians  of  ships 
Comeing  to  their  Doors,  by  means  of  Chesapeak  Bay,  and  its  navigable 
rivers  thertoo  Communiciating.  their  yearly  Exports  in  tobacco  is 
Computed  to  be  about  30  th'd  hhds.  the  white  taxables  are  about  35 
thousd.  there  is  some  woolen  manufacture  Caried  on  in  the  County  of 
Somerset,  their  Comon  Country  Drink  is  cyder,  which  is  very  good, 
this  Country  also  abounds  in  wild  grapes  which  makes  me  think  that  if  it 
was  Cultivated  it  would  produce  wine,  maryland  is  favoured  by  nature 
with  all  necessary  Convenience  for  shiping  as  well  as  all  the  other  prov- 
inces, hemp  grows  well,  it  has  plenty  of  timber  and  Iron.  Samuel 
Galloway  Esqr.  has  a  ship  yard  on  the  head  of  west  river  within  two 
small  miles  of  his  house  where  he  has  a  ship  Carpenter  that  builds  him 
several  ships,  those  that  have  purchased  them  built  hithertoo  gives 
them  a  good  Caracter. 

the  Chief  rivers  are  Potowmack  (which  it  has  in  Common  with  Vir- 
ginia), Patuxent,  and  Severn,  on  the  western  shore,  Chiptonk,  Chester, 
and  Sassapas  32  on  the  Eastern. 

the  province  is  Divided  into  11  Countys.  six  on  the  west,  and  5  on 
the  Eastern  side  of  Chesapeak.  those  on  the  western  side  are,  St. 
marys,  Charleses,  Prince  George,  Calvert,  anne  arundel  and  Baltimore 
Counties,  on  the  Eastern  side  are  Somerset,  Dorchester,  Talbot,  Kent, 
and  Cecil  Counties.33  alexandria  is  their  Chief  town  in  the  Back  of  the 
province,  but  Inconsiderable. 

Lord  Baltimore  is  Both  Proprietor  and  govern  [or]  of  Maryland,  the 
family  is  now  of  the  protestant  perssuasion,  but  not  a  bit  the  more  Es- 
teemed for  it.     he  is  much  Dispised  in  Maryland  partikularly. 

July  the  26th.  Set  out  infine  from  Anopolis  to  the  Norwd.  Crossed 
the  Bay  to  hutchins  fery  on  Kent  Island,  which  is  about  12  or  14  m. 
from  hence.  Cross  the  Island  to  the  Eastern  Shore  fery  which  is 
J4  of  a  mile  Broad.  Kent  Island  is  very  good  land,  some  farms  on  it. 
but  Cheafly  Catle.  this  Island  and  the  Eastern  [Shore]  is  in  general, 
low  and  flat,  full  of  Swamps  and  Swashes  of  Brakish  water,     this  part 

30  Meaning,  the  provincial  court.  There  was  no  session  of  the  assembly  until 
September  23. 

31  Ignatius ;  see  note  6,  above. 

32  Choptank,  Chester,  and  Sassafras. 

33  There  were  several  others. 


A  French   Traveller  in   the  Colonies,   1765  77 

of  maryland  is  the  moste  unhealthy,  very  subject  to  feavors.  I  never 
saw  such  a  quantity  of  muskitoes  in  any  part  of  the  world  as  here. 

from  Eastern  Shore  fery  to  queenstown,  a  Small  place  12m.  Dist. 
here  Dined,  from  thence  to  Churchil,34  a  litle  Country  town  also,  the 
Country  very  pleasant  and  fine  roads,  farming  seems  [to]  take  up  the 
peoples  atention  here  more  than  any  other,  they  raise  great  quantitys 
of  wheat  and  Indian  Corn,  tobacco  Does  not  answer  at  all  and  is  but 
litle  Cultivated  on  this  [side  of]  the  Bay.  the  water  is  but  very  In- 
different and  Contributes  much  to  the  sickliness  of  this  part. 

Do.  the  27th.  from  Churchil  to  fredericks  or  Prince  Georges  town 
20  mi.  on  sassapas  river,35  a  very  fine  situation,  but  a  small  place  of  litle 
trade,  from  hence  to  Mr.  Chews  to  whome  I  had  a  letter  from  Mr.  Gal- 
loway; he  has  a  Store  at  Prince  Georges,  and  a  farm  about  4  miles  from 
thence,  here  I  lay.  this  is  Cecil  County  which  seems  still  beter  Culti- 
vated than  hithertoo.  Indeed  this  has  been  the  Case  all  along  as  I 
Came  to  the  northward. 

the  28th.  from  Mr.  Chews  to  New  Castle  on  the  Delawar.  this  is 
a  prety  town  Consisting  of  about  500  Dwelling  houses,  it  is  looked 
upon  as  the  next  to  Philadelphia  In  the  province,  it  is  about  30  from 
this  last,  S.  W.,  on  the  north  side  of  said  river,  there  was  two  Kings 
Fregates  of[f]  the  town  to  visit  the  vessels  going  in  and  out  therby  to 
hinder  foreign  trade.36  from  New  castle  to  Wilmington,  6  miles, 
crossed  the  fery  at  Christeen  river.37  this  is  a  small  but  very  well  situ- 
ated litle  town,  on  the  side  of  sd.  river,  large  ships  Can  Come  up  this 
river  to  the  town.38  it  is  about  I  mile  Dist.  from  the  Bay,  on  which  the 
town  has  a  fine  prospect,  being  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  this  place  is  so  near 
the  City  that  there  is  but  litle  trade  Caryed  on.  tavern  Keeping  is  the 
best  business  that  is  Caryed  on  in  all  those  small  towns,  therfore  are 
they  well  stocked  with  taverns,     here  I  lay. 

July  the  20th.  Set  out  Early  for  Chester,  12  miles.  the  weather 
Extremly  hot.  the  horsses  had  great  Difficulty  to  Dr[a]gg  me  along. 
Chester  is  on  Priest  Creek39  about  15  miles  from  philad.  the  roads 
from  willmington  are  very  hilly  and  stoney  which  seemd  odd  at  first, 
being  so  long  acustomed  to  fine  level  roads.  I  met  here  a  number  of 
gentlemen  and  ladys  who  Came  out  from  the  City  on  a  party  of  pleasure. 
I  Dined  in  their  Company  and  wee  all  Set  out  together  after  Dinner, 
arrived  at  p[h]ilad.  at  6j<  and  took  lodgeings  at  the  widow  Gradens  in 
Second  Street,  which  is  the  only  genteel  lodgeing  in  town.49  we 
si  The  locality  is  still  called  Church  Hill ;  it  is  in  the  northern  part  of  Queen 
Anne  County,  some  five  miles  southeast  of  Chestertown. 

35  On  Griffith's  map  of  Maryland  (1794)  the  village  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Sassafras  is  called  Frederick,  that  on  the  south  side  Georgetown,  and  such  are  the 
names  recorded  by  Philip  Fithian,  who  journeyed  along  this  same  route  from 
Annapolis  in  1774.  Journal  and  Letters,  pp.  154,  155.  Now  these  villages  are 
called   Fredericktown  and   Georgetown,  respectively. 

36  One  was  the  Sardoine,  Capt.  James  Hawker.  Md.  Archives,  XIV.  238, 
239;  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council,  Colonial,  V.   18. 

37  Christiana  Creek. 

38  Cf.  Kalm,  Travels  into  North  America  (Warrington,   1770),  I.   157. 

39  Ridley  Creek.  On  Thomas  Holme's  map  (1687)  it  is  called  "  Preest 
Creek  ". 

■»o  The  widow  Graydon,  mother  of  Alexander  Graydon  the  author  of  the  cele- 


78  Documents 

Crossed  sculkill  fery  about  3  miles  from  town,  from  whence  the  road  to 
philada.  is  Beautifull,  the  Country  one  Continuall  farm  and  several  prety 
litle  Country  houses. 

August  the  3d.  went  to  a  fishing  party  on  sculkill  river  in  Company 
with  Samuel  Mifflin  Esqr.,  Messrs.  Willing  and  moris41  (to  whom  I  had 
a  letter  of  recomend'n  from  Beans  and  Cuthbert  In  Jamaica)  and  sev- 
erall  other  of  the  first  people  in  the  town,  where  we  Spent  the  Day. 

Do.  the  5th.  went  [to]  German  town  with  another  Company  to  see 
the  stocking  manufacture,  this  is  a  Small  place  setled  by  Germans  and 
Dutch  who  are  all  stocking  weavers  and  manufacture  great  quantitys 
of  thread  and  woolen. 

Do.  Jth.  went  again  with  another  Company  to  Sculkill  falls  which 
are  not  Considerable  wheras  boats  and  flats  Can  Come  Down  without 
any  great  Dangour.  there  is  here  what  they  Call  a  museum  or  a  room 
where  they  have  a  Colection  of  all  the  Curiossitys  they  can  pick  up  in  the 
Country,  which  Consists  in  Different  sorts  of  fowls,  fishes,  shels,  sneaks, 
and  other  Curious  anymals.  also  Indian  dresses  and  Diff't  ornaments, 
there  were  a  few  miners  here  Blowing  up  the  rocks  of  the  fall  to  facili- 
tate the  passage  for  Boats  over  it.  for  when  once  over  the  falls  they  Can 
go  a  Considerable  way  up  the  Country,  we  Dined  at  a  tavern  that  is 
here,  a  large  Company  of  both  sexes. 

August  the  10th.  Mr.  Mifflin  introduced  me  to  the  Governor,  with 
whom  we  Dined.42  he  is  nephew  to  Mr.  Pen  the  proprietor,  there 
are  two  brothers  of  them  here. 

Do.  isth.  went  with  Mr.  harden  the  roman  Cathoiique  mission- 
ary 43  to  Dine  with  Messrs.  mead  and  f itsimons  also  roman.44 
brated  Memoirs,  was  born  in  Barbadoes,  of  a  German  father  and  a  Scottish 
mother,  and  married  an  Irishman.  Thus  qualified  for  the  entertainment  of  a 
cosmopolitan  company,  she,  after  her  husband's  death,  began  to  keep  a  boarding- 
house  in  Philadelphia.  Her  son  describes  several  of  her  more  interesting  guests, 
but,  alas,  makes  no  mention  of  our  traveller.  Johann  Kalb,  coming  tc  Philadelphia 
on  a  similar  commission  from  the  French  government,  boarded  with  Mrs.  Gray- 
don  in  1768  and  1769.  The  house  in  which  she  lived  in  1765  was  the  "Slate- 
roof  House  ",  at  the  southeast  corner  of  Second  Street  and  Norris's  Alley,  built 
in  1687  and  standing  till  1867  (picture  in  Pa.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  IV.  52).  Graydon, 
Memoirs  (ed.  1846),  pp.  18,  20,  33,  43,  62,  64. 

41  Samuel  Mifflin  (d.  17S1),  a  relative  of  Thomas  Mifflin,  was  a  prominent 
merchant  in  Philadelphia  ;  see  previous  installment,  note  63.  The  firm  of  Wil- 
ling and  Morris  (Thomas  Willing  and  Robert  Morris),  established  in  1754,  con- 
tinued till  1793,  and  was  during  most  of  that  time  one  of  the  chief  mercantile 
firms  in  the  city.  Thomas  Willing,  Robert  Morris,  and  Samuel  Mifflin  were  all 
members  of  the  Mount  Regale  Fishing  Company. 

42  John  Penn  (1729-1795),  son  of  Richard,  lieutenant-governor  1763-1771, 
deputy-governor  1773-1775.  His  father  and  his  uncle  Thomas  were  both  propri- 
etaries in  1765.  The  brother  next  mentioned  was  Richard  (1736-1811),  lieuten- 
ant-governor   1771-1773. 

43  Rev.  Robert  Harding,  S.J.,  missionary  in  Philadelphia  from  1749  to  his 
death  in  1772.  Rev.  Jacob  Duche,  in  "  Caspipina's  Letters  "  (Observations  on  a 
Variety  of  Subjects,  Philadelphia,  1774,  p.  114),  speaks  of  him  as  "a  decent  well 
bred  Gentleman,  .  .  .  much  esteemed  by  all  denominations  of  christians  in  thi 
city  ". 

44  George  Mead  (1741-1808),  grandfather  of  Gen.  George  G.  Meade,  ail' 
Thomas  Fitzsimons  (1741-1811),  member  of  the  Federal  Convention  of  1787,  .'1 
C.   1789-1795,  were  brothers-in-law  and  partners. 


A  French  Traveller  in  the  Colonics,  1/65  79 

Do.  16th.     went  on  second  party  on  sculkill  river. 

Philadelphia  Capital  of  pensilvania  is  situated  on  a  neck  of  land  at 
the  Confluence  of  the  two  fine  rivers,  Delawar  and  Schuikill.  it  is 
Iayed  out  in  the  form  of  a  paralelogram  or  long  square,  and  Designed 
when  finished,  to  extend  two  miles,  from  river  to  river,  and  to  Compose 
eight  long  streets  which  are  to  be  intersected  at  right  angles  by  sixteen 
others  Each  a  mile  in  length,  broad,  spacious  and  Even,  with  proper 
spaces  left  for  the  public  buildings  Churches  and  market  places,  in  the 
Center  is  a  Square  of  10  acres,  round  which  the  public  buildings  are  to 
be  Disposed,  the  two  principal  streets,  called  hight  Street,45  and  Broad 
Street,  are  each  one  hund'd  feet  in  Breadth,  the  others  60,  and  most  of 
the  houses  have  a  small  garden  or  orchard,  there  are  great  numbers  of 
wharfs,  the  principal  an  hund'd.  foot  wide,  and  water  enough  for  ships 
of  500  tuns  burthen  to  load  and  unload  alongside  them,  the  ware 
houses  are  numerous  and  commodious,  and  the  Docks  for  ship  building 
are  well  adapted  and  Convenient,  there  is  now  twenty  Vessels  on  the 
Stocks,  great  and  small,  some  of  the  former  three  hund.  tuns  Burthen, 
the  City  exclusive  of  warehouses  Consists  of  about  3,000  houses  or  more, 
the  number  of  inhabitants,  Computed  to  be  about  30,000.  the  original 
of  the  town  which  I  have  Described  here  is  far  from  being  Completed, 
but  is  more  advanced  than  any  town  whatsoever  Ever  was  in  so  short  a 
time,  and  encreasses  Daily  very  considerably,  there  is  a  number  of  very- 
rich  merchants  in  this  City,  their  trade  is  considerable  to  all  westindia 
Islands,  also  the  madeiras,  spain,  portugal,  England,  Ireland,  and  hol- 
and,  there  is  a  Surprising  quantity  of  all  kind  of  grain  raised  in  the 
province  Espec'y  wheat,  with  which  the[y]  suplied  England  and  Ireland 
abundantly  this  year,  where  it  was  very  scarce,  they  have  all  kinds  of 
provisions  great  plenty  of  vegetables,  all  this  is  brought  Down  the  rivers 
Delawar  and  Scu'lkill.  the  Dutch 4G  Employ  between  8  and  900  thd. 
wagons  drawn  with  four  horsses  Each  In  bringing  the  product  of  their 
farms  to  philadelph[ia]  market,  there  has  been  300  Vessels  Cleard  out 
of  this  port  in  one  year,  and  as  many  Enter'd.  their  Chief  Exportations, 
are,  grain,  lumber,  Iron,  of  which  there  is  plenty,  Beef,  pork,  flaxseed, 
some  hemp  and  furs,  the  hemp  theyl  find  use  amongst  themselves  as 
the[y]  have  now  many  roperies  and  make  very  good  Canvas  or  Duck, 
their  Importations  from  the  westindias  Consists  in  sugar,  rum,  Cofee 
Coten,  and  Molasses,  sometimes  Cash,  they  have  set  up  several  looms  of 
late  where  there  is  very  good  linnen  made,  and  no  Doubt  but  the  stamp 
Duty  will  augment  their  aplication  that  way.  they  send  great  quantitys 
of  flaxseed  to  Ireland  yearly,  in  return  for  which  they  have  Irish  linnens. 
the  established  religion  was  quaker  formerly,  but  all  believers  in  Christ 
are  tolararted,  the  quakers  seem  to  Dwindle  very  fast,  there  is  a  roman 
Church  here  47  to  which  resorts  about  1200  people,  many  of  which  are 
Dutch,  they  are  in  generall  poor,  there  are  several  good  churches  of 
protestants  and  presbiterens.  the  state  house  is  a  very  good  building, 
also  the  hospital,     there  are  three  public  liberaries.48     they  have  two 

45  High  Street,  now  Market. 

46  Germans.  Lord  Adam  Gordon  attributes  to  them  20,000  wagons  (Mere- 
ness,  Travels  in  the  Colonies,  p.  411),  Burnaby,  9000  (Travels,  ed.  1775,  p.  50). 

47  St.  Mary's,  a  frame  building  on  Fourth  Street  above  Spruce. 

48  The  library  of  the  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia,  the  Loganian  Li- 
brary, and  probably  that  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  are  meant.  See 
Schoepf,  Travels  in  the  Confederation,  I.  86,  87. 


8o  Documents 

market  Days  in  the  week,  Wednesdays,  and  saturdas.  It  is  amazeing  the 
quantity  of  meat  (which  is  exceed  fine)  and  all  kinds  of  provisions 
vegitables  and  fruits,  that  abounds  at  this  market,  and  the  number  of 
people  of  both  sexes,  that  Comes  to  buy  provisions  on  those  Days. 

The  Climate  of  Pensilvania  is  very  agreable,  and  the  air  sweet  and 
Clean,  the  fall  or  autumn  begins  about  the  20th  8bre  and  lasts  to  the 
Begining  of  Xbre,49  when  the  winter  sets  in,  which  Continues  til  march, 
frosty  weather  and  extreme  Cold  seasons,  are  very  Common  here,  so  that 
the  river  Delawar  tho  broad  and  rapid,  is  often  froze  over,  but  then  the 
weather  is  Dry  and  healthy,  the  spring  lasts  from  march  to  June,  and 
the  Sumer  in  July,  august,  and  September,  Dureing  which,  the  heats  are 
Excessive,  particularly  in  the  night,  more  Disagreably  so,  than  In  the 
Island  of  hispaniola  in  the  hotest  time,  this  I  have  experienced. 

the  Soil  of  this  province  is  in  some  places  a  black  or  yellow  sand,  in 
some  light  and  gravelly,  and  in  the  vales  along  rivers  sides  a  fat  mould, 
the  earth  is  very  fruitful  and  easy  to  be  laboured,  it  is  prety  well 
watered,  well  furnished  with  timber  and  Iron.  In  Short  there  is  no  part 
of  america  in  a  more  flourishing  Condition  than  pensilvania.  great 
numbers  of  people  abound  to  it,  in  some  years  more  have  transported 
themselves  into  this  province,  then  into  all  the  others  besides.  In  the 
year  1729,  6208  perssons  Came  as  passengers  and  servants,  to  setle 
here,  four  fifths  of  whom  were  from  Ireland,  they  Continue  still  Come- 
ing,  to  avoid  the  misery  of  their  own  Country,  where  they  are  a  thou- 
sand times  worse  than  guinea  Slaves. 

the  Chief  Inland  town  in  pensilvania  is  lancaster,  Sixty  miles  from 
philada.  back  in  the  Country,  here  they  renew  their  treaties  with  the 
Indians,  there  is  a  prety  Considerable  trade  Caryed  on  here  with  the 
back  setlers.  the  Inhabitants  of  this  province  are  a  well  Disposed  people 
of  a  moderate  Jenius,  strong  and  well  looking,  they  are  more  shie  of 
strangers  than  in  the  other  provs.  and  litle  Curious  of  getting  acquainted 
with  them,  or  shewing  any  civilitys  Except  they  have  very  good  recom- 
mendations, this  they  say  themselves,  is  owing  to  tricks  put  upon  them 
by  strangers,  but  I  belive  to  be  more  owing  to  the  reservedness  of  the 
quakers,  which  seems  to  have  infused  itself  into  all  the  Inhabit's, 

August  the  20th.  Set  out  this  morning  for  New  York,  breakfastd 
at  fronkfort,  6  miles,  a  Small  vilage.  Dined  at  the  red  Lion  tavern,  7 
miles;50  and  slept  at  the  Delawar  fery  tavern,  16  m.,  where  I  met  with 
young  Thorns.  Mifflin51  and  others. 

Do.  21st.  Crossed  the  Delawar  near  the  falls,  went  thorough  tren- 
ton>  1  m.  [In  margin:  There  [are]  Baraks  by  Trent  [on]  to  hold  600 
men.]52  and  breakf'd  at  princetown.  this  is  a  prety  Country  town  situ- 
ated in  a  fine  fruitful  agreable  Country,  there  is  a  good  Colege  here 
large  Enough  to  hold  400  people,    there  is  now  160  scholars.53    prince 

*9  October  20  ;    December. 

50  At  the  mouth  of  Poquessing  Creek,  now  Torresdale. 

si  Afterward  the  celebrated  major-general,  president  of  Congress,  signer  of 
the  Constitution,  and  governor  of  Pennsylvania  ;  at  this  time  a  youth  of  twenty- 
one. 

52  Burnaby,  p.  54,  who  also  mentions  barracks  at  Princeton,  New  Brunswick, 
and   Perth  Amboy. 

53  The  Account  of  the  college  published  by  the  trustees  in  1764  gives  the 
number  as  120.     Macl.ean,  History  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  II.  273. 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,  1765         81 

town  is  10  m  from  trenton.  from  here  to  Brunswick,54  14  miles,  here  I 
Dined,  there  is  also  a  Barack  here,  the  road  is  very  fine  hithertoo, 
the  Country  well  inhabited,  this  side  the  Delawar  Is  new  Jersys.  it 
[is]  well  cultivated,  great  plenty  of  all  Sorts  of  fruits  on  each  side, 
with  which  they  faten  the  hogs  in  tne  season,  indeed  all  the  Catle  like  it 
beter  than  grass,  they  make  great  quantitys  of  Cider  here  but  not  Ex- 
traordinary in  quality,  after  Dinner  Crossed  the  fery55  and  continued 
to  amboy,  12  m.  this  is  the  Capital  of  East  Jersy,  Consisting  of  about 
200  houses,  it  is  well  situated  and  has  a  comods.  harbour  there  is 
Barracks  here  also,  the  Jerseys  are  Divided  into  East  and  west,  am- 
boy is  Capitl  of  the  first,  and  Burlington  (which  is  on  the  Delawr.  20  m. 
above  Philadelphia)  Capital  of  west  Jersy.  the  Governor  resides  6 
months  in  one  place  and  6  in  the  other,  this  Colony  is  well  Inhabited 
and  Cultivated,  the  climate  is  healthy  and  temperate,  its  general  pro- 
duce is,  all  sorts  of  Grain,  horsses,  black  Catle,  hogs,  skins  and  pipe 
Staves,    the[y]  Catch  some  whale  on  the  Coast. 

they  Export  Bread.  Corn,  flower,  Beef,  pork,  hams,  fish,  some  buter, 
and  bar  Iron,  to  west  Indies,  for  which  they  receive,  sugar  molasses  and 
rum  in  return ;  they  send  to  England  skins,  pitch,  tar,  whale  bone,  etc. 
and  oyl,  for  which  the[y]  have  furniture  and  Cloath'g. 

As  the  towns  generally  ly  up  in  the  Country  the  trade  is  Chiefly  over 
land  to  new  York. 

there  are  from  100  to  200  familys  in  one  place,  ^reat  part  of  which 
are  Dutch,  the  number  of  Inhabitants  is  computed  at  65,000  of  all  ages 
and  sexes,  of  which  6000  are  men  fit  to  Cary  arms,  and  about  200  In- 
dians, there  is  no  Considerable  town  in  the  Jersys,  amboy  being  the 
most  so  of  any. 

August  the  22d.  Crossed  the  fery  from  amboy  to  Staten  Island 
which  is  about  a  mile  broad,  from  hence  to  watsons  fery  at  the  other  Ex- 
tremity of  the  Island,  16  miles,  here  I  Broke  fast,  this  Island  is  in  the 
province  of  new  York,  Distance  about  9  m.  N.  W.G6  from  the  metropolis, 
it  is  about  [13]  miles  in  length,  and  6  or  7  in  breadth,  on  the  South  side 
is  a  Considerable  tract  of  good  level  land,  but  the  Island  in  general  is 
rough  and  the  hills  prety  high  and  stoney.  the  Inhabitants  are  princi- 
pally Dutch  and  some  french. 

Sandy  hook,  and  the  Southermust  point  of  long  Island,  form  the  En- 
trance of  New  York  Bay.  this  is  Called  the  narows.  it  is  but  2  m. 
broad  and  opens  the  ocean  to  full  view,  the  passage  up  to  York  from 
sandy  hook  is  safe,  and  not  above  25  miles  in  length,  the  Common  navi- 
gation is  between  the  East  and  west  bancs,  in  two  or  three  and  twenty 
feet  water,  but  it  is  said  that  an  Eighty  gun  ship  may  be  brought 
thorough  a  narrow  winding  unfrequen'd  Channel,  between  the  North  End 
of  the  East  bank  and  Coney  Island,  there  has  been  a  70  gun  ship  up 
Close  to  the  town,  the  Island  on  which  the  City  is  built  is  about  14  m. 
long,  and  not  above  one  mile  broad,  the  S.  W.  point  projects  into  a  fine 
spacious  bay,  9  miles  in  length  and  about  4  in  breadth,  at  the  Confluence 
of  hudssons  or  N.  W.  river  and  the  streight  between  long  Island  and  the 
North  Eastern  Shore,  or  East  river,  on  this  point  is  the  City,  which 
Consists  of  about  2700  houses  or  buildings,     it  is  upwards  of  a  mile  in 

5*  New   Brunswick. 

55  Over  the  Raritan. 

56  Southwest. 

\M.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.  —  6. 


82  Documents 

length  and  about  l/i  that  in  breadth,  it  is  said  to  be  a  very  healthy  spot, 
the  East  and  South  parts  are  low  and  Convenient  for  wharfs,  the  north 
and  west  parts  Elevated  and  Dry.  the  Streets  are  Iregualar,  but  being 
paved  with  round  pebles,  are  allways  Clean,  there  are  Several  weli 
built  brick  houses  in  the  English  taste,  the  others  in  the  Dutch  with  the 
gablends  towards  the  Streets  and  Coverd  with  tyles  ;57  this  City  is 
suplyed  with  markets  in  Different  parts,  abounding  with  great  plenty 
and  variety,  they  have  Beef,  pork,  veal,  muton,  poultry,  veneson,  wild 
fowl,  Especially  wild  pigeon,  fish,  oysters,  roots,  and  all  Kinds  of  vegi- 
tables  and  fruits,  in  their  Seasons;  this  City  is  the  metropolis  of  the 
province  and  by  its  Comodious  situation  Commands  all  the  trade  of  the 
western  part  of  Connecticut  and  that  of  East  Jersy ;  no  Season  pre- 
vents their  shipin  from  going  out  and  Comeing  into  port,  there  are  all- 
ways  pilot  boats  at  the  narows  ready  to  Conduct  them  In  on  first  sight. 

upon  the  S.  W.  point  of  the  City  stands  the  fort  which  is  a  square 
with  four  Bastions  mounted  with  9  pounders  but  in  very  bad  order.53 
within  the  walls  is  the  Governors  house  where  he  usualy  resides,  opo- 
site  to  it  are  brick  Baracks.  the  Governors  house  is  3  stories  high  and 
fronts  to  the  west. 

Below  the  walls  of  this  fort  or  garison  near  the  water  there  is  a  forti- 
fication to  Defend  the  grand  road,  (but  Ships  Can  lye  with  safety  out  of 
its  reach)  the  lower  part  or  foundation  of  this  Batery  is  built  with 
stone,  and  the  merlons  Consist  of  Ceder  Joists  filld  up  with  Earth,  it 
mounts  92  24  pounders  which  are  almost  level  with  the  water,  this  for- 
tif'on  is  not  of  any  great  service  to  the  harbour,  which  is  in  East  river 
and  also  the  principle  part  of  the  town  which  lyes  that  way.  about  6  fur- 
longs from  the  fort  lys  noten  Island59  behind  which,  betwixt  [it]  and 
long  Island,  is  a  passage  for  prety  large  vessels,  on  which  not  one  gun  of 
this  fortif'on  Can  be  brought  to  bare,  this  Island  lys  about  S  E  from 
the  fort  in  the  midle  of  East  river,  it  is  reserved  as  a  Sort  of  a 
Demesne  for  the  Governors,  they  pro[po]se  to  Erect  a  Strong  Castle  on 
it,  but  there  is  as  yet  not  the  least  apearance  thereof,  this  according  to 
my  Judgement  is  the  p[r]operest  place  for  a  fortif'on. 

there  are  besides  this,  two  other  Islands  in  the  Bay  oposite  the  town 
but  out  of  reach  of  the  guns,  they  say  there  is  very  good  fresh  water  on 
all  those  Islands     they  serve  for  vessels  to  ly  Curenteen  by  them. 

the  City  hall  is  a  Strong  building  two  Stories  high  situated  where 
four  Streets  meet  and  fronts  to  the  S.  W.  on  one  of  the  most  Spacious 
Streets  in  town,    here  they  hold  their  Council  and  General  Courts. 

the  Inhabitants  of  new  York  are  a  mixed  people,  mostly  Decended 
from  the  Dutch  planters  originally,  there  are  still  two  Churches  in 
which  religious  worship  is  performed  in  that  language,  but  the  number 
that  talk  it  Diminishes  Daily,  all  religions  are  permited  here  Except 
the  roman  Catholique. 

the  City  of  York  Consists  principally  of  merchants,  shop  keepers, 
and  tradesmen  (as  Dos  Philadelphia)  who  have  the  reputation  of  punc- 
tual and  fair  Dealings,  there  are  Some  very  rich  houses  in  it.  the 
people  are  very  sociable  and  kind  [to]  Strangers. 

felt  makeing  is  a  Considerable  Branche  in  york  and  it  is  said  their 
hats  are  as  good  as  in  England. 

57  Cf.  Kalm,  Travels,  I.  249. 

68  See  also  Lord  Adam  Gordon   (Mereness,  p.  415),  and  other  travellers. 

5°  Governor's  Island. 


A  French  Traveller  in  the  Colonics,  1765         83 

the  N.  E.  part  of  New  York  Island  is  Inhabited  Chiefly  by  Dutch 
farmers  who  have  a  Small  vilage  there  Called  harlem  pleasantly  Situ- 
ated on  a  flat  Cultivated  for  the  City  Markets. 

scarce  a  third  part  of  the  province  is  Cultivated,  the  Colony  of 
Connecticut  which  is  vastly  inferior  to  this  In  its  Extent,  has  according 
to  a  late  Computation,  above  133,000  Inhabitants  of  which  a  militia  of 
27000  men,  wheras  the  whole  number  of  Souls  Containd  in  New  York 
province  is  but  110,000,  and  the  militia  18000. 

the  Situation  of  new  york  with  regard  to  foreign  markets  Is  to  be 
prefered  to  any  of  the  Colonies,  it  lies  in  the  Center  of  the  Continent, 
has  at  all  times  a  Short  and  easy  access  to  the  ocean,  and  has  almost 
the  whole  trade  of  Connecticut  and  New  Jersy,  two  fertile  and  well  Cul- 
tivated Colonies,  hudsons  river  which  runs  up  in  the  Country  near  lake 
Ontario  (and  Caries  Small  vessels  as  far  as  albany  on  Sd.  river  150  [m.] 
from  York)  Impowers  them  to  Cary  on  a  Conssiderable  trade  with  the 
Back  Indians,  to  whom  they  Send  rum,  amunition,  blankets,  Strouds,60 
and  wampum  or  Conque  shell  Bugles.  In  return  for  which,  they  have 
all  Kinds  of  furs,  and  peltrys;  they  allways  have  been  in  good  Inteli- 
gence  with  the  five  nation,  now  Six  Nation  Indians,  which  are  the 
Bravest  and  most  redoutable  of  all  the  Indian  Nations,  that  Canada  has 
.often  Experienced; 

the  Importation  of  Dry  goods  from  England  to  this  province  has  been 
Conssiderable  formerly,  Insomuch  that  the  merchants  were  often  at  a 
loss  how  to  make  returns,  or  remitances  to  the  English  merchants,  but 
this  is  not  so  much  the  Case  now,  and  Especially  since  the  Stamp  Dutys 
have  been  talked  of.  Indeed  the  Inhabitants  of  all  the  Different  Colo- 
nies are  so  Exasperated  at  this  present  time,  at  the  stationing  men  of 
war  all  along  the  Coste  to  prevent  their  Carying  on  any  foreign  trade, 
Especially  with  the  french  Islands  and  now  ading  the  Stamp  Duties,  that 
they  are  resolved  to  raise  every  thing  within  themselves,  and  Import 
nothing  from  England,  this  resolution  tho  of  a  Short  Standing,  has 
afected  England  to  that  Degree  that  Several  Corps  of  tradespeople  were 
risen,  and  Could  not  be  quelled  without  a  Conssiderable  body  of  troops 
that  were  Dispersed  in  the  Difft.  parts  of  the  City  of  london  for  that 
purpose. 

there  had  been  severall  perssons  apointed  in  the  Different  Colonies, 
to  be  Colectors  of  Sd.  Duties,  but  they  were  all  glad  to  resigne  to  save 
their  lives. 

the  Exports  of  New  york  to  the  west  Indias  are  flower,  peas,  rye 
meal,  bread.  Indian  Corn,  ognions,  boards,  Staves,  lumber,  horses,  sheep, 
pickled  oysters,  beef  and  pork,  of  flower,  which  is  the  main  article, 
there  has  been  shiped  about  90.000  Barels,  pr.  annum,  to  preserve  their 
Credit  in  this  important  branche  of  their  staple,  they  apoint  officers  to 
Inspect  and  brand  every  Barrel  before  it  is  shiped.  the  returns  are 
Chiefly  sugar,  rum,  molasses  etc.  the  Spaniards  Commonly  Contract 
with  this  and  the  Colony  of  Pensilvania  for  provisions,  and  with  Vir- 
ginia for  Masts  and  yards,  much  to  the  advantage  of  Sd.  Colonies,  the 
returns  being  wholly  in  Cash,  their  wheat,  flower,  Indian  Corn,  and 
lumber,  shiped  to  lisbone  and  the  maderas,  balance  the  madera  wine  Im- 
ported which  is  no  small  quantity,  it  being  their  usual  Drink  after  meals, 
they  Export  to  Ireland  great  quantitys  of  flax  Seed,  they  Sent  in  one 
year  13.000  hhds.     in  return  they  have  Irish  linnens. 

BO  Blankets. 


84  Documents 

there  is  along  hudsons  river  great  stock  of  timber  of  all  Kinds  and 
good  Conveniences  for  ship  building,  also  Iron  mines  in  plenty  and  of  the 
best  quality  out  of  which  they  furnish  Boston  and  road  Island,  for  their 
bulding.  this  is  a  Considerable  branche  of  the  trade  of  this  province, 
the  bodys  of  Iron  mines  in  the  Northern  parts  of  it  are  so  many,  their 
quality  so  good,  and  their  situation  so  Convenient  with  regard  to  wood, 
water,  Cariages,  and  all  other  Conveniencies,  that  it  is  generally  thought 
(with  attention)  they  might  rival  the  Swedes  in  this  article. 

North  america  is  provided  by  nature,  with  Every  thing  necessary,  to 
becom  the  greatest  martime  power  In  the  univers,  its  harbours  are 
Numerous  and  Comodipus,  its  Coasts  of  Easy  access,  by  the  sounds, 
which  you  have  on  all  the  Continent  a  Conssiderable  Distance  of  [into] 
the  land,  timber  and  Iron  abounds  in  all  parts,  Navall  Stores  in  the  grat- 
est  plenty,  and  hemp  grows  as  well  as  in  any  Country  whatsoever.  Joigned 
to  this  the  healthiness  of  Climate,  the  great  propogation,  youl  See  about 
the  farmers  houses  in  the  Country,  Children  Swarming,  like  broods  of 
Ducks  in  a  pond,  they  Come  quiker  to  maturity  than  in  Europe  are 
strong  and  robust,  in  general  well  Disposed,  Easy  lead  on  to  any  under- 
taking, but  Soon  Discouraged  if  the  Success  Does  not  imediatly  answer 
their  Expect'on.  they  have  this  in  Common  with  the  English,  Soon  up. 
and  as  soon  Down,  that  is,  they  are  Easily  Elevated  in  spirit,  and  as  , 
Easy  Dejected,  an  Enterprising  man  that  would  Study  these  people 
and  gain  their  inclinations  will  bring  them  to  do  any  thing  he  pleases. 

this  Country  Can  not  be  long  subject  to  great  Britain,  nor  Indeed  to 
any  Distant  power,  its  Extent  is  so  great  the  Daily  Encrase  of  its  In- 
habitants So  Considerable,  and  haveing  every  thing  necessary  within 
themselves  for  (more  than)  their  own  Defence,  that  no  Nation  whatso- 
ever seems  beter  Calculated  for  independency,  and  the  Inhabitants  are 
already  Intirely  Disposed  therto  and  talk  of  nothing  more  than  it. 

It  is  Computed  that  there  are  at  least  ten  thousand  Convicts  and  pas- 
engers,  or  indented  Servants,  imported  yearly  into  the  Different  Colonies, 
the  first  are  Sent  to  Virginia  and  maryland  only,  and  likewise  Indented 
servants ;  But  the  Colonies  to  the  Northward  of  maryland  admit  no  Con- 
victs, but  Serv'ts  as  many  as  will  Come.61  there  has  Come  to  philadel'a 
alone,  5000  in  one  year,  }i  of  which  were  from  Ireland,  great  numbers 
of  Dutch  and  germans;  those  Indented  Servants,  are  poor  people  that 
Can  not  pay  their  passage  and  signe  Indentures  to  the  Cap'ns  for  the 
payment  therof.  he  on  his  arival  Sells  these  indtures  to  the  highest 
bider,  they  are  generally  for  four  years,  some  more,  Dureing  which 
time  these  poor  wretches  are  obliged  to  Serve  like  slaves  or  Convicts, 
and  are  on  the  same  footing;  If  ever  any  foreign  power  Comes  to  In- 
vade the  Country,  and  publishes  the  liberty  to  all  of  those  people  that 
will  Joign  with  them,  they'l  Certainly  all  take  party,  and  I  look  on  them 
to  be  fiter  for  Soldiers  than  the  Inhabitants,  being  Eured  to  hard  labour 
and  fatigue,  acustomed  to  live  hard: 

August  the  26th.  Crossed  over  the  Channel  to  long  Island,  some- 
times Calld  Nassau  Island,  which  is  In  the  province  of  new  york.  it  is 
about  120  m.  long  and  not  above  18  broad.  It  is  Divided  from  the  Con- 
tinent by  a  Channel  of  100  m.  in  length,  and  12  In  Breadth,  there  are 
many  Convenient  harbours,     it  Contains  the  Countys  of  sufolk,  Rich- 

ci  On  the  matter  of  the  convicts,  sec  the  late  Dr.  J.  D.  Butler's  article  in 
Am.  Hist.  Rev.,  II.   1:2-33. 


./  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonics,  1765         85 

mond62  and  queens  County,  its  trade  is  in  furs,  Skins  and  tobaco  to 
great  Britain,  and  horses,  Beef,  pork,  peas,  wheat,  oats,  and  Corn,  to  the 
west  India  Islands,  In  return  for  which  they  have  sugar,  rum,  molasses, 
Cotten,  Cofee,  etc.  the  Soil  is  very  good  on  this  Island,  all  sorts  of 
vegetables  and  fruits  abound  on  it,  hemp  and  flax  grows  very  well  also. 
In  the  midle  of  the  Island  there  is  Salisbury  plaine  16  miles  long  and  4 
broad,  on  which  there  is  neither  Stick  nor  Stone  to  be  Seen,  a  fine  place 
to  Encamp  an  army,  there  is-an  Excelent  Breed  of  horses  on  the  Island, 
for  which  reason  their  militia  regiment  is  all  Cavalry,  there  are  Sev- 
eral small  Islands  of  the  Eastern  Coast  but  non  Inhabited;  they  have  a 
whale  fishery  here  sending  the  oil  and  bones  to  England,  there  are  also 
other  fisheries.     I  Dined  and  lay  at  the  fery  tavern. 

August  the  27th.  Crossed  over  to  York,  the  28th  Dined  with  John 
wats  Esqr.63  In  Company  with  General  Gage64  his  lady  and  Several 
officers,  it  is  thought  Mr  wats  will  be  made  Lieutenant  Governor  of  this 
province.  Sir  henry  moore  Is  apointed  governor  and  Expected  out 
Daily,  he  was  lieutenant  governor  of  Jamaica,  a  very  agreable  polite 
gentleman  and  Intirely  the  Courtier,  talks  all  languages,  well.65  there 
was  nothing  talked  of  at  York  Dureing  my  Stay  there  but  the  spirited 
and  patriotic  behavior  of  the  Inhabitants  of  the  northern  Colonies  Es- 
pecially Boston,  where  the  people  had  a  few  Days  ago  surownded  the 
Stamp  officers  house  who  seemed  to  have  some  reluctancy  to  resigning 
his  office,  and  would  have  leveled  it  with  the  ground  if  he  had  not  Imedi- 
ately  resigned  and  promised  never  to  act  in  that  quality  upon  any  acct. 
next  Day  they  Caried  lord  Butes  Efigie  in  a  Cart  round  the  town  and 
hanged  it  to  [a]  tree  where  it  lay  Exposed  till  Dark  (with  a  guard  at  the 
foot  of  Sd  tree)  then  they  throwed  him  into  a  fire  round  which  they 
sung  and  Danced  all  night,  the  Same  thing  was  Done  in  providence. 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut,  they  all  Declare  Solemnly  that  when 
the  Stamp  papers  Come  over  they'l  set  fire  to  the  house  wherein  thefy] 
are  lodged. 

Atigust  the  29th.  Dined  and  suped  with  Messrs.  young  and  walas. 
the  fever  took  me  at  night  which  held  me  three  Days  Dureing  -which 
Doctor  midleton  6G  atended  me. 

Sepr.  the  jrf.  Set  out  from  York  to  philadela.  Crossed  the  fery  to 
powlers67  hook,  2  miles  broad,  from  thence  to  Bargin68  fery,  9  miles, 
the  fery  about  y2  a  mile,  to  Elizabeth  point  fery  2J/2  miles,  the  fery  %. 
to  Elizabeth  town  2  m.  Dined  here,  a  prety  litle  Inland  town  where 
there  is  a  Court  house  and  a  Decent  Church  the  Country  about  it 
fruitfull  and  well  Cultivated,  plenty  of  grain  and  fruit,  from  hence  to 
wood  Bridge69  a  Small  vilage  10  [miles]   Dist. 

Do.  the  4th.     from  wood  Bridge  to  Brunswick  fery  10  m.  the  fery  J-j. 

62  Suffolk,  Queens,  and  Kings.     Richmond  County  was  and  is   Staten  Island. 

63  Tohn  Watts  (1715-1789),  member  of  the  council,  Loyalist. 

«•*  Maj.-Gen.  Thomas  Gage,  commander-in-chief  in  America  1763-1772,  after- 
ward governor  of  Massachusetts. 

«5  Sir  Henry  Moore  governed  Jamaica  most  of  the  time  from  1756  to  1761, 
and  New  York  from  November,   1765,  to  his  death  in   1769. 

66  Dr.  Thomas  Middleton,  author  of  An  Historical  Inquiry  into  the  Ancient 
and  Present  State  of  Medicine  (New  York,   1769). 

67  Paulus. 

68  Bergen. 

63  Woodbridge,  N.  J. 


86  Documents 

this  town  is  the  finest  Situated  of  any  that  Ive  yet  Seen  for  a  Country 
town,  it  is  on  Raritan  river  about  15  miles  from  its  mouth,  on  the  west 
Side  therof,  on  a  riseing  grownd  at  the  top  of  which  is  a  fine  Barak, 
on  Each  Side  the  river  are  Several  prety  Country  Seats  and  farms  well 
tended  which  has  a  very  prety  Efect,  there  is  a  Coper  mine  about  10  m. 
up  this  river  which  Does  not  promise  much  at  present,  altho  great  things 
were  Expect  from  it  afirst. 

amboy  on  the  mouth  of  this  river  (which  Ive  before  mentioned)  is 
well  situated  for -trade,  haveing  a  fine  and  safe  harbour  in  Sandy  hook 
Bay  suficient  to  hold  500  Sail  of  Sniping  of  any  Burthen,  vessels  may 
also  be  built  very  Conveniently  here  and  Cheap,  Notwithstanding  these 
advantages  it  is  but  a  Small  place  of  no  trade,  which  is  owing  to  its  prox- 
imity to  York,  it  Consists  of  about  40  or  50  scatered  houses  Some  of 
which  are  good  buildings,     its  situation  is  both  pleasant  and  healthy. 

after  Breakfast  Set  out  from  Brunswick  to  Prince  town  16  miles, 
here  I  went  to  meeting  T0  at  which  was  a  Considerable  Congregation  of 
presbitirians.     from  hence  to  trenton  where  I  lay. 

Sepr.  the  $tli.  from  trenton  to  the  red  lion  and  from  thence  to  Phila- 
delphia the  same  road  I  went. 

Do.  6th.  this  morning  Mr.  Mifflin  Introduced  me  to  governor  Pen 
with  whom  we  Dined. 

the  Jth.     Dined  with  mr  alen  71  to  [whom]  mr  mifflin  Intrd.  me  also. 

Quelque  jours  7-  avant  nion  Depart  De  Philadelphia  on  y  avoit  recue 
la  nouvelle,  que,  la  perssonne  qui  avoit  Ete  nomme  receveur  Des  nouvelles 
Droits  a  York,73  C'Etoit  Demis  De  cette  Charge,  et  que  le  gouverneur71 
y  avoit  nomme  Son  fils  Et  C'Etoit  retire  dans  le  fort,  avec  les  troopes  qui 
Ce  trouvoient  pour  lors  dans  la  Ville,  et  avoit  ordonne  aux  Cap'ns  De 
Deux  fregattes  qui  Etoient  En  rade  De  s'aprocher  De  la  ville  pou[r]  la 
Cannoner  En  Cas  que  les  habitants  Eussent  fait  le  moindre  mouvement. 

[March  13,  1765.]  J'ai  quitte  le  Batiment  au  Cap  look  Out  et  me 
Suis  rendu  a  New  bern  En  trarverssant  la  Caroline  Du  Nord,  Dont  cette 
Ville  Doit  Etre  la  Capitalle,  elle  est  apresent  peu  Considerable,  ainssi 
que  toutte  les  autres  Villes  de  Cette  province,  excepte  le  Cap  fare,  qui 
est  la  plus  Comercantte,  Cependant  la  navigation  est  asse  mauvaise  a 
cette  dernierre  puisqu'il  ny  a  que  17  pieds  D'Eau  sur  la  barre,  qui  est  a 
Son  entre,  a  hautte  mer. 

la  rivierre  sur  la  quelle  est  batie  New  bern,  ainssi  que  toutte  Celles 
que  J'ai  traversse  en  allant  a  Virgine,  qui  Sonts  Consider  [able]  et  en 
grand  Nombre,  Communiquent  a  une  meme  Embouchure  qu'on  nomme 

70  It  was  not  Sunday,  but  Wednesday. 

vi  Probably  Andrew  Allen  (1740-1825),  the  attorney-general,  son  of  Chief 
Justice  William  Allen  and  brother-in-law  of  Governor  John  Penn.  He  was  for 
a  brief  period  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  resigning  in  1776;  then  a 
Loyalist;  see  Pa.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  I.  206-211. 

72  This  paragraph  is  written  on  3  separate  page  of  the  manuscript,  the  fifty- 
fifth.  The  matter,  in  French,  on  pp.  56-62,  is  omitted  here,  as  merely  repeating 
the  diarist's  English  narrative  of  his  journey  down  to  March  13,  1765  (see  pre- 
vious installment). 

'3  James  MacEvers. 

7<  Cadwallader  Colden,  acting  governor.  These  references  show  that  the 
diarist  left  Philadelphia  in  the  latter  part  of  October. 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonies,  ij6~,         87 

Ocacock,  ou  il  y  a  une  barre  sur  la  quelle  II  ny  a  que  9  pieds  D'Eau,  Ce 
qui  fait  que  le  Comerce  y  est  peu  Conssiderable. 

Norfolk,  la  Ville  la  plus  Comercantte  et  Conssiderable  De  la  Virginie, 
est  situe  Du  Cotte  de  l'Est  de  la  rivierre  Elizabeth  (qui  Donne  dans 
Tames  rivierre  a  une  lieux  au  dessous)  a  un  des  beau  75  ports  que  la 
Nature  peut  former  et,  est  munie  de  tout  ce  qui  est  Necessaire  pour  la 
Construction  ou  reparation  Des  Navires  de  quelque  grandeurs  que  Ce 
Soit.  sur  le  Cotte  opose,  et  vis  a  vis  de  Norfolk,  est  une  petitte  Ville 
nouvellement  Etablie  nomme  Portsmouth,  qui  a  plusieures  quays,  aupres 
Des  quels  les  plus  gros  batiments  peuvent  Carener.  tous  les  Batiments 
qui  onts  afaire  dans  la  virginie  ou  le  Maryland  s'ils  ont  besoins  de  Ra- 
doub  vienent  Icj,  D'autant  mieux  qu'ils  y  trouvent  Ce  qui  leur  faut,  et 
que  le  port  et  sure  l'Entree  et  la  sortie  facille. 

II  est  Etonnant  que  les  Habitants  n'ont  Jamais  pensse  a  fortifier  un 
Endroit  qui  parroit  Devoir  etre  D'une  grande  Concequence  pour  le 
Comerce  du  pays,  Car  l'Enemie  peut  y  entrer  en  tems  de  guerre  et  rav- 
ager  la  Ville  sans  oposition,  ny  ayant  pas  Un  seul  Cannon ;  Ny  Dans  les 
Environs,  Ton  pouroient,  me  Dira't  on,  y  Assembler  2,000  homes  en  peu 
de  tems,  mais  que  peuvent  deux  ou  trois  mille  homes  Efraye,  sans  Dici- 
plinne,  surpris  sans  s'y  atendre,  quand  mem  Ce  Seroit  par  Un  Nombre 
bien  moindre  qu*eux.  mais  qui  seroit  resolu,  et  bien  arme.  [In  margin : 
en  Cas  de  surprise  ils  auroient  de  la  peine  a  r'assembler  mille  homes.] 

la  richesse  de  Set  Endroit  ne  Dedomagerez  pas  Des  depences  D'une 
Entreprise  qu'on  y  feroient;  D'abord,  II  y  a  peu,  ou  point  D'argent,  le 
tabac  et 76  l'objet  principal  de  leurs  Comerce,  et  de  cet  article  mem  n'y 
trouveroit  on  pas  Conssiderablement,  puisque  les  Vaisseaux  peuvent 
Taller  prendre  Chez  les  habitants  dans  les  Differentte  parties  de  la  prov- 
ince, par  le  moyen  des  rivierres  naviguable  qui  y  Sonts  en  grand  Nombre, 
ainsi  que  dans  le  maryland,  Ce  qui  fait,  qu'il  ny'a  pas  D'Entrepot  gen- 
eral ny  de  ville  Conssiderable,  Dans  les  deux  provinces;  par  ce  que  Je 
vien  de  dire,  II  paroit  que  Cet  Endroit  n'est  pas  un  objet  ou  Ton  puisse 
satisfaire  a  Tinterest. 

Si  1'on  y  alloit  dans  le  Desin  D'v  faire  du  Degat.  rien  de  plus  facille. 
puisque,  Comme  j'ai  Deja  observe,  II  y[a]  point  de  fortification,  et  qu'on 
peut  aller  mouller  a  une  portte  de  pistolet  de  la  ville,  ou  s'il  Convenoit 
mieux  dans  la  baye  sous  le  Cap  henry,  faire  Dessendre  son  mond  et 
marcher  a  la  ville  qui  en  est  a  4  ou  5  lieux  au  plus,  on  auroit  pour  lors  a 
Ce  garder  des  Embuches  parcequ'il  faut  traversser  des  Bois,  ou  II  y  a  un 
grand  Chemain  bien  pratiquable.  la  Costte  depuis  le  Cap  Jusqu'a  la 
ville  est  propre  a  la  Dessentte  et  on  trouve  toujours  des  pilots  aux  En- 
virons Du  Cap. 

En  tems  de  guerre,  les  vaisseaux  qui  Chargent  de  tabac  dans  les  deux 
provinces  de  virginie  Et  maryland  s'assemblent  Dans  les  Mois  de  [avril 
et  d'octobre]77  ou  Dans  la  rivierre  De  York  vis  a  vis  de  la  ville  qui  porte 
Son  Nom,  ou  Devant  la  Ville  de  Hampton  sur  la  rivierre  de  James,  plus 
Comunement  Ici  par[c]eque  les  Bureaux  y  Sonts  ou  Ils  S'Expedients. 
Ton  m'assure  avoir  vue  Ici,  en  pareille  Cas,  100  Voille  ou  Vaisseaux  pret 
a  mettre  a  la  voille.     Ils  Se  tienent  enssemble  pour  Etre  En  etat  de  se 
Defendre  des  Corssaires. 
"5  Des  plus  beaux. 
7<*  Est. 
~~  In   another  handwriting. 


88  Documents 

puisque  Cette  Ville  de  Norfolk  est  la  plus  Comercentte  Et  Conssider- 
able  on  pent  juger  des  Autres,  des  quelles  Sonts  Williamsburg  qui  est  la 
Capitalle  Cependant  de  peu  de  Concequence  Excepte  dans  le  tems  de 
leurs  assemblies  general  qui  s'y  tienent  deux  fois  l'anne  Scavoir,  l'une 
Commence  le  10  avril  et  tient  24  Jours,  l'autre  le  10  8bre  et  tient  Egale- 
ment  24  Jours.78  dans  Ces  tems  II  s'y  rend  beaucoup  de  monde,  mais 
dans  d'autre  C'Est  bien  peu  de  Chose.  II  y  a  encore  les  villes  de  York, 
NewCastle,  Petersburg,  frederickburg,  port  Royal  et  quelques  autres, 
mais  qui  Sonts  moindre,  les  Uns  que  les  autres. 

le  Maryland,  a  Cet  Egard,  est  Comme  la  virginie,  anopolis  En  est 
la  Capitalle;  elle  est  sur  la  rivierre  Severn,  a  gauche  En  y  entrant,  sans 
Canons  sans  auqu'un  Defence,  de  tres  facille  acces,  Ton  y  peut  aler'sans 
pilots,  Elle  est  peu  Conssiderable.  apres  Celle  ci  est  baltimore  qui  est  apeu 
pres  dans  le  mem  Cas.  il  y  a  aussi  alexandrie  sur  la  rivierre  Patowmac, 
ou  l'amiral  Bradock  C'Est  retire  apres  sa  Defaitte  En  Canada,  avec  son 
Esquadre.79  Deux  Fregattes  de  36  Canons  sonts  en  etat  de  prendre 
toutte  Ces  villes,  et  les  mettre  a  Contribution,  s'Entand  en  les  surpren- 
nant.  Je  ne  Scai  mem  Si  une  Seulle  ne  le  feroit  pas.  II  faudroit  dans 
Ces  ocasions  De  l'Expedition  Car  il  y  a  ordinairement  Des  fregattes  et 
Vaiss'x  De  guerre  sur  la  Costte  et  les  Chemins  sonts  beau  dans  le  pays, 
les  Expres  y  vonts  vitte,  la  Flotte  qui  s'assemble  Entems  de  guerre  a 
York  oii  Devant  Hampton,  est  ce  qui  merit  le  plus  d'atention  Dans  Ces 
deux  provinces. 

II  n'en  est  pas  de  mem  de  Philadelphia,  Capitalle  de  la  Penssilvanie. 
Cette  Ville  est  Conssiderable,  elle  est  Eloigne  de  la  mer  de  50  lieux,  s'En- 
tend  de  l'Embouchure  de  la  rivierre  Delaware,  la  navigation  de  Cette 
rivierre  est  Difficille,  mais  II  y  a  de  Bon  pilots  a  Lewis  town,80  (petitte 
Ville  qui  est  a  l'Entree,  a  3  milles  du  Cap  henlopen)  qui  Sonts  toujours 
prets  a  aller  abord  des  Batiments  qui  paroissent  avec  un  yak  a  la  tette 
Du  mast  du  petit  peroquet.81  quand  les  Vents  sonts  bon,  pour  monter  la 
rivierre,  on  se  rend  a  la  Ville  en  24  heurs,  quand  lis  Sonts  Contraire  Ton 
s'y  rend  par  le  moyen  des  marres,  qui  Sonts  forttes  dans  Cette  Baye.  a 
l'Ex[t]remitte  Du  Sud  de  la  Ville  II  y  a  une  baterie  qui  est  presqu'abon- 
donne ;  II  peut  y  avoir  24  Cannons  en  fort  mauvaise  Etatt.  Ton  a  bien 
tot  passe  Cette  baterie  et  quand  on  est  par  le  travers  du  milieux  de  la 
Ville  on  est  hors  De  Sa  porte.  la  riviere  de  Sculkill  passe  Derriere  la 
Ville  et  tombe  dans  la  baye  a  une  lieux  au  deSous.  rien  de  plus  facille 
que  D'Envoyer  Des  Chaloupes  dans  Cette  rivierre,  debarquer  Du  monde 
pour  prendre  la  Ville  par  derierre,  pendant  que  les  Vaisseaux  atireroient 
l'attention  Des  habitants  dans  l'autre  Extremitte.  Ce  Debarquement 
Doit  Ce  faire  de  nuit;  pour  Cet  Efet  on  peut  laisser  Un  Batiment,  avec 
le  monde  qui  y  est  Destinne,  a  l'Embouchure  de  la  Dite  rivierre  Et  au 
Comencement  Du  flot  (Car  ils  auronts  une  bonne  lieux  a  faire  de  l'Em- 
bouchure, a  l'Endroit  Du  debarquement  pour  avoir  le  moin  de  Chemin  a 
faire  par  terre  qui  est  %  de  lieux)  Envoyer  les  Chaloupes  avec  le  monde, 
on  ne  seras  pas  Embarrasse  pour  trouver  Des  Endroits  Commode  pour 
mettre.  pied  atterre  et  y  estant  II  est  facille  d'En  avertir  les  Vaisseaux 
par  le  moyen  de  quelque  fusee  Envoye  en  l'air. 

78  AH  erroneous ;  there  was  no  such  regularity. 

'"Attention  has  already  been  called  to  this  error  in  note  1,  above. 

so  Lewes,  Del. 

81  With  a  jack  (or  union  jack)   at  the  foretopgallantmast. 


A  French   Traveller  in  the  Colonics,   1765         89 

si  on  ne  veut  pas  faire  le  Debarquement  Come  Je  vient  De  Dire;  on 
petit  le  faire  Dn  Cotte  de  la  Baye,  ou  les  Vaisseaux  peuvent  le  Couvrire. 
en  ce  Cas  Je[il]  faut  le  faire  a  une  Des  Extremitte  De  la  Ville.  1'Ex- 
tremitte  du  nord  me  paroit  le  plus  propre  Car  il  ny  a  point  de  fortification 
a  Craindre,  et  le  terain  y  est  propre.  au  lieu  qu'au  Centre  de  ia  Ville  et 
jusqu'aux  Extremities  Ce  ne  Sonts  que  quays,  aupres  des  quels  il  y  a 
toujours  des  Batiments,  qui  le  rendroit  Difncille.  Si  on  peut  faire  Cet 
Expedition  sans  Etre  Decouvert,  Je  pense  que  1200  homes  pouroient  y 
reussire,  mais  II  faut  de  la  Suprise  autrement  II  faud[r]oit  un  bien  plus 
grand  Nombre.  Car  on  peut  assembler  beaucoup  de  monde  dans  Cette 
Ville  et  les  Environs  en  peu  de  terns.  II  seroit  imitil  de  Debarquer 
ailleurs  qu'a  la  Ville;  Car  on  trouveroit  dans  les  rivierres  Des  obstacles 
sans  fin  et  insurmontable,  on  ne  peut  les  passer  qu'en  batteau  et  elles 
sonts  en  grand  nombre. 

ayant  fait  Ce  qu'on  Ce  Seroit  propose  a  filadelphia.  II  y  a  la  Ville  de 
New  Castle  Sur  le  mem  Cotte  de  la  rivierre.  Environs  10  lieux  plus  bas, 
qui  est  la  plus  Conssiderable  apres  la  Capittalle.  Ton  voit  la  position  de 
Cet  Endro[i]t  D'abord.  elle  est  ainssi  que  les  autres  sans  Defence.  II  y 
a  Environs  500  maisons.  II  y  a  ordinairement  une  ou  deux  fregattes 
mouil'e  Ici  Devant,  pour  Visiter  les  Batiments  qui  sortent  et  qui  Entrent. 

Venons  apresent  a  la  Nouvelle  York,  Capitalle  de  la  province  du  mem 
nom.  Ton  ne  rencontre  pas  les  memes  Difficulttees  pour  Ce  rendre  a 
Cette  Ville,  II  faut  neanmoins  avoir  recours  aux  pilots,  que  Ton  trouve 
Ici  Comme  ailleurs;  quand  on  est  passe  les  narows,  qui  Veut  Dire  les 
Etroits,  II  n'y  a  plus  rien  a  Craindre,  Jusqu'a  la  Ville,  qui  est  Eloigne  de 
l'Embouchure  Environs  8  lieux.  la  fortification  (Dont  on  trouveras  la 
Description  dans  le  journal)  Est  dans  le  S.  O.  de  la  ville,  et  le  port  est 
dans  l'Est,  dans  le  Canal  qui  passe  Entre  l'islle  longue  et  la  Ville,  les 
anglais  apelent  Ce  Canal  East  river.  Ici  lis  onts  leurs  Chentiers,  tons 
les  Batiments  mouilent  Ici.  pour  Entrer  dans  Ce  port  par  la  passe  or- 
dinaire on  est  oblige  de  passe  devant  le  fort  mais  Cest  bientot  fait  avec 
un  bon  vent  De  la  partie  Du  Sud-Est  jusqu'au  ouest  D'autant  mieux  que 
la  passe  est  belle.  Estant  Dans  le  port  on  Est  maitre  de  la  Ville,  puisqu'011 
peut  l'abatre  En  peu  de  terns,  ou  faire  Debarquer  son  monde  dans  les  Dif- 
ferenttes  rues.  Si  on  ne  veut  pas  s'Exposer  a  passer  Devant  la  baterie 
on  peut  prendre  possession  D'une  Islle  qui  est  a  l'Entree  et  Dans  le 
milieux  de  Ce  Canal  qui  fait  le  port,  et  y  Dessendre  Du  Cannon  pour 
battre  la  Ville  Et  la  fortification.  Derierre  Cette  Islle,  entre  elle  et 
l'islle  longue,  II  y  a  une  autre  passe  pour  Des  moyen  batiments.  Dans 
Cette  passe  on  peut  Envoyer  le  monde  du  Debarquem't  dans  les  Vais- 
seaux de  transport  ou  mem  Dans  les  Chaloupes  et  faire  la  dessentte  que 
l'on  Couvriras  Du  Cannons  sur  l'islet. 

pour  faire  des  Expeditions  dans  Ce  pays,  II  faut  bien  ce  provisioner 
de  munitions  de  guerre,  Car  on  ny  en  trouve  pas.  quelques  Cannons  de 
Campagne,  seroient  fort  apropos. 

Si  on  vouloit  faire  la  Conquest  Du  pays  II  seroit  Essenciel  De  s'Em- 
parer  De  l'islle  longue,  Car  outre  qu'on  y  trouveroit  Des  provisions  de 
toutte  Especes,  II  y  a  de  fort  bon  Cheveaux  pour  monter  la  Cavalerie. 


REVIEWS  OF  BOOKS 

GENERAL   BOOKS  AND   BOOKS   OF  ANCIENT   HISTORY 

Attgemeine  Kulturgeschichte:  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  der  Mensch- 
heit  von  den  Acltesten  Tagen  bis  zur  Gegenwart.     Von  Charles 
Richet.     In  two  volumes.      (Munich   and   Berlin:   Verlag   fiir 
Kulturpolitik.     1920.     Pp.  xiii,  292;  x,  293-707. ) 
Charles    Richet,    professor    of    physiology    in    the    University    of 
Paris,   an    ardent   internationalist   as   well   as   a    famous   scientist,    was 
actively  engaged  just  before  the   war   in  promoting  friendly   relations 
between   Germany   and   France   in   the   vain   hope   of   warding  off  the 
conflict  which  then  threatened  and  which  finally  came  to  pass.     Think- 
ing, with  Herbart,  that  "  History  should  be  the  teacher  of  mankind  ", 
he  had  already  written  this  sketch  of  universal  history  which  was  ready 
for  publication  when  -the  outbreak  of  the  war  intervened.     In  1918  the 
first  German   edition   appeared,   and  now   the   second   is   printed.     The 
author  is  aware  that  his  book,  in  order  to  be  intelligible  to  the  average 
reader,  must  necessarily  be  inadequate  and  incomplete  in  many  respects ; 
but  he  justifies  the  attempt  to  survey  the  history  of  mankind  as  a  whole 
on  the  ground  that  at  least  some  conclusions  may  be  drawn  which  will 
be  of  practical  value  in  the  present  distressed  state  of  the  world. 

The  purpose  of  the  book  is  therefore  much  the  same  as  that  of 
Mr.  Wells's  Outline  of  History.  Its  object  is  to  determine  from  a 
study  of  the  past  what  it  is  that  contributes  to  human  progress.  But 
whereas  Wells  finds  that  progress  is  dependent  upon  the  development 
of  science,  the  religion  of  righteousness,  and  a  world  polity,  Richet  makes 
little  of  religion  and  politics  as  such,  but  lays  all  the  stress  upon 
science — science,  that  is,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  advancement  of 
knowledge  and  understanding.  It  is  only  through  the  increase  of  hu- 
man intelligence  that  progress  can  come;  give  us  intelligence  and  all 
other  things  will  be  added.  The  thesis  of  the  book  is  thus  to  show 
that  the  world  moves,  through  the  development  of  scientific  knowledge, 
away  from  tyranny,  provincialism,  and  conflict  toward  freedom,  peace, 
and  universal  brotherhood.  The  prehistoric  period  is  disposed  of  in 
short  space,  and  the  sketch  really  begins  with  the  Greeks  because 
"  Griechenland  ist  recht  eigentlich  die  Lehrmeisterin  des  Menschen- 
geschlechts  gewesen.''  The  first  volume  brings  us  down  to  the  French 
Revolution.  The  eighteenth  century  marks  indeed  a  new  era,  since 
it  was  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  science  began  to  make  those 
conquests  which  have  so  largely  determined  the  character  of  modern 
civilization.  "  Das  18.  Jahrhundert  ging  ruhmvoll  zur  Neige !  Amerika 
qo 


Bryce:   Modern  Democracies  91 

war  frei  und  die  Bastille  gesturmt,  die  Materie  aber  sollte  von  nun  an 
die  Dienerin  des  Menschengeistes  werden !  " 

Unlike  Mr.  Wells,  who  regards  the  modern  period  as  a  relapse  into 
egoistic  striving,  Richet  thinks  of  the  nineteenth  century  as  the  period 
of  greatest  progress.  He  therefore  devotes  the  entire  second  volume 
to  the  period  since  1789,  which  he  characteristically  entitles  "  Die 
Herrschaft  der  Wissenschaft " ;  and  of  this  volume  practically  one- 
half  is  devoted  to  the  developments  in  science,  invention,  and  the 
mechanic  arts.  These  are  the  events  of  true  historical  importance;  and 
in  them  we  may  see  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophetic  words  of  Lamar- 
tine:  "Enlightenment  makes  the  whole  world  one."  In  spite  of  all 
wars,  the  increase  of  knowledge  is  creating  a  common  point  of  view,  a 
universal  Weltanschauung. 

Was  aber  die  Zukunft  angeht,  so  glauben  wir  .  .  .  dass  einzig  und 
allein  die  Wissenschaft,  indem  sie  die  Materie  bandigt  und,  so  gut  es 
eben  geht,  einige  der  in  den  Dingen  verborgenen  Geheimnisse  erklart, 
Leib  und  Geist  des  Menschen  befreien  und  den  Seelen  jene  beiden 
Grundbegriffe  einpragen  wird,  die  sich  niemals  voneinander  trennen 
lassen:    Gemeinschaftsgeist  und   Gerechtigheit. 

So  thought  Richet  in  1914;  and  so  he  still  thinks,  even  after  this 
most  devastating  and  desolating  of  wars,  in  which  the  "  right  triumphed  " 
with  much  the  same  result  as  if  "evil  had  been  victorious".  In  spite  of 
all,  this  humane  and  valiant  scholar  keeps  his  faith  in  human  intelli- 
gence. When  everything  has  collapsed,  even  human  intelligence,  what 
else  indeed  is  there  left  to  have  faith  in? 

C.   B. 

Modem  Democracies.  By  Viscount  Bryce.  In  two  volumes.  (New 
York:  Macmillan  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xiv,  508  ;  676.  $10.50.) 
In  1862  a  newly  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  barely 
turned  twenty-four,  published  a  book  which  won  the  instant  commenda- 
tion of  scholars,  and  took  a  place  in  historical  literature  from  which 
three-score  years  of  research  and  writing  have  not  dislodged  it.  The 
capacity  for  penetrating,  dispassionate,  fruitful  interpretation  of  in- 
stitutions which  the  author  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  thus  early  dis- 
played was  freshly  evidenced  in  The  American  Commonwealth,  pub- 
lished in  1888,  and  in  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence,  which  saw 
the  light  in  1901.  It  is  revealed  in  its  full  scope  and  vigor,  however, 
only  iii  Modem  Democracies,  a  work  which  sounds  the  depths  and 
scales  the  heights  of  political  science,  in  the  broadest  meaning  of  the 
term,  and  brings  together  in  orderly  array  such  data  and  conclusions 
as  only  a  lifetime  of  observation  by  a  master  observer  could  possibly 
achieve. 

Lord  Bryce  tells  us  that  the  idea  of  writing  such  a  book  came  to 
him,  "  many  years  ago ",  at  a  time  when  schemes  of  political  reform 


9 2  Reviews  of  Books 

were  being  widely  discussed  in  England,  "  mostly  on  general  principles, 
but  also  with  references,  usually  vague  and  disconnected,  to  history  and 
to  events  happening  in  other  countries  ".  One  is  left  to  surmise  that 
the  discussions  referred  to  were  those  prompted  by  the  Lloyd  George 
budget  of  1909,  and  the  ensuing  movement  for  upper-chamber  reform. 
At  all  events,  it  seemed  to  the  author  that  someone  ought  to  provide 
a  more  solid  basis  for  argument  and  judgment  by  making  comparative 
studies,  such  as,  curiously,  had  never  been  systematically  made,  of  the 
actual  workings,  the  virtues  and  the  defects,  of  popular  government 
the  world  over.  Cheerfully  assuming  this  stupendous  task,  the  veteran 
scholar  revisited  Switzerland,  France,  and  other  European  states, 
betook  himself  to  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada,  and  Latin  America, 
and  availed  himself  of  extensive  opportunities,  both  as  a  diplomat  and 
as  a  private  sojourner,  to  make  a  fresh  analysis  of  the  political  phe- 
nomena of  the  United  States.  The  observations  were  made,  and  the 
book  was  partly  written,  before  1914.  Interruptions  caused  by  the 
war  delayed  publication,   however,   until  the   present  year. 

The  plan  of  the  work  requires  some  explanation.  The  object,  in 
the  author's  own  words,  is 

to  present  a  general  view  of  the  phenomena  hitherto  observed  in  gov- 
ernments of  a  popular  type,  showing  what  are  the  principal  forms  that 
type  has  taken,  the  tendencies  each  form  has  developed,  the  progress 
achieved  in  creating  institutional  machinery,  and,  above  all1 — for  this 
is  the  ultimate  test  of  excellence — what  democracy  has  accomplished  or 
failed  to  accomplish,  as  compared  with  other  kinds  of  government,  for 
the  well-being  of  each  people. 

The  book  is  thus  meant  to  be  of  a  very  practical  nature.  Political 
theory  is  dealt  with  only  incidentally;  Lord  Bryce's  own  political  theory, 
hardly  at  all.  There  is,  likewise,  little  history,  no  economics,  and 
only  so  much  description  of  governmental  machinery  as  is  necessary  to 
a  discussion  of  the  results  attained.  The  matter  of  concern  is  the 
phenomena  of  democracy,  not  its  theoretic  basis  or  its  historical  de- 
velopment  or   its   social    implications. 

The  work  falls  into  three  main  parts.  The  first,  devoted  to  "con- 
siderations applicable  to  democratic  government  in  general ",  treats  in 
fifteen  chapters  of  liberty,  equality,  party,  local  self-government,  public 
opinion,  and  several  other  concepts  and  relationships  which  go  to  make 
up  the  somewhat  intangible  thing  commonly  called  democracy.  The 
second,  and  main,  part  deals  with  certain  democracies,  one  by  one,  in 
their  actual  workings.  Of  forty-two  chapters  here,  one  points  out  the 
salient  aspects  of  the  republics  of  antiquity,  and  another  similarly  de- 
scribes the  republics  of  Latin  America.  The  remaining  forty  are 
divided  about  equally  among  the  six  democracies  most  thoroughly- 
studied,  i.e.,  France,  Switzerland,  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
the  United  States.  The  third  part  of  the  work,  arranged  in  twenty- 
three   chapters,  examines   and  criticizes  democratic   institutions   in  the 


Bryce:   Modem  Democracies  93 

light  of  the  facts  presented  in  the  preceding  part,  comments  on  certain 
phenomena  which  influence  the  workings  of  democracy  everywhere, 
and  brings  together  the  author's  final  reflections  on  the  present  and 
future    of   democratic    government. 

One  great  democracy,  it  will  be  observed,  is  left  untouched,  namely, 
the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  easy  to  understand  the  author's  feeling  that 
no  citizen  of  Britain,  and  ''certainly  no  citizen  who  has  himself  taken 
a  part  in  politics  as  a  member,  during  forty  years,  of  legislatures  and 
cabinets ",  can  expect  to  be  credited  with  impartiality  as  a  critic  of 
the  British  governmental  system.  Yet  one  must  regret  that  this  chance 
has  passed  for  British  political  phenomena  to  be  appraised  on  the 
same  basis  as  the  phenomena  of  other  lands,  and  by  the  scholar  who 
probably  understands  them  beyond  all  other  men.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
too,  that  the  author's  plan  does  not  require  him  to  pay  much  attention 
to  governmental  reconstruction  during  and  since  the  war.  It  is  not 
current  politics,  but  democracy  as  a  form  of  government,  that  he  seeks 
to  describe;  the  abnormalities  of  wartime  would  only  blur  the  picture. 
Still  less,  of  course,  would  it  serve  his  purpose  to  take  notice  of  the 
new  and  uncertain  democracies  of  Teutonic  and  Slavic  Europe. 

Space  forbids  an  attempt  to  summarize  the  author's  descriptions  of 
democracy,  or  even  the  conclusions  at  which  he  arrives  concerning  its 
multifold  phenomena.  American  students  will  be  interested  chiefly 
in  two  things:  first,  the  estimate  placed  upon  the  democracy  of  the 
United  States  now  as  compared  with  that  placed  upon  it  in  1888,  and, 
second,  the  conclusions  reached  regarding  the  future  of  democracy  as 
a  political  device  or  form.  In  connection  with  the  first  point,  it  is 
important  to  observe  that  the  eight  chapters  devoted  to  the  United 
States  are  not  an  abridgement  of  The  American  Commonwealth,  but 
form,  rather,  a  new  and  independent  study.  A  reading  of  them  discloses, 
however,  that  the  conclusions  of  thirty  years  ago  are.  in  the  main,  the 
conclusions  of  to-day.  Party  politics,  though  improved,  still  abounds 
in  abuses;  the  state  legislatures  do  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the 
people ;  direct  government  has  been  increased,  but  in  some  undesirable 
directions,  e.g.,  the  recall;  the  administration  of  civil  justice  leaves 
much  to  be  desired,  that  of  criminal  justice  is  "far  worse";  the  spoils 
system  has  been  curbed,  but  not  eradicated ;  Americans  still  "  admit  " 
that  government  of  cities  is  the  "  one  conspicuous  failure "  of  their 
political  system;  the  number  of  men  of  brilliant  gifts  in  public  life  is 
"  less  than  might  be  expected  in  a  country  where  talent  abounds  and 
the  issues  before  the  nation  are  profoundly  important  ". 

From  a  penetrating  and  altogether  delightful  discussion  of  the  future 
of  democracy  in  general,  one  gleans  four  main  ideas:  The  first  is 
that  there  is  no  warrast  for  assuming  that  democracy  is  the  final  form 
of  government;  if  history  teaches  anything,  it  is  that  finality  is  to  be 
expected  of  no  human  institution,  political  or  otherwise.  The  second 
thought  is  that  a  score  of  easily  possible  developments  in  human  tastes 


94  Reviews  of  Books 

and  interests  might  produce  in  any  land,  or  even  in  the  world  at 
large,  an  era  of  political  stagnation  and  dissolution  such  as  lasted  for 
a  thousand  years  after  the  extinction  of  republicanism  at  Rome.  A 
third  point  is  that  the  question  of  the  permanence  of  democracy  "  re- 
solves itself  into  the  question  of  whether  mankind  is  growing  in 
wisdom  and  virtue",  since  no  free  government  ever  lived  and  throve 
except  as  it  was  upheld  by  the  sanctions  of  morality  and  religion.  And 
the  fourth  idea,  with  which  the  book  closes,  is  that,  notwithstanding 
the  uncertainties  of  human  progress,  heightened  as  they  have  been 
by  the  experiences  of  the  past  seven  years,  there  is  still  fair  ground  for 
hope  that  regard  for  the  forces  that  are  unseen  and  eternal  will  long 
keep  alive  the  spirit  which  self-government  requires. 

Frederic  A.  Ogg. 

The  New  Stone  Age  in  Northern  Europe.     By  John  M.  Tyler, 

Professor  Emeritus  of  Biology,  Amherst  College.     (New  York: 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     192 1.     Pp.  xviii,  310.     $3.00.) 

The  volume  at  hand  has  evidently  been  intended  as  a  continuation 

of  Osborn's  Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age.     It  has  the  advantage  of  having 

been    written    by    an    able,    conscientious,    experienced,    and    well-read 

teacher,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  dealing  with  a  subject  which  has 

not  been  the  life  specialty  of  the  author  and  in  which  he  is  obliged  to 

depend  almost  wholly  on  the  writings  and  opinions  of  other  men.     The 

result  is  an  excellent  book  in  parts,  but  one  which  includes  some  of  the 

errors  and  fallacies  of  different  previous  writers,  which  at  times  weaken 

and  modify  the  author's  perspective. 

The  best  portions  of  the  volume  are  those  that  deal  with  what  is 
expressed  by  the  title,  namely,  the  new  stone  age  in  northern  Europe; 
but  the  author  was  not  able  to  restrict  himself  to  this  subject,  and  by 
extension  to  the  rest  of  Europe  and  western  Asia  has  run  into  a  field 
that  is  still  full  of  uncertainties  and  opinions  rather  than  determi- 
nations. 

The  book  is  written  essentially  for  "  the  eager  young  student  who 
may  glance  over  these  pages,  feel  the  allurement  of  some  topic  and 
resolve  to  know  more  about  it.  .  .  .  The  bibliography  is  prepared  espe- 
cially for  him  ...  it  is  anything  but  complete ".  All  of  which  is 
modest  and  surpassed,  for  in  fact  the  book  is  in  many  respects  a  credit- 
able attempt  to  present  to  the  student  in  a  succinct  and  easily  digestible 
way  the  still  very  imperfect  and  difficult  story  of  our  race  since  the 
end  of  the  glacial  period,  to  which  is  added  a  bibliography  of  nearly 
400   items. 

The  book  is  divided  into  twelve  sections,  which  deal  respectively 
with:  the  Coming  of  Man;  the  Period  of  Transition — Shell  Heaps; 
Land  Habitations;  Lake  Dwellings;  a  Glance  Eastward;  Megaliths; 
Neolithic    Industries;     Neolithic    Chronology;     Neolithic    Peoples    and 


Tyler:    The  New  Stone  Age  95 

their  Migrations ;  Neolithic  Religion ;  Progress ;  the  Coming  of  the 
Indo-Europeans. 

Chapters  2-4  and  6-8  are  well  written,  and  if  they  embody  any 
deficiencies  they  are  those  of  our  knowledge.  Chapter  I,  dealing  with 
the  earlier  stages  of  Man,  is  weak,  even  for  the  scope  of  a  work  of  this 
nature.  Chapter  5  and  especially  chapter  9,  together  with  places  in 
the  remaining  sections,  suffer  seriously  from  the  inclusion  of  unproven 
and  at  times  unwarranted  hypotheses. 

In  common  with  the  speculative  tendency  of  some  modern  authors, 
the  author  attaches  undue  ethnogenetic  weight  to  central  Asia  and  to  the 
"  Iranian  Plateau  ".  He  would  derive  a  great  deal  of  what  was  European 
during  a  large  part  of  the  Neolithic  epoch  from  this  plateau  and  other 
parts  of  western  Asia,  and  this  not  merely  in  arts  or  customs  but  also  in 
actual  population.  That  many  of  the  cultural  influences  have,  during  the 
Neolithic  period,  extended  northward  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
westward  from  Iran  and  the  neighboring  regions,  is  partly  known 
and  can  readily  be  accepted;  but  that  the  spread  of  such  influences 
from  the  Iranian  territories  westward  and  southward  was  attended 
by  migrations  of  peoples  in  the  same  directions,  is  as  yet  unfounded. 
Some  incursions  from  these  regions,  as  during  historic  times,  were 
quite  possible;  but  there  is  no  evidence  in  the  physique  of  the  European 
nations  that  any  important  masses  of  population  came  thus  at  any  time 
into  central  or  western  Europe.  That  there  were  many  movements  of 
population  within  Europe  itself,  during  the  Neolithic  and  especially 
later  periods,  is  certain;  but  these  streams,  according  to  the  best  present 
evidence,  were  European  and  not  Asiatic,  or  but  secondarily  Asiatic. 
Western  Asia,  together  with  the  eastern  Mediterranean  regions,  may 
well  have  been  the  cradle  of  cultures ;  but  our  best  evidence  now  points 
to  the  fact  that  it  was  Europe  which,  outside  of  perhaps  the  earliest 
human  forms,  was  essentially  the  cradle  of  humanity. 

A  few  of  the  unwarrantable  statements,  which  the  author  does  not 
merely  quote  but  fathers,  are  as  follows:  On  page  183,  speaking  about 
the  region  in  which  man  probably  originated,  he  says : 

We  vaguely  located  this  Asiatic  cradle  somewhere  westward  or 
northwestward  of  the  great  plateau  of  Thibet.  We  may  call  it  the 
Iranian  plateau,  using  the  term  in  the  broadest  possible  sense,  including 
Afghanistan  and  perhaps  western  Turkestan:  a  great  area  extending 
more  than  1000  miles  from  northwest  to  southeast  [?].  where  it  sinks 
into  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates. 

It  may  suffice  to  say  that  we  have  not  an  iota  of  evidence,  or  in  fact 
even  of  probability,  that  any  anthropoid  apes  or  early  man  have  ever 
lived  in  any  part  of  this  territory.     And  following : 

We  found  a  branch  of  the  great  Negroid  race  starting  very  early 
from  this  region  and  migrating  westward  past  Arabia  into  Africa.  .  .  . 
The  Hamitic  and  Semitic  peoples  naturally  followed  the  same  route. 
.  .  .  We  may  venture  to  guess  that  Neanderthal  man  may  have   fol- 


96  Reviews  of  Books 

lowed  it  long  before  the  beginning  of  the  Hamitic-Seniitic  migrations 
(p.   184). 

All  of  which  are  mere  speculations  by  former  authors,  and,  so  far 
as  the  "  Negroid "  element  is  concerned,  a  wholly  incongruous  and 
impossible   speculation. 

There  is  quite  a  series  of  such  adoptions  as  those  above,  which 
is  unfortunate,  for  they  destroy  much  of  the  value  of  the  book  for 
the  non-expert  student,  who  will  not  be  able  to  separate  mere  fancies 
from  deductions  based  on  substantial  facts.  It  also  points  to  the 
unavoidable  penalty  to  workers  in  other  lines  who  will  take  anthropology 
for  the  good  horse  of  old  who  could  be  ridden  at  pleasure. 

The  last  chapter  of  the  book — that  on  the  Coming  of  the  Indo- 
European — the  author  himself  characterizes  most  fittingly  as  one  "  of 
uncertainties  ".  It  is  indeed  full  of  the  uncertain,  which  is  not  helped 
by  the  rather  strained  speculation.  A  simple  enumeration  of  the 
various  theories,  with  a  concise  pointing-out  of  what  in  the  light  of  our 
knowledge  to-day  is  in  their  favor  or  disfavor,  would  have  been  more 
helpful  to  the  student,  who  it  seems  was  in  these  latter  parts  of  the 
book  somewhat  forgotten.  But  there  is  one  relief  upon  finishing  the 
volume,  and  that  doubly  felt  for  a  book  published  by  Scribners — the 
author  has  evidently  escaped,  and  spares  the  reader,  the  nauseous 
"  Nordic  "  infection. 

A   Short  History  of  Antioch,  360  B.  C.-A.  D.   1268.     By  E.   S. 

Bouchier,   M.A.      (Oxford:   Basil   Blackwell.      1921.     Pp.   xii, 

323.     12s.  6d.) 

In  this  modest  volume  Mr.  Bouchier  supplements  his  Syria  as  a 
Roman  Province  by  an  intensive  study  of  the  city  of  Antioch.  His 
sketch  covers  fifteen  and  a  half  centuries,  from  the  founding  of  the 
town  in  300  B.C.,  by  Alexander's  greatest  general,  Seleucus  Nicator. 
till  its  devastation  by  a  barbarian  army  in  1268,  in  the  twilight  of  the 
crusading  period.  Built  thirty  years  after  Alexandria,  it  retained  its 
importance  long  after  its  Egyptian  rival  had  been  completely  over- 
shadowed by  Cairo.  The  author  shows  us  that  throughout  this  long 
period  Antioch  was  "  essentially  a  bulwark  of  European  civilization, 
submerged  for  longer  or  shorter  intervals,  but  predominantly  western 
in  its  culture  and  sympathies,  and  correspondingly  hated  by  the  peoples 
of  the  interior,  who  again  and  again  sought  to  weaken  and  devastate 
it"  (p.  x).  In  spite  of  "the  almost  complete  absence  not  only  of  in- 
scriptions but  of  a  continuous  history  of  the  [Seleucidian]  period" 
(p.  41).  the  author  is  able  from  the  sources  available  to  indicate  the 
trend  of  events  from  the  early  days  of  absolute  monarchy  to  the  last 
part  of  the  period,  when  the  town  "  had  approximated  to  the  position 
of  an  ordinary  Greek  city-state  of  the  early  type,  ruled  by  its  own 
senate   and  locally   elected  magistrates"    (p.   87).     As  an   example  of 


Petersson:  Cicero  97 

Mr.  Bouchier's  lively  style,  we  may  quote  from  his  sketch  of  the  in- 
famous Antiochus  Epiphanes,  sixth  in  the  line  from  the  founder — a 
despot  whose  bizarre  character  foreshadowed  that  of  the  caliph  Al- 
Hakim : 

This  extraordinary  prince,  with  his  mass  of  contradictory  quali- 
ties, Oriental  tyrant  and  republican  Greek,  low  buffoon  and  lover 
of  the  finest  art,  fierce  persecutor  and  gracious  master,  with  his  yearning 
for  unity  in  government  and  religion  .  .  .  may  be  called  a  second 
founder  of  Antioch,  to  which  he  gave  an  impress  that  subsequent  ages 
have  not  altogether  effaced  (p.  31). 

Pompey,  who  in  his  campaign  of  Eastern  conquest  visited  Antioch 
in  64  B.C.,  recognized  its  claims  to  local  autonomy,  but  placed  its 
military  protection  in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  governor.  The  period 
of  the  early  Empire  is  covered  in  chapter  IV.  Antioch  can  boast  of 
visits  from  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Vespasian,  Titus — to  whom  the  popu- 
lace gave  a  splendid  reception  at  the  close  of  the  Jewish  War — Trajan, 
Hadrian,  Severus,  Caracalla,  Aurelian — who  placed  on  exhibition  his 
chained  captive,  Zenobia — and  Diocletian.  Many  readers  will  find 
especial  attraction  in  chapter  VI.,  where  it  is  emphasized  that  Antioch 
rather  than  Jerusalem  should  be  regarded  as  the  mother  of  churches 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Europe,  for  "  it  was  the  Antiochenes  who  first  in- 
sisted on  discarding  the  trammels  of  the  Mosaic  law",  while  the  position 
of  the  city  on  the  highroad  to  Asia  Minor  made  it  the  natural  starting- 
point  for  the  various  missionary  journeys.  Sketches  are  given  of  per- 
sons prominent  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Antioch,  such  as  Paul 
of  Samosata,  Lucian,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  the  great  John 
Chrysostom. 

With  the  Arab  conquest  Antioch  entered  into  a  period  of  eclipse 
which  lasted  for  over  300  years,  when,  as  a  result  of  the  victories  of  the 
Byzantine  Peter  Phocas  (969  A.D.),  it  once  more  became  a  Roman 
provincial  capital.  This  status  it  retained  till  1081,  when  it  fell  under 
the  power  of  the  Seljuk  Turks,  who,  after  a  brief  rule,  yielded  to  the 
armies  of  the  Crusaders.  The  last  two  chapters  give  an  interesting 
account  of  Antioch  as  the  centre  of  a  Frankish  principality,  from  the 
time  of  its  capture  to  its  unhappy  end.  The  writer  touches  on  the 
rule  of  its  princes,  the  conditions  under  which  their  subjects  lived,  the 
laws,  commercial  activities,  etc.  An  appendix  of  nineteen  pages  deals 
with  the  coinage  of  the  city.  A  list  of  authorities  is  given  at  the 
end  of  some,  but  not  all,  of  the  chapters. 

Frederick  J.   Bliss. 

Cicero:  a  Biography.     By  Torsten  Petersson.     (Berkeley:  Uni- 
versity of  California  Press.     1920.     Pp.  699.     $5.00.) 
A  new  biography  of  Cicero,  the  fifth  within  the  last  quarter-century, 
attests   the   unflagging  interest   felt   by  the   present   generation   in   the 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 7. 


98  Reviews  of  Books 

Roman  orator  and  statesman.  Our  interest  in  him  is  not  hard  to 
understand.  As  he  himself  said,  when  urging  a  literary  friend  to  write 
a  sketch  of  his  career,  his  life  had  all  the  elements  of  a  drama,  with  its 
vigorous  action,  its  clearly  marked  episodes,  and,  as  he  then  thought,  a 
happy  outcome  of  a  tragic  situation.  He  played  a  leading  role,  too,  in  a 
great  political  drama.  But  this  is  only  one  side  of  his  life.  He  was 
also  a  philosopher,  an  orator,  a  poet,  a  man  of  the  world,  and,  above  all, 
a  writer  of  letters  in  which  he  has  set  down  his  intimate  impressions  of 
men  and  things  and  revealed  his  weaknesses,  as  well  as  his  points  of 
strength,  to  the  delight  of  the  discerning  and  the  despair  of  the 
prosaic.  This  freedom  from  hypocrisy  and  the  Latin  volatility  of 
character  which  gives  rise  to  apparent  inconsistency  in  his  words  and 
actions  make  the  writing  of  his  biography  a  difficult  matter,  unless  one 
is  a  Boissier  or  has  the  Celtic  temperament  of  a  Tyrrell.  The  test 
of  a  biographer's  ability  to  understand  the  personal  character  and  the 
political  policy  of  Cicero  is  to  be  found  in  his  treatment  of  three  epi- 
sodes in  Cicero's  career:  the  period  of  abject  depression  which  fol- 
lowed his  banishment,  his  hesitation  and  final  adherence  to  Pompey  in 
49,  and  his  prompt  defiance  of  Antony  after  Caesar's  death.  Petersson's 
book  comes  successfully  through  this  test,  and  the  honesty  and  sanity 
of  judgment  which  one  finds  in  the  discussion  of  these  three  incidents 
characterize  the  whole  work  and  constitute  one  of  its  principal  merits. 
Its  other  distinguishing  features  are  its'  attempt,  in  large  measure  suc- 
cessful, to  present  fully  all  sides  of  Cicero's  life,  and  to  furnish  us  with 
its  historic  setting.  As  we  have  already  intimated,  the  orator's  life 
was  episodic  to  a  marked  degree.  It  falls  into  such  natural  chapters 
as  the  proconsulship  in  Cilicia,  the  Civil  War,  the  death  of  Tullia, 
and  the  composition  of  Cicero's  philosophical  works.  And  Petersson 
has  taken  advantage  of  this  fact  to  adopt  the  topical  method  of  treat- 
ment, while  still  observing  the  chronological  order.  Among  these  topics 
we  miss  an  adequate  discussion  of  the  historical  and  literary  importance 
of  the  Letters,  comparable  to  the  chapters  on  the  rhetorical  and  philo- 
sophical works.  A  more  fundamental  study  of  Cicero's  year  in  Cilicia 
would  have  been  of  value,  as  well  as  a  fuller  treatment  of  his  relations 
to  the  members  of  his  family  and  to  the  young  Caesarians.  In  deter- 
mining the  actual  attitude  of  Caesar  and  Pompey  toward  the  question 
of  Cicero's  banishment,  an  examination  of  the  legal  steps  finally  taken 
by  Clodius  in  securing  his  adoption  into  a  plebeian  family  would  have 
been  helpful ;  and  the  author's  opinion  of  Pompey's  withdrawal  from 
Italy  and  of  Cicero's  criticism  of  it  would  have  been  interesting.  The 
reviewer  is  inclined  to  think  also  that  more  evidence  than  is  men- 
tioned could  have  been  brought  to  bear  on  the  interesting  question  of 
Cicero's  political  sympathies  before  63.  The  author  shows  a  thorough 
familiarity  with  the  sources  and  with  modern  studies  of  his  subject. 
This  comes   out  clearly,   for   instance,   in   the   analysis   which   he   makes 


Meyer:    Ursprung  des  Clirist.ciitums  99 

(pp.  480  ff.)  of  the  apparently  conflicting  accounts  which  Caesar,  Cicero, 
Plutarch,  and  others  give  of  the  events  of  January,  49  B.C.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  the  date  assigned  to  the  important  letter  to 
Basilus  (pp.  515,  592)  can  be  accepted.  In  his  treatment  of  the 
sources  the  author's  remarks  on  the  considerations  which  C:cero  men- 
tions in  his  letters  to  Atticus  as  influencing  his  action  (p.  10),  and  on 
the  changes  made  in  a  speech  for  publication  (pp.  90  ff.),  are  of  great 
importance  and  have  usually  escaped  attention.  The  style  is  clear 
and  direct,  and  this  book  probably  gives  one  a  more  complete  and 
trustworthy  estimate  of  the  public  career  and  private  life  of  Cicero  than 
any  other  biography  which  we  have. 

Frank  Frost  Abbott. 

Ursprung  und  Anfange  des  Christentums.  Von  Eduard  Meyer. 
In  drei  Banden.  Band  I.,  Die  Evangelien.  (Stuttgart  and  Ber- 
lin: J.  G.  Cotta'sche  Buchhandlung  Nachfolger.  1921.  Pp.  xii, 
340.     M.  38.) 

Having  brought  his  Geschichte  des  Altertums  down  to  the  death  of 
Caesar,  Eduard  Meyer  defers  his  story  of  the  Roman  Empire  until  he 
has  completed  an  account  of  the  sources  and  beginnings  of  Christianity. 
For  this,  three  volumes  are  planned.  The  first,  now  before  us,  is  a  criti- 
cal examination  of  the  gospel.  The  second  will  preface  the  account 
of  the  career  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  by  a  study  of  Judaism  after  the  be- 
ginning of  Persian  rule  and  the  influence  of  Zoroastrian  religion.  In 
view  of  Meyer's  great  reputation,  his  erudition  and  critical  acumen,  his 
synoptic  mind,  his  clear,  forceful  style,  and  artistic  power  of  presenta- 
tion, this  undertaking  must  win  favor  with  all  students  of  history. 

The  historical  criticism  of  the  gospel  sources  is  not  expounded  in  the 
conventional  manner  of  treatises  on  that  subject,  but  follows  Meyer's 
own  method  of  approach  to  the  matter.  In  his  historical  seminar  he  had 
examined  the  Book  of  Acts,  which  he  regards  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant works  of  history  preserved  from  antiquity,  and  the  examination 
at  once  showed  that  the  Acts  and  Luke's  gospel  were  two  parts  of  one 
work,  the  gospel  narrative  of  the  resurrection  being  a  mere  torso  with- 
out the  continuation.  This  initial  theme  involved  a  comparison  with  the 
resurrection  narratives  in  the  other  gospels,  and  a  consideration  of  the 
chronological  data  of  Luke.  We  then  begin  with  the  stories  of  birth, 
childhood,  baptism,  and  temptation.  Recognizing  then  the  importance 
of  Mark  as  a  source  for  Luke,  we  are  led  into  a  discussion  of  the  con- 
tents and  sources  of  Mark,  and  an  examination  of  the  manner  in  which 
Matthew  and  Luke  go  beyond  this  earlier  document.  We  then  revert  to 
Luke's  gospel  to  see  that  it  aims  at  an  authentic,  chronologically  exact, 
and  orderly  history  of  Jesus,  being  the  work  of  an  able,  reflective  his- 
torian in  sharp  contrast  to  the  free  and  unhistorical  construction  of  the 
fourth  gospel.     This  order  reflects  the  procedure  of  a  seminar  director 


ioo  Reviews  of  Books 

feeling  his  way  into  the  subject,  and  it  is  an  order  serviceable  and  inter- 
esting to  the  reader. 

Such  a  criticism  of  sources  had  to  be  made  before  Meyer  cou'.d  pro- 
ceed to  the  constructive  account  of  Christian  origins,  and  no  one  will 
fail  to  be  grateful  for  an  exposition  of  this  sort  done  by  an  eminent 
historian  who  is  independent  of  all  theological  party  views  and  possessed 
of  a  sane  and  balanced  critical  judgment.  The  reader  has  a  guaranty 
against  any  rash  and  eccentric  conclusions.  Meyer  is  indeed  conscious 
of  his  own  merits  and  makes  many  depreciatory  allusions  to  "  theological 
critics  ".  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  Meyer's  work  is  no  novelty,  but 
rather  a  wholesome  digestion  of  the  results  of  the  large  concerted  labors 
of  theological  critics,  and  the  theologians  may  properly  ask  whether  his 
independent  publication  is  justified  by  any  discoveries  that  advanced 
knowledge  to  a  new  point.  Apart  from  the  benefit  of  Meyer's  good 
judgment  on  debated  details,  it  must  be  said  that  the  only  notable  con- 
tribution made  by  him  is  an  effort  to  identify  literary  sources  used  by 
Mark,  and  this  is  the  content  of  a  single  chapter.  Other  scholars  have 
detected  the  fact  of  such  literary  sources,  and  from  Wendling  and  from 
Bacon  we  have  elaborate  and  subtle  resolutions  of  Mark  into  sources. 
Meyer  ignores  these  prior  efforts  and  by  a  somewhat  hasty  and  incom- 
plete examination  of  certain  passages  proves,  as  he  thinks,  a  Disciple 
Source  (in  two  variant  forms)  and  a  Twelve  Source.  This  seems  to 
be  a  plausible  conclusion,  and  one  that  may  lead  to  important  infer- 
ences. 

In  his  rapid  acquisition  of  this  subject,  Meyer  felt  no  compulsion  to 
master  all  that  has  been  written.  He  seems  to  have  made  Wellhausen 
his  point  of  departure,  and  to  have  consulted  some  recent  contributions 
by  others;  but  of  Jiilicher,  Johannes  Weiss,  and  Bousset  he  has  scant 
knowledge — to  his  loss.  His  proposal  to  relate  his  subject  to  the  gen- 
eral historical  development,  with  attention  to  analogous  religious  phe- 
nomena in  other  historical  currents,  will  startle  no  one  among  the  "  the- 
ological critics  "  of  the  present  day. 

Francis  A.  Christie. 

BOOKS  OF  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Les  Passions  des  Martyrs  et  les  Genres  Littcraires.  Par  Hippolyte 
Delehaye,  S.J.,  Bollandiste.  (Brussels:  Societe  des  Bollan- 
distes.     1921.     Pp.  viii,  447.) 

Father  Delehaye  has  given  us  in  this  volume  one  of  these  intimate 
studies,  that  is  not  possible  to  a  young  historian,  however  brilliant.  It 
is  a  work  that  could  only  be  the  outgrowth  and  mature  fruit  of  long 
years  of  careful  cultivation  of  his  chosen  field,  early  hagiography.  Here 
he  confines  himself  to  the  literature  of  the  martyrs,  to  the  passions,  or, 
as  they  are  misleadingly  called,  the  acts  of  the  martyrs,  and  certain  al- 


Delchayc:  Passions  dcs  Martyrs  101 

lied  writings.  He  does  not  attempt  a  full  survey  of  this  immense  litera- 
ture; he  gives  nevertheless  a  very  extensive  treatment  of  it,  but  above 
ail  he  makes  a  very  accurate  delineation  of  its  character  and  spirit. 

In  form,  this  work  is  an  essay  in  literary  classification ;  in  substance 
and  intent,  it  is  an  inquiry  into  the  historical  worth  of  the  writings  it 
studies.  He  finds  the  key  to  the  problem  in  the  distinction  of  literary 
genres.  Through  ignorance  or  neglect  of  the  key,  historians  have 
seriously  debated  the  historical  worth  of  a  narrative  that  is  in  reality 
a  bit  of  romance  or  epic  poetry.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  mere  outward 
form,  for  history  and  fiction  may  wear  the  same  kind  of  garb ;  the  char- 
acteristics must  be  seized,  and  truth  has  characteristics  which  the 
fiction  of  the  simple-minded  authors  of  passions  could  not  successfully 
imitate. 

Our  author  disdains  a  minute  classification  of  this  literature  as  vain 
and  confusing.  He  distinguishes  four  main  classes,  or  genres:  First, 
there  are  the  historical  passions,  written  by  contemporaries  and  eye- 
witnesses, sometimes  even  embodying  narratives  by  the  martyrs  them- 
selves. Next,  there  are  the  panegyrics  of  the  martyrs  by  the  great 
Christian  orators  of  the  fourth  century,  which,  while  historical  in  part, 
are  highly  rhetorical,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  laid  down  by  the 
rhetoricians  of  their  day.  Then  follow  the  two  classes  of  "  arti- 
ficial ",  or  unhistorical  passions,  which  are  the  product  of  authors  who 
came  after  the  age  of  the  martyrs — first,  and  by  far  most  important,  the 
epic  passion,  and  secondly,  the  romantic,  with  its  division  into  the 
romance  of  adventure,  the  idyllic  romance,  and  the  didactic  romance. 
In  the  passions  are  related  only  the  legal  trial,  the  sufferings,  and  the 
death  of  the  martyrs;  but  curiosity  about  their  early  career  was  often 
gratified  by  a  little  "life  before  martyrdom",  from  the  pen  of  an 
obliging  Parson  Weems  of  the  period.  This  exhausts  Father  Delehaye's 
scheme  of  classification;  outside  of  it  is  a  mass  of  writings  of  formless 
character,  les  genres  mixtes. 

It  would  be  a  begging  of  the  question  to  separate  a  group  of  these 
writings  as  historical  unless  the  author  vindicated  the  title  by  a  careful 
study  of  their  character.  This  is  ably  done  for  several  of  the  best- 
known  passions.  While  it  is  always  difficult  to  prove  the  veracity  of  a 
narrative,  these  documents  have  a  naturalness  and  variety  of  character 
and  event,  a  consistency,  an'  evident  sincerity,  and  an  ability  to  withstand 
attack,  which  show  them  to  be  the  very  reflection  of  life.  The  few 
critics  who  dissent  from  this  judgment  are  handled  vigorously  by  our 
Bollandist,  even  with  a  touch  of  disdain.  It  is  gratifying,  however,  to 
note  the  large  amount  of  agreement  among  critics  who  are  poles  apart 
theologically.  Indeed,  Father  Delehaye  shows  himself  at  times  a  more 
exacting  critic  than  a  Gebhardt  or  a  Harnack. 

The  study  of  the  epic  passion  is  illuminating.  For  centuries  it  was 
the  favorite  reading  of  Europe,  as  the  vast  number  of     manuscripts 


io2  Reviews  of  Books 

attests,  and  almost  completely  crowded  out  the  historical  passions.  The 
title  is  well  chosen,  for  the  narrative  is  a  bit  of  epic  poetry  in  prose. 
The  martyr  resembles  a  hero  or  god  of  epic  poetry,  but  unluckily  found 
no  genius  to  immortalize  him.  He  appears  as  the  champion  of  God, 
contending  with  the  powers  of  darkness  and  generally  confronting  in 
person  the  emperor,  who  is  invariably  depicted  as  a  cruel  and  blood- 
thirsty tyrant.  The  martyr  is  almost  a  supernatural  being.  He  endures 
heroically  a  'long  series  of  torments,  sufficient  to  inflict  many  deaths. 
He  is  miraculously  preserved  through  them  all,  and,  indeed,  has  at  com- 
mand supernatural  power,  for  the  confusion  of  the  idolater.  He  is 
learned  and  eloquent,  bold  and  denunciatory,  not  to  say  impudent.  At 
last,  he  suffers  martyrdom.  Occasionally  a  romantic  author  cailed  him 
back  to  life  to  endure  more  torments  for  the  edification  of  his  readers. 

The  origin  of  these  various  forms  of  literature  is  discussed  by  the 
author  with  originality  and  acuteness ;  but  this  belongs  rather  to  the 
province  of  patrology,  as  likewise  the  fine  study  of  the  panegyrics.  For 
the  historical  student,  the  detailed  study  of  documents  makes  the  work 
almost  a  laboratory  manual  or  record  of  experiments  in  historical  criti- 
cism, from  which,  apart  altogether  from  the  subject  of  inquiry,  even 
experienced  investigators  can  learn  to  improve  their  methods.  In  spite 
of  great  learning,  the  author  is  not  bookish;  and  he  has  robust  good 
sense,  for  all  his  acuteness.  He  inveighs  against  the  superstitious  re- 
gard of  scholars  for  documents,  and  he  certainly  cannot  be  accused  of 
too  great  tenderness  himself.  Like  a  literary  Caligula,  but  more 
powerful  in  his  own  realm,  Father  Delehaye  gave  all  the  fictitious  pas- 
sions but  one  head,  and  then  neatly  and  remorselessly  severed  it. 

This  work  is,  however,  merely  preliminary — a  clearing  of  the  ground 
for  the  laying  of  the  foundation.  It  is  an  introduction  to  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  sources  of  martyrology  and  the  history  of  the  persecutions. 
It  marks  the  lines  along  which  the  study  of  those  sources  must  proceed. 
When  this  task  is  completed  we  may  hope  to  see  a  competent  historian, 
perhaps  Fr.  Delehaye  himself,  give  us  the  long-desired  history  of  the 
early  Christian  martyrs. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Etudes  Critiques  sur  I'Histoire  de  Charlemagne.     Par  Louis  Hal- 
phen.     Professeur  adjoint  a  la  Facult6  des  Lettres  de  Bordeaux. 
(Paris:  Felix  Alcan.     1921.     Pp.  viii,  314.     14  fr.) 
It  is  a  surprising  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the  great  interest  and  im- 
portance of  the  subject,  and  the  prodigious  industry  which  has  been  ex- 
pended upon  the  collection,  criticism,  and  publication  of  the   sources, 
there  is  still  no  adequate  history  of  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Great.     It 
is  the  task  of  filling  this  void  which  M.  Halphen  has- set  himself,  but  the 
volume  now  under  review  is  not  in  itself  designed  to  fill  it.     It  is  rather 
a  series  of  preliminary  studies ;  and  we   shall  doubtless  have  to  wait 


Halphen:    Charlemagne:  Etudes  Critiques         103 

some  time  for  the  more  comprehensive  work  on  "  Charlemagne  et  la 
Civilisation  Carolingienne  "  which  the  author  has  projected. 

The  present  volume  is  made  up  of  eight  studies,  all  of  which  have 
already  appeared  in  the  Rcvuc  Historique  (1917-1920).  The  first  four 
deal  with  the  criticism  of  the  sources,  and  contain  the  most  striking  con- 
tribution of  the  book.  Hitherto  no  one  has  been  found  to  challenge  the 
reputation  of  Einhard  as  the  dominating  figure  in  the  historiography  of 
the  Carolingian  epoch,  and  his  Vita  Kanoli  has  long  been  accepted  as  the 
most  important  source  for  the  history  of  Charlemagne  and  his  reign. 
The  Royal  Annals  (misnamed  Annates  Lauressenses  Maiorcs)  for 
the  period  down  to  about  788  have  been  held  to  be  a  mere  compilation 
based  on  the  so-called  "little  annals"  (annals  of  St.  Amand,  of  Mur- 
bach,  of  Lorsch,  etc.)  ;  and  these  latter  have  been  regarded  as  sources  of 
independent  value.  The  Monk  of  St.  Gall,  while  known  to  be  late,  and 
hardly  historical,  has  been  thought  to  preserve  "historical  elements" 
derived  from  oral  tradition.  M.  Halphen  has  attacked  and  overturned 
all  of  these  accepted  views.  Einhard  is  remorselessly  stripped  of  every 
shred  of  credit  for  the  authorship  of  any  historical  work  except  the 
Vita;  and  the  originality  and  unique  merits  of  that  work  are  sadly  di- 
minished. Einhard  is  shown  not  to  have  enjoyed  such  a  position  of 
prominence  at  the  court,  or  of  intimacy  with  Charlemagne,  as  to  make 
him  the  possessor  of  secrets  of  government ;  it  was  only  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  the  Pious  that  he  rose  to  official  position  and  influence. 
The  Vita  Karoli  was  probably  not  written  until  about  830,  after  his  re- 
tirement from  public  life.  Almost  one-third  of  it  is  taken  directly  from 
the  Royal  Annals,  and  the  portions  which  appear  to  be  original  are 
relatively  small  and  of  doubtful  reliability.  Moreover,  Einhard  was 
exceedingly  careless  in  the  use  of  his  sources,  and  he  was  often  guilty 
of  deliberate  distortion  or  falsification.  The  Royal  Annals,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  fundamental  source  for  the  history  of  Charlemagne,  not 
only  for  the  later  years  of  the  eighth  and  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century  (as  has  hitherto  been  supposed),  but  for  the  earlier  period  as 
well ;  for,  far  from  being,  down  to  788,  a  mere  compilation  based  on  the 
"little  annals,"  the)'  are,  at  least  from  the  year  768,  an  original,  con- 
temporary work,  written  down  at  frequent  intervals,  under  the  direct  im- 
pression of  the  events  which  they  record.  And  the  "little  annals",  which 
have  been  supposed  to  be  the  source  of  the  Royal  Annals,  are  themselves 
derived  from  them.  It  required  less  courage  to  attack  the  Monk  of  St. 
Gall  (his  reputation  has  long  been  but  a  poor  one),  but  it  may  be  said 
without  exaggeration  that  his  standing  among  historians  has  now  been 
utterly  demolished. 

Having  solved  the  most  perplexing  problems  of  the  sources,  the  author 
proceeds,  in  the  last  four  chapters,  to  the  heart  of  his  subject-matter, 
and  undertakes  to  throw  new  light  upon  the  conquest  of  Saxony,  the  im- 
perial coronation  in  the  year  800,  and  the  state  of  agriculture,  industry, 


J04  Reviews  of  Books 

and  commerce  in  the  Carolingian  Empire.  Most  notable  here  is  the 
study  of  the  imperial  coronation.  Respect  for  Einhard  has  led  to  the 
very  general'  belief  that  Charlemagne  was  taken  by  surprise  by  that 
event,  and  that  it  was  displeasing  to  him.  Halphen's  reversal  of  ac- 
cepted ideas  concerning  the  sources  leads  him  to  reject  this  manifestly 
unreasonable  view  entirely.  The  coronation  on  Christmas  day  marked 
the  culmination  of  a  carefully  arranged  programme  for  which  no  other 
than  Charles  himself  could  have  been  responsible.  From  the  Royal  An- 
nals and  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  which  agree  closely  and  are  the  two 
most  trustworthy  sources,  no  one  would  be  led  to  any  other  view  of  the 
matter;  and  Halphen  has  been  able  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  distorted 
version  through  the  Annales  Laurcshamcnscs  (803)  and  the  Annates 
Maximinianl  (811)  to  Einhard.  It  was  put  out  in  the  course  of  the 
protracted  negotiations  to  obtain  recognition  from  Constantinople,  as 
a  means  of  soothing  the  injured  feelings  of  the  Byzantine  court.  The 
economic  chapters  are  perhaps  too  sweeping  in  their  condemnation  of  the 
views  of  Inama-Sternegg  and  Dopsch ;  but  the  author  has  certainly 
rendered  a  valuable  service  by  his  protest  against  the  enthusiastic  view 
that  Charlemagne  by  his  supreme  wisdom  and  foresight  wrought  an 
economic  revolution — a  veritable  renaissance  of  agriculture,  industry, 
and  commerce — and  by  drawing  attention  to  the  extreme  meagreness 
of  the  sources  which  throw  light  upon  economic  conditions,  and  insist- 
ing that  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  the  elaboration  of  unsupported  hy- 
potheses. 

Altogether,  this  is  a  remarkable  book,  and  it  will  doubtless  exert  a 
profound  influence  upon  the  future  course  of  Carolingian  studies. 

C.  W.  David. 

Records  of  the  Social  and  Economic  History  of  England  and  Wales. 
Volume  V.  Documents  illustrative  of  the  Social  and  Economic 
History  of  the  Danelaw.  Edited  by  F.  M.  Stenton,  M.A.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Modern  History,  University  College,  Reading.  (Lon- 
don: Humphrey  Milford,  University  Press.  1920.  Pp.  cxliv, 
554.     31s.  6d.) 

Under  this  title  Professor  Stenton  has  added  to  the  published  ma- 
terial available  for  the  study  of  the  Danelaw  an  important  collection 
of  twelfth-century  charters,  556  in  all,  preserved  with  few  exceptions 
in  the  British  Museum  and  Public  Record  Office.  They  relate  to  lands 
held  in  the  main  by  religious  houses  in  the  district  once  known  gener- 
ally as  that  of  the  Five  Boroughs — Lincolnshire,  Nottinghamshire,  Derby- 
shire, Leicestershire,  and  Rutland.  They  will  be  of  great  service  in  the 
study  of  the  legal  forms  and  procedure  of  the  time,  and  of  feudal  mat- 
ters. Mr.  Stenton  in  his  valuable  introduction,  as  the  title  of  the  book 
indicates,  regards  them  only  from  a  third  point  of  view — as  sources  of 
information    regarding   the    social    and    economic    arrangements    within 


Stcnton:  History  of  the  Danelaw  105 

the  Danelaw.  Their  evidence  in  this  field  is  perhaps  largely  confirma- 
tory of  observations  already  made  by  Professor  Stenton  himself  and 
other  students  of  the 'district,  but  the  additional  facts  they  furnish  are 
important  in  the  chain  of  proof,  and  Mr.  Stenton's  interpretation  is  able 
and  convincing;  sometimes,  as  for  example  in  the  discussion  of  the 
obscure  matter  of  the  communal  endowment  of  village  churches,  or  of 
the  difficult  utware,  it  is  also  highly  suggestive,  throwing  light  into  some 
very  dark  corners. 

The  charters  show  in  general  small  holdings  in  the  Danelaw.  Ex- 
cept in  Leicestershire,  where  a  small  virgate  prevails,  the  normal  tene- 
ment is  reckoned  in  bovates,  extending  from  a  fraction  of  a  bovate  to 
two  bovates  in  size,  and  the  larger  carucate  unit  is  rarely  mentioned. 
The  stang  is  accepted  as  the  northern  acre,  but  not,  as  it  happens,  on 
the  evidence  of  the  single  occurrence  of  the  word  in  these  charters, 
where  it  seems  to  indicate  a  smaller  unit.  Some  correlation  of  the 
stang  of  the  Danelaw  with  the  eight-rood  stang  of  the  west  discussed 
by  Mr.  G.  J.  Turner  would  have  been  of  interest.  The  analysis  of  the 
charters  yields  some  facts  regarding  the  demesne.  Mr.  Stenton  finds 
evidence  of  the  evolution  of  the  demesne  in  sokeland  as  of  Scandinavian 
descent,  where  no  interposition  of  Norman  influence  can  be  shown;  he 
comments  also  on  the  important  charter  in  the  Kirkstead  series  (no. 
202),  where  the  demesne  is  defined  as  lying  in  culture  (not  in  the  smaller 
seliones)  intermixed  with  the  land  of  tenants,  and  on  other  indica- 
tions of  somewhat  large  stretches  and  compact  blocks.  The  fact  that 
a  bovate  of  demesne  land  is  named,  however,  does  not  perhaps  neces- 
sarily "  suggest  that  it  was  composed  of  adjacent  acres ".  Like  Mr. 
Gray,  he  finds  the  Lincolnshire  evidence  in  favor  of  a  two-field  system, 
except  in  the  fen  villages,  the  frequent  references  to  land  on  two  sides 
of  the  vill  seeming  to  establish  this  point  incontestably. 

Of  equal  interest  with  the  discussion  of  the  land  system  is  that  of 
the  twelve-carucate  hundred  of  Lincolnshire.  Here  again  the  charters 
furnish  confirmation  of  what  has  been  already  observed.  Mr.  Stenton 
calls  attention  to  the  probable  identity  of  the  twe'lve-carucate  vill  with 
the. hundred,  finding  evidence  of  forty-four  such  vills  in  Kesteven, 
thirteen  in  Holland.  The  partition  of  the  fen  by  two  double  hundreds 
(of  twenty-four  carucates  each)  in  South  Holland  confirms  evidence 
of  intercommoning  of  hundreds  already  presented  in  an  earlier  volume  of 
the  Records.  The  intercommoning  of  villages  in  the  arable  fields  is  very 
interesting  if  it  can  be  substantiated,  but  the  point  is  not  clearly  worked 
out.  The  importance  of  the  village  as  the  unit  of  social  life  in  the  Dane- 
law, rather  than  the  manor,  which  is  mentioned  only  twice,  is  constantly 
confirmed.  In  two  cases  Mr.  Stenton  believes  that  the  villata  even 
attests  charters.  In  general,  he  sees  a  large  peasant  population,  descend- 
ants of  Domesday  sokemen,  with  a  fair  proportion  of  Scandinavian 
personal  names,  with  small  alienable  tenements,  whose  free  status  can 


io6  Reviews  of  Books 

be  more  definitely  proven   if,   as  seems  not  unlikely,  the   attesting  of 
charters  can  be  taken  as  evidence  of  freedom. 

Professor  Stenton's  name  is  sufficient  guarantee  that  the  charters 
are  admirably  edited  in  a  volume  where  form  is  of  great  importance. 
He  has  retained  the  punctuation,  and  accentuation,  if  it  may  so  be  called, 
of  the  original,  but  the  use  of  capitals  is  modern.  Syllables  and  letters 
indicated  by  a  compendium  in  the  manuscript  in  words  concerning 
whose  extension  there  can  be  reasonable  doubt  are  printed  in  italic. 
The  index  is  carefully  compiled,  although  there  is  an  occasional  slip  in 
a  place-name.  The  Lincolnshire  Oasby,  for  example,  is  not  found  under 
that  form  in  the  index.  The  notes  on  seals,  especially  those  of  peasants, 
are  of  much  interest. 

N.  Neilson. 

Constitutional  History  of  England.     By  George  Burton  Adams, 

Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of  History  Emeritus,  in  Yale  College. 

[American  Historical   Series.]      (New  York:  Henry  Holt  and 

Company.  1921.  Pp.  x,  518.  $3.00.) 
In  many  ways  this  volume  is  an  admirable  example  of  what  a  text- 
book ought  to  be.  All  too  often  books  designed  for  the  instruction  of 
readers,  or  for  use  in  college  classes,  have  been  written  either  by 
authors  who  produced  text-books  only,  or  by  others  who  did  such 
writing  previous  to  the  research  and  prolonged  study  which  only  time 
can  allow.  Accordingly,  not  a  few  books  of  this  sort  have  been  with- 
out the  richness  of  information  and  the  depth  of  judgment,  the  power 
of  interpretation  and  of  stimulating  the  reader's  understanding,  of 
arresting  his  attention,  of  arousing  his  thought,  of  producing  real  im- 
pression, of  making  vital  addition  to  his  knowledge  and  mental  develop- 
ment, which,  above  all  others,  books  designed  for  students  should  have. 
Hence,  many  text-books  have  presented  at  their  best  only  a  well-ordered 
assemblage  of  data,  accurate  as  to  details,  but  devoid  of  real  explana- 
tions of  the  meaning  of  things  or  of  actual  dealing  with  the  problems 
involved. 

The  author  of  the  volume  reviewed  here  has  spent  the  best  years 
of  a  long  life  in  historical  writing  and  research.  During  the  past 
generation  he  has  made  repeated  and  valuable  contributions  to  the 
history  of  England  and  especially  to  the  history  of  the  English  consti- 
tution. During  this  time  also  he  has  mastered  the  art  of  writing  plainly 
and  explaining  difficult  things.  Now,  when  in  these  later  years  he 
turns  to  the  writing  of  text-books  on  English  constitutional  history,  he 
brings  to  his  work,  in  addition  to  a  considerable  mastery  of  exposition 
for  the  novice,  a  wealth  of  knowledge,  a  solidity  of  learning,  and  a 
general  competence,  which  the  most  skilful  and  accomplished  beginner 
could  not  possibly  have.  In  many  respects  writers  of  text-books  can 
learn  as  much  from  the  technique  of  this  volume  as  students  of  con- 


Adams:    Constitutional  History  of  England       107 

stitutional  history  will  be  able  to  learn  from  its  contents.  There  are 
not  wanting  numerous  recondite  details,  but  always  they  appear  in  proper 
place  to  illustrate  some  theme  of  importance.  They  are  never  assembled 
merely  in  laborious  aggregation  devoid  of  summary  and  of  good  inter- 
pretation. So  truly  has  the  author  mastered  his  subject  that  he 
both  understands  the  meaning  of  the  matters  he  deals  with  and  also 
realizes  the  difficulties  adhering  to  them — an  accomplishment  rare  in 
the  ordinary  composer  of  manuals  for  students.  Difficulties  are  never 
avoided,  and  the  meaning  of  the  matter  at  hand  is  often  set  forth  with 
that  fine  historical  imagination  which  Maitland  taught  the  present 
generation  to  admire.  The  book  is  for  the  most  part  written  simply, 
clearly,  and  well. 

There  is  an  excellent  brief  account  of  Anglo-Saxon  organization  and 
government,  after  which  the  author  proceeds  to  the  Norman  and 
Angevin,  the  "  feudal "  period,  which  has  always  been  his  particular 
field,  and  this,  all  in  all,  is  the  best  part  of  the  writing.  These  chapters 
are  followed  by  an  account  of  the  Lancastrian  and  Yorkist  periods — ■ 
in  the  opinion  of  the  reviewer  the  least  good  part  of  the  book — and  an 
account  of  the  Tudor  period,  excellent,  but  not  so  good  as  what  follows. 
The  author  then  deals  with  the  Stuart  period,  and  the  triumph  of  Par- 
liament over  king;  with  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  rise  of  cabinet 
government;  with  the  nineteenth  century,  and  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise and  of  democratic  government;  and  with  the  constitution  of 
Great  Britain  at  present.  All  of  these  chapters  are  excellent,  so  that 
the  entire  volume  is  maintained  at  a  very  high  standard  of  goodness. 

In  respect  to  a  work  in  so  many  ways  so  well  done,  the  reviewer, 
at  the  same  time  that  he  doubts  his  competence  to  criticize  certain  por- 
tions, feels  no  little  reluctance  about  making  any  strictures  at  all.  In 
his  opinion  the  validity  of  the  work  is  in  some  places  marred  by  a 
tendency  to  treat  development  rather  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
result  than  of  the  stages  of  the  process  itself,  thus  giving,  for  example, 
a  disproportionate  importance  to  Parliament  in  earlier  times — the  con- 
comitant of  this  being  that  for  the  medieval  and  the  Tudor  periods, 
in  the  reviewer's  opinion,  the  executive  and  especially  the  king's  council 
have  far  less  description  than  their  relative  importance  requires.  The 
development  of  Parliament  in  the  fifteenth  century  is  of  highest  moment 
in  the  light  of  all  that  followed,  but  Parliament  was  undoubtedly  a 
small  part  of  the  English  government  then.  There  is  admirable  account 
of  feudalism  and  parliamentary  growth,  but  in  large  portions  of  the 
book  there  is  comparatively  slight  treatment  of  the  executive  parts  of 
the  government,  the  wardrobe,  the  king's  council,  the  privy  council 
of  Tudor  times,  the  great  executive  departments  of  the  eighteenth 
century  and  of  the  king's  powers  then,  which  remained  considerable 
even  in  that  period  of  their  decline.  In  the  reviewer's  opinion,  it  would 
have  been  well  if  certain  topics,  as,  for  example,  local  government,  had 
fuller  treatment  in  more  places.     Finally,  it  would  at  least  have  been 


108  Reviews  of  Books 

worth  trying  to  give  more  complete  pictures  of  the  government  at 
particular  times,  such  as  Maitland  did  so  well  in  the  Constitutional 
History  published  after  his  death. 

Raymond  Turner. 

The  Evolution  of  Parliament.  By  A.  F.  Pollard,  M.A.,  Litt.D., 
F.B.A.  (London  and  New  York:  Longmans,  Green,  and  Com- 
pany.     1920.     Pp.  xi,  398.     $7.50.) 

The  conviction  that  the  entire  history  of  Parliament  must  yet  be 
rewritten  was  planted  by  Maitland's  Memoranda  de  Parliamento,  and  to 
this  purpose  the  fund  of  a  fellowship  was  subsequently  devoted,  with 
the  results  that  are  now  before  us.  The  true  line  of  evolution,  it  has 
been  found,  lay  not  in  a  system  of  estates,  but  in  the  king's  court  and 
council,  which  was  considered  to  be  sitting  "  in  parliament "  whenever  it 
met  as  a  high  court  of  justice  in  an  enlarged  and  formal  session.  At 
such  a  session  of  the  council  the  presence  of  the  "estates",  as  they  came 
to  be  called,  whether  clergy,  barons,  or  commons,  was  at  first  accessory, 
while  a  meeting  of  estates  apart  from  the  council  was  not  strictly  con- 
sidered to  be  a  Parliament.  By  the  gradual  assimilation  of  council  and 
estates  the  English  Parliament  gained  its  peculiar  strength,  which  was 
equivalent  to  that  of  the  French  parlcments  combined  with  the  Estates- 
General. 

This  is  the  theme  that  Professor  Pollard  has  elaborated  with  all  his 
characteristic  powers  of  clear  exposition.  He  has  made  new  investi- 
gations of  related  subjects  such  as  the  estates,  the  peerage,  representa- 
tion, commonalty,  and  the  two  houses,  which  tend  to  show  that  the 
most  familiar  institutions  are  likely  to  be  misunderstood,  whenever  their 
history  is  read  backwards  by  the  reflected  light  of  later  centuries,  instead 
of  forward,  from  the  sources.  The  process  of  research  might  have  been 
carried  further,  especially  in  the  modern  period,  but  with  the  advent  of 
war  the  work  appears  to  have  been  hastily  concluded.  Of  contributions 
so  recent  as  J.  C.  Davies's  Baronial  Opposition  to  Edward  II.,  no 
notice  has  been  taken. 

Presented  first  as  popular  lectures,  the  chapters  retain  much  of  their 
original  form,  with  overlapping  titles  and  iterations  beyond  the  needs 
of  a  printed  text.  For  the  sake  of  argument,  too.  there  is  an  inclination 
to  set  forth  obsolete  theories  as  though  they  were  still  prepossessions - 
of  the  public  mind  (p.  20).  But  since  the  days  of  Stubbs,  the  Myth  of 
the  Three  Estates  is  not  so  much  of  a  myth,  nor  the  Fiction  of  the 
Peerage  so  purely  a  fiction  as  these  titles  are  meant  to  suggest.  Di- 
gressions are  not  unwelcome  when  the  thought  is  fresh  and  stimulating, 
though  the  discourse  upon  liberty,  medieval  and  modern,  has  little 
to  do  with  the  phases  of  liberty  especially  evolved  in  Parliament.  The 
Separation  of  Powers  however  affords  less  that  is  unfamiliar  in  the 
contrast  made  between  flexible   and   inflexible  constitutions,   according 


Curtler:  Enclosure  of  Our  Land  109 

to  the  traditional  view  of  the  English  and  the  American  systems  of 
government.  With  a  touch  of  rhodomontade  we  are  told  that  in  the 
United  States,  such  is  the  obstructive  power  of  the  courts,  social  reform 
depends  more  upon  judicature  than  upon  legislation  (p.  253),  while 
presidential  assassinations  and  the  lynching  of  negroes  are  forced  into 
comparison  with  impeachments  and  bills  of  attainder. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  in  traversing  the  centuries  a  his- 
torian whose  chief  claims  to  eminence  lie  in  a  special  period  should 
fail  to  make  mistakes.  Among  the  most  serious  are  statements,  that 
judgment  of  peers,  as  mentioned  in  Magna  Carta,  was  "a  more  or  less 
novel  royal  expedient"  (p.  91);  that  trial  of  peers  in  Parliament  was 
always  on  capital  charges  (p.  97)  ;  that  in  trials  of  criminous  clerks 
judgment  was  given  in  the  secular  courts,  while  execution  remained 
with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  (p.  196)  ;  that  in  the  House  of 
Commons  any  member  can  now  by  "  spying  strangers "  cause  the  gal- 
leries to  be  cleared  (p.  22).  The  author  is  perhaps  yet  more  prone  to 
hazard  remarks  that  cannot  be  proved.  How  is  it  known,  for  instance, 
that  Richard  II.  thought  of  the  theory  of  hereditary  divine  right  (p. 
220)  ?  And  where  in  contemporary  sources  is  the  form  consilium  con- 
tinuum (p.  281)  to  be  found?  Again,  the  novel  contention  that  plenum 
parliamentum  means  "open"  instead  of  "full"  parliament  (p.  33)  is 
not  convincing,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  "full  parliament"  is  a  recur- 
ring phrase  in  fifteenth-century  English. 

The  work  further  abounds  in  illustrative  and  pictorial  features.  It 
contains  brilliant  parts,  as  well  as  lapses  of  style  and  thought;  without 
claims  to  finality  it  has  made  advances  in  the  history  of  the  subject, 
and  encourages  further  advances  on  the  part  of  others.  In  place  of  a 
bibliography,  which  would  have  been  acceptable,  we  are  assured  that 
a  card  catalogue  of  materials  has  been  compiled  for  the  use  of  students. 

James  F.  Baldwin. 

The  Enclosure  and  Redistribution  of  our  Land.  By  W.  H.  R. 
Curtler.  (Oxford:  Clarendon  Press.  1920.  Pp.  viii,  334.) 
Carefully  documented,  dispassionately  written,  this  book  is  a  healthy 
antidote  to  those  frequent  and  yet  somewhat  vague  assertions  that  the 
land  of  England  has  been,  in  a  somewhat  mysterious  way,  spirited  away 
from  a  numerous  and  hardy  class  of  small  proprietors  by  great  land- 
owners. This  is  the  principal  contribution  of  this  book  to  the  agrarian 
literature   of   England. 

The  resume  which  the  author  gives  of  English  agriculture  from 
Celtic  days  to  the  time  of  the  Tudors  is  excellent;  but  inevitably  it  is 
familiar  ground,  much  more  fully  covered  by  Seebohm,  Gay,  and 
Ashley.  The  account  which  he  gives  of  the  methods  of  enclosure  in 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  is  detailed  yet  lucid;  but  here 
again  one  finds  nothing  which  may  not  be  discovered  in  Hasbach  and 


1 10  Reviews  of  Books 

Hammond.  His  vigorous  defense  of  the  enclosure  acts,  however,  and  ot 
the  English  landlord  is  new  and  refreshing,  and  provocative  of  muck 
thought. 

To  quote  his  own  words : 

Contrary  to  the  popular  idea  that  enclosure  was  wholly  a  land- 
lord's movement,  modern  investigation  has  clearly  discovered  that  there 
was  a  distinct  effort  on  the  part  of  the  peasantry,  beginning  as  early  as 
the  fourteenth,  and  continuing  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
to  abandon  the  open  field  system  and  escape  compulsory  cooperation  with 
the  lazy  and  the  shiftless. 

The  contemporary  outcry  against  enclosure  in  the  Tudor  period  he  finds 
not  only  exaggerated,  but  to  some  extent  uncalled  for;  and,  although 
he  admits  that  it  brought  hardship  to  certain  classes  in  society,  he  main- 
tains that  to  some  extent  it  was  inevitable  and  that,  on  the  whole,  the 
early  enclosure  movement  did  more  good  than  harm. 

Thus  also  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  Mr.  Curtler 
in  general  upholds  the  enclosure  acts,  and,  though  freely  admitting  that 
"by  1887  only  12  per  cent,  of  the  occupiers  of  agricultural  land  in 
England  were  also  owners  ",  he  considers  that  other  causes,  aside  from 
enclosures,  thus  reduced  their  ranks. 

Chief  among  these  was  the  Industrial  Revolution,  sweeping  away  the 
cottage  industries.  The  towns  acted  as  a  magnet  to  the  small  agricul- 
turalist, whether  yeoman,  farmer,  or  laborer,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Speenhamland  Land  Act  bore  far  harder  on  the  small  holder  than 
on  the  large.  And  although  he  concedes  that  the  cottagers  possessed 
moral  rights  to  the  commons  which  were  ignored,  he  affirms  that  the 
total  good  accomplished  in  bettering  waste  land  and  in  improving  the 
breed  of  cattle  more  than  compensated   for  this  evil. 

The  growth  of  land  allotments,  of  parcels  of  land  under  five  acres, 
cultivated  by  agricultural  laborers  or  other  workmen,  has  gone  on 
steadily  since  the  mjddle  of  the  nineteenth  century;  and  of  this  move- 
ment Mr.  Curtler  approves  heartily,  attributing  its  success,  as  he  does, 
very  largely  to  the  co-operation  of  the  landlords.  But  of  the  Small 
Holdings  acts  of  1892,  1906,  and  1908,  which  attempt  by  law  to  create 
a  class  of  small  independent  farmers  on  holdings  of  from  five  to  fifty 
acres,  he  is  openly  sceptical,  coming  to  this  pessimistic  conclusion  in 
regard  to  them:  "Indeed  no  one  who  looks  carefully  into  the  facts  can 
entertain  any  hope  that  the  system  of  small  holdings  can  be  carried  out 
to  any  such  extent  as  to  counteract  at  all  the  flow  of  the  rising  rural 
population  into  the  town." 

The  last  two  chapters  of  this  book,  dealing  as  they  do  with  the 
last  three  decades,  are  the  only  .ones  which  impress  the  reviewer  as 
scanty  in  scope  and  deficient  in  information.  The  Report  of  the  Land 
Inquiry  Committee,  published  in  1913,  gives  quite  a  different  story  of 
recent  development  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  allotments  and  small 
holdings.     It  intimates  that  not  only  there  is  an  unsatisfied  demand  for 


Butler:   Studies  in  Statecraft  i 1 1 

land  allotments,  but  that  small  holdings  are  far  more  eagerly  sought  for 
than  Mr.  Curtler  intimates.  With  the  success  of  the  small  holder  on  the 
Continent  constantly  in  mind,  one  cannot  quite  follow  the  author  in  his 
argument  that  a  like  success  is  improbable  in  England.  It  is  clear,  at 
any  rate,  that  the  progressive  decline  of  the  British  agricultural  popula- 
tion, as  indicated  by  the  last  census,  of  191 1,  is  an  unfavorable  social 
omen  in  Great  Britain,  and  that  stiff  measures  of  some  description  need 
to  be  taken. 

•  Walter  P.   Hall. 

Studies  in  Statecraft,  being  Chapters  Biographical  and  Bibliograph- 
ical, mainly  on  the  Sixteenth  Century.  By  Sir  Geoffrey  But- 
ler, K.B.E.,  M.A.,  Fellow,  Librarian,  and  Praelector  in  Diplo- 
matic History  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge.  (Cam- 
bridge: University  Press.  1920.  Pp.  vi,  138.  $4.00.) 
This  thin  volume  of  essays,  which  "  make  but  the  humblest  of  pre- 
tensions "  (introduction),  deals  with  theories  of  sovereignty,  pacifism, 
and  world  organization  for  the  preservation  of  peace,  mainly  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  title  would  lead  one  to  expect  a  series  of 
essays  on  the  work  of  statesmen  and  diplomats, 'but,  with  the  exception 
of  chapter  IV.,  on  Sully  and  his  Grand  Design,  what  is  given  is  studies 
on  the  speculations  of  obscure  political  philosophers.  Chapter  I.  deals 
with  Bishop  Roderick  and  Renaissance  Pacificism,  being  a  critical  ex- 
position of  the  bishop's  treatise,  De  Pace  el  Bella.  Chapter  II.  treats  of 
the  French  "  Civilians ",  Roman  Law,  and  the  New  Monarchy,  and 
shows  for  the  civil  lawyers  (as  Gierke,  by  the  way,  shows  for  other 
lawyers)  that  medieval  legal  theory  by  no  means  supported  the 
position  of  the  autocrat.  Chapter  III.  sketches  the  life  and  work  of 
a  remarkable  scholar,  William  Postel,  who  was  out  of  his  head  part  of 
the  time  and,  one  is  tempted  to  say,  in  trouble  the  remainder  of  the 
time,  and  who  regarded  the  establishment  of  peace  as  achievable  only 
through  the  dominance  of  France.  Sir  Geoffrey's  opinion  that  political 
philosophers  will  deem  this  of  interest  "  in  the  record  of  the  growing 
significance  of  the  secular  nation  state"  (p.  49)  seems  doubtful  to  the 
reviewer.  Did  not  Pierre  Dubois  hold  much  the  same  opinion  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  earlier,  to  say  nothing  of  the  others  around  A.D. 
1300?  (See  Dubois's  De  Recuperatione,  and  R.  Scholz's  Publizistik.) 
Chapter  V.  treats  of  "the  Grand  Design"  of  Emerich  Cruce,  who 
would  have  a  permanent  bench  of  the  ambassabors  of  all  sovereigns, 
located  in  one  city,  "  in  order  that  the  differences  that  might  arise 
should  be  settled  by  the  whole  assembly"  (p.  99).  Surely  this  is 
more  naive  than  Dubois's  league  to  enforce  peace. 

The  essays  are  of  value  as  showing  the  movement  of  international 
ideas  among  the  lesser  lights.  The  bibliographical  addenda  on  the  writ- 
ings of  Rodericus  Sancius  (Bishop  Roderick)  and  of  William  Postel  are 


1 1  2  Reviews  of  Books 

well  done  and  useful.  But  one  reader  at  least  was  irked  by  the 
discursiveness  of  the  essays,  which  savor,  to  him,  more  of  the  platform 
which  the  author  adorned  during  the  war  (we  remember  him  very 
kindly  as  a  member  of  the  British  Mission)  than  of  a  scholarly  book  on 
political  theory.  Thus,  in  working  up  to  Cruce's  proposal  for  preserving 
peace,.  Sir  Geoffrey  quotes  Cruce's  advocacy  of  the  resumption  of 
Charlemagne's  plan  for  knitting  together  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  and 
then  adds : 

The  two  seas  were  joineS  in  time,  but  they  had  to  wait  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  and  then  the  necessary  work  was  not  undertaken  by  a 
French  King  but  by  the  most  relentless  of  French  enemies,  after  a  peace 
disastrous  to  France  and  sown  with  the  seed  of  future  European  wars; 
but  it  is  interesting  to  find  foreshadowed  by  Cruce  a  development  of 
German  canalisation,  which  within  thirty  years  of  the  Peace  of  Frank- 
fort was  to  give  Germany,  and  Prussia  in  particular,  8750  miles  of 
canals,  of  which  5041  were  main  streams,  885  composed  of  channelled 
rivers  and  the  rest  canals  proper  dug  in  the  fashion  which  Cruce  had 
projected  (pp.  94-95)- 

Such  commentaries  seem  out  of  place  in  a  volume  of  scholarly  essays, 
and  we  prefer  the  more  restrained  method,  employed  so  well,  for 
example,  in  Herbert  Fisher's  Studies  in  History  and  Politics  (Oxford, 
1920). 

G.  C.  S. 

Geschichte   der  Pdpste  seit  dem  Ausgang   des  Mittelalters.     Von 
Ludwig  Freiherr  von  Pastor.     Bande  VII.  und  VIII.    Pius 
IV;   I559~I565\  Pi^s   V .,   1556-1572.     (Freiburg-in-Breisgau: 
Herder  and  Company.     1920.    Pp.  xl,  706;  xxxvi,  676.) 
It  is  reassuring  so  soon  after  the  Great  War  to  receive  these  two 
thick  volumes.     True,  the  author  tells  us  that  both  were  all  but  com- 
pleted when  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  made  publication  impossible. 
But  he  tells  us  also  that  throughout  the  war,  despite  its  severing  him 
from  Rome,  he  could  go  on  with  the  work,  since  already  its  materials 
had  been  gleaned  from  the  archives.     Great  difficulties  there  were;   but 
they   did  not   prevent   his   practical   completion   of   the   pontificates   of 
Gregory  XIII.,  Sixtus  V.,  Clement  VIII.,  Paul  V.,  and  Gregory  XV. 
Further    volumes    may    therefore    be    expected    soon;     and    these    will 
carry  us  to  1623.     No  wonder  that  the   author,  though  now  past  the 
middle  of  his  sixties,  can  begin  to  count  with  confidence  on  bringing  to 
its  purposed  goal  the  great  work  of  his  life. 

When  in  1886  its  volumes  began  to  appear,  and  when  each  surpassed 
its  predecessor  in  the  almost  appalling  conscientiousness  of  its  research, 
it  seemed  unlikely  that  a  lifetime  could  suffice.  But  the  years  soon 
demonstrated,  too,  the  writer's  remarkable  capacity  for  work;  and, 
though  task  after  task  has  been  laid  on  his  competent  shoulders,  his 
history   of    the   popes   has   gone   steadily    forward.      Perhaps    the   war 


Pastor:   Geschichte  der  Papste  113 

itself  may  have  lightened  his  interruptions ;  and  the  new  poverty  of 
his  diminished  country  can  hardly  help  lessening  the  activities  of  that 
great  Austrian  school  of  research  at  Rome  of  which  since  Sickel's  re- 
tirement he  has  been  the  director.  His  success  as  a  historian  has 
found  other  recognition  than  added  duties.  The  name,  which  on  the 
title-page  of  his  first  volumes  was  identified  by  academic  dignities,  but 
soon  stood  proudly  alone  as  Ludwig  Pastor,  was  in  his  fifth  volume, 
in  1909,  ennobled  into  Ludwig  von  Pastor,  and  now  appears  with  the 
added  title  of  Freiherr;  and  a  reward  perhaps  as  welcome  has  been  the 
acclaim  of  the  world  of  scholars. 

With  these  two  volumes  he  reaches  the  climax  of  what  he  prefers 
to  call  the  Catholic  Reformation,  and  he  makes  no  secret  of  his 
growing  zest  in  the  tale.  That  the  first  volume  is  the  thicker,  though  it 
deals  with  the  briefer  pontificate,  is  only  because  it  includes  the  story 
of  those  closing  sess:ons  of  the  Council  of  Trent  which  shaped  all 
modern  Catholicism.  Pope  Pius  IV.,  indeed,  is  sketched  as  no  un- 
pleasing  figure:  of  middle  height  and  healthful  color,  with  friendly, 
cheery  face,  high  brow,  and  gray-blue,  lively  eyes,  a  slightly  aquiline  nose, 
his  grizzled  beard  close  trimmed,  a  chatty  talker  and  a  kindly,  albeit  an 
impatient,  listener,  careless  of  ceremony,  restlessly  active  despite  his 
sixty  years,  and  wedded  to  the  long  walks  in  which  he  found  his 
exercise,  no  theologian,  but  a  good  classicist,  a  sound  canon  lawyer, 
above  all  a  sane  administrator  and  a  tactful  diplomat.  Nor  does  his 
historian  question  the  genuineness  of  his  loyalty  to  the  Council  and  its 
work  and  to  the  reform  of  the  Church.  But  he  lays  bare  without  flinch- 
ing the  irregularities  of  his  earlier  life,  the  easy-going  worldliness  of 
his  personal  habits,  the  nepotism  which  might  have  brought  renewed 
disaster  to  the  Church,  had  not  the  favorite  nephew  proved  a  saint. 
It  is  that  nephew,  Carlo  Borromeo  himself,  who  plays  the  leading  role. 
Even  on  Pius  V.,  who  owed  him  his  election,  his  influence  is  shown 
to  have  been  great. 

Pius  V.,  however,  holds  the  centre  of  the  stage.  As  no  predecessor 
except  the  German  Hadrian,  and  perhaps  the  short-lived  Marcellus,  he  is 
the  joy  of  his  historian.  But  the  historian  is  not  blinded  by  his  saint- 
hood. In  an  appendix  on  the  biographers  of  Pius  he  protests  against 
their  hagiographic  mawkishness.  His  own  search  for  new  evidence 
has  been  diligent  and  fruitful ;  and  he  does  not  fail  to  see  how  often 
the  simple-hearted  piety  of  Pius  and  his  relentless  rigor  squared  ill 
with  actualities.  But  a  pope  whose  character  and  purpose  brought  back, 
at  least  to  Catholic  Christendom,  the  papal  leadership,  inspires  his 
narrative  to  almost  epic  swing,  and  sometimes  swells  it  to  a  history  of 
Europe.  In  Spain  and  the  Netherlands,  in  France,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, he  has,  indeed,  little  but  Pyrrhic  victories  to  record;  but  against 
the  Turk  the  pope's  crusading  ardor  won  a  lasting  triumph,  and  for 
Pius  V.  his  usual  order  of  treatment  is  abandoned  to  make  Lepanto  the 
climax  of  the  volume. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.  — 8. 


1 1 4  Reviews  of  Books 

Older  readers,  who  owe  their  interest  in  these  popes  to  the  work  by 
which  Ranke,  just  half  a  century  before  Dr.  Pastor  took  up  his  pen, 
established  his  reputation  as  a  historian,  or  to  that  essay  of  Macaulay, 
suggested  by  it,  which  made  the  Protestant  world  sit  up  and  ponder,  will 
wish  to  know  how  what  they  then  learned  is  shaken  by  this  fresh 
research.  To  all  earnest  historical  study  it  should  be  a  reassurance  that 
so  little  error  is  shown.  True,  the  influence  of  Ranke  upon  Pastor,  who 
from  the  outset  rated  him  "  the  most  important  of  all  Germany's  Protest- 
ant historians",  has  clearly  not  been  slight;  but  this  has  meant  no  lack 
of  readiness  to  correct  his  facts  or  criticize  his  views.  What  warranted 
and  what  distinguishes  the  work  of  Pastor  is  its  access  to  the  sources 
and  the  thoroughness  with  which  it  uses  them.  Where  Ranke  could 
but  divine,  touching  only  the  high  points  in  his  sweep,  Pastor  estab- 
lishes by  solid  proofs,  or  discredits  by  their  absence.  His  reader  has 
the  rare  satisfaction  of  feeling  that  he  has  in  hand  a  definitive  study. 
Even  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  Ranke  believed  that  such  a.  final  history 
would  never  be  undertaken,  "  since  those  who  could  certainly  do  it 
have  no  wish  to  see  it  done  ",  while  "  those  who  might  desire  to  accom- 
plish it  do  not  possess  the  means".  It  was  with  Leo  XIII.  that  the 
church  authorities  rallied  to  that  verdict  of  Pertz  which  Pastor  makes 
the  epigraph  of  his  opening  volume :  "  Die  beste  Vertheidigung  der 
Papste  ist  die  Enthiillung  ihres  Seins."  But  even  to  their  historian 
one  rich  body  of  records  is  still  closed.  The  archives  of  the  Inquisition 
he  has  besieged  in  vain;  and  without  their  aid  a  satisfactory  study 
of  the  inquisitor  pope  might  seem  impossible.  Happily,  they  too  have 
suffered  breach.  Every  scholar  knows  how  their  treasures  were  in 
part  carried  off  to  Paris  by  Napoleon,  with  the  rest  of  the  papal 
archives,  and  how  after  his  fall  they  had  to  be  returned,  including  the 
trial  of  Galileo.  Fewer  perhaps  will  remember  how  some  of  them, 
however,  mysteriously  made  their  way  to  Dublin,  where  they  are  still 
in  the  keeping  of  Trinity  College,  and  have  found  partial  publication 
at  the  hands  of  Gibbings.  and  of  Benrath.  Now,  a  part  of  these  belong 
precisely  to  the  pontificates  of  Pius  IV.  and  Pius  V.  Alas,  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  what  is  still  unprinted  could  hardly,  during  the  war,  be  at 
the  service  of  a  German  scholar ;  but  in  these  last  years  there  have  been 
other  disclosures,  and  a  decade  ago  Professor  Pastor  himself  published 
from  Roman  libraries  a  precious  gleaning.1  Thus  equipped,  what  he 
is  able  to  tell  us  in  the  present  volumes  is  at  least  of  high  interest ;  and 
no  pages,  perhaps,  deserve  a  wider  audience  than  those  on  the  activities 
of  Inquisition  and  of  Index. 

1  It  will  interest  students  to  know  that  the  printed  book  which  he  counts 
almost  a  manuscript,  finding  even  in  the  libraries  of  Rome  only  an  imperfect 
copy,  and  falling  back  for  the  extracts  he  prints  on  a  complete  one,  somehow  in  the 
hands  of  the  Roman  antiquary  Bocca,  is  now  on  th«  shelves  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. This  is  the  De  Inconstantia  in  Jure  of  Cardinal  Albizzi,  secretly  printed 
under  a  false  imprint  for  the  private  use  of  the  Inquisition,  and  only  lent  to  its 
officials  during  their  terms   of  service. 


von  Srbik:  JVaUcnstcins  Ende  i '  5 

But,  though  his  honesty,  his  frankness,  are  beyond  all  question, 
though  he  prefers  in  the  main  to  quote  verdicts  from  contemporaries 
without  remark — he  can  even,  without  a  comment,  let  the  pope  himself, 
in  1565,  say  to  the  cardinals  that  scarcely  a  tenth  of  all  Christians  are 
still  Catholic — it  must  not  be  inferred  that  of  his  Catholic  and  Ultra- 
montane sympathies  there  is  ever  doubt.  And  let  no  reader  expect  in 
his  pages  any  attempt  to  understand  or  make  intelligible  the  attitude 
of  Lutheran  or  Anabaptist,  of  Calvinist  or  Anglican.  All,  he  tells  his 
readers,  that  these  religious  innovators  agreed  in  was  the  utter  repression 
and  outrooting  of  the  Catholic  worship.  And  even  less  than  for  these 
fierce  opponents  has  he  an  understanding  heart  for  those  who  dream 
of  mediation  or  of  parity.  Not  Elizabeth  alone  or  Catharine  de'  Medici 
to  him  are  wholly  self-seeking,  unscrupulous,  void  of  religion.  Little, 
if  at  all,  less  conscienceless  are  William  of  Orange,  Maximilian  of 
Austria,  even  L'Hopital.  The  Edict  of  January  is  to  him  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  French  religious  wars.  But,  such  as  they  are,  his 
volumes  are  of  inestimable  worth  to  men  of  every  faith. 

George  L.  Burr. 

Wallensteins  Ende:  Ursachen,  Vcrlauf  und  Folgen  der  Katastrophe. 

Auf  Grund  neuer  Quellen  untersucht  und  dargestellt  von  Hein- 

rich   Ritter  von   Srbik.      (Vienna:   L.   W.   Seidel  und   Sohn. 

1920.     Pp.  xvi,  407.     M.  60.) 

While  not  formally  concerning  himself  with  Wallenstein's  char- 
acter, activities,  or  guilt,  it  is  repeatedly  evident  that  the  author  con- 
siders him,  in  these  last  months,  a  dying  man,  hopelessly  vacillating,  but 
following  one  great  ideal,  for  "  nur  die  grosse  Sehnsucht,  sein  Leben 
durch  das  Friedenswerk  zu  beschliessen,  erfiillte  den  Mann  " ;  and  "  nach 
seinem  subjectiven  Ermessen  war  nicht  er  dem  Kaiser,  sondern  der 
Kaiser  ihm,  dem  Reichsfiirsten,  zum  tiefstem  Danke  und  zur  politischen 
Gefugigkeit  verpfiichtet ". 

The  guiding  thread  is  the  question  of  responsibility  for  Wallenstein's 
death,  with  emphasis  on  Ferdinand.  One  result  is  a  valuable  history 
of  the  propaganda  involved.  The  story,  beginning  abruptly  in  the  mid- 
dle of  1633,  portrays  Ferdinand  and  his  motives,  the  elements  opposed 
to  Wallenstein  "  Die  Glaubenseiferer  konnten  nichts  anderes  als  Kreig- 
seiferer  sein",  and  the  swirling  waves  of  denunciation,  extreme,  con- 
scienceless, often  baseless,  slowly  convincing  the  emperor.  "  Welches 
ungeheuerliche  Liigengebaude  hat  Piccolomini  aufgebaut ".  The  at- 
titude of  the  army  is  analyzed,  "  und  da  war  es  nun  des  Friedlanders  Ver- 
hiingnis,  dass  Offizier  und  Mann  nie  das  Band  der  verehrungsvollen 
Zuneigung,  des  warmen  Zusammengehorigkeitsgefuhls  mit  ihm  hatten 
kniipfen  konnen  ".  The  bitter  "  Proskriptionspatent "  of  February  18 
ensues,  following  the  "  Absetzungspatent "  of  January  24,  and  the  order, 


1 1 6  Reviews  of  Books 

of  the  same  date,  "das  Haupt  und  die  vornehmsten  Mitverschworenen, 
wenn  irgend  moglich,  gefangen  zu  nehmen  und  nach  Wien  zu  bringen 
oder  als  iiberfuhrte  Schuldige  zu  toten  ".  This  order  is  "  ganz  authen- 
tisch  nur  durch  Lamormaini  bekannt",  who  writes  thus  to  Vitelleschi. 
A  satisfactory,  if  not  very  astonishing,  chapter  studies  the  theories 
behind  this  order,  especially  the  Hapsburg  position  regarding  political 
assassination. 

Regarding  the  circumstances  at  Eger,  elaborate  analysis  of  ma- 
terials gives  first  place  to  a  paper  which  "  unzweifelhafte  innere 
Kriterien  "  proves  to  be  a  report  made  by  Gordon  at  Eger,  before  Feb- 
ruary 28,  and  corrected  there  by  Piccolomini  on  March  1.  This  conclu- 
sion seems  highly  probable.  The  document  is  printed  in  full.  Leslie's 
report  is  ranked  next,  with  one  by  Macdaniel  which  the  author  dis- 
covers translated  in  an  "  informatione "  probably  compiled  by  Picco- 
lomini. He  makes  a  good  case  for  this  claim.  Other  sources  are 
carefully  appraised,  including  the  '"  Chaos  perduellionis ",  which  is  as- 
signed to  the  Hofprediger  Weingartner,  who  produced  during  this 
affair,  "  eine  Reihe  von  Werken  voll  unsagbarer  Gehassigkeit,  heim- 
tuckischer  Intrigue  und  unmenschlichen  Fanatismus  ".  On  this  basis  it 
is  argued  that  the  officers  at  Eger  knew  of  the  "  Gefangennahme  oder 
Hinrichtung"  order,  that  "niemahls  wird  sich  die  Notwendigkeit,  dem 
Herzoge  das  Leben  zu  rauben,  erweisen  lassen  " ;  and  the  final  scene 
is  interestingly  changed  through  using  Gordon :  "  worauf  die  Mussque- 
tierer  Rebellen,  Rebellen  geschryen,  dass  fiirstlich  Losament  erofnet 
und  Ihr  fiirst.  Gn.,  so  bloss  im  Hembt  am  Tisch  lainendt  gestanden 
und  mehr  nit  alss  Ah  guardir  gesprochen,  von  mehr  besagten  Capitain 
mit  vor  gehenten  Wortten  Du  schlimmer,  meinaydger  alter  rebellischer 
Schelm  mit  der  Partisan  zwischen  beeden  Priisten  durchstochen 
worden  .  .  .  ".     No  trace  of  heroism  is  found  among  the  assassins. 

The  last  book  is  devoted  to  the  resulting  propaganda  on  every  hand ; 
Ferdinand's  early  acceptance  of  responsibility;  the  wavering  due  to 
failure  of  the  desired  proof  of  charges  made  in  December  and  January 
against  Wallenstein,  and  the  dangerous  state  of  opinion ;  the  final  recog- 
nition of  responsibility,  under  strong  pressure  from  Piccolomini  and 
others,  with  heavy  rewards  for  everyone  even  remotely  concerned. 

On  the  whole  the  book  is  definite,  restrained,  and  helpful.  Occa- 
sionally certainties  and  strong  probabilities  are  too  obviously  built  of 
many  little  probabilities  and  possibilities.  Placing  the  emphasis  so  de- 
cidedly on  Wallenstein's  enemies,  together  with  the  narrow  chronologi- 
cal limits,  gives  some  feeling  of  incompleteness ;  but  it  is,  within  its 
limits,  worth  while,  showing  some  able  handling  of  sources,  much  in- 
teresting detail,  and  publishing  several  valuable  documents. 

H.  L.  King. 


Cartellieri:  der  Neueren  Revolutioncn  1 1  7 

Geschichtc  dcr  Neueren  Revolutionen,  bom  Englischen  Puritanismus 
bis  zur  Pariser  Kommune,  1642-18/I.  Von  Dr.  Alexander 
Cartellieri,  0.6.  Professor  der  Geschichte  an  der  Universitat 
Jena.  (Leipzig:  Verlag  der  Dykschen  Buchhandlung.  1921. 
Pp.  229.    M.  25,  bound  M.  38.) 

It  is  inevitable  that  the  recrudescence  of  revolution  in  the  world 
should  turn  the  attention  of  historians  to  the  general  subject  of  efforts  to 
alter  the  form  or  function  of  government  by  force.  We  may  expect  a 
series  of  studies  of  revolutionary  movements  or  of  revolution  in  general 
from  their  pens.  And  it  is  natural  that,  with  their  well-known  enter- 
prise, the  earliest  of  these  should  come  from  the  hands  of  the  Germans. 
The  little  volume  of  Professor  Cartellieri  is  doubtless  only  the  fore- 
runner of  what  we  may  expect  to  see  in  varied  and  greatly  enlarged 
form;  and  it  is  interesting,  therefore,  not  only  for  itself,  but  for  the 
promise  which  it  contains. 

There  was  a  time,  and  not  so  long  ago,  when  such  a  book  would 
have  been  pretty  generally  received  more  or  less  uncritically,  with  the 
awe-inspiring  prestige  which  attached  to  all  historical  work  made  in 
Germany.  There  was  something  terrifying  in  the  very  name  of  Ger- 
man scholarship,  an  esoteric  quality  which  set  it  apart  from  the  work  of 
mere — shall  we  say?' — Americans.  The  simple  fact  that  it  had  been 
written  at  all,  would  have  convinced  many  persons  that  it  was  a  more  or 
less  epoch-making  work,  and  they  would  have  been  correspondingly 
awed.  That  day  has  passed.  If  the  war  has  taught  us  nothing  else,  it 
has  proved  that  the  work  even  of  German  scholars  is  not  above  and  be- 
yond all  criticism,  and  the  least  of  us  may  now  look  upon  it  as  if  it  had 
been  produced  by  ordinary  human  beings.  We  may  venture  to  judge 
it  by  the  same  standards  as  we  would  apply  to  the  labors  of  our  own  col- 
leagues.    We  may  even  find  fault  with  it. 

Professor  Cartellieri  has  to  his  credit  an  imposing  list  of  titles.  He 
has  published  a  register  of  the  bishops  of  Constance,  three  volumes  of  a 
history  of  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  with  lesser  studies  in  the  same 
general  field,  an  outline  of  world  history,  an  account  of  Weimar  and 
Jena  between  the  years  1806  and  181 5,  the  usual  essays  on  Germany, 
France,  and  the  war  which  most  of  us  have  written,  but  which  few  of 
us  have  made  into  books,  and  some  lectures  on  the  foundation  of  the 
German  Empire.  In  other  words,  his  chief  work  has  lain  in  the  field 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  from  which  safe  retreat  he  has  been  drawn,  nat- 
urally and  irresistibly,  into  the  less-calm  arena  of  modern  politics.  He 
is,  therefore,  not  an  individual  but  a  type,  and  as  such  deserves  some 
consideration. 

His  present  volume  is  a  book  of  some  200  pages,  carefully  indexed, 
and  accompanied  by  a  table  of  dates  and  a  bibliography.  Its  character 
may  in  some  measure  be  determined  by  the  latter.     It  contains  nine 


1 1 8  Reviews  of  Books 

general  studies  of  revolution,  all  published  in  Germany  since  1913,  and 
brief  lists  of  the  works  he  has  presumably  consulted  in  preparing  this 
series  of  lectures,  now  elaborated  into  a  book.  That  his  study  has  not 
been  profound,  these  lists  witness.  For  it  is  difficult  to  take  seriously  a 
volume  which  so  obviously  relies  on  the  Histoire  Generate,  on  Seig- 
nobos,  Lodge,  Montague,  Madeiin,  and  Taine,  even  though  it  owes  some- 
thing apparently  to  Aulard,  Macaulay,  Brosch,  von  Sybel,  Stern,  and 
Sorel. 

In  brief,  we  have  here  what  the  author  would,  possibly,  be  the 
first  to  admit,  a  series  of  more  or  less  hastily  compiled  lectures,  corrected 
and  revised  for  publication.  In  some  measure  he  does  admit  this  in 
his  preface,  however  qualifiedly.  But  no  one  could  pretend  that  this  is 
more  than  the  first  word  on  the  subject.  It  is  true,  as  he  says,  that 
there  is  no  other  such  work — but  there  will  be  others.  And  what  he 
has  done  is  scarcely  more  than  to  blaze  a  trail.  Not  even  that,  for  he 
has  merely  retold  in  briefer  form  what  many  men  have  told  before  him. 
His  account  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1789; — the  longest  single  sec- 
tion of  the  book — is  the  conventional  story,  whose  time  is  passing.  His 
account  of  the  English  revolutions  lacks  most  of  the  more  intimate 
knowledge  which  makes  them  intelligible.  He  omits  all  reference  to 
the  American  Revolution  and  the  Spanish-American  revolution,  as  well 
as  the  Greek,  the  Spanish,  and  the  more  recent  movements  in  Ger- 
many and  Russia.  His  account  of  the  revolutions  of  1848,  especially 
in  Central  Europe,  is  perhaps  the  best  part  of  the  book.  But  neither 
there  nor  anywhere  else  does  he  take  any  adequate  account  of  what  is, 
after  all,  the  fundamental  quality  of  revolution,  the  state  of  mind  of 
those  who  conduct  it,  the  psychology  of  the  movements  whose  external 
events  he  describes.  Nor  could  that  be  expected  from  one  whose  life- 
work  has  been  so  largely  done  in  a  field  far  removed  from  the  one  he 
now  invades.  For  it  takes  more  than  the  reading  of  Macaulay  and 
Taine  to  get  under  the  skin  of  modern  revolutions;  and  Professor  Car- 
tellieri  must  suffer  the  fate  of  all  insufficiently  equipped  pioneers  in 
consequence.  One  who  undertakes  the  difficult  and  dangerous  task  of 
chronicling  revolution  must  know  more  of  the  "ungeheuren  Literatur  " 
to  which  he  refers  in  his  preface  than  even  "  Montague  und  Lodge,  das 
schone  und  unparteiische  Werk  von  A.  Sorel  sowie  die  grosse  ange- 
legte,  inhaltreiche  Darstellung  von  A.  Stern ".  For,  however  unique, 
however  useful,  his  book  may  be  for  certain  purposes,  it  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  either  authoritative  or  definitive. 

The  Kaiser  vs.  Bismarck:  Suppressed  Letters  by  the  Kaiser,  and 
New  Chapters  from  the  Autobiography  of  the  Iron  Chancellor. 
With  a  historical  Introduction  by  Charles  Downer  Hazen, 
Professor  of  History,  Columbia  University.  Translated  by  Ber- 
nard Miall.  (New  York  and  London:  Harper  and  Brothers. 
192 1.     Pp.  xxii,  203.    $2.50.) 


The  Kaiser  vs.  Bismarck  119 

The  present  work  has  been  heralded  as  the  long-promised  third  vol- 
ume of  Bismarck's  Gcdankcn  und  Erinncrungcn,  the  publication  of 
which  in 'Germany  last  year  was  prevented  by  judicial  proceedings.  In 
the  absence  of  the  German  version  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  responsi- 
bility for  a  dozen  or  more  unintelligible  passages  and  mistaken  refer- 
ences in  the  English  text,  but  the  character  of  the  present  rendering 
may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  the  chancellor's  letter  of  resigna- 
tion (pp.  113-117),  published  in  the  original  by  Busch  immediately 
after  Bismarck's  death,  contains  seven  errors  in  translation,  some  of 
them  quite  destructive  of  the  sense. 

In  his  vigorous  style,  and  with  entire  frankness  in  personal  detail, 
Bismarck  traces  through  a  dozen  chapters  his  relations  with  William, 
from  1886  down  to  his  own  final  departure  from  Berlin  on  March  29. 
1890,  under  circumstances  which  reminded  him  of  "  first-class  funeral 
obsequies  ",  supplementing  the  story  with  a  discussion  of  the  first  results 
of  his  dismissal,  the  German  foreign  policy  in  the  Heligoland-Zanzi- 
bar exchange,  and  the  Austrian  commercial  treaty  of  December,  1891. 
Inner  evidence  and  the  tone  of  the  narrative,  which  the  author  says  was 
based  on  notes  made  from  day  to  day,  place  the  writing  of  the  book 
within  two  years  after  Bismarck's  retirement. 

The  chancellor  opens  his  story  with  an  account  of  his,  for  the  most 
part  futile,  efforts  to  provide  Prince  William  with  experience  in  civil 
administration,  and  documents  the  lack  of  harmony  between  the  future 
kaiser  and  his  father  by  a  confidential  letter  from  Crown  Prince  Fred- 
erick, protesting  against  bringing  the  "vanity  and  presumption"  of  his 
son  into  touch  with  foreign  affairs.  Step  by  step,  then,  with  illustrations 
from  his  correspondence,  the  chancellor  pictures  the  series  of  misunder- 
standings which  arose  with  William's  entry  into  public  life.  The  per- 
sons who  form  the  kaiser's  coterie  of  advisers  are  analyzed  with  a 
bitter  pen:  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  the  vice-president  of  the  ministry, 
Boetticher,  Bismarck's  ad  latus,  who  in  his  chief's  opinion  now  p'ays 
the  traitor;  and  especially,  the  inner  clique  of  unofficial  advisers,  headed 
by  Hinzpeter,  an  "  educationalist ",  who  "  play  upon  the  kaiser's  appe- 
tite for  reform  "  with  "  humanitarian  ideas  brought  from  England  ". 

The  struggle  opens  with  the  crown  council  meeting  of  January  24, 
1890,  when  after  a  long  absence  the  chancellor  returns  to  find  the  kaiser 
ready  to  launch  a  new  programme  of  protection  and  privilege  for  labor, 
and  continues  for  eight  weeks.  Bismarck  assures  us  "  I  did  not  cling 
to  my  position — only  to  my  duty"  (p.  85),  because  he  felt  the  emperor  to 
be  under  "  alien  influence "  and  "  held  it  as  my  duty  to  remain  beside 
him  as  a  moderating  influence  or  eventually  opposing  him"  (p.  86). 
The  final  decision  agaist  him  the  chancellor  places  between  March  8  and 
14,  and  connects  it  with  a  visit  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  although 
"to  this  day",  he  asserts,  "  I  have  not  with  absolute  certainty  learned  the 
actual  reason  for  the   rupture."     With  grave  dignity  he  recounts  the 


120  Reviews  of  Books 

reiterated  demand  for  his  resignation,  and  his  humiliation  at  the  post- 
mortem honors  which  William  thrust  upon  him.  The  pen-picture  of 
Caprivi  which  follows  is  touched  with  the  bitterness  of  a  quarter-century 
of  feud  with  the  army  chiefs;  that  of  Wiliiam  II.  is  a  comparison, 
measured  and  judicial,  but  none  the  less  satirical  in  undertone,  of  the 
kaiser  with  his  forbears  on  the  Prussian  throne,  culminating  in  an  ar- 
raignment for  lack  of  loyalty  to  tried  servants:  "With  the  transition 
from  the  Hohenzollern  spirit  to  the  Coburg-English  conception  an  im- 
ponderable factor  was  lost  which  will  be  difficult  to  restore"   (p.  151). 

Bismarck's  story  is  of  deep  psychological  interest  both  for  the  light 
it  throws  on  his  own  character  and  on  that  of  Wiliiam,  but  it  adds 
little  to  our  knowledge  of  the  events.  Equally  important  for  these,  and 
to  be  read  in  connection  with  Bismarck's  account,  is  the  recently  pub- 
lished posthumous  apologia  of  K.  H.  von  Boetticher  (Fiirst  Bismarcks 
Entlassung,  Berlin,  Scherl,  1920).  Here  the  dismissal  of  the  chancellor 
is  reviewed  from  the  standpoint  of  a  pliant  though  conscientious  bureau- 
crat, with  the  inclusion  of  many  private  and  public  papers  of  a  confi- 
dential sort,  not  accessible  to  Bismarck  in  his  retirement. 

Two  points  in  the  present  work  will  be  examined  by  the  student  of 
recent  German  history  with  especial  interest.  Regarding  the  first,  the 
book  offers  confirmation  that,  in  spite  of  all  denial  by  Bismarck's 
biographers,  the  chancellor's  reactionary  attitude  toward  the  Socialists 
must  have  eventually  led  to  something  like  a  coup  d'etat  against  the 
Federal  Constitution.  He  had  come  to  the  point  where  he  viewed  the 
Socialist  danger  as  "no  longer  a  legal  question  but  a  matter  of  civil  war 
and  internal  power"  (p.  48).  Like  confirmation  is  given  in  the  other 
significant  point,  the  fundamental  difference  of  opinion  between  the 
kaiser,  under  army  influences,  and  Bismarck  as  to  the  value  of  Rus- 
sia's friendship.  By  a  "caprice  of  fortune"  Schuvalov  presented  his 
credentials  to  negotiate  for  a  treaty  (a  renewal  of  the  Riickversich- 
erungsvertrag,  which  lapsed  in  June,  1890)  on  the  day  on  which  Bis- 
marck sent  in  his  resignation.  He  was  authorized  to  deal  only  with 
Bismarck  or  his  son,  not  their  successors  (p.  123). 

Robert  Herndon  Fife. 


Recollections  of  a  Foreign  Minister:  Memoirs  of  Alexander  Iszvol- 
sky.  Translated  by  Charles  Louis  Seeger.  (Garden  City, 
N.  Y.,  and  Toronto:  Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company.  1921. 
Pp.  xv,  303.     $2.50.) 

M.  Izvolski  was  a  diplomate  de  carricre.  After  holding  diplomatic 
positions  in  the  Balkans,  Washington,  Rome,  Munich,  Tokio,  and  Copen- 
hagen, he  became  Russian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  1906-1910,  and 
then  ambassador  at  Paris  until  19 17.  But  anyone  who  expects  to  find 
any  revelations  about  Russian  foreign  affairs  in  this  book  will  be  disap- 


Memoirs  of  Alexander  Iswolsky  121 

pointed.  Most  of  the  chapters,  slightly  modified,  were  published,  though 
it  is  nowhere  so  stated,  in  1919,  either  in  the  Fortnightly  Review  or  in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  In  the  chapter  on  the  Secret  Treaty  of 
Bjorko,  the  only  chapter  dealing  primarily  with  foreign  affairs,  the 
author  takes  issue  with  some  of  Dr.  Dillon's  statements,  especially 
with  the  view  that  the  secret  treaty  was  directed  against  France,  whereas 
in  reality  it  was  directed  against  England,  or  at  least  against  the  Anglo- 
French  Entente;  otherwise  there  is  little  in  this  chapter  which  was  not 
already  known  to  readers  of  the  American  Historical  Review. 

Though  disappointing  to  the  student  of  diplomatic  history,  M.  Iz- 
volski's  volume  is  interesting  and  valuable  as  a  revelation  of  himself 
and  as  an  intimate  picture  of  political  cross-currents  and  personalities 
in  Russia  in  the  years  1905-1907 — the  period  when  Russia  was  taking 
her  first  tottering  steps  in  constitutional  government.  As  one  of  the 
progressive  provincial  nobility,  with  wide  culture  and  superior  social 
connections  (of  which  he  was  not  unaware),  he  took  an  active  part,  in 
addition  to  his  burdens  as  foreign  minister,  in  all  Russia's  difficult 
domestic  problems.  He  opposed  on  principle  the  reactionary  slavo- 
philism and  narrowness  of  the  bureaucrats.  He  deplored  the  combina- 
tion of  heterogeneous  elements  in  the  Witte  and  Goremykin  cabinets, 
rightly  preferring  a  homogeneous  cabinet,  made  up  of  "  liberals  "  like 
himself,  or  even  of  Cadets.  But  the  bureaucratic  influence  was  too 
strong  and  the  tsar  too  weak  to  secure  the  solidarity  of  such  a  cabinet.  In 
the  composition  of  the  First  Duma,  Izvolski  thought  Witte  made  a  great 
mistake  to  include  such  a  large  proportion  of  peasants;  instead  of  be- 
ing a  conservative  support  to  monarchy  through  their  supposed  loyalty 
to  the  Little  Father,  as  had  been  hoped,  a  good  part  of  these  peasants 
soon  demanded  expropriation  of  the  land — the  rock  on  which  the  First 
Duma  was  wrecked. 

Among  the  author's  admirable  portraits  of  the  leaders  of  the  period — ■ 
Lamsdorff,  Goremykin,  Stolypin,  Miliukov,  Trepov,  and  the  tsar  him- 
self— the  most  complete  and  discriminating  is  that  of  Witte.  Never  fall- 
ing under  the  glamor  of  Witte's  powerful  personality,  yet  never  sharing 
the  violent  aversion  which  the  "  self-made  man  "  inspired  in  so  many 
Russian  nobles,  M.  Izvolski  seeks  to  balance  fairly  the  great  achieve- 
ments and  the  political  and  moral  weaknesses  of  the  man  who  was 
in  some  respects  his  rival.  He  criticizes  particularly  Witte's  tendency, 
as  finance  minister,  to  extend  state  control  over  railroads,  industry, 
and  commerce,  and  thus  build  up  for  himself  a  kind  of  personal  civil 
service  constituting  a  state  within  a  state.  This  exaggerated  etatisme 
tended  to  kill  individual  initiative  and  the  healthy  growth  of  local  self- 
government  through  the  zemstvos,  which  was  Izvolski's  own  ideal. 
Moreover,  he  says,  Witte's  financial  agents  attached  to  the  Russian  em- 
bassies abroad,  corresponding  in  cipher  with  the  finance  minister  and 
acting   independently   of   their   nominal   diplomatic   chiefs,    often   main- 


122  Reviews  of  Books 

tained  political   ideas  opposed  to  those   of  official   Russian  diplomacy. 
But  he  gives  no  specific  examples  to  confirm  this  sweeping  statement. 

Sidney  B.  Fay. 

The  Merchant  Navy.  By  Archibald  Hurd.  Volume  I.  [History 
of  the  Great  War  based  on  Official  Documents,  by  direction  of 
the  Historical  Section  of  the  Committee  of  Imperial  Defence.] 
(New  York:  Longmans,  Green,  and  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xiv, 
473-    $7-5o.) 

The  Historical  Section  of  the  British  Committee  of  Imperial  De- 
fence, under  the  editorship  of  Sir  Julian  Corbett,  divided  the  work  of 
writing  the  history  of  the  Great  War  into  three  parts.  The  first  treats 
of  the  active  operations  of  the  Royal  Navy  itself,  about  which  Sir 
Julian  is  now  writing  four  and  perhaps  five  volumes  with  his  own  pen, 
one  of  which  has  already  appeared  (Naval  Operations,  vol.  I.).  The 
second  concerns  the  economic  effects  of  the  naval  war  on  ocean-borne 
trade,  and  is  in  the  competent  hands  of  Mr.  C.  Ernest  Fayle,  whose  first 
volume  has  already  appeared  (Seaborne  Trade,  vol.  I.)  and  was  noticed 
in  the  April  number  of  this  Review  (XXVI.  531 ).  It  will  comprise  sev- 
eral further  volumes. 

The  work  now  under  discussion  has  for  its  subject  the  activities  of 
the  merchant  fleet  of  Great  Britain,  and  forms  the  third  category  of  the 
general  war  history.  As  Mr.  Hurd  says,  the  British  merchant  seamen, 
on  account  of  the  piratical  policy  of  the  German  admiralty,  were  forced 
by  circumstances,  over  which  neither  they  nor  the  British  naval  au- 
thorities had  any  control,  into  the  forefront  of  the  struggle  by  sea. 

They  had  entered  the  Mercantile  Marine  with  no  thought  that  they 
would  be  exposed  even  to  such  trials  and  sufferings  as  their  predecessors 
sustained  during  the  previous  Great  War,  for  there  had  been  much 
talk  at  various  international  Conferences  of  ameliorating  the  conditions 
of  warfare ;  they  found  themselves  involved  in  a  conflict  waged  by  a 
merciless  enemy  with  large  and  newly  developed  resources.  The  seamen 
were  defenceless,  for  this  emergency  had  not  been  foreseen  either  by 
the  Admiralty,  by  the  shipowners,  or  by  the  seamen  themselves.  .  .  . 

The  ordeal  to  which  the  men  of  the  British  Mercantile  Marine  sub- 
mitted with  generous  patriotism  can  be  appreciated  only  if  it  is  described 
in  an  appropriate  setting,  ignoring  neither  the  plans  of  the  naval  au- 
thorities for  the  protection  of  merchant  shipping,  elaborated  in  the 
years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  nor  the  measures  afterwards 
adopted  to  enable  merchant  shipping  to  resist  with  better  hope  of  suc- 
cess the  enemy's  policy. 

The  book  comprises  an  account  of  the  operations  of  the  Auxiliary 
Patrol,  which  was  practically  a  new  navy  called  into  being  at  the 
admiralty's  invitation,  and  the  history  of  which  Mr.  Hurd  rightly  calls 
"  one  of  the  most  remarkable  aspects  of  the  war  by  sea  ". 

The  feature  of  all  these  volumes  published  by  the  British  Historical 


Driault:  La  Renaissance  de  I'HeUenisme         123 

Section  that  especially  challenges  the  admiration  of  the  modern  his- 
torian is  their  thoroughness  and  comprehensive  arrangement.  On  the 
other  hand,  chapter  and  verse,  though  often  mentioned,  are  not 
invariably  quoted,  the  reader  being  asked  to  take  the  accuracy  of  the 
reference  for  granted.  Possibly  this  is  inevitable  in  a  series  of  volumes 
that  aim  to  be  at  once  authoritative  and  readable.  The  mass  of  detail 
is  extraordinary,  but  the  dryness  of  a  large  portion  of  the  data  is 
relieved  by  spirited  descriptions  of  such  events  as  the  actions  against 
submarines,  and  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania. 

Mr.  Hurd  incorporates  in  his  first  volume  a  fairly  comprehensive 
history  of  the  merchant  marine  of  Britain  from  Saxon  times,  no  fewer 
than  136  pages  being  given  to  the  pre-war  period.  In  the 'course  of  his 
discussion  of  the  losses  of  the  British  marine  during  the  Revolutionary 
and  Napoleonic  wars,  he  does  not  shrink  from  breaking  a  lance  with 
Admiral  Mahan,  if  in  a  minor  field  of  controversy,  and  in  many  ways 
shows  himself  a  master  not  only  of  detail  but  of  the  historical  viewpoint. 
In  the  matter  of  accuracy,  it  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  check  up 
a  volume  of  this  kind,  with  its  thousands  of  references.  Some  mistakes 
are  doubtless  inevitable,  but  there  are,  here  and  there,  evidences  of  a 
carelessness  that  seems  foreign  to  such  a  work.  For  example,  in 
referring  to  the  late  Mr.  John  D.  Long's  The  New  American  Navy,  the 
author  is  called  "  former  secretary  of  the  Navy  Department,  U.  S.  N.", 
and  his  name  is  given  as  "  the  Hon.  James  Long  ". 

The  volume  is  provided  with  three  excellent  maps,  a  comprehensive 
index,  and  a  dozen  full-page  illustrations  in  half-tone.  On  the  whole, 
it  is  a  very  worthy  companion  of  the  monumental  contributions  to 
naval  history  by  Sir  Julian  Corbett  and  Mr.  Fayle. 

Edward  Breck. 

La  Renaissance  de  I'HeUenisme.    Par  Edouard  Driault.    Preface 
de   M.    Politis,    Ministre   des   Affaires   Etrangeres   de   Grece. 
(Paris:  Felix  Alcan.     1920.     Pp.  vi,  242.     6  fr.) 
This  book  contains  sixteen  lectures  given  at  Athens  early  in  1920, 
upon  invitation  of  Messrs.  Venizelos  and  Politis,  together  with  a  dis- 
course pronounced  at  Versailles  after  the  author's  return.     Its  interest 
does  not  lie  in  newly  discovered  material,  but  in  its  revelation  of  the 
point  of  view,  in  days  post  helium  'et  post  victoriam,  of  a  Frenchman, 
well  informed  and  accustomed  to  large  historical  generalizations,  when 
tracing  summarily  the  history  of   Hellenism  and  estimating  the  place 
and  role  of  modern  Greece. 

To  M.  Driault,  Greece  and  France  are  closely  related,  as  mother 
and  daughter  (p.  241).  They  are  civilized  (p.  39),  and  the  other 
nations  are  barbarous  (p.  237),  especially  Germany,  her  allies,  and 
Russia  (pp.  98,  142,  179,  194,  etc.),  but  by  implication,  also  England 
and  America   (p.  89).     The  recent  war  is  a  triumph  of  the  Mediter- 


i24  Reviews  of  Books 

ranean  civilization;  "light  does  not  come  from  the  north"  (p.  70). 
M.  Driault  said  in  his  La  Question  d'Orient  that  Germany  had  no 
place  in  the  Mediterranean.  Now  he  says  the  same  of  England;  France, 
not  England,  should  have  Egypt — apparently  the  attempts  of  Louis  IX. 
and  Napoleon  I.  to  conquer  the  Country  are  regarded  as  having  helped 
to  found  a  French  title  (p.  139).  He  says  a  good  word  here  and  there 
for  Italy  (which  required  some  courage  in  Athens  in  1920),  yet  he 
considers  that  Italy  "  betrayed  the  Mediterranean  civilization "  by 
joining  the  Triple  Alliance  (p.  150).  Austria  he  would  like  to  see 
replaced  by  a  confederation  of  free  nations,  "  a  whole  crown  of 
French  friendships"   (p.  221). 

As  regards  Greece,  he  is  distinctly  in  favor  of  the  ''Great  Idea", 
which  he  discreetly  defines  as  the  purpose  that  "all  the  lands  that  are 
Greek  should  be  Greek"  (p.  113).  He  does  not  discuss  what  makes  a 
land  Greek,  whether  language,  religion,  former  occupation  by  a  Greek 
majority,  or  former  rule  from  Byzantine  Constantinople.  He  dis- 
tinctly says,  however,  that  Cyprus  (p.  146),  Rhodes  (p.  184),  the  Ionian 
coast  (p.  24),  and  Constantinople  (pp.  47,  50,  52,  98,  224)  should  be 
Greek,  the  first  two  because  the  majority  is  Greek,  the  others  because 
they  were  once  Greek.  M.  Politis  in  his  preface  sets  forth  the  idea  of  a 
Greece,  civilizing  and  educating  her  neighbors,  and  standing  sentinel 
for  the  West  against  the  German  "  danger  ",  Russian  imperialism,  and 
Oriental  barbarism  (p.  iv).  This  metaphysical  abstraction  is  en- 
couraged by  M.  Driault,  who  must  have  rejoiced  his  audiences  greatly 
by  promising  them  Constantinople,  the  "  protection  "  of  the  Turks  and 
Armenians  (p.  161),  the  reopening  of  the  great  trade-routes,  and  a 
new  age  of  Pericles  (p.  225). 

The  relations  of  France  and  Greece  he  finds  it  sometimes  a  little 
difficult  to  describe  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of  kinship  and  co- 
operation. He  tries  to  work  around  the  fact  that  since  1535  France  has 
usually  supported  and  sometimes  tried  to  strengthen  Turkey  (pp.  56, 
127),  by  saying  that,  when  unable  to  destroy  the  Moslem  power,  it 
was  best  to  be  friends  with  it,  so  as  to  protect  and  emancipate  its 
Christian  subjects  (p.  120).  Here  he  overlooks  the  fact  that  the 
interest  of  France  was  regularly  confined  to  Roman  Catholic  Christian 
subjects  of  Turkey.  While  erecting  into  an  affirmation  the  suspicion 
that  the  German  Metternich  suggested  to  Mahmud  II.  that  he  call  upon 
the  Egyptians  to  put  down  the  Greeks  (p.  109),  he  omits  to  state  that  the 
army  which  Ibrahim  Pasha  brought  to  the  Peloponnesus  had  been 
trained  and  was  accompanied  by  French  officers.  Of  interest  is  his  lay- 
ing blame  for  the  destruction  of  the  Parthenon  on  Germany — "  always 
against  you"  (p.  163) — on  the  ground  that  the  Venetian  admiral  used 
German  guns  and  gunners  (pp.  101,  232).  He  passes  very  hastily  over 
the  equivocal  part  played  by  Greece  during  the  Great  War,  but  regrets 
that  much  French  sentiment  was  against  Greece  because  of  the  be- 
havior of  King  Constantine  (p.  18 — this  was  before  Constantine's  recall 


Cheng:  Modem  Chi)ia  125 

to  the  Greek  throne).  He  recommends  that  Greece  prefer  French 
policy  to  that  of  the  English,  who  consider  sentiment  a  weakness,  and 
play  a  close  and  able  game   (p.  223). 

M.  Driault  still  believes  that  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453 
was  a  principal  factor  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  (p.  103),  and  that  the 
Turks  closed  the  roads  to  Asia,  and  brought  about  the  great  discoveries 
(p.  56).  He  crowds  the  facts  somewhat  in  saying  that  during  the 
Fanariot  period  the  Turkish  administration  was  "  almost  absolutely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Greeks"  (p.  102).  The  claim  is  interesting  that 
whereas  Napoleon  I.  "liberated"  Poland  and  Italy,  he  would  have 
liberated  Serbia  and  Greece  also  except  for  "  circumtances "  (p.  88). 
Peculiarly  French  is  the  contrast  of  Napoleon's  treatment  of  Mme. 
Walewska  with  William  II. 's  treatment  of  Miss  Cavell  (p.  91).  Lack 
of  knowledge  is  shown  in  jeering  at  the  Bulgarian  claim  to  Macedonia 
on  nationalistic  grounds  (pp.  146,  192).  Few  still  hold  the  narrow  view 
that  the  Great  War  had  "  all  its  origins  in  the  worldwide  and  especially 
the  Near  Eastern  ambitions  of  William  II."   (p.  167). 

Albert  Howe  Lybyer. 

Modern  China:  a  Political  Study.  By  Sih-Gung  Cheng,  M.A., 
B.Sc,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Economic  Society.  (Oxford:  Claren- 
don Press.     1919.     Pp.  vii,  380.     $3.75.) 

To  present  in  a  single  small  volume  a  suggestive  account  of  the  origin 
and  present  problems  of  the  new  Republic  of  China  is  a  difficult  task; 
but  Dr.  Cheng  has  accomplished  it  with  a  high  degree  of  success. 
The  earlier  pages,  which  deal  chiefly  with  the  Chinese  constitution,  are 
of  very  great  interest,  as  they  show  us  a  keen  Oriental  mind,  thoroughly 
informed  as  regards  the  history  of  cabinet  government,  seeking  to  fit 
that  delicate  machinery  to  conditions  equally  familiar  to  him,  but  little 
understood  by  the  average  Western  student  of  history  and  politics. 
In  all  of  his  suggestions  Dr.  Cheng  wisely  insists  that  the  Chinese 
reformers  and  modernizers  should  build  upon  Chinese  foundations  in  so 
far  as  that  is  possible.  His  aim  is  a  successful  Chinese  republic,  not 
an  imitation  of  Western  republics.  He  believes  that  the  federation  of 
the  Chinese  provinces,  and  the  centralization  of  military  control  offer 
the  most  promising  way  out  of  the  chaos  which  has  resulted  under 
"  the  present  day  nominal  centralization  " ;  and  he  makes  a  convincing 
argument  in  favor  of  his  thesis. 

The  disturbing  factor  of  the  present  day — the  military  governors 
of  the  provinces — as  Dr.  Cheng  points  out,  date  only  from  the  revolu- 
tion of  191 1,  which  is  still  in  progress.  These  "  Tuchuns  (military 
governors),  with  the  armed  force  at  their  command"  he  says,  "have 
always  overwhelmed  their  civil  colleagues.  ...  If  China  is  to  be  saved 
from  the  danger  of  internal  disruption  .  .  .  she  must  centralize  the 
administration  of  her  armv."     It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that  everv 


126  Reviews  of  Books 

competent  Western  observer  will  agree  with  this  suggestion.  If  China 
is  to  face  her  future,  whether  in  the  field  of  domestic  or  foreign  affairs, 
with  a  fair  chance  of  success,  the  Tuchuns  must  go. 

It  is  difficult  for  a  Chinese  to  realize  the  complete  ignorance  of 
Europe  and  America  concerning  things  Chinese,  and  it  is  doubtless  for 
this  reason  that  Dr.  Cheng  touches  so  disappointingly  lightly  upon  the 
greatest  and  most  encouraging  feature  of  Chinese  political  history, 
namely,  her  ancient  and  successful  local  self-government  by  a  gentry 
chosen  by  a  mysterious  process  of  natural  selection,  and  in  no  sense 
a  social  caste  or  hereditary  nobility.  "What  they  have  done  is  to  de- 
velop self-government  in  their  municipal  districts",  he  says,  on  page 
8;  and  he  later  adds  the  statement  that  these  officers  have  been  enabled 
"to  exercise  their  powers  for  many  long  centuries,  without  a  single 
instance  in  which  their  authority  was  questioned". 

What  we  of  the  West  have  not  done  is  "to  develop  self-government 
in  .  .  .  municipal  districts  " ;  and  it  would  do  us  good  to  read  a  detailed 
description  of  this  ancient  achievement  of  which  even  the  average 
Western  scholar  knows  nothing.  China's  future,  and  that  of  every 
younger  nation,  will  depend  largely  upon  the  success  with  which  the 
problem  of  municipal  government  is  handled.  We  therefore  regret  the 
fact  that  Dr.  Cheng  has  devoted  only  four  of  his  380  pages  to  this  most 
important  feature  of  Chinese  political  history. 

In  part  II.  Dr.  Cheng  gives  a  brief  but  comprehensive  sketch  of 
Chinese  foreign  relations  for  the  modest  period  of  twenty-two  centuries, 
and  treats  somewhat  in  detail  great  current  problems,  like  exterri- 
toriality, tariff  administration,  foreign  investments,  Shantung,  Chinese 
labor,  the  ascendancy  of  Japan  in  the  Far  East,  and  the  Eastern  policy 
of  the  United  States.  His  accounts  of  those  Western  contacts  which 
slowly  caused  China,  "  for  the  first  time  in  four  thousand  years  of  won- 
derful and  sensational  history ",  to  discard  "  the  idea  that  she  was  the 
only  civilized  country  on  the  earth  "  are  clear  and  conspicuously  free 
from  prejudice  or  provincialism.  He  sees  the  crimes  and  the  mistakes 
of  China  quite  as  clearly,  and  states  them  quite  as  frankly,  as  those  of 
other  countries.  Not  content  with  merely  stating  problems,  he  also  ven- 
tures upon  very  specific  suggestions  as  to  their  solution,  and  places 
the  chief  responsibility  for  solution  where  it  properly  belongs,  upon  the 
Chinese  themselves.  His  book,  therefore,  promises  to  be  of  unusual 
value,  for  it  will  help  his  fellow  republicans  in  China  to  understand  the 
delicate  machinery  with  which  they  are  dealing;  and  it  will  also  help 
his  fellow  republicans  of  the  West  to  understand  the  very  able  people 
with  whom,  under  modern  conditions,  they  must  deal,  and  to  have 
patience  with  their  inevitable   mistakes. 

Robert  M.   McElroy. 


Luckwaldt:   Der  Vcrcinigtcn  Staatcn  127 

BOOKS    OF    AMERICAN   HISTORY 

Geschichte  der  Vareinigtcn  Staaten  von  Amcrika.     Von  Friedrich 

Luckwaldt.     In  two  volumes.      (Berlin  and  Leipzig:  Vereini- 

gung  Wissenschaftlicher  Verleger.     1920.     Pp.  x,  351  ;  viii,  336. 

$4.00  in  paper,  $5.00  bound.) 

The  chapters  of  this  history  covering  the  period  to  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  were  completed  by  1914,  the  rest  were  finished  by  1920.  One 
can  readily  appreciate  the  difficulties  the  author  must  have  encountered 
in  working  over  the  material  for  the  recent  period.  He  has  devoted 
496  pages  to  the  period  from  Raleigh's  first  Virginia  colony  to  1876, 
only  84  pages  to  the  momentous  developments  from  1876  to  1913,  and, 
in  conclusion,  80  pages  to  the  Wilson  administrations. 

The  writer  has  given  a  straightforward,  interesting  account  of  many 
of  the  main  events  in  United  States  history.  His  work  is  probably 
intended  for  the  general  reader  in  his  own  country  who  wants  an  outline 
of  American  development.  For  the  American  scholar,  the  work  will 
be  of  little  value.  Both  as  to  content  and  as  to  interpretation,  it  fol- 
lows traditional  lines,  is  based  mainly  on  the  older  American  masters, 
and  makes  little  use  of  the  monograph  material  of  recent  years. 

The  chapters  on  the  Revolutionary  Period  are  among  the  best,  al- 
though several  statements  need  revision  in  the  light  of  recent  publica- 
tions. The  writer  has  a  particular  gift  for  describing  military  events 
adequately  and  without  boring  details.  The  "  Critical  Period  "  and  the 
formation  of  the  Constitution  are  handled  in  the  conventional  manner, 
There  is  perhaps  not  enough  emphasis  upon  the  imperialism  of  the 
New  West  as  a  cause  of  the  War  of  1812,  but  in  later  chapters  there 
is  no  inclination  to  ignore  the  importance  of  westward  expansion  in 
the  building  of  "  the  real  America ".  Luckwaldt  has  also  avoided  the 
exaggerations  of  von  Hoist  in  dealing  with  the  slavery  controversy. 

For  the  recent  period,  one  finds  the  treatment  least  satisfying,  and 
many  gaps  in  subject-matter.  The  Greenback  and  Free  Silver  agitations 
are  discussed  with  hardly  a  reference  to  economic  conditions  in  the 
West  and  South,  and  the  panic  of  1893  is  inadequately  treated.  Four 
lines  dispose  of  the  problems  of  Oriental  immigration;  one  page  suffices 
for  Taft's  presidency;  and  the  Progressive  movement  suffers  from  the 
same  kind  of  treatment.  The  writer  has  something  to  say  of  the  evo- 
lution of  new  standards  of  social  values  in  the  recent  period,  and  of  the 
trend  away  from  the  traditional  American  individualism ;  but  he  has 
failed  to  make  use  of  some  of  the  best  illustrative  material  to  support 
his  conclusions.  The  final  chapter,  on  Wilson  and  the  World  War,  may 
be  of  some  interest  at  this  time,  because  of  the  writer's  characterization 
of  President  Wilson,  and  of  some  interesting  comments  upon  the  Ger- 
man-Americans, German  policy,  and  British  and  German  propaganda  in 
the  United  States.     The  writer  correctly  suggests  that  the  violation  of 


128  Reviews  of  Books 

Belgium  was  the  one  insurmountable  obstacle  for  German  propagandists 
who  tried  to  win  America  for  the  German  cause.  The  peace  treaty  is 
considered  a  breach  of  faith  with  Germany,  although  the  writer  is  still 
hoping  that  America  may  be  the  means  of  serving  and  saving  the 
world. 

There  are  some  errors  in  the  text ;  for  example,  the  dates  for  the 
introduction  of  slavery  in  Virginia  (I.  38),  and  for  the  founding  of 
Harvard  (I.  54).  The  influence  of  French  political  theorists  in  1775 
is  exaggerated,  and  John  Adams,  rather  than  Washington,  deserves 
the  credit  for  determining  that  the  power  of  removal  should  be  in  the 
President  alone  (I.  182).  The  Ordinance  of  1787  is  discussed  without 
a  reference  to  how  and  why  the  West  came  under  the  control  of  Con- 
gress (I.  219)  ;  the  statement  in  regard  to  the  apportionment  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  Confederation  Congress  is  inaccurate  (I.  214)  ;  the 
House  election  of  1801  is  disposed  of  without  a  reference  to  Hamilton 
(I.  214)  ;  the  estimate  of  Monroe's  career  is  perhaps  too  generous;  and 
McKinley  was  shot,  and  not  stabbed  (II.  210).  Finally,  constitutional 
matters  are  almost  entirely  ignored. 

Carl   Wittke. 

The  United  States  of  America:  a  Study  in  International  Organisa- 
tion. By  James  Brown  Scott,  A.M.,  J.U.D.,  LL.D.  [Publica- 
tions of  the  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace,  Divi- 
sion of  International  Law.]  (New  York:  Oxford  University 
Press.     1920.     Pp.  xix,  605.     $3.00.) 

The  all-important,  compelling  task  challenging  world  statesmanship 
is  the  organization  of  peace;  not  sentimental  aspiration,  but  purposeful 
contriving  of  conditions  and  institutions.  In  this  cause  we  welcome  the 
continued  efforts  of  the  Carnegie  Endowment:  its  exposition  of  eco- 
nomic facts  hearing  on  the  problem,  its  propaganda  of  the  basic  juridical 
ideas  essential  to  its  solution,  and  particularly  its  advocacy  of  con- 
ciliation, arbitration,  and  adjudication  as  the  more  excellent  ways  for 
adjusting  international  relations. 

The  volume  under  review  naturally  follows  Doctor  Scott's  recent 
book  of  cases,  Judicial  Settlement  of  Controversies  between  States; 
it  is,  in  fact,  a  systematic  exploitation  of  its  contents.  But  to  begin 
with,  the  familiar  constitutional  story  is  retold  at  length — how  from 
trading  companies  grew  American  plantations  and  provinces,  inheriting 
English  law  and  developing  constitutions  of  their  own;  how  the  idea 
and  practice  of  union  gradually  appeared,  finally  taking  shape  in  the 
independent  Confederation  under  Articles  adopted  in  1777-1781;  how 
a  critical  period  supervened,  in  which  the  commonwealths  developed 
what  they  regarded  as  self-sufficient  statehood,  but  in  which  external 
weakness  and  internal  discord  forced  a  realization  of  their  utter  de- 
pendence upon  each  other  and  their  need  of  more  adequate  organization 


Adams:    The  Founding  of  New  England        129 

of  union;  how  the  upshot  of  it  all  was  the  Philadelphia  Convention  of 
1787,  with  its  laborious  contrivings  and  miraculous  success.  A  con- 
cluding third  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  the  Constitu- 
tion and  of  some  three  dozen  leading  cases  of  its  interpretation  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  with  particular  reference  to  the  judicial  power — its 
nature  and  limits,  the  mode  of  its  exercise,  and  particularly  its  applica- 
bility to  the  affairs  of  sovereign  states. 

The  author's  main  interest  seems  to  be  the  inquiry:  How  does  the  fed- 
erating of  the  American  states  (which  he  continues  to  regard  sovereign) 
affect  the  organization  of  judicial  power  within,  among,  and  over  them? 
and  further,  How  can  American  experience  in  these  matters  be  turned 
to  account  on  the  world  scale?  A  particular  instance  is  the  elaborate 
argument  that  states  can,  by  waiving  exemption  from  suit,  submit  their 
disputes  to  court  adjudication,  and  that  the  American  states  have  by 
such  agreement  on  certain  controversies  "made  them  justiciable". 
Another  chapter  characteristically  concludes :  "  Questions  political  in 
their  nature  may  thus  become  judicial  by  submission  to  a  court  of 
justice,  to  be  decided  in  accordance  with  principles  of  law  and  equity, 
and  we  are  justified  in  the  belief  that  the  States  composing  the  society 
of  nations  can,  if  they  will,  agree  by  convention  to  submit  their  disputes 
to  a  tribunal  of  their  own  creation.  .  .  ." 

The  concluding  chapter,  on  a  More  Perfect  Society  of  Nations,  makes 
rather  wistful  reading,  with  its  eager  paralleling  of  the  situations  of 
1787  and  1918  (the  book  is  dated  from  Armistice  Day),  with  its  sug- 
gestions of  what  might  be  effected  if  — .  America  of  1918,  irresist- 
ible, magnanimous,  seemed  to  be  teaching  a  warring  world  how  it 
is  both  moral  and  profitable  to  co-operate,  even  to  unite  and  become  one ! 
Our  author  cautiously  adds,  "  The  Society  of  Nations  may  not  be 
willing,  and  indeed  even  with  good  will  may  not  be  able,  to  go  so  far 
now  or  at  any  time  as  have  the  States  forming  the  American  Union." 

Indeed,  this  tempting  parallel  is  utterly  deceptive.  In  the  American 
case  there  was  cultural  unity  to  start  with,  and  a  continent  of  oppor- 
tunity; in  the  European  or  world  case  of  1918,  the  pathetic  absence  of 
those  conditions.  For  an  indefinite  future  to  come  it  may  probably  be 
desirable  that  world  peoples  regulate  their  relations  on  a  basis  neither 
cosmopolitan  nor  of  unified  sovereignty,  but  strictly  inter-national. 
That  way  alone  lies  freedom  and  progress.  Yet  we  may  agree  with 
Doctor  Scott  that  "  However  many  steps  they  [the  world  nations]  may 
take  or  however  few  toward  the  closer  Union,  the  experience  of  the 
framers  of  the  Constitution  who  traversed  the  entire  path  should  be  as 
a  lamp  to  their  feet." 

Henry  R.  Spencer. 

The  Founding  of  New  England.  By  James  Truslow  Adams. 
(Boston:  Atlantic  Monthly  Press.  1921.  Pp.  xv,  482.  $4.00.) 
This  work  is  the  best  short  history  of  early  New  England  that  has 

AM.  HIST.  REV.  VOL.  XXVII. — 9. 


13°  Reviezvs  of  Books 

appeared  for  a  generation.  Untainted  by  New  England  ancestry  or 
residence,  uninfluenced  by  tercentenarian  sentimentality,  with  a  broad 
background  and  scholarly  equipment,  Mr.  Adams  maintains  a  serene, 
judicial  attitude  and  proves  his  capacity  as  a  historian.  He  has  made 
no  original  research  but  has  digested  the  greater  part  of  the  printed 
material  that  has  appeared  in  the  last  thirty  years,  and  retold  the  story 
of  early  New  England  in  a  clear,  simple  style,  with  touches  of  quiet 
irony. 

A  comparison  of  Mr.  Adams's  book  with  Fiske's  Beginnings  of  New 
England  (1889)  reveals  the  new  method  of  approach  to  colonial  history. 
Almost  one-quarter  of  Fiske  is  taken  up  with  the  Roman  Idea,  the 
English  Idea,  and  with  Puritan  origins.  The  Founding  opens  with 
three  admirable  chapters  on  the  geographic  and  climatic  background, 
early  exploration,  and  the  Race  for  Empire.  Only  on  page  64  does  one 
reach  Some  Aspects  of  Puritanism.  Further,  we  find  chapters  on  the 
Theory  of  Empire  and  the  Reassertion  of  Imperial  Control.  The  period 
which  Fiske  calls  the  Tyranny  of  Andros  is  by  Mr.  Adams  entitled,  an 
Experiment  in  Administration.  Our  author  appears  to  be  more  in- 
terested in  the  imperial  problem  than  in  any  other  aspect  of  New 
England  history.  His  book  will  give  the  public  a  short  and  pleasant 
cut  to  the  work  of  Andrews,  Beer,  Osgood,  and  Newton.  He  puts  New 
England  in  her  proper  place  in  the  empire.  His  brief  exposition  of  the 
mercantile  system  is  the  best  we  have  seen.  Apart  from  these  chapters, 
we  have  mainly  a  political  history  of  the  New  England  colonies  to 
1692,  with  the  emphasis  on  Massachusetts  Bay.  Indian  and  intercolonial 
relations  are  handled  with  particular  care,  and  many  fresh  and  sug- 
gestive ideas  thrown  out  to  the  reader. 

We  read  the  book  with  unalloyed  admiration  for  Mr.  Adams's  schol- 
arship and  workmanship  until  we  reached  the  following  statement, 
on  page  121 :  "  Not  more  than  one  in  five  of  the  adult  males  who  went 
even  to  Massachusetts  was  sufficiently  in  sympathy  with  the  religious 
ideas  there  prevalent  to  become  a  church  member,  though  disfranchised 
for  not  doing  so."  At  this  point  we  place  a  rod  in  pickle  for  Mr. 
Adams.  In  "  glacial "  Massachusetts,  church  membership  was  a  rare 
privilege,  jealously  guarded  by  those  who  already  possessed  it.  One 
could  attain  nothing  higher  on  earth.  As  well  might  one  say  that 
failure  of  a  mason  to  attain  the  most  exalted  degree  indicated  his 
lack  of  sympathy  with  freemasonry,  as  that  failure  of  a  Puritan  to  at- 
tain church  membership  proved  indifference  to  the  Puritan  faith.  On 
this  implication,  largely,  Mr.  Adams  rests  his  thesis  that  the  bulk  of  the 
New  England  immigrants  were  indifferent  to  the  Puritan  faith.  Abun- 
dant evidence  to  the  contrary  exists.  The  majority  probably  did  resent 
the  political  control  of  the  elders,  and  disapproved  their  grosser  acts  of 
religious  intolerance.  But  to  assert  that  "  three  quarters  of  the  popula- 
tion .  .  .  persistently  refused  to  ally  themselves  with  the  New  England 
type  of  Puritan  church  ",  distorts  history. 


Adams:   The  Founding  of  New  England  131 

But  on  the  whole,  our  quarrel  with  Mr.  Adams  is  not  with  what  he 
has  said,  but  with  what  he  has  left  unsaid.  He  has  studied  the  Puritan 
in  his  three  least  attractive  or  successful  aspects :  his  relations  with  the 
empire,  his  relations  with  his  neighbors,  and  his  attitude  toward  dis- 
senters. Now,  the  most  valuable  contributions  of  the  New  England 
Puritan  to  America  were  institutional:  state  and  local  government 
(where  the  church  franchise  did  not  apply),  ecclesiastical  polity,  land 
distribution,  and  public  education.  These  aspects  of  the  founding  of 
New  England  Mr.  Adams  apparently  has  not  studied;  his  references 
to  them  are  few,  scattering,  and  in  part  derogatory.  Because  the  new 
communities  produced  no  Locke  or  Newton  or  Clarendon  their  educa- 
tional system  is  deemed  of  small  account ;  why  teach  the  Yankee  his 
letters,  when  he  had  nothing  to  read  but  the  Bible  and  Michael  Wiggles- 
worth?  Of  the  social  life  of  the  early  New  Englanders,  Mr.  Adams 
tells  us  nothing;  and  of  their  economic  life  very  little,  save  in  con- 
nection with  imperialism.  Nor  is  a  lifelike  portrait  given  of  any  indi- 
vidual in  the  drama,  save  the  sinister  Endecott.  These  omissions  will 
leave  Mr.  Adams's  readers  with  rather  a  distorted  picture  of  the 
Puritans,  particularly  as  he  has  devoted  much  space  to  their  religious 
intolerance. 

That  part  of  the  story  is  told  with  dignity  and  justice;  and  it  cannot 
too  often  thus  be  told.  Mr.  Adams  appreciates  its  value  as  a  lesson 
and  a  warning.  Yet,  as  he  evidently  (p.  277)  considers  the  United 
States  of  1920  a  model  of  tolerance,  how  by  the  same  token  can  he 
deem  the  Bay  theocracy  intolerant?  There,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
were  a  group  of  men  who  at  great  expense  and  energy  were  attempting 
a  new  social-religious  experiment  in  the  wilderness.  In  the  infancy 
of  their  chosen  institutions  it  was  unwise,  but  was  it  intolerant 
to  exclude  irritating  elements  ?  Surely  there  was  enough  space  in 
America,  north  of  the  Merrimac  and  south  of  the  Charles,  for  other 
'isms.  Here,  in  the  twentieth  century,  a  people  of  a  hundred  millions, 
with  institutions  hardened  by  time,  has  been  panic-stricken  by  a  few 
thousand  agitators.  It  has  enacted  exclusion  laws  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  Bay  colony,  and  suppressed  social  dissent — the  only  sort  that 
matters,  nowadays — with  as  heavy  a  hand  and  as  loathsome  cruelty 
as  ever  stained  a  Massachusetts  magistrate. 

With  all  these  reservations,  we  welcome  Mr.  Adams's  book  as  a 
valuable  and  timely  contribution — no  student  of  colonial  history  should 
fail  to  read  it.  But  whoever  may  feel  a  Briggs-like  wonder  as  to 
"  what  the  Puritan  thought  about "  must  consult  Fiske ;  or,  better  still, 
the  abundant  and  revealing  literature  that  the  primitive  Yankee  produced 
about  his  sordid  self. 

S.  E.  Morison. 


132  Reviews  of  Books 

History  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  i8ip-ipip.  By  Philip 
Alexander  Bruce,  LL.B.,  LL.D.  Volumes  III.  and  IV.  (New- 
York:  Macmillan  Company.  1921.  Pp.  x,  403;  376.  Each 
$4.50.) 

Such  readers  of  Dr.  Bruce"s  opening  volumes  as  were  chiefly  inter- 
ested in  Jefferson  and  his  Virginian  associates,  in  the  early  struggles  of 
the  new  university,  and  in  the  light  thrown  upon  contemporary  con- 
ditions, may  perhaps  feel  a  decline  of  interest  during  their  perusal  of 
the  present  installment  of  this  extensive  work.  Graduates  and  friends 
of  the  institution,  on  the  other  hand,  to  whom  the  salient  facts  of  its 
founding  have  long  been  more  or  less  known,  may  find  their  interest  in- 
creasing rather  than  diminishing  as  the  historian  progresses  in  his  nar- 
rative. These  third  and  fourth  volumes  exhibit  as  fully  as  did  the 
first  and  second  Dr.  Bruce's  thoroughly  satisfactory  handling  of  his 
abundant  materials,  with  the  additional  advantage,  in  the  opinion  of  at 
least  one  reader,  that  the  pages  devoted  to  the  period  of  the  Civil  War 
enable  the  writer  to  give  expression  to  his  most  generous  emotions  and, 
in  consequence,  afford  a  happy  illustration  of  his  powers  as  a  man  of 
letters.  The  sketches  of  the  alumni  who  fell  in  the  service  of  the  Con- 
federacy and  the  description  of  the  antecedents  of  the  student  body  to 
be  found  at  pages  272-275  of  the  third  volume  challenge  admiration  and 
are  likely  to  be  considered  by  many  as  forming  the  most  notable  por- 
tion of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  of  its  kind  in  our  literature. 

Four  periods  in  the  life  of  the  University  of  Virginia  are  covered 
in  these  two  volumes:  "Expansion  and  Reformation,  1842-1861  ",  "The 
War,  1861-1865 ",  "  Reconstruction  and  Expansion,  1865-1895 ",  and 
"Restoration,  1895-1904",  the  last  period  deriving  its  name  from  the 
destructive  fire  of  1895,  which  is  effectively  described.  A  series  of 
articles  would  scarcely  do  justice  to  this  immense  mass  of  topics  and 
details,  but  a  review  may  at  least  bear  witness  to  the  skill  with  which 
they  are  arranged.  Points  of  special  significance  are  the  honor  system, 
perhaps,  next  to  the  elective  system,  that  feature  of  the  institution  which 
has  been  most  widely  discussed  outside  the  limits  of  Virginia;  the  riot 
of  1845,  extraordinary  in  the  history  of  college  discipline;  the  uni- 
versity's most  distinguished  alumnus,  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  who  receives 
a  few  suggestive  pages;  the  influence  of  the  institution  on  higher  and 
secondary  education  with  valuable  sketches  of  ante-bellum  and  post- 
bellum  headmasters;  the  evolution  of  academic  degrees — but  such  a  list 
tends  to  be  as  tiresome  as  it  is  valueless. 

As  was  to  have  been  expected,  the  fourth  volume  has  much  more 
to  say  about  athletics  than  its  predecessors  found  to  be  necessary.  An 
unathletic  elderly  alumnus  has  only  admiration  for  the  sympathy  and 
knowledge  Dr.  Bruce  displays  in  his  treatment  of  this  somewhat  par- 
lous topic  in  modern  educational  history;  and,  if  more  strenuous  and 


Autobiography  of  Martin  Van  Burcn  133 

youthful  alumni  are  not  satisfied  with  what  they  get,  they  may  be  recom- 
mended to  read  the  odes  of  Pindar  in  the  original.  The  learning  of 
Professor  Gildersleeve  will  be  of  service  to  such  as  follow  this  advice, 
which  suggests  the  fact  that  the  portraits  of  some  of  the  early  professors 
— for  example,  Gildersleeve  himself,  Sylvester  the  mathematician, 
George  Frederick  Holmes,  another  transplanted  scholar  who  is  still  the 
present  writer's  standard  for  wide  and  deep  erudition,  and  John  B. 
Minor,  the  famous  teacher  of  law — ought  to  be  the  subject  of  special 
mention.  As  with  the  preceding  volumes,  the  proofreading,  although 
not  precisely  impeccable,  is  very  good;  and  we  may  expect  that  the  con- 
cluding fifth  volume  will  be  furnished  with  the  elaborately  thorough 
index  which  so  important  a  work  obviously  demands. 

W.  P.  Trent. 


Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association  for  the  Year 
ipi8.  Volume  II.  Autobiography  of  Martin  Van  Bur  en.  Ed- 
ited by  J.  C.  Fitzpatrick.  (Washington:  Government  Printing 
Office.     1920.    Pp.  808.) 

Van  Buren's  Autobiography  is  a  better  book  than  most  people  ex- 
pected from  the  writer,  but  it  leaves  something  to  be  desired.  Similarly, 
it  reveals  Van  Buren  as  a  more  effective  political  leader  than  many  of 
us  thought  he  was,  while  at  the  same  time  it  shows  us  a  man  with  serious 
shortcomings.  The  book  is  a  faithful  and  unconscious  reflection  of  the 
man.  Van  Buren  was  lacking  in  political  courage,  which  is  to  say  he 
lacked  the  power  to  outline  a  policy  and  make  other  people  think  it 
right.  He  did  not  lead  in  the  realm  of  ideas.  He  talked  much  about 
old  republican  ideals,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  some  im- 
portant crises  he  acted  in  conformity  with  such  ideals,  as  in  the  matter 
of  internal  improvements.  But  such  crises  never  arose  through  his 
forcing  them  into  the  foreground.  They  were  ever  the  results  of  the 
actions  of  other  men.     It  was  his  failing  that  he  lacked  originality. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  possessed  more  than  most  men  in  public  life 
the  power  of  keeping  steady  a  political  situation,  once  it  had  been  cre- 
ated. He  was  calm,  self-controlled,  vigilant,  and  personally  kind  and 
conciliating.  He  did  not  lose  himself  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment. 
He  came  into  eminence  in  the  wake  of  other  men,  solving  their  problems 
for  them.  Crawford  first,  and  Jackson  second,  were  the  men  who  gave 
him  the  opportunity  to  display  his  great  and  peculiar  talents.  None  were 
ever  better  served  by  their  lieutenants  than  they  by  him.  After  a  while 
it  happened  through  unexpected  fortune  that  he  himself  had  in  his  hands 
the  helm  of  state.  He  held  it  in  a  most'  uncertain  and  ineffective  man- 
ner. His  task  was  to  bind  up  the  loose  ends  of  the  bank  controversy. 
Jackson  placed  the  government  in  his  hands  and  pointed  out  the  sub- 
treasury  as  the  means  of  closing  up  the  matter  in  hand.     Van  Buren 


134  Reviews  of  Books 

accepted  the  suggestions.  But  he  got  nothing  done  until  his  administra- 
tion was  nearly  at  an  end.  It  seems  that  nothing  would  have  been  done 
at  all  if  Jackson  in  retirement  had  not  moved  heaven  and  earth  to  get 
the  men  in  Congress  to  pass  the  measure  before  the  election.  As  it  was, 
the  subtreasury  did  not  have  time  to  commend  itself  to  the  country  be- 
fore the  election  of  1840,  and  the  result  was  a  Democratic  defeat.  Van 
Buren  who  did  so  much,  as  his  book  well  shows,  to  make  Jackson's  ad- 
ministration run  smoothly  was  not  able  to  give  any  driving  force  to  his 
own  administration.  Herein  is  his  great  strength  and  weakness,  all  of 
which  appears  in  his  Autobiography. 

The  things  one  misses  in  the  book  are  discussions  of  large  matters. 
As  Jackson's  closest  adviser,  at  least  before  1833,  he  was  in  close  as- 
sociation with  some  of  the  largest  things  in  our  political  history.  Nul- 
lification, the  renewal  of  the  bank  charter,  the  removal  of  the  Southern 
Indians,  and  internal  improvements,  were  matters  of  first  magnitude. 
I  do  not  think  you  will  find  in  the  book  two  consecutive  pages  on  any 
one  of  these  topics,  as  such.  There  are  many  allusions  to  each,  but  in 
general  they  come  up  by  way  of  someone's  personality.  If  there  is  just 
exception  to  this  statement  it  is  in  regard  to  internal  improvements,  about 
which  a  long  and  interesting  story  is  to'd  in  explanation  of  the  veto  of 
the  Maysville  Bill.  On  such  a  question  as  nullification,  the  writer  is 
mixed  in  his  ideas.  It  may  seem  that  he  was  trying  to  conceal  his  posi- 
tion. But  it  is  more  likely  that  he  had  no  definite  policy  about  it  and 
that  he  tells  us  just  what  came  into  his  mind  in  regard  to  it,  something 
one  day  and  somethmg  else  another,  as  the  incidents  unrolled  themselves. 
That  was  his  kind  of  a  mind.  Hence  it  results  that  the  book  is  lacking 
in  architectural  form,  although  there  is  a  wealth  of  pleasing  incident. 
One  cannot  read  it  without  interest,  but  one  must  ponder  it  well  and 
rearrange  in  his  own  mind  the  order  in  which  the  matter  is  pre- 
sented before  it  yields  him  a  considerable  amount  of  instruction.  When 
all  is  done  he  will  probably  conclude  that  the  new  information  is  about 
men  rather  than  about  things,  and  that  the  most  striking  acquisition 
he  has  made  is  a  wider  and  better  knowledge  of  the  manner  of  political 
intrigue  and  the  vast  importance  it  has  as  a  factor  in  history. 

The  editing  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Fitzpatrick,  of  the  Manuscript  Division 
of  the  Library  of  Congress,  has  been  done  with  commendable  care. 
The  index,  so  essential  in  a  book  like  this,  is  comprehensive.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  Van  Buren  did  not  have  some  chapter  heads,  although 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  they  could  have  been  arranged  in  a  work  that 
rambles  so  much  at  will.  The  editor  has,  naturally,  refused  to  supply 
them.  Van  Buren  broke  off  his  narrative  abruptly  in  1835.  His  editor 
thinks  he  did  not  intend  to  carry  it  further.  While  discussing  the 
charges  that  the  bank  paid  Webster  for  his  support,  the  book  ends  sud- 
denly. Mr.  Fitzpatrick's  surmise  may  be  right;  it  would  have  been  in 
keeping  with  Van  Buren's  method  of  writing  to  end  his  story  abruptly 
without  warning  to  the  reader. 


Cortisso.1::   Life  of  Whitelaw  Reid  135 

The  Life  of  Whitelaw  Reid.  By  Royal  Cortissoz.  In  two  vol- 
umes. (New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  1921.  Pp.  x, 
424:472.     $10.00.) 

Of  the  great  editors  who  adorned  the  period  of  the  Civil  War,  only 
Horace  Greeley  trained  up  to  succeed  him  another  worthy  of  member- 
ship in  the  same  group.  Henry  Watterson,  Horace  White,  Murat  Hal- 
stead,  and  Samuel  Bowles  finished  their  work,  leaving  no  real  succes- 
sors; but  Greeley  followed  the  writing  of  Whitelaw  Reid  during  the 
war.  captured  him  for  the  Tribune  in  1868,  and  when  he  died  left  him  in 
so  commanding  a  position  that  the  owners  of  the  paper  made  Reid 
editor.  "  I  hope  the  Lord  will  give  me  to  see  the  day  when  a  good 
newspaper  will  command  itself ",  wrote  Charles  Dudley  Warner  to 
Reid  on  the  eve  of  his  elevation  to  Greeley's  chair.  In  Reid's  hands  the 
Tribune  did  command  itself  for  nearly  forty  years.  It  became  for  the 
historian  the  most  consistent  and  authoritative  source  for  Republican- 
ism among  the  American  journals.  Yet  it  did  not  lose  its  high  degree 
of  independence,  and  kept  from  becoming  the  organ  of  any  faction. 
Reid,  at  the  helm,  posed  as  a  kingmaker  and  looked  the  part.  He  ad- 
vised with  presidents,  nearly  conceding  their  equality  with  the  Tribune 
as  American  institutions.  And  he  rounded  out  the  incessant  labors 
of  the  editor  with  the  activities  of  the  country  gentleman,  the  eager 
citizen,  the  financier,  and  the  diplomat. 

The  writer  of  this  admirable  biography  was  long  an  editorial  asso- 
ciate of  Reid,  and  has  brought  to  the  task  trained  skill  as  a  man  of  let- 
ters. The  book  is  interesting  beyond  most  American  biographies,  since 
Thayer's  Hay.  It  is  based  on  "unrestricted  access"  to  Reid's  corre- 
spondence, more  profitable  since  it  was  "  a  trait  of  his  to  preserve  his 
correspondence  with  the  utmost  care  ".  It  is  put  together  with  a  skill 
that  makes  it  a  veracious  portrait  of  the  Tribune  and  its  policies.  Its 
only  defect  (which  is  perhaps  not  a  defect  in  such  a  work)  is  the  deep 
underlying  conviction  that  the  Tribune  and  Reid  were  always  right. 

Most  of  the  facts  given  in  the  biography  are,  of  course,  already 
known  to  specialists,  but  even  these  have  reason  to  be  grateful  for  the 
careful  assembling  of  evidence.  Occasionally  new  facts  of  importance 
are  brought  to  light.  There  are  many  fresh  letters  bearing  upon  the 
Blaine-Conkling  rivalry,  and  some  of  them  will  help  to  clear  up  doubt- 
ful points  in  the  history  of  Garfield's  ill-fated  administration.  The  de- 
votion of  Reid  to  Blaine  did  not  prevent  the  giving  of  sound  and  un- 
desired  advice  (I.  378).  The  tragedy  of  Blaine's  own  career  is  pointed 
by  Blaine's  keen  analysis  of  the  collapse  of  the  reputation  of  Henry 
Clay  (I.  377).  Reid  thought  that,  in  1884,  Blaine  "won,  morally,  an 
extraordinary  success  "  (II.  99). 

The  diplomatic  career  of  Reid  furnishes  interesting  chapters  in  the 
second  volume,  where  various  passages  that  reveal  him  reluctantly  ac- 
cepting office  invite  comparison  with  Thayer's  dicta  upon  his  chronic 


13°  Reviews  of  Books 

place-hunting.  At  Paris,  at  the  peace  conference  with  Spain,  and  at 
London,  Reid  showed  the  same  assurance  that  guided  his  pen  in  the 
editorial  office.  His  career  does  much  to  reconcile  one  to  the  American 
habit  of  picking  ambassadors  outside  the  diplomatic  corps.  Few  Ameri- 
cans of  Reid's  day  had  a  more  successful  life,  or  deserved  it  more. 

Frederic  L.  Paxson. 

How  America  Went  to  War.  By  Benedict  Crowell,  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  and  Director  of  Munitions,  1917-1920,  and 
Robert  Forrest  Wilson,  formerly  Captain,  U.  S.  A.  In  six 
volumes.  I.  The  Giant  Hand:  our  Mobilization  and  Control  of 
Industry  and  Natural  Resources,  1917-1918;  II.,  III.  The  Road 
to  France:  The  Transportation  of  Troops  and  Military  Supplies, 
1917—1918.  (New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press;  London: 
Oxford  University  Press.  1921.  Pp.  xxx,  191;  xi,  307;  311- 
675.     Set  of  six  vols.     $42.00.) 

These  volumes  are  the  first  three  of  a  series  of  six  being  published 
under  the  general  title  How  America  went  to  War,  and  which  a  sub- 
title declares  to  be  "  an  account  from  official  sources  of  the  Nation's  war 
activities,  1917-1920".  The  real  aim  of  the  series  seems  to  be  less  am- 
bitious, though  the  matter  is  left  uncertain,  since  the  preface  declares 
that  all  the  volumes  except  the  first,  which  deals  with  the  War  Indus- 
tries Board,  are  concerned  with  activities  most  of  which  fell  within  the 
administrative  province  of  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War  and  Direc- 
tor of  Munitions,  who  is,  incidentally,  a  co-author.  Another  prefatory 
sentence  announces,  furthermore,  that  the  story  presented  comes  not 
only  from  the  official  documents  and  files,  but  also  from  the  memories 
of  the  men  who  did  the  work.  These  circumstances  are  worth  noting, 
because  they  furnish  a  clue  both  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  volume 
as  a  comprehensive  account  of  the  enterprises  described,  and  to  the 
subjective  and  superficial  nature  of  many  of  the  comments  on  events 
and  personalities. 

In  fairness  it  should  be  stated  that  the  intention  apparently  has  been 
to  produce  a  narrative  account  of  our  participation  which  would  appeal 
to  the  general  reader.  From  this  standpoint  the  three  volumes  are 
reasonably  successful.  In  few  places  is  the  reading  hard,  and  some 
chapters,  such  as  those  on  convoying,  camouflage,  and  submarine  ad- 
ventures, are  distinctly  interesting.  The  volumes  are,  furthermore,  well 
printed,  and  the  illustrations  are  excellent. 

The  first  volume,  dealing  with  the  War  Industries  Board,  gives  a 
general  idea  of  the  board's  functions,  organization,  and  personnel. 
The  foreword  embodies  a  sharp  attack  on  the  President,  Secretary  of 
War,  and  the  War  Department  for  failure  to  take  suitable  steps  in 
anticipation  of  our  entrance  into  the  war,  and  for  lack  of  proper  organi- 


Crozvcll  and  Wilson:  How  America  Went  to  }]Tar     1 37 

zation  and  sufficient  vigor  during  our  participation  in  the  year  1917. 
The  thesis  is  developed  that  if  the  results  of  our  industrial  war  effort 
were  disappointing,  the  cause  was  the  administration's  failure  to  order 
the  goods  in  time,  and  that  there  was  no  failure  of  industry  itself. 
While  the  administration  must  bear  the  full  responsibility  for  its  de- 
ficiencies, it  would  seem  that  the  authors'  judgments  of  industry  are 
too  laudatory.  No  mention  is  made,  for  example,  of  the  airplane 
fiasco,  which  certainly  was  not  chargeable  to  a  lack  of  ordering  by  the 
administration,  nor  of  ill-advised  policies — such  as  "  business  as  usual ", 
advocated  late  in  1917  by  certain  business  leaders. 

One  cannot  help  feeling,  furthermore,  that  the  volume  suffers  from 
a  too-great  reliance  on  interviews  with  the  persons  involved,  each  of 
whom  is  depicted  as  about  the  happiest  choice  possible  for  his  job.  A 
greater  number,  and  a  more  diversified  selection  of  points  of  view, 
might  have  been  drawn  on  with  advantage,  and  a  more  critical  attitude 
might  well  have  been  taken  toward  the  information  elicited. 

The  second  and  third  volumes,  jointly  called  The  Road  to  France, 
deal  with  the  transportation  of  troops  and  military  supplies.  The 
preface  to  these  volumes,  in  the  course  of  some  rather  remarkable 
phraseology,  manages  to  Convey  the  impression  that  transportation  was 
in  some  substantial  manner  a  function  of  the  Assistant  Secretary  of 
War.  This  impression  surely  is  misleading.  The  volume  starts  with  a 
forced  and  unfair  comparison  between  the  early  embarkations  of  troops 
during  the  Spanish  War,  and  the  routine  movement  established  in  1918 
after  approximately  a  year's  experience.  Not  until  the  reader  has  gone 
further  does  he  begin  to  discover  that  the  first  embarkations  in  1917 
were  conducted  under  conditions  of  confusion  rivalling  those  of  the 
earlier  war. 

Part  I.  of  The  Road  to  France,  entitled  "  The  Land  ",  describes  the 
railroad  movement  of  troops  and  freight  in  this  country.  The  account 
is  interesting,  and  gives  a  good  general  idea  of  how  the  thing  came  off, 
although  it  is  not  without  those  defects  of  method  noted  in  connection 
with  The  Giant  Hand.  A  chapter  is  inserted  endorsing  the  work  of  the 
Railroad  Administration. 

Part  II.,  "  The  Port ",  deals  with  handling  of  troops  at  the  ports,  and 
with  the  organizations  of  the  Embarkation  Service.  Here  the  reader 
should  accept  many  of  the  statements  regarding  responsibility  and  credit 
with  extreme  reserve,  since  the  emphasis  has  been  distributed  in  a  very 
doubtful  manner.  This  condition  probably  arose  innocently  and  as  a 
result  of  the  method  used  in  collecting  the  information.  A  striking 
example  in  point,  however,  is  that  in  no  part  of  the  account  of  over- 
seas transportation,  or  in  any  of  the  three  volumes  under  review,  for 
that  matter,  is  any  mention  made  of  General  March,  although  Secretary 
Weeks,  in  accepting  the  general's  request  for  retirement,  wrote,  on  June 
14,  1921 :  "I  especially  wish  to  mention  your  success  in  directing  the 
transportation  of  troops  to  Europe  during  the  war,  which  was  a  service 


138  Reviews  of  Books 

of  great  magnitude  and  in  which  you  accomplished  really  remarkable 
results."  It  is  also  doubtful  if  the  statement  on  page  241,  to  the  effect 
that  the  Embarkation  Service  and  its  director  were  the  decisive  factor 
in  the  acquisition  of  the  Dutch  tonnage,  can  be  accepted  without  proof. 

Part  III.,  "  The  Sea ",  contains  interesting  chapters  on  the  navy's 
part  in  the  movement,  convoying,  the  preparation  of  the  troop  fleet, 
and  the  Shipping  Control  Committee.  A  decidedly  one-sided  view  of 
the  functions  of  the  latter  is  presented,  a  surprising  omission  being  the 
absence  of  any  reference  to  the  War  Trade  Board's  large  part  in  deter- 
mining what  commodities  the  committee  should  haul.  The  account  also 
goes  too  far  in  conveying  an  impression  that  the  army's  needs  were  satis- 
factorily met,  omitting  to  mention,  for  example,  the  shortages  in  the 
shipment  of  trucks  and  animals,  which  were  made  manifest  during  the 
Argonne  struggle.  Credit  is  also  given  the  Embarkation  Service  for 
studies  of  ocean-trade  and  shipping  conditions  which  actually  were  made 
by  the  Shipping  Board  and  the  War  Trade  Board.  The  accounts  of  our 
dealings  with  the  Allied  Maritime  Transport  Council  border,  in  places, 
on  the  fanciful.  The  three  volumes,  in  fact,  display  a  tendency  to 
detract  from  the  British  attitude  and  accomplishments,  which  is  in 
decidedly  poor  taste.  On  page  330  this  reaches  the  ridiculous  in  a 
grotesque   statistical  comparison  of  troop-ship  performance. 

Altogether  it  is  difficult  to  know  just  how  to  place  these  volumes. 
They  might  win  recommendation  as  a  popular  account  of  our  part 
in  the  war  were  it  not  for  the  errors,  omissions,  and  distortions  to 
which  the  reader  would  be  exposed.  Certainly  they  cannot  be  accepted 
as  a  well-balanced,  critical  examination  of  our  effort.  The  fundamental 
defect  is  a  too  ready  and  enthusiastic  acceptance  of  stories  derived  from 
too  few  of  the  principal  figures  involved. 

F.  Schneider,  jr. 

MINOR  NOTICES 

La  Doctrine  Scholastique  du  Droit  de  Guerre.  Par  Alfred  Vanderpol. 
(Paris,  A.  Pedone,  1919,  pp.  xxviii,  534.)  The  present  work,  in  which 
the  author  aims  to  show  the  traditional  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  unvary- 
ing, character  of  the  Christian  doctrine  on  war,  is  divided  into  three 
parts.  Part  I.  gives  an  expose  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  on  war  under 
the  following  headings:  is  war  permitted  to  Christians?;  the  legitimacy 
of  war;  the  definition  of  just  war;  the  just  cause;  the  authority  neces- 
sary to  declare  war;  the  right  intention;  obligations  of  princes  and  sub- 
jects;   consequences  of  the  doctrine  and  the  rights  of  the  victor. 

This  part  is  itself  written  in  the  scholastic  style.  Objections  are 
answered  first,  and  then  the  proper  principles  are  briefly  and  clearly 
laid  down,  supported  by  abundant  and  judiciously  selected  excerpts  from 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  theologians,  and  the  canonists. 

Part  II.  outlines  the  history  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  on  war  from 


Minor  Xoticcs  139 

the  Old  Testament  through  the  Christians  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
St.  Augustine  and  St.°  Thomas,  the  applications  of,  and  departures  from, 
the  doctrine  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  century,  down  to  the 
theologians  of  the  last  three  centuries. 

Part  III.  contains  as  pieces  justificatives  transitions  of  relevant  por- 
tions of  Gratian's  Decretum  and  St.  Thomas's  Summa,  together  with 
Victoria's  Be  Jure  Belli  and  Be  Indis  and  Suarez's  Be  Bello  in  their 
entirety.  An  appendix  outlines  the  doctrine  of  Suarez  on  international 
law.    An  analytical  table  is  also  appended. 

Professor  fimile  Chenon,  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  of  Paris,  contributes 
a  good-sized  preface,  in  which  is  given  a  detailed  account  of  the  author's 
life  and  works.  Alfred  Marie  Vanderpol,.  whom  the  celebrated  Belgian 
statesman  Bernaert  once  called  'le  chevalier  de  la  paix",  was  born  in 
1854  and  died  in  1915.  Although  an  engineer  by  profession,  he  had 
received  his  licentiate  in  law,  and  was  an  energetic  leader  in  peace  move- 
ments in  France  and  Belgium.  The  Ligue  Beige  pour  la  Paix  and  the 
Union  Internationale  (founded  in  191 2,  with  headquarters  at  Louvain) 
were  fostered,  if  not  actually  founded,  by  him.  One  of  his  friends,  at 
his  solicitation,  supplied  the  funds  necessary  for  the  establishment  at 
Louvain  of  a  chair  of  international  law  according  to  Christian  principles. 
Until  his  death  he  was  closely  identified  with  the  Ligue  des  Catholiques 
Francais  pour  la  Paix,  of  which  he  was  president,  and  in  whose  bulletin 
he  began  his  apostolate  of  the  pen. 

The  material  collected  in  the  present  volume  and  published  posthu- 
mously had  previously  been  presented  to  the  public  in  various  smaller 
publications  of  the  author,  such  as  Le  Broit  de  Guerre  d'apres  les  Thco- 
logiens  et  les  Canonist es  du  Moyen-Age  (Paris,  1911),  La  Guerre  devant 
le  Christianisme  (Brussels,  no  date),  and  articles  in  the  Bulletin  de  la 
Societe  Gratry  (which  became,  in  1910,  the  Bulletin  de  la  Ligue  des 
Catholiques  Francais  pour  la  Paix).  The  volume  at  hand  supplies  a 
positive  want  in  the  literature  of  international  law,  with  regard  to  its 
history,  its  founders,  and  its  relation  to  Christianity.  The  author's 
death  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  followed  within  a  few  years 
by  the  death  of  that  indefatigable  worker  among  the  scholastic  jurists, 
Ernest  Nys,  leaves  a  distinct  gap  among  the  cultivators  of  this  field 
of  international  law. 

Herbert  F.  Wright. 

Bas  Iranische  Erlosungsmystcrium:  Religionsgcschichtliche  Unter- 
suchungen.  Von  R.  Reitzenstein.  (Bonn,  A.  Marcus  and  E.  Weber, 
1921,  pp.  xii,  272,  M.  45.)  The  period  of  the  first  two  Christian  cen- 
turies is  well  known  as  an  age  when  a  welter  of  creeds  and  sects  pre- 
vailed in  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotamia.  These  movements  and  their 
influences  can  no  more  be  neglected  by  the  student  of  history  in 
general,  than  they  can  by  the  student  of  theology.  Early  Christianity 
had  to   contend  not  only  as  a  rival  against  historic  Judaism,  but  with 


!4o  Reviews  of  Books 

Hellenism,  fading  Mithraism,  the  Mandaean  religion  with  its  survivals 
of  old  Babylonian  beliefs,  and  had  soon  to  confront  a  more  formidable 
rival  to  itself  in  the  rise  of  Manichaeism.  Persian  ideas  filled  the 
atmosphere  at  the  time,  and  Zoroastrianism  was  about  entering  upon 
an  era  of  revival  which  restored  much  of  its  pristine  glory. 

A  book  like  Reitzenstein's  Das  Iranische  Erlosungsmysterium,  which 
emphasizes  the  significance  of  Persian  influence  upon  the  ideas  of 
redemption  during  these  ages,  is  therefore  important;  and  in  it  the 
scholarly  author  has  followed  in  his  method  of  investigation  the  lines 
of  the  well-known  work  of  Bousset  on  Gnosticism  and  its  problems, 
the  volume  being  dedicated  to  Bousset's  memory. 

The  author  deals  first,  in  a  critical  manner,  with  some  of  the  new 
and  valuable  material  which  has  recently  become  available  through  the 
discovery  in  Turfan,  Chinese  Turkestan,  of  the  long-lost  bible  of  Mani. 
The  importance  of  these  finds  is  still  too  little  known  to  Christian 
theologians.  A  lengthy  treatment  is  next  given  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
soul  and  related  matters  in  the  Mandaean  religion,  including  the  Man- 
daean Book  of  the  Dead.  Deductions  of  a  religious  and  historical 
character  are  then  drawn,  and  extensive  supplementary  material  with 
regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Aeon  and  of  the  Eternal  City  is  added 
in  two  elaborate  appendixes. 

With  reference  to  Manichaeism,  the  author  has  enjoyed  the  ad- 
vantage of  drawing  upon  some  of  the  Turfan  fragments  that  have  not 
yet  been  published  in  the  texts  hitherto  made  available  by  the  Berlin 
scholars  F.  W.  K.  Miiller  and  A.  von  Le  Coq ;  and  he  has  had  likewise 
philological  assistance  from  the  Iranian  specialist  Andreas,  of  G6t- 
tingen.  Among  the  fragments  still  awaiting  publication  in  detail  is  a 
so-called  "  Zarathushtra-Fragment ",  which  contains  a  portion  of  a 
Manichaean  hymn  that  cites  from  Zoroaster.  This  is  introduced  in 
translation  by  Reitzenstein,  and  made  the  starting-point  for  his  main 
thesis  of  Iranian  influence  on  the  redemption  idea.  With  regard,  fur- 
thermore, to  Mandaean  sources,  the  learned  professor  has  derived  much 
help  from  the  work  of  his  colleague  Lidzbarski,  who  has  done  so  much 
to  make  the  Mandaean  literature  accessible  in  translation. 

On  the  whole,  although  exceptions  may  be  taken  to  certain  views,  or 
though  opinions  may  differ  on  particular  points,  the  author  must  cer- 
tainly be  accredited  with  having  succeeded  in  showing  that,  in  addition 
to  recognizing  the  presence  of  other  elements,  scholars  should  lay  due 
stress  also  on  the  Persian  influence  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  mystery  of 
the  redemption.  In  doing  this,  Dr.  Reitzenstein's  great  erudition  en- 
ables him  to  bring  together  a  vast  mass  of  material  drawn  from  the 
many  branches  of  knowledge  of  which  he  is  a  master;  but  the  weight 
of  learning  often  makes  the  text  rather  heavy  reading,  and  sometimes 
difficult  to  follow. 

A.  V.  Williams  Tackson. 


Minor  Notices  14 ' 

Marcus  Aurelius:  a  Biography.  By  Henry  Dwight  Sedgwick. 
(New  Haven,  Yale  University  Press;  London,  Oxford  University  Press, 
1921,  pp.  309,  $2.75.)  "'  In  this  little  book  my  purpose  is  to  provide  those 
people  for  whom  the  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius  contain  a  deep 
religious  meaning,  with  such  introductory  information  about  him,  his 
character,  his  religion,  and  his  life,  as  I  think,  judging  from  my  own 
experience,  they  may  desire."  This  charmingly  written  sketch  is  to  be 
judged  in  the  light  of  its  aim  as  set  forth  in  these  words  from  its 
preface.  Mr.  Sedgwick  writes  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  twentieth 
century  and  its  religious  perplexities,  and  with  no  great  technical  equip- 
ment. He  has  read  the  literary  sources,  but  he  nowhere  cites  an 
inscription.  For  instance,  he  quotes  Livy's  account  of  the  prosecution 
of  the  Bacchanalians  under  the  Republic,  but  apparently  he  has  never 
heard  of  the  extant  Senatus-consultum  de  Bacchanalibus  (pp.  220  ff.). 
He  has  no  clear  conception  of  the  imperial  constitution,  else  he  would 
hardly  have  expressed  his  surprise  at  the  democratic  manners  of  the 
Antonines  (pp.  105  ff.),  or  at  the  denial  of  a  triumph  to  an  imperial 
legate  (p.  151).  Naturally  he  leaves  the  reader  without  any  definite 
picture  of  the  routine  work  which  Marcus  Aurelius  as  emperor  was 
called  upon  to  perform.  A  trained  Latinist  will  experience  a  humorous 
twinge  on  finding  the  aristocratic  Fronto  referred  to  as  Marcus  Aure- 
lius's  "pedagogue".  The  three  chapters  which  Mr.  Sedgwick  devotes 
to  the  exculpation  of  his  hero  from  the  charge  of  being  a  foe  to 
Christianity  contain  only  one  new  suggestion,  namely,  that  the  unpopu- 
larity of  the  Christians  with  the  Roman  lower  classes  may  have  been 
due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  Christians  spoke  and  wrote  in  Greek. 
Mr.  Sedgwick  is  evidently  unacquainted  with  the  epigraphic  evidence 
which  proves  that  the  lower  classes  in  Rome  were  largely  recruited  from 
the  Greek-speaking  East.  Similar  inaccuracies  and  inadequacies  might 
easily  be  pointed  out.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Sedgwick  has  furnished  the 
general  reader  with  an  interesting  account  of  the  literary  and  spiritual 
life  of  the  Middle  Empire.  In  an  appendix  he  gives  a  descriptive  bib- 
liography of  the  ancient  literary  sources,  and  lists  a  number  of  the  best 
modern  books  upon  the  subjects  treated. 

Donald  McFayden. 

Recueil  des  Actes  des  Rois  de  Provence,  855-928.  Par  Rene  Pou- 
pardin,  Directeur  a  l'ficole  Pratique  des  Hautes-fitudes,  Secretaire  de 
l'ficok  des  Chartes.  (Paris,  Imprimerie  Nationale,  1920,  pp.  lviii,  155, 
23  fr.)  When  in  the  late  nineties  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles-Lettres  undertook  the  publication  of  its  splendid  collection  of 
definitive  editions  of  documentary  sources  to  be  known  as  Chartes  el 
Diplomes  relatifs  a  I'Histoire  de  France,  it  was  planned  that  the  section 
containing  the  charters  of  West  Frankish  and  French  kings  from 
840  to  1223  should  include  also  those  of  the  kings  of  Aquitaine  from  814 
to  866  and  of  the  kings  of  Provence  and  Burgundy  from  855  to  1032; 


H2  Reviews  of  Books 

and  the  editorship  of  the  volumes  on  Provence  and  Burgundy  was 
intrusted  to  Rene  Poupardin  (see  preface  by  d'Arbois  de  Jubainville, 
in  Prou's  Recueil  des  Actes  de  Philippe  Ier,  Roi  de  France1,  Paris,  1908). 
The  first  of  M.  Poupardin's  volumes  now  lies  before  us,  and  it  is  en- 
tirely worthy  of  the  great  series  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  The  editor 
has  already  distinguished  himself  by  two  admirable  volumes  on  the 
kings  of  Provence  and  Burgundy  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  and 
has  consequently  long  been  a  student  of  the  documents  which  he  now 
brings  to  publication.  The  plan  adopted  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Recueil  des  Actes  de  Philippe  Ier,  Roi  de  France,  by  Maurice  Prou,  with 
which  the  series  was  inaugurated  in  1908,  and  which  has  rightly  served 
as  a  model  for  succeeding  volumes.  This  volume  contains  the  docu- 
ments of  Charles  of  Provence,  Boso,  and  Louis  l'Aveugle — only  59 
charters  all  told,  and  some  of  these  are  suspect  or  clearly  forgeries; 
but  the  collection  is  a  precious  one  nevertheless,  because  of  the  paucity 
of  other  sources  for  the  period.  M.  Poupardin's  introduction  is  a  model 
of  what  such  diplomatic  studies  should  be.  One  conclusion  from  it  may 
be  especially  noted.  It  is  impossible  to  say  that  there  was  continuity 
of  chancery  organization  from  one  reign  to  another  in  the  kingdom  of 
Provence  during  this  troubled  period.  But  all  the  royal  charters  here 
published  were  drawn  up  in  the  chancery :  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  any  of  them  were  drafted  in  the  local  ecclesiastical  establishments 
in  whose  favor  they  were  issued  and  then  brought  to  the  chancery  for 
confirmation  and  the  affixing  of  the  royal  seal. 

C.  W.  David. 

Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Medieval  Thought  and  Learning.  By 
Reginald  Lane  Poole.  (London,  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge,  1920,  pp.  xiii,  327.  Second  ed.  revised.)  The  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  has  done  well  to  reprint  these  schol- 
arly and  thoughtful  essays,  and  especially,  since  their  author,  now  re- 
leased from  the  English  Historical  Review,  finds  time  to  revise  this 
work  of  his  early  manhood.  But  the  revision,  his  preface  tells  us,  "  has 
been  designedly  made  with  a  sparing  hand,  and  the  book  remains  in 
substance  and  in  most  details  a  work  not  of  1920  but  of  1884".  The 
words  "and  learning'',  added  to  the  title,  imply  no  addition  to  the 
contents,  but  only  describe  them  more  truly.  In  the  few  foot-notes  added 
or  expanded  the  new  matter  is  carefully  bracketed.  Only  in  the  chapter 
on  the  school  of  Chartres  and  in  that  on  Abelard  has  new  evidence  made 
necessary  serious  change  in  the  text.  Elsewhere  a  foot-note  suffices, 
as  where  the  statement  as  to  the  slightness  of  Marsiglio's  direct  in- 
fluence is  modified  in  deference  to  the  continuous  strain  of  testimony 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Sullivan. 

Mr.  Poole's  preface  tells  us,  too,  how  he  came  to  write  the  book — ■ 
mainly    at    Leipzig   and   at   Zurich   while    a    travelling    fellow    on    the 

iSee  this  Review,  XIV.   101  ff. 


Minor  Notices  143 

Hibbert  Foundation — and  to  whom  he  was  most  indebted  for  suggestion. 
Lechler,  the  church  historian,  it  appears,  set  him  reading  Reuter's 
Aufklarung  im  Mittelalter;  and  to  Reuter,  though  he  will  not  confess 
to  learning  much  from  his  "  exaggerated  and  often  distorted  presentment 
of  facts",  he  owed  references  to  the  sources  and  an  outline  for  the 
first  half  of  his  book.  And  it  was  in  preparation  for  the  editing  of 
Wyclift'e's  treatises  On  Dominion,  to  which  he  was  invited  by  the  so- 
ciety then  forming  at  Leipzig,  that  from  John  of  Salisbury  onward 
his  studies  restricted  themselves  to  political  theory.  Perhaps  it  was  in 
reaction  against  Reuter,  whose  title  may  well  have  seemed  to  him 
too  pretentious,  that  his  own  book,  as  he  says,  "  made  no  claim  to  be 
a  coherent  history  ",  though  it  is  by  no  means  without  reason  that  "  it 
has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  one  ". 

G.  L.  B. 


Macmillan's  Historical  Atlas  of  Modem  Europe.  Edited  by  F.  J.  C. 
Hearnshaw,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  King's  College,  Uni- 
versity of  London.  (London,  Macmillan  and  Company,  1920,  pp.  29, 
6s.)  This  useful  little  atlas  contains  eleven  skilfully  drawn  and  un- 
usually clear  maps,  with  explanatory  notes  devoted  chiefly  to  the  history 
of  Europe  since  1815.  While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  omission  of 
physical  features  enhances  clearness,  one  is  tempted  respectfully  to 
question  Professor  Hearnshaw's  contention  that  the  addition  of  physical 
to  political  features  is  impossible  without  "  inextricable  confusion ". 
This  difficult  combination  has  been  accomplished  repeatedly  of  late,  to 
the  pleasure  and  profit  of  countless  users  of  maps. 

The  scholarly  and  suggestive  notes  lose  something  of  interest  and 
clearness  because  of  rigid  condensation.  This  is  well  illustrated  on 
page  13,  where  Venice  is  included  among  the  "  walled  towns  "  remaining 
under  the  authority  of  the  Byzantine  emperor  after  the  Lombard  in- 
vasion of  568 — as  if  there  were  a  clearly  defined  city  of  Venice  either 
walled  or  unwalled  at  that  time.  Again  (p.  11),  we  find  Tuscany 
classed  with  Lombardy  among  the  states  under  the  "  direct "  rule  of 
Leopold  II.  in  1792.  Nor  is  any  distinction  made  between  independence 
and  autonomy,  as  applied  to  the  status  of  Bulgaria  under  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin. 

Greece  did  not  acquire  "all  of  Epirus"  by  the  settlement  of  1913 
(p.  16),  being  compelled  to  evacuate  Northern  Epirus.  The  editor 
follows  the  rather  confusing  general  practice  of  interchanging  the  terms 
Austria  and  Austria-Hungary.  For  example,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  occupied,  administered,  and  later  annexed  by  Austria  and  Hungary 
jointly.  One  or  two  trifling  slips,  probably  typographical,  may  be  noted. 
East  Prussia  was  secularized  in  1525,  not  in  1528  (p.  7),  and  Frederick 
William  of  Wied  should  be  William  Frederick  (p.  16).  But  who  cares 
about  the  precise  name  of  the  amusing  Mpretl 


144  Reviews  of  Books 

The  most  useful  map  is  that  of  Europe  after  the  Peace  Treaties, 
1919-1920.  Altogether,  the  Atlas  is  a  decidedly  welcome  aid  to  the 
student. 

William  A.  Frayer. 

The  Art  of  War  in  Italy,  1404-1529.  By  F.  L.  Taylor,  M.A.,  M.C., 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  (Cambridge,  University  Press,  1921, 
pp.  228,  $5.00.)  The  theme  of  this  valuable  little  book,  which  won  the 
Prince  Consort  Essay  Prize  in  1920,  is  the  development  in  Italy  during 
the  early  Italian  wars  of  strategy,  tactics,  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery, 
and  the  art  of  fortification.  There  is  inevitably  a  considerable  repe- 
tition of  similar  material  in  the  several  chapters. 

With  a  constant  use  of  the  best  contemporary  material,  mostly 
Italian,  but  with  proper  attention  to  French,  Spanish,  and  German 
sources,  Mr.  Taylor  has  produced  an  instructive  study  in  the  growth  of 
Renaissance  thought  along  one  particular  line.  And  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  in  this  line  the  most  practical  results  were  reached  by  Spaniards.  In 
his  last  chapter,  indeed,  he  analyzes  the  work  of  the  best-known  theorists 
of  the  period  upon  the  art  of  war,  and  of  them  two  are  Italian,  Giam- 
battista  della  Valle  and  Machiavelli,  and  the  third  a  half-Frenchman, 
Philip  the  Duke  of  Cleves.  But  in  most  respects,  Mr.  Taylor's  book  is 
an  exposition  of  the  manner  in  which  the  keen  intelligence  of  the 
Great  Captain  and  of  Pescara  won  Italy  for  Spain. 

In  1494  there  were,  he  shows,  two  schools  of  warfare:  that  of  the 
French  crusaders,  which  accepted  battle  on  the  enemy's  terms,  for  love 
of  a  fight;  and  that  of  the  Italian  condottieri,  which  tried  to  avoid  all 
fighting  and  win  by  pure  manoeuvre.  Gonsalvo  began,  and  Pescara 
completed,  an  art  of  war  which  sought  by  scientific  strategy  the  best 
opportunity  to  destroy  the  enemy's  forces.  The  victories  on  the 
Garigliano  and  at  Pavia  were  the  result. 

In  1494  the  Swiss  pikemen  were,  as  infantry,  supreme,  although  de- 
spised by  the  feudal  gentry.  The  Spaniards  accepted  from  the  Swiss  the 
use  of  infantry  as  the  chief  arm,  but,  by  substituting  the  sword  and 
musket  for  the  pike,  made  their  infantry  more  mobile.  In  artillery  the 
French  were  in  1494,  and  remained  in  1529,  superior  to  the  Spanish;  but 
they  lost  this  advantage  by  less  intelligent  tactics. 

In  an  appendix,  perhaps  to  counterbalance  the  Spanish  element  else- 
where, is  a  careful  and  detailed  study,  with  maps,  of  Gaston  de  Foix's 
great  victory  at  Ravenna. 

To  the  reviewer,  it  would  seem  that  value  would  have  been  added 
to  the  book  by  a  comparison  of  these  developments  in  the  West  with 
contemporary  developments  among  the  Ottoman  Turks. 

British  Beginnings  in  Western  India,  1^0-16^:  an  Account  of  the 
Early  Days  of  the  British  Factory  of  Surat.  By  H.  G.  Rawlinson,  M.A., 
Indian  Educational  Service.     (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1920.  pp.  158.) 


Minor  Notices  145 

Under  the  correct  but  somewhat  forbidding  title  of  British  Beginnings 
in  Western  India,  1579-165J,  Mr.  H.  G.  Rawlinson  has  concealed  a 
valuable  and  most  interesting  book.  For  he  has  written  the  early 
story  of  Surat,  provided  with  a  historical  introduction,  relating  the  be- 
ginnings of  European  expansion,  with  the  usual  references  to  Sighelm, 
Sir  John  Mandeville,  and  Stevens,  concerning  which  last  interesting 
figure  he  gives  a  fuller  account  than  is  commonly  found.  Thereafter 
the  narrative  follows  the  fortunes  of  the  English  station  with  minute 
care,  and  provides  perhaps  the  best  account  of  the  beginnings  of  the 
East  India  Company  to  be  found  within  the  same  space  anywhere.  Haw- 
kins and  his  mission,  the  conflicts  with  the  Portuguese,  Sir  Thomas 
Roe's  embassy,  the  development  of  the  Surat  factory  and  its  business, 
the  Interlopers,  and  the  Dutch  war,  with  a  chapter  on  Life  in  the  English 
Factory  in  the  Seventeenth  Century — these  give  not  only  a  full  but  a 
vivid  picture  of  this  profitable  and  romantic  beginning  of  British  power 
in  India. 

Nor  is  this  all;  for  two  features  of  the  little  volume  add  much  to 
its  value  and  interest.  The  first  is  a  series  of  appendixes,  which  con- 
tain material  as  various  as  an  account  of  the  tombs  in  the  English 
cemetery  at  Surat,  the  factory  pay-bills,  the  form  of  a  "  Bill  of  Ad- 
venture "  issued  by  the  East  India  Company  for  the  fourth  voyage,  a 
list  of  the  voyages  and  their  profits  (from  95  to  234  per  cent.),  and 
extracts  from  Thevenot's  account  of  Surat,  published  in  1727.  The 
second  is  a  list  of  illustrations,  which,  if  given  somewhat  too  much  to 
tombs,  includes  such  interesting  views  as  those  of  the  old  fort  and  the 
old  factory,  which  may  profitably  be  compared,  by  those  who  are 
interested,  with  the  seventeenth-century  Dutch  views  of  their  posts 
and  those  of  the  Portuguese,  especially  the  splendid  view  of  Surat  as 
exhibited  in  Dapper's  Asia,  which  the  author  apparently,  and,  if  so, 
unfortunately,  does  not  know. 

Apart  from  the  intrinsic  interest  and  value  of  such  a  history  of 
"the  corner-stone  of  the  British  Empire  in  India"  as  a  contribution  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  subject  itself  (and  that  contribution  is  great), 
Mr.  Rawlinson  has,  in  a  sense,  done  much  to  produce  a  new  genre  in 
English  historical  writing.  He  has  given  us  a  study  in  imperial  local 
history,  which  is  sorely  needed  to  correct  and  amplify  those  vast  and 
useful  compilations,  written,  as  it  were,  from  above,  by  showing  us  just 
how  and  why  "  imperial  "  policies  worked  or  did  not  work — and  how 
little  consciously  imperial  they  were,  after  all.  For  the  East  India  Com- 
pany of  the  seventeenth  century,  whatever  its  imperial  connotations  and 
implications,  was  a  very  human  and  concrete  thing,  not  a  great  national 
enterprise  looking  toward  the  acquisition  of  the  British  Raj.  nor  the 
result  of  profound,  far-seeing  policy  of  expansion,  as  might  be  assumed 
from  many  writings  on  the  subject,  especially  those  flowing  from  Con- 
tinental pens.  To  such  a  view  books  like  these  are  a  salutary  corrective. 
And  the  British  Empire  is  fortunate  in  the  possession  of  historians  like 

AMER.  HIST.  REV.  VOL.  XXVII. — 10. 


H6  Reviews  of  Books 

Mr.    Rawlinson,   who   can   write   books   on   such   subjects   in   such   ad- 
mirable and  entertaining  fashion. 

Wilbur  C.  Abbott. 

The  Puritans  in  Ireland,  164/-1661.  By  the  Reverend  St.  John  D. 
Seymour,  B.D.  [Oxford  Historical  and  Literary  Studies,  vol.  XII.] 
(Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1921,  pp.  xiv,  239.)  Mr.  Seymour  in  the 
little  volume  under  review  has  done  a  thoroughly  competent  piece  of 
historical  investigation.  He  has  taken  up  the  ecclesiastical  history  of 
Ireland  during  the  period  of  the  Rebellion  and  the  Commonwealth,  with 
extensive  and  painstaking  use  of  the  manuscript  "  Commonwealth  Books  " 
in  the  Public  Record  Office,  Dublin.  He  has  thrown  a  flood  of  new  light 
on  an  obscure  and  heretofore  little  investigated  period  in  the  religious 
history  of  Ireland,  and  has  made  evident  the  purposes  of  the  Puritan 
party,  the  actual  working  of  the  Puritan  government  in  religious  affairs, 
and  the  personnel  and  work  of  its  appointees. 

Mr.  Seymour  declares,  "I  have  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  but  have  treated  all  the  other 
Protestant  denominations  of  the  period,  I  hope,  with  scrupulous  fairness." 
It  seems  to  the  reviewer  that  his  claim  has  been  absolutely  justified.  No 
one  could  have  been  more  fair-minded  and  impartial  than  he,  or  more 
objective  in  his  estimates  of  the  qualities,  good  and  bad,  of  the 
ministers  whom  governmental  authority  substituted  for  those  of  the 
older  church  during  this  troublesome  period. 

There  has  indeed  been  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  modern  writers 
to  decry  the  "ministers  of  the  Gospel"  en  masse  .  .  .  how  uncritical 
and  inaccurate  such  generalizing  is  can  easily  be  shown.  .  .  .  Nobody 
would  pretend  that  all  the  ministers  were  saints ;  some  passages  in  the 
dry  Commonwealth  records  would  be  quite  sufficient  to  refute  such  an 
idea.  But  men  like  Winter,  Mather,  Worth,  Adair,  must  have  been 
powerful  instruments  for  good  in  the  land;  while,  from  the  little  that 
we  know  about  Edward  Wale,  it  may  safely  be  inferred  that  many  of 
those  preachers  who  were  so  utterly  obscure  that  nothing  is  known  of 
them  except  their  names  were  fully  deserving  of  the  title  "  Ministers  of 
the  Gospel ". 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  Mr.  Seymour  will  continue  his  studies  in  the 
religious  history  of  Ireland. 

Williston  Walker. 

The  Early  Life  and  Education  of  John  Evelyn.  With  a  Commentary 
by  H.  Maynard  Smith.  [Oxford  Historical  and  Literary  Studies,  vol. 
XL]  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1920,  pp.  xx.  182.)  In  the  year  1818 
were  published  the  Memoirs  of  one  John  Evelyn,  an  English  gentleman 
of  wide  acquaintance,  travels,  and  interest  in  gardening,  some  literary 
skill,  and  social  position,  a  familiar  figure  in  late  seventeenth-century 
England.     Thus   rescued  from   oblivion,  his  labors  became  a   standard 


Minor  Notices  147 

source  of  quotation  for  literary  and  historical  investigators,  a  much- 
read  and  moderately  enjoyed  piece  of  antiquarian  literature,  and  a 
book  which  no  gentleman's  library  could  be  without.  It  has  run  through 
some  five  or  six  editions  during  the  past  century,  and  has  doubtless 
proved  of  some  pleasure  and  even  profit  to  its  readers.  Among  other 
things,  it  inspired  the  publication  of  a  much  greater  book  of  the 
same  kind,  Samuel  Pepys's  Diary.  And  now,  after  a  hundred  years,  Mr. 
H.  Maynard  Smith  has  provided  us  with  a  volume  drawn  from  this 
source  which  is  as  fine  an  example  of  the  still  thriving  school  of 
antiquarianism  as  one  is  likely  to  discover  in  much  reading.  For  he  has 
taken  a  fragment  of  the  whole  work,  that  which  begins  with  Evelyn's 
birth  and  ends  with  his  departure  from  England  on  his  travels  in  1641, 
and  edited  it  after  the  great  manner  of  Bayle — something  less  than 
twenty  pages  of  large-print  text,  something  more  than  a  hundred  and 
fifty  pages  of  finer-print  notes  and  index.  It  is  a  work  of  love  and 
devotion,  as  every  page  testifies,  and  Mr.  Smith  has  not  only  produced 
an  extraordinarily  minute  and  informing  body  of  notes,  but  he  has  had 
an  extraordinarily  good  time  doing  it,  while  his  various  contributions 
to  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  times  are  of  great  interest  and 
value.  It  is  true  that  he  denies  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  a  final  e  in  his 
name,  but  Hawthorne  was.  of  course,  an  American.  It  is  also  true  that 
the  name  Cromwell,  which  plays  some  part  in  the  book  proper,  does 
not  appear  in  the  index,  but  Evelyn  was.  of  course,  a  strong  Royalist. 
And  it  might  be  possible  to  enlarge  the  list  of  such  minor  criticisms. 
But  no  student  of  the  early  seventeenth  century,  and  no  one  interested 
in  cross-sections  of  life  in  any  period,  but  must  be  grateful  to  Mr. 
Smith  for  his  entertaining  and  useful  book — and  envy  him  for  the 
leisure  which  has  enabled  him  to  produce  it,  and  the  pleasure  which  he 
has  afforded  himself  and  others  by  the  use  of  that  leisure.  It  is  only  to 
be  regretted  that  the  attitude  of  the  Evelyn  family  toward  those  scholars 
who  have  at  various  times  sought  to  edit  the  Memoirs  has  made  a 
definitive  edition  impossible. 

England  and  the  Englishman  in  German  Literature  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  By  John  Alexander  Kellv.  Ph.D.  (New  York,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Press.  1921.  pp.  156.  $1.25.)  Anglomania  prevailed  in  Germany 
throughout  the  eighteenth  century.  J.  G.  B.  Biischel,  in  his  Ncuc 
Reisen  eines  Deutsehen  nach  und  in  England  im  Jahre  1783  (Berlin, 
1784),  took  the  lead,  but  was  ably  seconded  by  many  other  writers.  The 
beauty  of  English  landscape,  especially  of  the  English  park;  the  vigor, 
manliness,  and  self-reliance  of  the  English  men.  the  loveliness  of  the 
women:  the  ''naturalness"  of  English  literature;  English  religious 
toleration,  but  beyond  everything  else,  the  freedom  of  English  institu- 
tions with  their  corollaries,  freedom  from  petty  restrictions  in  the 
methods  of  education  and  in  social  relations,  and  the  high  status  granted 
great  scholars  and  great  artists,  including  even  actors  and  actresses — 


148  Reviews  of  Books 

all  these  advantages  filled  the  vast  majority  of  observers  with  almost 
lyrical  enthusiasm  and  made  them  forget  or  at  least  readily  forgive 
English  national  conceit  and  contempt  of  foreigners,  English  taciturnity 
and  moroseness,  English  brutality,  and  even  the  absence  of  the  artistic 
and  especially  of  the  musical  instinct.  These  facts  Dr.  Kelly  has  dili- 
gently assembled  and  clearly  and  convincingly  set  forth  in  his  mono- 
graph, basing  his  conclusions  on  abundant  and  well-selected  material. 

The  name  of  Goethe,  curiously  enough,  appears  only  twice,  although 
his  opinions  of  the  English  have  not  long  since  been  collected  and 
published.  Again,  something  might  have  been  said  of  Germans  or 
German-Swiss,  like  Fiiseli,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  successor  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  who  settled  in  England  and  rose  to  prominence  there. 
The  generosity  shown  such  foreigners  can  hardly  have  failed  to  im- 
press their  friends  at  home.  More  serious  is  Dr.  Kelly's  failure  to 
affiliate  German  anglomania  of  the  eighteenth  century  with  the  great 
European  movements  of  the  time.  Voltaire's  Lettres  sur  les  Anglais 
are  not  even  mentioned,  and  one  looks  in  vain  for  the  name  of  Mon- 
tesquieu. Thus  German  anglomania  appears  as  a  provincial  whim, 
whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  came  about  under  the-  sway  of  a  great 
international  urge.  England,  in  the  seventeenth  century  less  interesting 
to  the  Continent  than  even  Sweden,  in  consequence  of  the  glowing 
descriptions  of  the  liberality  of  English  political  institutions  and  re- 
ligious toleration,  found  in  the  letters  of  French  Huguenots  exiled  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  suddenly  assumed  peak  im- 
portance to  the  generation  of  Bayle,  just  then  preparing  to  throw  off  the 
shackles  of  feudalism,  Jesuitism,  and  artificiality  in  literature  and  art. 
And  something  like  a  "  myth  of  noble  England  "  spread  in  all  countries, 
an  interesting  compound  of  sound  truth  and  fantastic  exaggeration. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  these  omissions,  Dr.  Kelly's  monograph  furnishes 
welcome  material  for  a  better  appreciation  of  Germany's  part  in  limning 
that  picture  of  England  which  did  so  much  to  overthrow  an  oppressive 
creed  outworn. 

Camillo  von  Klenze. 

Robespierre,  Terroriste.  Par  Albert  Mathiez,  Professeur  a  la  Faculte 
des  Lettres  de  Dijon.  (Paris,  La  Renaissance  du  Livre.  1921,  pp.  191, 
4  fr.)  The  volume  contains  seven  essays,  entitled  "Robespierre,  Terror- 
iste "  ;  "  Le  Banquier  Boyd  et  ses  Amis  " ;  "  Le  Carnet  de  Robespierre  "  ; 
"Les  Notes  de  Robespierre  contre  les  Dantonistes ";  "  Danton  et 
Durand  " ;  "  Les  deux  Versions  du  Proces  des  Hebertistes  "  ;  "  Pourquoi 
nous  sommes  Robespierristes  ".  The  first  six  had  appeared  during  the 
years  1918-1920,  in  the  Annates  Revolutionnaires,  the  official  publication 
of  the  Societe  des  fitudes  Robespierristes.  The  last  appeared  in  the 
Grande  Rezme,  and  served  as  the  first  of  two  addresses  given  at  the 
ficole  des  Hautes  fitudes  Sociales,  in  1920.  The  first  essay  in  this 
series  of  studies  served  as  the  second  lecture. 


Minor  Notices  149 

Mathiez  has  worked  on  the  history  of  Robespierre  during  a  period 
of  twenty  years  and  has  published  several  important  books  and  many 
valuable  articles  on  this  subject.  His  thesis  is  that  Robespierre  was 
the  greatest  statesman  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  that  the  so- 
called  reign  of  terror  was  necessary  to  save  the  Republic.  The  ex- 
periences of  the  recent  war  have  confirmed  him  and  his  fellow-members 
of  the  Societe  des  fitudes  Robespierristes,  which  was  founded  in  1908, 
in  the  soundness  of  their  position.  The  severe  measures  adopted  by 
the  French  government  during  the  late  war  were  less  justified  than 
those  of  the  reign  of  terror.  More  men  were  actually  shot  who  after- 
wards were  found  innocent  of  the  charges  made  against  them,  than 
were  put  to  death  during  the  reign  of  terror.  During  the  Revolution 
the  government  worked  upon  a  more  democratic  basis.  The  accused 
received  a  more  careful  and  fair  trial.  The  National  Convention  re- 
mained in  session,  and  the  regular — the  civil — courts  properly  func- 
tioned. During  the  late  war,  however,  the  legislative  bodies  did  not 
meet  for  months  at  a  time,  and  the  civil  courts  were  limited  in  their 
powers.  The  administrative  and  military  courts  were  in  control.  Il- 
legal measures  were  less  justified  when  the  country  was  united.  During 
the  reign  of  terror  the  internal  dissensions  threatened  the  government 
with  civil  war.  Not  only  was  the  very  existence  of  the  French  Re- 
public at  stake,  but  the  cause  of  democracy  itself  was  on  trial.  The 
reign  of  terror  has  been  greatly  exaggerated,  and  Robespierre's  part  in 
it  misrepresented.  His  influence  was  consistently  in  favor  of  moderation. 
It  was  the  extremists  who  plotted  his  death.  During  his  lifetime  and 
for  fifty  years  thereafter  the  name  Robespierre  was  synonymous  with 
the  word  democracy.  His  teachings  are  a  vital  political  and  social  force 
to-day.  We  may  learn  from  him  the  meaning  of  true  democracy.  One 
of  the  objects  of  the  Societe  des  fitudes  Robespierristes  is  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  democratic  conception  of  Robespierre. 

Carl  Christophelsmeier. 

Sir  Francis  d'lvernois,  1757-1842:  sa  Vie,  son  Oeuvre  et  son  Temps. 
Par  Otto  Karmin.  (Geneva,  Revue  Historique  de  la  Revolution 
Franchise  et  de  l'Empire,  1920,  pp.  xv,  730,  15  fr.)  This  is  an  elaborate 
biography  of  a  character  who  played  an  important  part  in  European 
politics  in  the  period  of  revolution  and  restoration,  and  whose  activities 
were  marked  with  distinction  by  more  than  one  government.  Starting 
as  an  agitator  for  the  freedom  of  Geneva  from  the  domination  of 
France  and  of  local  aristocracy,  he  suffered  exile  in  the  first  disasters 
of  that  movement,  but  eventually  he  was  called  into  the  counsels  of  the 
allied  powers,  and  afterward  occupied  high  official  position  in  his 
native  country. 

As  a  publicist  his  writings  on  political  and  economic  questions  at- 
tracted such  wide  attention  that  his  views  were  either  sought  or  op- 
posed,  not  only  in   Switzerland,   but   in   England,    France,   Russia,   and 


150  Reviews  of  Books 

Spain,  while  his  historical  reviews  of  conditions  in  his  own  day  furnish 
valuable  material  for  the  investigator  of  that  period. 

Picturesque,  in  fact,  are  some  of  the  plans  which  he  advanced  for 
the  relief  of  Geneva  from  reactionary  control.  One  was  a  colony  of  the 
oppressed  to  be  planted  under  the  British  flag  at  Waterford,  Ireland. 
The  corner-stone  was  laid  but  the  scheme  met  with  political  opposition, 
as  well  as  internal  difficulties,  and  came  to  naught.  Thoughts  of  going 
to  Canada,  likewise,  had  no  result,  and  the  events  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution swept  him  into  their  current. 

His  acts  and  his  writings  on  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Geneva 
marked  him  for  reactionary  attack,  and  it  was  in  the  depths  of  this  that 
he  proposed  to  move  the  whole  University  of  Geneva  to  America.  The 
story  of  his  connection  with  Jefferson  and  others  in  this  enterprise  has 
been  frequently  related,  but  interesting  light  is  furnished  by  a  long 
letter  to  Adams,  here  printed,  in  which  complete  details  of  the  proposed 
organization  are  given.  The  author  rather  belittles  the  importance  of 
the  scheme  and  magnifies  the  coolness  of  the  Americans,  but  the  docu- 
ments quoted  do  not  warrant  such  an  attitude. 

For  his  services  as  diplomatic  agent  and  financial  adviser,  d'lvernois 
received  from  the  English  government  the  title  which  gives  the  rather 
unusual  combination  in  his  name.  His  pecuniary  rewards  were  not 
large,  and  the  connection  subjected  him  to  attack  by  the  parliamentary 
opposition.  The  importance  of  the  public  matters  in  which  he  was 
engaged  is  revealed  in  the  extensive  bibliography  appended  to  this 
work.  The  wide  international  character  of  his  labors  justifies  this 
biographical  account  of  the  history  of  the  period. 

J.  M.  Vincent. 

David  Urquhart:  Some  Chapters  in  the  Life  of  a  Victorian  Knight- 
Errant  of  Justice  and  Liberty.  By  Gertrude  Robinson.  (Boston  and 
New  York,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1920,  pp.  xii,  328,  $5.00.)  David 
Urquhart  was  one  of  those  Englishmen  who  go  crusading  for  oppressed 
peoples  and  forlorn  causes.  A  volunteer  in  the  Greek  war  of  inde- 
pendence, he  was  later  appointed  secretary  of  embassy  at  Constantinople, 
where,  by  learning  Turkish  and  adopting  the  Turkish  manner  of  living. 
he  won  the  confidence  of  the  Porte,  and  negotiated  the  draft  of  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  terms  very  favorable  to  England.  But  his  chiefs 
did  not  take  kindly  to  his  methods,  dispensed  with  his  services,  and 
accepted  a  less  advantageous  treaty.  Urquhart  attributed  his  dismissal 
to  Russian  intrigues.  Henceforth  he  regarded  the  Slavic  power  as  the 
enemy  of  European  civilization,  which  it  aimed  to  undermine  by  revolu- 
tion as  the  prelude  to  Russian  domination.  For  forty  years  Russia 
played  in  Urquhart's  mind  the  role  that  a  later  generation  assigned  to 
Germany,  and  he  repeatedly  urged  the  necessity  of  a  European  combi- 
nation to  resist  the  advance  of  Muscovite  diplomacy. 

To  his  contemporaries  Urquhart  was  a  strange  figure.     He  believed 


Minor  Notices  151 

Palmerston  to  be  a  Russian  agent.  He  opposed  the  Crimean  War, 
arguing  that  the  Turks  were  more  than  a  match  for  their  enemies, 
but  were  being  made  the  tools  of  England  and  France.  With  the 
policy  of  Cavour  he  had  no  sympathy,  and  he  devoted  infinite  energy  to 
the  cause  of  the  papacy,  whose  aid  he  invoked,  at  the  Vatican  Council, 
for  the  rehabilitation  of  public  law.  Urquhart,  in  short,  set  himself 
against  all  the  great  movements  of  his  century,  without  being  able,  in 
spite  of  his  remarkable  knowledge  of  European  politics  and  an  active 
propaganda,  to  stem  the  march  of  events. 

Yet  he  is  an  interesting  figure.  An  ardent  champion  of  justice  be- 
tween nations,  he  was  ever  protesting  against  international  wrongdoing, 
displaying  all  the  idealism  of  Woodrow  Wilson.  His  effort  to  organize 
foreign  affairs  committees  among  English  workingmen  anticipated  by 
half  a  century  the  Union  of  Democratic  Control;  in  his  detestation  of 
secret  diplomacy  he  was  the  forerunner  of  E.  D.  Morel ;  his  exposition 
of  the  connection  between  national  prosperity,  diplomacy,  and  war  has 
some  resemblance  to  the  teaching  of  Norman  Angell.  He  early  per- 
ceived the  danger  latent  in  Prussian  statecraft,  and  he  predicted  a  Euro- 
pean conflagration  unless  a  limit  were  set  to  increasing  armaments. 

Miss  Robinson  has  written,  not  a  full-fledged  biography  of  this 
remarkable  man,  but  a  series  of  studies  of  his  varied  activities,  in  a 
tone  of  exhalted  enthusiasm  that  at  times  becomes  oppressive;  nor 
is  the  material,  much  of  which  is  new,  always  well  organized.  But  if 
she  recognizes  the  mysticism,  the  obsession  of  Russia,  the  faults  of 
temper  which  often  handicapped  his  work,  she  leaves  no  doubt  that  he 
was  unappreciated  by  a  materialistic  age.  Her  account  supplements 
rather  than  replaces  the  article  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 
Bernardotte  E.  Schmitt. 

Ledru-Rollin  apres  1848  ct  les  Proscrits  Franqais  en  Angleterre.  Par 
Alvin  R.  Caiman,  A.B.,  M.A.  (Paris,  F.  Rieder  et  Cie.,  1921,  pp.  306, 
15  fr.)  In  the  history  of  French  republicanism  the  brief  and  troubled 
career  of  the  Second  Republic  is  as  instructive  as  the  more  solid  achieve- 
ments of  the  Third  Republic.  In  France  a  group  of  scholars  has  been 
making  the  history  of  the  Revolution  of  1848  and  of  the  Second  Re- 
public a  special  field  of  investigation.  The  present  volume  is  not  the 
first  evidence  that  American  scholars  also  are  working  fruitfully  in  this 
field.  The  author's  principal  theme  is  the  long  exile  of  Ledru-Rollin, 
minister  of  the  interior  in  the  February  government,  candidate  for  the 
presidency  of  the  Republic,  and  later  leader  of  the  Montagnard  party 
in  the  assembly.  He  also  deals  with  the  other  French  exiles  in  England, 
chiefly  in  their  relations  with  Ledru.  He  has  faced  the  difficult  task — 
and,  be  it  said,  successfully — of  keeping  the  reader's  interest  in  a 
sequence  of  futile  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  exile  Montagnard  to  retain 
the  leadership  of  his  party,  and  to  have  a  positive  influence  upon  the 
development  of  republicanism  in  France.     Ledru  was  incapable  of  ex- 


152  Reviews  of  Books 

ercising  an  apostolate  under  such  disadvantages,  because  he  was  not  a 
constructive  thinker,  but,  as  the  author  points  out,  an  opportunist,  with 
a  weakness  in  the  direction  of  versatility.  His  power  lay  in  the  spoken 
word.  Mr.  Caiman  compares  him  to  two  other  great  tribunes,  Danton 
and  Gambetta.  It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  comparison  is  just, 
for  Ledru  never  had  the  opportunity  which  momentous  circumstances 
offered  to  each  of  the  other  men. 

Twice  while  in  exile  Ledru-Rollin  entertained  the  chimerical  idea 
of  using  the  United  States  as  a  lever  to  force  on  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  Europe.  The  first  occasion  was  coincident  with  the 
Black  Warrior  affair  and  the  Ostend  Manifesto.  Mr.  Caiman  quotes 
a  letter  from  Ledru  to  George  N.  Sanders,  American  consul  general  at 
London,  suggesting  that  the  United  States  pledge  its  support  to  the 
Spanish  republicans,  braving  the  risks  of  war  with  the  old  European 
governments,  but  expecting  that  Cuba,  out  of  gratitude,  as  well  as 
influenced  by  contiguity,  would  voluntarily  apply  for  annexation.  The 
second  time  was  after  the  Civil  War,  when  the  Federal  government  was 
about  to  bring  pressure  upon  Napoleon  III.  to  withdraw  support  from 
Maximilian.  Ledru  drew  up  the  project  of  a  letter  to  President  Lincoln, 
modestly  requesting  the  Americans  to  finance  the  European  revolution- 
ists. America  would  thus  emancipate  the  democracy  of  the  Old  World, 
and  repay  the  debt  owed  to  France  since  1783. 

A  special  word  of  praise  is  due  to  the  bibliography  which  the  author 
has  appended  to  his  work.  It  is  not  a  mere  list  of  sources  and  secondary 
works,  but  contains  brief  characterizations  wherever  these  are  appro- 
priate. Among  the  periodicals  and  journals,  he  distinguishes  between 
those  which  he  has  examined  throughout  and  those  to  which  his  atten- 
tion has  been  more  cursory.  The  student  who  uses  his  work,  therefore, 
knows  exactly  what  its  documentation  is. 

Henry  E.  Bourne. 

Der  Missverstandene  Bismarck.  Von  Otto  Hammann.  (Berlin, 
Reimar  Hobbing,  1921,  pp.  204.)  To  his  earlier  volumes  of  reminiscence, 
Der  Nene  Kurs  (1918),  Zur  Vorgeschichte  des  Krieges  (1918),  and 
Um  den  Kaiser  (1919),  Hammann  has  added  a  no  less  interesting  and 
valuable  little  volume  explaining  how  Bismarck's  successors  for  twenty 
years  misunderstood  and  mismanaged  the  inheritance  which  he  left 
them  in  1890.  Germany  was  then  dominant  in  Europe  by  her  Triple 
Alliance,  by  her  secret  insurance  from  Russia,  and  by  the  painful 
isolation  of  France  and  the  splendid  isolation  of  England.  After  1890 
the  balance  began  slowly  to  change,  until,  by  1914,  Germany  in  turn 
stood  isolated,  weighed  down  by  her  Austrian  liability,  half  deserted 
by  Italy,  and  encircled  by  the  Triple  Entente.  The  great  error,  Ham- 
mann thinks,  was  not,  however,  what  has  been  so  often  reiterated — the 
breaking  down  of  the  wire  between  Berlin  and  Petrograd  and  the  per- 
mitting the  Franco-Russian  Alliance  to  come  into  being.     Though  Bis- 


Minor  Notices  153 

marck  had  always  averted  this  unpleasant  development,  it  was,  Hammann 
thinks,  inevitable,  with  the  growing  national  antagonisms  of  Slav  and 
Teuton.  The  great  error  lay  in  exaggerating  Bismarck's  supposed  insist- 
ence on  good  relations  with  Russia,  and  in  rejecting,  in  consequence, 
the  English  hand  held  out  on  several  occasions  between  1898  and  1901. 
Here  was  where  the  true  Bismarck  was  fatally  misunderstood.  Bismarck 
had  always  recognized  the  decisive  weight  of  England's  influence  when- 
ever it  should  be  cast  into  the  European  balance.  For  that  reason  he 
had  tried  to  avoid  coming  into  conflict  with  English  colonial  and  com- 
mercial interests.  In  1887,  when  Bulgarian  complications  in  the  Balkans, 
and  Boulanger  in  France,  made  Germany's  security  seem  a  little  less 
secure,  with  the  possibility  of  an  eventual  war  on  two  fronts,  the  wily 
chancellor  did  not  hesitate  to  write  to  Lord  Salisbury  seeking  an  English 
alliance.  Salisbury's  distrust  and  British  conservatism  rendered  the  Ger- 
man move  futile,  but  it  revealed  Bismarck's  true  policy  and  showed  that, 
as  usual,  he  had  a  wise  eye  to  windward.  After  1890  it  was  all  the 
more  important  that  his  successors  should  have  understood  this.  But 
they  did  not.  And  the  persons  whom  Hammann  holds  chiefly  responsible 
were  the  kaiser,  with  his  unwise  naval  policy  and  his  unhappy  interfer- 
ences in  diplomacy,  and  Holstein,  with  his  super-suspicious  theories  and 
finesse.  Though  Biilow  was  chancellor  during  the  period  of  England's 
evolution  from  isolation  into  the  Triple  Entente,  Hammann  does  not 
think  Biilow,  for  whom  he  has  much  admiration,  was  primarily  respon- 
sible. From  his  official  position  at  the  time  as  press  agent  in  the  Ger- 
man Foreign  Office,  Hammann  is  able  to  reveal  many  new  and  interest- 
ing details  about  what  went  on  behind  the  scenes  in  the  Wilhelmstrasse. 
This  volume,  written  from  a  German  point  of  view  but  with  much  moder- 
ation and  fairness,  embodies  some  of  the  material  in  his  earlier  volumes, 
but  casts  it  into  a  more  systematic  form  and  modifies  it  on  the  basis  of 
the  new  material  which  has  been  published  since  they  were  written. 

S.  B.  F. 

Das  Ausland  im  Weltkrieg :  seine  innere  Entwicklung  seit  19 14.  Band 
I.  (Halle,  Max  Niemeyer,  1920,  pp.  443.)  In  1919  there  was  given, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of  Halle,  a  series  of  lectures  on 
the  History  of  Foreign  States  since  1914.  This  course  covered  almost 
all  of  the  European  states  existing  in  1914,  with  a  lecture  on  the  present 
Austria — really  a  history  of  the  Germans  in  Austria — and  one  on  Inter- 
national Socialism.  These  lectures,  somewhat  recast  and  amplified,  form 
the  present  volume. 

The  course  was  apparently  planned  to  give  a  university  audience 
some  knowledge  of  recent  history  and  of  the  situation  existing  in  the 
various  European  states  outside  of  Germany  at  the  time  it  was  given. 
Much  water  has  passed  the  mill  since  1919,  and  the  book  suffers  accord- 
ingly. The  circumstances  of  their  delivery  prevented  any  deep  or 
detailed  treatment;  the  obvious  aim  has  been  to  present  the  general  lines 


154  Reviews  of  Books 

of  development,  and  to  explain  the  course  of  events.  But  the  lectures 
are  always  suggestive  and  will  be  certainly  informing  to  all  but  the 
most  thorough  students  of  recent  history.  The  lecturers  were  chosen, 
with  one  exception,  from  the  staffs  of  the  German  universities,  and  the 
choice  seems  to  have  been  made  with  care  and  skill.  The  dangers  from 
national  bias,  so  easy  in  the  treatment  of  recent  events,  seem  to  have 
been,  in  the  main,  avoided. 

American  students  will  probably  find  those  chapters  of  especial  value 
which  are  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  smaller  European  states,  in  view 
of  the  difficulty  of  securing  exact  information  regarding- them.  Rela- 
tively, these  chapters  are  probably  better  than  those  devoted  to  the  larger 
powers,  since  it  is  easier,  for  many  reasons,  for  a  German  lecturer  to 
give,  in  a  brief  period,  a  clear  and  unbiassed  account  of  Sweden  than  of 
England.  As  a  whole,  however,  the  book  will  fill  a  useful  place  in  the 
library  of  one  who  has  interest  in  the  recent  past  of  Europe.  Always 
suggestive,  often  informing,  this  volume  represents  sound  scholarship 
and  a  real  attempt  to  tell  the  truth  without  prejudice  or  emotion.  And 
the  idea  of  such  a  course  as  that  given  at  the  University  of  Halle  is  one 
to  be  commended  to  all  American  institutions  of  learning. 

Mason  W.  Tyler. 

Serbia  and  Europe,  1914-1020.  Edited  with  a  preface  by  Dr.  L. 
Marcovitch,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Belgrade,  Member  of  the 
Serbian  Peace  Delegation  in  Paris.  (New  York,  Macmillan  Company; 
London,  George  Allen  and  Unwin  Ltd.,  1921,  pp.  xv,  355,  $5.00.)  This 
volume  consists  of  a  collection  of  125  articles,  originally  published  in 
the  Serbian  government's  organ,  La  Serbie  (Geneva,  Switzerland), 
between  the  years  1916  and  1919.  The  editor  considers  it  "an  attempt  to 
exhibit  the  whole  policy  of  Serbia  during  the  war  ",  and  to  give  "  full 
information  about  the  chief  points  of  Serbian  policy  and  the  ideal  which 
has  guided  us  in  our  national  struggle"  (p.  v).  A  little  more  than  half 
of  the  articles  come  from  the  pen  of  the  editor,  L.  Marcovitch,  and 
there  are  contributions  from  such  writers  on  Jugoslavia  as  Novako- 
vitch,  Kuhne,  Reiss,  Vosnjak,  Voinovitch,  Popovitch,  and  Kossitch. 

The  book  is  an  able  defense  of  Serbian  foreign  policy  viewed  strictly 
from  the  Serbian  (at  times,  according  to  the  writer,  from  a  Great 
Serbian)  point  of  view.  But  one  would  be  doing  the  collection  an 
injustice  if  he  were  to  disparage  its  historical  value  for  that  reason. 
Some  of  the  matter  here  presented  is  valuable  historical  material,  some 
of  it  clever  propaganda.  This  is  in  the  nature  of  the  case.  But  both 
will  be  valuable  to  the  future  historian,  and  particularly  to  one  who 
cannot  have  access  to  the  complete  files  of  La  Serbie.  He  will,  however, 
want  to  refer  to  these  ultimately,  and  to  such  other  Jugoslav  organs  as, 
for  instance,  the  Southern  Slai'  Bulletin.  The  historian  must  seek 
more  fundamental  material  than  is  here  offered,  but  he  will  be  able  to 
find  clues  to  documents  as  yet  unpublished. 


Minor  Notices  155 

Particularly  valuable  is  the  splendid  article  by  the  Serbian  historian 
Novakovitch,  on  "  Serbia  and  the  European  War"  (pp.  7—1 1 ) ,  in  which 
not  only  moderation  but  true  historical  insight  are  shown.  The  best 
material  for  the  historian  is  to  be  found  in  the  chapters  on  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Bulgaria,  where  frequently  the  authors  write  from  first- 
hand material.  Though  often  bitterly  written — something  which  is  to 
be  expected  under  the  circumstances — they  cast  much  light  on  hitherto 
obscure  points.  Here  the  historian  will  find  a  number  of  important 
clues  which  it  will  pay  to  follow  up. 

No  future  historian,  no  matter  how  much  he  may  disagree  with 
Serbia's  policy,  will  be  able  to  obscure  the  imperishable  record  in  which, 
"betrayed  by  King  Constantine's  Greece,  abandoned  by  Roumania, 
in  spite  of  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  of  1913,  Serbia  preferred  her  Calvary 
of  Albania  and  wandering  exile  to  the  acceptance  of  a  shameful  peace  " 
(P-  336). 

RORERT   J.    KERNER. 

La  Bataille  devant  Souville.  Par  Henri  Bordeaux,  de  l'Academie 
Franchise.  [Les  Cahiers  de  la  Victoire.]  (Paris,  La  Renaissance  du 
Livre,  1921,  pp.  243,  7  fr.)  La  Bataille  devant  Souville  is  the  second 
part  of  that  interesting  trilogy  by  Henri  Bordeaux  which  recalls  the 
tragic  and  glorious  days  of  the  defense  of  Verdun.  The  first  and  the 
third  have  already  appeared  under  the  titles  Derniers  Jours  du  Fort 
de  Vaux  and  Captifs  Delivres.  We  have  thus  a  consecutive  narrative, 
of  high  literary  quality  and  of  real  historical  worth,  of  one  of  the 
most  thrilling  episodes  in  the   annals  of  modern  warfare. 

Few  men  were  better  qualified  than  Henri  Bordeaux  to  undertake 
this  task.  A  writer  of  distinction,  who  has  met  personally  the  principal 
actors  of  the  great  drama,  who  visited  every  mile  of  the  shell-torn 
battlefield  and  witnessed  many  of  the  military  operations  of  that  period, 
could  not  fail  to  produce  a  work  of  genuine  merit. 

The  book  is  divided  into  two  sections.  The  first,  combining  in  a 
remarkable  degree  the  qualities  of  the  litterateur  and  of  the  historian, 
gives  a  moving  and  dramatic  description,  but  historically  accurate 
throughout,  of  the  repeated  assaults  against  the  last  fort  which  stood 
in  the  way  of  the  German  forces  in  their  march  to  Verdun.  The  second 
section  is  a  valuable  military  document,  presenting,  with  a  most  in- 
structive wealth  of  detail,  'the  whole  plan  of  German  and  French  op- 
erations about  the  coveted  city. 

Satisfactory  though  it  be  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  general 
reader,  this  work,  like  all  the  others  so  far  published,  is  rather  a  disap- 
pointment to  the  soldier  who  has  lived  those  trying  days  as  a  combatant. 
M.  Bordeaux  himself  would  admit  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to 
draw  a  true  picture  of  the  appalling  scenes  of  destruction  and  of 
carnage  that  took  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and  impossible  as 
well,  adequately  to  describe  the  tenacity,  the  endurance,  the  courage, 


156  Reviews  of  Books 

and  the  heroism  of  the  struggling  hosts  of  young  men  of  both  nations. 
Only  a  Dante,  become  an  historian,  could  do  justice  to  the  battle  of 
Verdun. 

Paul  Perigord. 

Japan  en  de  Buitenwereld  in  de  Achttiende  Eeuw.  Door  Dr.  J. 
Feenstra  Kuiper.  (The  Hague,  Martinus  Nijhoff,  1921,  pp.  xx,  330, 
9.60  gld.)  Even  well-read  Americans  often  cherish  the  belief  that 
Admiral  Perry  opened  to  the  world  a  hermetically  sealed  kingdom  when 
his  cannon  knocked  so  rudely  at  Japan's  portals  in  1853.  But  this,  like 
most  highly  dramatic  versions  of  history,  is  only  relatively  true.  Doc- 
tor Kuiper's  volume  is  an  exhaustive  study  of  one  period  of  Holland's 
commerce  with  Japan,  which  continued  practically  uninterrupted  from 
the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  in  1624,  until  our  ar- 
rival. The  book  is  intended  to  fill  the  gap  between  Nachod's  Die 
Beziehungen  der  Niederlandischen  Ost-Indischen  Compagnie  su  Japan 
im  iyten  Jahrhundert  and  Van  der  Chys's  Neerlands  Streven  tot  Open- 
stclling  van  Japan  voor  de  Wercldhandel,  and  records  an  interesting  and 
not  unimportant  chapter  in  the  history  of  Far  Eastern  commerce. 

Incidentally,  the  book  contains  a  competent  study  of  Japan  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  based  not  only  upon  already  familiar  sources  in  the 
Japanese  and  European  languages,  but  also  upon  Holland's  rich  archive 
materials.  The  author  has  grouped  his  text  into  four  sections :  the 
world  without  Japan  in  the  eighteenth  century,  particularly  the  world 
of  regulated  trade  and  the  commercial  companies  doing  business  in  the 
Orient;  the  Japanese  world  of  the  same  period,  including  its  social, 
political,  and  religious  as  well  as  its  economic  institutions  and  customs; 
a  history  of  trade  between  Holland  and  Japan;  contemporary  knowledge 
of  Japan  in  Europe;  and  contemporary  knowledge  of  Europe  in  Japan. 
An  excellent  classified  bibliography,  several  statistical  appendixes,  giving 
data  upon  the  currency,  and  the  character,  volume,  and  value  of  mer- 
chandise handled,  shipping-lists,  an  index,  and  seven  contemporary 
Japanese  illustrations  of  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki  and  ceremonial 
incidents  in  the  intercourse  of  the  two  nations,  conclude  the  volume. 

Most  of  the  new  material  is  in  the  135  pages  describing  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Dutch  company  in  Japan.  What  is  told  of  the  organization 
and  methods  of  the  company  will  be  familiar  to  students  of  eighteenth- 
century  colonial  commerce.  But  the  diplomatic  aspects  of  the  company's 
activities  are  more  novel.  Particularly  prophetic  was  the  intense  curi- 
osity which  the  Japanese  of  that  period  displayed  in  respect  to  the 
practical  knowledge  and  arts  of  the  West.  Even  the  shogun  sometimes 
disguised  himself  and  mingled  informally  with  the  Dutch  delegations 
visiting  Yeddo.  There  is  much  that  is  picturesque  and  entertaining 
interspersed  with  the  solid  information  which  the  book  contains. 

Victor  S.  Clark. 


Minor  Notices  157 

Christoph  von  Graffcnricd's  Account  of  the  Founding  of  New  Bern. 
Edited  with  an  Historical  Introduction  and  an  English  Translation  by 
Vincent  H.  Todd,  Ph.D.,  University  of  Illinois,  in  co-operation  with 
Julius  Goebel,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Germanic  Languages,  University  of 
Illinois.  [Publications  of  the  North  Carolina  Historical  Commission.] 
(Raleigh,  the  Commission,  1920,  pp.  434.)  In  this  volume  Dr.  Todd 
gives  us  in  his  historical  introduction  a  very  satisfactory  and  com- 
plete account  of  the  first  German  colony  that  reached  North  Carolina, 
in  the  year  1710.  In  the  opening  chapters  of  the  book  the  author 
traces  the  causes  that  led  to  the  great  German  exodus  of  the  year  1709, 
when  between  10,000  and  15,000  German  emigrants  came  to  England. 
He  shows  that  this  German  emigration  coincided  with  a  Swiss  coloniza- 
tion scheme,  of  which  Francis  Louis  Michel  and  George  Ritter  were 
the  chief  promoters.  In  May,  1710,  the  George  Ritter  Land  Company 
was"  formed,  and  under  its  auspices  650  Palatines  and  about  120  Swiss 
settlers  were  sent  to  North  Carolina.  On  the  basis  of  Graffenried's 
accounts,  the  author  traces  the  journey  of  these  colonists  to  North 
Carolina,  their  settlement  at  the  junction  of  the  Trent  and  Neuse  rivers, 
their  trying  experiences  and  pitiful  condition  in  their  new  settlement, 
and  finally  the  massacre  of  many  of  the  settlers  by  the  Indians  in  the 
fall  of  1711.  Through  the  failure  of  his  associates  Graffenried  was 
forced  to  leave  North  Carolina  in  September,  1712,  and  the  colony 
was  left  to  its  own  fate. 

Part  III.  of  the  introduction  treats  of  the  Graffenried  manuscripts. 
In  this  section  of  his  book  the  author  is  less  satisfactory,  for  he 
gives  but  a  fragmentary  and  incomplete  statement.  We  hear  nothing 
about  the  exact  location,  extent,  and  condition  of  the  manuscripts,  al- 
though Professor  A.  B.  Faust,  of  Cornell  University,  in  his  Guide  to 
the  Materials  for  American  History  in  Swiss  and  Austrian  Archives, 
published  in  1916,  has  given  an  exact  and  detailed  account  as  to  where 
the  originals  are  found,  and  what  their  relation  to  each  other  is. 

In  the  main  part  of  the  book  Dr.  Todd  publishes  the  complete  German 
text  of  Graffenried's  account  of  his  adventures,  together  with  a  good 
English  translation,  and  also  parts  of  the  French  text  (with  translation) 
which  differ  from  the  Yverdun  MS.,  published  in  the  Colonial  Records 
of  North  Carolina.  Whether  it  was  necessary  to  print  these  texts,  after 
both  had  before  been  printed  in  fjill  by  Professor  Faust,  may  well  be 
questioned,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  Professor  Faust's  publi- 
cation is  the  more  accurate. 

Dr.  Todd  concludes  his  book  with  a  useful  glossary  of  the  more 
difficult  Swiss  words,  which  will  prove  very  helpful  to  those  who  wish 
to  read  the  original.  A  detailed  index  adds  much  to  the  value  of  the 
book. 

Papers  of  the  American  Society  of  Church  History.  Edited  by 
Frederick   William   Loetscher,    Secretary.      Second   series,   volume   VI. 


158  Reviews  of  Books 

(New  York  and  London,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1921,  pp,  xxxvi, 
240.)  In  addition  to  minutes  and  reports  of  meetings,  the  sixth 
volume  of  Papers  of  the  American  Society  of  Church  History  contains 
four  valuable  contributions  to  knowledge.  A  presidental  address  by 
Edward  Payson  Johnson,  on  Protestant  Missionary  Work  among  the 
Indians  in  the  eighteenth  century,  on  the  part  of  Dutch  Reformed,  Con- 
gregationalists,  Moravians,  and  Friends,  serves  to  correct  the  popular 
notion  of  a  lack  of  missionary  zeal  in  colonial  times.  This  interesting 
summary  excites  desire  for  a  complete  and  detailed  monograph.  The 
social  character  of  the  good  old  days  may  be  measured  partly  by  the 
conflict  between  these  missions  and  the  missionary  interests  of  traders 
and  exploiters.  Professor  Johnson  has  not  used  the  correspondence 
of  Jonathan  Edwards.  From  another  source  he  alleges  that  John ' 
Sergeant,  the  missionary  at  Housatonic,  "  in  three  years  began  to 
preach  in  the  Indian  tongue,  and  two  years  later  had  so  far  mastered 
it  that  the  Indians  often  said :  '  Our  minister  speaks  our  language  better 
than  we  can  speak  it'".  On  the  other  hand,  Edwards  (D wight's  Life, 
p.  523)  writes  that  "  Mr.  Sergeant,  after  fourteen  years'  study,  had  never 
been  able  to  preach  in  it,  nor  even  to  pray  in  it  except  by  a  form,  and 
had  often  expressed  the  opinion  that  his  successor  ought  not  to  trouble 
himself  in  learning  the  language."  The  profitable  question  as  to  lack 
of  missionary  results  is  not  unrelated  to  some  details  of  this  sort. 

Another  presidential  address,  by  Professor  David  Schaff,  on  the 
Council  of  Constance :  its  Fame  and  its  Failure,  is  an  admirable  ex- 
pansion of  the  general  student's  knowledge  with  an  interesting  dis- 
cussion of  the  significance  of  the  council  in  the  perspectives  of  church 
history. 

The  most  extensive  and  original  contribution  is  by  William  O. 
Shewmaker,  on  the  Training  of  the  Protestant  Ministry  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  before  the  Establishment  of  Theological  Seminaries. 
This  important  paper  exhibits  the  curriculum  and  method  of  Dutch 
and  English  universities  and  of  the  American  colleges  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  A  fresh  fact  brought  to  light  is  the  remarkable 
participation  of  ministers  in  the  science  of  medicine. 

The  final  paper,  by  Professor  Patrick  J.  Healy,  on  Recent  Activities 
of  Catholic  Historians,  is  an  invaluable  guide  to  the  knowledge  of 
periodical  literature,  source  and  documentary  publication,  and  treatises 
of  eminence  from  scholars  of  the  Roman  church.  May  it  rouse  the 
emulation  of  Protestants. 

Publications  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society.  Edited  by  Frank  H. 
Severance,  Secretary  of  the  Society.  Volume  XXIV.  (Buffalo,  the 
Society,  1920,  pp.  x,  415,  $4.00.)  The  volume  under  review  is  devoted 
principally  to  a  History  of  the  Buffalo  Creek  Reservation,  by  Frederick 
Houghton.  The  Buffalo  Creek  Reservation  was  located  along  the 
stream  of  that  name,  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  city  of  Buffalo 


Minor  Notices  159 

and  adjacent  parts  of  Erie  Count)'.  The  tract  was  the  largest  of 
several  parcels  of  land  reserved  by  the  Seneca  Indians,  in  1797,  when 
they  sold  their  remaining  holdings  in  western  New  York  to  Robert 
Morris  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Holland  Land  Company,  so-called. 

From  archaeological  investigations  made  by  him,  the  author  con- 
cludes that  the  region  was,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
occupied  by  the  Wenroes,  an  Iroquoian  tribe.  Soon  after  that  date  the 
Wenroes  were  defeated  and  scattered  by  the  Senecas,  who,  by  the  end 
of  the  same  century,  had  come  into  possession  of  the  whole  of  western 
New  York.  Upon  the  destruction  of  the  Seneca  towns  along  the 
Genesee  and  in  the  Finger  Lakes  district  by  Sullivan's  expedition,  in 
1779,  the  refugees  fled  to  the  Niagara  frontier  and  a  considerable  num- 
ber joined  their  fellow-tribesmen  on  the  banks  of  Buffalo  Creek,  where 
the  white  land-agents  found  them  in  1797.  The  study  reviews  the  steps 
by  which  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Seneca  lands  passed  to  New  York,  and 
the  title  to  the  soil,  save  for  the  reservations,  to  Phelps  and  Gorham, 
Robert  Morris,  and  the  Holland  Company. 

For  two  decades  the  reservation  at  Buffalo  Creek  was  the  home 
of  the  largest  group  of  the  Senecas  as  well  as  of  groups  from  other  Iro- 
quoian tribes,  and  a  few  Algonquins.  As  early  as  1810  the  project  of 
a  removal  to  western  lands  was  agitated  among  the  Senecas,  and  lands 
were  provided  for  them  by  the  United  States  government,  first  in 
Wisconsin  and  later  in  the  Indian  Territory.  By  treaties  ratified  in 
1838  and  1842  the  Buffalo  Creek  and  Tonawanda  reservations  were 
sold  to  grantees  of  the  Holland  Company,  leaving  to  the  Indians  only 
the  Alleghany  and  Cattaraugus  reservations,  which  are  still  in  the 
possession   of   their   descendants. 

The  study  is  the  narrative  of  a  stage  in  the  eclipse  of  a  once- 
powerful  people  and  of  an  episode  in  the  acquisition  of  the  soil  of 
western  New  York  by  the  white  man.  The  work  bears  evidence  of 
original  research,  especially  with  respect  to  the  archaeology  of  the 
region,  though  there  is  an  absence  of  specific  citations  of  authorities. 

Frank  G.  Bates. 

History  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati,  1821-1021.  By  Rev.  John 
H.  Lamott,  S.T.D.,  Licencie  es  Sciences  Morales  et  Historiques,  Lou- 
vain.  (Cincinnati,  Frederick  Pustet  Company,  1921,  pp.  xxiii,  430, 
$4.00.)  This  commemorative  volume  is  a  distinct  contribution  to  the 
religious  history  of  the  United  States.  The  subject-matter  is  in  itself 
important,  for  the  diocese  of  Cincinnati  at  one  time  comprised  the 
entire  Old  Northwest,  and  its  development  therefore  coincides  with  the 
expansion  of  population  into  that  region. 

The  author  very  wisely  has  regarded  the  archdiocese  as  a  unit,  not 
merely  as  an  aggregate  of  local  parishes,  and  thus,  while  making  an 
effort  to  include  the  names  of  all  who  have  had  a  part  in  the  work  of 
building  up  the  church  during  the  past  century,  he  has  relegated  these 


160  Reviews  of  Books 

lists  of  names  to  a  well-arranged  appendix  instead  of  allowing  them  to 
encumber  the  narrative.  The  first  part  of  the  book  gives  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  four  bishops  and  archbishops  who  have  occupied  the  see;  the 
second,  which  contains  some  very  good  maps,  follows  the  changes  in 
its  geographical  boundaries ;  and  the  third  summarizes  the  social  and 
educational  work  that  has  been  accomplished.  The  treatment,  therefore, 
is  chronological,  geographical,  and  institutional.  In  accounting  for  the 
remarkable  growth  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  during  the  half- 
century  following  the  organization  of  the  diocese,  such  human  agencies 
as  railroads,  canals,  and  highways  are  taken  into  consideration,  and 
the  growth  of  that  church  at  certain  periods  is  compared  with  the  de- 
velopment  of   other  denominations. 

The  book  throughout  gives  evidence  of  critical  scholarship  and  of 
the  fair-mindedness  of  a  trained  historian.  The  author  has  rendered 
a  real  service  in  correcting  erroneous  statements  found  in  earlier  church 
histories,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  oft-repeated  assertion  that  an 
ordinance  of  the  city  of  Cincinnati  compelled  the  Catholics  to  build  their 
first  church  in  the  diocese  outside  the  city  limits.  After  diligent  search 
through  municipal  records  no  evidence  that  such  an  ordinance  had  ever 
been  passed  could  be  discovered,  and  the  author  therefore  reaches  the 
conclusion  that  the  choice  of  a  site  outside  the  city  must  have  been 
dictated  by  other  considerations.  Equally  fair-minded  is  the  discussion 
of  the  financial  catastrophe  which  overwhelmed  the  archdiocese  in  the 
1870's  and  of  the  bankruptcy  proceedings  growing  out  of  it.  Indeed, 
the  entire  chapter  on  ecclesiastical  property  casts  much  light  upon  a 
phase  of  American  history  which  is  not  generally  understood.  The 
bibliography  includes  secular  as  well  as  religious  sources,  and  the  book 
is  provided  with  an  excellent  index. 

Martha  L.  Edwards. 

The  University  of  Michigan.  By  Wilfred  Shaw,  General  Secretary 
of  the  Alumni  Association,  and  Editor  of  the  Michigan  Alumnus.  (New 
York,  Harcourt,  Brace,  and  Howe,  1920,  pp.  349,  $4.00.)  This  handsome 
volume  is  not  designed  by  the  author  as  a  history  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  but  as  a  general  survey  of  the  university's  development.  The 
intent  has  been  to  set  forth  the  chief  incidents,  personalities,  efforts,  and 
enterprises  in  the  past  life  of  this  notable   seat  of  learning. 

The  volume  deals  with  the  foundation  of  the  university,  its  early 
days  and  first  administrations,  of  Presidents  Tappan,  Haven,  Angell, 
and  Hutchins,  and  with  C.  K.  Adams,  Andrew  D.  White,  Henry  S.  Frieze, 
Charles  Gayley,  Elisha  Jones,  the  Cooleys,  and  other  great  teachers  who 
have  given  Michigan  standing  and  fame  in  the  university  world.  The 
author  reveals  to  his  readers  the  life  of  town  and  campus,  the  student 
activities,  the  fraternities,  the  work  of  the  professional  schools,  and 
athletics;  due  consideration  is  also  given  to  the  services  of  the 
alumni,  and  the  work  of  the  university  in  times  of  war.     The  volume 


Minor  A'oticcs  161 

is  a  highly  creditable  tribute  to  Mr.  Shaw's  alma  mater,  written  in  an 
attractive  style,  well  executed  and  well  printed,  and  it  will,  no  doubt, 
be  received  by  all  former  students  of  Michigan  with  deep  appreciation. 
The  volume  is  well  indexed,  and  its  copious  illustrations  will  recall  many 
pleasant  scenes  and  happy  days  to  the  many  men  and  women  who  have 
had  the  privilege  of  spending  their  college  days  in  Ann  Arbor. 

J.   A.    W. 

The  Story  of  Chautauqua.  By  Jesse  Lyman  Hurlbut,  D.D.  .(New 
York  and  London,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1921,  pp.  xxv,  429,  $2.50.) 
The  "  Chautauqua  Movement ",  inaugurated  in  1873  by  Lewis  Miller 
and  Dr.  John  H.  Vincent,  layman  and  clergyman  respectively  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Sunday-School 
Board  of  that  denomination,  has  been  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
typical  developments  in  American  religious  and  cultural  life  of  the  last 
half-century  and  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  from  students  of  Ameri- 
can history.  The  present  volume,  by  Bishop  Vincent's  successor,  is 
the  reminiscent  story  of  one  who  has  had  a  leading  part  in  the  conduct 
of  the  "  movement "  since  1875.  It  abounds  in  anecdotes,  in  kindly 
personalities,  and  in  realistic  accounts  of  meetings,  events,  and  occasions, 
although  in  the  later  chapters,  where  considerations  of  space  have  evi- 
dently made  themselves  felt,  the  style  becomes  rather  annalistic. 

The  meetings  at  Chautauqua  had  their  origin  in  an  effort  to  advance 
religious  education  in  the  Sunday-school  through  the  intensive  training 
of  teachers.  They  were,  in  their  field  and  time,  a  sort  of  prototype  of 
the  "  Plattsburg  idea".  The  broadening  of  their  scope  and  purpose 
was  rapid;  in  1878  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle  was 
organized,  the  first  book  prescribed  for  reading  being  John  Richard 
Green's  Short  History  of  the  English  People.  In  the  following  year 
the  summer  schools  for  secular  instruction  were  inaugurated,  and  the 
practice  of  securing  distinguished  lecturers  on  historical,  literary,  scien- 
tific, and  other  topics  received  that  extension  which  has  made  it  one  of 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Chautauqua  programme.  Later,  other 
assemblies,  to  the  number  of  nearly  a  hundred,  came  into  being  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  All  were  modelled  more  or  less  closely 
upon  the  original  Chautauqua  and  some  were  loosely  affiliated  with  it. 
Most  of  them  have  now  disappeared  and  their  places  have  been  taken 
by  the  "  Chautauqua  circuits "  which  form  the  International  Lyceum 
and  Chautauqua  Association.  These  extraneous  developments,  how- 
ever, have  no  organic  connection  with  the  original  Chautauqua  and  are 
passed  over  lightly  as  being  outside  the  scope  of  the  author's  story. 

It  would  be  unfair  to  examine  a  book  of  this  type  too  closely  for 
the  accuracy  of  all  its  statements  of  fact.  Doubtless  it  is  adequate, 
but  the  reader  is,  nevertheless,  a  little  disturbed  to  find  in  the  first 
chapter  that  fitienne  Briile  was  on  the  Ohio  in  161 5,  which  would  have 
made  him  the  discoverer  of  that  river,  and  to  learn  that  La  Salle  was 

AMER.HIST.  REV.  VOL.  XXVII. —  II. 


162  Reviews  of  Books 

on  Lake  Chautauqua  in  1630,  which  was  thirteen  years  before  he  was 
born.  However,  the  student  will  not  use  the  volume  as  a  repertory  of 
facts;  for  him  its  chief  and  great  value  will  consist  in  its  authoritative 
rendering  of  the  atmosphere  and  spirit  of  the  Chautauqua  institution, 
especially  in  its  earlier  days. 

W.  G.  L. 

The  Development  of  the  Leeward  Islands  under  the  Restoration, 
1660-1688:  a  Study  of  the  Foundations  of  the  Old  Colonial  System.  By 
C.  S.  S.  Higham,  M.A.  (Cambridge,  the  University  Press,  1921,  pp. 
xiii,  266,  $9.00.)  This  elaborate  and  scholarly  account  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  will  be  welcomed  by  students  of 
colonial  policy  and  the  history  of  British  trade.  Readers  who  have 
already  succumbed  to  romantic  prepossessions  about  Caribbee  Islands 
will  perhaps  be  vexed  at  its  prosaic  tenor,  as  Henry  Adams  was  vexed 
at  Tahiti  for  being  a  real  place.  The  Leeward  Islands  in  the  seventeenth 
century  were  assuredly  not  the  "  western  islands "  of  Apollo's  bards, 
but  struggling  frontier  communities,  whose  invincible  parochialism  stood 
in  the  way  of  progress.  They  existed  in  a  wobbling  equilibrium  between 
Devil  and  deep  sea:  between  intense  localism  and  dangerous  isolation; 
between  danger  from  the  Indians  and  danger  from  the  French ;  between 
the  interests  of  the  merchants  and  those  of  the  planters;  between  the 
islands'  governors — often  the  unworthy  favorites  of  unworthy  minis- 
ters— and  the  well-meaning  interference  of  the  Lords  of  Trade,  whose 
point  of  view  was  at  best  English  and  at  worst  European. 

The  first  half  of  the  book  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  complications 
ensuing  to  the  islands  from  European  wars  and  alliances.  Of  these 
complications  the  most  important  is  the  experience  of  St.  Christopher, 
whose  division  between  France  and  England  led  to  experiments  in 
neutrality  and  internationalization  not  without  interest  to-day. 

Chapters  on  the  Caribs,  the  labor  problem,  sugar,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  islands  make  up  the  second  and  weightier  part  of  the  book. 
In  general,  the  Restoration  policies  of  more  stringent  governmental  and 
legal  supervision  with  stricter  control  of  trade,  which  set  their  mark 
on  the  seaboard  colonies  to  the  north,  were  followed  also  in  the  case 
of  the  Leeward  Islands.  On  the  part  of  the  islands  there  is  the  same 
expertness  in  protest  and  evasion.  After  the  lamentable  failure  of  Sir 
Charles  Wheler,  the  government  of  the  islands  fell  by  good  fortune 
to  Sir  William  Stapleton,  whose  memory  is  here  deservedly  rescued 
from  oblivion.  He  was  a  genial  Irish  soldier  of  fortune,  picturesque 
in  speech,  and  blessed  with  so  rare  an  administrative  gift  that  he  was 
able  to  govern  four  islands  for  fourteen  years  not  only  acceptably  to 
the  islanders  but  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  home  authorities  as  well. 

For  his  materials  Mr.  Higham  has  ransacked  the  Record  Office  and 
the  great  manuscript  collections  in  England,  and  has  discovered  a  few 
disjecta  membra  in  private  possession.     The  mass  of  his   facts  comes 


Minor  Notices  163 

from  official  correspondence,  Treasury  and  trade  statistics,  and  the 
records  of  the  Royal  African  Company.  With  the  exceptions  of  the 
Calendar  of  State  Papers,  the  Acts  of  Assembly  of  the  islands,  and  a 
few  fairly  recent,  works  on  the  West  Indies  and  on  colonial  policy,  there 
is  little  in  print,  as  a  carefully  annotated  bibliography  shows,  to  aid 
research  on  His  Majesty's  Leeward  Caribbee  Islands.  If  material  has 
eluded  Mr.  Higham  it  must  be  in  French  archives  and  libraries,  or  per- 
haps in  the  islands  themselves. 

Readers  will  be  appreciative  of  the  prefatory  Geographical  Note, 
which  offers  a  few  remarks  on  the  position  and  topography  of  the 
islands,  and  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  northeast  trade-wind 
in  the  history  of  the  Antilles,  recalling  the  fact — obvious  but  easy  to 
forget — that  the  sail  from  Jamaica  to  St.  Kitts  is  not  at  all  the  same 
thing  in  time  and  distance  as  the  sail  from  St.  Kitts  to  Jamaica.  Read- 
ers will  be  sorry  that  Mr.  Higham's  sketch-maps  are  not  more  inform- 
ative, i.  e.,  more  detailed. 

There  are  a  few  trifling  slips:  the  Triple  Alliance  between  England, 
the  United  Provinces,  and  Sweden  was  formed  in  1668,  not  1670  (p. 
29)  ;  the  Dutch  were  expelled  from  Brazil  in  1644-1654,  not  1661  (p. 
36)  ;   on  p.  191,  line  32,  "imported"  should  read  imposed. 

Violet  Barbour. 


HISTORICAL   NEWS 
It  would  be  a  great  favor  if  persons  having  copies  of  the  number  of 
this  journal  for  October,  1920,  which  they  do  not  need  to  retain  would 
give  or  sell  them  to  the  managing  editor. 

AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    ASSOCIATION 

The  thirty-sixth  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  As- 
sociation will  be  held  in  St.  Louis,  December  28-30.  The  Programme 
Committee,  Professor  E.  B.  Greene,  315  Lincoln  Hall,  Urbana,  Illinois, 
chairman,  announces  tentatively  the  following  outline  of  the  programme: 
The  meeting  will  open  on  Wednesday  morning,  December  28,  at  ten 
o'clock,  with  four  conferences— of  history  teachers,  of  archivists,  on 
medieval  history,  and  on  agricultural  history.  On  Wednesday  after- 
noon there  will  be  a  general  session  on  the  history  of  France  at  which 
papers  will  be  read  by  professors  F.  M.  Fling,  A.  L.  Guerard,  E.  W. 
Dow,  C.  D.  Hazen,  and  Mr.  Bernard  Fay.  The  presidential  address 
will  be  delivered  by  President  Jusserand  on  Wednesday  evening.  On 
Thursday  morning  there  will  be  three  conferences — on  ancient  history, 
on  modern  European  history,  and  on  the  recent  history  of  the  United 
States ;  in  the  afternoon  three  other  conferences  will  be  held  on  eco- 
nomic history,  on  military  history,  and  on  the  history  of  the  American 
Revolution.  In  the  evening  there  will  be  a  general  session  commemorat- 
ing the  Missouri  centennial,  at  which  papers  will  be  read  by  Messrs. 
A.  J.  Beveridge,  F.  W.  Lehman,  H.  B.  Learned,  and  F.  C.  Shoemaker. 
On  Friday  morning  there  will  be  a  conference  on  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion and  the  usual  annual  conference  of  historical  societies.  On  Friday 
noon  there  will  be  a  number  of  luncheon-conferences,  of  which  the 
following  are  now  announced:  the  Far  East,  English  institutional  his- 
tory, Hispanic  American  history,  history  of  the  Great  War,  history 
of  science,  and  colonial  history.  The  annual  business  meeting  of  the 
Association  will  be  held  at  3 130  in  the  afternoon.  The  final  session 
will  be  held  jointly  with  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association 
on  Friday  evening;  it  will  be  devoted  to  the  economic  history  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  there  will  be  papers  by  Mrs.  N.  M.  M.  Surrey, 
and  Professors  Cardinal  Goodwin,  H.  L.  Kohlmeier,  and  L.  B.  Shippee. 

Volume  I.  of  the  Annual  Report  for  1918  of  the  American  Historical 
Association  is  promised  by  the  Government  Printing  Office  for  immediate 
distribution.     The  Annual  Report  for  1919  is  in  press. 

Writings  on  American  History,  1918,  compiled  by  Miss  Grace  G. 
Griffin,  has  been  printed  as  a  supplementary  volume  to  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  Association  for  1918.  A  limited  number  of  copies  is  at  the  dis- 
(164) 


Personal  165 

posal  of  the  Association  and  will  be  distributed  to  members  upon  request, 
addressed  to  the  Assistant  Secretary,  1140  Woodward  Building,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

PERSONAL 

Joseph  Reinach,  French  journalist,  diplomat,  and  historian,  died  on 
the  18th  of  April,  1921,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five.  He  has  been  an  impor- 
tant figure  since  the  days  of  Thiers.  He  was  secretary  to  Gambetta  and 
was  his  collaborator,  confidant,  and  literary  executor.  In  addition  to 
his  public  services  as  deputy  from  1889  to  1897,  as  vice-president  of  the 
Army  Commission  in  1906  and  1910,  as  an  officer  on  the  staff  of  General 
Gallieni,  and  as  one  of  the  chief  promotors  of  the  revision  of  the  Dreyfus 
case,  he  was  a  historian  of  rare  gifts.  Among  his  important  publications 
were  Le  Ministere  Gambetta,  Histoire  et  Doctrine  (1882)  ;  La  Vie  Poli- 
tique de  Leon  Gambetta  (1918)  ;  Discours  et  Plaidoyers,  being  the  col- 
lected works  of  Gambetta  in  eleven  volumes  (1881-1885);  Histoire  de 
V Affaire  Dreyfus  (6  vols.,  1901-1908).  During  the  Great  War  he  was 
contributor  to  the  Figaro  under  the  nom  de  plume  "  Polybe  ". 

James  P.  Baxter,  Litt.D.,  president  since  1890  of  the  Maine  Historical 
Society  and  since  1899  of  the  New  England  Historic  Genealogical  So- 
ciety, author  and  editor  of  numerous  volumes  relating  to  the  early  history 
of  Maine  and  of  New  England,  died  in  Portland,  Maine,  on  May  8,  aged 
ninety  years. 

John  W.  Jordan,  LL.D.,  librarian  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Penn- 
sylvania since  1888  and  editor  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History 
and  Biography,  died  on  June  11  at  the  age  of  eighty. 

Professor  Archibald  C.  Coolidge  of  Harvard  University,  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  Editors  of  the  Review,  sailed  on  September  3  for  Russia, 
to  take  part  in  the  work  of  the  American  Relief  Administration  in  that 
country. 

Dr.  Julius  Klein,  associate  professor  of  Latin-American  history  in 
Harvard  University,  now  on  leave  of  absence,  has  been  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  of  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce. 

Dr.  James  O.  Knauss,  former  associate  professor  of  history  in  Penn- 
sylvania State  College,  has  been  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
political  science  in  the  Florida  College  for  Women,  Tallahassee. 

Baron  Sergius  A.  Korff  has  accepted  a  professorship  of  political 
science  in  the  School  of  Foreign  Service,  Georgetown  University,  and 
will  deliver  during  the  coming  winter  courses  on  modern  European  his- 
tory, Russian  history,  the  Science  of  Government,  and  the  History  of 
Diplomatic  Usages  and  Procedure. 

Mr.  R.  D.  W.  Connor  has  resigned  as  secretary  of  the  North  Carolina 
Historical  Commission  to  become  Kenan  Professor  of  History  in  the 


1 66  Historical  News 

University  of  North  Carolina.  He  has  been  succeeded  by  Dr.  D.  H. 
Hill,  who  has  been  at  work  on  a  history  of  North  Carolina  in  the  Civil 
War,  on  the  R.  H.  Ricks  Foundation,  under  the  auspices  of  the  His- 
torical Commission. 

Professor  D.  C.  Schilling  of  Monmouth  College,  Illinois,  has  accepted 
an  appointment  as  professor  of  history  in  the  Michigan  State  Normal 
College  of  Kalamazoo. 

Dr.  Everett  S.  Brown,  lecturer  in  history  at  Stanford  University,  has 
been  appointed  assistant  professor  of  political  science  in  the  University 
of  Michigan. 

The  following  promotions  are  announced  as  occurring  in  the  depart- 
ment of  history  in  the  University  of  Minnesota:  Solon  J.  Buck,  from 
associate  professor  to  a  full  professorship;  Mason  W.  Tyler  and  Lester 
B.  Shippee,  from  assistant  professors  to  associate  professors;  and  George 
M.  Stephenson,  from  an  instructor  to  an  assistant  professor. 

Professor  R.  G.  Usher  of  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  remains 
in  England  during  the  ensuing  half-year,  his  leave  of  absence  having 
been  prolonged,  and  is  occupied  with  researches  in  English  history  ot 
the  period  of  James  I. 

Dr.  Henry  S.  Lucas,  formerly  an  instructor  in  the  University  of 
Michigan,  and  Professor  J.  A.  O.  Larsen  have  been  appointed  assistant 
professors  in  the  department  of  history  in  the  University  of  Washington. 

Professor  Payson  J.  Treat  of  Stanford  University  is  delivering,  at 
the  Imperial  universities  of  Tokyo  and  Kyoto,  a  series  of  sixteen  lectures 
on  the  diplomatic  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Japan. 

Mr.  Basil  Williams,  editor  of  the  series  Makers  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  and  author  of  the  volume  on  Cecil  Rhodes  in  that  series,  and 
of  vol.  IV.  of  the  Times  History  of  the  War  in  South  Africa,  has  been 
called  to  the  chief  professorship  of  history  in  McGill  University. 

GENERAL 

About  a  hundred  and  fifty  college  presidents,  professors,  journalists, 
authors,  and  men  and  women  of  affairs  attended  the  first  session  of  the 
Institute  of  Politics  at  Williamstown.  Those  present  for  the  four  weeks 
of  work  were  generally  well  impressed  by  the  character  of  the  work 
undertaken  and  the  value  of  the  opportunity  presented.  Lectures  by 
Viscount  Bryce,  Baron  Sergius  A.  Korff,  Mr.  Stephen  Panaretoff,  Count 
Paul  Teleki,  Signor  Tommaso  Tittoni,  and  Professor  Achille  Viallate 
attracted  much  attention  and  commanded  a  varying  degree  of  interest.- 
At  another  session  the  number  of  lectures  might  well  be  reduced,  and 
arrangements  made  for  a  more  precisely  defined  type  of  subject-matter 
and  treatment. 

By  far  the  most  useful  offering  of  the  Institute  was  the  series  of 
round-table  conferences  which,  in  form,  somewhat  resembled  graduate 


General  167 

seminars.  Definite  suggestions  as  to  bibliographical  material,  reading, 
and  study  were  given  in  advance  for  each  meeting.  A  special  library 
was  available  for  each  group  of  related  conferences.  Conference  leaders 
usually  began  their  sittings  with  a  brief  lecture  on  the  subject  previously 
announced;  this  exposition  was  frequently  supplemented  by  special  re- 
ports on  certain  details  and  on  related  topics  worked  up  by  the  members 
of  the  conference  or  volunteered  by  some  "  expert ".  The  presence  of 
a  number  of  "  experts  "  gave  an  unusual  value  and  interest  to  the  general 
discussions  that  followed  these  reports.  Not  a  little  zest  was  also  af- 
forded by  the  participat'on  of  those  who  had  propaganda  to  disseminate. 
Although  no  unrestricted  opportunities  were  afforded  for  propaganda, 
all  sides  of  a  case  received  a  hearing.  The  discussions  were,  on  the 
whole,  illuminating  and  satisfactory.  Membership  in  the  conferences 
was  fairly  homogeneous,  and  the  personnel  was  well  informed,  so  that 
futile  debate  was  rare  and  most  special  pleading,  however  eminent  the 
advocate,  was  critically  appraised.  The  distinguished  lecturers  were 
frequent  contributors  to  the  round-table  discussions.  Lord  Bryce,  with 
his  astonishing  alertness  and  varied  experience,  was  an  unending  source 
of  interest  at  several  of  the  conferences. 

Professors  A.  C.  Coolidge,  C.  H.  Haskins.  R.  H.  Lord,  and  Lawrence 
Martin  conducted  two  conferences  dealing  with  problems  of  the  states 
of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  Professor  W.  L.  Westermann  was  a 
generous  contributor  at  one  of  these  conferences.  Various  aspects  of 
international  law  and  treaties  were  studied  in  conferences  led  by  Pro- 
fessors G.  G.  Wilson,  J.  S.  Reeves,  and  J.  W.  Garner.  Latin  America 
was  discussed  in  the  conference  of  Dr.  L.  S.  Rowe,  director  general  of 
the  Pan  American  Union,  and  economic  subjects,  tariffs,  and  reparations, 
in  those  led  by  Professor  F.  W.  Taussig  and  Mr.  Norman  Davis. 

On  behalf  of  the  International  Union  of  Academies,  which  is  about 
to  publish  the  complete  writings  of  Hugo  Grotius  (1 583-1645),  Pro- 
fessor A.  Eekhof  of  the  University  of  Leyden  is  endeavoring  to  locate 
any  original  letters  of  Grotius  that  may  exist  in  American  libraries  and 
collections.  Those  who  have  any  information  respecting  such  letters  are 
requested  to  communicate  with  Professor  Eekhof,  addressing  him  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  Leyden,  Holland. 

The  Reformed  Church  of  Delfshaven,  Holland,  proposes  to  erect  a 
memorial  church  by  way  of  commemorating  the  departure  of  the  Pilgrims 
from  Delfshaven  in  1620.  A  Committee  for  the  Pilgrims'  Church 
has  been  organized  for  the  purpose  of  securing  funds.  The  general 
agent  of  the  committee  for  America  is  Louis  P.  de  Boer,  5443  W.  41st 
Avenue,  Denver,  Colorado. 

The  Oxford  Architectural  and  Historical  Association,  Ashmolean 
Museum,  announces  the  theft,  in  April  last,  from  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter-in-the-East,  Oxford,  of  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  memorial  brass 
commemorating  Alderman   Richard  Atkinson  and  his  two  wives    (six- 


1 68  Historical  News 

teenth  century).  The  missing  figure  is  that  of  a  lady,  represented  as 
wearing  a  Mary  Stuart  head-dress,  ruffs  at  neck  and  wrists,  a  close- 
fitting  bodice  with  puffed  and  slashed  sleeves,  and  a  skirt  that  hangs  in 
seven  folds.  The  hands  are  joined  at  the  height  of  the  breast,  palms 
together,  and  fingers  pointing  upward.  The  brass  is  about  nineteen 
inches  high  and  six  and  one-half  inches  wide.  Information  that  may 
lead  to  its  recovery  is  desired. 

The  fourth  number  of  the  new  Revue  de  France  (May  I,  1921)  is 
given  over  to  a  commemoration  of  Napoleon. 

The  Verband  Deutscher  Geschichtslehrer  held  its  first  meeting  since 
the  war  on  the  30th  and  31st  of  March,  in  Leipzig.  Professor  Brandi 
(Gottingen)  read  a  paper,  "  Geschichte  als  Gestaltung";  Professor 
Friedrich  (Leipzig),  "  Gegenwartswert  der  Geschichtlichen  Bildung"; 
Oberlehrer  Wolf  (Leipzig),  "  Forderungen  der  Gegenwart  an  den  Ge- 
schichtsunterricht  in  der  Volksschule  ". 

A  new  historical  publication  has  appeared  in  Vienna  under  the  name 
of  Historische  Blaetter.  It  is  to  be  a  general  review,  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  history  of  the  states  which  composed  the  old  Austro-Hun- 
garian  monarchy.     Its  editor  is  Dr.  Otto  H.  Stowasser. 

The  Journal  of  Negro  History  for  July,  1921,  contains  three  articles: 
the  Material  Culture  of  Ancient  Nigeria,  by  William  L.  Hansbury;  the 
Negro  in  South  Africa,  by  David  A.  Lane,  jr.;  and  the  Baptism  of 
Slaves  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  by  William  R.  Riddell.  The  documents 
printed  in  this  issue  consist  of  the  reports  of  the  American  Convention 
of  Abolition  Societies,  with  appeals  to  Congress  and  addresses  to  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States. 

After  a  break  of  five  years,  the  Bysantinische  Zeitschrift  appears 
again.  The  last  issue  was  vol.  XXIII. ,  nos.  1  and  2,  which  appeared 
August  6,  1914.  There  is  no  break  in  the  enumeration  of  the  volumes 
or  numbers. 

History  for  July  contains  papers  on  an  Episode  in  Canon  Law 
(profits  in  cases  of  partnership,  the  decretal  Naviganti),  by  Dr.  G.  G. 
Coulton;  on  Social  Problems  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (suggestive),  by 
Mr.  C.  R.  Fay ;  and  on  the  Dominions  and  Foreign  Affairs,  by  Professor 
A.  F.  Pollard. 

A.  Heilborn  has  published  Der  Werdegang  Menschheit  und  die 
Entstehung  der  Kultur  (Stuttgart,  Bong,  1920,  pp.  xl,  392),  by  H. 
Klaatsch,  who  died  in  1916.  It  is  a  work  of  thorough-going  character, 
founded  on  anthropological  and  ethnographical  data  gathered  by  the 
author  in  Australia. 

Primitive  Society  (New  York,  Boni  and  Liveright,  pp.  428),  by  Dr. 
Robert  H.  Lowie,  associate  curator  of  the  anthropological  section  in  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  is  a  successful  attempt  to  con- 
dense into  one  volume  of  moderate  compass  the  whole  body  of  knowledge 
which  investigations  in  all  continents  have  accumulated  in  recent  years. 


General  169 

A  Text-book  of  European  Archaeology,  by  Professor  R.  A.  S.  Macal- 
ister  of  University  College,  Dublin  (Cambridge  University  Press),  will 
be  issued  in  three  volumes,  relating  respectively  to  the  palaeolithic,  neo- 
lithic, and  bronze  ages.     Of  these,  vol.  I.  will  be  published  this  autumn. 

Recent  studies  in  Wcltgcschichtc  are  Rachel's  Geschichte  der  Volker 
und  Kidturcn  vow,  Urbcginn  bis  Hcute  (Berlin,  Parey,  1920)  ;  Jaenicke's 
W  eltgeschichte  mit  Besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  der  Volkswirtschaft 
(Berlin,  Weidmann,  1920)  ;  F.  Arranz  Velarde's  Compendio  de  Historia 
de  la  Civilization  segun  las  Investigaciones  mas  Recientes  (Castile, 
Armengot,  1920,  pp.  455). 

G.  Batault  has  dealt  with  he  Problcme  Juif:  la  Renaissance  de 
I'Antisemitismc  (Paris,  Plon,  pp.  256),  the  important  sections  of  his 
work  being  devoted  to  Jewish  exclusivism;  Judaism  and  the  spirit  of 
revolt;  Judaism  and  puritanism;  nationalism  or  assimilation.  Other 
studies  in  Jewish  history  are  by  Kahn,  Die  Juden  als  Rassc  und  Kultur- 
volk  (Berlin,  Welt-Verlag,  1920),  and  by  C.  Rathjens,  Die  Juden  in 
Abcssinien  (Hamburg,  Gente,  1921,  pp.  97). 

Two  volumes  of  F.  Mourret's  Histoire  Gcncrale  dc  I'S-glise  (Paris, 
Bloud  and  Gay)  have  appeared.  Volume  II.,  Les  Peres  de  l'£glise 
(1920,  pp.  532),  covers  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  The  second  part 
of  vol.  IX.  deals  with  L'tglise  Contcmporaine  (pp.  504),  and  covers 
the  period  1879-1903.  Worthy  of  mention  also  is  Fatien's  Petite 
Histoire  de  V&glise    (Lille,  Taffin-Lefort,   1921,  pp.   120). 

Recent  studies  in  political  science  with  important  historical  bearings 
are  Le  Controle  Parlementairc  dc  la  Politique  £trangcre  en  Angletcrrc, 
en  France,  ct  aux  £tats-Unis  (Paris,  Sagot,  1921,'pp.  323),  by  S.  R. 
Chow;  Die  Grundlagcn  der  Politischen  Partcibildung  (Tubingen,  Mohr, 
1921,  pp.  vii,  181),  by  W.  Sulzbach;  Die  Diktatur:  Von  den  Anfdngen 
des  Modcmcn  Souvcranitatsgedankcns  bis  sum  Proletarischcn  Klassen- 
kampf  (Munich,  Duncker  and  Humblot,  1921,  pp.  xv,  211),  by  C. 
Schmitt-Dorotie ;  Das  Problem  der  Souveranitat  und  die  Theorie  des 
Vblkcrrechts  (Tubingen,  Mohr,  1920),  by  Kelsen. 

A  recent  study  in  comparative  history  is  J.  Hatschek's  Britisches  und 
Romisches  Weltrcich:  cine  Soziahvisscnschaftlichc  Parallelc  (Munich, 
Oldenbourg,  1921,  pp.  iii,  374),  the  first  part  of  which  deals  with  the 
civilization  of  sea-coast  countries,  his  thesis  being  that  the  political  char- 
acteristic of  such  countries  is  a  realization  that  dominium  does  not  lie 
in  imperio,  that  control  is  not  mere  physical  control.  The  second  and 
principal  section  of  the  work  makes  constitutional  administrative  com- 
parisons. 

Rene  Gillouin  has  written  Une  Nouvelle  Philosophic  de  I'Histoire 
Moderne,  in  which  he  studies  the  philosophy  of  imperialism  and  mys- 
ticism (democratic,  social,  aesthetic,  racial),  advocating  educational  re- 
form to  strengthen  democracy  against  anarchy.  In  this  branch  of 
thought  two  other  books  deserve  mention:  Der  Gcist  der  Geschichte: 


170  Historical  News 

eine  Einfiihrung  in  die  Geschichtswisscnschaft  als  Anleitung  zu  Selb- 
stdnd  (Berlin,  Der  Firn,  1920,  pp.  59),  by  W.  Nollenberg;  and  Ge- 
schichtsphilosophie  (Kempten,  Kosel,  1920),  by  Sawicki. 

The  Passing  of  the  Great  Race,  or  the  Racial  Basis  of  European 
History,  by  Madison  Grant,  has  been  republished  by  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons  (1921,  pp.  xxxiii,  476,  price  $3.50)  in  a  "fourth  revised  edition 
with  a  documentary  supplement ".  The  text  is  substantially  the  same  as 
the  original  edition  of  1916,  which  was  reviewed  in  the  issue  of  this 
journal  for  July,  1917  (XXII.  842-844).  The  chief  additional  matter 
in  this  latest  edition  is  the  "Documentary  Supplement"  (pp.  275-413), 
the  purpose  of  which  "  is  to  meet  an  insistent  demand  for  authorities  for 
the  statements  made  in  the  body  of  the  book  ".  Here  are  brought  to- 
gether references  to  authorities  with  citations  from  them,  often  of  con- 
siderable length,  and  notes  by  the  author  in  further  support  of  state- 
ments in  the  text.  The  bibliography  has  been  enlarged  to  include  works 
published  since  the  first  edition. 

Maps:  their  History,  Characteristics,  and  Uses,  by  Sir  Herbert 
George  Fordham  (Cambridge  University  Press),  is  a  little  volume  of 
lectures  delivered  before  the  teachers  of  Cambridgeshire. 

Dissertations  in  History  and  English  (University  of  Iowa  Service 
Bulletin,  vol.  V.,  no.  30)  contains  useful  suggestions  in  the  mechanics 
of  preparing  a  dissertation,  under  these  heads :  aids  to  research,  methods 
of  note-taking,  arrangement  of  material,  foot-notes,  quotations,  proper 
names,  formal  bibliography,  and  preparation  of  manuscript  for  printer. 

The  Macmillan  Company  has  published  The  Lands  of  Silence:  a 
History  of  Arctic-  and  Antarctic  Exploration,  by  S5r  Clements  R. 
Markham. 

The  Reports  of  the  Historical  Manuscripts  Commission,  by  R.  A. 
Roberts,  has  been  issued  by  Macmillan  as  no.  22  in  the  series  Helps  for 
Students  of  History. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  H.  G.  Wells,  History  for  Every- 
body (Yale  Review,  July)  ;  H.  B.  Learned,  The  Educational  Function 
of  the  National  Government  (American  Political  Science  Review,  Au- 
gust) ;  Ernst  Troeltsch,  Der  Historhche  Entwicklungsbegriff  in  der  Mod- 
crncn  Gcistes-  und  Lebensphilosophic,  II.,  Die  Marburgcr  Schule,  die 
Siidwestdeutsche  Schide,  Simmel  (Historische  Zeitschrift,  CXXIV.  3). 

ANCIENT   HISTORY 

General  review:  P.  Masson-Oursel,  Quelqnes  Ouvrages  Recents 
relatifs  a  I'Histoirc  du  Neoplatonisme  (Revue  de  Synthese  Historique, 
XXXI.  91-93). 

An  attack  on  the  theories  of  Lichtenberg  and  Kossina,  and  a  new 
theory  solving  the  Indo-Germanic  question  is  made  by  Max  Neubert  in 
Die  Dorische  Wanderung  in  ihren  Europaischcn  Zusammenhdngcn: 
das  Priihistorische  Eroffnungsstiick  cur  Indo 'Germanischen  Weltge- 
schichte  (Stuttgart,  1920). 


Ancient  History  i  7 1 

Les  Religions  de  la  Prchistoire:  I'Age  Palcolithique  (de  Brouwer  and 
Picard)  is  a  study  by  T.  Mainage,  in  which  he  states  what  can  be  learned 
of  the  earliest  religious  beliefs,  using  the  small  amount  of  material  avail- 
able. Les  Survivances  du  Cidte  Imperial  Romain,  a-propos  dcs  Rites 
Shintoistes  (Paris,  Picard,  1920,  pp.  73),  by  L.  Brehier  and  Mgr.  Batif, 
fol,  grew  out  of  the  proposal  to  require  officials  in  Japan  to  conform  to 
the  religion  of  the  emperor.  It  is  a  study  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Christians  met  a  similar  difficulty  in  the  fourth  century.  This  small 
volume  gives  a  masterly  account  of  the  imperial  cult  in  Rome  and  the 
relation  of  Christians  thereto.  R.  Reitzenstein  has  revised  his  Die  Hel- 
lenistischen  Mysterienreligionen  nach  ihren  Grundgedanken  und  Wir- 
kungen  (Leipzig,  Teubner,  1920,  viii,  268),  originally  published  in  1910. 
Beitrage  sur  Griechischen  Religionsgeschichte  (Christiania,  Dybwad, 
1920,  pp.  202)  is  by  S.  Eitrem,  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Christiania. 

Das  Alte  Agypten  (Heidelberg,  Winter,  1920)  is  the  title  of  a  new 
book  by  Wiedemann. 

The  book  by  L.  Adametz  on  Hcrknnst  und  Wanderungen  der  Ham- 
miten,  erschlossen  aits  ihren  Haustierrasscn  (Vienna,  Verlag  des  For- 
schungsinstituts  fur  Osten  und  Orient,  1920,  pp.  vii,  107)  is  said  to  be 
the  first  effort  to  found  such  a  work  on  the  study  of  breeds  of  domestic 
animals. 

C.  Autran,  in  Phenicicns:  Essai  de  Contribution  a  I'Histoire  Antique 
de  la  Meditcrrancc  (Paris,  Geuthner,  1920,  pp.  xv,  146),  submits  the 
accepted  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Phoenicians  ■  to  drastic  revision. 
His  conclusions  are  combatted  by  Professor  J.  H.  Breasted,  in  a  review 
in  Classical  Philology,  XVI.  p.  289. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  the  excellent  and  most  useful  annual 
surveys  of  production  in  Greek  and  Roman  history,  contributed  by  Mr. 
Norman  H.  Baynes  of  University  College,  London,  to  The  Year's  Work 
in  Classical  Studies,  an  organ  of  the  (English)  Classical  Association. 
The  latest  which  we  have  seen,  that  for  1918-1919,  occupies  pp.  97-176 
in  the  volume  for  that  year,  published  in  1920. 

The  Loch  Classical  Library  has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the 
second  volume  of  Mr.  Godley's  excellent  translation  of  Herodotus,  the 
tenth  (of  eleven)  of  Professor  Perrin's  Plutarch's  Lives,  a  volume  of 
Xenophon  containing  books  VI.  and  VII.  of  the  Hellenica  and  books  I., 
II.,  and  III.  of  the  Anabasis,  and  two  volumes  of  Apollodorus,  with  a 
large  commentary  by  Sir  James  G.  Frazer. 

A  contribution  to  late  Byzantine  literary  history  and  to  the  history 
of  Platonism  is  the  University  of  Chicago  dissertation  of  John  W. 
Taylor  on  Ccorgius  Gcmistus  Plctho's  Criticism  of  Plato  and  Aristotle 
(Collegiate  Press,  Menasha,  Wis.,  1921). 

Among  recent  books  on  Roman  History  may  be  mentioned  Rosen- 
berg's Einlcitung  und  Qucllcnkunde  zur  Romischcn  Geschichte  (Berlin, 


i72  Historical  News 

Weidmann,  1921);  Grosse's  Rbmische  R'lilitdrgeschichte  von  Galliemis 
bis  sum  Beginn  der  Byzantinlschen  Themenverfassung  (Berlin,  Weid- 
mann, 1920). 

A  field  of  much  interest  and  importance  is  covered  by  Mr.  W.  E. 
Heitland's  Agricola:  a  Study  of  Agriculture  and  Rustic  Life  in  the 
Greco-Roman  World  from  the  Point  of  View  of  Labour  (Cambridge 
University  Press). 

Guglielmo  Ferrero,  in  La  Ruine  de  la  Civilisation  Antique  (Paris, 
Plon,  pp.  256),  advances  the  theory  that  the  final  destruction  of  sena- 
torial authority  under  Septimius  Severus  was  the  catastrophe  from  which 
the  decline  of  the  empire  began.  The  author  sees  in  the  Great  War  a 
similar  catastrophic  breakdown  of  legitimate  authority  in  modern  civili- 
zation. 

The  sixth  and  last  volume  of  Seeck's  Geschichte  des  Untergangs  der 
Antiken  Welt  (Stuttgart,  Metzler,  1920)  has  appeared. 

A  careful  treatment  of  ancient  and  medieval  writing  by  a  competent 
author  may  be  found  in  a  book  by  A.  Mentz,  Geschichte  der  Griechisch- 
Rbmischen  Schrift  bis  cur  Erfindung  des  Buchdrucks  mit  beweglichen 
Lettern:  ein  Versuch   (Leipzig,  Dieterich,   1920,  pp.  155). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  S.  Casson,  The  Dorian  Invasion 
Reznewed  (Antiquaries  Journal,  July)  ;  R.  Weill,  Pheniciens,  £geens  et 
Hellenes  dans  la  Mediterranee  Primitive  (Syria,  II.)  ;  J.  Kohl,  Die 
Homerische  Frage  der  Chorizonten  (Neue  Jahrbiicher  f iir  das  Klassische 
Altertum,  XLVII.  5)  ;  P.  Cloche,  Le  Conseil  Athenien  des  Cinq  Cents 
et  la  Peine  de  Mort  (Revue  des  fitudes  Grecques,  XXXIII.  151 );  E.  von 
Stern,  Zur  Beurteilung  der  Politischen  Wirksamkeit  des  Tiberius  mid 
Gains  Gracchus  (Hermes,  LXVI.  3)  ;  R.  Laquer,  Scipio  Africanus  und 
die  Eroberung  von  Neukarthago  (ibid.,  no.  2). 

EARLY   CHURCH   HISTORY  . 

The  following  additions  to  the  series  Translations  of  Christian  Lit- 
erature (London,  S.  P.  C.  K.)  are  announced  for  publication  this  au- 
tumn: The  Dialogue  of  Palladius  concerning  the  Life  of  Chrysostom; 
Fifty  Spiritual  Homilies  of  St.  Macarius  the  Egyptian;  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles;  Select  Epistles  of  St.  Cyprian  treating  of  the 
Episcopate;  The  Latin  and  Irish  Lives  of  Ciaran ;  and  Tcrtullian  con- 
cerning the  Resurrection  of  the  Flesh. 

The  Macmillan  Company  will  publish  this  autumn  The  History  of 
Christianity,  A.  D.  500-1314,  by  Professor  F.  J.  Foakes  Jackson  of  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  continuing  his  well-known  history  of  the  earlier 
period. 

A  volume  on  L' Antique  Chrcticnne,  the  first  part  of  a  Histoire  Popu- 
late de  V&glise  (Poitiers,  Texier,  1921,  pp.  620),  is  by  Abbe  Emmanuel 
Barbier.  A.  Schlatter  has  published  Die  Geschichte  des  Christus  (Stutt- 
gart, Calwer,  1921,  pp.  544). 


Medieval  History  i  73 

J.  Strzygowski's  volume  on  Ursprung  der  Christlichcn  Kirchenkunst 
(Leipzig,  Hinrichs,  1920,  pp.  xi,  204)   is  worthy  of  notice. 

Volume  VIII.,  part  2,  of  H.  Leclercq's  translation  of  the  Histoire  des 
Concilcs,  d'apres  les  Documents  Originaux,  par  Charles  Jioseph  Hefele, 
continue e  par  le  Cardinal  J.  Hcrgenrocthcr  (Paris,  Letouzey  and  Ane, 
1921,  pp.  621-1260),  has  appeared. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  H.  Delehaye,  La  Persecution  dans 
I'Armee  sous  Diocletien  (Bulletin  de  la  Classe  des  Lettres,  Academie 
Royale  de  Belgique,  1921,  5);  Cardinal  Gasquet,  St.  Jerome:  His  Life 
and  Labors  for  the  Church  of  God  (Dublin  Review,  July). 

MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 

The  elaborate  history  and  description  of  European  Arms  and  Armour, 
of  which  the  late  Sir  Guy  Laking  did  not  live  to  complete  more  than 
the  first  of  five  volumes,  is  being  continued  at  his  request  by  his  friend 
Mr.  Francis  Cripps-Day.  Volumes  II.  and  III.  (London,  Bell)  are  con- 
cerned with  helmets  and  gauntlets,  chain-mail,  shields,  and  swords. 

H.  Idris  Bell  begins  in  the  July  number  of  the  English  Historical 
Review  a  list  of  original  papal  bulls  and  briefs  in  the  Department  of 
Manuscripts  of  the  British  Museum;  236  (1096-1480)  are  already  listed. 

The  Manuale  Scholarium,  first  published  in  1481,  and  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  information  concerning  life  in  a  medieval  university,  has 
been  translated  from  the  Latin  into  student,  colloquial  English,  by  Rob- 
ert Francis  Seybolt,  associate  professor  of  the  history  of  education  in 
the  University  of  Illinois  (Cambridge,  Harvard  University  Press,  1921, 
pp.  122).  The  work  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  two  students 
who  converse  on  such  subjects  as  the  form  of  matriculation,  the  fresh- 
man ceremony  of  initiation,  courses  of  study,  methods  of  instruction, 
requirements  for  degrees,  and  university  life  and  customs.  Besides  the 
interesting  and  useful  annotations,  Professor  Seybolt  has  added  a  four- 
page  bibliography,  and  an  appendix  containing  typical  statutes  of  uni- 
versity rule  from  the  codes  of  Erfurt,  Heidelberg,  and  Leipzig. 

A  monograph  on  one  of  the  great  German  magnates  of  the  eleventh 
century  is  Karl  H.  Schmitt's  Erzbischof  Adalbert  I.  von  Mainz  als  Tcrri- 
torialfiirst,  which  appears  as  part  2  of  the  Arbciten  zwr  Deutschen 
Rechts  itnd  Verfassungsgeschichte,  published  by  J.  Haller,  P.  Heck,  and 
A.  B.  Schmidt  (Berlin,  Weidmann,  1920). 

Franz  Pelster's  Kritische  Studien  sum  Lebcn  und  zu  den  Schriften 
Alberts  des  Grossen  (Freiburg,  Herder,  1920,  pp.  xvi,  180)  is  an  effort 
to  clear  the  ground  for  a  scientifically  written  biography,  which  is  still 
lacking.  The  author  first  studies  the  sources  for  such  a  biography,  then 
attempts  to  make  a  chronology  of  Albert's  life,  and,  finally,  endeavors 
to  date  the  philosophical  and  theological  works. 

The  following  studies  of  medieval  church  statesmen  have  appeared: 
Due  de  la  Salle  de  Rochemaure,  Gcrbcrt  Sylvestre  II.  (Paris,  fimile-Paul, 


i/4  Historical  Nezus 

pp.  752)  ;  E.  Goller,  Die  Einnahmen  der  Apostolischcn  Kammer  unter 
Benedikt  XII.  (Paderborn,  Schoningh,  1920,  pp.  viii.  285),  which  is  one 
of  the  Vatikanische  Qucllen  zur  Gcschichte  der  Papstlichen  Hof-  und 
Finanzverwaltung ,  1316-1378,  and  is  an  analysis  of  financial  history 
that  throws  important  light  upon  other  phases  of  Benedict's  adminis- 
tration. 

Two  medieval  studies  worthy  of  note  are  O.  Wolff,  O.  S.  B.,  Mein 
Meister  Rupertus,  ein  Monchsleben  aus  d.  12  Jahrh.  (Freiburg,  Herder, 
1920,  pp.  vii,  202),  and  E.  Sainte-Marie  Perrin,  La  Belle  Vie  de  Sainte 
Colette  de  Corbie,  1381-1447  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  iii,  295). 

A  useful  study  illustrative  of  the  quarrels  of  medieval  lords  with 
monastic  houses  is  L.  Schaudel's  Les  Comtes  de  Salm  et  I'Abbaye  de 
Senones  aux  XIIe  et  XIIIe  Siecles  (Paris,  Berger-Levrault,  1921). 

P.  Champion  has  edited  Procbs  de  Condamnation  de  Jeanne  d'Arc, 
Texte,  Traduction,  et  Notes  (Paris,  Champion,  2  vols.).  He  adds  ma- 
terially to  the  work  of  Quicherat,  now  over  seventy  years  old.  The 
translation  is  good,  and  the  notes  excellent.  The  introduction  to  the 
second  volume,  which  studies  the  mentality  and  concepts  of  the  judges, 
is  a  masterpiece.  Mgr.  Touchet,  bishop  of  Orleans,  has  written  Vie  de 
Sainte  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Poitiers,  Texier,  1920,  pp.  xi,  216).  Les  Stapes 
d'une  Gloire  Rcligieuse :  Sainte  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Laurens)  is  by  G.  Goyau. 
It  first  appeared  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and  constitutes  an  im- 
portant study  of  the  development  of  opinion  concerning  the  work  of 
Joan  of  Arc.  La  Veritable  Jeanne  d'Arc  (Paris,  Fasquelle)  is  by  J. 
d'Auriac. 

An  important  volume  on  Avignon  au  XVe  Siecle  (Monaco  and  Paris, 
1920,  pp.  723),  by  L.  H.  Lebande,  is  published  as  part  of  the  historical 
programme  under  the  patronage  of  the  Prince  of  Monaco.  The  author 
has  already  written  on  Avignon  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  will  pub- 
lish a  volume  on  the  fourteenth  century,  that  is,  the  period  of  the 
Avignon  popes.  He  recasts,  in  the  light  of  documents  found  in  the 
archives  of  Monaco,  not  only  the  revolt  of  Cardinal  Julian  della  Rovere 
against  Alexander  VI.,  but  the  whole  history  of  that  troubled  epoch. 
This  volume  covers  only  political  and  diplomatic  history.  Another  will 
appear,  on  the  art,  customs,  and  life  of  the  city,  etc.  G.  Mollot,  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Strasburg,  has  published  the  third  volume  of ' 
his  edition  of  Stephanus  Baluzius,  Vitae  Paparum  Avenionensium,  hoc 
est  Historic  Pontificum  Romanorum  qui  in  Gallia  Sederunt  ab  Anno 
Christi  MCCCV.  usque  ad  Annum  MCCCXCIV.  (Paris,  Letouzey  and 
Ane,  1921,  pp.  561). 

Another  of  the  useful  handbooks  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Christian  Knowledge  has  appeared,  entitled  Life  in  a  Medieval  City 
(London,  1920,  pp.  84),  as  illustrated  by  York  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  author  is  Edwin  Benson. 


Modern  European  History  175 

In  his  Traitc  d' Architecture  ct  son  Application  aux  Monuments  de 
BruxeU.es  (Brussels,  1921,  pp.  300)  G.  Des  Marez,  archivist  of  the  city 
of  Brussels,  attempts  to  build  a  manual  of  archaeology  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  a  history  of  modern  architecture,  using  the  materials  available 
in  a  single  city  for  illustrative  purposes. 

Recent  books  on  medieval  history,  the  titles  of  which  sufficiently  sug- 
gest their  contents,  are:  K.  Heissenbtittel,  Die  Bcdeiitung  der  Beseich- 
nungen  f.  Volk  und  Nation  bci  den  Geschichtsschrcibern  d.  w.  bis  13. 
Jahrhundert  (Gdttingen,  1920,  pp.  127)  ;  P.  Vidal,  Lcs  Gcstcs  de  Joffre 
d'Aria  et  de  son  Fils  Joffre  le  Poilu,  Comte  de  Barcelone,  et  Marquis  de 
Giothie,  Chronique  Legendaire  du  IXe  Siecle  (Perpignan,  Barriere,  1920, 
pp.  116);  R.  His,  Das  Strafrccht  des  Deutschcn  Mittelalters,  I., 
Die  Verbrcchen  und  Hire  Folgcn  im  Allgemeinen  (Leipzig,  Weicher, 
J920,  pp.  xxi,  672)  ;  H.  Nottarp,  Die  Bistumserrichtung  in  Deutschland 
im  VIII.  Jahrhundert  (Stuttgart,  Enke,  1920,  pp.  vii,  259);  C.  Appel, 
Der  Trobado  Cadenet  (Halle,  Niemeyer,  1920,  pp.  ii,  123). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  M.  Bloch,  Serf  de  la  Glebe:  His- 
toire  d'une  Expression  toute  Faite  (Revue  Historique,  CXXXVI.  2)  ; 
J.  Hashagen,  Rheinisches  Geistesleben  im  Sp'dteren  Mittelalter  (His- 
torische  Zeitschrift,  CXXIV.  2)  ;  E.  Posner,  Das  Register  Gregors  I. 
(Neues  Archiv  der  Gesellschaft  fur  altere  Deutsche  Geschichtskunde, 
XLIII.  2)  ;  P.  Fournier,  L'Oeuvre  Canonique  de  Reginon  de  Priim 
(Bibliotheque  de  l'ficole  des  Chartes,  LXXXI.)  ;  U.  Stutz,  Reims  und 
Mains  in  der  Kbningswahl  des  Zchnten  und  su  Beginn  des  Elftcn  Jahr- 
hunderts  (Sitzungsberichte  der  Preussischen  Akademie  der  Wissen- 
schaften,  XXIX.)  ;  E.  Walburg,  Date  de  la  Composition  des  Recueils  de 
Miracula  Sancti  Thomae  Cantuariensis,  dus  a  Benoit  de  Peterborough 
et  a  Guillaume  de  Cantorbery  (Le  Moyen  Age,  XXII.,  Sept-Dec,  1920)  ; 
R.  von  Heckel,  Untersuchungen  zu  den  Registern  Innozenz  III.  (His- 
torisches  Jahrbuch,  XL.)  ;  C.  H.  Haskins,  The  ' De  Arte  Venandi  cum 
Avibns'  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  (English  Historical  Review, 
July)  ;  M.  Viiler,  La  Question  de  I'Union  des  £glises  entre  Grccs  et 
Latins  depuis  le  Concile  de  Lyon  jusqu'a  celui  de  Florence  {1274-1438), 
I.  (Revue  d'Histoire  Ecclesiastique,  XVII.  2-3)  ;  L.  Mirot,  Paiements 
et  Quittances  de  Travaux  executes  sous  le  Rcgne  de  Charles  VI.,  1380- 
1422   (Bibliotheque  de  l'ficole  des  Chartes,  LXXXI.). 

MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 
An  Outline  of  Modem  History,  by  Edward  M.  Earle  of  Columbia 
University,  published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  is  a  syllabus,  with 
map  studies,  designed  to  accompany  Professor  Carlton  Hayes's  Political 
and  Siocial  History  of  Modern  Europe.  There  are  appendixes  on  Study- 
ing and  Note-Taking,  on  Book  Reviews,  and  on  Historical  Essays,  as 
well  as  fourteen  map  studies. 

Professor  D.  Schafer,  of  Berlin,  has  published  a  Kolonialgeschichte 
(Berlin,  de  Gruyter,  1921,  2  vols.,  pp.  iii,  148).     The  first  volume  deals 


176  Historical  News 

with  the  period  before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while  the 
second  covers  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  centuries. 

Dr.  Eduard  Fueter,  the  Swiss  scholar-  whose  Geschichte  der  His- 
toriographie  is  well  known,  has  produced  a  readable  Weltgeschichte  der 
Letsten  Hundert  Jahre,  181 5-1 920  (Zurich,  Schulthess). 

Le  Fond  d'une  Querelle :  Documents  Inedits  sur  les  Relations 
Franco-Italiennes,  1014-1021  (Paris,  Grasset,  1921),  by  C.  Sabini,  is  the 
story  of  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  war  at  a  time  when  the  two  coun- 
tries knew  too  little  about  each  other,  and  thought  rather  ill  of  each 
other,  and  of  the  development  of  more  cordial  feeling. 

The  second  volume  of  the  British  Official  History  of  the  Russo-Japa- 
nese War  was  published  in  1912.  The  third  and  concluding  volume, 
mainly  the  work  of  Major  (now  Major-General)  E.  D.  Swinton  and 
Captain  (now  Rear-Admiral )  J.  Luce,  was  completed  in  1914,  but  de- 
layed in  publication  by  reason  of  the  war.  It  is  now  published  by 
the  Stationery  Office  and  contains  the  history  of  the  battles  of  San-De- 
Pu  and  Mukden,  the  voyage  of  Rojestvenski's  fleet,  the  battle  of  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  and  lesser  events. 

We  have  received  from  Dr.  Alexander  Krisztics,  lecturer  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Budapest,  a  tabular  Synopsis  of  the  Legal  Position  of  Na- 
tionalities in  Europe  before  the  War,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
Peace  Conference  at  Versailles  by  the  Hungarian  Peace  Delegation. 
For  each  of  some  twenty-nine  "  nationalities  ",  grouped  politically,  infor- 
mation is  given  respecting  ethnical  elements,  the  "  law  of  nationalities  in 
general ",  and  the  language  of  legislation,  of  administration,  of  the 
courts,  of  the  schools  and  universities,  and  of  the  army. 

THE    GREAT   WAR 

The  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace  has  published  in 
separate  form  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Division  of 
Economics  and  History  (Mar.  16,  1921),  devoted  to  a  report,  by  James  T. 
Shotwell,  general  editor,  on  the  plans  for  the  monumental  Economic 
and  Social  History  of  the  World  War  which  is  to  be  published  by  the 
Endowment  and  which  is  now  the  chief,  practically  the  only,  undertaking 
of  the  Division  of  Economics  and  History,  of  which  Professor  John 
Bates  Clark  is  director.  The  method  of  organizing  the  proposed  history 
has  been  to  appoint  in  each  country  editorial  heads  to  co-operate  with 
the  general  editor.  Thus  the  chairman  of  the  British  editorial  board  is 
Sir  William  Beveridge,  of  the  French  board  Professor  Charles  Gide,  of 
the  Belgian  board  Dr.  Henri  Pirenne,  of  the  Italian  board  Professor 
Luigi  Finaudi,  of  the  board  dealing  with  the  Baltic  countries  Professor 
Harald  Westergaard.  The  chairmanship  of  the  board  for  Austria-Hun- 
gary has  been  retained  by  the  general  editor,  who  has  developed  the 
plans  for  that  division  of  the  work  in  considerable  detail;  editorial 
boards  in  other  countries   are  being  organized.     Nearly  one  hundred 


The  Great  War  177 

monographs  have  already  been  definitely  arranged  for,  and  are  an- 
nounced in  the  report.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  has  been  possible  to 
secure  as  their  respective  authors  men  who  were  actively  engaged  dur- 
ing the  war  in  the  activities  or  phases  with  which  they  will  deal.  But 
one  volume  is  as  yet  announced  for  the  United  States:  Guide  to  Ameri- 
can Sources  for  the  Economic  History  of  the  War,  by  Waldo  G.  Leland 
and  Newton  D.  Mereness.  The  first  volume  to  be  published,  on  either 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  is  Allied  Shipping  Control:  an  Experiment  in  Inter- 
national Administration,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Salter  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press), 
who  during  the  war  held  the  positions  of  director  of  ship  requisition- 
ing in  the  Ministry  of  Shipping,  secretary  of  the  Allied  Maritime  Trans- 
port Council,  chairman  of  the  Allied  Maritime  Transport  Executive,  and 
secretary  of  the  British  department  of  the  Supreme  Economic  Council. 
The  second  of  these  volumes  is  Prices  and  Wages  in  the  United  King- 
dom, 1014-1020,  by  Dr.  Arthur  L.  Bowley,  professor  of  statistics  in  the 
University  of  London. 

For  two  years  much  interest  has  been  aroused  by  the  collection  at 
Stanford  University  of  materials  relating  to  the  Great  War,  on  a  scale 
larger  and  more  comprehensive  than  has  been  attempted  by  any  other 
American  institution,  possibly  by  any  other  institution  in  the  world. 
The  collection  owes  its  inception  to  Herbert  Hoover  and  bears  his  name. 
A  preliminary  account  of  it  is  now  published  by  Professor  E.  D.  Adams, 
by  whom  and  under  whose  direction  the  collection  has  been  made:  The 
Hoover  War  Collection  at  Stanford  University,  California:  a  Report 
and  an  Analysis  (Stanford  University  Press,  pp.  82).  Necessarily  the 
report  is  very  summary;  in  view  of  the  magnitude  of  the  collection  and 
the  lack  of  time  for  arranging  it,  and  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is  still 
in  process  of  making,  it  could  hardly  be  otherwise.  The  analysis  groups 
the  contents  under  the  following  heads:  propaganda  of  delegations  at 
the  Peace  Conference,  publications  of  societies,  government  documents, 
exchanges  with  the  Library  of  Congress,  ordinary  book-material,  special 
purchases,  posters,  proclamations  and  orders,  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals, war  propaganda,  Baltic  States,  Russia  and  Southeastern  Europe, 
Stanford  Food  Research  Institute. 

Two  bibliographical  works  of  considerable  importance  are,  H.  Bor- 
necque  and  G.  Drouilly's  La  France  et  la  Guerre  (Paris,  Payot,  pp.  156), 
which  contains  an  analysis  of  two  hundred  French  books  on  the  war 
which  appeared  between  1914  and  1918,  and  which  serves  as  a  very  good 
guide  to  the  literature  of  the  subject;  and  J.  L.  Kunz's  Bibliographic  der 
Kricgsliteratur:  Politik,  Geschichte,  Philosophic,  Volkerrecht,  Friedens- 
frage  (Berlin,  Engelmann,  1920,  pp.  101),  covering  not  only  books,  but 
pamphlets,  documents,  etc.,  as  late  as  May,  1920. 

Former  President  Raymond  Poincare,  in  a  well-documented  volume, 
Les  Origines  de'la  Guerre,  Conferences  prononcccs  en  Fcvrier-Hars, 
IQ21,  a  la  Socictc  des  Conferences  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  272),  puts  the 

AM.    HIST.    REV.,  VOL.   XXVII.— 12. 


178  Historical  News 

French  case  in  very  clear  and  forceful  terms.  It  is  a  book  which  adds 
new  light  to  the  history  of  the  war. 

The  second  volume  of  Sir  Julian  S.  Corbett's  Naval  Operations,  in 
the  Official  History  of  the  Great  War,  to  be  published  by  Messrs.  Long- 
mans this  autumn,  will  cover  the  period  from  the  Battle  of  the  Falkland 
Islands  to  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the  war  in  May,  191 5.  It  will  be 
largely  occupied  with  the  Dardanelles  Expedition. 

If  we  understand  the  matter  rightly,  Investigating  Committee  No.  15 
of  the  German  National  Assembly,  appointed  in  1919,  was  organized 
into  two  subcommittees,  of  which  the  first  was  to  consider  the  origins 
of  the  war,  the  second  the  various  movements  toward  peace  or  mediation 
made  during  the  war  and  the  reasons  for  their  lack  of  success.  We 
have  now  received  Heft  2  of  the  Bcilagen  to  the  stenographic  reports 
of  the  first,  Zur  Vorgeschichte  des  Weltkrieges:  Militarische  Rilstungen 
und  Mobilmachungen  (Berlin,  Reimar  Hobbing,  1921,  pp.  152),  and  two 
volumes  of  the  Stcnographische  Berichte  of  the  public  sessions  of  the 
second,  October  21-November  18,  1919,  and  April  14,  1920  (Berlin, 
Norddeutsche  Buchdruckerei  und  Verlagsanstalt,  pp.  794,  120,  84,  338), 
which,  however,  also  contains  the  first  Beilage  of  the  first  subcommittee, 
consisting  of  the  written  replies  of  many  German  officials,  from  Beth- 
mann-Hollweg  down,  to  questions  laid  before  them  by  the  subcommittee, 
as  well  as  a  special  report,  with  appendixes,  of  the  second  subcommit- 
tee, on  President  Wilson's  movement  toward  peace  and  its  reception  and 
results.  The  book  first  named,  mostly  from  the  pen  of  Count  Mont- 
gelas,  contains  a  large  amount  of  important  information  concerning  the 
military  preparations  of  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  other  powers 
just  before  the  war.  It  represents  Russia  as  chiefly  responsible.  The 
German  government  has  in  press  a  further  series  of  fifteen  volumes, 
additional  to  these  books  and  the  Kautsky  series,  and  referring  to  an 
earlier  period;  these  are  being  prepared  by  Dr.  Lewald's  commission. 

The  Library  for  American  Studies  in  Italy  (Rome,  Palazzo  Salviati, 
271  Corso  Umberto  I.),  an  institution  which  deserves  favor  and  gifts 
from  Americans,  has  published  as  no.  2  of  its  bulletins  a  very  useful  list 
of  314  publications  relating  to  Italy's  part  in  the  Great  War,  prepared 
by  the  highly  competent  hands  of  Signor  Giuseppe  Fumagalli,  Elenco  di 
oltre  300  Pubblicazioni  sulla  Parte  avuta  dall'Italia  nella  Grande  Guerra 
(PP-  32). 

The  Oxford  University  Press  has  brought  out  in  two  volumes,  as 
no.  3  of  the  Research  Series  of  the  American  Geographical  So- 
ciety, Douglas  W.  Johnson's  Battlefields  of  the  World  War,  Western 
and  Southern  Fronts:  a  Study  in  Military  Geography. 

A  preface  to  a  large,  official  history  soon  to  be  published  is  in  the 
form  of  a  book  by  Lieut.-Col.  J.  Revel,  of  the  Historical  Section  of  the 
General  Staff,  L'Effort  Militaire  des  Allies  sur  le  Front  de  France 
(Paris,  Payot).     H.  V.  Zwehl  gives  a  brief  but  clear  account  of  the 


The  Great  War  179 

struggle  in  the  area  between  Soissons  and  Chateau-Thierry,  in  July  and 
August,  1918,  Die  Schlachtcn  in  Sommcr  191S  an  der  Westfront  (Berlin, 
Mittler,  1921,  pp.  40). 

Among  the  flood  of  memoirs  published  by  officers  in  the  war,  the 
following  may  be  mentioned  as  deserving  special  note :  General  Dubail 
continues  his  Quatre  Annecs  de  Commandement,  1914-1918:  Journal  de 
Campagne,  vol.  II.  dealing  with  the  Groupes  d' Armies  de  I'Est  du  6 
Janvier  au  14  Aoilt,  191$  (Paris,  Fournier,  1920,  pp.  408).  Volume 
III.  has  recently  appeared  (1921,  pp.  359).  Vice-Admiral  Ronarch, 
commander  of  the  Marine  Brigade,  gives  his  recollections  and  regrets 
in  Souvenirs  de  la  Guerre  (Paris,  Payot).  Jean-Jose  Frappa,  a  liaison 
officer  on  the  staff  of  General  Sarrail,  defends  his  chief,  in  Makedonia 
(Paris,  Flammarion).  The  most  complete  account  yet  published  of  the 
Salonica  expedition  is  that  of  Jacques  Ancel,  Les  Travaux  et  les  Jours 
de  I'Armee  d'Orient  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921,  pp.  233),  which  first  ap- 
peared in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  General  Pedoya,  its  former 
president,  publishes  La  Commission  de  I'Armee  pendant  la  Grande 
Guerre:  Documents  Incdits  et  Secrets  (Paris,  Hemmerle,  1921,  pp.  405). 
Military  operations  in  Italy  until  August  11,  1916,  are  dealt  with  by 
Gen.  Luigi  Capello,  commander  of  one  of  the  Italian  armies,  in  Note 
di  Guerra,  I.,  Dall'Inizio  alia  Presa  di  Gorisia  (Milan,  Treves).  Es- 
pecially important  is  the  work  of  Count  J.  Stiirgkh,  Im  Deutschcn 
Grossen  Hauptquartier  (Leipzig,  List,  1921,  pp.  160),  which  records 
his  experiences  and  impressions  during  the  first  ten  months  of  the  war, 
when  he  was  Austro-Hungarian  representative  at  German  headquar- 
ters. He  had  every  opportunity  to  study  the  situation,  and  has  re- 
corded the  results  of  his  observations  very  frankly. 

The  local  history  of  the  war  absorbs  many  volumes.  Only  a  few  of 
the  more  interesting  and  important  may  be  mentioned.  The  pastoral 
letters  of  Mgr.  Schoepfer,  bishop  of  Tarbes,  are  published  in  Lourdes 
pendant  la  Guerre  (Strasburg,  Le  Roux).  They  carry  the  story  to  the 
reception  of  General  Foch,  who  was  born  in  Tarbes.  J.  Schmitz  and 
N.  Nieuwland  have  collected  Documents  pour  servir  a,  I'Histoire  de 
I'Invasion  Allemande  dans  les  Provinces  de  Namur  et  de  Luxembourg, 
II.,  Le  Siege  de  Namur,  III.,  Tamines  et  la  Bataille  de  la  Sambre 
(Paris  and  Brussels,  Van  Oest,  1920,  pp.  374,  208).  Lille  et  I'Invasion 
Allemande,  1914-1918  (Paris,  Perrin,  1920),  is  by  Jean  Loredan;  Les  Al- 
lemands  a  Laon,  2  Septcmbre,  1914-13  Octobre,  1918  (Paris,  Bloud 
and  Gay,  1920),  by  J.  Marquiset;  and  Un  Arrondissement  de  Paris  pen- 
dant la  Guerre   (Paris,  Fasquelle,   1921,  pp.  xvi,  498),  by  P.  Marechal. 

War-Time  Strikes  and  their  Adjustment,  by  A.  M.  Bing  (New  York, 
Dutton,  1921),  is  an  account  of  the  organization,  history,  and  operations 
of  the  governmental  agencies  set  up  during  the  war,  or  which  already 
existed,  for  mediating  in  labor  disputes. 


i8o  Historical  News 

Books  dealing  with  peace  and  its  problems  are:  J.  Brunhes  and  V. 
Camille,  La  Geographie  de  I'Histoire:  Geographie  de  la  Pai.v  et  de  la 
Guerre  sur  Terre  et  sur  Mer  (Paris,  Alcan)  ;  L'Afrique  et  la  Paix  de 
Versailles  (Tours,  Arrault,  1921,  pp.  268),  by  E.  Antonelli;  La  Protec- 
tion des  Droits  deis  Minorites  dans  les  Traites  Internationaux  de  1919- 
1920  (Paris,  Pavolozki,  1920),  by  Marc  Vichniac;  La  Propriete  Indus- 
trielle,  Litteraire  et  Artistique  et  les  Traites  de  Paix  (Paris,  Berger- 
Levrault,  1921),  by  G.  Chabaud,  which  is  an  analysis  of  certain  phases 
of  the  treaties  and  a  discussion  of  their  application.  La  Question  Adri- 
atique  (Paris,  L'Emancipatrice),  by  "  Adriaticus ",  is  a  collection  of 
official  documents,  1914-1919,  with  commentary  sufficient  to  put  them  in 
their  proper  setting.  It  is  designed  to  show  the  several  attempts  made 
by  various  nations  to  solve  the  Adriatic  problem. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Anon.,  Notes  on  Foreign  [non- 
English]  War  Books  (Army  Quarterly,  January,  April,  July)  ;  Gen.  N. 
N.  Golovine,  Cavalry  on  the  Front  (Cavalry  Journal,  July)  ;  Capt.  G.  C. 
Wynne,  The  Development  of  the  German  Plan  of  Campaign,  August- 
September,  1914  (Army  Quarterly,  July)  ;  Brig.-Gen.  J.  E.  Edmonds, 
The  Austrian  Plan  of  Campaign  in  1914  and  its  Development  (ibid.)  ; 
L.  Dumur,  La  Prise  de  Douaumont  (Mercure  de  France,  July  15)  ; 
Lieut. -Col.  Chenet,  La  Verite  sur  la  Perte  du  Fort  de  Douaumont, 
d'apres  des  Temoignages  Incdits  (ibid.,  August  1);  Maj.  E.  N.  Mc- 
Clellan,  The  Aisne-Marne  Offensive,  cont.  (Marine  Corps  Gazette, 
June)  ;  Capt.  Gordon  Gordon-Smith,  Errors  of  Allied  Strategy  and  Pol- 
icy in  the  World  War  (Infantry  Journal,  July)  ;  R.  H.  Williams,  Litera- 
ture of  the  Peace  Conference  (Canadian  Historical  Review,  June)  ;  D. 
H.  Miller,  The  Adriatic  Negotiations  at  Paris  (Atlantic  Monthly,  Au- 
gust)-; Hymans,  Bourquin,  de  Visscher,  Rolin,  Grunebaum-Ballin,  and 
Hostie,  Studes  sur  I'Organisation  et  I'Oeuvre  de  la  Societe  des  Nations 
(Revue  de  Droit  International  et  de  Legislation  Comparee,  II.  1,  2)  ; 
A.  I.,  Le  Regime  de  I'Occupation  Rhcnane  institue  par  le  Traite  de  Ver- 
sailles (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  XLIV.  2). 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 
The  Cambridge  University  Press  announces  a  series  of  Cambridge 
Studies  in  English  Legal  History,  to  be  edited  by  an  American  scholar, 
Dr.  Harold  D.  Hazeltine,  Downing  Professor  of  the  Laws  of  England. 
H.  Prentout,  professor  of  the  history  of  Normandy  in  the  University 
of  Caen,  whose  studies  in  the  earlier  period  of  English  history  are  well 
known,  has  written  a  careful  and  well-proportioned  manual  under  the 
title,  Histoire  de  V Angletcrre  depuis  les  Origines  jusqu'en  1919  (Paris, 
Hachette,  1920). 

Foster's  very  useful  Alumni  Oxonienses  is  to  be  paralleled  by  a  series 
of  Alumni  Cantabrigienses,  to  be  edited  by  Dr.  John  Venn  and  Mr.  J.  A. 
Venn  and  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press.     Part  I.,  con- 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  1 8 1 

sisting  of  four  volumes,  will  run  to  1 751  ;  the  second  part,  running 
from  1752  to  the  present  time,  will  be  undertaken  if  sufficient  encourage- 
ment is  obtained  from  the  success  of  part  I. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Jews  in  England  (S.  P.  C.  K.)  is  by  the 
competent  hands  of  Rev.  H.  P.  Stokes. 

Dom  Bede  Jarrett's  The  English  Dominicans  (London,  Burns  and 
Oates)  recounts  their  history  in  a  manner  both  interesting  and  scholarly, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  seven-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  coming  of  the 
Dominicans  to  England. 

H.  Jensen  has  published  Den  Engclske  Revolutions  Historic,  1603- 
1688  (Copenhagen,  Gad,  1920,  pp.  242). 

Matthew  Prior:  a  Study  of  his  Public  Career  and  Correspondence, 
by  L.  G.  Wickham  Legg,  fellow  and  tutor  of  New  College,  Oxford,  a 
work  based  on  diplomatic  and  other  material  in  British,  French,  Dutch, 
and  private  archives,  will  shortly  be  published  by  the  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity Press. 

Mr.  Lewis  Melville's  The  South  Sea  Bubble  (London,  Daniel  O'Con- 
nor) devotes  careful  and  thorough  investigation  to  a  famous  and  dra- 
matic episode  in  economic  and  financial  history. 

Dr.  Rufus  M.  Jones  concludes  the  important  series  of  books  on  the 
history  of  the  Society  of  Friends  put  forth  by  him  and  Mr.  W.  C.  Braith- 
waite,  by  the  publication  of  two  volumes  on  The  Later  Periods  of 
Quakerism  (Macmillan). 

Volume  II.,  part  I.,  of  Wolfgang  Michael's  Englische  Geschichte  im 
18.  Jahrhundert  is  devoted  to  Das  Zeitalter  Robert  Walpoles  (Berlin  and 
Leipzig,  Rothschild,  1920,  pp.  640)  and  covers  the  period  from  1717  to 
1720  in  very  great  detail.  It  is  based  on  extensive  research  both  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent.     This  is  a  work  of  great  importance. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Rees,  lecturer  in  economic  history  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  has  lately  published  A  Fiscal  and  Financial  History  of 
England,  1815-1918  (London,  Methuen). 

No.  27  of  Miss  Skeel's  series  of  Texts  for  Students  (London,  S.  P. 
C.  K.)  begins  a  group  entitled  The  Foundations  of  Modern  Ireland,  in 
which  Miss  Constantia  Maxwell,  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  will  pre- 
sent select  extracts  from  sources  illustrating  English  rule  and  social  and 
economic  conditions  in  Ireland  in  the  sixteenth  and  early  seventeenth 
centuries.  Part  I.  is  concerned  with  the  civil  policy  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
the  Reformation.  In  the  same  series  there  will  shortly  appear  an  account 
of  the  Colonial  Office  Papers  in  the  Public  Record  Office,  by  Mr.  C.  S.  S. 
Higham,  of  the  University  of  Manchester. 

British  government  publication:  Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic, 
September  1,  1680-December  31,  1681,  ed.  F.  H.  B.  Daniell.  Other 
documentary  publications  are:  Year-Books  of  Edward  II. ,  1312-1313, 
ed.  Sir  Paul  Vinogradoff  and  L.  Ehrlich  (Selden  Society)  ;  The  Register 
of  Charles  Bothe,  Bishop  of  Hereford,  1516-1536,  ed.  Canon  A.  T. 
Bannister  (Cantilupe  Society,  completing  their  series). 


1 82  Historical  News 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  T.  F.  Tout,  The  Place  of  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury  in  History  (Bulletin  of  the  John  Rylands 
Library,  Manchester,  July)  ;  E.  R.  Adair  and  F.  M.  G.  Evans,  Writs  of 
Assistance,  1558-1700  (English  Historical  Review,  July)  ;  V.  J.  B.  Torr, 
Local  Records  of  the  Elizabethan  Settlement  (Dublin  Review,  July)  ; 
J.  M.  Manly,  The  Most  Mysterious  Maniiscript  in  the  World:  Did  Roger 
Bacon  write  it  and  has  the  Key  been  Found?  (Harper's  Magazine,  July)  ; 
R.  K.  Hannay,  The  Earl  of  Arran  and  Queen  Mary  (Scottish  Historical 
Review,  July);  "Reflections  by  the  Lrd  Cheife  Justice  Hale  on  Mr. 
Hobbes  his  Dialogue  of  the  Law",  ed.  Sir  Frederick  Pollock  and  Dr. 
W.  S.  Holdsworth  (Law  Quarterly  Review,  July)  ;  W.  T.  Morgan,  The 
Ministerial  Revolution  in  17 10  in  England  (Political  Science  Quarterly, 
June)  ;  L.  M.  Penson,  The  London  West  India  Interest  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (English  Historical  Review,  July)  ;  Maj.-Gen.  Sir  Charles 
Callwell,  War  Councils  in  this  Country  [Great  Britain]  (Army  Quar- 
terly, July)  ;  J.  Bardoux,  La  Crise  Revolutionnaire  de  I'Angleterre  Con- 
temporaine :  ses  Origines  Religieuses  (Seances  et  Travaux  de  l'Acade- 
mie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  Nov.-Dec,  1920). 

FRANCE 

General  reviews:  L.  Lefebre,  Quelques  Publications  relatives  au 
Seisieme  Siecle  Frangais  (Revue  de  Synthase  Historique,  XXXI.) ; 
Raymond  Guyot,  Histoire  de  France  de  1800  a  nos  Jours  et  Questions 
Generates  Contemporaines  (Revue  Historique,  CXXXVI.  2). 

Three  volumes  of  the  great  Histoire  de  la  Nation  Frangaise,  edited 
by  Gabriel  Hanotaux,  have  appeared.  Volume  I.,  Geographie  Hum  aim 
de  la  France  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  lxxx,  500),  is  by  Jean  Brunhes, 
professor  in  the  College  of  France.  Volume  III.,  Histoire  Politique: 
des  Origines  a  1515  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  590),  is  by  P.  Imbart  de  la 
Tour.  It  is  grouped  about  four  sets  of  facts:  the  work  of  Clovis,  the 
work  of  Charlemagne,  feudalism,  and  the  monarchy.  Volume  XII.  is 
Histoire  des  Lettres  (Paris,  Plon,  1921),  and  is  divided  in  three  parts, 
as  follows:  1,  La  Litterature  Frangaise  en  Langue  Latine,  by  Francois 
Picavet;  2,  Les  Chansons  de  Geste,  by  Joseph  Bedier;  3,  Litterature  de 
Langue  Frangaise:  des  Origines  a  Ronsard,  by  Alfred  Jeanroy. 

C.  de  la  Ronciere  continues  his  monumental  Histoire  de  la  Marine 
Frangaise  with  vol.  V.,  on  La  Guerre  de  Trente  Ans:  Colbert  (Paris, 
Plon,  1920,  pp.  748).  It  is  ten  years  since  the  appearance  of  vol.  IV. 
The  new  .^ork  includes  an  enormous  mass  of  material  dealing  with  the 
work  of  Richelieu,  and  the  great  reorganization  of  Colbert,  with  its 
brilliant  results. 

La  Bretagne  (Paris,  Boccard)  is  by  C.  le  Goffic,  the  best-equipped 
writer  on  the  subject.  While  the  work  is  largely  descriptive,  the  author 
knows  the  historical  background  which  is  essential  to  an  interpretation 


France  183 

of  the  customs  and  habits  of  the  people.  A.  Mousset  has  published 
Documents  pour  servir  a  i'Histoire  de  la  Maison  de  Kcrgorlay  en 
Bretagne  (Paris,  Collemant,  1921,  pp.  cv,  540). 

A  contribution  of  notable  importance  to  the  history  of  the  first  eight 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL  is  Henri  Stein's  Charles  de  France, 
Frere  de  Louis  XI.  (Paris,  Picard.  pp.  ix,  S71).  The  king's  brother  was 
at  the  centre  of  most  of  the  difficulties  that  Louis  encountered. 

P.  d'Estree,  who  has  already  published  a  volume  on  Le  Marechal  de 
Richelieu,  1696-1/58,  has  now  completed  the  biography,  in  La  Vieillesse 
de  Richelieu,  1758-1/88,  d'apres  les  Correspondances  et  Memoires  Con- 
temporaines  et  d'apres  les  Documents  Inedits  (Paris,  fimile-Paul). 

A  carefully  prepared  volume  by  A.  Leman  is  Recueil  des  Instructions 
Generates  aux  Nonces  Ordinaires  de  France,  de  1624  a  1634  (Lille, 
Giard,  1920,  pp.  iv,  217).  It  is  more  than  a  publication  of  texts;  each 
instruction  is  preceded  by  an  introduction,  giving  an  account  of  the 
papal  ambassador  and  of  the  problems  with  which  he  had  to  deal. 

Before  the  Academie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  on  January 
7,  1921,  Louis  Batiffol  demonstrated  that  the  Memoires  of  Cardinal  de 
Richelieu  are  not  authentic,  being  the  work  of  two  compilers,  who  en- 
deavored to  write  a  history  of  Louis  XIII.  on  the  basis  of  Richelieu's 
papers. 

J.  Cordey  has  published  vol.  II.  of  Correspondance  du  Marechal  de 
Vivonne  relative  a  I' Expedition  de  Messine  (Paris,  Societe  de  I'Histoire 
de  France,  1920,  pp.  xxxvi,  364).  The  first  volume  appeared  some  years 
ago.  The  present  work  covers  the  period  from  October,  1676,  to  Jan- 
uary, 1678. 

The  study  of  French  law  from  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  to  Napoleon 
forms  the  subject  of  L'Enseignement  du  Droit  Frangais  dans  les  Uni- 
versites  de  France  au  XVIIs  et  XVI I Ie  S'.ccles  (Paris,  Tenin,  1920, 
PP-  ISS)»  by  A.  de  Curzon. 

The  life  of  Louis  XV.:  Essai  d'apres  les  Documents  Authcntiques 
(Paris,  £mile-Paul,  1921)   is  by  C.  Saint-Andre. 

Marc  Chassaigne  has  attacked  the  legend  of  a  supposed  martyr  to 
free  thought  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  Le  Proces  du  Chevalier  de  la 
Barre  (Paris,  Gabalda,  1921,  pp.  xiv,  272). 

The  third  volume  of  M.  Marion's  H.istoire  Financicre  de  la  France 
depuis  17 1 5  covers  the  period  from  September  26,  1792,  to  February  4, 
1797.  It  is  the  history  of  paper  money,  emphasizing  the  dangers  of  its 
abuse,  and  recounts  the  tergiversations  of  the  assembly  and  the  misfor- 
tunes which  paper  money  brought.  The  story  of  one  of  Necker's  at- 
tempts at  fiscal  reform  is  by  Georges  Larde,  Une  Enquete  sur  les  Vingt- 
iemes  de  Necker  (Paris,  Letouzey,  1920,  pp.  vii,  136). 

Les  Societes  de  Pensee  et  la  Democratic:  Etudes  d'Histoire  Revolu- 
tionnaire  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  300),  by  A.  Cochin,  is  a  collection  of 
studies  preparatory  to  a  history  of  the  French  Revolution  which  the 


[84  Historical  Nezvs 

author  had  planned  before  his  death.  L.  de  Launay  has  written  Une 
Famille  de  la  Bourgeoisie  Parisienne  pendant  la  Revolution:  Toussaint 
Mareux,  Membre  de  la  Commune  de  1702  et  Directeur  du  Theatre  Saint- 
Antoine,  et  Francois  Sallior,  Membre  du  Bureau  Central  sous  le  Di- 
rectoire,  d'apres  leur  Correspondance  Inedite  (Tours,  Arrault,  1921, 
PP-  392). 

P.  de  La  Gorce  has  published  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Histoire 
Religieuse  de  la  Revolution  Franqaise  (Paris,  Plon,  pp.  380).  It  covers 
the  five  years  from  July  27,  1794,  to  November  9,  1799,  from  the  first 
public  demand  for  religious  liberty  to  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Egypt  and  the  death  of  Pius  VI.  The  Napoleonic  reshaping  of  the 
situation  which  had  been  precipitated  by  the  Revolution  will  form  the 
subject  of  the  next  volume.  La  Resistance  au  Concordat  de  1801  (Paris, 
Plon,  pp.  248)  is  by  R.  de  Chauvigny. 

The  beginnings  of  a  great  empire  are  illustrated,  together  with  mat- 
ters interesting  to  the  student  of  the  African  slave-trade,  by  the  Instruc- 
tions Generates  donnees  de  1763  a  1870  aux  Gouverneurs  des  Utablisse- 
ments  Francais  en  Afrique  Occidentale,  edited  by  M.  Christian  Schefer, 
of  which  the  first  volume,  1763-1831,  has  just  been  published  by  Cham- 
pion of  Paris. 

H.  d'Almeras  continues  his  series  of  volumes  with  La  Vie  Parisienne 
sous  la  Revolution  de  1848  (Paris,  Michel,  1921,  pp.  388).  Previous 
volumes  covered  the  periods  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Directory,  the 
Consulate  and  the  Empire,  the  Restoration,  and  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe. 

A  study  of  a  crisis  in  the  history  of  universal  suffrage  is  by  Gaston 
Genique,  L'Election  de  I'Assemblce  Legislative  en  1840:  Essai  d'une 
Repartition  Gcographique  des  Partis  Politiques  en  France  (Bedier). 
The  author  concludes  that  radicalism  is  always  stupid. 

A  book  of  value  for  the  history  of  the  Church  under  the  Second 
Empire  is  Albert  Houtin's  Le  Pcre  Hyacinthe  dans  I'Eglise  Romaine: 
1827-1868  (Paris,  Nourry,  1920). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  A.  Dieudonne,  Lcs  Conditions  du 
Denier  Parisis  et  du  Denier  Tournois  sous  les  Premiers  Capctiens 
(Bibliotheque  de  l'ficole  des  Chartes,  LXXXI.)  ;  Victor  Loewe,  Fran- 
sosiche  Rheinbnndidee  und  Brandenburgischc  Politik  im  Jahre  1608  (His- 
torische  Vierteljahrschrift,  XX.  2)  ;  C.  Pfister,  Les  Voyages  de  Louis 
XIV.  en  Alsace,  I.,  Le  Voyage  de  1663  (Seances  et  Travaux  de  l'Acade- 
mie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  November-December,  1920)  ;  F. 
Lion,  Das  Elsass  als  Problem  (Neue  Rundschau,  April)  ;  E.  Wetterle, 
La  " Langue  Maternelle"  en  Alsace  et  en 'Lorraine  (Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  June  1 )  ;  C.  Samaran,  Un  Diplomate  Franqais  du  XVe  Steele: 
lean  de  Bilheres-Lagranlas,  Cardinal  de  Saint-Denis  (Le  Moyen  Age, 
XXII.)  ;  de  la  Reveliere,  Nos  Alliances  et  la  Pologne  (Mercure  de 
France,  July  15)  ;  Seilliere,  Joseph  dc  Maistre  et  Rousseau  (Seances  et 


Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  185 

Travaux  de  l'Academie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  November- 
December,  1920)  ;  Prince  de  Conde,  Journal  a" 'Emigration,  I.,  IE  (Revue 
de  Paris,  June  15,  July  1);  L.  Madelin,  Napoleon  a  trovers  le  Siecle, 
1821-1021  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  May  1);  J.  G.  Prod'homme,  Na- 
poleon, la  Musique  et  les  Musiciens  (Mercure  de  France,  May  15)  ; 
M.  Liber,  Napoleon  Ier  et  les  Juifs:  la  Question  Juive  devant  le  Conseil 
d'Etat  en  1806  (Revue  des  fitudes  Juives,  LXXI.  142,  143)  ;  Saint-Denis 
dit  Ali,  Souvenirs  du  Second  Mameluk  de  I'Empereur,  I.,  Les  Tuileries, 
Moscou,  la  Retraite  de  Russie,  II.,  L'lle  d'Elbe  (Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  June  1,  15)  ;  G.  Lacour-Gayet,  Bonaparte,  Membre  de  I'Institut 
(ibid.,  May  15)  ;  P.  Adam,  Ligny  et  Waterloo,  I.,  Ligny,  II.,  Waterloo 
(Revue  de  France,  May  1,  15)  ;  F.  Masson,  La  Mort  de  I'Empereur, 
I.,  II.  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  May  I,  15)  ;  T.  Roche,  Paul-Louis 
Courier,  Soldat  de  Napoleon  (Mercure  de  France,  May  15)  ;  Joseph 
Reinach,  Napoleon  III.  et  la  Paix  (Revue  Historique,  March-April)  ; 
J.  M.  S.  Allison,  Thiers  and  the  July  Days  (Sewanee  Review,  July- 
September)  ;  J.  Reinach,  La  Diplomatic  de  la  Troisieme  Republique, 
1871-1914,  I.,  II.  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  XLIV.  1,  2). 

ITALY,   SPAIN,   AND   PORTUGAL 

William  Heywood,  an  English  scholar  of  great  accuracy  and  viva- 
cious talent,  who  from  1879  to  1894  lived  in  America  as  editor,  ranch- 
man, and  lawyer,  and  after  that  in  Italy,  left  behind  him  an  unfinished 
work  on  Pisa  which  has  been  posthumously  published  as  A  History  of 
Pisa  in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries  (Cambridge  University 
Press). 

Professor  Isidoro  del  Lungo  issues  a  new  edition  of  his  important 
contribution  to  Florentine  history  entitled  Bonifazio  VIII.  e  Arrigo  VII. 
with  the  new  title  /  Bianchi  e  i  Neri  (Milan,  Hoepli). 

An  important  body  of  Memoires  (Rome,  Cuggini,  3  vols.,  pp.  1402), 
by  Cardinal  Dominique  Ferrata,  has  been  published. 

In  vol.  XXIV.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  under  the  title  Collectanea  Hispanica,  Professor 
Charles  U.  Clark  presents  an  elaborate  treatise  on  Spanish  palaeography 
and  on  Visigothic  manuscripts,  of  which  213  are  described. 

A.  Ballesteros  y  Beretta  has  published  the  second  volume  of  his 
Historia  de  Espaiia  y  su  Influencia  en  la  Historia  Universal  (Barcelona, 
Salvet,  pp.  776).  The  same  author  has  written  a  Sintesis  de  Historia 
de  Espaiia  (Madrid,  Torres,  1920,  pp.  486). 

The  first  part  of  a  Contribucion  al  Estudio  de  la  Administracion  de 
Barcelona  por  los  Franceses,  1808-18 14  (Barcelona,  Escuela  Salesiana 
de  Arte  Grafico,  1920,  pp.  214),  has  been  published  by  F.  Camp. 

Sefior  Arturo  Farinelli's  Viajes  por  Espaiia  y  Portugal  desde  la  Edad 
Media  hasta  el  Sigh  XIX.  (Madrid,  Centro  de  Estudios  Historicos), 
while  ample  as  a  bibliography  of  travel  in  the  Peninsula,  is  more  than 


186  Historical  News 

a  mere  bibliographical  list,  since  the  compiler  adds  many  interesting 
comments  of  his  own,  and  some  quotations. 

A  study  of  the  life  and  work  of  a  Spanish  political  thinker,  by  E. 
Varagna,  is  Un  Grand  Espagnol  Apbtre  du  Droit  des  Pen  pies:  Emilio 
Castelar  (Paris,  Bloud  and  Gay,  1920,  pp.  xiv,  328). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  G.  Ferrero,  One  Hundred  Years 
of  Italian  Life  (Current  History,  September)  ;  W.  Erben,  Bctrachtungen 
zu  der  Italienischen  Kricgstdtigkcit  der  Schzveiscr  (Historische  Zeit- 
schrift,  CXXIV.  1 )  ;  F.  Ruffini,  II  Potere  Temporale  negli  Scopi  di 
Guerra  degli  Ex-Imperi  Centrali  (Nuova  Antologia,  April  16)  ;  id., 
La  Questione  Romana  e  I'Ora  Presente  {ibid.,  June  1). 

GERMANY 

The  Bishop  of  Bombay  (Dr.  E.  J.  Palmer)  has  prepared,  and  the 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  has  published,  a  Life  of 
Otto,  Apostle  of  Pomerania,  1060-1139,  in  which  he  gives  an  English 
translation,  the  first  to  be  made,  of  the  second  and  third  books  of  the 
Life  by  Ebo. 

A  fifth  edition  has  been  published  of  Ausgew'dhlte  Urkunden  sur 
Erlduterung  der  Verfassungsgeschichte  Deutschlands  im  Mittelalter 
(Berlin,  Weidmann,  1920,  pp.  xiv,  463),  by  W.  Altmann  and  E.  Bern- 
heim;  a  brief  Geschichte  des  Deutschen  Mittelalters  (Regensburg,  Hab- 
bel,  1920,  pp.  384)  is  by  H.  Rausse;  T.  Mayer  has  written  Die  Ver- 
waltungsorgani-sationcn  Maximilians  I.,  ihr  Ursprung  und  ihre  Bedeu- 
tung  (Innsbruck,  Verlag  d.  Wagnerschen  Universitat  Buchdruch,  1920, 
pp.  106). 

New  books  dealing  with  various  phases  of  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many are,  A.  v.  Miiller's  Luther's  Werdcgang  bis  sum  Turmerlebnis  neu 
Untersucht  (Gotha,  Perthes,  1920,  pp.  x,  140)  ;  W.  Knappe's  Wolf 
Dietrich  von  Maxlrain  und  die  Reformation  in  der  Herrschaft  Hohen- 
waldeck:  ein  Beitrag  sur  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Reformation  und 
Gegenreformation  (Leipzig,  Deichert,  1920,  pp.  v,  156). 

One  hundred  years  of  Protestantism  in  Germany  is  reviewed  by  J.  B. 
Kissling  in  Der  Deutsche  Protestantismus,  1817-1917:  eine  Geschicht- 
liche  Darstellung  (Munster,  Aschendorff,  1920,  2  vols.,  pp.  xii,  424;  xii, 
440). 

We  have  just  received  the  third  volume  of  the  Urkundenbuch  der 
Stadt  Heilbronn,  edited  by  Dr.  Moriz  von  Rauch  (Stuttgart,  1916,  pp. 
782).  It  pertains  to  the  years  1501-1524  and  is  published  as  the  nine- 
teenth volume  of  the  Wurttembergische  Geschichtsquellen  of  the  Wiirt- 
tembergische  Kommission  fur  Landesgeschichte. 

Otto  Vitense  has  published  a  satisfactory  Geschichte  von  Mecklen- 
burg (Gotha,  Perthes,  1920,  pp.  xxxiv,  610),  in  the  Allgemeine  Staaten- 
geschichte   series.     The   second  volume   of   W.  Jesse's   Geschichte  der 


Germany  187 

Stadt  Schwerin  (Schwerin,  Barensprung,  1920,  pp.  149)  deals  with  the 
nineteenth  century.     The  first  volume  was  published  in  1913. 

A  study  of  the  Treaty  of  Basel,  made  from  unpublished  documents  in 
the  archives  of  the  French  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  is  published  by 
E.  de  Marcere  under  the  title  La  Prusse  et  la  Rive  Gauche  dii  Rhin 
(Paris,  Alcan). 

L'AUemagne  et  VAvenir  de  I'Europe  d'apres  les  Lettres  Ineditcs  d'un 
Diplomate  Beige  en  1848  (Paris,  Berger-Levrault)  is  by  Comte  Renaud 
de  Briey. 

Moltke,  by  Lieut.-Col.  F.  E.  Whitton,  is  the  latest  addition  to  the 
series  of  Makers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  Constable). 

The  feelings  of  a  German  of  the  older  days  who  still  thinks  the 
dropping  of  Bismarck  the  great  blunder,  and  his  point  of  view  concern- 
ing Wilhelm's  management  of  German  affairs,  are  set  down  by  E.  Engel 
in  Ein  Tagebuch,  1914-iQia  (6  vols.,  1914-1920,  pp.  2056). 

The  fourth  volume  of  the  quarto  series  of  Memoires  et  Documents 
published  by  the  Societe  d'Histoire  et  dArcheologie  de  Geneve,  bearing 
the  imprint  of  1915,  has  just  reached  us.  It  is  a  beautifully  printed 
volume  of  over  200  pages,  illustrated  with  nearly  seventy  plates  and 
figures.  Following  an  historical  introduction  by  Victor  van  Berchem, 
the  contents  are  as  follows:  Les  Alliances  de  Geneve  avec  les  Cantons 
Suisses,  extracts  from  a  memoir  by  W.  Oechsli,  translated  and  annotated 
by  Victor  van  Berchem;  A  Geneve,  du  Conseil  des  Hallebardes  a  la 
Combourgeoisie  avec  Fribourg  et  Berne,  1 525-1 526,  by  fidouard  Favre ; 
Les  Efforts  des  Genevois  pour  etre  admis  dans  F  Alliance  Generale  des 
Ligues,  1548-1550,  by  Leon  Gautier;  Les  Monuments  de  lAlliance  de 
1584  conserves  a  Geneve,  by  Alfred  Cartier;  Les  Coupes  de  r  Alliance 
de  1584,  by  Victor  van  Berchem;  Les  Medailles  rappelant  les  Anciennes 
Relations  de  Geneve  et  des  Cantons  Suisses,  1584-1815,  by  Eugene 
Demole;  and  La  Chute,  la  Restauration  de  la  Republique  de  Geneve  et 
son  Entree  dans  la  Confederation  Suisse  (1798-1815),  by  Charles 
Borgeaud. 

The  first  volume  of  E.  Gagliardi's  Gcschichte  dcr  Schweis  von  den 
Anfdngcn  bis  auf  die  Gegenwart  (Zurich,  Rascher,  1920,  pp.  viii,  283) 
brings  the  account  to  the  end  of  the  Italian  war,  in  1516. 

G.  Heer  has  published  another  of  his  studies  in  nineteenth-century 
Swiss  history,  under  the  title  Der  Schweizer:  Bundesrat  von  184X 
(Glarus,  Glarner  Nachrichten,   1920,.  pp.  iv.  104). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Karl  Wenck,  Die  Romische  Kurie 
in  der  Schilderung  eines  Wiirzburger  Stiftsherm  aus  den  Jahrcn  1263- 
1264  (Historische  Zeitschrift.  CXXIV,  3)  ;  A.  L.  Veit,  Aus  der  Ge- 
schichte  der  Universitat  zu  Mains,  1477-1731  (Historiches  Jahrbuch, 
XL.)  ;  Preserved  Smith,  Englishmen  at  Wittenberg  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century  (English  Historical  Review,  July)  ;  Friedrich  Lenz,  Karl  Marx 
(Historische  Zeitschrift,  CXXIV.  3)  ;  R.  Kjellen,  Die  Koalitionspolitik 


1 88  Historical  News 

im  Zcitalter  1871-1914  (Schmoller's  Jahrbuch,  XLV.  1);  R.  Redslob, 
La  Constitution  Prussienne  (Revue  du  Droit  Public,  XXXVIII.  2)  ;  P. 
Matter,  La  Constitution  Prussienne  et  les  Elections  du  20  Fevrier,  1921 
(Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  XLIV.  2)  ;  G.  Wilke,  Die  Entwicklung 
der  Theorie  des  Staatlichen  Steuersystems  in  der  Deutschen  Finanzwis- 
senschaft  des  19  Jahrhunderts  (Finanz-Archiv,  XXXVIII.  1);  G.  Du- 
hamel,  Prague,  Avril,  192 1  (Mercure  de  France,  July  1)  ;  F.  Hartung, 
Carl  Augiost  von  Weimar  als  Landesherr  (Historische  Zeitschrift, 
CXXIV.  1 )  ;  A.  Rosenbaum,  Bibliographie  der  in  den  Jahren  1914  bis 
1918  Erschienenen,  Z eitschriftenaufsdtse  und  Biicher  zur  Deutschen 
Literaturgeschichte  (Euphorion,  XII.  1,  2);  Johannes  Schultze,  Zur 
Entstehungsgeschichte  der  Historischen  Zeitschrift,  with  letters  from  H. 
von  Sybel  to  Max  Duncker  of  1857-1858  (Historische  Zeitschrift, 
CXXIV,  3). 

NETHERLANDS  AND   BELGIUM 

The  next  publication  of  the  Dutch  Historical  Commission,  expected 
to  appear  this  winter,  will  be  the  first  of  two  volumes  of  papal  docu- 
ments illustrative  of  the  history  of  the  Eighty  Years'  War  for  inde- 
pendence, edited  by  Mgr.  A.  Hensen,  Documenten  over  de  Strijd  tegen 
de  Hervorming,  uit  Archieven  te  Roma. 

In  1922  will  be  published,  in  Professor  Brugmans's  attractive  illus- 
trated historical  series,  a  volume  on  Prince  Frederick  Henry,  lately 
completed  by  Professor  P.  J.  Blok  of  Leyden. 

No.  2  of  the  valuable  publications  of  the  society  called  Het  Neder- 
landsch  Economisch-Historisch  Archief  is  Dr.  N.  W.  Posthumus's  sec- 
ond volume  of  the  Documenten  betreffende  de  Buitenlandsche  Handels- 
politiek  van  Ncdcrland  in  de  Negentiende  Eeuw  (the  Hague,  Martinus 
Nijhoff,  1921,  pp.  xv,  494),  presenting  document's  in  English,  Dutch,  and 
French  concerning  Anglo-Dutch  commercial  negotiations  from  1814  to 
1838.     For  no.  3,  see  under  Asia,  post  (Japan). 

One  of  the  stormy  characters  of  Dutch  history  is  dealt  with  in  J.  S. 
van  Veen's  De  Laatste  Regecringsjarcn  von  Hcrtog  Arnold,  1456-1465 
(Arnheim,   Quint,   1920,  pp.   vi,    160). 

S.  Cuperus  has  published  vol.  II.  of  Kerkelijk  leven  der  Hervormden 
in  Fries! and  tijdens  de  Rcpubliek,  under  the  title  De  Gcmeente  Leeu- 
■wardcn  (Groningen,  Meijer  and  Schaafsma,  1920,  pp.  224). 

L'Ame  et  la  Vie  d'un  Peuple:  la  Hollande  dans  le  Monde  (Paris, 
Perrin,  1921)  is  by  H.  Asselin. 

Belgium  is  to  have  a  general  historical  and  philological  review,  based 
on  a  union  of  all  elements  interested  in  history  and  philology.  The  first 
number  will  appear  in  January  next.  The  conduct  of  this  Revue  Beige 
de  Philologie  et  d'Histoire  will  be  in  the  hands  of  a  managing  committee, 
with  its  secretarv  in  Brussels. 


Northern  and  Eastern  Europe  iSg 

Volume  V.  of  Henri  Pirenne's  Histoire  de  Belgique  (Brussels,  Lam- 
ertin,  1921,  pp.  xiii,  584)  covers  the  period  from  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia to  the  French  War  of  1792,  giving  a  detailed  account  of  the 
Austrian  regime.  The  book  is  especially  important  for  its  study  of 
Joseph  II. 

Eugene  Hubert,  rector  of  the  University  of  Liege,  has  already  pub- 
lished a  number  of  volumes  since  the  armistice  on  the  Austrian  period 
of  Belgian  history;  his  address  at  the  opening  of  the  session  of  the 
University  of  Liege  in  October,  1920,  appears  in  the  Rapport  sur  la 
Situation  de  I'Universite  pendant  VAnnee  igig-1020,  under  the  title 
"  Gouverneurs  Generaux  et  Ministres  Plenipotentiaires  aux  Pays-Bas  pen- 
dant les  Dernieres  Annees  du  Regime  Autrichien  ".  The  same  author 
has  also  published  recently  Notes  et  Documents  sur  I'Histoirc  da 
Protestantisme  dans  le  Duche  de  Luxembourg  an  XVIII.  Steele  (Brus- 
sels, Lamertin,  1920,  pp.  no). 

The  archivist  of  Turnhout,  Father  J.  E.  Jansen,  canon  of  the  Pre- 
monstratensian  Abbaye  du  Pare,  has  published  an  excellent  history  of 
his  order  in  Belgium,  topically  arranged,  La  Belgique  Norbertine  (Aver- 
bode,  Imprimerie  de  1' Abbaye,  192 1,  pp.  xxvi,  407). 

NORTHERN   AND   EASTERN   EUROPE 

General  Reviews :  P.  Chasles,  Le  Bolchevisme  Explique  par  1'S.tat 
Social  de  la  Russie,  avec  une  Bibliographie  (Revue  de  Synthese  His- 
torique,  XXXI.  91-93)  ;  G.  Tschudnowski,  Russiche  Sozialisten  iiber 
den  Krieg  (Archiv  fur  die  Geschichte  des  Socialismus  und  der  Arbeiter- 
bewegung,  IX.  2,  3). 

B.  Erichsen  and  A.  Krarup  have  published  Dansk  Historisk  Bibli- 
ografi  (Copenhagen,  Gad,  1920,  pp.  160). 

M.  S.  Hansson  is  the  author  of  Norges  Fiorhold  overfor  Danmark  i 
1863-1864  (Christiania,  Aschehoug,  1920,  pp.  94). 

Two  recent  books  on  Finland  are,  E.  Moltesen,  Det  Finske  Finland: 
en  Kulturhistorisk  Oversigt  (Copenhagen,  Gyldendal,  1920,  pp.  168), 
and  Fran  Finlands  Frihetskrig  (Stockholm,  Norstedt,  1920,  pp.  236),  by 
E.  Linder. 

Jules  Legras,  whose  knowledge  of  Russia  is  founded  on  his  travels  in 
that  country  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  in  his  Memoires  de  Russie  (Paris, 
Payot)  gives  an  account  of  his  life  with  the  Russian  army.  The  chapter 
on  the  Roumanian  front,  his  characterizations  of  Russian  officers  and 
soldiers,  and  his  discussion  of  the  breakdown  of  the  army  and  the  rise 
of  Bolshevism,  are  remarkable  contributions,  and  will  give  the  book  an 
important  place.  Ossip-Lourie's  La  Revolution  Russc  (Paris,  Rieder, 
pp.  112)  attempts  to- cover  everything  since  1914  in  too  brief  compass. 
It  is  strongly  sympathetic  to  Lenine  and  pictures  him  as  an  incorruptible 
puritan.  The  reminiscences  of  a  Riga  physician  are  recorded  in  W. 
Lieven's  Das  Rote  Russland,  Augenblicksbildcr  aits  den  Tagen  der  Gros- 


i<3°  Historical  Nezvs 

sen  Russischen  Revolution  (Berlin,  pp.  212).  Maurice  Verstraet  has 
published  his  daily  notes  from  May,  1915,  to  September,  1918,  under  the 
title  Mes  Cahiers  Russes  (Paris,  Cres). 

Important  first-hand  accounts  of  the  history  of  the  White  Army  and 
of  the  events  which  attended  its  downfall  are  to  be  found  in  V  Stanye 
Byelikh  (In  the  Camp  of  the  Whites),  by  G.  N.  Rakovski,  a  journalist 
who  accompanied  it,  and  in  Pravlcnic  Generala  Denikina  (General  Deni- 
kin's  Government),  by  Professor  K.  N.  Sokolov,  who  occupied  an  im- 
portant post  in  that  government  (Paris,  Povolozki,  both). 

Pohod  Kwnilova  (The  Kornilov  Campaign),  by  Alexei  Suvorin 
(Rostov-on-the-Don,  Novoe  Vremya  Press),  is  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  the  history  of  the  Volunteer  Army,  with  a  vivid  and  intelligent 
account  of  its  exploits  from  its  formation  at  the  beginning  of  1918  down 
to  the  death  of  its  leader. 

Mr.  David  R.  Francis  has  brought  out,  through  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  an  account  of  the  Russian  Revolution  as  he  saw  it.  The  book  is 
entitled  Russia  from  the  American  Embassy,  April,  1916-November, 
1918. 

W.  Le  Queux,  the  historian  of  Rasputin,  completes  the  striking  reve- 
lations of  his  two  preceding  volumes,  Raspoutine,  le  Moine  Scelerat  and 
La  Vie  Secrete  de  la  Tsarine  Tragique,  with  a  new  volume  entitled,  Le 
Ministre  du  Mai:  Memoir es  de  Teodor  Rajevski,  Secretaire  Prive  de 
Raspoutine  (Paris,  Cres,  1921,  pp.  256).  P.  Gilliard,  former  preceptor 
of  the  Grand  Duke  Alexis,  has  published  Le  Tragique  Destin  de  Nicolas 
II.  et  de  sa  Famille:  Treise  Annies  a  la  Cour  de  Russie,  Peterhof, 
Septembre,  1905,  Ekaterinbourg,  Mai,  1918  (Paris,  Payot,  pp.  264).  He 
was  an  eye-witness  of  the  last  days  of  the  royal  family  and  escaped  only 
by  grace  of  a  "happy  caprice  of  the  Bolshevists".  The  volume  is  illus- 
trated with  sixty-two  photographs. 

La  Pologne  et  les  Polonais  (Paris,  Bossard,  pp.  390),  by  Doctor  V. 
Bugiel,  is  a  resume,  geographic,  ethnographic,  historical,  and  cultural. 

Les  Institutions  Politiqueis  en  Pologne  aux  XIXe  Siecle  (Paris, 
Picard,  1921,  pp.  270)  is  the  work  of  Bohdan  Winiarski,  who  was  one 
of  the  legal  counsellors  of  the  Polish  delegation  at  the  Peace  Conference. 

One  of  the  most  actively  discussed  topics  of  the  day  is  dealt  with  in 
V.  Rzymowski's  La  Pologne  et  la  Haute-Silcsie,  traduit  du  Polonais  par 
T.  Warymki  (Paris,  Bossard,  pp.  40). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  M.  Paleologue,  La  Russie  des 
Tsars  pendant  la  Grande  Guerre,  V.,  Nicolas  II.  a  la  Tete  de  ses  Troupes ; 
VI.,  Nicolas  II.  Fidele  a  V Alliance  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  May  I, 
15)  ;  H.  F.  Crohn- Wolf  gang.  Die  Baltischen  Randstaatcn  und  Hire  Han- 
delspolitische  Bedeutung  (Schmoller's  Jahrbuch,  XLVI.  1)  ;  Maj.  E.  E. 
Farman,  jr.,  The  Polish-Bolshevik  Campaigns  of  1920  (Cavalry  Journal, 
July);  Maj. -Gen.  A.  E.  Martynov,  Russian  Generals  and  Bolshevism: 
the  Latter  Days  of  the  Russian  Army  (Army  Quarterly,  April). 


Southeastern  Europe  191 

SOUTHEASTERN   EUROPE 

Essays  on  the  Latin  Orient,  by  Mr.  William  Miiler  (Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press),  contains  papers  on  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  on 
the  Medieval  Serbian  Empire,  on  Bosnia  before  the  Turkish  Conquest, 
and  on  the  Roman,  Byzantine,  Frankish,  Venetian,  Genoese,  and  Turkish 
dominations  in  Greece. 

Doctor  Mitrovitch  of  the  University  of  Geneva  has  written  an  inter- 
esting book  under  the  title,  Une  Voix  Serbe  (Paris,  Payot,  1920,  pp. 
224).  It  centres  about  Nicholas  Pashitch,  whose  predominance  since 
1881  has  been  the  outstanding  feature  of  Serbian  political  history. 

La  Roumanie  Nouvelle  (Paris,  Roger,  1920,  pp.  267),  by  A.  Muzet, 
is  a  book  of  popular  character  by  a  Balkan  expert.  Les  Questions  Rou- 
maines  du  Temps  Present  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  iv,  186)  is  a  collection 
of  lectures  by  T.  Jonesco,  D.  Hurmuzesco,  V.  Dimitriv,  E.  Pangrati, 
C.  M.  Sipsom,  J.  Gavanesco,  D.  Negulesco,  and  J.  Ursu. 

An  effort  to  discuss  the  character  of  the  Turkish  people  so  that 
Western  people  may  understand  them  is  made  by  A.  T.  Wegner  in  Im 
House  der  Gliickseligkeit :  Aufzeichnungcn  aits  dcr  Tiirkei  (Dresden, 
Sybillen  Verlag,  1920,  pp.  vii,  212).  Personal  impressions  of  the  Turks 
are  contained  in  H.  Myles,  La  Fin  de  Stamboul:  Essai  stir  le  Monde 
Turc  (Paris,  Sansot,  1921,  pp.  216).  Gaston  Gaillard's  Les  Turcs  et 
I'Europe  (Paris,  Chapelot,  1920,  pp.  384)  is  a  discussion  of  the  Sevres 
Treaty.  P.  Redan  has  written  La  Cilicie  et  le  Probleme  Ottoman  (Paris, 
Gautier-Villars,  pp.  viii,  148).  He  deals  with  the  subject  objectively, 
and  in  a  well-documented  volume  attempts  an  impartial  discussion. 

An  investigation  into  Des  Sources  du  Droit  Musulman  (Algiers, 
Mourad  ben  Turqui,  1920,  pp.  228)  is  by  A.  ben  Cheikh  Charce  ben 
Jekkouk. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  M.  A.  Nekludoff,  Avant  la  Guerre 
Mondiale:  la  Paix  de  Bucarest  de  191 3  (Revue  d'Histoire  Diplomatique, 
XXXI.  1 )  ;  Jerome  and  Jean  Tharaud,  Bolchevistes  de  Hongrie,  III., 
La  Jerusalem  Nouvelle  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  June  1)  ;  A.  E.  R. 
Boak,  Greek  Intrastate  Assiociations  and  the  League  of  Nations  (Ameri- 
can Journal  of  International  Law,  July)  ;  G.  Georges-Picot,  La  Politique 
Exterieure  de  la  Republique  Tchccdslovaque  (Revue  des  Sciences  Poli- 
tiques,  XLIV.  2)  ;  R.  Noury,  Le  Poete  Nedim  et  la  Societe  Ottomane  cm 
XVIIIe  Siecle  (Mercure  de  France,  June  15)  ;  M.  Bompard,  L'Entree 
en  Guerre  de  la  Turquic,  I.  (Revue  de  Paris,  July  1). 

ASIA,   MEDIEVAL  AND   MODERN 

The  early  history  of  the  French  establishments  and  rule  in  India  is 
illustrated  in  detail  by  the  series  of  volumes  published  at  Pondicherry  by 
the  Societe  de  l'Histoire  de  l'lnde  Franqaise,  of  which  the  latest  is  vol.  I. 
of  the  Correspondance  du  Conseil  Superieur  de  Pondichery  et  de  la 
Compagnie,  i'?z6-i,/301  edited  by  M.  Alfred  Martineau. 


192  Historical  News 

Sir  Aurel  Stein  is  about  to  publish  the  full  report  of  his  remarkable 
explorations  of  Central  Asia  in  1906-1908,  supplemented  by  those  of 
1913—1916,  in  three  large  volumes  entitled  Serindia:  Detailed  Report  of 
Explorations  in  Central  Asia  and  Westernmost  China  (Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press).  Appendixes  will  contain  annotated  translations  of  Chi- 
nese inscriptions  and  records,  by  the  late  fidouard  Chavannes,  a  list  of 
the  great  collection  of  ancient  manuscripts  brought  back,  by  the  late  Dr. 

A.  F.  R.  Hoernle,  notes  on  Tibetan  documents  and  inscriptions  by  other 
scholars,  etc. 

G.  Groslier,  in  Rcchcrchcs  sur  les  Cambodgiens  (Paris,  Challamel), 
gives  not  only  an  account  of  social  life  as  interpreted  from  the  monu- 
ments and  manuscripts  available,  but  has  illustrated  his  work  with  200 
photographs  and   1,153  drawings. 

As  its  volume  for  1920,  the  Linschoten  Vereeniging  has  published  the 
Verhaal  van  het  Vergaan  van  het  Jacht  de  Sperwer  (pp.  liii,  165),  by 
Hendrik  Hamel  of  Gorkum,  edited  by  Mr.  B.  Hoetink.  Hamel  was  the 
bookkeeper  of  the  Sperwer,  shipwrecked  on  Quelpaert  Island  in  1653, 
and  his  book,  published  in  1668,  relates  the  adventures  of  the  crew  from 
that  date  to  1665  and  gives  the  first  European  description  of  Corea. 
The  present  edition  contains  much  additional  matter. 

T.  Miyaoka,  formerly  charge  of  Japan  at  Washington,  discusses  Le 
Progrcs  des  Institutions  Liberates  au  Japon  (Paris,  Dumoulin,  1921,  pp. 
60)  ;  Le  Mouvement  Ouvrier  au  Japon  (Paris,  La  Librairie  de  I'Hu- 
inanitc.  1921,  pp.  no)   is  by  F.  Challaye. 

The  Victorian  Historical  Magazine  for  May  contains  the  concluding 
part  of  the  History  of  the  Victorian  Ballot,  by  Professor  Ernest 
Scott;    the    Beginnings    of    Brunswick     (suburb    of    Melbourne),    by 

B.  Cooke;  and  the  first  installment  of  an  interesting  paper  by  G.  B. 
Vasey  on  Social  Life  in  Melbourne  in  1840,  based  on  the  diary  of 
Anthony  Beale. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Lord  Chelmsford's  Viceroyalty 
[in  India]  (Quarterly  Review.  July)  ;  Sir  Michael  O'Dwyer,  India's 
Man-Power  in  the  War  (Army  Quarterly,  July). 

AFRICA,  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN 
Saint  Optat  et  les  Premiers  ticrivains  Donatistes  (Paris,  Leroux,  1920, 

pp.  350)   is  the  title  of  the  fifth  volume  of  P.  Monceaux's  Histoirc  Lit- 

teraire  de  I'Afrique  Chretienne  depnis  les  Origincs  jusqu'a  I'Invasion 

Arabe. 

In  the  Publications  de  la  Section  Historique  du  Maroc,  Lieut.-Col. 

H.  de  Castries  has  published  Les  Sources  Incdites  de  VHistoire  du  Maroc 

(Paris,  Leroux,  1921,  pp.  654). 

An  important  volume  of  memoirs  is  General  von  Lettow-Vorbeck's 

Meine  Erinnerungen   aus  Ostafrica   (Leipzig,  Koehler.   1920,  pp.  302). 

He  took  command  in  East  Africa  shortly  before  the  opening  of  the  war. 


America  193 

With  3.000  Europeans  and  11,000  residents  of  Africa,  he  was  called  upon 
to  hold  for  four  years  a  territory  twice  as  big  as  Germany.  At  the  end 
he  had  a  force  of  300,000  men  and  130  generals.  Besides  the  great  in- 
terest which  naturally  attaches  to  such  an  account,  the  book  reveals  the 
resources  and  possibilities  of  an  area  not  very  well  known. 

AMERICA 

GENERAL   ITEMS 

The  recent  acquisitions  of  the  Manuscripts  Division  of  the  Library 
of  Congress  have  been  large  and  important.  There  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  it  from  the  White  House  the  letter-books  of  President  Grant 
(four  volumes.  1869-1877).  of  which  two  volumes  are  described  in  Van 
Tyne  and  Leland's  Guide,  p.  1,  from  the  Navy  Department  the  papers 
of  Commodore  John  Rodgers.  1775— 1S36,  described  ibid.,  pp.  187-188, 
and  from  the  War  Department  the  volume  of  letters  from  the  Presi- 
dents relating  to  the  city  of  Washington,  1 791-1869,  ibid.,  p.  30.  The 
papers  of  Simon  Newcomb,  which  have  been  on  deposit  under  com- 
plete restriction  since  1909,  are  now  open  to  investigators.  Other  acces- 
sions are  as  follows:  letter-book  of  Samuel  Davidson,  a  merchant  of 
Georgetown,  D.  C.  1789-1809;  minutes  of  the  meetings  of  the  Car- 
penters' Society  of  Baltimore.  1 790-1 804;  eleven  letters  from  Gayoso  de 
Lemos  to  Winthrop  Sargent,  1798-1799;  papers  of  John  Cabell  Breckin- 
ridge, about  8.000  pieces,  1841-1S73;  diaries  of  Richard  R.  Crawford. 
1843-1844,  and  Laura  Jones  Crawford.  1839.  both  of  Georgetown.  D.  C. ; 
miscellaneous  letters  to  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  about  800  pieces,  1846- 
1894;  additions  to  the  papers  of  Admiral  George  C.  Remey,  U.  S.  N„ 
1855-1920;  additional  papers  of  Admiral  Charles  S.  Sperry.  U.  S.  X., 
1887-1909;  papers  of  Gen.  William  C.  Gorgas.  U.  S.  A.;  German 
broadsides,  domestic  propaganda.  1914-191S;  records  of  activities  of  the 
National  Women's  Party  in  working  for  the  adoption  of  the  nineteenth 
amendment  to  the  Constitution,  1917-1920. 

The  Library  of  Congress  has  published  its  List  of  American  Doctoral 
Dissertations  printed  in  101S,  prepared  by  Miss  Katharine  Jacobs  (Wash- 
ington, 1921,  pp.  200).  The  volume  contains  also  supplementary  lists  of 
theses  printed  in  1914.  19 16,  and  1917.  The  output  of  1918  numbers  360 
dissertations,  of  which  thirty-four  are  listed  under  the  classification  of 
history.  The  volume  is  for  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  at 
thirty-five  cents. 

The  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace  has  published,  as 
no.  38  of  its  Pamphlet  Series,  Niotes  on  Sovereignty  from  the  Stand- 
point of  the  State  and  of  the  World,  by  Robert  Lansing,  from 
papers  previously  printed  in  the  American  Journal  of  International  Law 
and  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Political  Science  Association. 

Articles  in  the  June  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Presbyterian  His- 
torical Society  are  :  the  Attitude  of  the  Presbyterians  in  Ohio,  Indiana, 

AMER.  HIST.  REV.  VOL.   XXVII. —  IJ. 


194  Historical  Nezvs 

and  Illinois  toward  Slavery,  1825-1861,  by  Rev.  John  F.  Lyons;  Presby- 
terianism  in  Colonial  New  England,  by  Professor  Frederick  W.  Loet- 
scher;  and  the  concluding  installment  of  the  Records  of  the  Middle  As- 
sociation of  Congregational  Churches  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1806- 
1810,  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  John  Quincy  Adams. 

The  Catholic  Historical  Review  for  July,  the  second  number  of  the 
new  series,  shows  a  tendency  to  excursions  outside  the  field  of  history, 
into  the  domain  of  philosophy  and  theology.  The  leading  articles  are : 
the  Increase  and  the  Diffusion  of  Historical  Knowledge,  by  Rev.  Fran- 
cis J.  Betten,  S.  J.,  a  plea  for  research  in  Catholic  history;  the  Cen- 
tenary of  the  Archd'ocese  of  Quebec,  by  the  late  Right  Reverend  Lionel 
St.  George  Lindsay,  dean  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  Quebec ;  the  Literary 
Influence  of  St.  Jerome,  by  Rev.  William  P.  H.  Kitchin ;  and  Kant  under 
the  Light  of  History,  by  Rev.  M.  J.  Ryan.  Under  the  caption  Mis- 
cellany is  an  informing  note  by  Rev.  Philip  Hughes  on  History  Teach- 
ing at  Louvain. 

The  American  Society  of  International  Law  has  published  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  its  fifteenth  annual  meeting,  held  in  Washington  in  April  of 
the  present  year.  Three  of  the  papers  here  printed  have  interest  for 
students  of  history :  the  Munitions  Trade,  by  Lester  H.  Woolsey ;  Con- 
ditional Contraband,  by  Charles  C.  Hyde;  and  Continuous  Voyage,  by 
George  G.  Wilson. 

Training  for  the  Public  Profession  of  the  Law  is  the  title  of  Bulletin 
no.  15  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching 
(New  York,  1921,  pp.  498).  The  author,  Mr.  Alfred  Z.  Reed,  has 
treated  this  subject  throughout  from  the  historical  point  of  view  and  has 
made  it  substantially  a  history  of  legal  education  in  America.  The  sub- 
ject is  treated  under  the  following  principal  headings:  (1)  Comparative 
development  of  law  and  the  legal  profession  in  England,  Canada,  and 
the  United  States;  (2)  Organ-'zation  and  recruiting  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession in  the  United  States;  (3)  Rise  and  multiplication  of  law-schools; 
(4)  Rise  of  a  new  legal  profession  after  the  Civil  War,  organized  in  bar 
associations;  (5)  Changes  in  bar  admission  requirements;  (6)  Efforts  to 
broaden  the  training  of  lawyers  during  the  first  quarter-century  after 
the  Civil  War;  (7)  Efforts  to  intensify  the  training  of  lawyers  during 
the  first  quarter-century  after  the  Civil  War;  (8)  Recent  development 
and  present  condition  of  legal  education.  The  appendix  contains  lists 
of  law  schools,  statistical  tables,  early  law-school  curricula,  and  a  bibli- 
ography. 

The  lectures  delivered  by  Professor  J.  W.  Garner  in  various  French 
universities  have  been  published  under  the  title,  Idees  et  Institutions 
Politiques  Americaines  (Paris,  Giard,  1921,  pp.  xii,  256).  These  evoked 
a  very  favorable  response  in  France,  and  the  publication  of  them  there 
was  warmly  received. 


America  195 

The  Roosevelt  Memorial  Association,  at  1  Madison  Avenue,  New 
York  City,  is  collecting  material  relating  to  the  late  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
It  especially  desires  to  secure  letters  written  by  him,  or  personal  remi- 
niscences concerning  him,  or  unusual  books,  pamphlets,  cartoons,  clip- 
pings, photographs,  and  other  material  bearing  upon  his  life  and  interests. 

With  the  issue  for  May,  1921  (no.  67),  the  Monthly  List  of  Military 
Information  Carded  from  Books,  Periodicals  and  other  Sources,  which  has 
been  published  since  1915  by  the  library  of  the  General  Staff  College, 
War  Department,  is  discontinued. 

Miscellaneous  Essays  in  the  History  of  Music  (Macmillan),  by  O.  G. 
Sonneck,  formerly  chief  of  the  Music  Division  in  the  Library  of  Con- 
gress, contains  several  contributions  to  American  musical  history:  the 
History  of  Music  in  America;  Early  American  Operas;  the  First 
Edition  of  Hail  Columbia;  etc. 

ITEMS  ARRANGED  IN  CHRONOLOGICAL  ORDER 

Mr.  Rudolf  Cronau  (340  East  198th  Street,  New  York  City)  has 
published  in  English,  under  the  title  The  Discovery  of  America  and  the 
Landfall  of  Columbus,  the  substance,  somewhat  amplified,  of  the  reports 
of  his  investigation  respecting  the  landfall  of  Columbus  and  his  place  of 
burial,  which  originally  appeared  as  Amcrika,  die  Gcschichte  seiner 
Entdeckung  (Leipzig,  1891-1892),  and  which  was  commented  on  at 
length  by  the  late  Charles  K.  Adams,  in  the  Annual  Report  for  1801  of 
the  American  Historical  Association. 

The  student  of  the  history  of  the  Revolution,  provided  he  can  read 
Dutch,  will  find  a  great  deal  of  fresh  light  cast  on  one  episode  of  that 
history  by  a  Leyden  doctoral  dissertation  by  Dr.  F.  W.  van  Wijk,  De 
Rcpublick  en  Amerika,  IJJ6  tot  1782  ( Leyden,  E.  J.  Brill,  1921,  pp.  xxxviii, 
211),  in  which  the  course  of  political  action  and  especially  of  public 
opin;on  in  the  Netherlands  respecting  the  American  struggle  before  and 
after  the  missions  of  Laurens  and  Adams  and  the  entrance  of  the  Dutch 
into  the  war,  Paul  Jones  in  Holland,  etc.,  are  carefully  studied.  Un- 
fortunately, war-time  conditions  deprived  Mr.  van  Wijk  of  the  use  of 
most  of  the  needful  American  sources.  His  book  is  therefore  a  com- 
plement to  Dr.  Friedrich  Edler's  The  Dutch  Republic  and  the  American 
Revolution,  rather  than  a  substitute  for  it. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  has  published  as  Bulletin  no.  283 
(May,  pp.  107)  a  History  of  the  Shipbuilding  Labor  Adjustment  Board, 
1917-1919,  by  Willard  E.  Hotchkiss  and  Henry  R.  Seager. 

The  Official  Report  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Seventeenth  Republi- 
can National  Convention  (1920),  reported  by  George  L.  Hart  and  pub- 
lished under  the  supervision  of  the  general  secretary  of  the  convention, 
has  been  issued  by  the  Tenny  Press.  318  W.  39th  Street,  New  York. 

Professor  A.  A.  Bruce  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  is  the  author 
of  a  work  on  the  Non-Partisan  League,  which  has  been  included  in  Mac- 
millan's  Citizens'  Library  of  Economics,  Politics,  and  Sociology. 


196  Historical  News 

THE   UNITED  STATES  IN   THE  GREAT   WAR 

The  Plattsburg  Movement:  a  Chapter  of  America's  Participation  in 
the  World  War  (Dutton),  by  Ralph  B.  Perry,  tells  the  story  of  the 
students'  camps  of  1913  and  of  the  organization  of  the  Military  Training 
Camps  Association,  discusses  the  government's  military  policy  on  the  eve 
of  the  war,  etc. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company  has  brought  out  A  Journal  of  the  Great 
War,  in  two  volumes,  by  Gen.  Charles  G.  Dawes,  now  director  of  the 
Federal  budget.  General  Dawes  was  purchasing  agent  in  Europe  for 
the  American  armies,  and  the  journal  pertains  principally  to  matters  in 
his  department. 

The  War  Department  has  published  in  its  series  Records  of  the 
World  War,  the  Field  Orders  of  the  2d  Army  Corps  (pp.  40),  and  the 
Field  Orders,  1918,  of  the  5th  Division  (pp.  175).  The  Historical 
Branch  has  published  as  Monograph  no.  10,  Operations  of  the  2d  Ameri- 
can Corps  in  the  Somme  Offensive,  August  S  to  November  11,  1918 
(pp.  40). 

The  115th  Infantry,  U.  S.  A.,  in  the  World  War,  edited  by  F.  C. 
Reynolds,  is  published  by  the  editor,  2908  Parkwood  Avenue,  Baltimore. 

The  first  volume  of  the  Indiana  World  War  Records,  published  by 
the  Indiana  Historical  Commission,  John  W.  Oliver,  director,  bears  the 
title  Gold  Star  Honor  Roll,  1014-1918  (Indianapolis,  1921,  pp.  750).  It 
contains,  arranged  by  counties,  brief  notices  of  the  men  and  women 
from  Indiana  who  died  while  serving  with  the  forces  of  the  United 
States  or  of  the  Allies  during  the  World  War.  Each  of  the  more  than 
3,000  notices  includes,  so  far  as  possible,  the  names  of  parents,  date  and 
place  of  the  subject's  birth,  occupation,  camps,  service  records,  date  and 
place  of  death  and  burial,  and  photograph. 

The  War  History  Department  of  the  California  Historical  Survey 
Commission  has  issued  a  pamphlet  (pp.  90)  containing  the  war  addresses, 
proclamations,  and  patriot'c  messages  of  Governor  William  D.  Stephens. 
It  is  entitled  California  in  the  War. 

LOCAL  ITEMS  ^ARRANGED  IN   GEOGRAPHICAL  ORDER 

NEW   ENGLAND 

The  listing  of  family  cemeteries  in  New  England,  and  so  far  as  possi- 
ble their  restoration  and  preservation,  is  the  object  of  a  movement  inaug- 
urated by  the  Storrs  Family  Association  at  its  last  meeting  in  Connecti- 
cut. It  is  seeking  the  co-operation  of  historical  agencies  and  societies 
in  that  section  of  the  country. 

Boston  Common:  Scenes  from  Four  Centuries,  by  M.  A.  DeWolfe 
Howe,  which  was  originally  published  in  1910  in  a  limited  large-paper 
edition,  has  been  brought  out  in  a  smaller  and  less  expensive  form  by 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  with  the  addition  of  a  "  Postscript,  1921  " 
by  the  author.     In  this  little  book  the  story  of  perhaps  the  most  historic 


America  197 

piece  of  public  ground  in  America  is  told  in  charming  fashion  through 
the  description  of  typical  events  which  took  place  there  during  the  four 
centuries  which  its  history  spans. 

The  Connecticut  Valley  Historical  Society  has  brought  out  The  His- 
tory of  Springfield  in  Massachusetts  for  the  Young:  being  also  in  some 
Part  the  History  of  other  Towns  and  Cities  in  the  Cvunty  of  Hampden, 
by  Charles  H.  Barrows. 

The  annual  report  of  the  librarian  of  the  Connecticut  Historical 
Society  lists  a  number  of  important  manuscript  accessions  during  the 
past  year.  Among  them  are  account  books  of  business  firms  and  indi- 
viduals in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries;  the  journal  of  Ensign 
Joseph  Booth  during  the  French  and  Indian  War;  the  papers  of  Judge 
Sherman  W.  Adams;  letters  to  Franklin  G.  Comstock  of  Hartford  in 
1835-1837,  relating  to  the  silk  industry;  papers  of  several  families,  espe- 
cially Bull,  Dodd,  Newton,  and  Weaver;  shipping  and  other  papers  of 
Ralph  Bulkley,  1810-1830;  and  the  correspondence  of  Charles  McLaren, 
1847-1890. 

MIDDLE   COLONIES    AND    STATES 

Volume  XVII.  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  New  York  State  Historical 
Association  (1919,  pp.  480)  contains  the  report  of  the  nineteenth  annual 
meeting  of  the  association,  held  in  New  York  City  in  October,  1917- 
Among  the  papers  printed  in  the  present  volume  should  be  noted  the 
following:  the  Representative  Idea  and  the  American  Revolution,  by 
Professor  Robert  M.  McElroy;  the  First  New  York  State  Constitution, 
by  Professor  Edgar  Dawson ;  the  Earliest  Years  of  the  Dutch  Settlement 
of  New  Netherland.  by  Worthington  C.  Ford;  the  Beginnings  of  Daily 
Journalism  in  New  York  City,  by  Francis  W.  Halsey;  Federating  and 
Affiliating  Local  Historical  Societies,  by  James  Sullivan;  King's  College 
and  the  Early  Days  of  Columbia  College,  by  John  B.  Pine;  Some  English 
Governors  of  New  York  and  their  Part  in  the  Development  of  the  Col- 
ony, by  Frank  H.  Severance ;  Growth  of  Religious  Liberty  in  New.  York 
City,  by  Nelson  P.  Mead;  Early  History  of  Staten  Island,  by  Ira  K. 
Norris;  and  the  Landed  Gentry  and  their  Politics  a  Hundred  Years  Ago, 
by  Dixon  R.  Fox.  The  volume  also  contains  (pp.  278-299)  Writings  on 
New  York  History  1916,  drawn  from  Miss  Griffin's  Writings  on  Ameri- 
can History  for  the  same  year,  and  (pp.  301-428)  Soldiers  of  the  Cham- 
plain  Valley  chiefly  in  the  colonial  and  Revolutionary  wars,  printed  from 
the  card-list  compiled  by  Silas  H.  Paine. 

The  June  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 
contains  part  I.  of  a  list  of  references  on  Provenqal  Literature  and  Lan- 
guage, including  the  Local  History  of  Southern  France.  The  list  is 
continued  in  the  July  number,  which  contains  also  chapter  XVIII.  of 
the  History  of  the  New  York  Public  Library. 

Longmans,  Green,  and  Company  have  brought  out  a  biography  of 
David  Hummell  Greer,  Eighth  Bishop  of  New  York,  by  Rev.  Char'.es 
L.  Slatterv. 


198  Historical  News 

The  July  number  of  the  New  York  Genealogical  and  Biographical 
Record  contains  a  brief  sketch  of  Levi  P.  Morton. 

The  New  York  Historical  Society  Quarterly  Bulletin  of  July  con- 
tains a  historical  sketch  of  Blackwell's  Island,  and  some  documents  per- 
taining to  Stamp  Act  Activities  in  New  York,  1765. 

The  July  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  New  Jefscy  Historical 
Society  contains  a  paper  by  Samuel  Copp  Worthen  on  the  Secession  of 
New  Jersey  (1775-1776),  one  by  Hon.  Frederick  W.  Gnitchel  on  the  End 
of  Duelling  in  New  Jersey,  a  Historical  Address  on  Sussex  County,  by 
Hon.  Wil!ard  W.  Cutler,  and  a  continuation  of  the  Condict  Revolutionary 
Record  Abstracts. 

The  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvan;a  has  acquired  a  group  of  ten 
letters  written  by  Generals  Wayne,  St.  Clair,  Ree.d.  and  Sullivan,  and 
by  John  Witherspoon  relating  to  the  mutiny  in  the  Pennsylvania  Line 
during  the  Revolution.  There  have  also  been  acquired  two  diaries  and 
an  account  book  kept  by  Mrs.  Mary  Scott  Siddons  dur'ng  the  years 
1887-1890. 

In  the  October,  1920,  number  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  His- 
tory and  Biography  appear  some  Items  of  History  of  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, during  the  Revolution,  drawn  from  the  diaries  of  the  Moravian 
congregation  at  York;  Selections  from  the  Correspondence  of  Judge 
Richard  Peters  of  Belmont,  ranging  in  date  from  1793  to  1807,  and  in- 
cluding letters  from  Washington,  Timothy  Pickering,  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush,  Gen.  James  Wilkinson,  and  Rev.  William  Smith ;  some  letters  from 
the  Dreer  Collection  of  Manuscripts,  comprising  two  letters  of  Cecil  Cal- 
vert to  Horatio  Sharpe,  1755  and  1757,  and  two  from  Robert  Dinwiddie 
to  an  unknown  correspondent,  1755  and  1764;  a  sketch  of  Brig.-Gen. 
George  Mathews;  and  a  continuation  of  the  correspondence  of  Thomas 
Rodney,  contributed  by  Mr.  Simon  Gratz. 

The  contents  of  the  July  number  of  the  Western  Pennsylvania  His- 
torical Magazine  include  an  address  by  Hon.  Josiah  Cohen  entitled  Half 
a  Century  of  the  Allegheny  County  Bar  Association,  an  article  by  Irene 
E.  Williams  on  the  Operation  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  Western 
Pennsylvania  from  1850  to  i860,  and  a  continuation  of  the  paper  by 
John  H.  Niebaum  on  the  Pittsburgh  Blues,  being  the  story  of  Fort  Meigs. 

SOUTHERN    COLONIES    AND    STATES 

The  June  number  of  the  Maryland  Historical  Magazine  contains,  be- 
sides continued  articles  hitherto  mentioned,  an  extended  study,  by  W.  B. 
Marye,  of  the  Baltimore  County  "  Garrison "  and  the  Old  Garrison 
Roads,  and  Some  Letters  from  the  Correspondence  of  James  Alfred 
Pearce,  senator  of  the  United  States  from  1843  to  1863.  Among  the 
correspondents  are :  Reverdy  Johnson,  Thomas  Corwin,  Samuel  Houston, 
E.  F.  Chambers,  and  W.  H.  Emory,  the  latter  being  a  major,  afterward 


America  199 

a  major-general,  of  volunteers  in  the  United  States  army.  The  corre- 
spondence is  edited  by  Dr.  B.  C.  Steiner. 

The  completion  of  the  equipment  of  the  Archives  Annex  of  the  Vir- 
ginia State  Library  has  made  possible  the  transfer  to  the  new  depository 
of  certain  records  of  the  auditor's  and  treasurer's  offices.  The  records 
of  the  Circuit  Court  of  Charles  City,  with  the  exception  of  the  deed  and 
will  books,  have  also  been  transferred. 

The  Virginia  Magazine  of  History  and  Biography  prints  in  the  July 
number  a  series  of  letters  to  David  Watson,  a  lawyer  of  Louisa  Court 
House  and  an  officer  in  the  Virginia  forces  in  the  War  of  1812.  The 
letters  are  from  Chapman  Johnson.  Robert  Michie,  Joseph  C.  Cabe'l,  and 
Francis  W.  Gilmer,  and  were  principally  written  from  William  and 
Mary  College,  between-the  years  1797  and  1802.  One  letter  from  Gilmer 
is  dated  at  Richmond  in  1818,  and  another  from  Edinburgh  in  1824. 
This  number  of  the  Magazine  includes  also  the  Virginia  War  History 
Commission's  Calendar  of  Military  Histories,  Narratives,  and  Reports, 
collected  for  the  Virginia  war  arch:ves.  The  series  of  Documents  relat- 
ing to  a  proposed  Swiss  and  German  Colony  in  the  Western  Part  of 
Virginia  is  brought  to  a  conclusion. 

The  contents  of  the  July  number  of  the  William  and  Mary  College 
Quarterly  include  the  Family  Register  of  Nicholas  Taliaferro,  with 
notes,  contributed  by  William  Buckner  McGroarty;  the  Quaker's  Atti- 
tude toward  the  Revolution,  by  Adair  P.  Archer;  some  Letters  of  Wil- 
liam Byrd  II.  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane  relative  to  Plants  and  Minerals  in 
Virginia  (1706-1741)  ;  and  a  letter  contributed  by  R.  M.  Hughes,  from 
Charles  C.  Johnston  to  John  B.  Floyd,  dated  at  Washington,  December 
16,  1831. 

Recent  additions  to  the  manuscript  collections  of  the  North  Carolina 
Historical  Commission  include  the  following:  Diary  of  James  Iredell, 
1770-1772;  additions  to  the  John  H.  Bryan  papers,  147  letters  from  1783 
to  1896;  David  Clark  papers,  19  pieces,  1861-1863,  relating  to  the  Roa- 
noke River  defenses;  and  numerous  additions  to  state  and  county  ar- 
chives. Twelve  volumes  of  Revolutionary  army  accounts  have  been 
indexed,  and  the  first  volume  of  the  Moravian  Records  of  North  Carolina 
is  in  press. 

The  South  Carolina  Historical  Society  has  acquired  as  a  gift  from 
Mrs.  Joseph  Hume  of  New  Orleans  a  collection  of  genealogical  notes, 
gathered  by  the  late  Motte  A.  Read,  Esq.  The  collection  pertains  prin- 
cipally to  families  of  the  South  Carolina  coast  and  numbers  several  thou- 
sand items. 

The  South  Carolina  Historical  and  Genealogical  Magazine  prints  in 
the  January  number  an  installment  of  the  correspondence  of  Ralph  Izard 
and  Henry  Laurens,  T775-I777-  Izard  was  then  in  London;  and  while 
the  correspondence  relates  principally  to  business  matters,  it  touches  also 
upon  public  affairs. 


200  Historical  News 

The  June  number  of  the  Georgia  Historical  Quarterly  contains  a 
paper  by  Judge  Andrew  J.  Cobb  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Confederate 
States:  its  Influence  on  the  Union  it  Sought  to  Dissolve;  a  biographical 
sketch,  by  John  T.  Boifeuillet,  of  the  late  Senator  A.  O.  Bacon;  and  a 
continuation  of  the  Howell  Cobb  Papers,  edited  by  Dr.  R.  P.  Brooks. 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press  has  published  A  History  of  Educa- 
tional Legislation  in  Mississippi  from  1708  to  i860,  by  William  H. 
Weathersby. 

The  Louisiana  Historical  Quarterly  for  July,  1920,  contains  a  paper 
by  J.  A.  Renshaw  entitled  Liberty  Monument,  being  a  chapter  in  the 
history  of  reconstruction,  centering  about  the  clash  of  arms  in  New 
Orleans  on  September  14,  1874;  and  two  further  installments  of  Henry 
P.  Dart's  contributions  from  the  Cabildo  Archives,  one  of  them  pertain- 
ing to  criminal  trials  in  Louisiana  in  the  period  from  1720  to  1766,  the 
other  being  the  judicial  proceedings  in  what  is  termed  the  first  "  suc- 
cession "  opened  in  Louisiana. 

WESTERN    STATES 

The  contents  of  the  March  number  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  His- 
torical Review  include  three  articles,  namely,  Cleng  Peerson  and  Nor- 
wegian Immigration,  by  Theodore  C.  Blegen ;  the  New  Northwest,  by 
O.  G.  Libby;  and  the  Buffalo  Range  of  the  Northwest,  by  H.  A.  Trexler; 
also  the  Journal  of  William  Calk,  Kentucky  Pioneer,  edited  by  Lewis  H. 
Kilpatrick.  Calk's  journal,  though  brief  (March  13  to  May  2,  1775),  is 
a  document  of  considerable  value,  and  Mr.  Kilpatrick  gives  an  interest- 
ing sketch  of  the  journalist's  career. 

The  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  in  the  January 
number,  reprints  from  the  Sentinel  of  the  Northwestern  Territory  the 
minutes  of  the  meeting  of  the  legislature  of  the  Northwestern  Territory 
in  1795.  The  same  issue  contains  some  personal  recollections,  by  James 
R.  Morris,  of  the  assass:nation  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  a  paper  by  B.  F. 
Prince  on  Early  Journeys  to  Ohio.  The  April  number  contains  an 
article  by  Alexander  S.  Wilson,  M.  D.,  on  the  Naga  and  Lingam  of 
India  and  the  Serpent  Mounds  of  Ohio,  and  some  memorial  addresses 
on  the  late  Professor  George  F.  Wright. 

The  Quarterly  Publication  of  the  Historical  and  Philosophical  So- 
ciety of  Ohio  offers  in  the  April-June  number  the  third  se'ection  from 
the  Gano  Papers.     They  are  of  January  and  February,  1813. 

The  Indiana  Historical  Commission  has  issued  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Second  Annual  State  History  Conference,  held  in  Ind'anapolis  in 
December,  1920.  Among  the  papers  and  addresses  are :  Jefferson  Davis 
a  Prisoner  in  Macon,  Georgia,  after  his  Capture,  by  Capt.  Joseph  A. 
Goddard ;  and  the  Last  Days  of  Lincoln,  by  Judge  Robert  W.  McBride. 

In  the  July  issue  of  the  Illinois  Catholic  Historical  Review  announce- 
ment is  made  that  in  view  of  the  extension  by  the  Catholic  Historical 


America  201 

Review  of  its  scope  to  include  general  church  history,  the  Illinois  Review 
will  broaden  its  field  "  with  a  view  to  covering  at  least  a  part  of  that 
vast  territory  lying  between  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  which  otherwise  would  not  be  so  completely  represented". 
Among  the  contents  of  this  number  we  note  the  following:  the  First 
Chicago  Church  Records,  by  Joseph  J.  Thompson;  the  Ancient  Order 
of  Hibernians,  by  Rev.  Frank  L.  Reyno'ds;  the  Northeastern  Part  of 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  under  Bishop  Rosati,  by  John  Rothensteiner ; 
Sebastien  Louis  Meurin,  S.  J„  continued,  by  Charles  H.  Metzer,  S.  J. ; 
and  an  American  Martyrology,  with  a  list  of  Catholic  missionaries  who 
endured  martyrdom  in  America,  by  Joseph  J.  Thompson. 

Professor  James  W.  Thompson  has  presented  to  the  University 
of  Chicago  four  letters  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  he  discovered 
during  the  course  of  his  investigations  in  the  history  of  the  Huguenots. 
Two  of  these  are  letters  of  King  Henry  III.  and  are  of  the  year  1574; 
one  is  a  letter  of  King  Henry  IV.,  written  in  1589;  and  a  fourth  is  a 
letter  of  Cardinal  de  Rambouillet  to  King  Charles  IX.  of  France,  dated 
at  Rome,  December  2,  1570. 

The  Tennessee  Historical  Magazine  for  October,  1920,  has  just  been 
issued.  Among  its  contents  we  note  the  following:  the  Autobiography 
of  Martin  Van  Buren,  by  W.  E.  Beard;  Pepys  and  the  Proprietors  of 
Carolina,  by.  A.  V.  Goodpasture ;  The  Extension  of  the  Northern  Bound- 
ary L-'ne  of  Tennessee — the  Matthews  Line,  with  documents,  by  Robert 
S.  Henry;  the  concluding  installment  of  the  marriage  records  of  Knox 
County,  contributed  by  Miss  Kate  White;  and  various  notes  by  W.  E. 
McElwee  on  Aboriginal  Remains  in  Tennessee. 

The  principal  contents  of  the  June  number  of  the  Wisconsin  Maga- 
zine of  History  are:  Rufus  Kmg:  Soldier,  Editor,  and  Statesman,  by 
Gen.  Charles  King;  the  Evangelical  Association  of  Lomira  Circuit,  by 
John  S.  Roeseler;  the  First  Missionary  in  Wisconsin  (Father  Rene 
Menard),  by  Louis  P.  Kellogg;  and  some  letters  of  Chauncey  H.  Cooke, 
a  Wisconsin  soldier  in  the  Civil  War,  written  from  Kentucky  and  Mis- 
sissippi, May  to  July,  1863,  and  largely  pertaining  to  the  Vicksburg 
campaign. 

The  Minnesota  Historical  Society  announces  A  History  of  Minne- 
sota, by  William  W.  Fo'.well,  professor  emeritus  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota.  The  work  is  to  be  published  in  four  volumes,  of  which  the 
first,  carrying  the  history  to  the  admission  of  the  state  into  the  Union 
in  1858,  has  now  appeared. 

Articles  in  the  April  number,  of  the  Iozva  Journal  of  History  and 
Politics  are :  Official  Encouragement  of  Immigration  to  Iowa,  by  Marcus 
L.  Hansen,  and  the  Internal  Grain  Trade  of  the  United  States,  1860- 
1890,  by  Louis  B.  Schmidt.  There  is  also  a  series  of  letters  of 
Governor  John  Chambers  on  Indian  affairs,  May  to  July,  1845.  The 
January  number  contains  a  paper  by  John  E.  Briggs  on  Iowa  and  the 


202  Historical  News 

Diplomatic  Service;  one  by  the  same  author  on  Kasson  and  the  First 
International  Postal  Conference;  one  by  Clarence  R.  Aurner  on  Me- 
chanics' Institutions,  and  a  continuation  of  Professor  Schmidt's  study. 

The  April  number  of  the  Annals  of  Iowa  contains  a  series  of 
Sketches  of  the  Mormon  Era  in  Hancock  County,  Il.inois,  reprinted 
from  Gregg's  Dollar  Monthly  and  Old  Settlers'  Memorial  of  September, 
1873,  printed  at  Hamilton,  Illinois. 

The  July  number  of  the  Palimpsest  contains  an  account,  by  Bertha 
M.  H.  Shambaugh,  of  the  community  in  Iowa  known  as  Amana. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  April  number  of  the  Missouri  Historical 
Review  are :  Missourians  and  the  Nation  during  the  Last  Century,  by 
the  late  Champ  Clark;  a  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Local  History  and  the 
Collection  of  Historical  Material,  by  Jonas  Viles  and  J.  E.  Wrench ;  the 
Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  Railroad  Debt,  by  E.  M.  Violette ;  the  Fol- 
lowers of  Duden,  by  W.  T.  Bek;  and  a  further  installment  of  Shelby's 
Expedition  to  Mexico,  by  J.  T.  Edwards.  The  three  articles  last  men- 
tioned are  continued  in  the  July  number,  which  contains  also  a  paper 
by  J.  D.  Lawson  on  a  Century  of  Missouri  Legal  Literature,  and  one  by 
Maurice  Casenave  on  the  Influence  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  on  the  De- 
velopment of  Modern  France. 

The  Missouri  Historical  Society  at  St.  Louis  has  recently  acquired 
the  specifications  of  the  fortifications  of  Fort  Chartres,  Kaskaskia,  the 
Thonicas,  and  other  fortified  places  of  the  French  regime.  It  has  also 
come  into  possession  of  the  journal  of  the  committee  appointed  by  the 
Missouri  house  of  representatives  to  investigate  the  report  of  Col. 
Zachary  Taylor  on  the  battle  in  Florida  of  December  23,  1837,  in  which 
he  accused  the  Missouri  Volunteers  of  cowardice. 

Articles  in  the  July  number  of  the  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly 
are :  the  Annexation  of  Texas  and  the  Mississippi  Democrats,  by  James 
E.  Winston;  the  Texas  Convention  of  1845.  by  Annie  Middleton;  and 
the  Journal  of  Lewis  Birdsall  Harris,  1836-1842.  Harris  was  a  resident 
of  Texas  from  1836  to  1849,  thereafter  of  California. 

The  principal  article  in  the  July  number  of  the  Washington  Histori- 
cal Quarterly  is  by  S.  E.  Morison  on  Boston  Traders  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  1789-1823.  There  is  also  a  narrative  by  James  Sweeney,  relat- 
ing his  experiences  in  the  army  and  as  a  miner  from  1S55  to  1883. 

The  Quarterly  of  the  Oregon  Historical  Society  for  June  contains  an 
artic'e  by  T.  C.  Elliott  on  the  Origin  of  the  Name  Oregon,  in  which  is 
an  account  of  Maj.  Robert  Rogers,  who  used  the  term  "  Ouragon  "  in 
his  proposal  to  the  Privy  Council  in  1765  to  search  for  the  northwest 
passage.  As  an  appendix  to  the  article  are  printed  four  documents 
copied  from  the  Public  Record  Office,  the  proposals  of  Major  Rogers  of 
1765  and  1772,  and  the  petitions  of  Jonathan  Carver  of  1773.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  issue  is  devoted  to  a  series  of  interesting  letters  from 
S.  H.  Taylor,  written  to  the  Chronicle,  of  Watertown,  Wiscons'n,  during 
an  overland  journey  from  that  town  to  Oregon  in  1853. 


America  203 

The  Macmillan  Company  will  publish  this  fall  A  History  of  Cali- 
fornia: the  Spanish  Period,  by  Professor  Charles  E.  Chapman;  there 
will  later  be  published  a  companion  volume  by  Professor  Robert  G. 
Cleland  dealing  with  the  American  period. 

Walter  A.  Hawley  is  the  author  of  a  small  volume  entitled  The 
Early  History  of  Santa  Barbara,  California,  from  the  First  Discoveries 
by  Europeans  to  December,  1846  (Santa  Barbara,  Schauer). 

CANADA 

The  University  of  Toronto  Press  has  printed  The  Nature  of  Canadian 
Federalism,  by  Professor  W.  P.  M.  Kennedy,  in  pamphlet  form,  a  de- 
velopment of  the  author's  article  bearing  the  same  title  in  the  June 
number  of  the  Canadian  Historical  Review. 

Mr.  Victor  Ross's  History  of  the  Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce,  of 
which  vol.  I.  has  just  been  published  (Toronto,  Oxford  University  Press, 
pp.  xvi.  516),  studies  not  only  the  fifty  years  of  that  bank's  existence 
but  the  history  of  the  five  other  banks,  in  five  different  provinces,  which 
have  been  amalgamated  with  it. 

One  of  the  best  types  of  contributions  to  local  history  is  The  Parish 
Register  of  Kingston,  Upper  Canada,  1785-1811,  edited  by  A.  H.  Young 
of  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  for  the  Kingston  Historical  Society  (King- 
ston, Ont.,  1921,  pp.  207).  The  introduction  (pp.  5-72)  bears  evidence 
of  careful  scholarship  and  contains  much  information  respecting  the 
history  and  biography  of  a  town  which  was  an  important  centre  of 
American  Loyalists. 

In  the  series  of  Helps  for  Students  of  History  (S.  P.  C.  K.,  Mac- 
millan) there  will  shortly  be  published  an  account  of  the  Archives  of 
Canada,  by  the  public  archivist  of  the  Dominion,  Dr.  Arthur  G.  Doughty, 
C.  M.  G. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Young  of  the  University  of  Toronto  has  published  a  his- 
torical and  genealogical  sketch  of  The  Revd.  John  Stuart,  D.D.,  and  his 
Family.  Dr.  Stuart,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  who  emigrated  to  King- 
ston, Ontario,  was  a  United  Empire  Loyalist. 

AMERICA,    SOUTH    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

In  the  Boletin  del  Ccntro  de  Estudios  Americanistas  de  Sevilla,  nos. 
38,  39,  and  nos.  40  and  41  (double  numbers),  appear  continuations  of 
the  study,  by  German  Latorre,  entitled  Intervencion  Tutelar  de  Esparia 
en  los  Problemas  de  Limites  de  Hispano-America,  and  the  second  section 
of  the  Catalogo  de  Legajos  del  Archivo  General  de  Indias,  by  Pedro 
Torres  Lanzas.  In  nos.  42  and  43  is  found  the  initial  installment  of  the 
third  section  of  the  last-named  contribution,  and  also  some  documents 
from  the  Archives  of  the  Indies  pertaining  to  Chilean  cities.  Numbers 
44  and  45,  issued  as  one,  contain  a  paper  read  at  the  second  Congress  of 
Hispanic-American  History  and  Geography,  by  Sr.  Santiago  Montoto: 


204  Historical  Nezvs 

Don  Jose  de  Veitia  Linaje  y  su  Libro  ''Norte  de  la  Contratacion  de  las 
Indias";  a  further  installment  of  the  Cata'ogo  de  Legajos  del  Archivo 
General  de  Indias:  III.,  Casa  de  la  Contratacion  de  Indias,  by  Sr. 
Pedro  Torres  Lanzas;  and  the  first  installment  of  the  Libro  de  la 
Longitudines  .  .  .  por  Alonzo  de  Santa  Cruz  .  .  .  Cosmographo  mayor, 
printed  with  an  introduction  by  Sr.  Antonio  Blazquez. 

As  a  preliminary  step  to  the  preparation  of  a  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography  of  South  America  which  it  has  projected,  the  Hispanic  So- 
ciety of,  America  is  bringing  out  a  series  of  books  of  biographies  of 
leading  living  representatives  of  Hispanic  civilization  in  America.  It 
is  announced  that  the  volumes  pertaining  to  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Chile, 
Cuba,  Paraguay,  Peru,  and  Uruguay  are  now  ready. 

Books  dealing  with  the  period  of  Spanish  control  and  the  revolu- 
tionary era  in  South  America  are,  La  Iglesia  en  America  y  la  Domina- 
tion Espanola:  Estudio  de  la  £poca  Colonial  (Buenos  Aires,  Lajouane, 
1920,  pp.  322),  by  L.  Ayarragaray;  Mcmorias  Historopoliticas:  Ultimos 
Dias  de  la  Gran  Colombia  y  del  Libcrtador,  vol.  I.  (Madrid,  Grafica 
Ambos  Mundos,  1920,  pp.  332),  by  J.  Posada  Gutierrez;  Papeles  de 
Bolivar  (Madrid,  Edit.  America,  1920,  2  vo!s.,  pp.  "279,  289),  by  V. 
Lecuna. 

A.  R.  Vazquez,  in  Oricntacioncs  Americanos  (Havana,  1921,  pp.  iv, 
328),  has  discussed  the  situation  of  Costa  Rica  and  Cuba  in  particular 
and  of  America  in  general. 

John  D.  Kuser  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Haiti:  its  Dawn  of 
Progress  after  Years  in  a  Night  of  Revolution  (Boston,  Badger). 

While  the  external  history  of  the  Dutch  rule  in  Brazil  has  been  the 
theme  of  several  excellent  books,  Dr.  Hermann  Watjen's  Das  Hol- 
landische  Kolonialreich  in  Brasilien  (the  Hague,  Nijhoff,  1921,  pp.  xx, 
348)  finds  something  to  add  on  that  side,  but  it  is  mainly  concerned  with 
a  more  novel  endeavor  to  expound  the  internal,  the  administrative,  and 
especially  the  economic  history  of  the  Dutch  occupation. 

The  Revista  de  Economia  Argentina  for  July  contains,  under  the 
rubric  "  Movimiento  Economico  de  la  Republica  ",  a  series  of  statistical 
summaries,  chiefly  for  the  last  decade,  relating  to  population,  immigra- 
tion, unemployment,  transportation,  labor,  production,  foreign  commerce, 
finance,  etc. 

Volume  XIV.  of  the  series  Documcntos  para  la  Historia  Argentina, 
published  by  the  section  of  history  of  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  and 
Letters  of  the  National  University  of  Buenos  Aires,  bears  the  title 
Corrcspondencias  Generates  de  la  Provincia  de  Buenos  Aires  relativas 
a  Rclationcs  Exteriores,  1820-1824  (Buenos  Aires,  1921,  pp.  xv,  552). 
The  volume  is  brought  out  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  Emilio  Ravig- 
nani,  director  of  the  section  of  history ;  it  contains  493  documents  from 
the  archives  of  the  Ministry  of  Exterior  Relations,  constituting  the  out- 
letters  of  that  ministry  from  1820  to  1824.     They  are  addressed  to  the 


America  205 

agents  and  governments  of  foreign  countries,  to  the  agents  of  Buenos 
Aires  abroad,  and  to  private  individuals,  firms,  and  others.  Most  of 
them  are  signed  by  Bernardino  Rivadavia. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  J.  C.  Fitzpatrick,  The  Manuscript 
from  wfiich  Jefferson  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence  (D.  A.  R. 
Magazine.  July)  ;  Robert  E.  Cushman,  Constitutional  Decisions  by  a 
Bare  Majority  of  the  Court  (Michigan  Law  Review,  June)  ;  Thomas  J. 
Cross,  The  Eclecticism  of  the  Law  of  Louisiana  (American  Law  Re- 
view, May-June)  ;  George  G.  Putnam,  Salem  Vessels  and  their  Voyages, 
cont.  (Essex  Institute  Historical  Collections,  July)  ;  Maj.  Edwin  N.  Mc- 
Clellan  and  Capt.  John  H.  Craige,  American  Marines  in  the  Battles  of 
Trenton  and  Princeton  (D.  A.  R.  Magazine,  June)  ;  Edna  F.  Campbell. 
New  Orleans  at  the  Time  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  (Geographical  Re- 
view, July)  ;  Randolph  Harrison,  The  Monroe  Doctrine,  its  Origin, 
Meaning,  and  Application  (American  Law  Review,  May-June)  ;  Peter 
G.  Mode,  Revivalism  as  a  Phase  of  Frontier  Life  (Journal  of  Religion. 
July)  ;  Virginia  Fitsgerald,  A  Southern  College  Boy  Eighty  Years  ago 
(South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  July)  ;  J.  D.  Van  Home,  The  Southern  Atti- 
tude toward  Slavery  (Sewanee  Review,  July-September)  ;  F.  B.  C. 
Bradlee,  The  " Kearsage-Alabama"  Battle  (Essex  Institute  Historical 
Collections,  July)  ;  H.  W.  Lindley,  A  Century  of  Quakerism  (American 
Friend,  August  25)  ;  J.  T.  Smith,  The  First  Three  American  Cardinals, 
McCloskey,  Farley,  and  Gibbons  (Dublin  Review,  July)  ;  Milton  Con- 
over,  Pensions  for  Public  Employees  (American  Political  Science  Re- 
view, August)  ;  B.  J.  Hendrick,  Life  and  Letters  of  Walter  H.  Page 
(World's  Work,  August,  September)  ;  J.  W.  Garner,  La  Politique 
Strangere  Americaine  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  XLIV.  2)  ;  Clara 
E.  Schieber,  The  Transformation  of  American  Sentiment  towards  Ger- 
many, 1870-1014  (Journal  of  International  Relations,  July)  ;  Henry 
Morgenthau,  All  in  a  Life-Time:  Chapters  from  an  Autobiography 
(World's  Work,  August,  September)  ;  Frank  Jewett,  Why  we  did  not 
Declare  War  on  Turkey  (Current  History,  September)  ;  E.  Chartier,  Le 
Canada  Francois:  I'Eglise  et  la  Paroisse  Canadienne  (Revue  Canadi- 
enne,  XXVI.  5,  6)  ;  C.  Ross,  Siidamerikanische  Spannungcn  (Neue 
Rundschau,  July);  Marius  Andre,  A-propos  des  "  Centenaircs  Sud- 
Americains"  (Le  Correspondant,  July  10,  and  following  numbers)  ;  B.  J. 
Perez  Verdia,  The  Glorification  of  Bolivar  (Inter- America,  English, 
August);  E.  Perez,  La  Diplomacia  Estadounidense :  Monroismo,  Pan- 
amcricanisnw,  y  Panamaismo  (Cuba  Contemporanea,  XXVI.  103)  ;  F.  G. 
del  Valle,  Pdginas  para  la  Historia  dc  Cuba:  Documentos  para  la  Bio- 
grafia  de  Jose  de  la  Luz  y  Caballero  (ibid..  XXVI.  102,  103)  ;  E.  J. 
Varona,  Sobre  el  Problema  Economico  y  la  Rcforma  Constitucional 
(ibid.,  XXVI.  103). 


Volume    XXVII]      January,  1922  {Number  2 

gwman  jpistaial  §tmew 

EUROPE,   SPANISH  AMERICA.  AND  THE  MONROE 
DOCTRINE 

THE  policy  of  the  European  powers  in  the  question  of  the  Spanish 
colonies,  the  train  of  events  leading  up  to  the  famous  pro- 
nunciamiento  known  as  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  and  the  effects  of  that 
declaration  upon  the  course  of  contemporary  politics,  are  no  new 
subjects  of  discussion.  The  diplomatic  action  of  Great  Britain,  the 
deliberations  at  Washington,  have  received  detailed  examination,1 
and  of  late  years  much  has  been  done  to  define  more  accurately  the 
attitude  of  the  Continental  powers.2 

But  on  the  latter  side  the  details  have  not  yet  been  filled  in,  nor 
the  principles  of  action  determined  with  exactitude.  Just  how  great 
was  the  danger  of  intervention  in  the  colonies?  Exactly  what  was 
the  positive  policy  of  France,  of  Russia,  of  Austria?  How  far  did 
the  United  States  enter  into  the  calculations  of  European  statesmen  ? 
These  are  questions  which  deserve  a  fuller  answer  than  they  have 
yet  received. 

In  such  a  study  it  will  be  desirable  to  examine  only  the  period 
between  March,  1822,  when  President  Monroe  declared  for  the  recog- 
nition of  the  colonies,  and  June,  1824,  by  which  time  the  colonial 
question  had  ceased  to  occupy  the  centre  of  the  European  stage.  The 
attitude  of  the  powers  at  a  later  period  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
documents  already  published  in  this  Review  (XXII.  595-616). 

1  On  the  British  side  the  best  special  article  is  by  Col.  E.  M.  Lloyd,  "  Can- 
ning and  Spanish  America  ",  Trans.  Royal  Hist.  Soc,  n.  s.,  vol.  XVIII.,  pp.  891  ff. 
On  the  American  side  special  attention  may  be  called  to  the  two  articles  by  Mr. 
W.  C.  Ford  in  Amer.  Hist.  Rev.,  "  John  Quincy  Adams  and  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine ",  VII.  676-696,  VIII.  53-77. 

2  See  Professor  W.  S.  Robertson's  two  articles,  one  in  this  Review,  XX.  781- 
800,  on  "  The  United  States  and  Spain,  1822  ",  and  the  other  in  Amer.  Pol.  Sci. 
Rev.,  VI.  546-563,  "The  Monroe  Doctrine  abroad  in  1823-1824".  Also  A. 
Rousseau,  "  L'Ambassade  du  Marquis-  de  Talaru  en  Espagne,  Juillet  1823- 
Aout   1824",  in  Rev.  des  Questions  Historiques,  XC.  86-116.      - 

AM.    HIST.  KV.,  VOL.  XXVII.  —  1 5.  (  2o7) 


2o8  Dexter  Perkins 

The  Continental  power  with  the  greatest  interest  in  Spanish 
America  was  France.  She  alone,  indeed,  of  the  group  loosely  known 
as  the  Holy  Alliance,  can  be  said  to  have  had  colonial  matters  almost 
constantly  in  view  during  the  period  which  it  is  the  business  of  this 
paper  to  examine.  An  examination  of  the  diplomatic  correspondence 
in  four  foreign  offices,  at  London,  at  Paris,  at  Vienna,  and  at  Petro- 
grad,  reveals  the  fact  that  Prussia  was  at  all  times  indifferent;  that 
Austria  and  Russia  began  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the  South 
American  problem  only  after  October,  1823;  but  that  France  was, 
at  a  far  earlier  date,  vitally  interested  in  the  fate  of  the  revolted 
dominions  of  Spain. 

French  policy  in  the  matter  of  the  colonies  reveals  from  the  be- 
ginning conflicting  interests  and  points  of  view  which  have  been  too 
little  recognized.  No  sufficient  emphasis  has  ever  been  placed  on  the 
attitude  of  the  French  merchant  classes  toward  the  question  of 
Spanish  America.  There  was,  as  early  as  1821,  a  strong  and  in- 
sistent demand  that  the  markets  of  Spanish  America  be  opened  to 
French  enterprise.  There  was  a  considerable  body  of  opinion  which 
looked  forward  to  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  colonies 
as  the  solution  of  the  whole  problem.  And  this  body  of  opinion, 
while  it  did  not  determine  French  policy,  was  always  an  element  to 
be  reckoned  with.3 

It  had,  too,  its  representative  in  the  government.  Joachim  de 
Villele,  prime  minister  during  the  whole  period  under  review,  though 
a  reactionary,  was  a  reactionary  of  a  very  practical  type.  Commerce 
and  finance  held  the  first  place  in  his  mind.  More  than  once  in  his 
letters  the  recognition  of  the  colonies  is  advocated,  though  often  in 
terms  discreetly  veiled.4 

Very  different,  however,  was  the  view  of  Montmorency,  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  till  December,  1822,  and  of  Chateaubriand,  his 
successor.  These  men  were  not  indifferent  to  the  pressure  of  the 
merchants,  they  never  advocated  the  forcible  reconquest  of  the  col- 
onies, but  they  were  entirely  unwilling  to  admit  the  possibility  of 
action  in  the  colonial  question  independent  of  the  wishes  of  Spain, 
and  in  disregard  of  legitimist  principle. 

In  line  with  the  divergent  views  of  Villele  and  his  ministers,  two 
policies  lay  open  to  France.     She  might  seek  an  understanding  with 

3  Paris,  Arch,  des  Aff.  fitr.,  Mem.  et  Docs.,  vol.  35,  f.  161;  undated,  must 
be  of  about  January,  1822.  This  memoir  reveals  the  fact  that  agents  are  to  be 
sent  out  "  to  open  in  the  states  of  South  America  markets  for  the  products  of 
France,  and  to  make  clear  the  means  by  which  solid  commercial  relations  may 
be  established  ". 

*  Joachim  de  Villele,  Mcmoires   (Paris,   18SS-1890),  III.  69  et  passim. 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  Monroe  Doctrine   209 

Great  Britain,  whose  commercial  interests  led  her  to  favor  the  cause 
of  colonial  independence,  and  march  side  by  side  with  that  power. 
Or,  on  the  other  hand,  she  might  seek  an  understanding  and  a  settle- 
ment of  another  kind  in  concert  with  the  Continental  powers. 

There  was  here  a  real  choice  which  lay  open.  The  possibility  of 
an  accord  with  the  British  government  has  been  too  little  emphasized. 
As  a  practical  matter  of  fact,  on  no  less  than  three  occasions  the 
London  Foreign  Office  made  clear  its  desire  for  such  an  accord. 

The  first  of  these  occasions  was  in  April,  1822.  The  date  sug- 
gests that  the  advances  then  made  may  very  possibly  have  been 
prompted  by  the  virtual  recognition  of  the  colonies  by  the  American 
government  in  March.  At  any  rate,  at  this  time  Lord  Castlereagh, 
then  foreign  minister,  proposed  that  France  and  England  should  con- 
sult together,  and  co-operate  in  the  solution  of  the  Spanish-American 
question.  If  some  de  facto  recognition  of  the  new  states  became 
necessary,  such  action  ought  to  be  concerted  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments.5 

There  was  much  to  be  said  for  this  proposal.  Its  acceptance 
might  have  altered  the  whole  aspect  of  the  colonial  problem,  and 
indeed  of  European  politics  in  general.  But  a  meeting  of  the  French 
council  of  ministers,  held  forthwith,  determined  upon  rejection.  The 
necessity  of  common  action  with  the  allies,  the  fear  of  offending 
Spain,  were  given  as  the  reasons  for  this  decision.6 

A  new  occasion  for  a  Franco-British  understanding,  however,  was 
offered  at  the  Congress  of  Verona.  There  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
presented  a  memorandum  on  the  colonial  problem  emphasizing  the 
necessity  of  protecting  commerce  in  the  New  World,  hinting  at  recog- 
nition, and  inviting  the  observations  of  the  allied  powers.  He  seems, 
too,  to  have  definitely  suggested  an  accord  to  Chateaubriand.  But 
no  accord  resulted.  On  the  contrary,  the  French  reply  actually  com- 
mitted France  to  co-operation  with  the  allies,  declaring  that  "  a  gen- 
eral measure  taken  in  common  by  the  cabinets  of  Europe  would  be 
the  most  desirable".7 

After  this  declaration  at  Verona,  it  was  virtually  impossible  for 
the  French  ministers  to  reverse  their  attitude.  A  third  offer  of  co- 
operation, made  by  Canning  on  the  eve  of  the  Polignac  interview,  was 
at  once  rebuffed.  The  settlement  of  the  colonial  question  by  a  con- 
gress of  the  powers  had  now  become  avowedly  the  basic  principle  of 

5  Paris,  Aff.  £tr.,  Corr.  Pol.,  Angleterre,  vol.  615,  f.  204,  May  7,   1822. 

6  Ibid.,  f.  211,  May  13,  1822. 

7  Chateaubriand,  Congres  de  Vcrone  (Paris,  1838),  I.  94. 


2io  Dexter  Perkins    ■ 

French  policy.  Chateaubriand  had  spoken  to  Stuart,  the  British 
ambassador,  in  this  sense  in  August,  1823.8 

What  measures  would  the  French  government  have  proposed  for 
the  pacification  of  the  colonies  had  such  a  congress  actually  met? 
Undoubtedly  the  establishment  of  independent  Bourbon  monarchies 
in  the  New  World.  That  such  was  the  aim  of  France  has  now  been 
definitely  established.  The  idea  occurs  again  and  again  in  the  corre- 
spondence of  the  French  ministers.  It  is  brought  forward  as  early 
as  1819  by  the  Due  de  Richelieu.9  It  is  favored  in  1822  by  Mont- 
morency.10 It  was  the  favorite  dream  of  Chateaubriand.11  It  was 
the  hope  of  Villele.12  In  July  of  1823  a  French  cabinet  council  had 
approved  the  project,  and  the  French  ambassador  at  Madrid  had  been 
instructed  that  such  was  the  policy  of  France.13 

As  to  the  means  by  which  such  a  policy  could  be  effected,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  admitted  that  the  French  ministers  were  in  general 
far  from  clear.  There  seems  to  have  been  an  optimistic  belief  that 
the  colonies  would  welcome  such  an  arrangement.  There  was  the 
precedent  of  the  Mexican  treaty  of  1821,  which  only  the  obstinacy 
of  the  Spanish  Cortes  prevented  from  forming  a  basis  of  solution  in 
that  disturbed  province.  Why  not  use  a  congress  of  the  powers  to 
urge  such  a  settlement  upon  both  Spain  and  the  colonies? 

That  it  might  be  necessary  to  use  force  in  the  establishment  of 
independent  Bourbon  monarchies  seems  hardly  to  have  occurred  to 
the  leaders  of  French  policy.  In  the  correspondence  of  Mont- 
morency, Chateaubriand,  and  Villele  over  a  period  of  more  than  two 
years  there  is  hardly  a  mention  of  such  a  thing.  The  French  premier 
did,  indeed,  on  one  occasion  speak  of  "a  few  ships  and  a  little 
money  "  as  desirable — and  sufficient — for  the  enterprise.14  But  bar- 
ring this  and  two  or  three  other  similar  allusions  there  is  no  evidence 
that  the  use  of  the  French  navy  was  ever  seriously  considered.  There 
is  not  a  sign  that  any  offer  of  material  aid  was  ever  made  at  Madrid. 

The  project  of  independent  Bourbon  monarchies  was  not  consid- 
ered, indeed,  as  a  project  of  aggression.  It  was  a  means  of  reconcil- 
ing legitimacy  with  French  commercial  interest."  It  was  dependent 
on  the  opening  of  the  colonies  to  the  trade  of  the  world.     It  was,  in 

8  London,  Public  Record  Office,  F.  O.  France,  vol.  293,  no.  395,  Aug.  18, 
1X23. 

9  C.  Calvo,  Anales  de  la  Revolution  de  la  America  Latina  (Paris,  1865), 
V    354  ff. 

10  Paris,  Corr.  Pol.,  Espagne,  vol.  716,  f.  27. 
'i  Ibid.,  vol.  722,  f.  56. 

12  Villele,  Memoires,  IV.  200. 

is  Ibid. 

1*  Villele,  Memoires,  III.  188. 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  Monroe  Doctrine   21 1 

the  language  of  Villele,  a  project  "to  render  more  tolerable  to  France 
by  the  new  markets  open  to  her  commerce  the  sacrifices  which  she 
had  made  and  would  still  have  to  make  in  Spain  ",15 

The  policy  of  France,  then,  has  now  been  made  clear.  But  it  is 
worth  while  examining  it  from  another  point  of  view.  How  far,  in 
formulating  that  policy,  did  the  French  ministers  take  into  account 
the  United  States?  How  far  did  friendship  or  hostility  to  America 
influence  their  action? 

That  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  was  in  any  sense  a  major 
factor  in  French  diplomacy  it  would  be  absurd  to  assume.  The 
despatches  of  the  French  Foreign  Office  in  1823  yield  a  surprisingly 
small  number  of  references  to  the  American  government.  Far  less 
account  was  taken  of  the  attitude  of  this  country  than  it  might  be 
pleasant  to  imagine. 

So  far  as  the  United  States  was  regarded  at  all,  however,  it  was 
not  with  favor  or  confidence.  Chateaubriand  had  the  effrontery  to 
tell  Gallatin,  the  American  minister  at  Paris,  that  France  "would 
not  ...  in  any  manner  interfere  in  the  American  questions  "  at  the 
very  time  when  the  scheme  as  to  Bourbon  monarchies  was  under 
discussion.16  Villele  declared  jealously  to  Stuart  that  "the  United 
States  labor  to  counteract  our  measures,  only  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  system  favorable  to  the  democratical  principles  of  their 
own  government,  and  attaining  the  commercial  objects  of  which  they 
never  lose  sight  ".17 

A  more  striking  evidence  of  the  attitude  of  the  French  ministers 
is  to  be  found  in  their  reception  of  Canning's  suggestion,18  made  at 
the  time  of  the  Polignac  interview,  that  if  a  congress  were  held  to 
discuss  the  colonial  question,  the  American  government  should  be 
invited  to  participate.  The  French  ministers  were  horrified  at  such 
an  idea.  When  Stuart  mentioned  the  subject  to  Villele,  the  French 
premier  showed  undoubted  signs  of  irritation.  "  He  seemed  to  think 
that  the  meeting  had  better  be  altogether  avoided  if  it  should  be 
found  impossible  to  take  such  a  measure  without  the  intervention  of 
that  power." 19  Chateaubriand  was  of  the  same  general  opinion. 
"  The  United  States  ",  he  wrote  to  Polignac,  "  recognized  the  inde- 

15  Ibid. 

16  Writings  of  James  Monroe,  edited  by  S.  M.  Hamilton  (New  York,  1902), 
VI.  315  n. 

17  London,  Public  Record  Office,  F.  O.  France,  vol.  291,  no.  285. 

is  Canning  then  stated  that  "  he  could  hot  understand  how  a  European  Con- 
gress could  discuss  Spanish  American  affairs  without  calling  to  their  councils 
a  power  so  eminently  interested  in  the  result  as  the  United  States  of  America  ". 
British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  1823-1824,  p.  49. 

is  Public  Record  Office,  F.  O.  France,  vol.  295,  no.  557,  Oct.  31,  1823. 


2 1 2  Dexter  Perkins 

pendence  of  certain  of  the  colonies  a  year  ago.  They  are  thus  en- 
tirely disinterested,  entirely  outside  such  discussions."  20  When  the 
Austrian  chancellor  Metternich  emphatically  rejected  the  suggestion 
of  Canning,21  the  French  foreign  minister  expressed  the  warmest 
approval  of  his  pronouncements,  even  going  so  far  as  to  declare  that 
the  principles  laid  down  might  serve  "  in  case  of  need  as  a  supple- 
mentary article  of  the  public  law  of  Europe  ".22 

French  policy,  it  is  clear  from  these  comments,  took  little  account 
of  the  views  of  the  American  government.  At  the  moment  when 
President  Monroe  launched  his  famous  manifesto,  Chateaubriand  and 
Villele  were  planning  a  general  European  congress  upon  the  colonial 
question,  which  should  pave  the  way  for  the  establishment  of  Bour- 
bon monarchies  in  the  New  World,  and  from  which  the  United  States 
should  be  excluded. 

But  what  of  the  attitude  of  the  other  Continental  powers?     It  is 

2»  Chateaubriand,  Congres  de  Verone,  II.  309-310,  Nov.  6,   1823. 

21  The  language  of  Prince  Metternich  deserves  quotation.  "  In  our  view 
the  United  States  of  America  can  never  take  part  in  a  European  congress, 
whatever  subjects  may  be  treated  there ;  first,  because  the  United  States  are 
bound  by  none  of  those  diplomatic  agreements  which  the  European  Alliance  has 
discussed  and  adopted  since  1814,  and  to  which  are  referred  practically  all  ques- 
tions on  account  of  which  the  powers  come  together  in  a  congress  ;  secondly,  be- 
cause the  principal  aim  of  these  congresses,  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  the 
established  order  in  Europe,  does  not  concern  the  United  States ;  thirdly,  because 
in  great  part  the  principles  recognized  and  approved  by  the  European  powers  are 
not  merely  foreign  but  opposed  to  the  principles  of  the  United  States,  to  the 
form  of  their  government,  to  their  doctrines,  to  their  customs,  to  the  civil  and 
political  regime  of  their  populations.  There  can  exist  amicable  relations  be- 
tween the  powers  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  treaties,  alliances,  engage- 
ments cf  every  sort  may  be  negotiated  with  them,  but  no  common  basis  exists 
on  which  the  United  States  could  take  part  in  a  European  congress." 

"  No  doubt  the  United  States  are  more  directly  interested  in  the  future 
fate  of  the  Spanish  colonies  than  Austria,  Russia,  or  Prussia,  but  the  interest  of 
these  latter  powers  is  none  the  less  real,  and  none  the  less  worthy  of  respect. 
It  would  perhaps  be  permissible  to  say  that  it  is  of  a  more  elevated  nature. 
The  interest  of  the  United  States  is  that  of  their  commerce,  of  the  increase 
of  their  territory,  of  the  extension  of  their  power;  it  is  an  interest  purely  material. 
That  of  the  European  powers,  and  of  the  Continental  powers  as  of  the  others,  is 
an  interest  in  the  preservation,  in  the  stability,  in  the  material  and  moral  well- 
being  of  the  great  European  family,  and  if  they  should  assume  to  deal  with 
the  future  relations  of  Spain  with  her  vast  American  provinces,  it  is  not  to 
divide  the  spoils,  or  obtain  any  positive  advantage  whatsoever;  it  is  to  assure 
themselves  that  those  relations  will  not  be  too  far  incompatible  with  the  peace 
and  general  prosperity  of  Europe,  and  will  work  as  little  harm  as  possible  to  the 
rights  and  interests  of  those  governments  which,  so  to  speak,  created  America, 
and  have  ruled  over  it  for  three  centuries."  (Petrograd,  F.  0.,  Regus  no.  20616, 
Nov.  26,  1823.) 

22  Ibid.,  no.  21224,  Dec.  25,  1823  (encl.). 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  Monroe  Doctrine   213 

worth  while  to  inquire  just  what  their  views  portended  at  the  time 
when  the  American  manifesto  was  published  to  the  world. 

In  November,  1823,  there  is,  for  the  first  time,  what  may  fairly 
be  called  a  general  discussion  of  the  colonial  problem  among  the 
members  of  the  Holy  Alliance.  All  the  allies  had  agreed  that  a  con- 
gress to  discuss  the  matter  would  be  desirable.  No  step  remained 
but  the  actual  invitation  for  such  a  meeting,  which  was  to  come,  of 
course,  from  the  Spanish  king. 

What  would  be  the  point  of  view  of  the  Austrian  government  in 
whatever  assemblage  might  take  place  had  for  some  months  been 
abundantly  clear.  The  clearest  mind  in  Europe  on  the  colonial  ques- 
tion, it  might  almost  be  said,  was  Prince  Mettemich's.  It  is  the 
fashion  in  these  days  to  damn  Metternich  as  a  reactionary,  but  he 
was  at  least  a  very  practical  one.  He  had  no  Utopian  ideas  as  to  the 
reconquest  of  Spanish  America.  In  July  he  had  told  Wellesley, 
British  ambassador  at  Vienna,  that  all  projects  of  the  kind  were  hope- 
less, and  that  Spain  would  do  well  to  confine  her  efforts  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  Cuba.23  Somewhat  later  he  declared  to  the  Russian  rep- 
resentative that  Spain  should  limit  her  efforts  to  the  retention  of  the 
colonies  which  still  remained  faithful,  and  decide,  at  the  same  time, 
frankly  to  compromise  with  those  which,  on  terms  of  mutual  advan- 
tage, might  consent  again  to  become  subject  to  her.24  Finally,  in 
November,  he  addressed  to  the  Spanish  government  itself  a  long 
memorandum  in  which  he  urged  such  a  policy  upon  it.25  Platonic 
counsel  was  Mettemich's  sole  expedient  in  the  premises. 

23  P.  R.  O.,  F.  0.  Austria,  vol.   178,  desp.  5,  July  23,   1823. 

2*  Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Re?us  no.  20516,  Nov.  25,   1S23. 

23  The  colonies  are  divided  into  three  classes.  "  There  are  some  wholly  un- 
der the  authority  of  the  King.  There  are  some  in  which  the  struggle  between 
the  legitimate  power  and  ambitious  factions  is  not  yet  over.  There  are  some 
which  have  constituted  themselves  independent  states,  and  in  which  the  struggle 
between  the  de  facto  and  the  de  hire  authorities  has  ceased.  The  first  pre- 
occupation of  Spain  should  be  to  assure  as  completely  and  as  permanently  as 
possible  the  possession  of  the  important  island  of  Cuba,  not  only  by  measures 
suitable  to  defend  it  against  unjust  aggression,  which,  happily,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  predict,  but  also  by  a  regime  conformable  to  its  present  condition,  and 
based  above  all  on  the  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants.  .  .  .  The  contemplation  of 
the  present  and  future  welfare  of  the  faithful  colony  cannot  fail  to  strengthen 
the  legitimist  party  where  that  party  is  still  condemned  to  struggle  against  the 
partisans  of  independence ;  it  will  serve  perhaps  to  revive  the  courage  of  friends 
of  the  ancient  order  in  other  colonies,  where  attachment  to  the  monarchy  is 
repressed  rather  than  destroyed."  This  is  all  that  Metternich  has  to  say  with 
regard  to  the  second  class  of  colonies.  With  regard  to  those  actually  independent 
he  declares,  "  It  appears  to  us  that  all  that  wisdom  should  dictate  at  this  time 
is  to  keep  open  the  question  of  legal  right.  It  is  certainly  not  over  this  immense 
part  of  the  American  continent  that  the   efforts  of  the  mother-country  can  now 


2 1 4  Dexter  Perkins 

Of  Russia  it  is  not  possible  to  speak  so  definitely.  Search  in  both 
Russian  and  Austrian  archives  fails  to  reveal  the  existence  of  any 
settled  policy  on  the  part  of  the  tsar.  "  Everything  is  in  confusion 
in  America  ",  remarked  Alexander  to  the  French  ambassador,  late  in 
November,  1823.  "  Let  us  leave  this  chaos  for  a  while  to  reduce  itself 
to  order." 26  It  seems  tolerably  certain  that  no  positive  line  of  action 
had  been  determined  upon  at  this  time  at  Petrograd. 

What,  then,  was  the  actual  situation  at  the  moment  when  Monroe 
launched  his  famous  declaration?  Were  Calhoun  and  Monroe  and 
Madison  and  Jefferson  justified  in  their  apprehensions  of  a  desperate 
design  on  colonial  liberty?  Not  on  the  basis  of  the  facts  as  they 
stood.  For  Austria  disbelieved  in  the  possibility  of  reconquest; 
Russia's  views  had  not  been  formulated;  France  was  seeking  a  com- 
promise through  the  establishment  of  independent  Bourbon  mon- 
archies in  America.  And,  as  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out,  she 
had  already  in  the  Polignac  interview  given  a  binding  pledge  against 
the  use  of  force.  The  only  measure  definitely  determined  upon  in 
December,  1823,  was  the  summoning  of  a  congress  upon  the  colonial 
question. 

The  invitation  to  that  congress,  in  the  shape  of  a  formal  request 
for  concerted  action  from  the  Spanish  king,  had  just  gone  forth  when 
the  President's  message  reached  Europe.  It  is  important  to  attempt 
to  discover  just  how  the  attitude  of  the  powers  was  influenced  by  the 
American  manifesto. 

One  point  may  be  stated  with  absolute  certainty.  Austria  and 
France  were  as  determined  as  ever  to  exclude  the  United  States  from 
the  deliberations  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  chancellor  hastened  to 
assert  in  lofty  terms  his  objections  to  American  participation  in  a 
congress,27  and  Chateaubriand  told  Stuart  that  the  President's  mes- 

be  directed  with  any  chance  of  success  whatsoever.  In  deeming  it  possible  to 
regain  all,  she  would  be  practically  sure  to  lose  all."  (Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Recus 
no.  21221   (encl.). 

26  Paris,  Arch.  Aff.  £tr.,  Corr.  Pol.,  Russie,  vol.   165,  f.  281,  Nov.  28,   1823. 

27  Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Recus  no.  21224,  Jan.  19,  1824.  "If  we  have  expressed 
an  absolute  veto  [on  the  admission  of  the  United  States  to  a  congress]  our 
action  is  justified,  not  only  on  principle,  but  also  by  the  rules,  of  sound  policy. 
The  grave  question  which  will  occupy  the  conference  is  not,  in  the  light  in 
which  it  is  desirable  to  consider  it,  an  American  question ;  it  is,  and  will  remain 
in  the  first  period  of  the  discussion,  entirely  European.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
discussion  the  aim  will  be  to  prevent  all  the  children  of  Europe  from  becoming 
the  adults  of  America." 

"  To  think  of  drawing  the  United  States  into  the  council  occupied  with  this 
important  inquiry,  to  admit  even  the  possibility  that  they  should  intervene  in  it 
by  virtue  of  any  right  whatsoever,  this  would  be  to  commit  a  great  error,  to 
renounce  the  security  which  is  still  to  be  found  in  a  principle  even  when  the 
question  of  fact  is  no  longer  under  one's  influence." 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  Monroe  Doctrine  215 

sage  "  struck  at  the  principle  of  mediation  ...  by  peremptorily  de- 
ciding the  question  of  South  American  independence,  without  listen- 
ing to  the  concessions  which  either  of  the  parties  at  issue  might  be 
disposed  to  admit  ",  and  so  confirmed  his  resolution  with  regard  to 
the  United  States.28 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  both  the  French  and  the  Austrian  min- 
isters hoped  to  use  the  message  to  persuade  Great  Britain  to  accept 
the  invitation  to  the  congress.  Metternich  declared  to  Wellesley  that 
if  Great  Britain  should  decline  "  it  would  be  imputed  to  her  that  she 
meant  to  follow  the  line  taken  by  the  United  States  ".29  "  Mr.  Can- 
ning ",  wrote  Chateaubriand  to  Polignac,  "  can  have  no  more  desire 
than  I  to  favor  military  insurrections,  the  sovereignty  of  the  people, 
and  all  the  beautiful  things  which  Mr.  Monroe  tells  us  about  de  facto 
governments."  "  Point  out  to  him  that  it  would  be  a  very  good  thing 
for  him  to  accept  mediation  with  us  and  the  Allies."  30 

Such  was  not  the  view  of  the  British  foreign  minister.  As  is 
well  known,  he  repudiated  the  idea  of  agreement  with  the  United 
States,  but  he  also  flatly  rejected  the  invitation  to  the  congress.  His 
action  made  a  formal  gathering  of  the  powers  impossible.  France 
and  Austria  were  wholly  unwilling  to  participate  in  a  congress  with- 
out Great  Britain.  The  "  System  of  the  Congresses  "  had  come  to 
an  end. 

But  this  does  not  mean  that  all  discussion  of  the  colonial  question 
ceased  with  Canning's  note  of  January  30.  For  something  like  five 
months  more  Spanish  America  still  engaged  the  earnest  attention  of 
the  diplomats  of  the  Continental  powers.  There  was  indeed  more 
serious  discussion  of  actual  aid  to  Spain  in  February  and  March  of 
1824  than  at  any  other  time.  The  President's  message  at  any  rate 
did  not  prevent  such  discussion. 

It  was  Russia,  whose  policy,  as  has  been  seen,  was  still  unformed 
in  November,  1823,  that  was  now  most  tenacious  in  the  belief  that 
some  action  might  be  taken  in  the  colonial  question.  In  February, 
1824,  Pozzo  di  Borgo  proposed  that  the  powers  "  seek,  in  concert 
with  the  cabinet  of  Madrid,  the  means  of  preparing  a  Spanish  force 
to  support  the  royalists  of  America,  and  examine  what  resources 

Association  with  the  United  States  is  dangerous.  The  spirit  of  revolt  is  in 
their  very  nature.  "  It  is  the  basis  of  their  life  and  the  first  condition  of  their 
existence.  It  is  indeed  so  intense  that  only  to  come  into  contact  with  it  would 
be  to  expose  oneself  to  contagion." 

28  p.  R.  o.,  F.  O.  France,  vol.  305,  desp.  8,  January,  1824. 

29  P.  R.  0.,  F.  O.  Austria,  vol.  182,  no.   16,  Jan.  21,   1824. 

so "  Lettres  Inedites  de  Chateaubriand",  in  Revue  Bleue,  Nov.  2,  1912, 
P-  547- 


2 1 6  Dexter  Perkins 

might  be  devoted  to  such  an  operation,  and  what  difficulties  lay  in 
the  way  ".31  This  suggestion  was  rejected  by  the  other  Continental 
powers  as  "  entailing  concessions  and  sacrifices  which  they  might  not 
be  disposed  to  make  in  favor  of  Spain  ",32  Undaunted  by  this  rebuff 
the  Russian  minister  urged  the  Conde  de  Ofalia  to  appeal  to  the 
members  of  the  Alliance  to  begin  a  series  of  conferences  at  Paris  on 
the  colonial  question.  But  again  little  headway  was  made.  Cha- 
teaubriand was  now  more  and  more  afraid  that  Great  Britain  in- 
tended to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  colonies,  and  that  any 
sign  of  common  action  on  the  part  of  the  Allies  would  precipitate 
such  action.33  He  refused  to  take  part  in  any  negotiations  on  the 
subject  of  Spanish  America,34  and  instructed  Talaru  to  observe  a  like 
rule  of  action  at  Madrid.35 

Still  the  tsar  and  his  ministers  seem  to  have  clung  to  the  idea 
that  some  kind  of  aid  might  be  accorded  to  Spain.  Alexander  gave 
to  the  French  ambassador  the  distinct  impression  that  he  was  disposed 
to  "advise  strongly  the  sacrifice  of  every  other  interest  to  theories 
too  exclusive  "  ;36  and  some  weeks  later  Nesselrode,  in  speaking  to  the 
French  representative  of  the  poverty  and  meagre  resources  of  Spain, 
asked,  "Why  should  not  the  Allies  aid  her?  What  could  England 
say,  or  rather  what  could  she  do,  if  an  army  of  Spaniards,  Russians, 
Prussians,  and  Austrians  embarked  on  a  fleet  lent  to  the  King  of 
Spain,  and  paid  for  by  his  allies,  to  re-instate  him  in  his  rights?" 
"  This  idea,  extraordinary  as  it  is,"  remarked  La  Ferronays,  "  is  one 
of  a  number  which  may  have  misled  the  Emperor,  and  which  he 
would  be  only  too  disposed  to  follow  up." 37  . 

But  whatever  the  desires  of  Alexander,  the  obstacles  to  the  policy 
he  played  with  were  far  too  great  to  be  overcome.  Metternich,  as 
we  have  seen,  had  never  favored  intervention.  In  a  memoir  of 
February  7,  1824,  he  set  forth  the  arguments  which  justified  his 
attitude.  It  was  impossible,  he  wrote  to  Nesselrode,  to  act  without 
the  aid  of  one  of  the  maritime  powers.  England  was  definitely 
opposed  to  armed  action  in  the  colonies;  France  was  pledged  by  the 
interview  of  Polignac  with  Canning.  Assistance  to  Spain  would 
probably  mean  war  with  Great  Britain.     The  United   States  had 

3i  Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Recus  no.  21816,  Feb.  26,   1824   (end.). 

32  Ibid. 

33  Paris,  Arch.  Aff.  fitr.,  Corr.  Pol.,  Esp.,  vol.  726,  f.  358,  Mar.  23,  1824. 
3*  Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Regus  no.  21814,  Mar.  26,  1824. 

36  Ibid.,  no.  21814,  Mar.  26,  1824  (encl.). 

36  Paris,  Corr.  Pol.,  Russie,  vol.   166,  f.  81,  Mar.   10,   1824. 

37  Ibid.,  f.  187,  May  14,  1824. 


Europe,  Spanish  America,  and  Monroe  Doctrine   2 1 7 

expressed  itself  definitely  on  the  South  American  question.  All  these 
considerations  dictated  a  policy  of  inactivity.38 

From  Chateaubriand  the  Russian  ministers  received  even  less 
encouragement  than  from  Metternich.  The  French  foreign  secre- 
tary refused  even  to  give  assurances  that  France  would  not  recognize 
the  colonies,  and  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  any  positive  plan.39 
Jealousy  of  British  trade  led  him  rather  toward  a  friendly  than  a 
hostile  policy  toward  Spanish  America.  He  wrote  De  Serre  at 
Naples  that  the  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  the  new 
states  was  only  a  question  of  time.40  "  France,"  declared  Tatistchev, 
"has  subordinated  the  considerations  of  policy  which  we  follow,  to 
the  counsels  of  mercantile  cupidity."  41 

Russia  stood,  it  would  seem,  alone  in  her  desire  for  an  active 
colonial  policy.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  was  obvious  that  noth- 
ing could  be  done.  In  May,  1824,  Nesselrode  wrote  to  Pozzo, 
"  Though  the  Allies,  by  a  strict  interpretation  of  their  doctrines, 
might  be  bound  not  to  refuse  a  direct  assistance  in  men  and  ships  to 
Spain,  that  power  will  readily  see  that  so  rigid  a  reconstruction  of 
their  engagements  will  serve  no  useful  purpose  while  England  main- 
tains its  present  attitude."  42 

The  last  phrase  in  the  instructions  just  quoted  deserves  particular 
attention.  It  was  England,  not  the  United  States,  which  occupied 
the  mind  of  the  Russian  minister.  It  was  fear  of  British  opposition 
which  led  him  to  abandon  the  idea  of  aid  to  Spain.  Nor  was  it  only 
Nesselrode  who  assigned  more  importance  to  the  attitude  of  Canning 
than  to  that  of  Monroe.  Chateaubriand  and  Metternich  did  not 
abandon  the  idea  of  a  congress  on  the  colonial  question  with  the 
arrival  of  the  President's  message  in  Europe ;  they  even  drew  renewed 
hopes  of  British  co-operation  from  the  message ;  but  their  ardor  for 
a  congress  cooled  with  the  refusal  of  the  British  foreign  secretary  to 
participate.  They,  too,  paid  more  heed  to  London  than  to  Wash- 
ington. 

There  is  only  one  respect  in  which  the  message  may  have  had  a 
positive  influence.  It  may  have  stimulated  discussion  of  the  scheme 
for  Bourbon  monarchies.  Certain  it  is,  at  any  rate,  that  such  discus- 
sion is  quite  vigorous  in  the  early  months  of  1824.  Metternich  now 
favored  the  project;43  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Madrid  took  the 

3S  Petrograd,  F.  O.,  Recus  no.  22337,  May  8,  1824. 

39  Ibid. 

40  Congres  de  Verone,  II.   351. 

*i  Petrograd,  F.   O.,  Re?us  no.  21874,  Apr.  6,   1824. 

42  Paris,  Corr.  Pol.,  Russie,  vol.   167,  f.   169,  May   13,   1824. 

43  P.   R.   O.,   F.  O.  Austria,  vol.   182,  desp.    10,  Jan.   21,   1824. 


2 1 8  Dexter  Perkins 

same  view  ;44  and  Chateaubriand  urged  the  plan  with  renewed  vigor 
not  only  at  Madrid45  but  at  London.46  The  French  minister,  indeed, 
attempted  to  use  the  President's  declaration  to  prove  the  immediate 
necessity  of  sending  infantes  to  the  New  World. 

But  all  such  projects  were  shattered  by  the  obstinacy  of  the 
Spanish  king.  His  repugnance  to  them  was  "  extreme  and  entire  ".*7 
His  assent,  before  they  could  be  carried  out,  was  of  course  essential. 

The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  the  Continental  powers  at  no  time 
in  1823  or  1824  ever  had  a  practicable  policy  outlined  and  ready  to 
be  carried  out.  Nothing,  indeed,  but  reconquest  would  have  satisfied 
the  Spanish  king,  and  reconquest  was  never  seriously  considered  by 
any  power,  unless  perhaps  by  Russia.  Even  in  the  latter  case,  it  is 
clear  that  there  was  never  any  intention  to  act  alone. 

As  for  the  influence  of  the  United  States  on  the  policy  of  the 
Holy  Alliance,  it  was  at  all  times  slight.  French  policy  was  formed 
without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  American  government.  France 
and  Austria  wished  definitely  to  exclude  America  from  any  delibera- 
tion on  the  colonial  problem,  and  their  determination  was  only 
strengthened  by  the  President's  message.  In  1824  the  powers  dis- 
cussed the  Bourbon-monarchy  plan  freely,  and  Alexander  played  with 
the  idea  of  intervention,  despite  the  avowed  attitude  of  the  United 
States.  The  stand  taken  by  Monroe  did  not  alter  in  any  essential 
respect  the  viewpoint  of  the  Continental  powers.  And,  indeed,  why 
attribute  to  the  America  of  a  hundred  years  ago  the  power  and 
prestige  which  appertains  to  it  among  the  nations  of  the  world  to-day? 

Dexter  Perkins. 

44  Petrograd,   F.   O.,  Oubril-Pozzo,  Apr.   10,   1824. 

45  Revue  Bleue,  Nov.  2,  1912,  p.  548.  "The  message  ought  to  open  the  eyes 
of  the  cabinet  of  Madrid.  Can  you  not  show  the  King  that  it  is  far  more 
desirable  to  place  a  prince  of  his  line  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  new  states, 
rather  than  to  let  them  all  escape  the  sovereignty  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  ?  " 

46  Ibid.  "  Mr.  Canning  has  a  clear  interest  in  every  moderate  plan.  Can  the 
cabinet  of  London  longer  blind  itself  to  the  policy  and  desires  of  the  American 
government,  whose  interests  lead  it  with  all  its  might  to  isolate  America  from 
Europe?  .  .  .  We  believe  that  constitutional  monarchies  established  in  America 
would  be  a  very  good  result,  both  for  England  and  for  us." 

47  Paris,  Corr.  Pol.,  Esp.,  vol.  726,  ff.  297  and  324. 


GARIBALDI'S  SICILIAN   CAMPAIGN  AS   REPORTED  BY 
AN   AMERICAN   DIPLOMAT 

Upon  Garibaldi's  Thousand  a  bewildering  collection  of  volumes 
and  pamphlets  of  the  most  varied  character  has  been  published,  not  a 
little  of  it  good  literature  and  of  primary  historical  importance.  But 
the  work  of  the  heroic  expedition  to  Sicily  was  necessarily  promoted 
by  its  leaders  for  the  most  part  clandestinely,  and  was  semi-shrouded 
in  mystery ;  it  was  an  epopoeia  wrought  in  defiant  derision  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  diplomats  whom  it  concerned,  while  at  times  it  caused 
almost  equal  discomfort  to  the  other  fourth;  and  the  diplomatic 
records  of  events  have  been,  even  to  this  day,  largely  withheld  from 
the  public  eye,  as  not  shedding  excessive  lustre  upon  diplomacy  as 
a  profession.1 

It  could  not  be  claimed  that  the  unpublished  dispatches  of  the 
American  minister  accredited  to  Turin  in  i860,  which  we  propose 
to  examine,  throw  a  flood  of  new  light  upon  the  campaign.  The 
American  representative  was  little  more  than  an  observer ;  the  United 
States  was  not  directly  concerned  in  the  extraordinary  events  re- 
lated, and  no  possible  complications  of  the  tangled  situation  could 
require  our  intervention.  But  the  dispatches  do  reveal  some  im- 
portant new  facts,  and  they  are  interesting  for  students  of  Amer- 
ican diplomacy,  upon  the  unconventional  character  of  which  they 
cast  no  discredit. 

The  author  of  the  dispatches,  John  Moncure  Daniel,  of  Stafford 
County,  Virginia,  had  the  blood  of  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  running  in  his  veins.  He  had  studied  law,  written 
articles  full  of  brilliant  invective  for  the  Richmond  Examiner, 
fought  several  duels  in  consequence,  and  had  come  out  to  Turin 
in  1853,  a  tenderfoot  diplomat,  to  tell  the  truth  abroad,  as  he  saw 
it,  for  the  good  of  his  country.  His  diagnosis  of  Italian  events  re- 
vealed in  the  earlier  dispatches  of  his  Italian  mission  had  proved  to 
be  by  no  means  infallible.  Though  Daniel  always  considered  him- 
self a  sincere  apostle  of  freedom,  he  maintained,  as  a  fiery  champion 
of  slavery,  that  negroes  were  not  to  be  considered  men  in  the  same 

1  This  paper  is  based  largely  upon  the  unpublished  diplomatic  correspondence 
between  John  Moncure  Daniel  and  the  Secretary  of  State,  Lewis  Cass.     Permis- 
sion to  consult  the  correspondence  was  kindly  obtained  for  the  writer  by  George 
won  Lengerke  Meyer  when  John  Hay  was  Secretary  of  State. 
(2-9) 


220  H.  N.  Gay 

sense  as  whites,  and  this  pro-slavery  taint  was  evidently  not  without 
influence  upon  his  diplomatic  judgment.  The  Virginian  who  in  his 
own  country  advocated  the  secession  of  the  Southern  States  could 
not,  even  though  a  liberal  in  political  theory,  fully  sympathize  with 
Italy's  great  struggles  for  independence  and  unity ;  his  political  diag- 
nosis must  often  fail  from  want  of  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  the  leading  Italian  liberals  who,  in  the  direction  which  they  gave 
to  events,  were  more  logical  than  he. 

In  1858  Daniel  had  been  promoted  from  his  original  rank  of 
charge  d'affaires  to  that  of  minister,  but  he  had  not  enjoyed  his 
new  position  long  before  he  caused  a  court  scandal  of  considerable 
magnitude,  a  scandal  which  is  said  to  have  led  to  a  curious  corre- 
spondence between  the  great  Italian  statesman  Cavour  and  the  Ital- 
ian minister  at  Washington,  and  is  more  amusing  for  the  historian 
than  it  was  for  Daniel.  On  January  24,  1859,  upon  the  betrothal 
of  Prince  Jerome  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  cousin  of  Napoleon  III.,  to 
Princess  Clotilde,  only  daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  a  grand 
ball  was  given  at  the  royal  palace  in  Turin,  and  the  minister  of  the 
United  States  received  the  usual  official  invitation.  Of  course  he 
was  present  on  the  festive  occasion,  and  furthermore  he  took  with 
him,  as  he  might  perhaps  properly  have  done  at  a  ball  in  Stafford 
County,  a  lady  who  had  not  been  invited,  Countess  Marie  de  Solms. 
The  breach  of  etiquette  was  exaggerated  by  the  fact  that  the  French 
countess  had  been  notoriously  unsuccessful,  even  more  unsuccess- 
ful than  most  ladies  of  the  Second  Empire,  in  preserving  her  pris- 
tine virtue  or  even  the  memory  of  it,  and  as  she  had  been  born 
Bonaparte  Wyse  and  was  a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  Daniel  might 
have  guessed  that,  had  her  presence  been  desired  at  official  Bona- 
parte festivities,  she  would  have  been  invited. 

The  American  minister's  social  position  had  been  further  dis- 
turbed by  the  indiscreet  publication  in  America  of  a  letter  which  he 
had  addressed  to  a  friend  in  Richmond  ridiculing  the  habitues  of 
the  Piedmontese  court — a  letter  which  thus  published  had  in  due 
course  found  its  way  to  Turin.2 

But  if  Daniel,  with  reason,  was  not  a  great  favorite  in  official 
circles,  he  had  good  outside  sources  of  political  information,  and 
it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  diplomatic  events  of  i860  the  court 
itself  was  not  a  little  bewildered — except  the  level-headed,  liberal 

2  These  social  mishaps  are  naturally  not  recorded  in  Daniel's  diplomatic 
dispatches,  but  they  are  described  at  some  length  in  a  memoir  of  Daniel  written 
by  his  brother,  Frederic  S.  Daniel,  for  a  volume  entitled  The  Richmond  Examiner 
during  the  War,  or,  The  Writings  of  John  M.  Daniel  (New  York,  1868). 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  221 

king  and  his  most  confidential  ministers  and  aides.  Daniel  thought 
for  himself  with  the  same  independence  which  characterized  his 
attendance  at  royal  functions,  and  the  war  of  1859  had  opened  his 
eyes  to  the  methods  of  Austrian  absolutism  and  to  Italy's  wrongs.3 
Experience  of  seven  years  enabled  him  to  write  his  best  dispatches 
in  i860 — dispatches  which  called  forth  compliments  from  Washing- 
ton; furthermore,  it  may  be  observed  that  when  he  writes  to  Cass 
with  regard  to  translations  of  Italian  documents  which  he  is  en- 
closing, he  speaks  of  them  as  documents  which  "  I  have  translated  ", 
a  phrase  which  few  American  diplomats  of  any  period  or  grade 
have  been  able  or  willing  to  use.  Indeed,  the  history  of  modern 
diplomacy  shows  that  it  is  generally  considered  dangerous  to  re- 
tain a  diplomat  in  a  country  whose  language  he  may,  in  an  absent- 
minded  moment  and  in  defiance  of  diplomatic  usage,  have  innocently 
acquired. 

Garibaldi  was  the  leading  figure  of  i860,  and  Daniel  had  had 
occasion  to  make  his  acquaintance  early  in  the  year.  The  general's 
simplicity,  sincerity,  and  substratum  of  good  sense  made  him  an 
enigma  to  many  diplomats,  but  Daniel  understood  him  fairly  well, 
without,  however,  losing  his  head  over  him.  Two  great  national 
questions  absorbed  Garibaldi  in  the  early  spring  of  i860,  the  pro- 
posed cession  of  Nice  and  Savoy  by  Piedmont  to  France,  and  a 
possible  revolution  in  Southern  Italy  to  overthrow  the  despotic  mon- 
archy of  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  had 
been  demanded  by  Napoleon  III.  in  payment  of  his  services  of  1859 
in  aiding  Piedmont  to  drive  the  Austrians  out  of  Lombardy,  and 
of  the  resultant  annexation  of  Central  Italy.  It  seemed  a  hard 
bargain.  Savoy  was  the  cradle  of  Piedmont's  royal  house,  and 
Nice  was  Garibaldi's  beloved  birthplace.  But  the  master  Italian 
statesman  and  leader,  Cavour,  realized  that  it  was  not  the  moment 
either  to  appear  ungrateful  or  to  oppose  Napoleon  III.     The  ces- 

3  In  a  dispatch  to  Cass  of  June  28,  1859,  Daniel  wrote:  "It  is  impossible 
not  to  witness  with  sincere  pleasure  the  punishment  of  that  bad  power  [Austria] 
and  the  defeat  of  the  detestable  system  that  has  so  long  rendered  wretched  many 
millions  of  men.  It  is  necessary  to  live  near  to  Austria  some  time  to  know  how 
perfectly  founded  in  truth  are  all  the  charges  which  history  has  brought  against 
her;  to  witness  the  cynical  reliance  on  pure  force  and  fraud  which  her  political 
men  regard  as  the  sole  motors  of  the  world,  her  settled  determination  to  oppose 
everything  like  advancement  of  freedom,  either  among  individuals  or  commu- 
nities, and  especially  her  presumptuous  arrogance  and  perfect  confidence  in  her 
strength  to  defy  the  hatred  and  do  without  the  respect  and  confidence  of  all 
mankind.  Her  vast  military  organization  is  full  of  this  spirit;  the  cruelty  and 
brutality  of  her  soldiery  is  only  equalled  by  the  cold  repellant  pride  and  ill-bred 
swagger  of  her  officers." 


222  H.  N.  Cay 

sion  of  Savoy  and  Nice  meant  the  bitter  loss  of  two  important 
provinces,  but  it  meant  also  that  France,  having  been  thus  paid  for 
her  valuable  services,  could  not  in  the  future  pretend  to  other  sacri- 
fices on  the  score  of  Italian  gratitude.  Furthermore,  it  meant  that 
France  would  not  find  it  easy  to  object  to  new  and  important  steps 
that  were  meditated  for  the  complete  unification  of  oppressed  Italy ; 
already  Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany,  and  the  Legations  had  been  vol- 
untarily incorporated,  together  with  Lombardy,  in  the  nascent  Ital- 
ian kingdom  under  Piedmontese  leadership ;  but  other  vital  portions 
of  the  peninsula  still  remained  to  be  won — Venice,  other  Roman 
,  provinces,  and  all  of  Southern  Italy.  Savoy  and  Nice  must  then 
be  sacrificed  that  the  greater  Italian  unification  might  be  consum- 
mated without  encountering  French  interference. 

Cavour  accepted  the  holocaust.  Deeply  moved  in  the  Franco- 
Piedmontese  conference  of  March  24,  i860,  at  which  the  treaty  of 
cession  was  made,  he  nevertheless  signed  the  documents  with  a  firm 
hand,  and  then,  having  regained  his  composure,  and  rubbing  his 
hands  together  in  the  way  that  for  him  always  indicated  satisfac- 
tion, he  said  laughingly  in  the  ear  of  the  French  minister,  Talley- 
rand: "Now  we  are  accomplices,  is  it  not  true,  Baron?"4  He 
meant  accomplices  in  territorial  readjustments  which  should  effect 
the  completion  of  Italian  unity,  to  which  he  knew  that  Napoleon 
III.  was  in  reality  opposed. 

But  Garibaldi  had  not  Cavour's  clear  understanding  of  the  inter- 
national situation  and  he  was  convinced  that  the  cession  of  Nice 
was  unnecessary.  Any  means,  therefore,  constitutional  or  revolu- 
tionary, calculated  to  prevent  successfully  its  accomplishment  he 
was  ready  and  eager,  as  leader  of  the  patriots  of  Nice,  to  adopt; 
on  April  6,  before  the  new  Parliament  had  been  constitutionally  or- 
ganized, he  had  failed  in  an  effort  to  make  an  interpellation  in  the 
Chamber  against  the  cession,  and  at  about  this  same  time  he  had 
called  on  Daniel  at  the  American  legation  in  Turin  to  ask  whether 
the  United  States  would  offer  protection  or  assistance  to  Nice  if 
the  little  province  should  revolt  against  both  France  and  Piedmont. 
This  odd  appeal  to  America  is  not  mentioned  either  by  Garibaldi  in 
his  Memoire,  or  by  his  biographers,  but  Daniel  reports  it  with  some 
detail  in  his  dispatch  to  Cass  of  April  10: 

This  parliament  was  deemed  a  body  entirely  devoted  to  the  Admin- 
istration of  Mr.  Cavour.  .  .  .  The  feeble  minority  of  dissentients  which 
it  contains  were  thought  to  be  without  a  spokesman.     It  appears  how- 

*  Henry  d'Ideville,  Journal  d'un  Diplomate  en  Italie   (Paris,   1872),  pp.   116- 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  223 

ever  that  they  are  to  find  one  in  this  celebrated  soldier,  who  up  to  this 
time  has  neither  been  supposed  by  others  to  be  endowed  with  the 
faculty  of  discourse  or  been  even  conscious  of  such  a  power  himself. 
The  free  remarks  which  he  made  the  other  day  on  the  "sale. of  Nice" 
have,  however,  caused  great  commotion  and  irritation  in  the  Ministry, 
and  have  found  a  deep  echo  in  the  popular  heart.  In  passing  the  Place 
Carignan  on  Sunday  evening,  I  saw  many  thousands  of  individuals 
assembled  in  front  of  the  Parliamentary  building  to  cheer  Garibaldi  as 
he  left  it. 

Garibaldi  is  a  native  of  Nice,  strongly  attached  to  its  nationality,  and 
bitterly  opposed  to  Louis  Napoleon  and  to  his  system;  he  is  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  the  United  States,5  and  though  now  a  member  of  mon- 
archical government,  does  not  hesitate,  as  he  has  ever  done,  to  declare 
himself  a  republican  in  principle  and  by  conviction.6  But  though  such 
a  man,  influenced  by  such  ideas  and  sentiments,  may  make  a  telling 
speech,  as  he  may  have  well  led  a  flying  column  in  Lombardy,  yet  he 
has  not  the  general  capacity  necessary  to  render  him  a  considerable 
statesman. 

He  called  at  my  office  a  few  days  ago  on  an  errand  quite  illustra- 
tive of  his  character.  He  desired  to  know  whether  the  United  States 
would  give  protection  or  assistance  to  Nice  in  case  it  should  separate 
both  from  France  and  Sardinia  and  establish  a  free  form  of  govern- 
ment for  itself?  I  told  him  at  once  that  the  United  States  would  inter- 
fere in  no  manner  with  such  a  matter;  and  that  though  I  believed  it 
to  be  the  policy  of  our  republic  to  recognize  all  governments  that  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  themselves  and  that  could  be  regarded  as  respon- 
sible organizations,  yet  I  doubted  whether  they  would  hold  any  inter- 
course, even  of  the  most  temporary  character,  with  a  mere  province  in 
rebellion  against  powers  so  much  more  powerful  than  itself  as  to  render 
its  immediate  subjection  almost  a  certainty.  He  said  that  he  had  antic- 
ipated the  reply  I  made  to  his  inquiry,  but,  in  the  present  moment,  he 
thought  it  right  to  leave  no  chance  for  assistance  untried. 

On  April  12  Garibaldi  finally  made  in  Parliament  his  futile 
interpellation,  in  which,  indeed,  he  himself  had  cherished  little  faith ; 
and  during  these  same  days,  acting  along  lines  much  better  suited 
to  his  nature  as  a  man  of  downright  action,  he  projected  a  raid  on 

5  Daniel  was  in  error  in  referring  to  Garibaldi  as  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the 
United  States.  On  April  2,  1851,  Garibaldi  had  obtained  from  Mayor  Kingi- 
land  of  New  York  an  American  passport  as  one  who  had  "  declared  his  intention 
to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  ".  But  the  general  never  took  the  final 
steps  requisite  to  naturalization. 

6  Garibaldi's  political  feeling  was  fundamentally  sound,  but  his  political 
phraseology  was  not  conventional.  Daniel's  statement  of  the  general's  position 
was  accurate  ;  the  latter  often  declared  his  platform  in  much  the  same  words,  as 
when  he  wrote,  for  example,  to  an  English  woman,  Mrs.  Carolina  Phillipson,  on 
Jan.  12,  1869:  "The  Republic  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  system  of  govern- 
ment emanating  from  the  free  will  of  the  majority;  and  as  the  condition  in  which 
you  live  [in  England]  is  this,  you  are  therefore  a  Republican."  In  "  Lettere  di 
Garibaldi  a  Carolina  Phillipson  ",  published  in  the  review  L'ltalia  Moderna,  anno 
V.,  II.  484   (Rome,  July    15,   1907). 

4)1.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.    XXVII.— 16. 


224  H.  N.  Gay 

Nice  for  the  purpose  of  smashing  the  ballot-boxes  during  the  elec- 
tions fixed  for  April  15,  in  order  to  gain  time  for  a  campaign  of 
popular  persuasion  against  cession.7 

In  the  meantime,  however,  the  other  and  greater  national  issue  that 
compelled  Garibaldi's  patriotism  forged  rapidly  to  the  fore — the  rous- 
ing of  Southern  Italy  from  the  long  bondage  in  which  it  had  been  held 
by  an  anti-national,  despotic  government.  Three  great  revolutions, 
not  to  mention  lesser  attempts  at  insurrection,  had  taken  place  in 
Sicily  in  less  than  a  half-century,  and  all  had  been  ruthlessly  sup- 
pressed by  the  Neapolitan  Bourbons ;  many  Sicilian  patriots  stoically 
supported  chains  or  exile,  and  the  bitter  struggle  for  liberty  con- 
tinued; on  April  4,  at  the  very  hour  when  Garibaldi  was  fuming 
about  his  native  Nice,  an  unsuccessful  revolt  had  been  attempted 
in  Palermo;  thirteen  of  the  insurgents  were  executed  ten  days  later 
by  the  Neapolitan  government.  The  persecutions,  the  cruelty,  the 
vexations  of  the  police  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  had  reached  such  ex- 
cesses in  Sicily  and  also  on  the  mainland  that  even  Gorchakov,  Rus- 
sian minister  of  foreign  affairs  at  St.  Petersburg,  had  protested 
against  them  as  contrary  to  the  interests  of  the  king  himself.  The 
indomitable  patriots  had  long  looked  earnestly  for  assistance  to 
Piedmont,  where  many  of  their  exiles  had  found  an  asylum,  and  all 
eyes  now  turned  eagerly  for  leadership  to  Garibaldi  and  to  his  dis- 
banded "  Hunters  of  the  Alps ",  a  volunteer  corps  which  had  ren- 
dered signal  service  in  the  campaign  of  1859  against  Austria. 

Of  course  the  Piedmontese  government  had  no  grounds  for 
openly  attacking  the  Neapolitan  kingdom,  but  it  had  every  reason 
to  wish  that  a  liberal  government,  national  in  feeling,  might  be 
established  there.     It  was  in  a  dispatch  of  April  21  that  Daniel 

7  An  Englishman,  Laurence  Oliphant,  who  was  to  have  participated  in  the 
ballot-box  smashing,  gives  a  lengthy  account  of  the  project  and  the  abandonment 
of  it,  in  his  Episodes  in  a  Life  of  Adventure  (Edinburgh-London,  1887),  pp.  165- 
179.  Oliphant  was  so  disappointed  and  so  disgusted  with  the  people  of  Nice  at 
their  not  having  resisted  annexation  to  France,  that  he  took  revenge  by  casting 
a  vote  in  favor  of  it  himself.  "  Of  course  I  had  no  right  whatever  to  vote,"  he 
said,  "  but  that  made  no  difference,  provided  you  voted  the  right  way.  As  for 
voting  '  No  ',  that  was  almost  impossible.  The  '  No  '  tickets  were  very  difficult  to 
procure,  while  the  '  Yeses '  were  thrust  into  your  hands  from  every  direction. 
If  ever  ballot-boxes  deserved  to  be  smashed  and  their  contents  scattered  to  the 
winds,  these  did." 

Daniel  also  took  the  view  that  the  plebiscites,  which  resulted  in  over- 
whelming votes  in  favor  of  cession,  were  not  fairly  held.  In  his  dispatch  of 
April  17  he  wrote  to  Cass:  "Popular  elections  of  this  sort  in  France  and  Sar- 
dinia, I  may  be  permitted  to  remark,  are  of  little  worth  considered  as  true  ex- 
positions of  the  popular  will." 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  225 

brought  this  Piedmontese  point  of  view  to  the  knowledge  of  his 
chief  in  Washington,  reporting  a  note  which  he  understood  that 
Cavour  had  recently  addressed  to  the  government  of  Naples : 

He  [Cavour]  calls  the  attention  of  that  Government  to  the  late  ter- 
ritorial modifications  of  Italy  and  informs  it  that  an  "  Italian  policy  is 
the  only  one  proper  and  salutary  to  any  Italian  State,  and  by  such  alone 
can  the  peace  of  Italy  be  secured".  He  declares  that  it  is  the  desire 
of  the  Sardinian  Government  to  preserve  amicable  relations  with  Naples 
and  is  ready  to  settle  all  difficulties  which  may  give  to  Naples  "  erroneous 
views  "  of  the  intentions  of  Piedmont.  But  he  concludes  by  telling  the 
Government  of  Naples  that  these  amicable  sentiments  can  become  prac- 
tical things  only  when  the  cry  of  Italian  Independence  shall  have  the 
same  signification  in  Naples  and  Sicily  as  in  Piedmont  and  Sardinia 
and  when  the  "  Italian  policy "  shall  be  adopted  in  Messina  and  Gaeta. 

Daniel  added  that  although  the  note  containing  this  communi- 
cation from  Cavour  had  not  been  published,  nevertheless  he  believed 
its  purport,  as  reported,  was  authentic.  We  have  no  precise  knowl- 
edge of  the  sources  of  the  American  minister's  information,  but 
they  were  in  this  case  manifestly  excellent;  on  April  15,  Victor 
Emmanuel  II.,  king  of  Piedmont,  had,  indeed,  upon  Cavour's  ad- 
vice, written  a  letter  to  Francis  II.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  which 
began  by  calling  the  latter's  attention  to  the  change  in  political 
conditions  wrought  by  the  victories  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  and 
then  continued: 

We  have  thus  arrived  at  a  moment  when  it  is  possible  that  Italy  be 
consolidated  into  two  powerful  states,  one  of  the  North,  the  other  of 
the  South ;  let  these  two,  accepting  the  same  national  policy,  support 
the  great  principle  of  the  hour,  national  independence.  But  in  order 
to  carry  out  this  plan,  it  is,  I  believe,  essential  that  Your  Majesty  should 
renounce  the  course  which  you  have  hitherto  followed.  .  .  .  Let  us 
show  to  the  Holy  Father  the  necessity  of  granting  the  necessary  re- 
forms ;  let  us  unite  our  states  in  bonds  of  true  friendship,  from  which 
will  certainly  follow  our  country's  greatness.  Grant  a  liberal  consti- 
tution at  once  to  your  subjects,  surround  yourself  with  the  men  who 
are  most  esteemed  for  their  sacrifices  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  remove 
every  suspicion  from  the  minds  of  your  people.8 

Neither  Cavour  nor  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  could  have  really  ex- 
pected that  the  liberal  counsels  offered  in  this  frank  and  trenchant 
letter  would  be  followed,  but  the  course  outlined  was  certainly  the 
only  possible  salvation  for  the  despotic  crown  of  Francis  II.,  and 
it  was  in  full  accord  with  the  opinions  held  by  the  governments  of 
England  and  France  and  with  the  grave  counsels  which  their  diplo- 
matic representatives  were  urging  upon  the  king  at  Naples.     Six 

s  Published  in  Chiala's  preface  to  the  fourth  volume  of  Cavour's  Lettere 
(Turin,  1885),  p.  cxxi. 


226  H.  N.  Gay 

weeks  before  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  sent  his  letter,  Elliot,  British 
minister  at  Naples,  had  "used  all  the  arguments  in  his  power  to 
persuade  the  [Neapolitan]  Government  to  pause  in  its  course",  and 
had  frankly  declared  to  it  that  he  "  felt  convinced  that  the  destruc- 
tion both  of  His  Majesty  and  of  the  Dynasty  was  inevitable  unless 
wiser  counsels  were  listened  to  ".9  The  French  minister,  Bernier, 
made  repeated  representations  of  the  same  tenor  to  the  Neapolitan 
government,  informing  Paris  that  "  real  evils  and  incontestable 
wrongs  "  were  the  cause  of  the  periodic  revolts  in  Sicily.  "  There 
is  only  one  means  of  pacifying  Sicily",  wrote  the  French  vice- 
consul  at  Messina,  "namely  to  free  her  from  the  humiliating  and 
degrading  yoke  of  the  police,  a  yoke  which  she  has  suffered  far  too 
long  for  the  honor  of  civilized  Europe."  Yet  such  was  the  king's 
alarm  over  the  insurrectionary  movements  at  this  time  that  the  police 
were  ordered  to  augment,  not  diminish,  their  blind  ferocity,  and  to 
arrest  on  the  unsupported  evidence  of  spies  not  only  those  who 
showed  sympathy  with  attempts  at  insurrection,  but  even  those 
who  talked  about  them  or  asked  for  news  of  them.10 

The  liberal  institutions  granted  in  Piedmont  twelve  years  be- 
fore and  now  carried  into  the  northern  and  central  Italian  prov- 
inces just  annexed,  were  in  too  striking  contrast  with  this  repressive 
system  of  the  Two  Sicilies  for  both  governmental  systems  to  be 
able  to  maintain  themselves  side  by  side  in  what  was  in  reality  one 
country.  Lord  John  Russell  pointed  to  the  contrast  between  them 
and  declared  that  it  was  neither  probable  nor  desirable  that  the  differ- 
ence should  long  continue.11  Cavour,  similarly  minded,  might  have 
said  of  Italy  what  Lincoln  had  said  of  the  United  States  two  years 
before:  "A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.  This  country 
cannot  endure  permanently  half  slave  and  half  free.  I  do  not  ex- 
pect the  house  to  fall — but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided. 
It  will  become  all  one  thing  or  all  the  other."  And  Cavour,  like 
Lincoln,  was  determined  that  it  should  become  all  free. 

Daniel  thought  that  the  South  could  not  liberate  itself  alone,12 
and  he  was  right.  But  preparations  for  help  from  outside  had  been 
going  on  for  months;  indeed,  the  idea  of  an  expedition  of  exiles 
and  of  liberals  from  other  parts  of  Italy  to  help  the  Sicilian  revo- 

9  Correspondence  respecting  the  Affairs  of  Naples,  presented  to  both  Houses 
of  Parliament  (London,   i860),  pp.  43-44. 

10  Documents  Diplomatiques,  i860,  Affaires  £trangeres  (Paris,  Imprimerie 
Imperiale,   1861),  pp.   128,   129,   134. 

11  Correspondence  respecting  the  Affairs  of  Naples,  p.  44. 

12  Dispatch  of  May  10. 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  227 

lutionists  had  begun  to  be  discussed  by  Garibaldi  in  New  York 
many  years  before.13  At  this  moment  two  important  organizations 
of  liberals  recently  founded  in  Northern  Italy  with  the  programme 
of  consummating  Italian  unification,  namely,  the  National  Society, 
and  the  Committee  of  the  Million  Rifles  Fund,  were  concentrating 
their  attention  upon  Sicily ;  men,  muskets,  and  money  for  "  un- 
known "  destination  had  begun  to  find  their  way  to  Genoa ;  Gari- 
baldi was  known  to  be  visiting  in  a  villa  at  Quarto,  about  four  miles 
distant,  and  many  of  the  men  arriving  were  from  his  old  corps  of 
faithful,  fearless  Hunters  of  the  Alps.  Apropos  of  these  proceed- 
ings Daniel  wrote  to  Cass  on  April  21:  "Unless  some  unforeseen 
circumstance  arises  there  will  be  no  war  this  year;  but  there  will 
be  revolutions,  if  it  is  in  the  power  of  intrigue  to  make  them." 

The  Neapolitan  government,  in  spite  of  its  army  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty  thousand  men,  and  its  numerous  war  vessels  cruising 
night  and  day  along  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  became  demoralized  with 
fear,  and  shrieked  its  protests  at  Turin  and  at  various  other  courts 
of  Europe.  Several  times  false  reports  that  Garibaldi  had  sailed 
for  Sicily  threw  the  government  of  that  island  into  a  panic  and 
raised  correspondingly  the  morale  of  the  revolutionists,  who  had  a 
blind  faith  that  he  would  come;  in  fact,  the  great  leader  was  hesi- 
tating only  because  of  uncertain  information  upon  the  true  state 
of  the  insurrection  there.  On  April  30,  the  great  decision  was  made, 
and  on  May  10,  Daniel  was  able  to  draft  the  most  dramatic  dispatch 
of  his  diplomatic  career: 

I  have  to  announce  the  most  startling  and  significant  event  that  has 
occurred  in  Italy  during  the  year.  I  refer  to  the  expedition  of  Gari- 
baldi to  the  island  of  Sicily.  .  .  . 

Garibaldi  sailed  from  the  Gulf,  of  Genoa  on  the  5th  of  May  i860 
with  2,200  men,  with  good  arms  and  provisions,  and  with  several  pieces 
of  cannon.  .  .  .  He  chartered  three  large  steamers  belonging  to  a  Sar- 
dinian line  of  boats.  .  .  .  The  place  of  embarcation  and  rendezvous  was 
Quarto,  a  village  near  the  city  of  Genoa.  The  whole  business  was  con- 
ducted without  concealment  or  disguises.  Its  progress  was  known  to 
every  one  even  here  in  Turin.  The  assemblage  and  embarcation  met 
with  no  hindrance  or  interference,  great  or  small,  direct  or  indirect, 
from  the  Sardinian  authorities.  .  .  .  The  men  who  compose  Garibaldi's 
corps  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  who  served  under  him  in  the  cam- 
paign of  last  summer.     The  leaders  are  his  old  officers.  .  .  . 

The  day  after  sailing  the  expedition  landed  for  water  and  to  com- 
plete its  organization  at  Talamone,  a  little  port  on  the  confines  of  Tus- 
cany and  the  Papal  States.  .  .  .  Such  arrangements  having  been  effected, 
the  steamers  sailed  again  for  their  uncertain  destination,  and  nothing 

13  Tuckerman,  "  Garibaldi  ",  published  in  the  North  American  Review,  XCII. 
17  (Boston,  January,  1861). 


228  H.  N.  Gay 

further  has  been  heard  of  them  up  to  the  hour  of  writing.  Intelligence 
has  however  been  received  from  Naples,  where  the  Government  is  said 
to  be  in  a  state  of  consternation.  The  whole  Neapolitan  fleet  is  cruis- 
ing around  Sicily  to  intercept  the  expedition.  .  .  . 

Daniel,  though  correct  in  his  general  statements,  has  committed 
here  several  errors  of  detail.  The  ships  were  two  in  number,  not 
three,  and  they  were  not  chartered,  but  seized  with  the  connivance 
of  the  manager  of  the  company  which  owned  them ;  they  were 
seized  on  the  5th,  but  sailed  only  on  the  6th,  early  in  the  morning, 
and  they  carried  about  1140,  not  2200,  volunteers.  But  the  Eng- 
lish minister,  Hudson,  quoting  his  consul  at  Genoa  who  had  wit- 
nessed the  final  preparations  and  departure,  was  hardly  more 
accurate  in  his  dispatches  to  Lord  Russell ;  he  estimated  the  number 
of  volunteers  embarked  at  only  400,  and  he  too  mentions  a  third 
steamer.  As  to  Garibaldi's  "  good  arms  and  provisions  .  .  .  and  can- 
non ",  it  may  be  added  that  his  arms  were  for  the  most  part  old 
muskets,  his  provisions  scanty,  and  from  Genoa  or  vicinity  he  took 
no  cannon.  These  errors  are  of  interest  as  indicating  that,  in  fact, 
much  secrecy  had  been  observed  by  the  Garibaldian  leaders  in  their 
preparations,  although  every  one  knew,  "  even  in  Turin  ",  that  some- 
thing was  being  prepared. 

In  this  same  dispatch  Daniel  continued: 

Here  in  Turin  the  Government  takes  no  pains  to  contradict  the  gen- 
eral belief  of  its  participation  in  this  strange  movement.  .  .  .  Apart 
from  the  private  sources  which  enable  me  to  say  with  almost  absolute 
confidence  that  this  expedition  has  been  gotten  up  under  the  patronage 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Sardinian  Government,  the  mere  facts 
that  .  .  .  arms,  soldiers  and  cannon  were  embarked  almost  on  the  out- 
skirts of  Genoa  itself,  and  that  this  whole  armament  sailed  peaceably  out  of 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  where  Sardinia  keeps  a  large  fleet,  a  great  garrison,  a 
watchful  police,  and  whose  cliffs  bristle  with  forts  and  artillery — these 
public  facts  render  it  impossible  even  for  the  passing  observer  to  doubt 
for  a  moment  that  this  is  the  act  of  the  Sardinian  Government  itself. 
In  a  movement  organized  on  so  vast  a  scale  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible to  have  taken  even  a  single  step  without  the  full  knowledge 
and  authority  of  the  powers  at  Turin.  This  is  undeclared  war  of  Sar- 
dinia against  Naples.  It  does  not  suit  the  convenience  of  the  Govern- 
ment here  to  avow  that  they  undertake  hostilities  against  the  king  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  to  drive  him  away,  abolish  the  separate  existence  of 
that  country,  and  to  unite  his  territory  to  their  own.  They  have  no 
tangible  ground  for  a  Declaration  of  War.  Hence  they  pursue  their 
object  under  the  name  of  Garibaldi. 

In  private  and  unofficial  conversations  it  is  argued  that  unless  this 
expedition  had  been  permitted  they  would  have  been  engaged  in  conflict 
with  the  Pope  and  the  king  of  Naples  at  Bologna.  The  re-organiza- 
tion of  the  Papal  army,  the  concentration  of  troops  at  Gubbio,  and  the 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  229 

evident  concert  of  the  king  of  Naples  with  Lamoriciere,  give  colour  to 
this  view.  Hence  the  friends  of  the  Government  think  that  it  was  both 
justifiable  and  adroit  to  strike  the  first  blow  and  disconcert  the  plan 
of  the  enemy  by  an  insurrectionary  assault  on  his  own  home. 

In  dispatch  No.  145  I  stated  what  seemed  to  me  the  present  policy 
of  the  ultra  Italian  party.  .  .  .  Deserted  by  France,  they  have  no  idea 
of  carrying  on  the  struggle  with  Austria  on  the  present  footing.  At 
the  same  time  there  can  be  no  peace  till  Venice  is  wrested  from  the 
hands  of  that  power.  Hence  it  behooves  them  to  unite  the  entire  pen- 
insula to  the  south  of  the  Po  under  one  head,  and  they  can  only  effect 
this  object  by  revolutionizing  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  expelling  the 
Bourbon  dynasty,  and  then  by  procuring  a  popular  vote  for  annexa- 
tion to  Piedmont,  as  they  have  already  done  in  Parma,  Modena,  Tus- 
cany and  in  the  Legations.  All  their  energies  and  intrigues  have  for 
some  time  past  been  directed  to  these  results.  A  revolution  in  Naples 
and  the  consolidation  of  that  country  in  the  Subalpine  kingdom  before 
the  end  of  this  year  is  a  matter  of  life  or  death  to  the  Italian  party.  .  .  . 

The  countenance  given  to  these  measures  by  the  English  Minister 
in  Turin,  amounting  almost  to  participation  in  them,  is  to  me  very  sur- 
prising. That  he  could  or  would  have  done  so  without  the  direction  of 
his  superiors  at  London  is  impossible.  .  .  . 

It  only  remains  to  give  my  own  opinion  as  to  the  probabilities  of 
Garibaldi's  success.  .  .  .  The  greatest  danger  which  Garibaldi  has  to 
run  is  in  the  passage  by  sea.  Naples  has  a  considerable  number 
of  vessels  of  war.  Garibaldi's  steamers  could  stand  no  chance  if  they 
came  in  reach  of  them,  and,  though  a  vessel  of  passage  can  outstrip 
most  ships  of  war  in  a  race  of  speed,  they  might  be  so  headed  and 
surrounded  by  a  fleet  that  they  would  have  to  risk  the  cannon  shot, 
and  a  few  broadsides  would  end  the  affair  by  sinking  the  whole  expedi- 
tion in  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand  I  am  confident  that  in  the  last  emer- 
gency the  English  or  Sardinian  squadrons  cruising  over  the  same  ground 
would  interfere  in  some  way  to  the  advantage  of  the  expedition.  The 
chances  that  it  escapes  the  dangers  of  the  voyage  are  equal.  But  should 
Garibaldi  effect  a  landing,  I  have  no  doubt  at  all  a6  to  his  success. 
Should  he  fairly  land,  the  days  of  the  Bourbon  Dynasty  at  Naples  are 
numbered  and  the  separate  existence  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  will  soon  have  place  in  history  alone. 

These  concluding  paragraphs  offered  as  daring  and  fortunate  a 
prophecy  as  it  often  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  diplomat  to  make :  unques- 
tionable success  of  the  Garibaldian  arms,  once  they  were  landed, 
not  only  in  Sicily,  but  also  in  the  Neapolitan  provinces;  speedy  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  from  Italy,  neck  and  crop ;  and  an 
immediate  plebiscite  for  total  annexation  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  the 
kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II. 

The  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  was  to  prove  complete,  to  the 
letter.  Garibaldi's  progress  from  the  day  of  his  landing  turned  out, 
indeed,  to  be  one  unbroken  series  of  military  successes  alike  in 
Sicily  and  on  the  Neapolitan  mainland ;  the  great  plebiscite,  an  over- 


230  H.  N.  Gay 

whelming  vote  in  favor  of  annexation,  was  held  on  October  21 ; 
and  consolidation  of  the  Two  Sicilies  in  the  Italian  state  was  defi- 
nitely proclaimed  by  royal  decree  on  December  17,  as  Daniel  had 
said,  "before  the  end  of  the  year". 

But  this  extraordinary  outcome  of  the  hazardous  expedition  was, 
on  May  10,  quite  other  than  a  foregone  conclusion.  The  difficulties 
to  be  overcome,  military  and  diplomatic,  were  well-nigh  insurmount- 
able ;  both  of  the  great  leaders,  Garibaldi  and  Cavour,  foresaw  them 
and  hesitated  long  before  the  final  cast  of  the  dice  was  made.  One 
factor,  and  one  alone,  made  for  success :  the  burning,  unquenchable, 
irresistible  desire  of  the  Italian  people,  from  Sicily  to  the  Alps,  for 
freedom  from  foreign  domination,  for  political  liberty,  and  for 
peace  through  national  unity.  And,  as  Daniel  wrote,  "  There  could 
be  no  peace  till  Venice  was  wrested  from  the  hands  of  Austria", 
and  unification  of  the  entire  peninsula  was  achieved.  The  men 
from  the  north  of  Italy  who  largely  composed  the  Thousand  gladly 
offered  their  lives  in  Garibaldi's  campaign,  not  merely  to  free  their 
southern  brothers  from  despotic  government,  but  because  they  saw 
in  this  liberation  the  unification  of  Italy;  patriots  of  the  Veneto 
and  the  Trentino  firmly  believed  that  battles  heroically  won  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  despotic  Neapolitan  government  were  in  reality 
victories  also  in  the  great  struggle  for  the  expulsion  of  hated  Austria 
from  Venice  and  Trent.  It  was  the  consuming  passion  of  Italian 
unification  that  was  carrying  all  before  it,  and  it  was  because 
Daniel,  though  secessionist  in  his  own  country,  now  saw  the  in- 
evitable necessity  for  unity  in  Italy,  that  he  was  able  to  forecast 
events  so  truly. 

It  appears  to  me  clear  [he  wrote  in  another  dispatch]  that  one  of 
those  great  movements  of  nations  and  races  which  have  from  time 
to  time  altered  the  political  condition  and  relative  proportions  of  Euro- 
pean States  is  now  on  foot  in  this  peninsula.  What  passes  here  is  not 
the  work  of  individuals,  of  factions,  or  even  of  parties.  It  is  the  gen- 
eral sentiment  and  unanimous  volition  of  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Italy.  There  is  an  universal  determination  of  all  its  people — Romans, 
Tuscans,  Neapolitans,  and  Lombards — to  do  away  with  their  former 
system  of  divided  government  and  to  unite  in  one  body.  When  twenty 
millions  of  people,  having  already  some  general  bonds  and  means  of 
union  at  their  command,  become  possessed  of  an  idea  and  wish  so  gen- 
eral and  deeply  seated  as  that  which  now  prevails  here  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  resist  or  thwart  them.  A  nation  under  such  circumstances 
accomplishes  its  destiny  with  the  force  and  certainty  of  the  elements, 
blind  to  consequences  and  deaf  to  both  menace  and  persuasion.  The 
Emperor  of  France  during  the  last  winter  did  use  all  the  means  that 
statecraft  could  devise  to  stem  or  turn  the  general  current  of  affairs 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  231 

in  Italy;  but  he  had  not  more  success  than  king  Canute  when  he  com- 
manded the  tide  of  the  German  ocean  to  rest  at  low  water.14 

As  Daniel  stated,  at  the  date  of  his  dispatch  of  May  10,  Cavour 
had  made  no  effort  to  deny  the  charges  of  complicity,  on  the  part 
of  the  Piedmontese  government,  in  Garibaldi's  expedition.15  We 
now  know  that  Cavour  privately  admitted  such  complicity ;  indeed, 
on  the  same  day  that  Daniel  wrote,  he  declared  that  "  circumstances 
had  induced  the  government  to  oppose  no  effective  obstacles  to  the 
expedition  ".16  A  tempest  of  diplomatic  protest,  particularly  from 
Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  France,  had  since  May  6  beaten  heavily 
upon  Cavour's  head ;  but  France,  probably  on  account  of  the  im- 
pending parliamentary  ratification  at  Turin  of  the  cession  of  Nice 
and  Savoy,  had  shown  less  displeasure  than  he  expected,  and  on 
May  17  he  wrote  privately  to  Colonel  Cugia  in  Bologna,  "Gari- 
baldi's expedition  was  openly  favored  by  England  and  mildly  op- 
posed by  France  "."  With  regard  to  British  complicity,  then,  Dan- 
iel was  also  right.  And  if  England  could  openly  favor  Garibaldi, 
Piedmont,  an  Italian  liberal  power,  could  a  fortiori  justify  herself 
for  doing  so. 

On  May  7,  Garibaldi's  steamers  had  put  in  at  Talamone,  a  small 
port  on  the  almost  deserted  coast  of  the  Tuscan  maremma,  where 
they  took  on  ammunition,  water,  and  provisions;18  two  days  later 
at  Porto  San  Stefano,  a  few  miles  farther  south,  they  took  on  coal, 
and  then  stood  out  to  sea,  avoiding  the  ordinary  steamer  routes  and 
laying  their  course  for  the  northwestern  corner  of  Sicily.  •  As  Col- 
onel Nino  Bixio,  "  the  second  of  the  Thousand  ",  commanding  one 
of  the  steamers,  emphatically  declared,  they  had  been  extremely 
lucky  at  Porto  San  Stefano,  having  obtained  coal  in  abundance, 
"  enough  to  carry  them  to  Sicily,  and  if  necessary  to  Hell  ".1S  He 
was  convinced  that  it  would  not  now  take  them  long  to  reach  one 
destination  or  the  other. 

"Dispatch  of  June  12. 

is  L'Opinione,  Cavour's  foremost  newspaper,  refrained,  undoubtedly  by 
government  order,  from  any  mention  of  the  expedition  until  May   10. 

16  Letter  to  Vice-Admiral  Francesco  Serra.     Cavour,  Lettere,  VI.   560. 

«B.  Ricasoli,  Lettere  e  Documenti  (Florence,  1890),  V.  82;  Cavour,  Lettere, 
III.  251. 

i8  Unpublished  documents  containing  a  few  new  details  of  interest  regard- 
ing the  landing  at  Talamone  are  given  by  Michel,  "  I  Mille  nelle  Acque  dell '  Ar- 
gentario  ",  in  the  historical  review  //  Risorgimento  Italiano,  III.  1004-1009 
(Turin,  December,  1910). 

19  Ippolito  Nievo,  "  Da  Quarto  a  Palermo  ",  an  important  diary  of  one  of 
the  Thousand  published  in  the  review  La  Lettura  (Milan,  May,  1910),  p.  386. 
This  diary  has  not  been  used  by  the  principal  historians  of  the  expedition. 


232  H.  N.  Gay 

The  fortunate  landing  of  the  expedition  at  Marsala  on  the  west- 
ern point  of  Sicily  on  May  II,  under  the  very  guns  of  Neapolitan 
men-of-war,  was  reported  by  Daniel  in  his  dispatches  of  May  15 
and  June  4,  but  of  Garibaldi's  brilliant  victory  against  overwhelming 
odds  at  Calatafimi,  his  arduous  march  upon  Palermo,  and  the  almost 
miraculous  storming  of  the  Sicilian  capital  on  May  27,  no  details 
were  given.  The  negotiations,  however,  between  Garibaldi  and  the 
representatives  of  the  Neapolitan  government  for  the  capitulation 
of  Palermo  were  described  with  caustic  observations  upon  the  weak- 
ness and  demoralization  of  the  Neapolitans. 

The  rapidity  and  completeness  of  Garibaldi's  success,  and  the 
fact  that  thousands  of  Sicilian  patriots  had  rallied  to  his  banner  on 
the  march  upon  Palermo,  so  strengthened  the  position  of  Italian 
nationalists  before  the  world  that  operations  in  northern  Italy  to 
reinforce  the  movement  in  its  triumphant  progress  could  now  be 
carried  on  more  openly,20  and  early  in  June  events  transpired  which 
gave  a  more  direct  interest  to  Daniel's  dispatches  as  they  arrived 
in  Washington — namely,  events  in  which  the  complicity  of  American 
citizens  and  of  at  least  one  American  official  figured  unequivocally. 

In  the  outfitting  of  the  Thousand,  American  collaboration  had 
not  been  entirely  lacking;  the  financial  report  of  the  Million  Rifles 
Fund  gives  as  its  first  item  the  receipt  of  6850  lire  transmitted 
from  New  York  directly  to  the  hands  of  Garibaldi  on  the  eve  of 
his  departure  from  Genoa.  In  the  course  of  the  Sicilian  and  Nea- 
politan campaigns  numerous  other  cash  contributions  were  received 
by  the  Million  Rifles  Fund  from  various  parts  of  the  United  States, 
from  New  Orleans  to  San  Francisco  and  Portland,  Oregon;  the 
total  contributions  from  New  York  City  alone  equalled  those  from 
all  England.  The  greater  number  of  American  subscribers  were 
of  Italian  origin;  Italians  in  America  had  then,  as  they  have  to-day, 
deep  and  loyal  interest  in  events  in  their  mother  country,  as  well 
as  in  those  of  their  country  of  adoption ;  but  the  lists  contained  the 

20  Diplomatic  opposition,  however,  had  by  no  means  ceased.  Cavour's  posi- 
tion was  well  defined  in  a  statement  made  by  Napoleon  III.  to  Nigra,  Piedmontese 
minister  in  Paris,  and  reported  by  the  latter  to  Cavour  in  a  remarkable  letter  of 
July  13:  "Now  you  have  against  you  nearly  all  of  the  cabinets.  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell is  not  very  keen  for  the  annexation  of  Sicily  (he  read  me  a  dispatch  from 
Berlin  in  this  sense)  ;  Mr.  de  Schleinitz  proposes  collective  representations  to 
Piedmont  to  assure  the  integrity  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies ;  Prince 
Gorchakov  accuses  me  of  favoring  the  revolution  and  declares  that  Russia  will 
never  be  found  in  the  revolutionary  camp ;  he  proposes  a  naval  intervention  in 
favor  of  the  King  of  Naples,  and  he  announces  formally  that  Russia  will  never 
permit  the  annexation  of  Sicily  to  Piedmont."  The  letter  was  first  published 
in  the  historical  review  //  Risorglmento  Italiano,  IX.  277-281    (Turin,  1916). 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  233 

names  of  many  who  could  lay  no  claim  to  Italian  blood — names 
such  as  Smith,  Webster,  and  Brown.21  Colonel  Samuel  Colt  of  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  gave  one  hundred  revolvers  and  revolver-carbines, 
which  arrived  in  time  to  arm  as  many  men  of  what  is  generally 
known  as  the  second  expedition,  which  sailed  from  Genoa  on  the 
night  of  June  9-1 0,  under  the  American  flag.  The  Colt  revolver-car- 
bines, which  could  fire  five  shots  without  being  re-loaded,  proved,  it 
has  been  said,  a  determining  factor  in  the  repulse  of  the  Neapolitan 
cavalry  in  Garibaldi's  hard-won  victory  of  Milazzo22  on  July  20. 
The  second  expedition  in  reinforcement  of  Garibaldi,  commanded 
by  the  general's  oldest  and  most  trusted  lieutenant,  Colonel  Giacomo 
Medici,  consisted  of  from  2200  to  2400  men,  transported  on  three 
steamers,  the  Washington,  the  Franklin,  and  the  Oregon.  On  the 
night  preceding,  a  vanguard  of  the  expedition  comprising  from  900 
to  1000  men  had  left  Genoa  on  the  American  clipper  Cliarles  and 
Jane  in  tow  of  the  little  Piedmontese  steamer  Utile,  the  force  being 
under  the  command  of  Major  Clemente  Corte.  The  Utile  and  the 
clipper  were  captured  by  a  Neapolitan  warship  and  taken  in  triumph 
to  Gaeta,  but  Medici  with  the  other  vessels  reached  Castellamare, 
Sicily,  in  safety  on  June  17,  via  Cagliari.  Daniel  reported  events 
to  Cass  as  follows : 

The  telegraph  this  morning  [June  19]  brings  the  statement  that  an 
American  clipper,  towed  by  a  small  steam  vessel,  laden  with  troops  and 
arms  for  Garibaldi  and  bound  for  Sicily,  has  been  captured  by  Neapol- 
itan vessels  of  war. 

I  have  also  lately  learned  that  three  French  passenger  steam-boats, 
old  and  in  bad  condition,  have  been  purchased  by,  or  at  least  in  the 
name  of,  a  person  at  Genoa  who  claims  the  title  of  an  American  citizen. 
These  vessels  then  hoisted  the  American  flag  and,  having  been  severally 
christened  the  Washington,  the  Franklin  and  Oregon,  got  up  steam  and 
left  Genoa  without  cargo.  It  is  supposed  that  they  are  engaged  in  the 
affairs  of  Sicily. 

I  have  this  morning  addressed  notes  to  the  Consulates  of  Genoa, 
Spezia  and  Leghorn,  requesting  further  information  relative  to  these 
vessels.  .  .  . 

That  more  of  Garibaldi's  vessels  have  not  been  captured,  indeed  that 
all  of  them  have  not  been  captured,  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  weakness 
which  pervades  the  whole  organization  of  the  Neapolitan  Government. 
It  possesses  a  large  and  expensive  fleet,  which  cruises  around  Sicily, 
yet  this  is  the  first  thing  that  they  have  done.     On  the  other  hand  the 

21  Enrico  Bessana  and  Giuseppe  Finzi,  Reso-conto  di  tutta  la  Gestione  del 
Fondo  del  Milione  Fucili  (Milan,  February,   1S61). 

22  The  only  known  revolver-carbine  of  this  lot  that  has  been  preserved  is  in 
the  possession  of  the  well-known  Risorgimento  scholar  in  Milan,  Comra.  Am- 
brogio  Crippa,  whose  father  used  it  with  deadly  effect  at  Milazzo. 


234  H.  N.  Gay 

publicity  with  which  the  various  reinforcements23  are  sent  to  Gari- 
baldi is  complete.  Days  before  the  vessels  set  out,  their  proposed  de- 
parture, the  force  that  they  will  convey,  and  even  the  hour  of  their 
leaving  Genoa  or  Leghorn  is  known  to  everyone  here  and  sometimes 
announced  in  the  newspapers.  When  the  appointed  hour  arrives,  and 
the  vessels  are  loaded,  the  men  assemble  in  the  most  frequented  parts  of 
those  cities,  the  expedition  sails  with  the  regularity  of  a  packet-boat,  and 
some  days  after,  their  safe  arrival  at  a  Sicilian  port  is  chronicled  by 
the  telegraph  as  if  it  were  part  of  the  regular  business  of  the  world.24 

In  soliciting  information  regarding  the  departure  of  the  three 
steamers  of  Medici's  expedition,  "bearing  the  American  flag",  and 
reported  "to  be  engaged  in  the  movements  of  General  Garibaldi 
between  Sicily  and  Naples ",  Daniel  wrote  to  W.  L.  Patterson, 
American  consul  at  Genoa :  "  While  I  have  neither  the  right  nor 
the  disposition  to  interfere  with  these  affairs,  it  is  proper  that  this 
Legation  should  be  informed,  so  far  as  possible,  of  the  truth  of  this 
report." 

This  gratuitous  protestation  by  Daniel  that  he  had  "  no  dispo- 
sition to  interfere  ",  is  not  without  interest,  particularly  when  taken 
in  connection  with  an  inadvertent  admission  to  Cass  that  he,  Daniel, 
had  held  a  conversation  with  Garibaldi  regarding  affairs  in  the  Two 
Sicilies  "  a  short  time  previously  to  his  departure  ",25  That  Patter- 
son did  not  need  this  suggestion  will  be  seen  from  his  reply: 

On  the  8th  inst.  Mr.  Finzi  and  Mr.  William  De  Rohan  a  citizen  of 
the  U.  S.  from  Philadelphia  appeared  at  this  Consulate  and  before  me 
concluded  and  signed  the  contract  of  purchase  on  the  part  of  Mr.  De 
Rohan  of  three  steamers,  the  Washington  469-59  tons,  the  Oregon  126.99 
tons  and  the  Franklin  233  tons.  The  money  was  paid  by  Mr.  De  Rohan 
and  a  formal  delivery  of  the  vessels  was  made  into  his  hands.     Of  the 

23  In  the  preparation  of  the  Medici  expedition  the  Piedmontese  govern- 
ment even  ordered  a  special  train  which  collected  the  Garibaldian  volunteers  at 
different  stations  and  took  them  to  Genoa.  Cadolini,  "Garibaldi  nel  i860", 
published  in  La  Nuova  Rivista  di  Fanteria  (Rome,  May  15,  1910),  p.  411. 

24  The  first  expedition  of  reinforcements  was  one  to  which  due  importance 
has  never  been  given  by  historians.  As  La  Farina  declared  on  May  17,  Gari- 
baldi's most  urgent  need  in  Sicily  was  of  arms  and  ammunition.  Accordingly,  on 
May  25,  under  command  of  Major  Carmine  Agnetta,  an  expedition  of  sixty  vol- 
unteers in  charge  of  3000  muskets  and  100,000  cartridges  left  Genoa  on  board 
the  Utile,  which  was  little  more  than  a  tugboat.  For  evidence  of  assistance  from 
the  Piedmontese  government  in  the  preparation  of  this  expedition,  consult  H. 
Nelson  Gay,  "  Garibaldi  und  die  Tausend ",  published  in  the  Deutsche  Revue 
(Stuttgart,  December,  1910).  The  Utile  landed  men  and  cargo  safely  at  Marsala 
on  June  2. 

25  Dispatch  of  June  19,  in  which  Daniel  says  that  Garibaldi  had  declared  to 
him,  apropos  of  possible  unreadiness  of  the  Neapolitans  to  throw  off  their  des- 
potic government,  that  "  Liberty  itself  must  sometimes  be  forced  on  the  people 
for  their  future  good  ". 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  235 

Washington  Mr.  De  Rohan  took  command  himself,  and  he  appointed  to 
the  commands  of  the  others  Mr.  J.  W.  Nevins  a  native  of  the  U.  S.  and 
Mr.  Or[ri]goni  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  U.  S. 

It  was  my  private  opinion  that  the  purchaser  of  these  vessels  in- 
tended to  employ  them  in  the  transportation  of  men  and  munitions  from 
this  [port]  to  Sicily.  At  least  rumor  said  so.  But  inasmuch  as  the 
conditions  of  the  law  were  complied  with  and  the  contract  of  sale  and 
purchase  a  valid  one,  I  could  not  allow  my  private  opinion  as  to  the 
ultimate  destination  of  these  vessels  to  interfere  to  prevent  my  official 
confirmation  of  the  purchase.     Nor  had  I  the   right  to   refuse. 

These  vessels  cleared  from  this  port  on  the  evening  of  the  9th  inst. 
for  Athens,  Greece,  bearing  I  am  told  the  American  flag,  which  their 
ownership  and  papers  authorized  them  to  wear.  I  am  likewise  credibly 
informed  that  after  leaving  this  port  they  put  into  Cornegliano  a  short 
distance  from  this  city  on  the  western  coast  and  took  on  board  men  and 
munitions  of  war.  These  vessels  were,  or  at  least  two  of  them,  the 
Washington  and  the  Oregon,  at  Cagliari  on  the  nth  inst.  I  have  heard 
nothing  of  them  since. 

It  is  amusing  to  read  Patterson's  statement  that  he  had  been 
"told"  that  the  vessels  had  sailed  under  the  American  flag.  The 
exact  truth  was  that  on  the  afternoon  of  June  9,  in  company  with 
De  Rohan,  he  had  been  rowed  out  to  the  Washington  as  she  was 
about  to  leave  the  harbor  of  Genoa,  had  spent  several  hours  on  board 
while  she  was  taking  on  arms,  uniforms,  and  stores,  and  before  going 
ashore  had  hoisted  the  American  flag  on  her  himself.26  Mr.  J. 
West  Nevins,  who  figured  as  the  commander  of  the  Oregon,  was 
a  friend  and  secretary  of  Patterson  and  took  part  in  the  expedition 
at  his  own  expense  and  risk.  As  Felice  Orrigoni  wrote  to  Gari- 
baldi from  the  deck  of  the  Franklin  in  Sicilian  waters  on  June  17: 
"  The  American  consul  in  Genoa,  Mr.  L.  Patterson,  did  everything 
that  he  could  for  us,  at  the  risk  of  losing  his  position."27  There 
is  no  question  but  that  he  and  Commodore  William  De  Rohan  were 
as  loyal  and  enthusiastic  Garibaldians  as  any  of  the  Italian  patriots 
who  were  ready  to  risk  their  lives  and  their  position  that  Italy  might 
be  free  and  united. 

De  Rohan  was  a  bona  fide  sea-captain,  an  old  friend  and  admirer 
of  Garibaldi,  whom  he  had  first  met  at  Montevideo  in  the  forties 
and  to  whom  he  had  presented  a  sword  at  Gibraltar  in  1850,  when 
the  defeated  and  proscribed  hero  was  on  his  way  to  exile  in  the 
United  States.     Just  how  the  American  now  came  to  participate  in 

26  Testimony  of  Colonel  Peard,  an  English  member  of  the  expedition,  who 
was  in  the  rowboat  which  took  De  Rohan  and  Patterson  out  to  the  Washington. 
Peard's  Diary,  published  in  the  Cornhill  Magazine  (London,  June,   1908),  p.  813. 

2?  G.  E.  Curatulo,  Garibaldi,  Vittorio  Emanuele,  Cavour  (Bologna,  1911),  p. 
185. 


236  H.  N.  Gay 

Garibaldi's  great  Sicilian  undertaking  is  not  known.  The  first  rec- 
ord that  we  have  of  his  presence  in  Italy  at  this  time  is  a  letter  which 
he  addressed  to  King  Victor  Emmanuel  on  May  28.  He  was  de- 
voted to  the  Italian  cause,  and  for  the  services  which  he  rendered 
in  this  second  expedition  and  in  the  subsequent  development  of 
events  he  might  quite  properly  be  called  "  Garibaldi's  American ", 
as  Colonel  Peard  who  went  out  with  him  on  the  Washington  was 
known  as  "  Garibaldi's  Englishman ".  De  Rohan  impressed  the 
Italian  patriots  as  a  man  of  action  and,  generally  speaking,  of  sound 
judgment.28  The  three  vessels  had  been  purchased  in  Marseilles 
for  752,489.55  lire  by  Finzi  of  the  Million  Rifles  Fund,  and  had  been 
made  over  to  De  Rohan  with  a  regular  bill  of  sale  in  Patterson's 
consular  office,  in  order  that  they  might  sail  under  the  protection  of 
the  American  flag,  being  American  property,  commanded  by  Amer- 
ican citizens  and  in  part  manned  by  American  sailors.  On  June  8, 
however,  De  Rohan  signed  a  declaration  for  Finzi  to  the  effect  that 
although  the  American  was  figuring  in  the  ships'  papers  as  owner 
of  the  three  vessels  Amsterdam,  Helvetic  and  Belgienne,  which  had 
been  rechristened  Franklin,  Washington,  and  Oregon,  Finzi  was  in 
reality  the  owner.  De  Rohan  promised  to  transfer  the  ships  back 
to  Finzi's  name  immediately  upon  the  latter's  request.29  The  Ital- 
ian patriots  certainly  took  a  chance  with  De  Rohan,  notwithstand- 
ing this  written  declaration,  but  the  American  proved  more  than 
worthy  of  their  confidence. 

If  only  a  straw  owner  of  the  ships,  De  Rohan  was  by  no  means 
a  mere  figurehead  as  commander  of  the  Washington ;  his  whole 
heart  was  in  the  expedition  and  he  bore  a  prominent  and  gallant 
part  in  the  guidance  of  his  little  fleet  of  three  American  ships 
through  the  perils  and  difficulties  of  their  voyage,  exhibiting  true 
Garibaldian  energy  and  daring,  and  earning  the  esteem  and  grati- 
tude of  his  volunteers  and  their  chiefs. 

At  Cagliari,  their  port  of  call,  the  Piedmontese  governor  made 
some  difficulties  about  allowing  the  Washington  and  her  sister  ships 
to  proceed,  so  De  Rohan  went  on  shore  to  call  on  His  Excellency. 
Peard  tells  the  story: 

At  first  there  seemed  some  hesitation  about  his  being  admitted,  but 
the  American  was  not  to  be  done.  He  walked  in  and  insisted  on  the 
great  man  being  sent  for.  After  some  few  words  he  said,  "Are  you 
an  Italian  in  heart  or  only  in  name  ?  "  and  then,  advancing  towards  him 

28Curatulo,  ibid. ;   Michele  Amari,   Carteggio   (Turin,   1896),  II.  96. 

23  A.  Luzio,  "  Le  Spedizioni  Medici-Cosenz  ",  published  in  the  review  La 
Lettura  (Milan,  June,   1910),  p.  485. 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  237 

and  pointing  to  a  couple  of  decorations  he  wore,  added,  "  Those  deco- 
rations you  wear  have  been  given  you  by  your  country ;  will  you  now  in 
return  betray  her  interests  and  disgrace  those  ribbons  you  have  re- 
ceived from  her?''  The  Governor  jumped  off  his  feet  as  if  he  feared 
he  was  going  to  be  eaten,  but,  when  he  found  De  Rohan  had  no  such 
cannibal  intention,  recovered  himself,  and  at  length  gave  his  word  she 
should  leave  as  soon  as  her  steam  was  up,  and  he  kept  his  promise.30 

The  most  dangerous  hours  of  the  voyage  were  now  at  hand  with 
the  approach  to  the  shores  of  Sicily,  and  De  Rohan  was  determined 
to  leave  untried  no  means  that  could  contribute  to  the  safe  conduct 
of  the  expedition.  A  letter  was  accordingly  dispatched,  addressed 
by  him  to  Captain  Palmer  of  the  Iroquois,  an  American  war-ship 
then  stationed  in  the  harbor  of  Palermo  for  the  protection  of  Amer- 
ican interests.  De  Rohan  informed  the  captain  of  the  Iroquois  of 
the  route  that  he  was  taking  but  did  not  state  the  cargo  that  he 
was  carrying;  he  hoped  that  Palmer  would  cruise  off  the  coast  and 
meet  him,  and  if  occasion  should  require,  protect  the  American  flag. 
By  the  same  post  Medici  wrote  to  Garibaldi  suggesting  that  he  use 
his  good  offices  with  Palmer  to  further  the  realization  of  De  Rohan's 
hope.31 

But  need  for  this  assistance  was  eventually  removed,  for  the 
Piedmontese  admiral  commanding  in  these  waters  had  made  up  his 
mind  that  De  Rohan's  vessels  should  be  safely  escorted  for  the  re- 
mainder of  their  voyage  by  one  or  more  Piedmontese  war-ships ;  thus 
protected,  the  Washington  on  the  evening  of  June  17  sailed  into 
the  port  of  Castellamare,  the  Franklin  and  Oregon  considerably 
astern.32  Nearly  2500  men,  about  8000  rifles  and  muskets,  and  an 
enormous  number  of  cartridges  were  thus  safely  landed,  and  the 
completion  of  Garibaldi's  great  task  in  Sicily  was  assured.33 

What  Captain  Palmer  would  have  done,  if  the  escort  had  not 

so  Peard's  Diary,  p.  815.  The  reason  for  the  hesitation  of  Comm.  A.  Mathieu, 
governor  of  the  province  of  Cagliari,  to  allow  the  Washington  to  proceed  was 
undoubtedly  Cavour's  telegraphic  order,  received  for  transmission  to  Admiral 
Persano,  for  the  arrest  of  Mazzini.  who  was  erroneously  reported  to  be  on  the 
ship.     C.  di  Persano,  Diario  (Turin,   1880),  pp.  36-37- 

si  Curatulo,  Garibaldi,  Vittorio  Emanuele,  Cavour,  p.  180.  In  a  letter 
written  on  board  the  Washington  and  published  in  the  Illustrated  London  News 
of  July  7,  i860,  p.  19,  one  of  the  volunteers  declared:  "I  am  not  at  liberty  to 
tell  you  how  much  we  owe  Captain  De  Rohan  for  his  exertions  in  this  expedition." 

32  Persano,  Diario,  p.  45;  Peard's  Diary,  pp.  S15-816. 

33  As  Luzio  says,  had  it  not  been  for  this  Medici  expedition  and  that  ot 
Cosenz  which  De  Rohan  took  out  on  the  Washington  and  Provence  from  Genoa 
on  his  second  trip  on  July  2,  Garibaldi's  heroic  taking  of  Palermo  would  have 
been  in  vain,  or  at  best  Sicily  alone  would  have  been  redeemed  from  Bourbon 
despotism.     Luzio,  Le  Spedizioni  Medici-Co  sens,  p.  481. 


238  H.  N.  Gay 

been  provided  by  the  Piedmontese  navy,  it  would  be  useless  to  sur- 
mise, but  we  know  what  he  had  already  done  for  Garibaldi  some 
two  weeks  before  when  the  general  was  almost  in  despair  over  lack 
of  ammunition.  The  incident  is  described  by  an  Englishman  who 
had  the  story  from  Palmer's  own  lips  a  few  months  later.  The 
American  captain  had  been  present  by  request  on  May  30  at  the 
negotiations  for  an  armistice  carried  on  between  Garibaldi  and  the 
Neapolitan  general  Letizia  on  board  the  English  man-of-war  Han- 
nibal in  Palermo  harbor.  When  the  turbulent  discussion  over  the 
conditions  of  the  agreement  had  terminated, 

Garibaldi  sauntered  up  to  Palmer  in  as  unsuspicious  a  manner  as 
possible,  while  Mundy  happened  to  be  speaking  a  word  or  two  to  the 
Neapolitan,  and  whispered  in  his  ear,  "  Can't  you  let  me  have  a  little 
powder  ? "  But  this  would  have  compromised  the  neutrality  of  the 
United  States,  and  Captain  Palmer  therefore  replied,  "  I'm  sorry  I  can't ; 
but  I  think  I  can  tell  you  of  a  friend  of  mine  who  can",  at  the  same 
time  indicating  with  his  finger  an  American  merchantman  that  chanced 
to  be  in  the  harbor.  Garibaldi  took  the  hint,  went  to  the  vessel,  and 
obtained  what  he  wanted.  Later  he  confessed  that,  at  the  time  he  was 
threatening  to  go  on  fighting  the  overwhelming  force  of  his  enemies, 
he  had  scarcely  a  cartridge  left.34 

From  what  source  the  American  merchantman  obtained  the  powder 
is  not  stated. 

The  American  clipper  Cfiarles  and  Jane  was  a  part  of  Medici's 
expedition  and  should  have  joined  De  Rohan's  merchant  fleet  at 
Cagliari.  Her  capture  by  the  Neapolitans  was  naturally  a  matter 
of  grave  concern  to  Patterson,  who  answered  Daniel's  request  for 
information  with  the  following  second  dispatch  of  June  20: 

On  the  evening  of  the  8th  inst.  an  American  ship  the  Charles  and 
Jane,  Samuel  Donnel  master,  cleared  and  left  this  port  under  the  fol- 
lowing  circumstances : — - 

Capt.  Donnel  having  discharged  his  cargo  from  New  Orleans  and 
being  unchartered  for  a  cargo  home  was  about  proceeding  to  Trapani 
on  the  western  end  of  Sicily  to  purchase  a  cargo  of  salt  on  account  of 
his  owners.  On  the  7th  inst.  the  day  before  he  sailed  he  called  upon 
me  and  stated  that  a  proposition  had  been  made  to  him  by  certain 
parties  offering  him  a  very  remunerating  sum  of  money  to  take  men 
and  munitions  of  war  to  Cagliari  in  the  island  of  Sardinia;  he  wished 
to  know  of  me  if  he  would  run  any  risk  in  taking  such  freight.  I  told 
him  he  had  a  perfect  right  without  fear  of  molestation  to  take  any 
cargo  from  this  port  to  Cagliari  that  the  authorities  of  the  place,  being 
ports  within  the  same  kingdom,  allowed  him  to  depart  with.     But  that 

34  A.  S.  Bicknell,  In  the  Track  of  the  Garibaldians  (London,  1861),  p.  236. 
Persano  wrote  in  his  Diario,  p.  13,  under  date  of  Palermo,  June  8:  "The  Eng- 
lish admiral  and  the  American  commander,  Mr.  Palmer,  are  the  ones  who  have 
shown  me  the  greatest  sympathy  for  the  Italian  cause." 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  239 

a  cargo  contraband  of  war  for  Sicily  would  endanger  his  vessel.  He 
told  me  that  the  freight  was:  for  Cagliari,  and,  having  closed  with  the 
terms  of  the  proposers,  he  cleared  as  I  have  stated  on  the  evening  of 
the  8th  "for  Trapani  touching  at  Cagliari"  where  his  cargo  was  to  be 
delivered. 

The  Captain  having  unsettled  business  with  his  consignees  here 
could  not  leave  with  his  sh:p  but  departed  the  day  after  to  Cagliari, 
where  he  expected  to  find  her.  I  received  a  letter  from  him  dated  from 
that  place  on  the  nth  inst.;  his  ship  had  not  arrived  and  he  was  await- 
ing her  with  some  anxiety. 

On  yesterday  Capt.  De  Negri,  in  the  Sardinian  mercantile  marine, 
deposed  before  me  that  on  the  ioth  inst.  whilst  proceeding  to  Genoa 
off  the  island  of  Elba  he  saw  a  small  steamer  with  a  ship  in  tow  taken 
possession  of  by  a  large  steamer  which  he  recognized  as  a  Neapolitan 
and  which  with  the  prizes  proceeded  in  the  direction  of  Naples. 

Now  as  the  Charles  and  Jane  which  left  the  harbor  on  the.  evening 
of  the  8th  did  not  go  to  sea  until  the  morning  of  the  9th  and  as  she 
was  in  tow  of  a  small  tug  steamer  and  as  from  the  distance  and  direc- 
tion with  the  winds  then  prevailing  the  Charles  and  Jane  should  have 
been  at  that  time  off  Elba  in  her  course  to  Cagliari  I  infer  she  was  the 
vessel  captured  by  the  Neapolitan.  From  the  facts  I  have  stated  and 
the  place  of  capture  you  will  see  at  once  that  the  capture  was  unlawful. 
I  have  written  to  our  Minister  at  Naples  and  placed  him  in  possession 
of  these  facts,  of  which  in  this  note  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you.  .  .  . 

P.S.  Since  writing  the  foregoing  Capt.  Donnel  has  arrived  from 
Cagliari  in  search  of  his  vessel.  There  is  a  rumor  that  the  vessel  has 
been  demanded  by  our  Minister  at  Naples  supported  by  the  Represen- 
tatives of  the  other  powers — nothing  is  known  of  the  result  as  yet. 

P.S.  I  have  this  instant  received  telegraphic  d;spatch  from  the  Hon. 
J.  R.  Chandler  saying  that  the  Charles  and  Jane  was  captured  and  now 
at  Gaeta.     He  had  applied  to  the  Government. 

Immediately  upon  receipt  of  Patterson's  dispatch  regarding  the 
Charles  and  Jane  Daniel  addressed  a  note  to  the  Piedmontese  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  requesting  official  information  upon  the  cap- 
ture.35    Cavour  replied  as  follows: 

Turin,  le  23  Tuin  i860. 
Monsieur  le  Ministre, 

Je  m'empresse  de  repondre  a  la  Note  que  vous  avez  bien  vouiu 
m'adresser  pour  me  demander  des  renseignements  sur  la  capture  de  deux 
batiments  dont  l'un  Sarde  l'autre  Americain  par  une  Fregate  Napolitaine. 

Les  informations  que  le  Gouvt.  a  recu  de  ses  Agens  a  Naples  con- 
firment  que  ce  fait  s'est  passe  en  haute  mer,  a  quinze  milles  du  Cap 
Corso.  Le  petit  vapeur  Sarde  Utile  remorquait  de  Genes  a  Cagliari  le 
navire  Americain  Charles  and  Jane  qui  etait  charge  de  passagers. 

Le  Fregate  Napolitaine  Fulminant e  qui  rencontra  ces  deux  bati- 
ments, apres  avoir  reconnu  leur  nationalite  respective,  les  forqa  par 
deux  coups  de  canon  a  la  suivre  a  Gaete  ou  equipages  et  navires  sont 
tenus  sous  les  feux  de  la  Forteresse  et  gardes  par  des  factionnaires 
Napolitains. 

35  Note  of  June  22. 

AM.   HIST.    REV.,  VOL.   XXVII. — 17. 


240  H.  N.  Gay 

A  la  demande  du  Marquis  de  Villamarina  qui  n'a  ete  informe  de  ce 
fait  que  fort  tard  (car  on  a  refuse  de  lui  transmettre  un  telegramme 
que  le  Delegat  Consulaire  Sarde  a  Gaete  lui  avait  expedie  a  cet  effet) 
les  Capitaines  des  deux  navires  dont  il  s'agit  ont  ete  conduits  a  Naples, 
ou  Ton  permit  aux  Ministres  Americain  et  Sarde  de  les  visiter  abord 
de  la  Fregate  Napolitaine  Archimcde. 

Apres  avoir  entendu  les  explications  du  Capitaine  du  vapeur  Sarde 
Utile,  le  Marquis  de  Villamarina  a  declare  que  la  capture  de  ce  bati- 
ment  etait  nulle  et  illegale.  Je  n'ai  pas  le  moindre  doute  que  de  son 
cote  le  Gouvernement  des  Etats  Unis,  qui  a  tant  d'interet  a  maintenir  la 
liberte  des  mers  et  qui  a  toujours  defendu  avec  une  infatigable  energie 
les  droits  de  la  navigation,  prendra  aussi  les  mesures  necessaires  pour 
faire  respecter  son  pavilion. 

J'ajouterai  que  l'Agent  Consulaire  Sarde  a  Gaete  a  offert  ses  ser- 
vices et  des  secours  pecuniaires  au  Capitaine  et  aux  passagers  du  Clipper 
Americain  capture,  qui  l'ont  remercie  en  assurant  n'avoir  besoin  de  rien. 

Agreez,  Monsieur  le  Ministre,  les  assurances  de  ma  consideration 
tres  distinguee. 

C.  Cavour.36 
A  Monsieur  Daniel, 
Ministre  des  Etats  Unis  d'Amerique  a  Turin. 

In  a  dispatch  of  June  26,  Daniel  reported  to  Cass  the  contents 
of  these  letters  of  Patterson  and  Cavour,  and  added: 

The  American  Minister  at  Naples  has  demanded  the  release  of  the 
[American]  vessel  and  cargo.  .  .  .  The  Sardinian  Government  considers 
the  capture  of  both  vessels  void  and  illegal  on  account  of  the  scene  of 
their  taking  and  the  port  of  their  destination.  Hence  the  Sardinian 
Minister  at  Naples  has  demanded  the  release  of  the  Sardinian  steamer 
and  acts  in  concert  with  the  Minister  of  the  United  States.  .  .  .  Your 
Minister  in  Naples  will  doubtlessly  [sic]  furnish  full  details  of  what 
passes  there. 

The  Neapolitan  authorities  thought  that  the  American  flag  was 
probably  being  fraudulently  carried  by  De  Rohan's  ships  and  by  the 
Charles  and  Jane,37  and  immediately  upon  the  arrival  of  the  latter 
at  Gaeta  a  Neapolitan  naval  officer  boarded  her  and  demanded  of 
first  officer  J.  W.  Watson,  acting  captain,  the  consignment  of  the 
ship's  papers.  Watson  is  reported  to  have  replied  in  substance  as 
follows :  "  I  refuse  to  consign  my  papers  to  pirates,  who  seize  and 
cannonade  without  showing  their  own  colors  and  who  have  insulted 
the  American  flag.  I  will  cede  only  to  force,  and  if  I  am  compelled 
to  cede,  my  government  has  a  sufficient  number  of  war-ships  to  re- 

s°  Hitherto  unpublished,  as  also  the  other  diplomatic  documents  given  in 
this  study. 

37  On  June  22,  Ippolito  Garron,  Neapolitan  consul  in  Genoa,  wrote  to  Pat- 
terson to  ask  whether  he  had  authorized  these  ships  to  fly  the  American  flag. 
Patterson  replied  under  the  same  date  that  all  of  these  ships  had  the  right  to  fly 
the  American  flag  as  they  were  the  property  of  American  citizens. 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  241 

duce  the  whole  Kingdom  of  Naples  to  ashes.  In  short,  I  will  con- 
sign my  papers  to  my  own  consul  only."  The  Neapolitan  went 
away  and  soon  afterward  a  higher  official  appeared  accompanied 
by  a  man  who  represented  himself  to  be  the  American  consul,  but 
again  Watson  refused  to  show  his  papers  because  the  so-called  con- 
sul could  not  prove  himself  to  be  such.  "  The  conduct  of  Captain 
Watson  in  this  affair  ",  wrote  a  Garibaldian  on  the  ship,  "  is  above 
all  praise.  The  American  government  knows  how  to  command  re- 
spect, and  in  this  lies  all  our  hope." 38 

Six  days  later  Watson,  still  a  prisoner,  was  taken  to  Naples  on 
board  the  Neapolitan  war-ship  Archimcde,  that  he  might  confer 
with  the  American  minister,  Joseph  R.  Chandler,  who  had  been 
doing  everything  in  his  power,  but  with  indifferent  success,  to  ob- 
tain authentic  information  regarding  the  capture.  Chandler  looked 
upon  the  incident  as  presumably  a  grave  breach  of  international  law, 
and  was  working  on  it  in  close  touch  with  the  Sardinian  minister, 
Villamarina ;  upon  receipt  of  the  first  news  he  had  summoned  Cap- 
tain Palmer  to  come  over  at  once  from  Palermo,  if  possible,  with 
the  Iroquois,  and  he  was  now  on  the  point  of  dispatching  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatic  attache  to  Gaeta.  He  was  acting  with  dignity  and 
circumspection,  and  also  with  firmness  ;  while  the  Neapolitan  govern- 
ment, finding  itself  in  an  embarrassing  position,  proved  courteous. 
Chandler  discovered  that  the  papers  of  the  Charles  and  Jane  now 
brought  to  him  by  Watson  were  not  altogether  regular ;  in  fact  Wat- 
son admitted  that  their  irregularity  had  led  him  to  delay  in  appeal- 
ing to  the  American  legation  at  Naples.  The  papers  contained  no 
clearance  for  Cagliari  and  failed  to  state  that  mate  Watson  had 
been  charged  with  temporary  command.  It  seemed  discreet  to  the 
American  minister,  therefore,  to  leave  the  papers  in  Watson's  hands. 
Their  irregularity  had  no  bearing  upon  the  Neapolitan  violation  of 
the  freedom  of  the  seas  in  visiting  the  ship  and  in  interfering  with 
her  voyage,  and  it  was  on  the  ground  of  this  violation  that  Chandler, 
on  June  18,  decided  to  address  a  formal  protest  to  Carafa,  acting 
Neapolitan  minister  of  foreign  affairs: 

After  conversation  with  Watson  upon  the  subject  of  his  capture, 
and  the  condition  of  the  crew  of  his  vessel,  the  undersigned  requested 

38  Mario  Menghini,  La  Spedizione  Garibaldina,  pp.  334-340.  Angelo  Ottolini, 
"  Voluntari  Garibaldini  Catturati  dai  Borboni  ",  published  in  the  Rassegna  Sto- 
rica  del  Risorgimento,  V.  316-321  (Rome,  April-June,  1918).  The  Garibaldians 
were  evidently  still  uncertain  as  to  the  extent  to  which  they  would  be  supported 
by  the  Piedmontese  government. 


242  H.  N.  Gay 

to  see  the  "Papers"  of  the  captured  ship;  these  were  promptly  ex- 
hibited. 

The  "  Register "  showed  that  the  captured  ship  was  called  the 
Charles  and  Jane,  and  that  she  was  built  and  owned  in  the  town,  or 
city,  of  Bath  in  the  state  of  Maine,  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  Register  was  perfect. 

The  "'  Role  d' equipage  "  showed  that  the  crew  was,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  men,  composed  entirely  of  citizens  of  the  United  States:  a 
proportion  of  citizens  much  larger  than  is  usually  found  on  board  of 
American  vessels.  .  .  .  Watson,  being  asked  in  what  latitude  and  longi- 
tude he  was  when  captured,  stated  that  "  he  had  not  taken  the  latitude  " 
but  the  record  on  the  "  log  book  "  of  the  ship  shews  that  she  was  cap- 
tured in  making  a  voyage  from  one  port  to  another  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Sardinia  and  while  distant  fifteen  (15)  miles  North  East  from  Cap 
Corse,  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Island  of  Corsica. 

The  piace  in  which  the  ship  was  captured  was  then  on  the  High 
Seas,  the  Great  Common  Way  of  Nations.  It  was  far  distant  from 
the  coast  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  north  even  of  the  most 
northern  boundary  of  the  Papal  States,  on  the  Mediterranean  side,  and 
in  that  situation,  being  of  a  nation  in  peace  and  amity  with  the  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  departing  from,  and  going  to,  a  port  of  a 
nation  (Sardinia)  at  peace  also  with  His  Sicilian  Majesty,  it  follows 
of  course  that  the  ship  Charles  and  Jane  was,  not  only  not  liable  to 
capture,  but  was  by  the  laws  of  nations  exempt  from  even  visitation. 

It  follows  then  that  the  Commander  of  the  Neapolitan  cruiser  had 
no  right  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  ship — had  no  right  to  board  her, 
had  no  right  to  divert  her  from  her  course,  to  take  her  as  a  prize  into 
Gaeta  or  any  other  port.  And  hence  not  only  is  such  an  arrest  of 
progress,  such  a  boarding  and  such  diversion  and  capture  an  unlawful 
injury  to  the  owners  of  the  ship,  but  the  boarding  itself  even  without 
the  other  wrongs  is  an  affront  to  the  flag  of  the  United  States,  for 
which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  undersigned  to  seek  redress. 

In  the  situation  of  the  case,  the  undersigned  can  have  no  doubt  that 
His  Excellency  the  Commander  Carafa  will  admit  the  justice  of  his 
demand  for  the  release  of  the  captured  ship;  for  compensation  to  its 
owners  and  reparation  to  the  United  States  for  the  injury  to  their  flag. 

The  claims  made  by  the  undersigned  then  are  three: 

First.  The  immediate  release  of  the  ship  Charles  and  Jane  in  the 
condition  in  all  respects  in  which  she  was  when  captured  on  the  High 
Seas. 

Second.  Compensation  to  the  owners  or  their  representative  for 
the  loss  consequent  on  the  capture. 

Three.  Reparation  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  for  the 
violation  of  its  sovereignty,  by  capturing  on  the  Great  High  Way  of 
Nations  a  ship  owned  by  citizens  of  that  nation,  and  sailing  under  the 
sanctity  of  the  national  flag.39 

The   satisfaction   obtained  by   Chandler   for  these   claims   was 

39  Chandler  to  Cass,  June  23,  i860.  I  am  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  J. 
Franklin  Jameson  for  the  communication  of  this  dispatch,  and  of  other  dispatches 
of  Chandler  to  Cass. 


Garibaldi's  Sicilian  Campaign  243 

neither  immediate  nor  complete.  A  certain  delay  was  to  have  been 
expected  owing  to  a  change  of  ministry  and  the  preparation  of  a 
new  Neapolitan  constitution;  finally,  on  June  28,  de  Martino,  the 
new  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  advised  Chandler  that  the  order  had 
been  given  for  full  release  of  the  Charles  and  Jane,  but  added  that 
the  release  must  be  regarded  "purely  as  an  act  of  favor  and  of 
deference  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  ".  The  Neapol- 
itan government  wished  it  understood  that  it  made  "  the  most  ample 
protest  against  all  reclamation  whatsoever  founded  upon  the  as- 
sumed illegality  of  the  capture  and  its  consequences".  Chandler, 
now  certain  of  the  ship's  immediate  release,  thanked  de  Martino  for 
his  "  expression  of  deference  to  the  United  States  Government ", 
but  firmly  declared  that  he  "  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  make  any  con- 
cessions in  the  case  upon  the  right  of  the  Neapolitan  [war-ship]  in 
the  capture  ".40  The  diplomatic  discussion  over  legal  rights  might 
have  gone  on  endlessly — had  it  not  been  abruptly  terminated  by  the 
end  of  the  Neapolitan  kingdom  itself.  The  question  of  the  Amer- 
ican clipper  was  the  last  question  which  the  United  States  had  with 
the  Bourbons  of  Naples,  and  it  was  never  settled. 

On  July  9,  the  Charles  and  Jane,  in  tow  of  the  Piedmontese  war- 
ship Tripoli,  returned  safely  with  "  passengers  and  cargo  "  to  Genoa, 
where  most  of  the  released  volunteers  shipped  on  the  steamer 
Amazon,  leaving  that  port  on  July  15  for  Sicily,  and  joined  Gari- 
baldi just  in  time  to  participate  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Milazzo. 

Other  expeditions  to  Sicily  from  Piedmontese  ports  followed 
with  much  regularity,  but  none  were  captured.  The  total  number 
of  volunteers  transported  soon  reached  twenty  thousand,  and  offers 
for  active  service  were  received  from  many  other  citizens  of  the 
United  States  who  wished  to  "  lend  a  hand  ".41     American  diplomatic 

40  Chandler  to  Cass,  June  30,  i860. 

«  One  of  these  offers  came  from  William  Thomas  Sampson,  then  a  cadet  in 
the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  and  in  1898  commander  of  the  victorious  Ameri- 
can fleet  at  Santiago ;  the  offer  was  transmitted  in  the  following  unpublished  letter 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  Museo  del  Risorgimento.  Castello  Sforzesco, 
Milan  : 

U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md..  U.  S.  A., 


Gen.  Garibaldi, 

Sir. 

Will  the 

war  of  liberty  be  of  still  sufficient  durati 

on  to  ju 

stify  our  lending 

a  hand  ?     Mr.  Sa 

mpson  and  myself  will  have  ended  a  foi 

jr  years' 

course  of  study 

at  this  institutiot 

1  the  coming  summer,  and  if  the  war  ii 

;  to  com 

inue  so  that  we 

244  H.  N.  Gay 

dispatches  from  Turin  continued  to  report  Garibaldi's  victorious 
progress,  and  as  Daniel  wrote  to  Cass,  the  revolution  of  Southern 
Italy  pursued  an  uninterrupted  course  to  its  goal,  which  was  "  the 
formation  of  a  great  Italian  Kingdom  ". 

H.  Nelson  Gay. 

can  have  some  encouragement  to  come  over,  please  inform  us.  He  is  a  young 
man  of  very  fair  talents,  and  stands  at  the  head  of  our  class. 

Very  respectfully, 

T.  Steece. 


WEBSTER'S  SEVENTH  OF  MARCH  SPEECH  AND  THE 
SECESSION  MOVEMENT,  1850 

The  moral  earnestness  and  literary  skill  of  Whittier,  Lowell, 
Garrison,  Phillips,  and  Parker  have  fixed  in  many  minds  the  anti- 
slavery  doctrine  that  Webster's  7th  of  March  speech  was  "  scandalous 
treachery",  and  Webster  a  man  of  little  or  no  "moral  sense",  cour- 
age, or  statesmanship.  That  bitter  atmosphere,  reproduced  by  Par- 
ton  and  von  Hoist,  was  perpetuated  a  generation  later  by  Lodge.1 

Since  1900,  over  fifty  publications  throwing  light  on  Webster  and 
the  Secession  movement  of  1850  have  appeared,  nearly  a  score  con- 
taining fresh  contemporary  evidence.  These  twentieth-century  his- 
torians— Garrison  of  Texas,  Smith  of  Williams,  Stephenson  of 
Charleston  and  Yale,  Van  Tyne,  Phillips,  Fisher  in  his  True  Daniel 
Webster,  or  Ames,  Hearon,  and  Cole  in  their  monographs  on  South- 
ern conditions — many  of  them  born  in  one  section  and  educated  in 
another,  brought  into  broadening  relations  with  Northern  and  South- 
ern investigators,  trained  in  the  modern  historical  spirit  and  freed  by 
the  mere  lapse  of  time  from  much  of  the  passion  of  slavery  and  civil 
war,  have  written  with  less  emotion  and  more  knowledge  than  the 
abolitionists,  secessionists,  or  their  disciples  who  preceded  Rhodes. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Historical  Association  have 
appeared  the  correspondence  of  Calhoun,  of  Chase,  of  Toombs, 
Stephens,  and  Cobb,  and  of  Hunter  of  Virginia.  Van  Tyne's  Letters 
of  Webster  (1902),  including  hundreds  hitherto  unpublished,  was 
further  supplemented  in  the  sixteenth  volume  of  the  "  National  Edi- 
tion "  of  Webster's  Writings  and  Speeches  (1908).  These  two  edi- 
tions contain,  for  1850  alone,  57  inedited  letters. 

Manuscript  collections  and  newspapers,  comparatively  unknown 
to  earlier  writers,  have  been  utilized  in  monographs  dealing  with  the 
situation  in  1850  in  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
North  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Tennessee,  published  by  universities 
or  historical  societies. 

The  cooler  and  matured  judgments  of  men  who  knew  Webster 
personally — Foote,  Stephens,  Wilson,  Seward,  and  Whittier,  in  the 
last  century;  Hoar,  Hale,  Fisher,  Hosmer,  and  Wheeler  in  recent 
years — modify  their  partizan  political  judgments  of  1850.  The  new 
printed  evidence  is  confirmed  by  manuscript  material:  2,500  letters 

1  Cf.  Parton  with  Lodge  on  intellect,  morals,  indolence,  drinking,  7th  of 
March  speech,  Webster's  favorite  things  in  England  ;   references,  note  63,  below. 

(245^ 


246  H.  D.  Foster 

of  the  Greenough  Collection  available  since  the  publication  of  the 
recent  editions  of  Webster's  letters  and  apparently  unused  by  Web- 
ster's biographers;  and  hundreds  of  still  inedited  Webster  Papers  in 
the  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society,  and  scattered  in  minor  col- 
lections.2 This  mass  of  new  material  makes  possible  and  desirable 
a  re-examination  of  the  evidence  as  to  ( i )  the  danger  from  the  seces- 
sion movement  in  1850;  (2)  the  reasons  for  Webster's  change  in 
attitude  toward  the  disunion  danger  in  February,  1850,  and  for  his 
7th  of  March  speech;  (3)  the  effects  of  his  speech  and  attitude  upon 
the  secession  movement. 

During  the  session  of  Congress  of  1849-1850,  the  peace  of  the 
Union  was  threatened  by  problems  centring  around  slavery  and  the 
territory  acquired  as  a  result  of  the  Mexican  War:  California's  de- 
mand for  admission  with  a  constitution  prohibiting  slavery;  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  excluding  slavery  from  the  rest  of  the  Mexican 
acquisitions  (Utah  and  New  Mexico)  ;  the  boundary  dispute  between 
Texas  and  New  Mexico ;  the  abolition  of  slave  trade  in  the  District 
of  Columbia;  and  an  effective  fugitive  slave  law  to  replace  that  of 

1793- 

The  evidence  for  the  steadily  growing  danger  of  secession  until 
March,  1850,  is  no  longer  to  be  sought  in  Congressional  speeches,  but 
rather  in  the  private  letters  of  those  men,  Northern  and  Southern, 
who  were  the  shrewdest  political  advisers  of  the  South,  and  in  the 
official  acts  of  representative  bodies  of  Southerners  in  local  or  state 
meetings,  state  legislatures,  and  the  Nashville  Convention.  Even 
after  the  compromise  was  accepted  in  the  South  and  the  secessionists 
defeated  in  1 850-1 851,  the  Southern  states  generally  adopted  the 
Georgia  platform  or  its  equivalent  declaring  that  the  Wilmot  Proviso 
or  the  repeal  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  would  lead  the  South  to  "  resist 
even  (as  a  last  resort)  to  a  disruption  of  every  tie  which  binds  her 
to  the  Union".  Southern  disunion  sentiment  was  not  sporadic  or  a 
party  matter ;  it  was  endemic. 

The  disunion  sentiment  in  the  North  was  not  general ;  but  Garri- 
son, publicly  proclaiming  "  I  am  an  abolitionist  and  therefore  for  the 
dissolution  of  the  Union  ",  and  his  followers  who  pronounced  "  the 
Constitution  a  covenant  with  death  and  an  agreement  with  hell ", 
exercised  a  twofold  effect  far  in  excess  of  their  numbers.  In  the 
North,  abolitionists  aroused  bitter  antagonism  to  slavery ;  in  the  South 
they  strengthened  the  conviction  of  the  lawfulness  of  slavery  and  the 

2  Manuscripts  in  the  Greenough,  Hammond,  and  Clayton  Collections  (Library 
of  Congress)  ;  Winthrop  and  Appleton  Collections  (Mass.  Hist.  Soc.)  ;  Garrison 
(Boston  Public  Library);  N.  H.  Hist.  Soc,  Dartmouth  College;  Middletown 
(Conn.)   Hist.   Soc;   and  in  the  possession  of  Mrs.  Alfred   E.  Wyman. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  247 

desirability  of  secession  in  preference  to  abolition.  "  The  abolition 
question  must  soon  divide  us  ",  a  South  Carolinian  wrote  his  former 
principal  in  Vermont.  "  We  are  beginning  to  look  upon  it  [dis- 
union] as  a  relief  from  incessant  insult.  I  have  been  myself  sur- 
prised at  the  unusual  prevalence  and  depth  of  this  feeling."  3  "  The 
abolition  movement ",  as  Houston  has  pointed  out,  "  prevented  any 
considerable  abatement  of  feeling,  and  added  volume  to  the  current 
which  was  to  sweep  the  State  out  of  the  Union  in  i860."  *  South 
Carolina's    ex-governor,    Hammond,    wrote    Calhoun    in    December, 

1849,  "  the  conduct  of  the  abolitionists  in  congress  is  daily  giving  it 
[disunion]  powerful  aid".  "The  sooner  we  can  get  rid  of  it  [the 
union]  the  better."  5  The  conclusion  of  both  Blair  of  Kentucky  and 
Winthrop6  of  Massachusetts,  that  "  Calhoun  and  his  instruments  are 
really  solicitous  to  break  up  the  Union  ",  was  warranted  by  Calhoun's 
own  statement. 

Calhoun,  desiring  to  save  the  Union  if  he  could,  but  at  all  events 
to  save  the  South,  and  convinced  that  there  was  "no  time  to  lose", 
hoped  "  a  decisive  issue  will  be  made  with  the  North  ".     In  February, 

1850,  he  wrote,  "  Disunion  is  the  only  alternative  that  is  left  us  "J 
At  last  supported  by  some  sort  of  action  in  thirteen  Southern  states, 
and  in  nine  states  by  appointment  of  delegates  to  his  Southern  Con- 
vention, he  declared  in  the  Senate,  March  4,  "the  South  is  united 
against  the  Wilmot  proviso,  and  has  committed  itself,  by  solemn  reso- 
lutions, to  resist,  should  it  be  adopted  ".  "  The  South  will  be  forced 
to  choose  between  abolition  and  secession."  "  The  Southern  States 
.  .  .  cannot  remain,  as  things  now  are,  consistently  with  honor  and 
safety,  in  the  Union." 8 

That  Beverley  Tucker  rightly  judged  that  this  speech  of  Calhoun 
expressed  what  was  "  in  the  mind  of  every  man  in  the  State  "  is  con- 
firmed by  the  approval  of  Hammond  and  other  observers ;  their  judg- 
ment that"  everyone  was  ripe  for  disunion  and  no  one  ready  to  make 

3  Bennett,  Dec.   i,   1848,  to  Partridge,  Norwich  University.     MS.   Dartmouth. 

*  Houston,  Nullification  in  South  Carolina,  p.  141.  Further  evidence  of 
Webster's  thesis  that  abolitionists  had  developed  Southern  reaction  in  Phillips, 
South  in  the  Building  of  the  Nation,  IV.  401-403  ;  and  unpublished  letters  approv- 
ing Webster's   speech. 

5  Calhoun,  Corr.,  Amer.  Hist.  Assoc,  Annual  Report  C  1899,  vol.  II.),  pp.  1193- 
1194. 

«To  Crittenden,  Dec.  20,  1S49,  Smith,  Polit.  Hist.  Slavery,  I.  122;  Winthrop 
MSS.,  Jan.  6,   1850. 

•  Calhoun.  Corr.,  p.  781  ;  cf.  764-766,  778,  780,  783-784. 

s  Cong.  Globe,  XXI.  451-455,  463;  Corr.,  p.  784.  On  Calhoun's  attitude, 
Ames,  Calhoun,  pp.  6-7;  Stephenson,  in  Yale  Review,  19 19,  p.  216;  Newbury,  in 
South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  XI.  259;  Hamer,  Secession  Movement  in  South  Caro- 
lina, 1847-1852,  pp.  49-54. 


248  H.  D.  Foster 

a  speech  in  favor  of  the  union  " ;  the  testimony  of  the  governor,  that 
South  Carolina  "  is  ready  and  anxious  for  an  immediate  separation  "  ; 
and  the  concurrent  testimony  of  even  the  few  "  Unionists "  like 
Petigru  and  Lieber,  who  wrote  Webster,  "almost  everyone  is  for 
southern  separation  ","  disunion  is  the  .  .  .  predominant  sentiment ". 
"  For  arming  the  state,  $350,000  has  been  put  at  the  disposal  of  the 
governor."  "  Had  I  convened  the  legislature  two  or  three  weeks 
before  the  regular  meeting,"  adds  the  governor,  "such  was  the  ex- 
cited state  of  the  public  mind  at  that  time,  I  am  convinced  South 
Carolina  would  not  now  have  been  a  member  of  the  Union.  The 
people  are  very  far  ahead  of  their  leaders."  Ample  first-hand  evi- 
dence of  South  Carolina's  determination  to  secede  in  1850  may  be 
found  in  the  Correspondence  of  Calhoun,  in  Claiborne's  Quitman, 
in  the  acts  of  the  assembly,  in  the  newspapers,  in  the  legislature's 
vote  "  to  resist  at  any  and  all  hazards  ",  and  in  the  choice  of  re- 
sistance-men to  the  Nashville  Convention  and  the  state  convention. 
This  has  been  so  convincingly  set  forth  in  Ames's  Calhoun  and  the 
Secession  Movement  of  1850,  and  in  Hamer's  Secession  Movement 
in  South  Carolina,  1847-1852,  that  there  is  need  of  very  few  further 
illustrations.9 

That  South  Carolina  postponed  secession  for  ten  years  was  due  to 
the  Compromise.  Alabama  and  Virginia  adopted  resolutions  accept- 
ing the  Compromise  in  1850-185 1 ;  and  the  Virginia  legislature  tact- 
fully urged  South  Carolina  to  abandon  secession.  The  1851  elections 
in  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Mississippi  showed  the  South  ready  to 
accept  the  Compromise,  the  crucial  test  being  in  Mississippi,  where 
the  voters  followed  Webster's  supporter,  Foote.10  That  Petigru  was 
right  in  maintaining  that  South  Carolina  merely  abandoned  imme- 
diate and  separate  secession  is  shown  by  the  almost  unanimous  vote 
of  the  South  Carolina  State  Convention  of  1852,11  that  the  state  was 
amply  justified  "  in  dissolving  at  once  all  political  connection  with 
her  co-States ",  but  refrained  from  this  "  manifest  right  of  self- 
government  from  considerations  of  expediency  only  ".12 

In  Mississippi,  a  preliminary  convention,  instigated  by  Calhoun, 
recommended  the  holding  of  a  Southern  convention  at  Nashville  in 

9  Calhoun,  Corr.,  Amer.  Hist.  Assoc,  Annuai  Report  (1899,  vol.  II.),  pp. 
1210-1212;  Toombs,  Corr.  (id.,  191 1,  vol.  II.),  pp.  188,  217;  Coleman,  Crittenden, 
I.  363;  Hamer,  pp.  55-56,  46-48,  54,  82-83;  Ames,  Calhoun,  pp.  21-22,  29;  Clai- 
borne,  Quitman,  II.  36-39. 

i»  Hearon,  Miss,  and  the  Compromise  of  1850,  p.  209. 

HA  letter  to  Webster,  Oct.  22,  1851,  Greenough  MSS.,  shows  the  strength 
of  Calhoun's  secession  ideas.     Hamer,  p.   125,  quotes  part. 

12  Hamer,  p.   1*42  ;  Hearon,  p.  220. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  249 

June,  1850,  to  "adopt  some  mode  of  resistance".  The  "Resolu- 
tions "  declared  the  Wilmot  Proviso  "  such  a  breach  of  the  federal 
compact  as  .  .  .  will  make  it  the  duty  ...  of  the  slave-holding 
states  to  treat  the  non-slave-holding  states  as  enemies  ".  The  "  Ad- 
dress "  recommended  "all  the  assailed  states  to  provide  in  the  last 
resort  for  their  separate  welfare  by  the  formation  of  a  compact  and 
a  Union".  "The  object  of  this  [Nashville  Convention]  is  to  fa- 
miliarize the  public  mind  with  the  idea  of  dissolution  ",  rightly  judged 
the  Richmond  Whig  and  the  Lynchburg  Virginian. 

Radical  resistance  men  controlled  the  legislature  and  "cordially 
approved  "  the  disunion  resolution  and  address,  chose  delegates  to  the 
Nashville  Convention,  appropriated  $20,000  for  their  expenses  and 
$200,000  for  "  necessary  measures  for  protecting  the  state  ...  in 
the  event  of  the  passage  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso  ",  etc.13  These  ac- 
tions of  Mississippi's  legislature  one  day  before  Webster's  7th  of 
March  speech  mark  approximately  the  peak  of  the  secession  move- 
ment. 

Governor  Quitman,  in  response  to  public  demand,  called  the  legis- 
lature and  proposed  "  to  recommend  the  calling  of  a  regular  conven- 
tion .  .  .  with  full  power  to  annul  the  federal  compact ".  "  Having 
no  hope  of  an  effectual  remedy  .  .  .  but  in  separation  from  the 
Northern  States,  my  views  of  state  action  will  look  to  secession."  14 
The  legislature  supported  Quitman's  and  Jefferson  Davis's  plans  for 
resistance,  censured  Foote's  support  of  the  Compromise,  and  provided 
for  a  state  convention  of  delegates.15 

Even  the  Mississippi  "  Unionists  "  adopted  the  six  standard  points 
generally  accepted  in  the  South  which  would  justify  resistance. 
"  And  this  is  the  Union  party  ",  was  the  significant  comment  of  the 
New  York  Tribune.  This  Union  Convention,  however,  believed  that 
Quitman's  message  was  treasonable  and  that  there  was  ample  evidence 
of  a  plot  to  dissolve  the  Union  and  form  a  Southern  confederacy. 
Their  programme  was  adopted  by  the  State  Convention  the  following 
year.16  The  radical  Mississippians  reiterated  Calhoun's  constitu- 
tional guarantees  of  sectional  equality  and  non-interference  with 
slavery,  and  declared  for  a  Southern  convention  with  power  to  rec- 
ommend "  secession  from  the  Union  and  the  formation  of  a  Southern 
confederacy  ".17 

"  The  people  of  Mississippi  seemed  .  .  .  determined  to  defend 

is  Mar.  6,  1850.     Laws  (Miss.),  pp.  521-526. 

14  Claiborne,   Quitman,  II.  37;   Hearon,  p.    161   n. 

is  Hearon,  pp.  180-181  ;  Claiborne,  Quitman,  II.  51-52. 

is  Nov.   10.  1850,  Hearon,  pp.   17S-1S0;   185 1,  pp.  209-212. 

i'  Dec.    10,   Southern   Rights   Assoc.     Hearon.   pp.    183-187. 


250  H.  D.  Foster 

their  equality  in  the  Union,  or  to  retire  from  it  by  peaceable  seces- 
sion. Had  the  issue  been  pressed  at  the  moment  when  the  excitement 
was  at  its  highest  point,  an  isolated  and  very  serious  movement  might 
have  occurred,  which  South  Carolina,  without  doubt,  would  have 
promptly  responded  to."  ls 

In  Georgia,  evidence  as  to  "  which  way  the  wind  blows  "  was 
received  by  the  Congressional  trio,  Alexander  Stephens,  Toombs,  and 
Cobb,  from  trusted  observers  at  home.  "  The  only  safety  of  the 
South  from  abolition  universal  is  to  be  found  in  an  early  dissolution 
of  the  Union."  Only  one  democrat  was  found  justifying  Cobb's 
opposition  to  Calhoun  and  the  Southern  Convention.19 

Stephens  himself,  anxious  to  "  stick  to  the  Constitutional  Union  ", 
reveals  in  confidential  letters  to  Southern  Unionists  the  rapidly  grow- 
ing danger  of  disunion.  "  The  feeling  among  the  Southern  members 
for  a  dissolution  of  the  Union  ...  is  becoming  much  more  general." 
"  Men  are  now  [December,  1849]  beginning  to  talk  of  it  seriously 
who  twelve  months  ago  hardly  permitted  themselves  to  think  of  it." 
"  Civil  war  in  this  country  better  be  prevented  if  it  can  be."  After 
a  month's  "  farther  and  broader  view  ",  he  concluded,  "  the  crisis  is 
not  far  ahead  ...  a  dismemberment  of  this  Republic  I  now  consider 
inevitable." 20 

On  February  8,  1850,  the  Georgia  legislature  appropriated  $30,000 
for  a  state  convention  to  consider  measures  of  redress,  and  gave 
warning  that  anti-slavery  aggressions  would  "  induce  us  to  contem- 
plate the  possibility  of  a  dissolution  ".21  "  I  see  no  prospect  of  a 
continuance  of  this  Union  long  ",  wrote  Stephens  two  days  later.22 

Speaker  Cobb's  advisers  warned  him  that  "  the  predominant  feel- 
ing of  Georgia"  was  "equality  or  disunion  ",  "and  that  "the  destruc- 
tives "  were  trying  to  drive  the  South  into  disunion.  "  But  for  your 
influence,  Georgia  would  have  been  more  rampant  for  dissolution 
than  South  Carolina  ever  was."  "  S.  Carolina  will  secede,  but  we 
can  and  must  put  a  stop  to  it  in  Georgia." 23 

Public  opinion  in  Georgia,  which  had  been  "almost  ready  for 
immediate  secession ",  was  reversed  only  after  the  passage  of  the 
Compromise  and  by  means  of  a  strenuous  campaign  against  the  Seces- 

is  Claiborne,  Quitman,  II.  52. 

is  July  1,  1849.  Corr.,  p.  170  (Amer.  Hist.  Assoc,  Annual  Report,  191 1,  vol. 
II.). 

20  Johnston,  Stephens,  pp.  238-239,  244 ;  Smith,  Political  History  of  Slavery, 
I.   121. 

21  Later  (Ga.),  1850,  pp.  122,  405-410. 

22  Johnston,  Stephens,  p.  247. 

23  Corr.,  pp.  184,  193-195,  206-208.  July  21.  Newspapers,  see  Brooks,  in 
Miss.    Valley  Hist.  Review,  IX.   289. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  251 

sionists  which  Stephens,  Toombs,  and  Cobb  were  obliged  to  return 
to  Georgia  to  conduct  to  a  successful  issue.24  Yet  even  the  Unionist 
Convention  of  Georgia,  elected  by  this  campaign,  voted  almost  unani- 
mously "the  Georgia  platform  "  already  described,  of  resistance,  even 
to  disruption,  against  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  the  repeal  of  the  fugitive 
slave  law,  and  the  other  measures  generally  selected  for  reprobation 
in  the  South.25  "  Even  the  existence  of  the  Union  depended  upon 
the  settlement";  "we  would  have  resisted  by  our  arms  if  the  wrong 
[Wilmot  Proviso]  had  been  perpetuated ",  were  Stephens's  later 
judgments.26  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  Union  victory  in 
Georgia  was  based  upon  the  Compromise  and  that  Webster's  share  in 
"  strengthening  the  friends  of  the  Union "  was  recognized  by 
Stephens. 

The  disunion  movement  manifested  also  dangerous  strength  in 
Virginia  and  Alabama,  and  showed  possibilities  of  great  danger  in 
Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  Florida,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Missouri, 
Texas,  and  Arkansas.  The  majority  of  the  people  may  not  have 
favored  secession  in  1850  any  more  than  in  i860;  but  the  leaders 
could  and  did  carry  most  of  the  Southern  legislatures  in  favor  of 
uniting  for  resistance. 

The  "  ultras  "  in  Virginia,  under  the  lead  of  Tucker,  and  in  Ala- 
bama under  Yancey,  frankly  avowed  their  desire  to  stimulate  impos- 
sible demands  so  that  disunion  would  be  inevitable.  Tucker  at  Nash- 
ville "  ridiculed  Webster's  assertion  that  the  Union  could  not  be  dis- 
solved without  bloodshed  ".  On  the  eve  of  Webster's  speech,  Garnett 
of  Virginia  published  a  frank  advocacy  of  a  Southern  Confederacy, 
repeatedly  reprinted,  which  Clay  declared  "  the  most  dangerous  pam- 
phlet he  had  ever  read".27  Virginia,  in  providing  for  delegates  to 
the  Nashville  Convention,  announced  her  readiness  to  join  her  "  sister 
slave  states "  for  "  mutual  defence  ".  She  later  acquiesced  in  the 
Compromise,  but  reasserted  that  anti-slavery  aggressions  would  "  de- 
feat restoration  of  peaceful  sentiments  ".28 

24  Phillips,  Georgia  and  State  Rights,  pp.   163-166. 
-3  Ames,  Documents,  pp.  271-272;  Hearon,  p.   190. 

26  1S54,  Amer.  Hist.  Review,  VIII.  92-97;  1857,  Johnston,  Stephens,  pp.  321- 
322  ;  infra,  pp.  267,  268. 

27  Hammond  MSS.,  Jan.  27,  Feb.  S;  Virginia  Resolves,  Feb.  12;  Ambler, 
Sectionalism  in  Virginia,  p.  246;  N.  Y.  Tribune,  June  14;  M.  R.  H.  Garnett, 
Union  Past  and  Future,  published  between  Jan.  24  and  Mar.  7.  Alabama: 
Hodgson.  Cradle  of  the  Confederacy,  p.  281;  Dubose,  Yancey,  pp.  247-249.  481; 
Fleming,  Civil  War  and  Reconstruction  in  Alabama,  p.  13;  Cobb,  Corr.,  pp.  193- 
195,  207.  President  Tyler  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  kindly  furnished 
evidence  of  Garnett's  authorship;  see  J.  M.  Garnett,  in  Southern  Literary  Mes- 
senger, XVI.  255. 

28  Resolutions,  Feb.   12,   1850;  Acts,   1850,  pp.  223-224;    1851,  p.  201. 


252  H.  D.  Foster 

In  Texas  there  was  acute  danger  of  collision  over  the  New  Mexico 
boundary  with  Federal  troops  which  President  Taylor  was  preparing 
to  send.  Stephens  frankly  repeated  Quitman's  threats  of  Southern 
armed  support  of  Texas.29  Cobb,  Henderson  of  Texas,  Duval  of 
Kentucky,  Anderson  of  Tennessee,  and  Goode  of  Virginia  expressed 
similar  views  as  to  the  "  imminent  cause  of  danger  to  the  Union  from 
Texas  ".  The  collision  was  avoided  because  the  more  statesmanlike 
attitude  of  Webster  prevailed  rather  than  the  "  soldier's  "  policy  of 
Taylor. 

The  border  states  held  a  critical  position  in  1850,  as  they  did  in 
i860.  "If  they  go  for  the  Southern  movement  we  shall  have  dis- 
union." "  Everything  is  to  depend  from  this  day  on  the  course  of 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Missouri."  30  Webster's  conciliatory  Union 
policy,  in  harmony  with  that  of  border  state  leaders,  like  Bell  of 
Tennessee,  Benton  of  Missouri,  Clay  and  Crittenden  of  Kentucky, 
enabled  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri  to  stand  by  the  Union 
and  refuse  to  send  delegates  to  the  Nashville  Convention. 

The  attitude  of  the  Southern  states  toward  disunion  may  be  fol- 
lowed closely  in  their  action  as  to  the  Nashville  Convention.  Nine 
Southern  states  approved  the  Convention  and  appointed  delegates 
before  June,  1850,  six  during  the  critical  month  preceding  Webster's 
speech :  Georgia,  February  6,  8 ;  Texas  and  Tennessee,  February  1 1 ; 
Virginia,  February  12 ;  Alabama,  just  before  the  adjournment  of  the 
legislature,  February  13;  Mississippi,  March  5,  6.31  Every  one  of 
the  nine  seceded  in  1860-1861 ;  the  border  states  (Maryland,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri)  which  kept  out  of  the  Convention  in  1850  likewise 
kept  out  of  secession  in  1861 ;  and  only  two  states  which  seceded  in 
1861  failed  to  join  the  Southern  movement  in  1850  (North  Carolina 
and  Louisiana).  This  significant  parallel  between  the  action  of  the 
Southern  states  in  1850  and  in  i860  suggests  the  permanent  strength 
of  the  secession  movement  of  1850.  Moreover,  the  alignment  of 
leaders  was  strikingly  the  same  in  1850  and  i860.  Those  who  headed 
the  secession  movement  in  1850  in  their  respective  states  were  among 
the  leaders  of  secession  in  i860  and  1861 :  Barnwell  and  Rhett  in 
South  Carolina ;  Yancey  in  Alabama ;  Jefferson  Davis  and  Brown  in 
Mississippi ;  Garnett,  Goode,  and  Hunter  in  Virginia ;  Johnston  in 
Arkansas;  Clingman  in  North  Carolina.     On  the  other  hand,  nearly 

29  Stephens,  Corr.,  p.   192;  Globe,  XXII.  II.  120S. 

so  Boston  Daily  Advertiser,  Feb.  23. 

31  South  Carolina,  Acts,  1849,  p.  240,  and  the  following  Laws  or  Acts,  all 
1850:  Georgia,  pp.  418,  405-410,  122;  Texas,  pp.  93-94,  171  i  Tennessee,  p. 
572  (Globe,  XXI.  I.  417.  Cole,  Whig  Party  in  the  South,  p.  161)  ;  Mississippi,  pp. 
526-528;  Virginia,  p.  233;  Alabama,  Weekly  Tribune,  Feb.  23,  Daily,  Feb.  25. 


IVebstcr's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  253 

all  the  men  who  in  1850  favored  the  Compromise,  in  i860  either  re- 
mained Union  men,  like  Crittenden,  Houston  of  Texas,  Sharkey, 
Lieber,  Petigru,  and  Provost  Kennedy  of  Baltimore,  or,  like  Stephens, 
Morehead,  and  Foote,  vainly  tried  to  restrain  secession. 

In  the  states  unrepresented  at  the  Nashville  Convention — Mis- 
souri, Kentucky,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  and  Louisiana — there 
was  much  sympathy  with  the  Southern  movement.  In  Louisiana,  the 
governor's  proposal  to  send  delegates  was  blocked  by  the*  Whigs.32 
"  Missouri  ",  in  case  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  "  will  be  found  in  hearty 
co-operation  with  the  slave-holding  states  for  mutual  protection 
against  .  .  .  Northern  fanaticism  ",  her  legislature  resolved.33  Mis- 
souri's instructions  to  her  senators  were  denounced  as  "  disunion  in 
their  object"  by  her  own  Senator  Benton.  The  Maryland  legislature 
resolved,  February  26 :  "  Maryland  will  take  her  position  with  her 
Southern  sister  states  in  the  maintenance  of  the  constitution  with  all 
its  compromises."  The  Whig  senate,  however,  prevented  sanction- 
ing of  the  convention  and  sending  of  delegates.  Florida's  governor 
wrote  the  governor  of  South  Carolina  that  Florida  would  co-operate 
with  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  "  in  any  measures  in  defense  of  our 
common  Constitution  and  sovereign  dignity  "•  "  Florida  has  resolved 
to  resist  to  the  extent  of  revolution  ",  declared  her  representative  in 
Congress,  March  5.  Though  the  Whigs  did  not  support  the  move- 
ment, five  delegates  came  from  Florida  to  the  Nashville  Convention.34 

In  Kentucky,  Crittenden's  repeated  messages  against  "  disunion  " 
and  "  entangling  engagements  "  reveal  the  danger  seen  by  a  Southern 
Union  governor.35  Crittenden's  changing  attitude  reveals  the  grow- 
ing peril,  and  the  growing  reliance  on  Webster's  and  Clay's  plans. 
By  April,  Crittenden  recognized  that  "  the  Union  is  endangered ", 
"  the  case  .  .  .  rises  above  ordinary  rules ",  "  circumstances  have 
rather  changed  ".  He  reluctantly  swung  from  Taylor's  plan  of  deal- 
ing with  California  alone,  to  the  Clay  and  Webster  idea  of  settling 
the  "whole  controversy".36  Representative  Morehead  wrote  Crit- 
tenden, "  The  extreme  Southern  gentlemen  would  secretly  deplore 
the  settlement  of  this  question.  The  magnificence  of  a  Southern 
Confederacy  ...  is  a  dazzling  allurement."  Clay,  like  Webster, 
saw  "  the  alternative,  civil  war  ",37 

32  White,  Miss.  Valley  Hist.  Assoc,  III.  283. 

33  Senate  Miscellaneous,  1849-1S50,  no.  24. 

3*  Hamer,  p.  40;  cf.  Cole,  Whig  Party  in  the  South,  p.  162;  Cong.  Globe, 
Mar.  5. 

35  Coleman,  Crittenden,  I.  333,  350. 

36  Clayton  MSS.,  Apr.  6;  cf.  Coleman,  Crittenden,  I.  369. 

37  Smith,  History  of  Slavery,  I.  121  ;  Clay,  Oct.,  1S51,  letter,  Curtis,  Webster, 
H.  584-585- 


254  H.  D.  Foster 

In  North  Carolina,  the  majority  appear  to  have  been  loyal  to  the 
Union ;  but  the  extremists — typified  by  Clingman,  the  public  meeting 
at  Wilmington,  and  the  newspapers  like  the  Wilmington  Courier — 
reveal  the  presence  of  a  dangerously  aggressive  body  "  with  a  settled 
determination  to  dissolve  the  Union  "  and  frankly  "  calculating  the 
advantages  of  a  Southern  Confederacy  ".  Southern  observers  in  this 
state  reported  that  "  the  repeal  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  or  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  will  dissolve  the  Union  ".  The 
North  Carolina  legislature  acquiesced  in  the  Compromise  but  coun- 
selled retaliation  in  case  of  anti-slavery  aggressions.38  Before  the 
assembling  of  the  Southern  convention  in  June,  every  one  of  the 
Southern  states,  save  Kentucky,  had  given  some  encouragement  to 
the  Southern  movement,  and  Kentucky  had  given  warning  and  pro- 
posed a  compromise  through  Clay.39 

Nine  Southern  states — Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Florida,  and  Tennessee — sent 
about  176  delegates  to  the  Nashville  Convention.  The  comparatively 
harmless  outcome  of  this  convention,  in  June,  led  earlier  historians 
to  underestimate  the  danger  of  the  resistance  movement  in  February 
and  March  when  backed  by  legislatures,  newspapers,  and  public  opin- 
ion, before  the  effect  was  felt  of  the  death  of  Calhoun  and  Taylor, 
and  of  Webster's  support  of  conciliation.  Stephens  and  the  Southern 
Unionists  rightly  recognized  that  the  Nashville  Convention  "  will  be 
the  nucleus  of  another  sectional  assembly  ".  "  A  fixed  alienation  of 
feeling  will  be  the  result."  "  The  game  of  the  destructives  is  to  use 
the  Missouri  Compromise  principle  [as  demanded  by  the  Nashville 
Convention]  as  a  medium  of  defeating  all  adjustments  and  then  to 
.  .  .  infuriate  the  South  and  drive  her  into  measures  that  must  end  in 
disunion."  "  All  who  go  to  the  Nashville  Convention  are  ultimately  to 
fall  into  that  position."  This  view  is  confirmed  by  Judge  Warner 
and  other  observers  in  Georgia  and  by  the  unpublished  letters  ot 
Tucker.40  "  Let  the  Nashville  Convention  be  held  ",  said  the  Colum- 
bus, Georgia,  Sentinel,  "  and  let  the  undivided  voice  of  the  South  go 
forth  .  .  .  declaring  our  determination  to  resist  even  to  civil  war."  41 
The  speech  of  Rhett  of  South  Carolina,  author  of  the  convention's 
"Address",   "frankly  and  boldly  unfurled  the  flag  of  disunion". 

3S  Clingman,  and  Wilmington  Resolutions,  Globe,  XXI.  I.  200-205.  311; 
National  Intelligencer,  Feb.  25;  Cobb,  Corr.,  pp.  217-218;  Boyd,  "North  Carolina 
on  the  Eve  of  Secession",  in  Amer.  Hist.  Assoc,  Annual  Report  (1910),  pp. 
167-177. 

39  Hearndon,  Nashville  Convention,  p.  283. 

•JO  Johnston,  Stephens,  p.  247;  Corr.,  pp.  186,  193,  194,  206-207;  Hammond 
MSS.,  Jan.  27,  Feb.  8. 

«  Ames,  Calhoun,  p.  26. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  255 

"  If  every  Southern  State  should  quail  .  .  .  South  Carolina  alone 
should  make  the  issue."  "  The  opinion  of  the  [Nashville]  address  is. 
and  I  believe  the  opinion  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Southern  people 
is,  that  the  Union  cannot  be  made  to  endure  ",  was  delegate  Barn- 
well's admission  to  Webster.42 

The  influence  of  the  Compromise  is  brought  out  in  the  striking 
change  in  the  attitude  of  Senator  Foote,  and  of  Judge  Sharkey  of 
Mississippi,  the  author  of  the  radical  "  Address  "  of  the  preliminary 
Mississippi  Convention,  and  chairman  of  both  this  and  the  Nashville 
Convention.  After  the  Compromise  measures  were  reported  in  May 
by  Clay  and  Webster's  committee,  Sharkey  became  convinced  that 
the  Compromise  should  be  accepted  and  so  advised  Foote.  Sharkey 
also  visited  Washington  and  helped  to  pacify  the  rising  storm  by 
"  suggestions  to  individual  Congressmen  ",43  In  the  Nashville  Con- 
vention, Sharkey  therefore  exercised  a  moderating  influence  as  chair- 
man and  refused  to  sign  its  disunion  address.  Convinced  that  the 
Compromise  met  essential  Southern  demands,  Sharkey  urged  that 
"  to  resist  it  would  be  to  dismember  the  Union  ".  He  therefore  re- 
fused to  call  a  second  meeting  of  the  Nashville  Convention.  For 
this  change  in  position  he  was  bitterly  criticized  by  Jefferson  Davis.44 
Foote  recognized  the  "  emergency  "  at  the  same  time  that  Webster 
did,  and  on  February  25,  proposed  his  committee  of  thirteen  to  report 
some  "  scheme  of  compromise ".  Parting  company  with  Calhoun, 
March  5,  on  the  thesis  that  the  South  could  not  safely  remain  without 
new  "constitutional  guarantees",  Foote  regarded  Webster's  speech 
as  "  unanswerable  ",  and  in  April  came  to  an  understanding  with  him 
as  to  Foote's  committee  and  their  common  desire  for  prompt  consid- 
eration of  California.  The  importance  of  Foote's  influence  in  turn- 
ing the  tide  in  Mississippi,  through  his  pugnacious  election  campaign, 
and  the  significance  of  his  judgment  of  the  influence  of  Webster  and 
his  speech  have  been  somewhat  overlooked,  partly  perhaps  because 
of  Foote's  swashbuckling  characteristics.45 

That  the  Southern  convention  movement  proved  comparatively 
innocuous  in  June  is  due  in  part  to  confidence  inspired  by  the  con- 
ciliatory policy  of  one  outstanding  Northerner,  Webster.  "Web- 
ster's speech  ",  said  Winthrop,  "  has  knocked  the  Nashville  Conven- 
tion into  a  cocked  hat." 46     "  The   Nashville   Convention  has  been 

*2  Webster,   Writings  and  Speeches,  X.   161-162. 
43  Cyclopedia  Miss.  Hist.,  art.   "  Sharkey  ". 

**  Hearon,  pp.  124,  171-174.  Davis  to  Clayton  (Clayton  MSS.),  Nov.  22. 
1851. 

**  Globe,  XXI.  I.  418,   124,   712;   infra,  p.  26S. 

«  MSS.,  Mar.   10. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,   VOL.  XXVII. — 18. 


256  H.  D.  Foster 

blown  by  your  giant  effort  to  the  four  winds."  4r  "  Had  you  spoken 
out  before  this,  I  verily  believe  the  Nashville  Convention  had  not  been 
thought  of.  Your  speech  has  disarmed  and  quieted  the  South."48 
Webster's  speech  occasioned  hesitation  in  the  South.  "  This  has 
given  courage  to  all  who  wavered  in  their  resolution  or  who  were 
secretly  opposed  to  the  measure  [Nashville  Convention]."49 

Ames  cites  nearly  a  score  of  issues  of  newspapers  in  Mississippi, 
South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Virginia 
reflecting  the  change  in  public  opinion  in  March.  Even  some  of  the 
radical  papers  referred  to  the  favorable  effect  of  Webster's  speech 
and  "spirit"  in  checking  excitement.  "The  Jackson  (Mississippi) 
Southron  had  at  first  supported  the  movement  [for  a  Southern  Con- 
vention], but  by  March  it  had  grown  lukewarm  and  before  the  Con- 
vention assembled,  decidedly  opposed  it.  The  last  of  May  it  said, 
'  not  a  Whig  paper  in  the  State  approves '."  In  the  latter  part  of 
March,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  sixty  papers  from  ten  slave- 
holding  states  took  decided  ground  for  a  Southern  Convention.50 
The  Mississippi  Free  Trader  tried  to  check  the  growing  support  of 
the  Compromise,  by  claiming  that  Webster's  speech  lacked  Northern 
backing.  A  South  Carolina  pamphlet  cited  the  Massachusetts  oppo- 
sition to  Webster  as  proof  of  the  political  strength  of  abolition.51 

The  newer,  day  by  day,  first-hand  evidence,  in  print  and  manu- 
script, shows  the  Union  in  serious  danger,  with  the  culmination 
during  the  three  weeks  preceding  Webster's  speech;  with  a  modera- 
tion during  March ;  a  growing  readiness  during  the  summer  to  await 
Congressional  action;  and  slow  acquiescence  in  the  Compromise 
measures  of  September,  but  with  frank  assertion  on  the  part  of  vari- 
ous Southern  states  of  the  right  and  duty  of  resistance  if  the  com- 
promise measures  were  violated.  Even  in  December,  1850,  Dr. 
Alexander  of  Princeton  found  sober  Virginians  fearful  that  repeal 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  would  throw  Virginia  into  the  Southern 
movement  and  that  South  Carolina  "  by  some  rash  act  "  would  pre- 
cipitate "  the  crisis  ".  "  All  seem  to  regard  bloodshed  as  the  inevi- 
table result."  52 

To  the  judgments  and  legislative  acts  of  Southerners  already 
quoted,  may  be  added  some  of  the  opinions  of  men  from  the  North. 

4?  Anstell,  Bethlehem,  May  21,  Greeraough  Collection. 

as  Anderson,  Tenn.,  Apr.   8,  ibid. 

43  Goode,  Hunter  Corr.,  Amer.  Hist.  Assoc,  Annual  Report  (1916,  vol.  II.), 
p.   in. 

so  Ames,  Calhoun,  pp.  24-27. 

51  Hearon,  pp.  120-123;  Anonymous,  Letter  on  Southern  Wrongs  .  .  .  in 
Reply  to  Grayson  (Charleston,  1850). 

m  Letters,  II.   in,    121,   127. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  257 

Erving,  the  diplomat,  wrote  from  New  York.  "  The  real  danger  is  in 
the  fanatics  and  disunionists  of  the  North  ".  "  I  see  no  salvation  but 
in  the  total  abandonment  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso."  Edward  Everett, 
on  the  contrary,  felt  that  "  unless  some  southern  men  of  influence 
have  courage  enough  to  take  grounds  against  the  extension  of  slavery 
and  in  favor  of  abolition  ...  we  shall  infallibly  separate  ".53 

A  Philadelphia  editor  who  went  to  Washington  to  learn  the  real 
sentiments  of  the  Southern  members,  reported  February  1,  that  if 
the  Wilmot  Proviso  were  not  given  up,  ample  provision  made  for 
fugitive  slaves  and  avoidance  of  interference  with  slavery  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  the  South  would  secede,  though  this  was  not  gen- 
erally believed  in  the  North.  "  The  North  must  decide  whether  she 
would  have  the  Wilmot  Proviso  without  the  Union  or  the  Union 
without  the  Wilmot  Proviso."  54 

In  answer  to  inquiries  from  the  Massachusetts  legislature  as  to 
whether  the  Southern  attitude  was  "bluster"  or  "firm  Resolve", 
Winthrop  wrote,  "the  country  has  never  been  in  more  serious  exi- 
gency than  at  present  ".  "  The  South  is  angry,  mad."  "  The  Union 
must  be  saved  ...  by  prudence  and  forbearance."  "  Most  sober 
men  here  are  apprehensive  that  the  end  of  the  Union  is  nearer  than 
they  have  ever  before  imagined."  "  God  Preserve  the  Union  is  my 
daily  prayer  ",  wrote  General  Scott.55 

Webster,  however,  as  late  as  February  14,  believed  that  there  was 
no  "serious  danger".  February  16,  he  still  felt  that  "if,  on  our 
side,  we  keep  cool,  things  will  come  to  no  dangerous  pass  ".56  But 
within  the  next  week,  three  acts  in  Washington  modified  Webster's 
optimism:  the  filibuster  of  Southern  members,  February  18;  their 
triumph  in  conference,  February  19;  their  interview  with  Taylor 
about  February  23. 

On  February  18,  under  the  leadership  of  Stephens,  the  Southern 
representatives  mustered  two-thirds  of  the  Southern  Whigs  and  a 
majority  from  every  Southern  state  save  Maryland  for  a  successful 
series  of  over  thirty  filibustering  votes  against  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia without  consideration  of  the  question  of  slavery  in  New 
Mexico  and  Utah.  So  indisputable  was  the  demonstration  of  South- 
ern power  to  block  not  only  the  President's  plan  but  all  Congressional 
legislation,  that  the  Northern  leaders  next  day  in  conference  with 
Southern  representatives  agreed  that  California  should  be  admitted 
with  her  free  constitution,  but  that  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah  govern- 

53  Winthrop  MSS.,  Jan.   16,  Feb.  7. 

54  Philadelphia  Bulletin,  in  McMaster,  VIII.   15. 

55  Winthrop  MSS.,   Feb.   10,   6. 

50  Writings  and  Speeches,  XVI.  533  ;  XVIII.  355- 


2  58'  H.  D.  Foster 

ment  should  be  organized  with  no  prohibition  of  slavery  and  with 
power  to  form,  in  respect  to  slavery,  such  constitutions  as  the  people 
pleased — agreements  practically  enacted  in  the  Compromise.57 

The  filibuster  of  the  18th  of  February,  Mann  described  as  "a 
revolutionary  proceeding  ".  Its  alarming  effect  on  the  members  of 
the  Cabinet  was  commented  upon  by  the  Boston  Advertiser,  Feb- 
ruary 19.  The  New  York  Tribune,  February  20,  recognized  the 
determination  of  the  South  to  secede  unless  the  Missouri  Compromise 
line  were  extended  to  the  Pacific.  February  22,  the  Springfield  Re- 
publican declared  that  "  if  the  Union  cannot  be  preserved  without  the 
extension  of  slavery,  we  allow  the  tie  of  Union  to  be  severed".  It 
was  on  this  day,  too,  that  Webster  decided  "  to  make  a  Union  speech 
and  discharge  a  clear  conscience  ". 

That  same  week  (apparently  February  23)  occurred  the  famous 
interview  of  Stephens  and  Toombs  with  Taylor  which  convinced  the 
President  that  the  Southern  movement  "  means  disunion  ".  This  was 
Taylor's  judgment  expressed  to  Weed  and  Hamlin,  "ten  minutes 
after  the ■  interview  ".  A  week  later  the  President  seemed  to  Horace 
Mann  to  be  talking  like  a  child  about  his  plans  to  levy  an  embargo 
and  blockade  the  Southern  harbors  and  "  save  the  Union  ".  Taylor 
was  ready  to  appeal  to  arms  against  "  these  Southern  men  in  Congress 
[who]  are  trying  to  bring  on  civil  war"  in  connection  with  the  critical 
Texas  boundary  question.58 

On  this  23d  of  February,  Greeley,  converted  from  his  earlier  and 
characteristic  optimism,  wrote  in  his  leading  editorial,  "instead  of 
scouting  or  ridiculing  as  chimerical  the  idea  of  a  Dissolution  of  the 
Union,  we  firmly  believe  that  there  are  sixty  members  of  Congress 
who  this  day  desire  it  and  are  plotting  to  effect  it.  We  have  no 
doubt  the  Nashville  Convention  will  be  held  and  that  the  leading  pur- 
pose of  its  authors  is  the  separation  of  the  slave  states  .  .  .  with  the 
formation  of  an  independent  Confederacy."  "  This  plot  ...  is 
formidable."  He  warned  against  "  needless  provocation "  which 
would  "  supply  weapons  to  the  Disunionists  ".  A  private  letter  to 
Greeley  from  Washington,  the  same  day,  says :  "  H — ■  is  alarmed  and 
confident  that  blood  will  be  spilt  on  the  floor  of  the  House.  Many 
members  go  to  the  House  armed  every  day.     W —  is  confident  that 

57  Stephens,  War  between  the  States,  II.  201-205.  232;  Cong.  Globe,  XXI. 
I.  375-384. 

usThurlow  Weed,  Life,  II.  177-178,  180-181  (Gen.  Pleasanton's  confirmatory 
letter).  Wilson,  Slave  Power,  II.  249.  Both  corroborated  by  Hamline  letter, 
Rhodes,  I.  134.  Stephens's  letters,  N.  Y.  Herald,  July  13,  Aug.  8,  1876,  denying 
threatening  language  used  by  Taylor  "  in  my  presence  ",  do  not  nullify  evidence 
of  Taylor's  attitude.  Mann,  Life,  p.  292.  Private  Washington  letter,  Feb.  23, 
reporting  interview,  N.  Y.   Tribune,  Feb.  25. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  259 

Disunionism  is  now  inevitable.  He  knows  intimately  nearly  all  the 
Southern  members,  is  familiar  with  their  views  and  sees  the  letters 
that  reach  them  from  their  constituents.  He  says  the  most  ultra  are 
well  backed  up  in  their  advices  from  home."59 

The  same  February  23,  the  Boston  Advertiser  quoted  the  Wash- 
ington correspondence  of  the  Journal  of  Commerce :  "  excitement 
pervades  the  whole  South,  and  Southern  members  say  that  it  has  gone 
beyond  their  control,  that  their  tone  is  moderate  in  comparison  with 
that  of  their  people  ".  "  Persons  who  condemn  Mr.  Clay's  resolu- 
tions now  trust  to  some  vague  idea  that  Mr.  Webster  can  do  some- 
thing better."  "  If  Mr.  Webster  has  any  charm  by  the  magic  influ- 
ence of  which  he  can  control  the  idtraism  of  the  North  and  of  the 
South,  he  cannot  too  soon  try  its  effects."  "  If  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Missouri  go  for  the  Southern  movement,  we  shall  have  disunion  and 
as  much  of  war  as  may  answer  the  purposes  either  of  Northern  or 
Southern  fanaticism."  On  this  Saturday,  February  23,  also,  "sev- 
eral Southern  members  of  Congress  had  a  long  and  interesting  inter- 
view with  Mr.  Webster  ".  "  The  whole  subject  was  discussed  and 
the  result  is,  that  the  limitations  of  a  compromise  have  been  exam- 
ined, which  are  satisfactory  to  our  Southern  brethren.  This  is  good 
news,  and  will  surround  Mr.  Webster's  position  with  an  uncommon 
interest."  60 

"  Webster  is  the  only  man  in  the  Senate  who  has  a  position  which 
would  enable  him  to  present  a  plan  which  would  be  carried  ",  said 
Pratt  of  Maryland.61  The  National  Intelligencer,  which  had  hitherto 
maintained  the  safety  of  the  Union,  confessed  by  February  21  that 
"the  integrity  of  the  Union  is  at  some  hazard",  quoting  Southern 
evidence  of  this.  On  February  25,  Foote,  in  proposing  to  the  Senate 
a  committee  of  thirteen  to  report  some  scheme  of  compromise,  gave 
it  as  his  conclusion  from  consultation  with  both  houses,  that  unless 
something  were  done  at  once,  power  would  pass  from  Congress. 

It  was  under  these  highly  critical  circumstances  that  Webster,  on 
Sunday,  February  24,  the  day  on  which  he  was  accustomed  to  dine 
with  his  unusually  well-informed  friends,  Stephens,  Toombs,  Clay, 
and  Hale,  wrote  to  his  only  surviving  son : 

I  am  nearly  broken  down  with  labor  and  anxiety.  I  know  not  how 
to  meet  the  present  emergency,  or  with  what  weapons  to  beat  down  the 


59  Weekly  Tribune,  Mar.  2 

,  reprinted  from  Daily,  Feb.  27.     Cf.  Washington 

National  Intelligencer,   Feb.   21 

quoting:    Richmond   Enquirer;    Wilmington   Com- 

mercial;   Columbia   Telegraph. 

60  New  York  Herald,  Feb. 

25  :  Boston  Daily  Advertiser,  Feb.  26. 

61  Tribune,  Feb.  25. 

260  H.  D.  Foster 

Northern  and  Southern  follies,  now  raging  in  equal  extremes.  ...  I 
have  poor  spirits  and  little  courage.    Non  sum  qualis  eram.62 

Mr.  Lodge's  account  of  this  critical  February  period  shows 
ignorance  not  only  of  the  letter  of  February  24,  but  of  the  real  situ- 
ation. He  misquotes  von  Hoist  and  from  unwarranted  assumptions 
draws  like  conclusions.  Before  this  letter  of  February  24  and  the 
new  cumulative  evidence  of  the  crisis,  there  falls  to  the  ground  the 
sneer  in  Mr.  Lodge's  question,  "  if  [Webster's]  anxiety  was  solely  of 
a  public  nature,  why  did  it  date  from  March  7  when,  prior  to  that 
time,  there  was  much  greater  cause  for  alarm  than  afterwards?" 
Webster  7vas  anxious  before  the  7th  of  March,  as  so  many  others 
were,  North  and  South,  and  his  extreme  anxiety  appears  in  the  letter 
of  February  24,  as  well  as  in  repeated  later  utterances.  No  one  can 
read  through  the  letters  of  Webster  without  recognizing  that  he  had 
a  genuine  anxiety  for  the  safety  of  the  Union ;  and  that  neither  in 
his  letters  nor  elsewhere  is  there  evidence  that  in  his  conscience  he 
was  "  ill  at  ease  "  or  "  his  mind  not  at  peace  ".  Here  as  elsewhere, 
Mr.  Lodge's  biography,  written  nearly  forty  years  ago,  reproduces 
anti-slavery  bitterness  and  ignorance  of  facts  (pardonable  in  1850) 
and  seriously  misrepresents  Webster's  character  and  the  situation  in 
that  year.63 

By  the  last  week  in  February  and  the  first  in  March,  the  peak  of 
the  secession  movement  was  reached.  Like  others  who  loved  the 
Union,  convinced  during  this  critical  last  week  in  February  of  an 
"  emergency  ",  Webster  determined  to  make  his  "  Union  Speech " 
and  "  push  the  skiff  from  the  shore  alone  ".  "  We  are  in  a  crisis," 
he  wrote  again  June  2,  "  if  conciliation  makes  no  progress."  "  It  is 
a  great  emergency  that  the  country  is  placed  in  ",  he  said  in  the 
Senate,  June  17.  "We  have,"  he  wrote  in  October,  "gone  through 
the  most  important  crisis  which  has  occurred  since  the  foundation  of 
the  government."  A  year  later  he  added  at  Buffalo,  "if  we  had  not 
settled  these  agitating  questions  [by  the  Compromise]  ...  in  my 
opinion,  there  would  have  been  civil  war".  In  Virginia,  where  he 
had  known  the  situation  even  better,  he  declared,  "  I  believe  in  my 
conscience  that  a  crisis  was  at  hand,  a  dangerous,  a  fearful  crisis  ".'* 

Rhodes's  conclusion  that  there  was  "  little  danger  of  an  overt  act 
of  secession  while  General  Taylor  was  in  the  presidential  chair  "  was 
based  on  evidence  then  incomplete  and  is  abandoned  by  more  recent 

62  Writings  and  Speeches,  XVI.  534. 

63  Lodge's  reproduction  of  Parton,  pp.  16-17,  98,  195,  325-326,  349,  353, 
356,  360.     Other  errors  in   Lodge's  Webster,  pp.  45,  314,   322,  328,  329-330,  352. 

64  Writings  and  Speeches,  XVI.  542,  56S;  X.  116 ;  Curtis,  Life,  II.  596; 
XIII.  434- 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  261 

historians.  It  is  moreover  significant  that,  of  the  speeches  cited  by 
Rhodes,  ridiculing  the  danger  of  secession,  not  one  was  delivered 
before  Webster's  speech.  All  were  uttered  after  the  danger  had  been 
lessened  by  the  speeches  and  attitude  of  Clay  and  Webster.  Even 
such  Northern  anti-slavery  speeches  illustrated  danger  of  another 
sort.  Hale  of  New  Hampshire  "would  let  them  go"  rather  than 
surrender  the  rights  threatened  by  the  fugitive  slave  bill.05  Giddings 
in  the  very  speech  ridiculing  the  danger  of  disunion  said,  "  when  they 
see  fit  to  leave  the  Union,  I  would  say  to  them  '  Go  in  peace '  ".66 
Such  utterances  played  into  the  hands  of  secessionists,  strengthening 
their  convictions  that  the  North  despised  the  South  and  would  not 
fight  to  keep  her  in  the  Union. 

It  is  now  clear  that  in  1850  as  in  i860  the  average  Northern  sen- 
ator or  anti-slavery  minister,  or  poet  was  ill-informed  or  careless  as 
to  the  danger  of  secession,  and  that  Webster  and  the  Southern 
Unionists  were  well-informed  and  rightly  anxious.  Theodore  Parker 
illustrated  the  bitterness  that  befogs  the  mind.  He  concluded  that 
there  was  no  danger  of  dissolution  because  "the  public  funds  of  the 
United  States  did  not  go  down  one  mill ".  The  stock  market  might, 
of  course,  change  from  many  causes,  but  Parker  was  wrong  as  to 
the  facts.  An  examination  of  the  daily  sales  of  United  States  bonds 
in  New  York,  1 849-1 850,  shows  that  the  change,  instead  of  being 
"  not  one  mill ",  as  Parker  asserted,  was  four  or  five  dollars  during 
this  period ;  and  what  change  there  was,  was  downward  before  Web- 
ster's speech  and  upward  thereafter.67 

We  now  realize  what  Webster  knew  and  feared  in  1 849-1 850. 
"  If  this  strife  between  the  South  and  the  North  goes  on,  we  shall 
have  war,  and  who  is  ready  for  that  ?  "  "  There  would  have  been  a 
Civil  War  if  the  Compromise  had  not  passed."  The  evidence  con- 
firms Thurlow  Weed's  mature  judgment :  "  the  country  had  every 
appearance  of  being  on  the  eve  of  a  Revolution."  6S  On  February  28, 
Everett  recognized  that  "  the  radicals  at  the  South  have  made  up  their 
minds  to  separate,  the  catastrophe  seems  to  be  inevitable  ".69 

On  March  1,  Webster  recorded  his  determination  "to  make  an 
honest  truth-telling  speech  and  a  Union  speech  ".  The  Washington 
correspondent  of  the  Advertiser,  March  4,  reported  that  Webster  will 

65  Mar.  19,  Cong.  Globe,  XXII.  II.   1063. 

66  Aug.  12,  ibid.,  p.  1562. 

»1  U.  S.  Bonds  (1S67).  About  112-113,  Dec.  Jan.,  Feb..  1850;  "inactive" 
before  Webster's  speech;  "firmer",  Mar.  S;  advanced  to  117,  119,  May;  116-117 
after   Compromise. 

es  E.  P.  Wheeler,  i~i.rO'  Years  of  American  Life,  p.  6;  cf.  Webster's  Buf- 
falo  Speech,   Curtis,  Life,   II.   576;   Weed,  Autobiography,  p.   596. 

69Winthrop  MSS. 


262  H.  D.  Foster 

"take  a  large  view  of  the  state  of  things  and  advocate  a  straight- 
forward course  of  legislation  essentially  such  as  the  President  has 
recommended  ".  "  To  this  point  public  sentiment  has  been  gradually 
converging."  "  It  will  tend  greatly  to  confirm  opinion  in  favor  of 
this  course  should  it  meet  with  the  decided  concurrence  of  Mr.  Web- 
ster." The  attitude  of  the  plain  citizen  is  expressed  by  Barker,  of 
Beaver,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  same  day,  "  do  it,  Mr.  Webster,  as  you 
can,  do  it  as  a  bold  and  gifted  statesman  and  patriot;  reconcile  the 
North  and  South  and  preserve  the  Union  ".  "  Offer,  Mr.  Webster, 
a  liberal  compromise  to  the  South."  On  March  4  and  5,  Calhoun's 
Senate  speech  reasserted  that  the  South,  no  longer  safe  in  the  Union, 
possessed  the  right  of  peaceable  secession.  On  the  6th  of  March, 
Webster  went  over  the  proposed  speech  of  the  next  morning  with  his 
son  Fletcher,  Edward  Curtis,  and  Peter  Harvey.70 

It  was  under  the  cumulative  stress  of  such  convincing  evidence, 
public  and  private  utterances,  and  acts  in  Southern  legislatures  and 
in  Congress,  that  Webster  made  his  Union  speech  on  the  7th  of 
March.  The  purpose  and  character  of  the  speech  are  rightly  indi- 
cated by  its  title,  "  The  Constitution  and  the  Union  ",  and  by  the 
significant  dedication  to  the  people  of  Massachusetts :  "  Necessity 
compels  me  to  speak  true  rather  than  pleasing  things."  "  I  should 
indeed  like  to  please  you ;  but  I  prefer  to  save  you,  whatever  be  your 
attitude  toward  me."  71  The  malignant  charge  that  this  speech  was 
"  a  bid  for  the  presidency  "  was  long  ago  discarded,  even  by  Lodge. 
It  unfortunately  survives  in  text-books  more  concerned  with  "  atmos- 
phere "  than  with  truth.  The  modern  investigator  finds  no  evidence 
for  it  and  every  evidence  against  it.  Webster  was  both  too  proud 
and  too  familiar  with  the  political  situation,  North  and  South,  to 
make  such  a  monstrous  mistake.  The  printed  or  manuscript  letters 
to  or  from  Webster  in  1850  and  1851  show  him  and  his  friends 
deeply  concerned  over  the  danger  to  the  Union,  but  not  about  the 
presidency.  There  is  rarest  mention  of  the  matter  in  letters  by  per- 
sonal or  political  friends;  none  by  Webster,  so  far  as  the  writer  has 
observed. 

If  one  comes  to  the  speech  familiar  with  both  the  situation  in 
1850  as  now  known,  and  with  Webster's  earlier  and  later  speeches 
and  private  letters,  one  finds  his  position  and  arguments  on  the  7th 
of  March  in  harmony  with  his  attitude  toward  Union  and  slavery, 

70  Webster  to  Harvey,  Apr.  7,  MS.  Middletown  (Conn.)  Hist.  Soc.,  adds 
Fletcher's  name.  Received  through  the  kindness  of  Professor  George  M. 
Dutcher. 

■"■Writings  and  Speeches.  X.  57;  "  Xotes  for  the  Speech",  281-291;  Win- 
throp   MSS.,   Apr.   3. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  263 

and  with  the  law  and  the  facts.  Frankly  reiterating  both  his  earlier 
view  of  slavery  "as  a  great  moral,  political  and  social  evil  "  and  his 
lifelong  devotion  to  the  Union  and  its  constitutional  obligations,  Web- 
ster took  national,  practical,  courageous  grounds.  On  the  fugitive 
slave  bill  and  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  where  cautious  Whigs  like  Win- 
throp  and  Everett  were  inclined  to  keep  quiet  in  view  of  Northern 
popular  feeling,  Webster  "  took  a  large  view  of  things  "  and  resolved, 
as  Foote  saw,  to  risk  his  reputation  in  advocating  the  only  practicable 
solution.  Not  only  was  Webster  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  facts, 
but  he  was  pre-eminently  logical  and,  as  Calhoun  had  admitted,  once 
convinced,  "  he  cannot  look  truth  in  the  face  and  oppose  it  by  argu- 
ments ".7=  He  therefore  boldly  faced  the  truth  that  the  Wilmot 
Proviso  (as  it  proved  later)  was  needless,  and  would  irritate  Southern 
Union  men  and  play  into  hands  of  disunionists  who  frankly  desired 
to  exploit  this  "  insult "  to  excite  secession  sentiment.  In  a  like  case 
ten  years  later,  "  the  Republican  party  took  precisely  the  same  ground 
held  by  Mr.  Webster  in  1850  and  acted  from  the  motives  that  inspired 
the  7th  of  March  speech  ".T3 

Webster's  anxiety  for  a  conciliatory  settlement  of  the  highly  dan- 
gerous Texas  boundary  situation  (which  incidentally  narrowed  slave 
territory)  was  as  consistent  with  his  national  Union  policy,  as  his 
desires  for  California's  admission  as  a  free  state  and  for  prohibition 
of  the  slave-trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia  were  in  accord  with  his 
opposition  to  slavery.  Seeing  both  abolitionists  and  secessionists 
threatening  the  Union,  he  rebuked  both  severely  for  disloyalty  to 
their  "  constitutional  obligations  ",  while  he  pleaded  for  a  more  con- 
ciliatory attitude,  for  faith  and  charity  rather  than  "  heated  imagina- 
tions ".  The  only  logical  alternative  to  the  union  policy  was  dis- 
union, advocated  alike  by  Garrisonian  abolitionists  and  Southern 
secessionists.  "  The  Union  .  .  .  was  thought  to  be  in  danger,  and 
devotion  to  the  Union  rightfully  inclined  men  to  yield  .  .  .  where 
nothing  else  could  have  so  inclined  them  ",  was  Lincoln's  luminous 
defense  of  the  Compromise  in  his  debate  with  Douglas.74 

Webster's  support  of  the  constitutional  provision  for  "  return  of 
persons  held  to  service  "  was  not  merely  that  of  a  lawyer.  It  was  in 
accord  with  a  deep  and  statesmanlike  conviction  that  "  obedience  to 
established  government  ...  is  a  Christian  duty  ",  the  seat  of  law  is 
"  the  bosom  of  God,  her  voice  the  harmony  of  the  universe  ".75  Of- 
fensive as  this  law  was  to  the  North,  the  only  logical  alternatives  were 

^Writings  and  Speeches,   XVIII.   371-372. 

"3  Blaine.  Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  I.  269-2-1. 

'•*  Works,  II.   202-203. 

75  Writings  and  Speeches,  XVI.  580-581. 


264  H.  D.  Foster 

to  fulfil  or  to  annul  the  Constitution.  Webster  chose  to  risk  his  repu- 
tation ;  the  extreme  abolitionists,  to  risk  the  Union.  Webster  felt,  as 
his  opponents  later  recognized,  that  "the  habitual  cherishing  of  the 
principle  ",  "  resistance  to  unjust  laws  is  obedience  to  God  ",  threat- 
ened the  Constitution.  "  He  .  .  .  addressed  himself,  therefore,  to 
the  duty  of  calling  the  American  people  back  from  revolutionary 
theories  to  .  .  .  submission  to  authority." 70  As  in  1830  against 
Haynes,  so  in  1850  against  Calhoun  and  disunion,  Webster  stood 
not  as  "a  Massachusetts  man,  but  as  an  American",  for  "the  pres- 
ervation of  the  Union  ".77  In  both  speeches  he  held  that  he  was 
acting  not  for  Massachusetts,  but  for  the  "whole  country"  (1830), 
"the  good  of  the  whole"  (1850).  His  devotion  to  the  Union  and 
his  intellectual  balance  led  him  to  reject  the  impatience,  bitterness, 
and  disunion  sentiments  of  abolitionists  and  secessionists.  "  We  must 
wait  for  the  slow  progress  of  moral  causes  ",  a  doctrine  already  an- 
nounced in  1840,  he  reiterated  in  1850.78 

The  earlier  accounts  of  Webster  as  losing  his  friends  are  at  vari- 
ance with  the  facts.  Cautious  Northerners  naturally  hesitated  to 
support  him  and  face  both  the  popular  convictions  on  fugitive  slaves 
and  the  rasping  vituperation  that  exhausted  sacred  and  profane  his- 
tory in  the  epithets  current  in  that  "  era  of  warm  journalistic  man- 
ners " ;  Abolitionists  and  Free  Soilers  congratulated  one  another  that 
they  had  "killed  Webster".  In  Congress  no  Northern  man  save 
Ashmun  of  Massachusetts  supported  him  in  any  speech  for  months. 
On  the  other  hand,  Webster  did  retain  the  friendship  and  confidence 
of  leaders  and  common  men  North  and  South,  and  the  tremendous 
influence  of  his  personality  and  "  unanswerable  "  arguments  eventu- 
ally swung  the  North  for  the  Compromise.  From  Boston  came 
prompt  expressions  of  "  entire  concurrence "  in  his  speech  by  800 
representative  men,  including  George  Ticknor,  William  H.  Prescott, 
Rufus  Choate,  Josiah  Quincy,  President  Sparks  and  Professor  Felton 
of  Harvard,  Professors  Woods,  Stuart,  and  Emerson  of  Andover, 
and  other  leading  professional,  literary,  and  business  men.  Similar 
addresses  were  sent  to  him  from  about  the.  same  number  of  men  in 
New  York,  from  supporters  in  Newburyport,  Medford,  Kennebeck 
River,  Philadelphia,  the  Detroit  Common  Council,  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire,  and  "the  neighbors  "  in  Salisbury.  His  old  Boston  Con- 
gressional district  triumphantly  elected  Eliot,  one  of  Webster's  most 
loyal  supporters,  by  a  vote  of  2,355  against  473  for  Charles  Sumner. 
The  Massachusetts  legislature  overwhelmingly  defeated  a  proposal  to 

™  Seward,  Works,  III.   111-116. 

11  Writings  and  Speeches,  X.  57,  97. 

■"Ibid.,  XIII.  595;   X.  65. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  265 

instruct  Webster  to  vote  for  the  Wilmot  Proviso.  Scores  of  unpub- 
lished letters  in  the  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society  and  the 
Library  of  Congress  reveal  hearty  approval  from  both  parties  and  all 
sections.  Winthrop  of  Massachusetts,  too  cautious  to  endorse  Web- 
ster's entire  position,  wrote  to  the  governor  of  Massachusetts  that  as 
a  re'sult  of  the  speech,  "disunion  stock  is  already  below  par".79 
"  You  have  performed  the  responsible  duties  of  a  national  Senator  ", 
wrote  General  Dearborn.  "  I  thank  you  because  you  did  not  speak 
upon  the  subject  as  a  Massachusetts  man  ",  said  Reverend  Thomas 
Worcester  of  Boston,  an  overseer  of  Harvard.  "  Your  speech  has 
saved  the  Union  ",  was  the  verdict  of  Barker  of  Pennsylvania,  a  man 
not  of  Webster's  party .s0  "  The  Union  threatened  .  .  .  you  have 
come  to  the  rescue,  and  all  disinterested  lovers  of  that  Union  must 
rally  round  you  ",  wrote  Wainwright  of  New  York.  In  Alabama. 
Reverend  J.  W.  Allen  recognized  the  "  comprehensive  and  self-for- 
getting spirit  of  patriotism  "  in  Webster,  "  which,  if  followed,  would 
save  the  Union,  unite  the  country  and  prevent  the  danger  in  the  Nash- 
ville Convention  ".  Like  approval  of  Webster's  "  patriotic  stand  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Union  "  was  sent  from  Green  County  and 
Greensboro  in  Alabama  and  from  Tennessee  and  Virginia.81  "  The 
preservation  of  the  Union  is  the  only  safety-valve.  On  Webster  de- 
pends the  tranquility  of  the  country  ",  says  an  anonymous  writer  from 
Charleston,  a  native  of  Massachusetts  and  former  pupil  of  Webster.82 
Poinsett  and  Francis  Lieber,  South  Carolina  Unionists,  expressed  like 
views.63  The  growing  influence  of  the  speech  is  testified  to  in  letters 
from  all  sections.  Linus  Child  of  Lowell  finds  it  modifying  his  own 
previous  opinions  and  believes  that  "  shortly  if  not  at  this  moment,  it 
will  be  approved  by  a  large  majority  of  the  people  of  Massachusetts  ".84 
"  Upon  sober  second  thought,  our  people  will  generally  coincide  with 
your  views ",  wrote  ex-Governor  and  ex-Mayor  Armstrong  of 
Boston.85  "  Every  day  adds  to  the  number  of  those  who  agree  with 
you  ",  is  the  confirmatory  testimony  of  Dana,  trustee  of  Andover  and 
former  president  of  Dartmouth.80  "  The  effect  of  your  speech  begins 
to  be  felt ",  wrote  ex-Mayor  Eliot  of  Boston.87     Mayor  Huntington 

"Mar.   10.     MS..  "Private",  to  Governor  Clifford. 

so  Mar.  11,  Apr.  13.  Webster  papers,  N.  H.  Hist.  Soc.,  cited  hereafter  as 
"  N.  H.". 

*iMar.    11,  25,   22,    17,   26.   28.      Greenough    Collection. 

s-  May  20.     N.H. 

83  Apr.   19,   May  4.     N.H. 

s*  Apr.   1.     Greenough. 

85  Writings   and   Speeches,    XVIII.    357. 

8s  Apr.   19.     N.H. 

67  June  12.  N.H.  Garrison  childishly  printed  Eliot's  name  upside  down, 
and   between  black  lines,  Liberator,   Sept.   20. 


266  H.  D.  Foster 

of  Salem  at  first  felt  the  speech  to  be  too  Southern ;  but  "  subsequent 
events  at  North  and  South  have  entirely  satisfied  me  that  you  were 
right  .  .  .  and  vast  numbers  of  others  here  in  Massachusetts  were 
wrong  ".  "  The  change  going  on  in  me  has  been  going  on  all  around 
me."  "  You  saw  farther  ahead  than  the  rest  or  most  of  us  and  had 
the  courage  and  patriotism  to  stand  upon  the  true  ground."  ss  This 
significant  inedited  letter  is  but  a  specimen  of  the  change  of  attitude 
manifested  in  hundreds  of  letters  from  "  slow  and  cautious  Whigs  ".S9 
One  of  these,  Edward  Everett,  unable  to  accept  Webster's  attitude 
on  Texas  and  the  fugitive  slave  bill,  could  not  "  entirely  concur  "  in 
the  Boston  letter  of  approval.  "  I  think  our  friend  will  be  able  to 
carry  the  weight  of  it  at  home,  but  as  much  as  ever."  "  It  would,  as 
you  justly  said,"  he  wrote  Winthrop,  "  have  ruined  any  other  man." 
This  probably  gives  the  position  taken  at  first  by  a  good  many  mod- 
erate anti-slavery  men.  Everett's  later  attitude  is  likewise  typical  of 
a  change  in  New  England.  He  wrote  in  1851  that  Webster's  speech 
"  more  than  any  other  cause,  contributed  to  avert  the  catastrophe  ". 
and  was  "  a  practical  basis  for  the  adjustment  of  controversies,  which 
had  already  gone  far  to  dissolve  the  Union  ".00 

Isaac  Hill,  a  bitter  New  Hampshire  political  opponent,  confesses 
that  Webster's  "  kindly  answer  "  to  Calhoun  was  wiser  than  his  own 
might  have  been.  Hill,  an  experienced  political  observer,  had  feared 
in  the  month  preceding  Webster's  speech  a  "  disruption  of  the  Union  " 
with  "  no  chance  of  escaping  a  conflict  of  blood  ".  He  felt  that  the 
censures  of  Webster  were  undeserved,  that  Webster  was  not  merely 
right,  but  he  had  "power  he  can  exercise  at  the  North,  beyond  any 
other  man  ",  and  that  "  all  that  is  of  value  will  declare  in  favor  of 
the  great  principles  of  your  late  Union  speech  ".'J1  "  Its  tranquilizing 
effect  upon  public  opinion  has  been  wonderful  " ;  "  it  has  almost  the 
unanimous  support  of  this  community  ",  wrote  the  New  York  philan- 
thropist Minturn.92  "  The  speech  made  a  powerful  impression  in 
this  state.  .  .  .  Men  feel  they  can  stand  on  it  with  security."9'  In 
Cincinnati,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia.  New  York,  and  Pittsfield  (with 
only  one  exception)  the  speech  was  found  "wise  and  patriotic"."4 
The  sender  of  a  resolution  of  approval  from  the  grand  jury  of  the 

ss  Dec.    13.     N.H. 

»n  Writings  and  Speeches.  XVI.   58a. 

00  Winthrop  MSS.,  Mar.  21  ami  Apr.  .0.  tS5o.  Nov.  1851;  Curtis,  Life,  II. 
580;  Everett's  Memoir;  Webster's   Works   (  1 S 5  1 1 ,  I.  clvii. 

'"  \|.r  17.  to  Webster.  Liberator,  Dec.  27,  1850,  May  8,  1856.  Tunis,  Life, 
11.   4;q   n. 

oa  Vpr   4.     N.H. 

at  Barnard,  Albany.  Apr.   1.1.     N.H. 

"  Mar     ,5.    28.      N.H. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  267 

United  States  court  at  Indianapolis  says  that  such  judgment  is  almost 
universal.95  "  It  is  thought  you  may  save  the  country  .  .  .  you  may 
keep  us  still  united  ",  wrote  Thornton  of  Memphis,  who  soberly 
records  the  feeling  of  thoughtful  men  that  the  Southern  purpose  of 
disunion  was  stronger  than  appeared  in  either  newspapers  or  politi- 
cal gatherings. 9e  "  Your  speech  has  disarmed— has  quieted  the 
South;''7  has  rendered  invaluable  service  to  the  harmony  and  union 
of  the  South  and  the  North  ".!IS  "  I  am  confident  of  the  higher 
approbation,  not  of  a  single  section  of  the  Union,  but  of  all  sections  ", 
wrote  a  political  opponent  in  Washington." 

The  influence  of  Webster  in  checking  the  radical  purposes  of  the 
Nashville  Convention  has  been  shown  above.100 

All  classes  of  men  from  all  sections  show  a  substantial  and  grow- 
ing backing  of  Webster's  7th  of  March  speech  as  "  the  only  states- 
manlike and  practicable  way  to  save  the  Union  ".  "  To  you,  more 
than  to  any  other  statesman  of  modern  times,  do  the  people  of  this 
country  owe  their  national  feeling  which  we  trust  is  to  save  this  Union 
in  this  its  hour  of  trial  ",  was  the  judgment  of  "  the  neighbors  ",  the 
plain  farmers  of  Webster's  old  New  Hampshire  home.101  Outside 
of  the  Abolition  and  Free  Soil  press,  the  growing  tendency  in  news- 
papers, like  that  of  their  readers,  was  to  support  Webster's  logical 
position.102 

Exaggerated  though  some  of  these  expressions  of  approval  may 
have  been,  they  balance  the  exaggerated  vituperation  of  Webster  in 
the  anti-slavery  press ;  and  the  extremes  of  approval  and  disapproval 
both  concur  in  recognizing  the  widespread  effect  of  the  speech,  "  No 
speech  ever  delivered  in  Congress  produced  ...  so  beneficial  a 
change  of  opinion.  The  change  of  feeling  and  temperament  wrought 
in  Congress  by  this  speech  is  miraculous."  103 

The  contemporary  testimony  to  Webster's  checking  of  disunion 
is  substantiated  by  the  conclusions  of  Petigru  of  South  Carolina, 
Cobb  of  Georgia  in  1852,  Allen  of  Pennsylvania  in  1853,  and  by 
Stephens's  mature  judgment  of  "  the  profound  sensation  upon  the 

95  June    10.      Greenough. 

96  Mar.  28.     Greenough. 

07  H.  I.  Anderson,  Tenn.,  Apr.  S.     Greenough. 

98  Nelson.   Va.,   May  2.     N.H. 

119  Mar.  S.     Greenough. 

100  Pp.  255-,56. 

10i  August.    1850;    127  signatures.     X.H. 

102  Ogg,   Webster,  p.  379;   Rhodes,   I.   157-158. 

103  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce,  Boston  Advertiser,  Richmond  Whig, 
Mar.  12;  Baltimore  Sun,  Mar.  18;  Ames,  Calhoun,  p.  25;  Boston  Watchman  and 
Reflector,  in   Liberator,   Apr.    1. 


268  H.  D.  Foster 

public  mind  throughout  the  Union  made  by  Webster's  7th  of  March 
speech.  The  friends  of  the  Union  under  the  Constitution  were 
strengthened  in  their  hopes  and  inspired  with  renewed  energies."  104 
In  1874  Foote  wrote,  "The  speech  produced  beneficial  effects  every- 
where. .  His  statement  of  facts  was  generally  looked  upon  as  un- 
answerable ;  his  argumentative  conclusions  appeared  to  be  inevitable ; 
his  conciliatory  tone  .  .  .  softened  the  sensibilities  of  all  patriots."  105 
"  He  seems  to  have  gauged  more  accurately  [than  most]  the  grave 
dangers  which  threatened  the  republic  and  ...  the  fearful  conse- 
quences which  must  follow  its  disruption  ",  was  Henry  Wilson's  later 
and  wiser  judgment.106  "  The  general  judgment,"  said  Senator 
Hoar  in  1899,  "seems  to  be  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  Webster 
differed  from  the  friends  of  freedom  of  his  time  not  in  a  weaker 
moral  sense,  but  only  in  a  larger,  and  profounder  prophetic  vision." 
"  He  saw  what  no  other  man  saw,  the  certainty  of  civil  war.  I  was 
one  of  those  who  .  .  .  judged  him  severely,  but  I  have  learned  bet- 
ter." "  I  think  of  him  now  ...  as  the  orator  who  bound  fast  with 
indissoluble  strength  the  bonds  of  union."  1CIT 

Modern  writers,  North  and  South — Garrison,  Chadwick,  T.  C. 
Smith,  Merriam,  for  instance108 — now  recognize  the  menace  of  dis- 
union in  1850  and  the  service  of  Webster  in  defending  the  Union. 
Rhodes,  though  condemning  Webster's  support  of  the  fugitive  slave 
bill,  recognizes  that  the  speech  was  one  of  the  few  that  really  altered 
public  opinion  and  won  necessary  Northern  support  for  the  Com- 
promise. "  We  see  now  that  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  his  prin- 
ciples were  mightier  than  those  of  Garrison."  "  It  was  not  the  Lib- 
erty or  Abolitionist  party,  but  the  Union  party  that  won."  109 

Postponement  of  secession  for  ten  years  gave  the  North  pre- 
ponderance in  population,  voting  power,  production,  and  transporta- 
tion, new  party  organization,  and  convictions  which  made  man-power 
and  economic  resources  effective.  The  Northern  lead  of  four  million 
people  in  1850  had  increased  to  seven  millions  by  i860.  In  1850. 
each  section  had  thirty  votes  in  the  Senate;  in  i860,  the  North  had  a 
majority  of  six,  due  to  the  admission  of  California,  Oregon,  and 
Minnesota.  In  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  North  had  added 
seven  to  her  majority.     The  Union  states  and  territories  built  during 

i"-t  War  between  Ike  Stales,  II.  211. 

!<>■<  Civil   War  (1866),  pp.    130-131. 

""■Slave  Pozcer,   II.    246. 

10T  Seribner's  Magazine.  XXVI.  S4. 

losGarrison,  Westward  Expansion,  pp.  327-332;  Chadwick,  The  Causes  of 
the  Civil  War,  pp.  49-31;  Smith,  Parties  and  Slavery,  p.  9;  Merriam,  Lift  of 
Bowles,  I.  81. 

ion  Rhodes.  I.    157,    161. 


Webster's  Seventh  of  March  Speech  269 

the  decade  15,000  miles  of  railroad,  to  7,000  or  8,000  in  the  eleven 
seceding  states.  In  shipping,  the  North  in  i860  built  about  800 
vessels  to  the  seceding  states'  200.  In  i860,  in  the  eleven  most  im- 
portant industries  for  war,  Chadwick  estimates  that  the  Union  states 
produced  $735,500,000;  the  seceding  states  $75,250,000,  "a  manu- 
facturing productivity  eleven  times  as  great  for  the  North  as  for  the 
South".110  In  general,  during  the  decade,  the  census  figures  for 
i860  show  that  since  1850  the  North  had  increased  its  man-power, 
transportation,  and  economic  production  from  two  to  fifty  times  as 
fast  as  the  South,  and  that  in  i860  the  Union  states  were  from  two 
to  twelve  times  as  powerful  as  the  seceding  states. 

Possibly  Southern  secessionists  and  Northern  abolitionists  had 
some  basis  for  thinking  that  the  North  would  let  the  "  erring  sisters 
depart  in  peace  "  in  1850.  Within  the  next  ten  years,  however,  there 
came  a  decisive  change.  The  North,  exasperated  by  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Act  of  1854,  the  high-handed  acts  of  Southerners  in  Kan- 
sas in  1856,  and  the  Dred  Scott  dictum  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
1857,  felt  that  these  things  amounted  to  a  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  and  the  opening  up  of  the  territory  to  slavery.  In  i860 
Northern  conviction,  backed  by  an  effective,  thorough  party  platform 
on  a  Union  basis,  swept  the  free  states.  In  1850,  it  was  a  "  Consti- 
tutional Union  "  party  that  accepted  the  Compromise  and  arrested 
secession  in  the  South;  and  Webster,  foreseeing  a  "remodelling  of 
parties",  had  prophesied  that  "there  must  be  a  Union  party".111 
Webster's  spirit  and  speeches  and  his  strengthening  of  federal  power 
through  Supreme  Court  cases  won  by  his  arguments  had  helped  to 
furnish  the  conviction  which  underlay  the  Union  Party  of  i860  and 
1864.  His  consistent  opposition  to  nullification  and  secession,  and 
his  appeal  to  the  Union  and  to  the  Constitution  during  twenty  years 
preceding  the  Civil  War — from  his  reply  to  Hayne  to  his  seventh  of 
March  speech — had  developed  a  spirit  capable  of  making  economic 
and  political  power  effective.  Men  inclined  to  sneer  at  Webster  for 
his  interest  in  manufacturing,  farming,  and  material  prosperity,  may- 
well  remember  that  in  his  mind,  and  more  slowly  in  the  minds  of  the 
North,  economic  progress  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  development 
of  union  and  of  liberty  secured  by  law. 

Whether  we  look  to  the  material  progress  of  the  North  from  1850 
to  i860  or  to  its  development  in  "  imponderables  ",  Webster's  policy 
and  his  power  over  men's  thoughts  and  deeds  were  essential  factors 
in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  Union,  which  would  have  been  at  least 

no  Preliminary  Report,  Eighth  Census,  i860;  Chadwick,  Causes  of  the  Civil 
War,  p.  28. 

m  Oct.   2,   1S50.      Writings  and  Speeches,  XVI.    56S-569. 


270  H.  D.  Foster 

dubious  had  secession  been  attempted  in  1850.  It  was  a  soldier,  not 
the  modern  orator,  who  said  that  "  Webster  shotted  our  guns ". 
A  letter  to  Senator  Hoar  from  another  Union  soldier  says  that  he 
kept  up  his  heart  as  he  paced  up  and  down  as  sentinel  in  an  exposed 
place  by  repeating  over  and  over,  "  Liberty  and  Union  now  and  for- 
ever, one  and  inseparable  ",112  Hosmer  tells  us  that  he  and  his  boy- 
hood friends  of  the  North  in  1861  "did  not  argue  much  the  question 
of  the  right  of  secession  ",  but  that  it  was  the  words  of  Webster's 
speeches,  "  as  familiar  to  us  as  the  sentences  of  the  Lord's  prayer  and 
scarcelv  less  consecrated,  .  .  .  with  which  we  sprang  to  battle ". 
Those  boys  were  not  ready  in  1850.  The  decisive  human  factors  in 
the  Civil  War  were  the  men  bred  on  the  profound  devotion  to  the 
Union  which  Webster  shared  with  others  equally  patriotic,  but  less 
profoundly  logical,  less  able  to  mould  public  opinion.  Webster  not 
only  saw  the  vision  himself;  he  had  the  genius  to  make  the  plain 
American  citizen  see  that  liberty  could  come  through  union  and  not 
through  disunion.  Moreover,  there  was  in  Webster  and  the  Com- 
promise of  1850  a  spirit  of  conciliation,  and  therefore  there  was  on 
the  part  of  the  North  a  belief  that  they  had  given  the  South  a  "  square 
deal ",  and  a  corresponding  indignation  at  the  attempts  in  the  next 
decade  to  expand  slavery  by  violating  the  Compromises  of  1820  and 
1850.  So,  by  i860,  the  decisive  border  states  and  Northwest  were 
ready  to  stand  behind  the  Union.  Lincoln,  born  in  a  border  state 
and  bred  in  the  Northwest,  and  on  Webster's  doctrine,  "  the  Union 
is  paramount  ",  when  he  accepted  the  Republican  platform  in  1864 
summed  up  the  issues  of  the  long  struggle  in  Webster's  words  of 
1830,  repeated  in  briefer  form  in  the  7th  of  March  speech,  "  Liberty 
and  Union  ".lla 

Herbert  Darling  Foster. 

11*  Scribner,  XXVI.  S4 :  American   Law  Review,  XXXV-  804. 
H3Nicolay  and  Hay,  IX.  76. 


DOCUMENTS 
Washington  in  1834;  Letter  of  Robert  C.  Caldwell 

The  following  letter,  presenting  an  entertaining  picture  of  Wash- 
ington in  1834  and  some  interesting  glimpses  of  President  Jackson, 
was  written  by  Robert  C.  Caldwell  to  his  father,  Colonel  Samuel 
Caldwell,  of  Franklin,  Ohio.  For  the  opportunity  to  print  it  we  are 
indebted  to  Professor  George  M.  Whicher,  of  Hunter  College,  New 
York  City,  whose  great-grandmother  was  in  1834  the  wife  of  Colonel 
Caldwell.  This  lady,  born  Margaret  Patterson,  was  thrice  married. 
Her  first  husband  was  Samuel  Venable,  of  Lexington,  Kentucky. 
This  letter  passed  at  her  death  to  her  daughter  by  this  first  marriage, 
Mrs.  Stephen  Whicher  (Mary  Venable),  from  whom  it  descended 
to  Professor  Whicher. 

The  letter  is  written  on  a  double  sheet  of  paper,  14  by  17  inches 
in  size;  the  four  pages  are  entirely  filled  save  the  small  space  which 
was  left  to  be  the  front  and  back  of  the  folded  letter  when  ready  for 
mail.  There  is  no  sign  of  direction  or  postmark,  or  indication  of  the 
postage,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  letter  was  trans- 
mitted by  some  friend. 

Colonel  Samuel  Caldwell,  a  proprietor  in  Franklin  before  1S10, 
and  holder  of  various  offices  in  its  early  days,  was  a  state  senator  of 
Ohio  in  1824,  1825,  1828,  and  1829,  and  at  the  time  when  the  letter 
was  written  was  an  associate  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  for 
Warren  County.1  Robert  C.  Caldwell  was  appointed  second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Marine  Corps  October  17,  1834,  first  lieutenant  March 
3,  1845,  and  died  November  13,  1S52. 

Washington  City  29th  Dec.  1834 
Dear  Father, 

Probably  you  think  long  by  this  time  to  receive  a  letter  from  me  and 
as  I  have  an  abundance  of  leisure  whenever  I  choose  to  curtail  my 
curiosity  and  confine  myself  to  my  room,  I  have  concluded  to  write  you 
and  try  if  I  can  fill,  in  such  measure  as  to  be  interesting  to  you.  this 
mammoth  sheet.  Well  I  have  seen  a  great  many  new  things  and  great 
men,  since  I  came  here,  but  before  I  proceed  to  tell  you  about  them  you 
must  first  hear  how  I  arrived  here  and  when. — I  wrote  you  last  as  I 
was  about  to  leave  Cin.2  on  Wednesday  the  3rd  inst.     Arrived  safely 

1  History  of  Warren  County,  Ohio  (Chicago,  1882),  pp.  4^3.  4^4.  4^7.  5 1 9- 
5-'L    55°- 

2  Cincinnati. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 19. 

(270 


272  Documents 

on  Saturday  at  10  o'clock  P.  M.  at  Wheeling.  Took  stage  next  morning 
at  10  o'clock  and  arrived  (via  Washington,  Brownsville,  Union,3  Cum- 
berland and  Hagerstown)  at  Frederictown4  on  Tuesday  evening  at  4 
o'clock.  Next  morning  took  the  rail-road  to  Baltimore,  60  miles,  and 
arrived  at  Bait,  early  in  the  evening  having  traveled  at  the  rate  of  15 
miles  per  hour,  part  of  the  way  by  horse-power  and  part  by  steam. 
Almost  all  the  towns  from  Wheeling  to  Baltimore  are  flourishing  in- 
land towns,  and  Frederic  especially.  Bait,  is  a  curious  city — the  Monu- 
mental City.  Among  its  curiosities  are  the  Washington  Monument — 
the  battle  monument,  the  public  fountains — the  shot  towers — the  Cathe- 
dral— and  the  shipping. — The  Washington  Monument  is  built  of  white 
marble  and  is  180  feet  in  hight. .  I  ascended  it  and  had  a  bird's  eye 
view  of  all  the  city — and  the  prospect  over  the  surrounding  country  and 
far,  far  down  the  bay  is  very  delightful.  The  shipping,  consisting  of 
Frigates,  Brigs,  Schooners,  Sloops  and  what  not,  some  sailing  up  and 
some  sailing  down  the  bay,  moving  with  the  fleetness  of  birds  and  as  if 
by  some  magic  influence,  contrasts  very  happily  with  the  vessels  at  the 
wharf,  which  with  their  masts  and  yards  all  stripped  of  their  sails,  look 
like  a  deadened  forest  on  the  beach.  These,  you  know,  were  the  first 
vessels  I  had  ever  seen  with  a  mast  and  sails. 

Well,  the  Cathedral  I  cannot  pretend  to  describe  particularly;  it  is 
the  Roman  Cath.  church  and  is  the  largest  in  America — is  filled  with 
splendid  and  curious  paintings  and  as  a  curiosity  is  a  considerable 
source  of  revenue  to  the  church,  as  they  charge  25  cents  for  every 
person  who  visits  it. — The  shot  towers  are  merely  great  tall  cones 
built  of  brick,  immensely  high.  The  public  fountains  are  merely  natural 
springs,  very  large  and  strong,  which  have,  for  the  convenience  of  the 
city,  been  walled  up  with  hewn  stone,  and  very  handsomely  adorned. 
There  are  some  three  or  four  of  them. 

On  the  1 2th,  passed  from  Bait,  here,  by  stage  in  5  hours,  distance 
40  miles — arrived  here  at  2  o'clock  on  Friday  the  12  inst. — put  up  at 
Brown's  Hotel5 — boarding  $1-25  per  day — dear  enough,  but  25  cents 
per  day  cheaper  than  Gadsby's.6  On  the  17th  found  a  genteel  and  com- 
fortable boarding-house  at  $1.00  per  day  a  few  doors  from  Brown's  on 
the  opposite  side  of  Pa.  Avenue  and  removed  to  it,  where  I  now  am 
writing  this  letter. — But  to  return  a  little.  On  my  arrival,  found  Taylor 
Webster  and  Gen.  Taylor  of  Newport7  boarding  at  the  same  house, 
made  my  arrival  known  to  them  soon  and  they  treat  me  with  great 
friendship  and  politeness.  I  get  into  my  own  room  and  all  things  ar- 
ranged;   I  overhaul  my  letters  of  Introduction.     Find  among  the  most 

3  Uniontown,  Pa. 

4  Frederick,  Md. 

5  The  Indian  Queen  Hotel,  kept  by  Jesse  Brown,  on  the  north  side  of  Penn- 
sylvania Avenue,  between  Sixth  and  Seventh  streets. 

6  The  National  Hotel,  Pennsylvania  Avenue  and  Sixth  Street. 

~  Gen.  James  Taylor  (1759-1848),  of  Newport,  Ky.,  quartermaster  general 
of  Hull's  forces  in  1S12.  and  in  1S34  probably  the  largest  landed  proprietor  in 
the  Ohio  Valley.  Lewis  Collins,  History  of  Kentucky  (second  ed.,  Covington, 
1882),  pp.  114-115.  He  was  a  first  cousin  of  Col.  Richard  Taylor,  Zachary 
Taylor's  father.  A.  R.  Watson.  Some  Notable  Families  of  America  (New  York. 
1898),  p.   19.     See  also  American  Historical  Register,  I.   57-58. 


Washington  in  1834  273 

prominent  of  them  Micajah  T's  s  to  Martin  Van  B.  So  off  I  goes  at 
a  proper  hour  in  the  day  to  call  upon  the  Gent. — find  him  in — he  re- 
ceives me  with  a  hearty  welcome  and  presents  me  by  letter  to  the 
Prest. — where,  cailing,  I  meet  Maj.  Donaldson9  who  reads  Mr.  Whitch- 
ers  10  letter  and  leads  me  in  and  introduces  me,  in  propria  persona,  to 
Gen.  Jackson.  I  see  no  change  in  the  Gen  since  I  saw  him  in  Cin- 
cin.11 — he  received  me  very  cordially  indeed — in  company  with  him  I 
found  Amos  Kendal  and  Bell  of  Tennessee,  Speaker  of  the  House,12 
and  two  or  three  others,  to  all  of  whom  I  was  cordially  introduced  and 
then  invited  to  sit  and  spend  the  evening  in  familiar  chit-chat  which 
of  course  I  did. — dispersed  at  a  seasonable  hour  with  an  invitation  to 
take  a  family  dinner  with  the  Prest.  and  Maj.  D.  and  family  on  a 
specified  day,  which  invitation  I  of  course  accepted. 

Well  the  day  came  round,  and  3  o'clock,  the  dining  hour,  found  me 

introduced  into  the  anti-chamber  along  with  Col.  (somebody, 

I've  forgotten  his  name)  and  Col.  somebody  else,  whose  name 

I  cannot  call  either,  and  presently  the  Maj.  D.  and  the  Prest.  entered 
and  there  we  sat  some  15  minutes  or  so  chatting,  when  the  Porter  in- 
formed the  Maj.  dinner  was  ready — lead  by  the  porter  we  passed  out 
of  the  Anti-chamber,  through  a  spacious  Hall  and  entered  another  very 
finely  furnished  room  which  was  darkened  by  the  window-curtains  and 
blinds,  and  contained  two  tables  richly  laden  with  fine  plate  and  dishes 
and  tall  splendid  lamps  burning  on  either  table — around  one  table  were 
the  chairs  which  showed  that  that  was  the  one  at  which  we  were  to 
sit — so  we  were  seated — what  attracted  my  attention  first  was  the  very 
nicely  folded  Knapkin  on  each  plate,  with  a  slice  of  good  light  bread  in 
the  middle  of  it. — Well,  all  being  seated,  the  Gen.  asked  a  blessing, 
then  the  servants  about  the  table,  I  believe  one  to  every  man,  com- 
menced— "Will  you  have  some  roast  beef? — some  corn  beef? — some 
boiled  beef? — some  beef  stake?"13 

Well,  the  beef  being  through  with,  away  goes  your  plate  and  a 
clean  one  comes.  "  Will  you  have  this  kind  or  that  kind  or  the  other 
kind  of  fish?"  Fish  being  through,  a  new  plate  and  then  some  other 
dish.  Then  a  new  plate  and  some  other  dish — then  a  new  plate  and 
the  pies — then  the  desert — then  and  in  the  mean  time  the  wines — sherry, 
madaira.  and  champagne  which  are  filled  into  the  glasses  by  the  Butler, 
and  then  with  a  significant  nod  of  the  head  drink  one  another's  health 

s  Meaning,  no  doubt.  Micajah  T.  Williams,  of  Cincinnati,  surveyor  general 
for  Ohio,  Indiana,   and  Michigan. 

9  Maj.  Andrew  Jackson  Donelson,  the  president's  wife's  nephew.  See 
American   Historical  Review,   XXIII.   355-356. 

!"  Stephen  Whicher  had   married  the  writer's  half-sister,   Mary  Venable. 

11  Jackson   was   at    Cincinnati,   "  over   one   boat  ",   in   the   preceding   summer. 

12  Amos  Kendall,   fourth  auditor  of  the  treasury;   John   Bell. 

is  The  reader  who  is  struck  by  the  amplitude  of  the  provision  may  like  to 
compare  the  grave  conversation  of  Washington's  best  waiter  with  Mrs.  Samuel 
Harrison  Smith  over  a  small  dinner  to  be  given,  that  same  winter,  to  Miss 
Martineau.  "'Yesterday  at  Mrs.  Woodbury's  there  was  only  iS  in  company 
and  there  were  30  dishes  of  meat '.  .  .  .  But  I  carried  my,  point  in  only  having 
8  dishes  of  meat,  tho'  I  could  not  convince  Henry  it  was  more  genteel  than 
a  grander  dinner".     First  Forty   Years  of  Washington  Society,  pp.  360-362. 


274  Documents 

— then  after  so  long  a  time,  all  of  which  made  very  agreeable  by  mis- 
cellaneous conversation  we  rise  from  table  and  retire  again  to  the 
chamber  whence  we  had  come,  where  being  seated  and  in  conversation 
in  high  glee,  in  comes  a  servant  with  a  dish  of  coffee  for  each  of  us. 
Well,  must  drink  it  of  course — so  directly  aside  looking  at  my  watch 
find  it  almost  7  o'clock,  I  conclude  it  must  be  time  for  me  to  retire. 
So  I  takes  the  Prest.  by  the  hand  and  says  "  Gen.,  I  bid  you  good-night 
and  it  will  always  be  my  pride  to  do  you  honour."  Well  says  the  Gen. 
"  You  can  do  it  in  no  way  better  than  by  learning  your  duty  and  dis- 
chargeing  it  faithfully.  Improve  your  opportunities  and  you  will  no 
doubt  make  a  first-rate  officer."  These  words  the  Gen.  spoke  with  an 
air  of  characteristic  frankness  and  in  the  presence  of  those  gentlemen 
before  named,  so  that  I  could  not  but  look  upon  them  as  very  flattering 
testimonials.  With  a  hearty  shake  of  the  hand  I  bid  the  Gen.  Adieu 
— then  taking  leave  of  the  other  gentlemen  I  retired  quite  gratified  at 
the  hospitality  and  friendship  I  had  reed. 

But  I  find  myself  rather  ahead  of  my  story.  Meanwhile  between 
the  time  that  I  reed  the  invitation  and  eat  the  dinner,  I  saw  Gen  Lipton, 
H.  and  E.  Hayward,  Reynolds,  Cass,  and  Dickerson,14  of  my  own 
Corps  Maj.  Weed,  Col.  Henderson,  Col.  Brown,  Adit  Howie,  Capi 
Twigs  [?],  Lieut.  Tyler  and  Doct.  Kearney — besides  several  other 
officers  of  different  grades  whose  names  (except  Gen  Jesup  and  Col. 
Craughan)15  I  cannot  pretend  to  recollect  and  I  expect  hardly  their 
faces.     Well  now  for  some  of  the  strange  things  I  have  seen. 

The  Capitol.  I  wish  I  possessed  the  faculty  of  noticeing  things 
minutely  and  then  the  ability  to  describe  them  lucidly  and  accurately, 
I  would  then  portray  to  you  this  building.  It  is  said  that  there  is  not 
another  Edifice  in  the  known  world  that  combines  in  such  sweet  pro- 
portions, as  does  this,  the  excellencies  of  grandeur,  magnificence,  superb- 
ness,  splendour,  beauty  and  simplicity.  It  is  built  of  solid  white  marble 
blocks,  and  I  think  scarcely  a  wooden  floor  or  step  about  it — all  stone 
and  floors  brick.  You  have  frequently  seen  engravings  of  it,  and 
probably  you  may  now  see  somewhere  on  the  walls  of  the  public  house 
you  are  at  the  picture  hanging;  if  so  it  will  give  you  a  better  idea 
of  the  external  appearance  of  the  building  than  I  can  give  you  with 
my  pen.  The  principal  front  is  East — and  most  splendid  it  is  (but 
here  I  begin  to  meet  the  difficulty;  I  cannot  describe  with  any  justice; 
however  to  make  up  for  the  lameness  of  what  I  may  say  and  to  give 
you  a  more  perfect  idea  of  the  building.  I  will  try  to  procure  and  have 
franked  to  you.  a  description  by  the  Architect  himself,  which  you  will 
find  mystified  by  technics,  but  the  most  of  which  you  will  be  able  to 
understand.)10     I    was   saying   the    front   east, — and   the   West; — what 

n  Probably  the  reference  is  to  Lewis  Cass,  secretary  of  war,  and  Mahlon 
Dickerson,  secretary  of  the  navy.  The  members  of  the  writer's  own  corps  here 
mentioned  are,  apparently,  Maj.  Elijah  J.  Weed,  quartermaster  of  the  corps,  Col. 
Archibald  Henderson,  colonel  commandant  U.  S.  M.  C.  1834-1859,  Capt.  Parke 
G.  Howie,  Capt.  Levi  Twiggs,  First  Lieut.  Henry  B.  Tyler,  and  Surgeon  John 
A.  Kearney.  U.  S.  N. 

iGMaj.-Gen.  Thomas  S.  Jesup.  quartermaster  general  U.  S.  A.  1S18-1S60; 
Col.   George   Croghan,   inspector  general    1825-1S40. 

'"Guide    to    the    Capitol    of    the    United    Slates     (Washington.     1834),    "by 


Washington  in  1834  275 

is  it?  Why  a  front  also  grand,  elegant.  The  ends  North  and  South 
are  also  elegant  fronts — the  building  is  four  stories  including  the  base- 
ment story — this  lowest  is  cut  off  into  rooms  and  halls  chiefly  formed 
by  the  arches  that  sustain  the  superstructure — two  of  these  spacious 
rooms  are  devoted  to  Refectories  or  Eating  houses  for  the  members — 
towards  the  close  of  the  session  the  houses  sit  from  10  A.  M.  till  2  A. 
M.  of  the  following  day  sometime,  and  then  it  is  that  they  make  use 
particularly  of  these  houses' — they  call  for  Mutton  Soup,  or  turtle  soup, 
or  Oyster  Soup,  or  beef  stake  or  Coffee  or  tea  or  rum,  just  as  they 
choose,  and  get  whatever  they  call  for. — Congress  furnishes  the  keepers 
with  house  and  fire-wood  free  of  charge  and  then  regulates,  by  rule,  the 
price  of  everything,  so  that  they  cannot  be  imposed  upon,  and  one  mem- 
ber of  the  House  told  me  that  none  but  Members  were  admitted  there 
and  another  told  me  anybody  who  pleases  may  go  and  eat  if  he  pays 
the  established  fare;  so,  how  that  matter  stands,  exactly,  I  cannot  say, 
for  I  have  never  gone  to  eat.  The  second  story  is  divided  into  rooms 
and  halls — one  for  the  U.  S.  Court — one  for  the  Library  of  Congress — 
then  some  jury  and  committee  rooms — the  third  story  into  rooms  for 
the  several  standing  Committees  of  both  Houses — and  the  fourth  story 
consists  of  the  Chambers  of  the  two  Houses  of  Congress  (i.e.)  ex- 
cepting the  central  part  of  the  build'ng  which  consists  of  but  one  story 
from  the  base  of  the  2nd  story — that  is,  it  is  carried  up  in  a  circle 
through  all  the  stories  to  the  very  top  of  the  great  dome — this  is  what 
is  called  the  rotunda  which  is  lit  from  the  top  of  the  Dome,  which  con- 
tains some  grand  pieces  of  sculpture  and  some  excellent  paintings  illus- 
trative of  scenes  which  occurred  during  the  Infancy  of  the  Republic, 
and  principally  during  the  Revolutionary  War.17  These  sculptures  and 
paintings  are  set  in  niches  in  the  wall,  made  on  purpose  to  receive 
them. — A  Bronze  statue  of  Jefferson  stands  out  in  the  floor18  and  two 
elegant  statues  lately  executed  by  Persico,  a  famed  Italian  Artist,  which 
are  set  each  on  a  temporary  pedestal  of  wood — one  is  the  representation 
of  the  God  of  War — Mars  as  the  Romans  called  him — and  the  other 
the  Goddess  of  Peace — carved  from  white  (and  I  suppose  Italian)  marble 
— they  have  been  the  work  of  years — the  artist  is  here  now;  a  very 
swarthy  and  excessively  jovial  Italian — he  takes  great  pride  in  brush- 
ing them  up  and  keeping  them  in  complete  order-  I  have  not  yet  learned 
what  Congress  is  to  give  Ir'm  for  the  work,  but  have  no  doubt  but 
the  sum  will  be  immense.19 

Robert  Mills,  Engineer  and  Architect  ",  who  however  was  not  architect  of  the 
Capitol.  That  office  was  abolished  in  1S29,  Charles  Bulfinch  then  retiring;  Mills 
was  appointed  architect  in  1836.  The  pamphlet  is  not  excessively  technical, 
though  it  is  excessively  occupied  with  the  opinions  of  Mills.  The  young 
lieutenant's  statements  as  to  the  interior  arrangements  of  the  Capitol  are  not 
always   accurate. 

i'  Referring  to  Trumbull's  four  paintings.  The  other  four  are  of  later 
execution. 

!S  Afterward  placed  in  the  grounds  of  the  White  House,  but  now  once 
more   in    the   rotunda   of  the   Capitol. 

19  In  1837  these  figures  were  set  up  in  niches  in  the  east  portico;  see  pi. 
117  in  Glenn  Brown's  History  of  the  United  States  Capitol  (Washington,  1900), 
vol.    I.      Successive    appropriation    acts,    beginning    in    1829,    show    the    total    pay- 


276  Documents 

The  Library  of  Congress  is  one  of  the  interior  curiosities  which  1 
have  not  yet  had  time  to  examine,  but  shall  take  some  early  oppor- 
tunity of  doing  so. — The  two  chambers,  in  their  internal  arrangement, 
very  much  resemble  the  Senate  Chamber  at  Columbus — so  much  for  the 
inside  of  the  Capitol,  now  for  round  about  awhile.  A  lot  of  probably 
two  acres  lies  spread  out  before  the  East  front;  very  beautifully  in- 
deed laid  off  into  walks  and  flower-beds — it  is  true  at  this  season  of 
the  year  the  trees  and  shrubbery  and  bushes  are  not  loaded  with  flowers 
and  blossoms  and  fruit,  yet  the  very  mention  of  them,  some  of  whose 
names  have  hardly  an  existence  save  in  some  poetic  or  classical  asso- 
ciation— I  say  the  very  mention  of  the  names  of  these  rare  exotics  has 
a  tendency  to  stir  up  the  imagination  to  painting  of  all  their  gay 
decorations — all  sorts  and  varieties  of  evergreens  etc.  etc.  etc. — ■ 
Directly  in  front  of  the  Central  door  of  the  Capitol  is  a  fish-pond — it 
is  of  oval  shape,  perhaps  2  rods  wide  by  3  rods  long  and  some  ten  or  ' 
twelve  feet  deep — paved  in  the  bottom  with  hewn  stone  and  built  up 
around  of  the  same  material — then  a  few  bushels  of  beautiful  clean 
gravel  thrown  in — the  water  as  clear  as  crystal  and  a  beautiful  cerulean 
blue — then  caged  in  this  miniature  sea  are  great  varieties  of  little  fish 
— this  pond  is  fenced  round  with  an  iron  railing.20  Near  the  top  of 
the  stone  wall  you  can  discover  an  orifice  of  perhaps  thirty  square 
inches,  through  which  the  water  flows  toward  the  Capitol,  but  you  see 
it  no  more  till  you  come  round  to  the  entrance  of  the  basement  story 
on  the  West,  where,  right  in  front  of  the  very  entrance  it  gushes  out 
of  a  rich  marble  fountain,  made  for  the  purpose,  into  a  large  marble 
bowl  which  sits  on  a  marble  pedestal,  a  convenient  hight  for  one  to 
wash  at.  From  this  fountain,  overflowing  the  bowl,  it  runs  through 
a  smooth,  square  gutter  cut  in  rock  for  perhaps  two  rods,  then  falls 
with  the  continued  roar  of  a  miniature  cataract  into  another  fish-pond, 
just  like  the  last  excepting  that  it  is  square,  instead  of  oval.  Right  in 
the  Centre  of  this  pool  of  water  stands  what  is  currantly  denominated 
"the  Naval  Monument".21  It  is  built  chiefly  of  white  marble,  but,  as 
I  cannot  command  the  technic's  of  the  Sculptor's  Art,  I  cannot  pretend 
to  give  you  a  picture  of  this  curiosity.  I  can.  however,  tell  by  whom 
erected  and  for  what  purpose,  which  I  do  by  telling  you  what  is  en- 
graved on  its  several  squares.  On  the  East  side  are  written,  in  the 
marble,  these  words;  (viz)  "Erected  to  the  memory  of  Capt.  Richard 
Somers.  Lieutenants  James  Caldwell,  James  Decatur,  Henry  Wadsworth, 
Joseph  Israel  and  John  Dorsey  who  fell  in  the  differant  attacks  that 
were  made  on  the  city  of  Tripoli  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1804  and  in 
the  28th  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States."  These  word? 
are  on  the  South  side;  (viz)  "The  love  of  Glory  inspired  them,  Fame 
has  crowned  their  deeds,  History  records  the  event,  the  children  of 
Columbia  admire,   and   Commerce   laments   their   fall."     On   the   North 

ment  to  have  been  $24,000.  The  signing  of  the  contract  was  Adams's  last  action 
as  president;  Memoirs,  VIII.  104,  [23.  Luigi  Persico  was  a  Neapolitan  artist 
who  had  lived  in  Lancaster,  Philadelphia,  and  elsewhere  in  America  since  1819. 
W.  U.  Hensel,  .-.»  Italian  Artist  in  Old  Lancaster  (Lancaster,  1912);  Works 
of  Lanes  Buchanan,  111.  56-59. 

20  s,  e  pi,  p0  i„  (jienn  Brown,  op.  cit. 

=  1  Now  in   Annapolis.     S.  ,    pi.   89    .'  '  I 


Washington  in  1834  277 

Side,  these  words;  (viz)  "As  a  small  tribute  of  respect  to  their  memory, 
and  of  admiration  of  their  valor,  so  worthy  of  imitation,  their  brother 
Officers  have  erected  this  Monument."  So  you  see  I  am  not  the  first 
Caldwell  that  ever  entered  the  American  Navy.  Who  this  namesake 
was,  by  blood  and  origin,  I  know  not.2-  but  the  name  he  has  already 
immortalized,  and  here  it  stands,  imperishable  as  the  marble.  Well,  so 
be  it.  I  covet  not  the  glory  of  any  man,  nor  do  I  feel  disposed  to  boast 
vainly;  but  I  frankly  declare  this,  that  it  is  my  determination  to  deserve 
promotion,  if  in  my  power;  and  to  obtain  it  as  speedily  as  possible. 
And  if,  as  circumstances,  of  which  I  shall  presently  speak,  seem  to  in- 
dicate, it  is  my  lot  to  have  been  thrown  into  the  Navy  in  just  the  nick 
of  time,  when  we  may  have  some  active  defense  of  our  rights  to  make, 
be  assured  your  name  shall  not  be  disgraced,  nor  your  memory  dis- 
honoured, by  the  cowardice  of  one  who  holds  both  sacred.  My  temper 
is  pacific,  my  voice  is  still  for  peace;  but  should  circumstances  in  our 
national  affairs  bring  about  a  war,  I  shall  be  responsible  only  for  the 
result.  If  I  die,  it  shall  be  at  my  post.— But  hold  !  my  pen  seems  given 
to  digressions — we  will  have  a  word  or  two  about  the  French  War  here- 
after.    I  will  now  return  to  my  story. 

The  President's  House  is  the  next  curiosity.  It  is  built  very  much 
in  external  appearance  like  the  Capitol  excepting  the  Domes — and  ex- 
cepting that,  although  an  immensely  large  house,  it  is  small  compared 
to  the  Capitol — it  is  a  Capitol  in  miniature — and  all  that  I  can  say  of 
it  is,  that  in  the  inside  it  seems  to  a  stranger  to  be  curiously  arranged, 
so  much  so  that  he  might  with  ease  get  lost  in  it.  It  is  most  richly  and 
elegantly  furnished,  and  comes  up  to  my  idea  of  a  Royal  Palace.  On 
the  outside  it  is  commanding  and  magnificently  grand.  The  yard  and 
grounds  around  it  are  gratefully  and  gracefully  adorned  with  trees, 
shrubbery,  grass  borders  and  walks.  The  Palace  stands  in  the  center 
of  probably  a  ten  acre  lot  and  fronts  North  and  south.  On  the  east 
and  west  ends  of  the  ten  acre  lot,  or  "  President's  square "  as  it  is 
called,  stand  the  four  departments  of  State,  Treasury,  War  and  Navy.23 
(The  Treasury  building  was  burned  down,  you  remember,  but  its  place 
is  here  yet.)  These  buildings  are  very  spacious — built  of  brick — rather 
antiquated  in  appearance.  But  I  will  tire  myself  and  weary  you  if  I 
continue  dwelling  on  the  minutiae  of  things.  Suffice  it  for  this  part  of 
my  story,  to  say  that  the  whole  "  square  "  is  enclosed  with  an  iron  rail- 
ing fence,  or  something  so  much  like  it  that  one  might  readily  be  de- 
ceived, and  the  whole  concern  together  looks  as  if  it  might  be  the 
Manor  of  some  such  Nabob  as  Uncle  Sam.  The  City  of  Washington 
is  curiously  laid  out;  but  if  you  have  ever  seen  a  map  of  it,  you  will 
have  a  better  idea  of  it  than  I  can  give  you  with  my  pen.     However, 

=2  James  R.  Caldwell,  of  Pennsylvania,  first  lieutenant  of  the  Siren,  killed 
Aug.  7,  1804,  in  one  of  the  gunboat  attacks  on  Tripoli.  Goldsborough,  U.  S. 
Naval  Chronicle,  p.  227. 

=3  The  building  of  the  State  Department,  and  south  of  it  that  of  the 
Treasury  Department,  stood  at  the  east  of  the  White  House,  approximately 
where  the  Treasury  now  stands ;  the  building  of  the  War  Department,  and  south 
of  it  that  of  the  Navy  Department,  at  the  west,  about  where  now  stands  the 
State,  War,  and  Navy  Building.  The  allusion  in  the  next  sentence  is  to  the 
fire  of  1833. 


278  Documents 

this  much  I  can  say  (viz)  There  is  a  set  of  streets  they  call  Avenues, 
that  all  commence  at  the  center  of  the  Capitol  and  radiate  to  every 
point,  l/i  point,  and  34  point  of  the  Compass,  another  set  that  commence 
at  the  center  of  the  Prest's  House  and  radiate  in  the  same  way  and 
then  in  addition  to  these  the  town  is  laid  out  in  the  old  checquer-board 
style  with  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles — So  that  from 
the  Capitol  or  from  the  Prest's  House  you  may  go  straight  in  what- 
ever direction  you  please. 

I  have  not  yet  taken  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  curiosities  in 
the  Patent  Office  or  the  office  of  the  War  Dep.  where  I  am  told  there 
are  some  to  be  seen.  Also  in  the  Dep.  of  State — the  Prest's  H. — The 
curiosity  one  feels  at  first  to  hear  the  great  men  of  the  Nation  make 
their  speeches  in  Congress,  I  find  soon  wears  off.  Clay  is  very  calm  as 
yet  and  rather  sulky.  Webster  says  but  little,  but  is  expected  to  loom 
forth  some  of  these  days  on  the  French  claims  previous  to  1800.  J.  Q. 
Adams  has  not  spent  much  breath  yet  this  session;  I  suppose  he  has 
been  condenseing  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  great  blow  on  the  31st 
in  honour  of  the  memory  of  the  great  and  good  Lafayette.24  I  expect 
that  to  be  an  occasion  of  interest  and  anticipate  it  with  great  pleasure. 
So  much  of  the  Prest's  Message  as  refers  to  the  French  treaty  is  quite 
obnoxious  to  the  blue-lights.25  I  believe  it  is  refered  to  the  Com.  on 
Foreign  Affairs,  of  which  I  think  Clay  is  Chairman  and  he  is  expected 
to  make  his  home  thrust  from  that  quarter.  Some  of  the  knowing  ones 
seem  to  think  and  talk  as  if  a  war  is  inevitable,  others  say  they  cannot 
predict  the  issue,  but  there  is  only  one  path  for  them  and  that  is  to 
sustain  the  Executive  in  his  proposed  measures;  better  incur,  say  they,  the 
expence,  the  difficulties  and  losses  of  a  war  than  suffer  the  honour  of  the 
American  nation  to  be  tarnished  (and  by  the  way  let  me  tell  you,  the  Navy 
officers  here,  almost  to  a  man,  are  hoping  and  praying  for  War).  The 
event  of  the  matter,  I  think  however,  will  probably  be  that  Congress 
will  fight  the  battle  themselves  in  the  Capitol  and  save  the  French  Na- 
tion and  the  American  Navy  the  trouble. 

Well,  (to  strike  off  onto  something  new,)  you  do  not  expect  that 
I  have  learned  much  yet  about  my  duty  as  Lieut,  or  about  the  strength 
or  condition  of  the  American  Navy,  but  being  here,  every  day  less  or 
more,  associating  with  Officers  and  men  conversant  with  the  service  I 
could  not  avoid  learning  something.  And  I  am  perfectly  astonished  to 
learn  how  very  limited  is  our  navy,  both  in  ships  and  men.  The  whole 
number  of  vessels  in  commission  at  present  is  only  nineteen,  as  follows, 
I  ship  of  the  line  !,  4  Frigates,  8  sloops  of  war.  and  6  schooners  ! ! !  A 
mighty  force  indeed  !  Well,  the  whole  force  of  men  in  the  Navy  proper, 
including  Commissioned  and  Warrant  Officers  and  seamen  and  boys 
and  every  kind  of  creature  is  only  6,072.  That  of  the  Marine  Corps 
is  only  1283,  making  in  all   73S5.2fl     When   from  this   force  you  deduct 

24  Lafayette  died  May  20,  1S34.  At  the  request  of  both  houses  of  Congress, 
Adams  delivered  before  them,  on  Dee.  31,  1834,  an  oration  on  Lafayette, 
printed  in  various  editions.     Memoirs,  IX.   151-155,   196. 

2»  Federalists,  here  no  doubt  meaning,  opponents  of  Jackson. 

2"  All  these  figures  agree  with,  and  were  doubtless  taken  from,  the  annual 
report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  communicated  to  Congress  by  the  President 
on    Dec.    2.     American   State   Papers.   Naval   Affairs.   IV.    589-500. 


Washington  in  1834  -79 

the  ineffective  part  of  the  force  you  have  but  a  small  remnent  left  to 
contend  with  the  thousands  and  thousands  of  the  French  Navy,  for  in- 
stance. We  have  but  seven  Navy  yards,  which  are  strewed  along  the 
coast  as  follows:  Portsmouth,  Boston,  New  York,  Phila.,  Washington, 
Norfolk,  and  Pensacola.  The  differant  stations  or  squadrons  into  which 
our  Navy  is  divided  are  as  follows :  I  The  Mediterranean,  2  The  West 
Indian,  3  The  Brazilian,  4  The  Pacific  and  East  Indian.  Thus  scat- 
tered over  the  world  for  the  purpose  of  more  advantageously  protecting 
our  widely  extended  commerce — and  by  the  way  our  widely  extended 
commerce  would  afford  our  nation  the  means  of  very  suddenly  increas- 
ing her  navy,  in  the  event  of  a  war,  for,  in  addition  to  the  13  naval 
vessels  that  are  now  in  ordinary,  (i.e.)  laid  up  for  repair,  and  the  13 
that  are  in  building,  ail  of  which  would  be  speedily  made  ready  for  the 
sea,  the  Government  could  purchase  Merchant  Briggs  and  fit  them  out 
with  guns,  at  comparatively  trifling  expense  to  almost  any  amount  that 
any  possible  emergency  could  require,  and  that  in  a  very  short  time. 

Col.  Henderson  I  find  to  be  a  very  plain  and  familiar  man,  entirely 
easy  in  his  manners  and  very  gentlemanly  in  his  friendship, — has  noth- 
ing of  the  cold  and  withering  frost  of  ceremony  about  him.  Being 
very  favorably  presented  to  him  he  told  me  that  I  might  remain  here 
until  I  was  satisfied  and  then  let  him  know  whenever  I  was  ready  for 
orders,  and  he  would  send  me  to  Norfolk,  Phila,  N.  Y.  or  Boston,  just 
as  I  would  choose.  Here  then  is  the  question  for  me.  I  have  con- 
sidered the  matter  myself  and  obtained  all  the  information  I  could  about 
the  several  stations,  and  think  of  preferring  Boston.27  Will  probably 
leave  here   about  the   5th  or  8th  of  Jan.  '35. 

I  will  tell  you  in  full  the  course  I  have  been  cuting  out  for  myself 
in  imagination;  it  is  this:  to  spend  the  remainder  of  the  present  winter 
in  Boston,  perhaps  till  May  next — then  receive  orders  to  join  a  vessel 
in  the  Pacific  station  for  a  3  years  cruise,  during  which  I  will  circum- 
navigate the  Globe,  then  in  the  spring  of  '38  return  to  the  U.  S„  spend 
the  summer  on  leave  of  absence  among  my  friends  in  the  West  so  as 
to  rejoin  again  for  a  season  the  family  circle  and  around  the  fireside 
and  home  of  my  youth  to  communicate  to  my  dear  parents  and  the 
family  the  result  of  these  three  years  absence  and  experience  in  this 
strange  world. — The  summer  being  ended  to  rejoin  the  service  and  be 
sent  out  early  in  the  fall  on  an  other  three  years  cruise  to  the  Mediter- 
anean  station — then  returning  in  the  fall  of  1841  to  the  U.  S.,  resign 
my  commission  and  retire  to  some  sequestered  spot  and  spend  the  re- 
mainder of  my  days  in  the  sweet  and  peaceful  enjoyment  of  the  tran- 
quilities of  private  life.  But  in  the  meantime  during  this  7  years  of 
service  it  will  be  my  fixed  determination  to  give  my  leisure  hours  to 
Scientific  research  and  especially  to  the  thorough  acquirement  of  the 
Profession  of  the  Law — which,  yes  all  of  which,  I  will  have  abundance 
of  leisure  to  do  and  almost  equal  advantages  with  those  I  would  enjoy 
were  I  stationed  all  the  while  on  land  and  in  our  own  country. 

I   will   submit  my  plan   to  Judge    McLane 23   and   get   his   advice   as 
="The  Official   Register  for   1S35   and   the  Naval  Register   for  January,    1S36, 
show  the  writer  stationed  at  Boston   (Charlestown). 

=s  John  McLean,  of  Ohio,  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United   States    1829-1S61. 


2So  Documents 

to  what  library  I  ought  to  possess  myself  of  both  in  reference  to  the 
particular  study  of  the  Law  and  to  general  scientific  research. 

The  almost  numberless  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  at 
which  it  wiil  probably  be  my  privilege  to  touch  on  this  cruise,  abound 
you  know  with  things  at  once  curious  and  useful — and  a  communica- 
tion of  the  knowledge  of  which  might  at  the  same  time  be  a  positive 
and  valuable  acquisition  to  the  scientific  intelligence  of  this  country,  and 
perhaps  a  source  of  pecuniary  profit  to  myself — for  "  of  the  making  of 
books",  you  know,  ''there  is  no  end''. — I  also  intend  proposing  my 
plan  to  Col.  Henderson  and  if  I  can  do  it  in  a  proper  way  I  think 
there  will  be  no  doubt  but  he  will  favour  my  views  and  wishes,  and 
give  me  orders  to  those  differant  stations.  I  find  that  there  is  a  great 
deal  to  be  gained  by  being  in  favour  with  the  powers  that  be — there 
is  a  good  deal  of  shufling  in  the  rank,  a  good  deal  of  favouritism. 

I  know  not  what  I  ought  to  fill  the  remaining  blank  with  that  would 
be  of  most  interest  to  you.  I  know  of  no  political  news  nor  of  any- 
thing specially  interesting  from  Congress.  You  see  the  journals  as  re- 
ported in  the  several  papers  of  the  city.  Perhaps  it  will  be  amusing 
to  describe  to  you  what  will  be  my  uniform  as  Lieut,  of  Marines. 
Cap — bell-crown,  black  leather  varnished,  mounted  with  brass  scales, 
brass  eagle,  black  cockade  and  yellow  pompons.  Coat — grass  green 
cloth,  double  breasted,  two  rows  guilt,  convex,  with  eagle,  anchor  and 
stars,  raised  border  buttons,  ten  in  each  row;  standing  collar,  edged 
with  buff,  two  loops  and  buttons  on  collar  of  gold  lace, — skirt  to  extend 
nearly  to  the  bend  of  the  knee,  with  two  large  buttons  at  the  waist 
and  gold  embroidered  shell  and  flame  at  the  bottom  of  the  skirt;  breast 
to  be  lined  with  buff  and  other  small  items  of  ornament  so  as  to  make 
it  look  splendid.  Epaulettes  one  on  each  shoulder,  of  bright  gold  bul- 
lion 2l/2  inches  long  and  somewhat  less  than  l/i  inch  diameter,  plain 
gold  lace  strap,  solid  crescent,  the  letters  M.  C.  to  be  embroidered  or  of 
silver  within  the  crescent.  Trousers  from  15  Oct  till  30  April,  light 
grey  cloth  with  buff  cloth  stripe  down  the  outer  seam  iz/>  inches  wide 
and  welted  on  the  edges.  From  1st  May  till  14  Oct.,  white  linen  drill- 
ing, plain  and  spotless.  Sword' — brass  scabbard  sword  with  a  mamaluke 
hilt  of  white  ivory,  extreme  length  of  sword  3  feet  iji  inch,  curve  of 
blade  yi  inch  only,  so  as  to  be  used  for  cut  or  thrust,  the  hilt  (included 
in  extreme  length)  4-)4  inches,  width  of  scabbard  \y%  inches,  width  of 
blade  1  inch.  Sword-knot,  crimson  and  gold  with  bullion  tassel.  Sword 
belt  of  white  leather,  2.y2  inches  wide  etc.  Sash  crimson  silk  net, 
with  bullion  fringe  ends,  to  go  twice  round  the  waist  and  tie  on  the 
left  hip;  the  pendant  part  to  be  one  foot  from  the  tie.  Stock  black 
bombasin,  white  gloves,  etc.  Boots  worn  under  pants.  This  is  for 
dress  or  parade  uniform;  then  we  have  a  frock  coat,  grass  green  cloth, 
single  breasted,  with  ten  large  marine  buttons  down  the  front,  two 
small  marine  buttons  at  cuffs,  plain  stand  up  collar,  lining  buff.  And 
then  [a]  calash,  "  sort  a "  fatigue  cap.  The  general  opinion  of  the 
uniform  is  that  it  could  not  well  be  much  more  splendid  than  it  is. 
All  this  is  quite  right — the  Nation  is  opulent — the  service  is  honorable 
and  the  uniform  ought  to  be  of  the  first  respectability. 

About  my  business  with  Mrs.  Long,  I  would  like  to  hear,  if  you 
have  learned  anything  new,  or  how  she  likes  the  leaving  of  the  notes 


Washington  in  1834  281 

in  the  Bk.  I  think  of  course  that  I  must  insist  on  the  payment  of  the 
face  of  the  notes.  As  soon  as  any  money  is  paid  in,  I  wish  to  invest 
it  in  some  profitable  stock,  if  I  could  be  advised.  You  cannot  probably 
receive  this  letter  before  I  leave  this  city,  but  please  write  me  imme- 
diately to  Boston  on  the  receipt  of  this  letter.  Let  me  know  all  about 
your  winter  arrangements  and  how  Jas.  is  contented  at  home  when  John 
and  I  are  both  away. — how  he  is  like  [to]  progress  with  brother  McDill. 
I  hope  he  will  think  of  nothing  short  of  a  thorough  liberal  education; 
as  I  know  it  is  your  wish  to  give  it  to  him  and  as  I  know  it  will  be 
of  more  value  to  him  than  many  times  the  amount  of  treasure  it  will 
cost  to  procure  it.  My  love  to  him  always.  Give  my  best  love  to 
Mother29  and  tell  her  that  so  soon  as  I  can  equip  myself  cap  apie.  and 
can  meet  with  a  gifted  and  liberal  artist.  I  will  have  a  full  length  por- 
trait of  the  soldier  drawn  and  send  it  home  for  a  family  piece,  which 
will  grace  her  parlour  better  than  the  face  I  gave  her.  I  hear  nothing 
of  Robt  Welsh,30  but  suppose  of  course  he  has  sailed  long  ago  for  the 
West  Indies  as  his  letters  led  us  to  expect  before  I  left  home.  We  had 
a  fall  of  snow  3  or  4  days  ago  which  had  not  all  gone  off  last  night, 
when  it  commenced  snowing  again  and  has  continued  without  inter- 
ruption to-day  until  now  5  o'clock  P.  M.  The  weather  has  not  been 
cold;  but  I  expect  after  this  that  I  shall  have  a  cold  ride  to  Boston 
and  have  it  cold  when  I  get  there.  But  wrap  in  furs  will  be  the  remedy. 
Your  affectionate  son. 

R.  C.  Caldwell. 

28  The  writer's  stepmother. 

so  Robert  Patterson  Welch,  son  of  Mrs.  Caldwell  by  her  second  husband, 
Rev.  James  Welch  (d.  1825).  entered  the  naval  service  as  a  midshipman  Apr. 
1,  1S28.  The  Naval  Register  of  January.  1S35,  lists  him  as  on  the  sloop  St.  Louis, 
then  on  the  West  Indian  station. 


REVIEWS  OF  BOOKS 

GENERAL  BOOKS  AND  BOOKS  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

The  Evolution  of  World-Peace.     Essays  arranged  and  edited  by  F.  S. 

Marvin.  [The  Unity  Series,  IV.]  (London:  Oxford  Univer- 
sity Press.     1921.     Pp.  191.     9s.) 

The  campaign  for  support  of  the  Geneva  League  of  Nations  seems 
to  be  at  once  more  prolonged  and  more  successful  in  England  than  in 
any  other  country.  The  cause  has  enlisted  there  the  support  of  intel- 
lectuals of  many  kinds,  seasoned  statesmen  like  Mr.  Balfour,  idealist 
leaders  like  Lord  Robert  Cecil,  poetic  educators  like  Gilbert  Murray, 
publicists  like  Lord  Bryce,  radio-active  reformers  like  H.  G.  Wells,  and 
philanthropic  uplifters  like  F.  S.  Marvin.  This  latest  contribution  from 
Mr.  Marvin  is  the  fourth  in  a  series  of  volumes,  each  filled  with  essays 
by  eminent  British  scholars  and  each  designed  to  prove  some  phase  of 
the  truth  of  the  title  of  the  first  of  the  series,  The  Unity  of  Western 
Civilization. 

The  lectures  in  this  book,  delivered  in  a  summer  school  at  Wood- 
brooke  during  August,  1920,  are  intended  for  use  in  study  circles  con- 
nected with  the  British  League  of  Nations  Union.  The  title  here 
chosen  illustrates  the  belief  of  Mr.  Marvin  and  his  coadjutors  that  the 
League  of  Nations,  and  the  permanent  peace  toward  which  it  aims,  are 
present  products  of  essential  factors  in  a  continuous  human  experience. 
That  thesis  is  the  text  of  Mr.  Marvin's  introductory  chapter,  the  Ap- 
peal to  History. 

In  the  next  chapter,  Alexander  and  Hellenism,  Mr.  Marvin  and 
Professor  Arnold  Toynbee,  in  collaboration,  attempt  to  discover  in  Alex- 
ander's fleeting  world-empire,  founded  on  physical  force,  some  sources 
of  later  world-unity. 

The  topic  assigned  to  Sir  Paul  Vinogradoff  is  the  Work  of  Rome. 
He  traces  in  Roman  law  a  progressive  tendency  to  recognize  moral 
obligations  and  equitable  rights,  finding  therein  the  basis  of  the  Pax 
Romana,  which  "broke  down  the  barriers  of  internecine  hatred,  gave 
a  real  meaning  to  the  conception  of  civilized  mankind,  and  made  pos- 
sible an  era  of  prosperity  and  economic  progress".  In  eighteen  pages 
he  devotes  but  one  short  paragraph  to  the  influence  of  the  rival  world 
religions  in  the  Empire,  and  to  the  fateful  victory  of  Christianity,  the 
religion  which  preached  spiritual  unification. 

H.  W.  C.  Davis's  chapter  on  Innocent  III,  and  the  Mediaeval 
Church  presents  the  career  of  that  pope  as  the  story  of  a  great  failure. 
He  tried  to  establish  the  Church  as  a  Christian  commonwealth,  a  veri- 
(282) 


Marvin:  Evolution  of  World-Peace  283 

table  super-state,  embracing  all  Christians  as  its  constituents  and  im- 
posing upon  all  universal  peace  and  obedience,  a  vision  still  cherished. 

The  career  of  Grotius  and  the  foundation  of  the  modern  conception 
of  international  law  are  admirably  expounded  by  G.  N.  Clark,  who  in- 
serts a  lucid  discussion  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  neutral  commerce 
and  trading  with  the  enemy  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

G.  P.  Gooch's  subject  is  the  French  Revolution  as  a  World  Force, 
a  vivid  study  of  the  meaning  and  influence  of  three  doctrines  of  the 
Revolution,  vis.  Equality,  Popular  Sovereignty,  and  Nationality. 

Professor  C.  R.  Beazley  sets  forth  so  many  of  the  facts  of  the 
Settlement  of  Vienna,  1814-1S15,  that  he  has  scarcely  any  space  left 
for  study  of  the  activities  and  influence  of  the  Quadruple  Concert  of 
Europe,  the  supreme  allied  council  of  those  days,  nor  for  the  confedera- 
tion of  Europe,  commonly  cailed  the  Holy  Alliance,  which  was  its 
league  of  nations.  Considering  the  purpose  of  these  lectures,  it  would 
seem  that  Professor  Beazley  has  merely  glanced  at  what  should  have 
been  one  of  his  chief  concerns. 

Mr.  Marvin  follows  with  a  sufficiently  wide-angled  view  of  Inter- 
national Tendencies  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and  Frederick  Whelen, 
in  the  League  in  Being,  contributes  a  succinct  review  of  the  work  of 
the  League  down  to  January,  1921. 

H.  G.  Wells's  chapter  is  called  an  Apology  for  a  World  Utopia, 
and  it  is  such  a  demonstration  of  world  salvation  by  new  construction  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  most  imaginative  Utopian  now  living.  He 
points  out  inevitable  differences  between  American  and  European  out- 
looks upon  world-peace  projects.  The  American  lives  in  a  political  unity 
so  big  that  he  can  go  on  comfortably  for  a  hundred  years  before  he 
begins  to  feel  tight  in  his  political  skin.  European  civilization,  weak- 
ened by  race  hatreds  and  language  difficulties,  cannot  go  on,  "  unless 
the  net  of  boundaries  which  strangles  it  is  dissolved  away".  European 
schools  are  ail  teaching  patriotism  and  nationalism,  and  therefore  are 
"  centres  of  malignant  political  infection  ". 

The  concluding  chapter  by  Eileen  Power  on  the  Teaching  of  History 
and  World  Peace  again  drives  home  Mr.  Wells's  last  point,  but  with 
less  lurid  language.  By  Mr.  Wells's  exciting  plea  the  reader  might  be 
persuaded  that  nowhere  except  in  North  America  has  "the  Evolution 
of  World  Peace  "  even  begun. 

If  these  well-written  essays  are  to  be  judged  in  the  light  of  the 
title  of  the  book,  it  must  be  observed  that  Mr.  Wells  alone  among 
these  authors  seems  to  have  in  mind  the  intimate  relation  between  the 
evolution  of  world  peace  and  the  necessary  unities  of  modern  commerce 
and  finance.  Moreover,  one  chapter  was  needed  to  exhibit  the  sequen- 
tial relations  among  the  modern  precursors  of  the  present  attempt  at 
world  unity — not  so  much  in  theory  as  in  practical  politics — beginning 
with  the  eighteenth-century  Balance  of  Power,  dissolving  into  the  Grand 


284  Reviews  of  Books 

Alliance  against  Napoleon,  succeeded  by  the  Holy  Alliance  and  the 
Concert  of  Europe  with  its  German  Confederation,  which  was  a  league 
of  nations,  and  finally  resolving  itself  into  a  Triple  Alliance  and  Triple 
Entente,  measuring  each  other  behind  Hague  Conferences.  Mr.  Mar- 
vin's chapter  on  modern  international  tendencies  barely  sets  a  foot  on 
earth  anywhere. 

Charles  H.  Levermore. 

Fasti  Triumphales  Populi  Romani.     Editi  ed  illustrati  da  Ettore 
Pais.      [Collezione  di  Testi  e  Monumenti  Romani,  pubblicati  da 
Ettore  Pais  e  da  F.  Stella  Maranca.]     In  two  parts.     (Rome : 
A.  Nardecchia.     1920.     Pp.  clxviii,  325;  326-546.) 
Professor  Pais  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
productive  of   modern  Italian  writers  in  the   field  of   ancient  Roman 
history.    He  has  put  out  in  "book  form  the  results  of  at  least  nine  har- 
vests, he  has  announced  the  immediate  marketing  of  four  more,  and  the 
sturdy   growth   of   yet   another   four.  ■  Nor   do   these   include   the   one 
before  us. 

This  volume  on  the  Triumphal  Fasti  contains  an  historical  intro- 
duction of  168  pages,  followed  by  eighteen  pages  of  the  epigraphical 
text  of  the  Fasti,  307  pages  of  historical  comment,  and  198  pages  of 
appendixes,  corrections,  and  plates. 

Among  the  eleven  appendixes,  three  are  of  particular  importance. 
Appendix  II.  gives  the  measurements  of  the  walls  in  which  the  Fasti 
are  engraved,  with  a  metric  determination  of  the  number  of  lines  of 
lacunae.  Appendix  VII.  (pp.  417-471)  lists  the  amounts  of  booty  in 
gold  and  silver,  both  bullion  and  coin,  brought  to  Rome  by  the  triumpha- 
tors,  and  the  indemnities  levied  on  conquered  nations.  As  the  result  of 
the  second  Punic  War  the  Carthaginians  had  to  pay  Rome  800,000 
pounds  of  silver.  Marcus  Porcius  Cato,  when  he  triumphed  over 
Hither  Spain  in  194  B.C.,  brought  back  1400  pounds  of  gold,  and  over 
600,000  pounds  of  silver.  In  his  triumphs  of  46  B.C.  alone,  Julius 
Caesar  displayed  to  the  people  6500  talents,  and  2622  crowns,  of  gold, 
a  total  weight  of  20,414  pounds.  Appendix  XL  lists  the  sixty-six 
temples  that  were  erected  as  a  direct  result  of  successful  wars. 

The  307  pages  of  historical  comment  constitute  the  best  part  of 
Professor  Pais's  work.  A  test  of  twenty  entries,  by  comparison  with 
previous  publications,  showed  corrections  and  additions  made  with 
scholarly  conservatism,  acumen,  and  care.  The  lines  above  each  entry 
which  give  the  Varronian  and  the  Fasti  dates,  with  their  unchanged 
difference  of  one  year,  might  perhaps  be  considered  redundant. 

It  is,  of  course,  in  the  historical  introduction  that  one  expects  to 
find  the  author  in  his  best  historical  vein,  nor  -is  one  disappointed.  A 
captious  critic  might  say  that  it  is  too  long  or  too  discursive,  but  when 
he  had  finished  reading  it  he  would  be  forced  to  admit  that  there  is 


Klein:  The  Mesta  285 

more  good  and  interesting  material  therein,  concerning  Roman  triumphs, 
than  he  could  find  in  any  other  place. 

Recognition  of  the  insecure  foundation  on  which  rest  some  of  the 
earlier  notices  in  the  Fasti,  is  basic.  The  author  leaves  nothing  to 
be  desired  in  this  respect.  His  treatment  of  the  ceremonies  which  ac- 
companied the  triumphs  is  an  historical  essay  in  itself;  the  sections  on 
the  ins  triumphandi,  supplicationes,  and  iovatio  are  clear  and  convincing; 
his  examination  of  the  names  of  the  triumphators  is  illuminating.  The 
patrician  Cornelii  obtained  25  triumphs,  the  Valerii  16,  the  Aemilii  12, 
the  Claudii  7.  etc.,  while  the  plebeian  families,  except  the  Fulvii  from 
Tusculum  with  11,  and  the  rich  Caecilii  Metelli  with  9,  obtained  rela- 
tively few.  The  tabulation  of  the  triumphs  outside  Italy,  35  over 
Spain,  13  over  Carthage,  11  over  Macedonia,  9  over  Transalpine  Gaul, 
and  the  very  few  over  the  Orient,  shows  clearly  where  Rome  found 
her  severest  military  encounters. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  author  has  not  followed  a  sort  of  in- 
ternational understanding  that  Roman  proper  names  are  to  be  given  in 
Latin  form.  Appio  Cieco,  Cinoscefale,  Azio  (Actium).  Orazio  Coclite 
(Horatius  Codes),  and  Giulio  Cesare  are  good  examples  of  this  un- 
necessary  Italianization. 

Professor  Pais  has  gone  to  quite  too  much  trouble  to  explain  the 
reasons  for  his  edition  of  the  Triumphal  Fasti.  It  is  a  fine  piece  of 
work,  and  will  be  warmly  welcomed. 

Ralph  VanDeman  Magoffin. 

BOOKS    OF    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN    EUROPEAN 
HISTORY 

The  Mesta:  a  Study  in  Spanish  Economic  History,  12^3-1836.  By 
Julius  Klein,  Assistant  Professor  of  Latin  American  History 
and  Economics  in  Harvard  University.  (Cambridge:  Harvard 
University  Press;  London:  Humphrey  Milford.  1920.  Pp.  xi, 
444-     $4-00.) 

This  is  a  doctoral  thesis,  or  an  adaptation  therefrom.  It  should 
be  judged  mainly,  therefore,  with  respect  to  its  contributions  to  knowl- 
edge. Unquestionably,  Doctor  Klein's  volume  meets  the  test.  A  vast 
amount  of  new  material  is  provided,  together  with  fresh  points  of  view 
and  suggestions  for  other  investigations. 

The  Mesta  was  the  organization  which  for  nearly  six  centuries, 
1273  to  1836,  managed  the  Castilian  migratory  sheep  industry.  Hereto- 
fore that  corporation  has  been  charged  with  responsibility  for  many 
of  the  economic  ills  from  which  Spain  has  suffered,  such  as  deforesta- 
tion, the  decline  of  agriculture,  and  depopulation.  Dr.  Klein  points  out 
that  previous  writers  have  depended  upon  the  phraseology  of  laws 
and  the  prejudiced  discussions  of  the  Mesta's  opponents,  while  he  has 


286  Reviews  of  Books 

made  use  of  materials  showing  what  the  actual  administration  was. 
Once  again  it  becomes  clear — a  lesson  that  all  too  few  writers  on 
Hispanic  subjects  have  yet  learned — that  there  is  a  wide  gulf  between 
Hispanic  law  and  Hispanic  practice.  We  learn  that  the  Mesta  was  not 
as  bad  as  it  has  been  painted — though  one  inevitably  concludes  that -it 
was  as  bad  as  it  was  able  to  be.  Its  era  of  greatness,  however,  cov- 
ered only  the  reigns  of  the  Catholic  Kings  and  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
— less  than  a  century.  Before  that  period,  and  afterward,  it  was  not  in 
fact  so  powerful  as  has  been  asserted.  Another  interesting  matter  here 
set  forth  is  the  relation  of  the  Mesta  to  the  development  of  the  Royal 
ideal  of  centralization  and  absolutism,  as  opposed  to  the  many  disinte- 
grating forces  of  Spanish  life.  As  a  rule,  king  and  Mesta  went  hand 
in  hand,  until  Charles  III.  reversed  the  usual  procedure  of  Spanish 
autocrats  by  inflicting  a  death-blow  on  the,  by  that  time,  utterly 
discredited  Mesta. 

The  principal  contribution  of  this  volume  is  in  its  revelation  of 
previously  unused  materials.  The  author  has  citations  to  a  wide 
variety  of  sources,  but  has  depended  primarily  on  the  archive  of  the 
Mesta,  "untouched  by  historians,  for  some  two  hundred  years'',  until 
he  himself  consulted  it  in  Madrid.  This  consists  of  about  six  thousand 
items,  "several  hundred  of  which  are  stout  folio  volumes".  The  docu- 
ments cover  the  years  1371  to  1836,  but  are  especially  numerous  for 
the  sixteenth  century,  which  is  the  period  most  adequately  treated  by 
Dr.  Klein.  This  archive,  together  with  several  other  items  in  the 
author's  bibliography,  should  prove  to  be  a  veritable  treasure-house 
for  the  study  of  Spanish  agrarian  history. 

In  handling  materials,  and  in  matters  of  form  and  style,  this  vol- 
ume is  like  others  of  its  class.  It  is  arranged  in  five  successive  chro- 
nologies: organization  of  the  Mesta;  the  story  of  its  most  notable 
judicial  officer,  the  alcalde  cntregador;  local  taxation;  royal  taxation; 
and  pasturage.  As  a  result,  much  is  half-told  when  first  encountered, 
and  there  are  frequent  repetitions.  The  same  faults  of  construction 
appear  in  the  organization  of  chapters  as  in  the  book  as  a  whole.  There 
is  something  in  the  unconscious  hit  of  one  of  the  reviewer's  pupils  who 
described  this  volume  as  "an  exhausting  treatise". 

Some  criticism  may  be  made  on  other  accounts.  Titles  of  books  in 
Spanish  are  entered  in  haphazard  fashion,  with  no  discoverable  rule 
for  the  use  of  capitals  or  lower  case.  Scores  of  accents  are  lacking, 
and  some  at  least  {e.g.,  pp.  303,  310,  420)  are  improperly  present.  For 
example,  on  page  81,  of  eight  proper  names  entitled  to  an  accent  three 
are  accented  and  five  are  not.  Yet  two  of  the  former  ("Lopez"  and 
"Fernandez")  are  used  elsewhere  without  accent  {e.g.,  pp.  213.  215. 
264),  and  at  least  one  of  the  latter  ("Gomez")  occasional;)'  is  {e.g., 
pp.  89,  114)  or  is  not  {e.g.,  pp.  200.  215)  accented.  Several  mis- 
spellings (pp.  19,  55.  132.  155,  180,  226)  and  typographical  errors  (pp. 
35,  78,  108,  189,  279,  293.  413)   were  not  caught  in  proof-reading. 


Pieris:  Ceylon  and  the  Portuguese  287 

Most  of  the  above-mentioned  defects  are  nothing  more  than  the 
inseparable  accompaniment  of  a  detailed  piece  of  research.  Pre- 
sumably, they  will  keep  this  book  from  being  read  by  the  general 
public  or  indeed  by  any  who  are  not  fairly  well  grounded  in  Spanish 
history.  For  the  investigator  in  kindred  fields,  however,  and  for  the 
lecturer  in  Spanish  history,  Dr.  Klein's  volume  is  invaluable. 

Charles  E.  Chapman. 

Ceylon  and  the  Portuguese,  7505-/655.  By  P.  E.  Pieris,  Litt.D., 
assisted  by  R.  B.  Naish,  B.A.  (Tellippalai :  American  Ceylon 
Mission  Press.  1920.  Pp.  x,  290,  vii.  Rs.  3.50.) 
This  work  retells  in  more  popular  form  the  story  already  given  to 
the  public  in  the  author's  learned  volumes  on  Ceylon,  that  public 
having  been  primarily  the  Ceylonese.  It  was  a  laudable  thought  to 
present  the  original  material  in  a  shape  more  intelligible  to  the  English 
reader,  omitting  the  minuteness  of  detail  which  would  not  interest  the  gen- 
eral public.  The  present  volume,  then,  contains  the  gist  of  the  earlier 
larger  one,  and  it  may  be  said  at  once  that  it  is  a  very  readable  and 
reliable  account  of  the  activities  of  the  Portuguese  for  the  century  and 
a  half  during  which  they  were  in  Ceylon.  It  is  preceded  by  a  short 
sketch  of  the  history  of  that  fair  but  unfortunate  isle  from  the  time 
when  Rama  invaded  it,  as  related  in  the  Iliad  of  Ind-a,  to  that  of  the 
embassy  to  Rome,  the  repression  of  heresy  by  royal  decree  in  the  third 
century  (the  Buddhists  of  history  are  not  so  tolerant  as  those  of  fic- 
tion), and  the  invasions  from  the  continent,  as  late  as  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury   (they  had  begun  a  thousand  years  before). 

Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  in  a  vessel  of  120  tons  to  exploit  India  in 
1498  and  seven  years  later  the  first  "  Viceroy  of  India  "  set  out  from 
the  Tagus  and  with  incredible  speed  got  possession  of  Singhalese  trade 
and  of  the  country  as  well,  through  the  simple  expedient  of  sending 
de  Sousa  ashore  to  tell  the  king  that  the  Portuguese  had  come  to  pro- 
tect them  from  their  enemies  and  would  like  to  be  well  paid  for  it.  The 
king  of  Ceylon  was  grateful  and  promised  the  strangers  the  equivalent 
of  seventy  thousand  kilos  of  cinnamon  a  year  on  condition  that  they 
should  guard  his  coasts  from  all  external  enemies.  Although  the 
Hindus  have  fables  touching  on  the  eager  desire  of  carnivora  to  per- 
suade herbivora  to  be  protected  by  friendly  claw  and  fang,  the  Singha- 
lese welcomed  their  guardian  guests  and  even  permitted  them  to  erect 
a  stone  monument  to  commemorate  the  occasion,  which  still  menda- 
ciously states  that  the  Portuguese  arrived  in  1501  (instead  of  Nov., 
1505).  However,  busied  with  other  matters,  the  invaders  for  some 
time  left  the  Singhalese  to  themselves,  and  when  they  returned  they 
found  the  island  practically  under  Moorish  influence.  The  inhabitants, 
roused  by  these  new  protectors,  attacked  the  Portuguese,  who  promptly 
drove  off  the  rabble  and  "  erected  a  small  fort  ".     Negotiations  were 

AM.   HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.— 20. 


2  88  Reviews  of  Books 

resumed;  to  the  cinnamon,  the  king  added  an  annual  allowance  of 
rubies  and  elephants  for  defending  his  coasts.  The  rest  was  not  easy 
but  inevitable.  The  Portuguese  became  unpopular  (propagation  of 
their  religion  helped  at  first  to  make  them  so),  were  attacked,  used 
firearms  effectively,  got  the  upper  hand,  and  "  friendly  relations  were 
reestablished".  By  taking  sides  in  native  quarrels,  the  Portuguese 
became  holders  of  the  balance  of  power  between  native  rivals,  and 
Francis  Xavier  arrived  in  1542  to  complete  their  influence.  Whole 
villages  were  baptized  daily  and,  as  converts  were  made  exempt  from 
tribute,  the  true  faith  waxed  mightily.  No  scruple  of  honor  interfered 
with  the  breaking  of  promises  made  to  native  authorities;  avarice  and 
lust  turned  Portuguese  gentlemen  into  procurers  and  callous  spectators 
of  suffering.  So  the  sad  story  goes  on,  till  at  last  the  Hollanders  ousted 
the  Portuguese  in  1658. 

Customs  and  usages  are  picturesquely  if  adventitiously  described  in 
this  admirable  little  history  and  many  facts  not  generally  known  are 
noted:  for  example,  that  though  the  Buddhists  ignore  caste,  only  the 
highest-caste  men  could  become  priests,  and  that  serpents  and  cattle  are 
divided  into  castes.  The  "caste  of  a  cobra"  exceeds  even  Brahmanical 
ideas. 

E.  Washburn  Hopkins. 


La  Reforme  en  Italic.     Par  E.  Rodocanachi.     Deuxieme  Partie. 

(Paris:  Picard.     192 1.     10  fr.) 

In  Count  Rodocanachi's  second  volume,  one  looks  naturally  to  see 
how  he  has  fulfilled  the  promise  of  the  first  (which  was  "to  set  forth 
the  various  reasons  which  brought  about  the  disappearance  of  Protes- 
tantism in  Italy"),  and  how,  having  steered  away  from  a  biographical 
method,  he  is  going  to  avoid  the  geographical  in  a  country  where  the 
movement  can  hardly  be  made  to  seem  homogeneous.  He  is  still  avoid- 
ing familiar  phrases  which  indicate  a  confessional  bent,  for  he  has  not 
called  this  second  part  the  "  Counter-Reform ".  though  that  would  be 
the  obvious  title,  treating  as  it  does  the  condemnation  at  the  Council  of 
Trent  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  and  the  repression  of 
the  revolt  in  the  Church  based  on  that  doctrine,  together  with  the  actu- 
ation of  a  programme  of  reform  in  discipline,  which,  according  to  the 
preface  of  the  author  in  the  first  part,  accomplished  the  real  purpose 
of  the  reformers  in  Italy.  Unluckily  the  author  has  not  distinguished 
between  what  may  be  called  the  indigenous  reform,  which  was  indeed 
rather  on  discipline  than  on  dogmas,  and  the  influence  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Calvinistic  movements,  which,  especially  in  the  north,  gave  the  re- 
form in  Italy  a  different  character,  one  more  particularly  doctrinal ; 
arid  the  first  part,  devoted  to  the  doctrinal  reform,  seems  to  give  the 
he  to  the  thesis  laid  down  in  the  preface. 

In  this  second  part,  the  attempt  is  made  to  follow  a  strictly  chrono- 


Rodocanachi:  La  Reforme  en  Italic  2S9 

logical  order,  and  to  set  forth,  under  the  reigns  of  the  appropriate 
popes,  the  promised  causes  of  the  disappearance  of  Protestantism  in 
Italy.  It  is  then  upon  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Jesuits,  the  Inquisition, 
and  the  Index,  the  constructive  and  the  destructive  agencies  of  the 
Counter-Reform,  that  we  shall  expect  attention  to  be  directed.  And 
on  all  these  subjects,  the  welcome  resume  of  the  most  recent  works 
would  be  beyond  criticism  were  not  the  chronological  method  either 
abandoned  as  soon  as  adopted,  or  else  maintained  with  confusing 
results. 

There  is  no  attempt  to  relate  the  history  of  the  Reform  to  the 
political  currents  of  the  time,  nor  to  give  coherence  to  the  confusion 
of  details.  One  regrets  that  the  book  could  not  have  been  in  the  form 
of  a  dictionary,  something  which  would  have  made  available  the  im- 
mense amount  of  material  actually  embodied  in  it.  There  is  but  one 
attempt  at  generalization  in  this  second  part,  the  reflective  pages  316- 
320  on  the  "  declin  du  mouvement  protestant ". 

Only  the  Reformation  in  Venice  and  that  in  Piedmont,  the  two  parts 
of  Italy  which  held  out  against  Spain  and  the  pope  (except  when  politics 
were  too  strong  for  them),  have  been  treated  more  at  length,  and  out- 
side of  the  chronological  frame.  Here  the  Reformation  had  a  very 
different  character.  "  II  y  a  une  grande  analogie  entre  1'attitude  du 
gouvernement  venitien  et  celle  du  gouvernement  sarde  \_sic\."  And 
in  fact  Jalla,  the  historian  of  the  Waldensians,  pointed  out  that  in 
Piedmont  the  inquisitors  must  be  assisted  by  a  lay  judge — who  was  not 
until  1580  replaced  by  a  representative  of  the  bishop.  And  even  after 
the  French  occupation  in  1536,  although  the  theory  was  more  rigorous 
towards  the  Protestants,  the  practice  was  indulgent  until  the  accession 
of  Henry  II.  It  is  well  known  that  at  Venice  was  maintained  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Tre  Savi  dell'  Eresia  (p.  503),  three  laymen  appointed 
by  the  state  to  be  present  at  all  heresy  trials. 

The  pages  on  the  Jesuits  and  the  Index  are,  with  the  account  of 
the  history  and  machinery  of  the  Holy  Office,  a  compendium  of  much 
value  on  themes  which  Protestants  slur  or  fail  to  treat  with  equa- 
nimity. The  author  has  used  not  merely  Tacchi-Venturi  and  Buschbell, 
the  latest  historians  of  the  subjects,  but  the  Vatican  archives.  His 
narrative  is  quite  impartial,  indeed  colorless.  Nowhere  is  he  betrayed 
into  any  show  of  feeling,  except  when,  speaking  of  the  persecution 
of  the  Waldensians  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  he  reminds  us,  by  way 
of  extenuation  of  an  extermination  unexampled  elsewhere  in  Italy,  that 
the  carnage  took  place  "  en  un  pays  soumis  a  la  domination  espagnole 
et  qu'on  operait  ainsi  dans  le  royaume  de  Philippe  II."   (p.  255). 

Any  history  of  the  Reform  must  fall  into  two  divisions,  the  Protes- 
tant and  the  Catholic  Reform,  and  any  history  of  the  Catholic  Reform 
must  distinguish  between  the  middle  men  and  women  like  Contarini  and 
Pole  and  Giulia  Gonzaga  and  Vittoria  Colonna,  and  the  uncompromising 


290  Reviews  of  Books 

advocates  of  repression  like  Carafa  (Paul  IV.),  Ghisleri  (Pius  V.), 
and  Delia  Casa,  authors  of  the  Inquisition  and  the  Index.  The  former, 
and  not  the  latter,  were  those  who  steadied  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
met  the  criticisms  on  discipline,  if  not  on  dogma,  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  ably  assisted  by  the  exponents  of  Christian  piety  as  it  had 
been  known  in  an  age  long  past,  Theatines,  Barnabites,  Capucins, 
Jesuits.  Protestant  historians  of  the  Reform  have  emphasized  the 
agents  of  repression  (in  which  they  have  included  the  Jesuits)  and 
Catholic  historians  the  moderate  men  and  the  Council  of  Trent,  which 
crowned  the  work  of  these,  however  short  it  came  of  the  ideas  of  Con- 
tarini  and  of  Morone  himself,  leading  figure  there.  Rodocanachi  does 
not  even  let  the  word  "Catholic  Reform",  or  "Counter-Reform",  pass 
his  lips  (or  pen),  though  evidently,  thinking  of  the  Reform  which  was 
based  on  the  controversy  over  Justification  (so  far  as  it  was  based 
on  dogma  at  all),  he  has  the  conception  of  a  Counter-Reform,  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  as  crowning  the  work  of  Contarini  rather  than  of 
St.  Francis.  As  his  first  part  began  with  the  reform  in  the  spirit  of 
Luther,  so  his  second  part  with  the  response  by  Leo  X.  and  his  first 
successors,  thus  succeeding  Philippson  as  the  first  part  succeeded 
McCrie.  The  coherence  that  would  have  been  given  the  first  part  by 
showing  the  relation  of  the  reform  programme  in  Italy  to  Valdes,  who 
is  acknowledged  to  be  the  one  whose  thought  was  of  greatest  influence, 
is  aimed  at  in  the  second  part  by  the  chronological  method  already 
referred  to.  The  success  is  as  little  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other. 
Some  typographical  errors  must  be  due  to  the  calligraphy  of  the 
author:  thus  "  Gamfi  "  for  Garufi  (p.  173,  n.  1);  "  Gugliolono  Gratta- 
roli  "  for  Guglielmo  Grataroli  (p.  514);  "Nous"  for  Nores  (p.  123,  n. 
1).  The  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  volume  attests  a  wide  ac- 
quaintance with  the  printed  literature  of  the  subject — there  is  no  ref- 
erence to  archive  material ;  and  that  acquaintance  appears  almost  ex- 
haustive when  it  is  seen  that  a  host  of  monographs  and  articles  cited  in 
the  text  are  not  listed  in  the  bibliography. 

F.    C.    Church. 

The  History  of  English  Parliamentary  Privilege.  By  Carl  'Wittke, 
Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  American  History  in  the  Ohio 
State  University.  [Ohio  State  University  Studies,  Contributions 
in  History  and  Political  Science,  no.  6.]  (Columbus:  the  Uni- 
versity.    1921.     Pp.  212.) 

Parliamentary  privilege  bulks  large  in  the  history  of  the  English 
Parliament,  and  at  times  it  plays  a  leading  role  on  the  wider  stage  of 
English  constitutional  history.  All  historians  of  the  constitution  have 
something  to  say  of  the  various  privileges  that  have  been  exercised  by 
the  houses  of  Parliament,  and  the  authors  of  treatises  on  parliamentary 
practice   and  procedure  describe   them   in   some  detail.     Little   attention 


Wittke:  English  Parliamentary  Privilege         291 

has  been  paid,  however,  to  the  legal  conceptions  underlying-  the  claims 
of  privilege.  To  explain  these  conceptions,  to  interpret  basic  principles, 
is  the  aim  of  the  author  of  the  present  monograph,  and  it  should  be  said 
at  once  that  he  has  done  a  scholarly  and  valuable  piece  of  work.  His 
interest  in  the  subject  was  aroused  by  the  brief  discussion  of  parlia- 
mentary privilege  in  Professor  Mcllwain's  The  High  Court  of  Parlia- 
ment and  its  Supremacy,  and  his  study  was  begun  in  Professor  Mcll- 
wain's seminar  in  the  history  of  English  legal  institutions  at  Harvard. 

Professor  Wittke  dissents  strongly  from  the  view  expressed  by 
Professor  Josef  Redlich  in  his  Procedure  of  the  House  of  Commons 
that  the  judicial  claims  of  the  Commons  in  modern  times  were  in  the 
nature  of  a  cloak  for  their  political  ambitions.  For  the  origin  of 
parliamentary  privilege  we  must  go  back,  he  thinks,  to  the  time  when 
there  were  several  separate  bodies  of  law  in  England,  the  lex  forestae 
and  the  lex  mercatoria,  for  example,  each  declared  and  enforced  by 
its  own  appropriate  courts.  One  of  these  "  laws  "  was  that  which  Coke 
called  lex  et  consuctudo  parliamcnti,  the  law  peculiar  to  the  highest 
court  in  the  realm,  the  High  Court  of  Parliament,  supposed  to  be  known 
only  to  parliament  men  and  to  be  declared  by  them  exclusively.  It 
was  from  this  lex  parliamenti  that  each  house  of  Parliament  claimed  to 
derive  its  privileges.  For  centuries  the  conception  prevailed  that  this 
law  was  distinct  from,  and  superior  to,  the  law  of  the  land,  and  that 
what  either  house  of  Parliament  did  under  it  could  not  be  questioned 
by  any  inferior  court. 

This  doctrine  has  at  times  served  the  cause  of  popular  freedom,  but 
it  was  easily  invoked  to  justify  extensions  of  parliamentary  privilege 
that  were  as  serious  a  menace  to  individual  liberty  as  was  the  doctrine 
of  a  lex  prcrogativae  above  the  common  law.  The  privilege  of  freedom 
from  arrest  and  molestation  was  no  doubt  essential  to  the  authority  and 
dignity  of  the  House  of  Commons,  but  the  extension  of  the  privilege 
to  members'  servants  and  estates  became  a  source  of  grave  injustice. 
It  is  difficult  to  regard  a's  anything  other  than  a  public  nuisance  a 
privilege  by  virtue  of  which  persons  found  trespassing  on  the  lands  of 
members  of  Parliament  were  punished  by  the  House  of  Commons  for 
breach  of  privilege  and  removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  common- 
law  courts.  In  days  when  kings  were  despotic  and  judges  servile  it 
may  have  been  necessary  in  the  interest  of  constitutional  liberty  for 
the  House  to  determine  cases  of  disputed  elections,  but  this  privilege 
wears  a  different  aspect  when  it  comes  to  be  exercised  by  the  party  in 
control  of  the  House  for  partizan  purposes. 

Professor  Wittke's  main  theme  is  the  relation  of  parliamentary  privi- 
lege to  the  law  of  the  land,  and  the  most  original  and  valuable  chap- 
ters in  his  monograph  are  those  that  deal  with  the  conflict  between 
lex  parliamcnti  and  lex  tcrrac.  His  analysis  of  cases  involving  privi- 
lege,  extending   from  the   Middle   Ages   to   the   nineteenth   centurv,   re- 


292  Reviews  of  Books 

veals  the  persistence,  almost  to  our  own  time,  of  the  idea  of  a  separate 
law  of  Parliament,  superior  to  the  law  of  the  land.  The  newer  view  of 
lex  parliament!,  which  regards  it  as  a  part  of  lex  tcrrae  and  brings 
questions  of  parliamentary  privilege  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
common-law  courts,  was  expressed  by  Chief  Justice  Holt  in  Regina  v. 
Paty  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago,  but  it  had  to  wait  for  its 
triumph  till  the  great  case  of  Stockdale  v.  Hansard.  Even  as  late  as 
the  Bradlaugh  incident,  forty  years  ago.  echoes  of  the  old  doctrine  were 
heard  in  the  course  of  debates  in  the  House  of  Commons.  As  Profes- 
sor Pollard  has  observed,  parliamentary  privilege  was  the  last  of  the 
medieval  liberties  to  be  reduced  by  the  common  law. 

In  the  organization  of  his  material  the  author  has  been  guided  by 
his  controlling  interest.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  but  cases  of  par- 
liamentary privilege  which  illustrate  the  conflict  between  the  law  of 
Parliament  and  the  law  of  the  land  also  exemplify  the  development  of 
specific  privileges.  It  would  therefore  have  been  desirable  had  the 
author,  in  the  chapter  in  which  he  deals  with  the  privileges  of  Parlia- 
ment in  general,  referred  more  frequently  to  cases  which  he  discusses  in 
later  chapters.  There  are  a  few  errors  of  fact  in  the  monograph,  but 
they  do  not  seriously  impair  its  value  as  a  contribution  to  English  legal 
and  constitutional   history. 

R.  L.  Schuyler. 

Commons  Debates  for  1629,  critically  edited,  and  an  Introduction 
dealing  with  Parliamentary  Sources  for  the  Early  Stuarts.  Edited 
by  Wallace  Notestein,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  the 
University  of  Minnesota,1  and  Frances  Helen  Relf,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  History  in  Lake  Erie  College.  [Research  Publica- 
tions of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  Studies  in  the  Social  Sci- 
ences, no.  10.]  (Minneapolis:  the  University.  1921.  Pp.  lxvii, 
304.     $4.00.) 

This  is  a  most  welcome  piece  of  pioneer  work,  a  first  step,  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  in  hastening  the  preparation  of  a  new  Parliamentary  His- 
tory, the  need  for  which  the  editors  not  only  reiterate  but  convincingly 
demonstrate.  There  exist  masses  of  imprinted  material  absolutely 
essential  for  a  true  understanding  of  the  course  of  events.  The  seem- 
ingly official  character  of  the  Parliamentary  History  and  the  Journals 
has  in  the  past  misled  the  unwary,  like  a  certain  European  official  who, 
because  he  wore  a  uniform,  succeeded  in  pressing  an  occasional  counter- 
feit coin  in  change  upon  unsuspecting  travellers.  For  the  short  but 
momentous  session  of  1629  Professors  Notestein  and  Relf  "  have  tried  to 
collect  in  one  place  al!  the  yet  imprinted  male-rials"  bearing  on  the 
proceedings  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

In   an    introduction   of   some   fifty  ample   pages   they   have   told   us 
1  Now  of  Cornell  University. 


Notestein  and  Rclf:  Commons  Debates,  1629      293 

much  about  the  sources  for  1629.  including  the  Journals,  which  they 
have  not  undertaken  to  reprint.  By  studying  the  manuscripts  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  House  of  Commons  they  have  shown  that  there 
are  two  sources  for  the  printed  version — the  "Book  of  Notes"  or  jot- 
tings made  during  the  actual  session,  written  in  a  hurried,  scrawling 
hand,  with  many  abbreviations,  omissions,  subsequent  alterations,  and 
corrections,  and  the  "  Clerk's  Book  ",  i.e.,  "  the  finished  perfected  record  ". 
For  many  sessions,  certainly  for  1629,  the  latter  or  authorized  version 
has  either  been  lost  or  was  never  completed,  so  that  what  we  now  have 
in  print  was  to  some  extent  derived  from  rough  notes  no  more  reliable 
than  other  records,  such  as  those  from  the  practised  hand  of  Sir 
Edward  Nicholas. 

The  first  supplement  to  the  Journals  and  the  Parliamentary  History 
which  the  editors  have  provided  is  a  recension  of  the  True  Relation. 
Although  this  account  has  been  reprinted  many  times  since  its  original 
publication  in  1641,  the  present  aim  has  been  to  furnish  a  standard 
text,  made  up  from  the  printed  versions,  which  vary  more  or  less  from 
one  another,  and  from  manuscript  accounts,  forty-eight  of  which  have 
been  located.  Moreover,  they  have  sought  to  determine  how  the  Re- 
lation was  composed  and  why  the  variations  occur.  Contrary  to  the 
view  of  John  Bruce  that  all  are  derived  from  a  common  original  and 
that  diversities  are  due  to  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  copyists,  they 
contend,  with  effective  evidence,  that  what  we  now  have  are  a  number 
of  distinct  compilations,  made  at  different  times  by  different  hands  from 
contemporary  news-letters  and  separates.  These  latter  were  sometimes 
carefully  prepared  accounts  by  speakers  themselves  who,  like  our 
modern  legisators.  had  more  than  one  motive  for  getting  into  print; 
but  more  often,  like  the  matter  for  the  news-letters,  they  were  obtained 
by  the  stationers  in  devious  and  indirect  ways.  With  such  materials 
to  work  upon,  even  the  reconstruction  of  the  True' Relation  which  the 
present  editors  have  presented  is  bound  to  be  somewhat  conjectural, 
but  it  is  far  more  coherent  and  reliable  than  any  previous  edition,  and 
variant  readings  have  been  provided  in  foot-notes.  Obviously  we  have 
got  a  long  way  from  good  old  D'Ewes  who,  as  a  recent  writer  has 
pointed  out,  did  not  hesitate  to  make  sense  where  that  was  lacking  or 
to  frame  fragmentary  notes  into  a  readable  narrative. 

Further  to  aid  the  student  of  the  period  the  editors  have  printed 
the  diaries  of  Sir  Edward  Nicholas  and  Sir  Richard  Grosvenor.  The 
latter  they  properly  regard  as  the  more  valuable  contribution  since  it 
has  never  been  used  by  any  writer  in  print,  while  Gardiner  employed 
the  former  to  much  advantage  in  his  valuable  chapter  on  the  Parliament 
of  1629.  Some  letters  of  Nethersole,  and  an  account  of  the  dramatic 
sitting  of  March  2,  complete  the  volume.  Professors  Notestein  and 
Relf  have  done  a  vast  amount  of  intelligent  research,  the  difficulties 
of  which  will  be  especially  appreciated  by  those  who  have  struggled 


294  Reviews  of  Books 

with  the  crabbed  handwriting  of  the  period,  and  the  further  contribu- 
tions which  they  promise  will  be  awaited  with  much  interest.  There  is 
little  to  criticize  adversely.  It  might  have  been  well  to  point  out  that 
debates  ceased  to  be  reported  in  the  Journals  after  1629,  and  to  indicate 
more  clearly  that  Nethersole's  letters  were  addressed  to  Elizabeth, 
sister  of  Charles  I.,  though,  since  the  work  will  be  used  chiefly  by 
specialists,  these  are  omissions  of  minor  importance. 

Arthur  Lyon  Cross. 

Histoire  dc  Bclgiquc.     Par  H.  Pirenne,  Professeur  a  l'Universite 
de  Gand.     Tome  V.     La  fin  du  Regime  Espagnol,  le  Regime 
Autrichicn,  la  Revolution  Brabangonne  ct  la  Revolution  Liegeoise. 
(Brussels:  Henri  Lamertin.    1921.    Pp.  xiii,  5S4.) 
Somewhat  over  twenty  years  ago  appeared  a  book  which,  in  the 
judgment  of  a  contemporary  reviewer.  Paul  Fredericq,  longtime  friend 
and   colleague   of   the   author,   opened    a   new   era   in    Belgian   histori- 
ography— the    first   volume    of    the    work    which    has    now    reached    its 
fifth,   a   work   which  when  completed   will   not   only   be   universally  ac- 
cepted as  the  standard  history  of  its  nation,  but  will  be  reckoned  among 
the  most  substantial  and  enduring  products  of  historical  scholarship  in 
its    generation.      Brilliant    perhaps    it    is    not,    though    not    wanting    in 
graphic  touches;   not   "thrilling"   or   "gripping",   after  the  manner  of 
the  "best  sellers"  in  universal  history;  but  solid  and  scientific;  severely 
exact,  and  impregnably  fortified  by  documents;  direct,  lucid,  sincere; 
disdaining   tricks   of    rhetoric,   and   carrying   conviction   by   the   weight 
of  its  learning  and  the  soundness  of  its  judgment;  a  veritable  monu- 
ment  of   erudition;   the   ripe   fruit   of   a   lifetime   of   study. 

Before  Pirenne,  the  history  of  Belgium  had  been  treated  in  a 
rather  desultory  and  fragmentary  manner.  It  is  Pirenne's  peculiar 
merit  to  have  divined  in  that  history  a  unifying  principle  and  to  have 
demonstrated  its  continuity.  If  he  may  be  said  to  have  propounded  a 
thesis  it  is  this,  that,  however  recent  may  be  the  attainment  of  inde- 
pendent statehood,  there  has  existed  among  the  people  of  the  Pays-Bas. 
certainly  from  Burgundian  times  if  not  longer,  a  consciousness  of 
solidarity  which  in  its  essence  is  nothing  less  than  the  sentiment  of 
nationalism.  Dormant  it  might  seem  to  be  at  times,  and  at  times  was; 
but  only  dormant,  as  a  Philip  and  a  Joseph  discovered,  to  their  dis- 
comfiture. Denied  and  repressed  it  might  be,  by  Spaniard.  Austrian. 
Frenchman,  and  Dutchman,  in  turn;  yet  it  was  not  extinguished,  nor 
could  it  be.  It  persisted  and  revived;  and  showed  itself  never  more 
heroic  than  when  threatened.  "  Nous  nous  sommes  surtout  scntis  freres 
aux  epoques  de  crise,  aux  moments  oil  le  salut  dependait  de  Feffort  et 
du  sacrifice  librcment  consentis ",  says  the  historian  (p.  xii).  and  his- 
tory affirms  the  judgment.  Let  the  latest  oppressor  bear  witness,  lie 
who  contemptuously  declared  that  there  was  "no  Belgian  nation,  only  a 


Pirenne:  Histoire  de  Belgique  295 

political  abstraction  lacking  the  foundations  of  national  unity ",  only 
"  a  diplomatic  makeshift,  vain  and  mischievous  ".  "  Ce  que  la  recherche 
patiente  avait  decouvert  dans  le  passe,  le  present  en  demontrait  la 
justesse",  retorts  the  historian  (p.  xi).  Let  the  German  refute  the 
assertion. 

But  the  vehemence  of  the  reviewer  comports  ill  with  the  self- 
restraint  of  the  author.  For  the  author  has  written,  as  he  resolved  to 
write,  "sine  ira  et  studio,  sans  colere  et  sans  prevention",  free  "  de 
toute  passion  qui  ne  fut  pas  celle  de  la  verite  "  (pp.  vii-viii).  Not  even 
deportation  and  imprisonment  (for  both  Pirenne  and  Fredericq  were 
deported  for  their  resistance  to  the  transformation  of  the  University 
of  Ghent  into  a  Flemish  university)  ;  not  even  the  death  of  a  gallant 
son  on  the  field  of  honor,  could  swerve  him  from  his  lofty  purpose.  In 
all  his  pages  there  is  not  a  word  of  reviling,  not  even  a  trace  of  bit- 
terness. Throughout,  the  same  "  placidite  souveraine "  that  Fredericq 
noted  in  another  work,  produced  under  happier  auspices ;  throughout, 
an  imperturbable  judicial  calm — a  more  crushing  rebuke  to  the  op- 
pressor than  the  most  virulent  polemic.  One  scarcely  knows  which , 
the  more  to  admire,  the  poise  of  the  scholar,  or  the  magnanimity  of  the 
man. 

Perhaps  the  finest  portions  of  the  volume  are  the  broad  survey  of 
social  and  intellectual  conditions,  the  portrait  of  Charles  of  Lorraine, 
the  characterization  of  Joseph  II.,  and  the  chapters  on  the  Braban- 
qonne  Revolution.  Far  from  heroic  were  the  years  between  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  and  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  This  might  be 
said  of  the  most  of  Europe  during  that  century  and  a  half.  But  for 
Belgium  in  particular  they  were  years  of  political  inaction,  intellectual 
torpor,  and  cultural  stagnation.  One  looks  in  vain  for  great  names 
and  great  achievements  in  art  or  science  or  letters — nothing  original, 
nothing  vital.  Belgium  seemed  to  be  untouched  by  the  currents  of 
thought  moving  in  Germany  and  France  and  England.  The  passing 
of  the  Spaniard  and  the  coming  of  the  Austrian  made  no  change.  "  Au 
lieu  d'une  infante  ou  d'un  infant  une  archiduchesse  resida  au  palais 
de  Bruxelles.  A  une  cour  espagnole  succeda  une  cour  allemande,  et  ce 
fut  tout"'  (p.  169).  Even  economic  life  lacked  the  oldtime  vigor, 
until,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  received  a  fresh 
impetus  from  the  ministers  of  Maria  Theresa.  The  last  years  of  the 
"  sweet  and  ancient  rule  of  the  House  of  Austria "  were  years  of 
general  prosperity  and  contentment,  placid,  monotonous,  dull.  Then 
came  Joseph  the  Enlightened,  and  an  awakening  sudden  and  rude.  To 
the  rule  of  indulgence  succeeded  the  rule  of  efficiency.  Innovations  and 
reforms  followed  thick  and  fast,  until  an  outraged  people  was  goaded 
to  revolt.  It  was  the  most  paradoxical  of  revolutions — a  rising  against 
reform,  a  "  conflict  between  an  enlightened  sovereign  and  a  backward 
people    faithful    to    an    archaic    constitution"    (pp.    418-419).      Even    a 


296  Reviews  of  Books 

representative  system  coming  from  a  Joseph  II.  was  rejected  as  an 
instrument  of  despotism  and  a  violation  of  the  ancient  liberties !  The 
annulment  of  the  Joyeuse  Entree  was  the  stroke  that  severed  the  bond 
between  Belgium  and  the  House  of  Austria. 

The  rest  is  too  well  known  to  require  repeating — the  death  of 
Joseph,  defeated  and  chagrined;  the  conciliatory  concessions  of  Leo- 
pold; Valmy  and  Jemappes;  the  approach  of  Dumouriez;  and  the 
swallowing  up  of  Belgium  by  the  revolutionary  flood  that  swept  over 
the  frontiers  from  France.  It  is  a  vivid  picture,  drawn  by  a  sure 
and  masterly  hand.  Space  does  not  permit  of  extended  or  minute 
criticism.  But  one  detail  in  particular  is  certain  to  arrest  the  attention 
of  the  American- — the  formation  of  the  United  States  of  Belgium 
(January  11,  1790),  a  federative  state,  in  which  each  province  retained 
its  sovereignty,  but  delegated  the  exercise  of  it,  in  matters  touching 
the  common  interest,  to  a  sovereign  congress,  composed  of  the  same 
persons  as  the  Estates-General,  and  renewable  every  three  years. 

Nul  doute  que  Ton  ait  pris  pour  modele  en  ceci  les  fitats-Unis 
d'Amerique.  .  .  .  Mais  on  ne  s'inspire  de  leur  exemple  que  dans  la 
lettre  et  non  dans  l'esprit.  La  constitution  americaine,  dominee  par  la 
declaration  des  droits,  a  fonde  la  premiere  democratie  moderne.  Celle 
des  fitats-Belgiques,  au  contraire,  orientee  vers  la  passe,  n'accorde  de 
droits  qu'aux  ordres  privilegies.  .  .  .  Entre  elle  et  la  constitution 
americaine  rien  n'est  commun  que  les  apparences   (p.  479)- 

Theodore    Collier. 

The  English  Factories  in  India,  1655-1660.  By  William  Foster. 
CLE.  [Published  under  the  patronage  of  His  Majesty's  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  India.]  (Oxford:  Clarendon  Press.  1921. 
Pp.  7,  440.  16s.) 
Early  Travels  in  India,  1583-1619.  Edited  by  William  Foster, 
CLE.  (London  and  New  York:  Oxford  University  Press. 
1921.     Pp.  xiv,  351.     12s.  6d.) 

When,  some  fifteen  years  ago,  Mr.  Wiiliam  Foster  published  the 
first  volume  of  the  calendar  of  documents  in  the  India  Office  under 
the  title  of  The  English  Factories  in  India,  continuing  the  work 
begun  in  the  publication  of  Letters  to  the  East  India  Company  from 
its  Servants  in  the  East,  a  new  era  opened  in  the  historiography  of 
British  expansion  in  India.  Thanks  to  these  two  series  it  became 
possible  to  discover  and  to  narrate  the  facts  of  that  extraordinary 
movement,  as  it  had  not  been  before.  For  while  it  is  true  that  the 
labors  of  Bruce  and  his  successors  had  done  much  to  illumine  the 
darkness  of  Indian  history,  it  was  not  until  the  documents  in  the  case 
were  available  that  it  was  possible  for  scholars  to  unravel  the  tangled 
threads  of  the  Company's  history  in  the  first  years  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

The  Letters  covered  the  period   from   1602  to   1617,   the   first  nine 


Foster:  English  Factories  in  India  297 

volumes  of  the  Calendars  the  period  from  1616  to  1655.  The  present 
volume  of  calendars  includes  the  years  from  1655  to  1660.  But  with 
it  the  plan  somewhat  changes;  for  this  tenth  volume  is  not,  like  its 
predecessors,  a  calendar.  It  approaches  more  nearly  to  a  history,  for 
it  "extracts  merely  those  passages  which  seemed  to  merit  preservation, 
and  to  connect  them  by  a  narrative  which  would  at  the  same  time  em- 
body the  information  obtained  from  other  documents  which  it  was  not 
thought  necessary  to  quote  in  full  ". 

Such  a  change  in  plan,  forced  upon  Mr.  Foster  by  the  increasing 
number  of  documents,  has,  it  is  evident,  certain  advantages  combined 
with  certain  drawbacks.  To  the  reader  it  is  obviously  clearer  and  more 
interesting  than  any  collection  of  documents  could  ever  be — if,  indeed, 
readers  ever  read  collections  of  documents.  To  the  investigator  it  is 
unquestionably  a  defect,  for  it  may  well  happen  that  the  precise  piece 
of  minute  information  which  he  seeks  was  not  considered  of  sufficient 
importance  or  pertinence  to  include  in  this  narrative.  Moreover,  the 
references  are  relegated  to  pages  at  the  end  of  the  volume;  and  it  is, 
perhaps,  not  out  of  place  to  suggest  that  a  simple  list  of  the  papers 
here  used — though  there  are  eleven  hundred  of  them — would  not  have 
been  amiss. 

None  the  less  it  is  an  ungrateful  task  to  find  fault  with  a  work 
which  adds  so  much  to  our  knowledge  of  a  period  known  hitherto,  if  at 
all,  chiefly  through  the  travels  of  Bernier  and  Tavernier;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India  and  the  Council  may 
be  able  to  continue  this  great  work,  which  contributes  so  much  to  a 
field  of  historical  research  growing  in  interest  and  importance  year 
by  year. 

How  great  that  increase  of  interest  seems  to  be  is  indicated  by  this 
second  volume  edited  by  Mr.  Foster.  To  all  students  of  Indian  his- 
tory the  narratives  of  Fitch  and  Mildenhall  and  their  successors  are. 
known  through  the  work  of  Hakluyt  and  Purchas.  But  to  many  who 
are  familiar  neither  with  those  publications,  nor  with  the  lucubrations 
of  the  author  of  the  Crudities,  that  strange,  far-wandering  egotist 
Coryat,  the  reprinting  of  these  narratives  of  English  travellers  in 
India  between  1583  and  1619  will  be  an  interesting  and  informing 
volume.  Not  the  least  interesting,  and  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable, 
feature  of  the  book  is  the  collection  of  introductions  and  notes  which 
witness  the  learning  and  the  industry  of  the  editor,  and  give  the  col- 
lection unusual  and  permanent  value  to  the  student  as  well  as  to  the 
general  reader,  for  whom  it  is  apparently  intended.  And  it  is  of 
more  than  ordinary  interest  to  see  this  development  in  the  study  of 
British  beginnings  in  India  at  the  moment  when  such  changes  seem  to 
impend  in  the  empire,  even  in  the  unchanging  East. 

W.  C.  Abbott. 


298  Reviews  of  Books 

The  Wars  of  Marlborough,  1702-1J09.  In  two  volumes.  By  Frank 
Taylor,  sometime  Scholar  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.  Edited 
by  G.  Winifred  Taylor,  M.A.Oxon..  with  an  Introduction  by 
the  Hon.  J.  W.  Fortescue,  C.V.O.  (Oxford:  Basil  Blackwell. 
1921.     Pp.  xvi,  466;  vii,  555.     50s.) 

As  its  title  indicates,  this  extensive  work  is  a  military  history 
rather  than  a  complete  life  of  Marlborough,  although,  as  the  author 
states  in  his  preface,  he  had  planned  to  combine  the  researches  of 
Archdeacon  Coxe  and  Lord  Wolseley  in  a  single  volume.  So  far 
from  accomplishing  this  task,  seven-eighths  of  these  two  large  volumes 
are  devoted  to  the  events,  mainly  military,  of  somewhat  less  than  eight 
years,  for  the  chapter  on  the  siege  of  Tournai  is  unfinished.  A  sketch 
of  the  first  fifty-two  years  of  Marlborough's  life,  in  seven  short  chap- 
ters, is  relegated  to  the  end  of  the  second  volume. 

In  fact  the  entire  work  is  a  fragment,  to  which  Mr.  Taylor,  who 
died  in  1913,  at  the  age  of  forty,  gave  the  greater  part  of  the  last 
eight  years  of  his  life,  reading,  writing,  and  visiting  the  scenes  of  the 
principal  operations  in  the  best  of  all  possible  ways,  on  foot.  Had  he 
lived  to  complete  it,  no  doubt  he  would  have  considerably  revised  and 
probably  compressed  his  manuscript  before  publication.  The  chapters 
already  apparently  completed,  and  the  drafts  of  others,  have  been 
pieced  together  and  prepared  for  the  printer  in  a  very  competent  man- 
ner by  his  sister,  who  has  documented  them,  as  far  as  possible,  by  the 
citation  of  authorities,  and  supplied  a  charming  memoir  and  an  adequate 
bibliography. 

Macaulay  has,  with  characteristic  dogmatism,  described  Marlbor- 
ough as  "  a  prodigy  of  turpitude ",  and  asserted  that  "  there  was  no 
guilt  and  no  disgrace  that  he  was  not  willing  to  incur".  Thackeray's 
vivid  but  malicious  portrait  in  Esmond  is  widely  known. 

As  Mr.  Taylor  himself  admits,  his  tone  is  polemical  and  he  frankly 
writes  as  an  ardent  partizan ;  he  constantly  extols  Marlborough's 
transcendent  merits  as  a  general  and  a  diplomatist,  and  blinks  or  ex- 
tenuates his  faults  and  moral  defects.  He  is  scarcely  less  restrained  as 
an  eulogist  than  Coxe  or  Lediard.  His  main  objects  in  writing,  as  he 
candidly  explains,  were  to  remind  his  countrymen,  in  the  first  place, 
"of  England's  place  in  Europe",  and,  secondly,  of  "the  real  nature 
and  true  significance  of  war ",  and  in  this  connection  he  says.  "  I 
hold  with  Dalrymple  that  '  to  write  history,  without  drawing  moral  or 
political  rules  of  conduct  from  it.  is  little  better  than  writing  a  ro- 
mance '  "    (I.  xiii). 

Accordingly  he  starts  off  with  a  short  chapter  on  war.  which  is 
followed  by  a  second,  significantly  entitled  the  Exorbitant  Power  of 
France  in  1702,  this  expression  being  borrowed  from  the  last  speech  to 
the  British  Parliament  by  King  William  III.,  in  which  he  declared  that 
such    "  exorbitant    power "    threatened    "  the    rest    of    Christendom    with 


Taylor:  Wars  of  Marlborough  299 

a  general  calamity ".  The  acts  of  the  ministry  of  Godolphin  and  his 
relations  with  Marlborough  are  then  briefly  described. 

Judged  by  Marlborough's  own  high  standard,  Mr.  Taylor  confesses 
that  the  results  of  his  campaign  of  1702  fell  much  short  of  his  aims, 
although  judged  by  the  standard  of  most  of  his  contemporaries  it 
seemed  brilliant  indeed. 

In  the  third  campaign,  the  long  and  trying  march  of  the  British  troops 
from  the  Meuse  to  the  Danube  is  admirably  described  and  special  stress 
is  laid  on  the  careful  efforts  of  their  chief  to  keep  them  in  good  fighting 
trim.  The  author's  very  clear  accounts  of  the  battles  of  the  Schellen- 
berg  and  Blenheim  have  been  carefully  verified  by  an  examination  of 
the  ground  which  it  appears  has  not  greatly  changed.  Of  the  cam- 
paign of  1707,  Mr.  Taylor  finely  says: 

The  Grand  Alliance,  cowering  in  the  shadow  of  the  northern  peril, 
riven  by  internal  dissensions,  and  stricken  by  three  successive  defeats, 
seemed  visibly  to  collapse.  But  always  in  the  background,  and  often- 
times unseen  of  the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  stood  the  Captain-General 
of  England,  exhorting  one,  counselling  another,  inspiring  all,  encour- 
aging here,  reprimanding  there,  supervising  everywhere,  contriving, 
uniting,  foreseeing,  organizing,  reorganizing — a  giant  figure,  support- 
ing, with  labours  that  transcended  the  credible,  the  tottering  fabric  of 
the  coalition   (II.  52-53). 

The  narrative  practically  terminates  with  the  battle  of  Malplaquet, 
which  Mr.  Taylor  terms  justly  enough,  "  a  great  battle  and  a  great 
victory",  although  he  qualifies  this  statement  by  the  admission  that 
"  the  victors  were  too  weakened  by  their  losses  and  too  exhausted  by 
their  efforts  to  pursue  an  enemy  whose  demeanour  to  the  last  was  won- 
derfully firm"   (II.  378). 

Next  to  Marlborough  and  Eugene,  he  bestows  unstinted  praise  upon 
their  able  adversaries,  Boufflers  and  Villars. 

For  his  materials  he  rarely  seems  to  have  gone  beyond  printed 
sources,  but  among  these  he  has  read  widely,  consulting  not  only  most 
of  the  English  but  many  French  and  German  authorities.  References 
are,  however,  occasionally  made  to  the  Coxe.  Hare,  Stepney,  and  Stowe 
collections  of  manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum.  Among  printed  docu- 
ments cited,  his  principal  quarries  are  the  letters  and  despatches  printed 
by  Coxe,  Lediard,  and  Sir  George  Murray. 

As  a  whole  the  book  is  effectively  written  and  must  take  a  high 
place  in  the  literature  of  the  subject  as  a  most  readable  and  entertain- 
ing, if  not  an  altogether  reliable  history. 

The  map  of  the  Western  Sphere  of  Operations  (scale  1  :  1,000,000), 
besides  roughly  showing  certain  important  natural  features  of  the 
country,  such  as  heaths,  moors,  and  swamps,  many  of  which  have  long 
since  disappeared,  gives  an  outline  of  the  famous  French  lines  in  Bra- 
bant ;  and  that  of  the  Eastern  Sphere,  on  the  same  scale,  indicates 
the  different  stages  of  the  march  to  the  Danube,  with  the  date  of  each. 


300  Reviews  of  Books 

Excellent  plans  are  provided  of  the  battles  of  Schellenberg,  Blenheim, 
Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  i  to  6  p.m.,  and  also  at  7  p.m.,  and  Malplaquet, 
on  a  scale  of  1  :  40.000,  with  contours  at  intervals  of  five  metres.  The 
general  index  and  a  special  index  of  place-names  are  satisfactory  and 
the  make-up  of  the  book  is  praiseworthy. 

E.  A.  Cruiksiiaxk. 

Zur  Preussischen  und  Dcutschcn  Gcscliichtc.  Aufsatze  und  Vortrage 
von  Reinhold  Koser.  (Stuttgart  and  Berlin:  J.  G.  Cotta'sche 
Buchhandlung  Nachfolger.  1921.  Pp.  iii,  432.  M.  25;  bound, 
M.  36.) 

Reinhold  Koser,  the  author  of  this  volume  of  essays,  died  in  Au- 
gust, 1914.  He  will  be  remembered  for  three  things.  He  was  head 
of  the  Prussian  archives,  where  his  wise  and  liberal  administration  was 
a  real  service  to  scholarship.  He  was  for  some  years  the  choice  of  the 
academies  of  Berlin,  Munich,  and  Vienna  to  direct  work  on  the  Monu- 
vicnta  Gcnnaniac  Historica.  But  he  will  be  longest  remembered  as  the 
author  of  the  standard  life  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  of  a  political 
history  of  Prussia  which,  by  reason  of  his  death,  was  carried  only 
through  the  first  volume  to  164S. 

Koser  belonged  to  the  Ranke-Sybel  school  of  political  historians 
and  represented  its  best  traditions.  His  work  is  always  substantial 
and,  as  might  be  expected,  is  usually  based  on  wide  study  of  archival 
material.  He  was  at  his  best  when  he  had  the  elbow-room  of  solid 
volumes  in  which  to  present  his  results.  His  mind  and  his  style  do  not 
show  at  their  best  in  essays.  He  was  not  a  brilliant  generalizer,  lacked 
dialectic  skill,  and  could  not  point  his  thoughts  with  a  telling  phrase. 
When  he  wrote  an  essay  or  delivered  an  address,  it  was  of  a  kind  that 
you  might  expect  to  find  cited'  in  Dahlmann-Waitz. 

Of  the  thirteen  Assays,  the  first  nine  are  arranged  chronologically 
according  to  the  period  or  persons  treated.  They  range  from  a  general 
survey  of  the  Great  Elector,  the  least  valuable  in  the  volume,  to  a 
study  of  Frederick  William  IV.  on  the  eve  of  the  March  revolution 
of  1848.  Like  Mr.  Dick  in  David  Coppcrficld,  who  could  not  keep 
King  Charles's  head  out  of  his  memoir,  Koser  returns  again  and  again 
to  the  subject  of  his  life-work,  Frederick  the  Great.  What  preceding 
ages  or  rulers  contributed  to  him  or  his  work,  or  later  ones  derived 
from  it  by  imitation  or  contrast,  is  called  constantly  to  the  reader's 
attention.  The  second  essay  compares  the  naval  and  maritime  policies 
of  the  Great  Elector  and  of  Frederick,  the  third  treats  the  first  queen, 
Sophie  Charlotte,  and  although  her  vendetta  against  Danckelmann,  the 
all-powerful  minister,  is  the  chief  theme,  her  relations  to  Frederick 
William,  the  father  of  Frederick,  are  not  forgotten.  The  founding  of 
the  foreign  office  in  1728  with  the  excellent  summary  of  Ilgeu's  memoir 
helps  to  explain  the  situation  perpetuated  under  Frederick  and  his  sue- 


Lavisse:  France  Contemporaine  301 

cessors  to  1806.  The  general  survey  of  Frederick's  reign  lacks  those 
high  lights  that  Delbriick  or  Meinecke  or  Marcks  throw  on  any  period 
that  they  know  as  well  as  Koser  knew  the  age  of  Frederick.  The 
essay  on  Frederick  and  the  Prussian  universities  admits,  of  course,  that 
Frederick  was  more  interested  in  the  Berlin  Academy  than  in  higher 
education.  Koser  has,  nevertheless,  made  his  treatment  a  history  of 
the  Prussian  universities  in  the  eighteenth  century.  How  familiar  it 
all  sounds  !  The  student  body  lacks  interest  in  scholarship  and  needs 
discipline.  The  professors  are  dry  and  pedantic.  Salaries  and  re- 
cruiting from  neighboring  universities  at  higher  than  the  regular 
stipend  are  burning  questions.  Professors  called  from  Gottingen  to 
Halle  use  the  negotiations  to  get  an  increased  salary  at  Gottingen. 
And  the  study  of  Greek  is  declining  !  The  longest  essay  is  a  survey, 
based  on  published  material,  of  Prussian  policy  from  1786  to  1806.  This 
is  a  very  useful  synthesis  for  those  who  do  not  command  the  mass  of 
special  studies  on  this  period.  The  review  of  Cavaignac  under  the  title 
of  Prussian  Reform  Legislation  in  relation  to  the  French  Revolution 
is  a  just  critique  of  that  author,  but  in  suggesting  the  continuity  of 
the  Prussian  reform  era  with  the  past,  it  misses  the  finer  things  in 
the  spirit  of  the  two  ages.  The  excellent  essay  on  Frederick  William 
in  1848  is  still  valuable  because  of  its  use  of  archival  material,  but 
is  weak  as  a  character-study.  The  essay  on  the  epochs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  absolute  monarchy  is  a  fine  example  of  what  history  can 
contribute  to  political  theory  and  demolishes  Roscher's  oft-repeated 
formula.  The  essay  on  the  beginning  of  political  parties  in  Prussia 
before  1849  seems  sketchy  when  compared  with  the  solid  work  done  in 
this  field.  The  concluding  essays  on  the  Rhine  provinces  and  Prussia, 
and  on  Louis  XIV.  (a  review  of  Lavisse),  keep  to  their  theme  with 
but  little  of  that  nationalism  evident  in  other  Prussian  historians  who 
have  dealt  with  similar  topics.  But  that  little,  with  its  possible  bearing 
on  present-day  problems,  may  explain  their  position  at  the  close  of  the 
volume. 

The  volume  fortifies  rather  than  makes  a  reputation.  It  is  a  con- 
venience to  have  scattered  essays  brought  into  easily  available  form  and 
on  paper  that  is  up  to  pre-war  quality. 

G.  S.  Ford. 

Histoirc  de  France  Contemporaine  depuis  la  Revolution  jusqu'a  la 
Paix  de  191Q.  Publiee  sous  la  direction  de  Ernest  Lavisse. 
Tome  L,  La  Revolution,  iySg-iyg^.  Par  P.  Sagnac.  Tome  II., 
La  Revolution,  1792-1799.  Par  G.  Pariset.  (Paris:  Hachette 
et  Cie.     1920.     Pp.  440;  439.) 

The  decision  of  M.  Lavisse  to  add  to  his  monumental  Histoirc  de 
France  this  Histoirc  de  la  France  Contemporaine  has  brought  satisfac- 
tion to  all  lovers  of  French  history.    The  studies  of  the  last  half  cen- 


302  Reviews  of  Books 

tury  upon  the  historical  development  of  modern  France  have  nowhere 
else  been  embodied  in  a  view  sufficiently  comprehensive.  The  first  two 
volumes  certainly  offer  the  best  balanced  treatment  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution in  existence.  The  only  work  comparable  is  the  Histoire  Poli- 
tique de  la  Revolution  Francaisc  of  Professor  Aulard,  and  this  is  re- 
stricted in  scope,  as  its  title  suggests. 

Both  Professor  Sagnac  and  Professor  Pariset  have  long  been 
known  for  their  work  on  the  Revolutionary  period.  Readers  of  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History  will  recall  Professor  Pariset's  chapters  on 
the  Consulate  and  the  Empire.  Among  Professor  Sagnac's  works  the 
most  notable  are  his  Legislation  Civile  de  la  Revolution,  his  Chute  de 
la  Royaute,  and  his  Rhin  Francois.  He  is  also  one  of  the  chief  col- 
laborators in  the  publication  of  documents  and  studies  on  the  economic 
history  of  the  Revolution  which  is  renewing  the  view  of  the  whole 
subject. 

In  method  both  volumes  are  characterized  by  the  surprising  amount 
of  detailed  information  which  the  authors  give  without  interrupting  the 
flow  of  exposition  or  narrative.  There  is  nothing  of  the  digest,  no 
feeling  of  pages  encumbered  with  learned  minutiae.  The  opinions  of 
the  authors  are  not  obtruded.  The  facts  tell  the  story,  with  only 
enough  of  interpretation  to  stimulate  the  reader's  thought.  This  is 
perhaps  truer  of  Professor  Sagnac's  than  of  Professor  Pariset's  vol- 
ume. The  most  typical  case  is  the  former's  second  book,  which  has  as 
its  theme  "  L'Oeuvre  de  1'Assemblee  Constituante  ".  Here  are  skilfully 
combined  reviews  of  the  discussions  which  resulted  in  legislation,  sig- 
nificant features  of  the  laws  themselves,  and  the  experience  of  different 
parts  of  the  country  with  their  application.  A  single  sentence  here 
and  there  gives  us  a  hint  of  the  author's  opinion.  For  example,  it  is 
only  at  the  end  of  the  discussion  of  the  early  issues  of  the  assignats 
that  Professor  Sagnac  expresses  the  view  that  borrowing  "a  jet 
continu  au  moyen  de  la  planche  aux  assignats "  had  "  une  repercus- 
sion funeste  sur  toute  l'economie  nationale  ".  The  only  controversial 
remark  is  that  the  alternative  was  "  la  banqueroute  generale  ". 

The  more  difficult  problem  of  organization  fell  to  the  lot  of  Profes- 
sor Sagnac.  Professor  Pariset's  volume,  covering  a  longer  period  of 
time,  from  September  21,  1792,  to  December  25,  1799.  where  the  prin- 
cipal theme  appears  to  be  political  turmoil  and  foreign  war.  may  more 
readily  follow  the  chronological  order.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  treat  the  great  reconstructive  work  of  the  Constituent  Assembly 
in  this  way.  Fundamental  reforms  emerged  from  committee  rooms 
and  were  enacted  into  law  often  witli  little  reference  to  the  external 
history  of  the  Revolution.  The  application  of  these  laws  is  again 
something  that  does  not  tit  readily  into  a  chronological  setting.  The 
solution  is  a  topical  exposition.  Consequently  Professor  Sagnac's  nar- 
rative,   which   concludes   in   the   fust   hook   with   the    events   of   October 


Lavisse:  France  Contcmporainc  303 

5  and  6,  is  interrupted  by  the  second  book  on  the  Work  of  the  As- 
sembly, and  resumed  in  book  III.  The  fourth  book  deals  with  the 
decline  and  fall  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  fifth  with  the  first  weeks  of 
the  Republic  and  the  campaign  of  Valmy. 

The  most  interesting  literary  feature  of  Professor  Sagnac's  work  is 
his  carefully  finished  portraits  of  the  Revolutionary  leaders,  especially 
of  Mirabeau,  Danton,  and  Robespierre.  Indeed,  he  has  three  portraits 
of  Mirabeau,  apropos  of  three  distinct  phases  of  his  career  in  the 
Revolution.  Each  seems  complete  without  the  others,  so  that  in  the 
introductory  sentences  of  the  second  and  third  there  is  a  suggestion  of 
repetition.  In  writing  of  Danton  Professor  Sagnac  adds  a  note  on 
the  present  controversy  over  the  great  tribune's  alleged  corrupt  prac- 
tices, expressing  the  opinion  that  as  yet  the  charges  are  not  proved. 
Although  Professor  Pariset  gives  no  similar  portraits,  his  conception  of 
Danton  is  not  so  favorable,  for  in  mentioning  the  fact  that  he  had 
become  very  rich  he  adds  the  remark,  "  On  ne  sait  trop  comment ". 
The  attitude  of  the  two  authors  towards  Robespierre  also  differs 
slightly,  but  this  may  be  in  part  the  actual  difference  between  the 
earlier  and  the  later  Robespierre.  According  to  the  first  conception 
Robespierre  the  Constituent  is  hesitant,  following  rather  than  antici- 
pating opinion;  according  to  the  second  "  sa  nettete,  sa  franchise 
coupante,  sa  resolution  f  roide  "  are  the  dominant  characteristics. 

Of  the  two  writers  Professor  Pariset  has,  perhaps,  had  the  better 
opportunity  to  present  fresh  interpretations  of  events  and  institutions, 
because  investigation  for  the  period  of  the  Convention  has  not  reached 
the  stage  of  settled  judgments  to  such  a  degree  as  for  the  period  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly.  His  treatment  of  the  Centrist  party  is  dis- 
tinctly new.  He  ascribes  to  it  a  positive  policy  of  great  influence,  and 
never  represents  its  members  as  an  oscillating  mass  now  drawn  in  one 
direction  by  Girondin  eloquence,  and  now  driven  in  another  by  Mon- 
tagnard  threats.  Again,  he  denies  that  the  country  was  actuated  by 
fear  in  the  summer  of  1793.  The  people,  he  thinks,  put  a  strong 
government  in  power  in  a  mood  of  patriotic  resolution,  believing  that 
the  treason  of  Dumouriez  and  the  Vendean  insurrection  imperilled  the 
Revolution.  Two  policies  were  possible,  that  of  Danton,  and  that  of 
Robespierre — "  Ou  bien  essayer  de  reconstituer  l'unite  patriote,  ou 
bien  continuer  a  gouverner  avec  le  parti  diminue".  The  policy  of 
Robespierre  was  chosen,  although  that  of  Danton  was  in  Professor 
Pariset's  opinion  more  far-seeing,  lofty,  and  humane.  He  adds,  "  La 
politique  de  Robespierre  a  sauve  la  France,  mais  elle  a  valu  la  Terreur 
avec  un  gouvernement ". 

In  one  respect  Professor  Pariset's  treatment  is  not  so  satisfying. 
He  deals  in  the  most  summary  way  with  the  economic  history  of  the 
period.  The  maximum  legislation  of  the  fall  and  winter  of  1793  is 
barely   touched.     The  collapse  of  paper  money  in   1796  also  receives 

AM.   HIST.   REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 21. 


304  Reviews  of  Books 

slight  comment.  Another  omission  is  the  part  in  the  fierce  passions  of 
the  Terror  taken  by  the  emotions  characteristic  of  a  desperate  war. 
This  is  surprising  when  we  recall  that  the  world  has  been  passing 
through  a  similar  experience. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  illustrations,  a  feature  which  did 
not  appear  in  the  earlier  volumes.  They  are  selected  from  the  in- 
comparable collections  of  portraits,  cartoons,  and  prints  which  exist 
in  Paris.  In  the  first  volume,  for  example,  are  full-page  illustrations 
of  the  supposed  Houdon  bust  of  Mirabeau  and  an  anonymous  portrait 
of  Danton.  The  frontispiece  of  the  second  volume  is  an  anonymous  por- 
trait of  Robespierre. 

Henry  E.  Bourne. 

Histoire  de  France  Contemporaine  (Lavisse).     Tome  III.,  Lc  Con- 

sulat  et  I'Empire.     Par  G.  Pariset.      (Paris:  Hachette.     1921. 

Pp.  444-) 

M.  Pariset  is  master  of  his  subject,  and  in  this  volume,  as  in  its 
predecessor,  has  made  a  distinct  contribution  to  the  historiography  of  the 
Napoleonic  period.  The  hero-worship  of  earlier  works,  from  Thiers's 
Consulate  and  Empire  onward,  no  longer  appears.  Napoleon  often 
dominates  the  stage,  but  many  others  hold  it  with  him,  and  interest  is 
focussed  on  the  nation  rather  than  on  his  fortunes.  Neither  is  there 
the  same  respect  for  the  populace  of  Paris  that  is  so  apparent  in  the 
work  of  Aulard  and  other  later  French  historians.  The  emphasis  is 
distinctly  on  the  history  of  the  French  people  as  a  whole.  Further 
comparison  with  the  work  of  Aulard  brings  out  the  fact  that  Pariset's 
treatment  is  fuller  and  richer.  The  former  was  avowedly  concerned 
with  the  evolution  of  political  life;  the  latter  is  more  pragmatic,  setting 
forth  not  only  the  political  or  constitutional  changes  but  also  the  social 
organization,  population,  education,  religion,  industry,  agriculture,  and 
commerce.  Foreign  affairs  could  not,  of  course,  be  overlooked  in  the 
Napoleonic  period  but  it  is  a  far  cry  from  this  rather  sketchy  treatment 
of  the  subject  to  Sorel  and  others  who  make  the  history  of  France 
revolve  about  Napoleon.  With  Pariset,  the  imperialist  designs  of  the 
conqueror  receive  scant  attention.  Frenchmen,  he  declares,  did  not  un- 
derstand them  and  became  interested  in  them  mainly  through  their 
disastrous  consequences. 

The  author  is  at  his  best  in  tracing  the  development  of  political 
and  social  institutions.  Not  only  is  this  done  with  great  precision  and 
deta:l,  but  for  the  most  part  with  due  regard  to  their  revolutionary 
beginnings  and  the  hard  facts  of  contemporary  life  that  lay  behind 
them.  Too  little  weight  is  perhaps  given  to  the  Concordat  in  the  re- 
vival of  Catholicism  which  the  author  dates  from  the  19  Fructidor. 
Industrial  progress  on  the  other  hand,  he  treats  too  exclusively  from 
the    standpoint    of    Napoleon,    forgetting   the   broad   basis    laid    in    the 


Lavisse:  France  Contemporaine  305 

earlier  period,  and  the  impetus  then  imparted  by  the  manufacture  of  war 
materials. 

Despite  Napoleon's  lack  of  knowledge  of  agriculture  "qui  etait  d'une 
ignorance  qui  depasse  les  bornes  ",  his  interest  in  the  important  ques- 
tion of  land  tenure  and  inheritance  deserves  more  attention.  The  laws 
of  March  and  April,  1790,  abolished  primogeniture  and  established 
equal  inheritance.  "  Partible  succession  "  became  the  rule  in  France. 
The  civil  code  confirmed  this,  and  what  is  called  "  l'affranchissement  de 
la  terre  "  continued.  By  a  law  of  1806,  however,  entail  was  again  per- 
mitted. This  the  author  fails  to  mention,  despite  the  fact  that  it 
provided  a  basis  for  a  new  landed  aristocracy.  Commerce  is  given 
rather  exiguous  treatment.  Even  in  the  last  division  of  the  volume, 
which  is  entitled  "  Le  Systeme  Continental  ",  the  subject  receives  less 
than  four  pages,  about  as  much  as  is  devoted  to  the  divorce  and  to  the 
Austrian  marriage.  It  is  true  that  Napoleon  could  not  "  make  com- 
merce manoeuvre  like  a  regiment",  but  the  vast  ramifications  of  the 
commercial  conditions  forcing  the  industry  and  trade,  not  only  of 
France  but  of  Europe  and  America  as  well,  into  new  and  unaccustomed 
channels  for  more  than  a  decade,  is  surely  of  greater  significance  than 
many  of  the  military  and  diplomatic  incidents  treated  in  this  chapter. 

The  style  is  clear,  logical,  and  forceful,  characterized  by  the  presen- 
tation of  concrete  facts  and  incidents  rather  than  by  abstractions  about 
them.  The  author  belongs  to  the  realistic  school  of  historical  writers. 
He  sometimes  crowds  his  pages  with  a  superabundance  of  detail,  but  he 
is  never  dominated  by  it.  Its  significance  is  made  plain.  Indeed,  M. 
Pariset  is  at  his  best  in  his  trenchant  epigrammatic  summaries  and 
interpretations :  "  L'Universite  est  une  hierarchie  ou  ceux  qui  enseignent 
sont  les  subordonnes  passifs  de  ceux  qui  n'enseignent  pas  " ;  "  L'Empire 
a  ete  une  fabrique  des  fonctionnaires ".  .Of  the  civil  code  and  the 
property  laws,  he  says:  "Les  dispositions  qui  concernent  ceux  qui  ne 
possedent  rien  sont  rares,  et  ne  sont  jamais  bienveillantes.  ...  En  ce 
sens,  le  code  n'est  pas  democratique.  II  est  le  code  de  la  classe  pos- 
sedante." 

The  character  and  personality  of  Napoleon  are  brought  out  again 
and  again  in  high  lights  that  fascinate  by  their  boldness.  Sometimes 
this  is  done  in  an  inimitable  way  by  apt  quotations.  What  an  insight, 
for  example,  into  Napoleon's  opinions,  when  in  anger  at  the  Tribunat 
he  shouted : 

lis  sont  la  douze  ou  quinze  metaphysiciens  bons  a  jeter  a  l'eau. 
C'est  une  vermine  que  j'ai  sur  les  habits.     II  ne  faut  pas  croire  que  je 

me  laisserai  attaquer  comme  Louis  XVI.     Je  ne  le  souffrirai  pas 

Je  suis  soldat,  enfant  de  la  Revolution.  Sorti  du  sein  du  people,  je  ne 
souffrirai  pas  qu'on  m'insulte  comme  un  roi. 

The  organization  and  format  of  the  volume  is  that  of  the.  earlier 
series   on   the   history   of    France    before    1789.      The    illustrations    are 


306  Reviews  of  Books 

excellent.     They  are  taken   from  contemporary  sources   for  the  most 
part,  and  add  materially  to  the  story  of  the  text. 

William  E.  Lingelbach. 

Histoire  de  France  Contcmporaine  (Lavisse).     Tomes  IV.,  V.,  La 

Restauration,  and  La  Monarchic  de  Juillet.     Par  S.  Charlety. 

Tomes  VI.,  VII.,  La  Revolution  de  1848:  Le  Second  Empire,  and 

Le  Declin  de  I'Empire  et  I' (Ltablissement  de  la  3e  Republique. 

Par  Ch.  Seignobos.     (Paris:  Hachette.     1921.     Pp.  400;  408; 

426;  426.) 

These  four  volumes,  treating  of  the  period  of  French  history  that 
lies  between  181 5 — the  restoration  of  the  monarchy — and  1875— the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Third  Republic — form  a  natural  unit,  falling  into  two 
main  divisions.  The  co-operation  between  the  two  writers  has  been  so 
happy  that  one  is  hardly  conscious  of  the  change  of  authorship  as  one 
passes  from  the  account  of  the  February  days,  with  which  the  last 
volume  of  M.  Charlety  closes,  to  the  description,  in  the  first  volume 
of  M.  Seignobos,  of  the  organization  of  the  provisional  government 
that  resulted  from  the  Revolution  of  1848.  It  is  an  excellent  example  of 
the  possibilities  of  co-operation  in  historical  writing. 

Novelty  could  hardly  be  expected  in  the  chronological  cadres  of  the 
text,  the  matter  naturally  falling  under  the  heads  adopted  as  the  titles 
of  the  various  volumes,  but  there  is  much  of  novelty  in  the  varied  and 
comprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject-matter  within  these  divisions. 
It  is  not  simply  a  history  of  the  political  life  of  France  through  sixty 
eventful  years,  but  a  well-balanced,  scholarly,  and  attractive  descrip- 
tion of  the  unfolding  of  the  entire  social  life  of  the  French  people  in  its 
progress  toward  democracy.  M.  Charlety's  chapter  in  volume  IV.,  on 
"  L'Avenement  d'une  Generation  nouvelle ",  in  which  he  deals  with 
"  Les  Neo-liberaux,  les  Saint-Simoniens,  les  Ultramontains,  les  Ro- 
mantiques,  les  Savants",  his  chapter  on  "Les  Partis  et  la  Politique 
ficonomique",  in  which  he  treats  of  "  Le  Systeme  Prohibitif,  la  Pro- 
duction et  l'fichange  a  l'lnterieur,  la  Condition  des  Personnes",  and  the 
two  chapters  on  "  La  Vie  ficonomique  "  and  "  L'Expansion  Coloniale  " 
in  volume  V.;  M.  Seignobos's  treatment  of  the  provisional  government 
of  1848,  with  chapters  on  "  L'Organisation  du  Gouvernement  et  du  Suf- 
frage", and  "Les  nouveaux  Organes  de  la  Vie  Politique",  the  chapter 
on  "  La  Distribution  Regionale  des  Partis  en  France ",  the  treatment 
of  "  La  Societe  Franqaise "  under  the  chapter-heads,  "  La  Population 
de  la  France,  la  Population  Agricole,  la  Population  Industrielle,  les 
Classes  Moyennes  et  les  Classes  Superieures,  le  Mouvement  Intellec- 
tuel ",  in  volume  VI.,  indicate  the  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
period. 

The  traditional  topics — the  successive  revolutions,  with  the  continu- 
ous struggle  between  the  reactionary  and  progressive  groups,  together 


Lavisse:  France  Contemporaine  307 

with  foreign  affairs — are  treated  in  an  admirable  spirit  of  detachment, 
described  with  freshness  and  color,  and,  not  infrequently,  from  a  new 
point  of  view,  due  to  the  utilization  of  recent  monographs  or  of  manu- 
script material.  The  treatment  of  foreign  affairs  under  the  Second 
Empire,  in  M.  Seignobos's  second  volume,  is  an  admirable  piece  of 
work,  a  model  of  well-balanced,  scholarly  exposition. 

Not  the  least  noteworthy  thing  in  these  volumes,  where  there  is  so 
much  to  commend,  is  the  skill  shown  in  sketching  the  principal  char- 
acters of  the  period,  or  rather,  in  permitting  them,  through  their  acts 
and  utterances,  to  reveal  themselves.  Louis  XVIII.,  Charles  X.,  Louis 
Philippe,  Napoleon  III.  and  his  associates,  Thiers,  MacMahon,  and 
Gambetta,  are  not  mere  abstractions,  but  living  personalities  that  as- 
sume definite  shape  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  as  he  follows  their  acts 
and  reads  their  statements  of  policy  and  opinion.  The  one  thing  that 
impresses  one,  when  the  whole  gallery  has  been  passed  in  review,  is 
the  mediocrity  of  the  age,  not  one  first-class  character  appearing  on 
the  scene.  Thiers,  his  career  viewed  as  a  whole,  falls  short  of  great- 
ness, and  Gambetta,  up  to  1875,  had  not  monopolized  the  stage. 

These  volumes  were  written  before  1914  and  one  is  especially 
struck  by  M.  Seignobos's  impartial  attitude  toward  Germany  and  Bis- 
marck. After  recounting  the  facts  connected  with  the  famous  Ems 
despatch,  he  defends  Bismarck  against  the  charge  of  "  falsification ". 
"  This  expression ",  he  writes,  "  adopted  by  the  French  papers,  is  in- 
exact;  Bismarck  was  authorized  to  publish,  not  the  text  of  Abeken's 
dispatch  (whose  form  rendered  it  improper  for  publication)  but  the 
refusal  of  the  king,  and  his  text  contains  no  false  affirmation;  the 
form  alone  was  different."  After  describing  the  German  methods  of 
warfare — burning  of  villages,  where  German  soldiers  had  been  fired 
upon,  shooting  the  natives,  levying  extraordinary  contributions,  forcing 
the  leading  men  of  a  town  to  ride  on  a  locomotive  in  order  to  protect 
a  train  from  attack — M.  Seignobos  remarks  that  "  this  mixture  of  rigor 
and  exploitation  gave  the  French  the  impression  of  a  barbarous  war. 
In  fact,  the  German  soldiers,  well-disciplined  and  peaceable  by  nature, 
committed  few  acts  of  violence  upon  persons,  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  the  invaders.  They  ate  and  drank  much  and  burned  all  they 
could  make  use  of  to  warm  them  in  a  very  cold  winter.  They  did 
little  damage  out  of  pure  deviltry.  The  population,  contrary  to  other 
wars,  complained  less  of  the  excesses  of  individual  soldiers  than  of 
the  harshness  of  the  officers." 

In  a  semi-popular  history  of  this  kind  the  absence  of  original  re- 
search can  not  be  counted  a  defect.  That  the  writer  shall  be  acquainted 
with  the  latest  and  best  monographic  work  is  all  that  the  critic  can 
reasonably  demand.  More  than  that  must  be  counted  as  good  measure 
not  called  for  in  the  bond.  Such  good  measure  is  found,  as  might  have 
been  expected  in  the  work  of  such  mature  scholars,  both  in  the  volumes 
of  M.  Charlety,  writing  from  first-hand  knowledge  on  the  beginnings  of 


308  Reviews  of  Books 

socialism,  especially  on  the  life  and  activities  of  Saint-Simon,  and  in 
those  of  M.  Seignobos,  drawing  upon  the  manuscripts  of  the  Archives 
Nationales  for  his  studies  on  the  regional  distribution  of  parties  in 
France. 

The  bibliographies  are  full  and  critical,  containing  not  only  the 
enumeration  of  printed  secondary  works  and  sources,  but  also  the  in- 
dication of  some  unpublished  monographs  and  of  important  manuscript 
sources.  Attention  is  frequently  called  to  the  lack  of  monographs  on 
important  topics,  and  a  careful  examination  of  the  bibliography  and  of 
the  dates  of  publication  of  the  works  makes  clear  how  much  virgin  soil 
there  is  for  the  historian  in  this  very  important  period  of  French 
history. 

Not  the  least  valuable  part  of  the  volumes  is  the  illustrations.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  portraits,  some  of  them  full-page  reproductions  of  the 
work  of  famous  French  artists,  such  as  Gerard's  portrait  of  Louis 
XVIII.,  Winterhalter's  Louis  Philippe,  Mme.  Desnos's  Casimir  Perier, 
Lafosse's  striking  lithograph  of  General  Cavaignac,  Flandrin's  Napoleon 
III.,  and  Bonnat's  fine  portraits  of  Thiers  and  Gambetta.  We  miss 
Charles  X.  and  Guizot  from  the  gallery.  There  are,  also,  many  rare 
and  interesting  contemporary  cartoons,  contemporary  sketches  of  his- 
torical scenes,  and  reproductions  of  famous  paintings,  to  illustrate  the 
art  of  the  period. 

Fred  Morrow  Fling. 

Deutsche  Wirtschaftsgcschichtc,  1815-1914.    Von  A.  Sartorius  von 

Waltershausen.     (Jena:  Gtistav  Fischer.     1920.     Pp.  x,  598. 

M.  50.) 

A  reader  acquainted  with  Sombart's  Deutsche  Volkswirtschaft  iiu 
ig.  Jahrhundcrt  will  be  startled  to  find  that  the  present  author  assumes 
the  complete  lack  of  any  comprehensive  survey  of  the  subject  which  he 
covers.  How  he  can  do  this  when  he  cites  Sombart  in  his  bibliography 
must  be  left  to  the  German  academic  conscience  for  decision.  This  at 
least  can  be  said  for  him,  that  the  present  book  is  considerably  larger 
than  Sombart's,  is  far  more  rich  in  concrete  detail,  and  is  better  suited 
in  general  to  the  purposes  of  a  student  seeking  an  introduction  to  the 
recent  economic  history  of  Germany. 

The  author  shuns  the  economic  abstractions  which  make  Sombart's 
work  at  the  same  time  so  attractive  and  so  perilous.  He  depreciates 
the  contributions  of  capitalism,  and  emphasizes  the  contributions  of 
individual  persons.  He  is  a  follower  of  Nietzsche  and  Treitschke, 
accepting  the  dominance  in  history  of  the  "  Wille  zur  Macht  ".  Con- 
sequently he  emphasizes  the  political  element,  and  describes  in  full 
detail  the  course  of  public  policy.  He  is,  of  course,  a  nationalist;  the 
highest  praise  that  he  can  bestow  on  the  tariff  of  1879  is  that  it  was 
not  only  "  national  "  but  also  "  deutsch  empfunden  ".     More  particularly, 


Sartorius:  Deutsche  Wirtschaftsgeschichte        309 

he  is  a  German  Conservative,  a  believer  in  the  landed  aristocracy  and 
a  defender  of  measures  taken  in  their  behalf.  Bismarck  is  his  ideal. 
Of  the  person  and  character  of  William  II.  he  says  little,  but  the  course 
of  the  empire  under  the  last  kaiser  he  describes  as  aimless;  the  period 
of  indecision  culminated  in  the  recent  war,  the  preparations  for  which 
were  in  the  military  aspect  insufficient,  in  the  political  aspect  "  miser- 
abel  ".  The  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  are  bitterly  con- 
demned for  a  selfish  and  brutal  policy. 

While  the  book  is  colored  throughout  by  the  author's  general  phi- 
losophy, he  is,  after  all,  primarily  an  economist,  and  when  he  keeps 
his  eyes  on  the  ground  he  sees  clearly  and  describes  soberly  and  accu- 
rately. His  theory  of  the  price  changes  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century  is  not  one  which  the  present  writer  can  accept. 
Most  of  the  book,  however,  is  free  from  any  doctrinal  taints,  whether 
political  or  economic.  It  is  a  matter-of-fact  account  of  German  agri- 
cultural, industrial,  and  commercial  development,  packed  with  interesting 
information. 

The  book  begins  with  a  survey  of  conditions  as  they  were  after 
the  wars  of  liberation  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  years 
1833  and  1871  give  the  author  his  main  turning-points  in  the  course 
of  the  century;  the  years  1848  and  1890  are  chosen  to  subdivide  the 
narrative.  Each  of  the  six  chapters  in  which  the  book  is  thus  arranged 
has  secondary  divisions  according  to  the  topics  treated.  A  table  of  con- 
tents, filling  some  five  pages,  aids  the  reader  who  seeks  a  particular 
subject,  but  it  does  not  atone  for  the  lack  of  an  index;  nor  do  the 
bibliographical  lists  appended  to  each  chapter  satisfy  the  reader  who 
desires  to  know  the  authority  for  a  certain  statement  but  finds  the 
book  bare  of  foot-notes. 

The  author  draws  his  material  from  a  great  variety  of  sources.  He 
has  employed  not  only  official  publications,  standard  histories  and  bi- 
ographies, and  the  monographic  studies  of  which  German  seminars  have 
produced  a  great  abundance ;  he  has  made  good  use  also  of  books  of 
description  and  travel,  and  on  occasion  introduces  effective  quotations 
from  literature,  even  from  the  Fliegende  Blaetter. 

He  has  had  to  solve  a  difficult  problem  in  composition.  Germany  as 
of  1914  included  territorial  elements  differing  widely  in  their  historical 
antecedents,  and  the  author  is  unquestionably  right  in  his  belief  that 
historical  tradition  has  played  a  large  part  in  the  course  of  recent 
development.  This  is  most  obvious  in  the  field  of  agrarian  history, 
but  is  apparent  everywhere.  The  author,  therefore,  has  had  to  frame 
his  work  in  an  intricate  plan.  If,  as  a  result,  the  reader  is  some- 
times burdened  by  the  mass  of  facts,  the  plan  has  merits  of  its  own,  and 
it  is  executed  with  some  features  which  deserve  special  commendation. 
(1)  The  author  often  simplifies  his  narrative  by  analyzing  and  enumer- 
ating the  most  significant  points;  he  sketches  the  main  lines  and  omits 


310  Reviews  of  Books 

the  details.  (2)  The  statistical  tables  are  unusually  well  selected  to 
illustrate  the  course  of  development;  they  are  brief  and  general.  (3) 
The  author  has  contrived  often  to  combine  nice  discrimination  with 
brevity  of  treatment;  an  illustration  is  his  discussion  of  the  effects  of 
the  Continental  System  of  the  Napoleonic  period.  (4)  The  book  con- 
tains many  striking  little  bits  of  information:  statistical  comparison  of 
foreign  trade,  1825  and  1913  (p,  51)  ;  functions  of  the  early  banks  and 
the  place  of  the  Jews  in  banking  (pp.  57,  277)  ;  the  part  of  the  Germans 
in  the  early  expositions  at  Berlin  and  Paris  (pp.  74,  174)  ;  description 
of  leading  stores  and  factories  (pp.  142,  190)  ;  and  so  forth.  The 
reader  will  notice  a  perversion  of  some  English  names  (Arkwrigth, 
Cartwrigth,  Wegwood),  and  occasional  slips  in  the  tables  of  figures 
(PP-  53.  364),  but  will  find  the  presswork  on  the  whole  well  done. 

Clive  Day. 

The  Labor  Problem  and  the  Social  Catholic  Movement  in  France: 
a  Study  in  the  History  of  Social  Politics.  By  Parker  Thomas 
Moon,  Instructor  in  History  in  Columbia  University.1  (New 
York:  Macmillan  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xiv,  473.  $3^5-) 
The  purpose  of  this  interesting  and  valuable  book  is  to  relate  the 
history  of  the  French  side  of  Socialism,  which  the  author  describes  as 
a  nearly  world-wide  force  "  comparable  in  magnitude  and  in  power  to 
international  Socialism,  or  to  Syndicalism,  or  to  the  co-operative  move- 
ment"  (p.  vii).  This  powerful  force,  the  author  declares,  deserves 
more  attention  than  it  has  hitherto  received  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  It  is  both  a  social  philosophy  and  an  organized  movement  of 
vast  proportions.  Like  its  rivals,  Socialism  and  Syndicalism,  it  offers 
and  works  for  the  realization  of  a  programme  for  the  solution  of  the 
labor  problem  created  by  the  Industrial  Revolution.  This  solution  is 
based  on  the  application  of  long  recognized  ethical  principles  to  modern 
industrial  problems.  It  expects  to  attain  its  goal  by  "  a  bold  organic 
reorganization  of  the  existing  industrial  system  and  of  existing  demo- 
cratic institutions,  rather  than  by  cautious  compromises  and  palliatives  " 
(p.  s).  Though  the  author  nowhere  lays  any  stress  upon  the  point,  his 
account  clearly  indicates  that  the  most  active  promoters  of  Social 
Catholicism,  along  with  a  strong  desire  for  the  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  the  working  classes,  have  drawn  much  inspiration  from 
a  confident  belief  that,  if  success  crowns  their  efforts,  there  will  accrue 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  a  great  increase  of  power  and  influence. 
The  book  falls  into  three  nearly  equal  parts.  Chapters  I.-V.  de- 
scribe the  antecedents  of  the  movement  to  1870,  its  organization  under 
the  inspiring  leadership  of  Count  de  Mun  and  the  development  of  its 
programme  from  1871  to  1891,  the  foreign  influences  which  most  af- 
fected it,  and  the  differences  between  the  vanguard  led  by  Count  de  Mun 
1  Now  assistant  professor  ibid. 


Turner:  Europe  since  1870  311 

and  the  stragglers,  represented  by  Bishop  Freppel  and  his  followers. 
Chapters  VI.-IX.  trace  in  detail  the  effect  upon  the  movement  of  papal 
intervention  by  Leo  XIII.,  especially  in  his  Encyclical  Letter  of  May 
15,  1891,  on  the  condition  of  the  working  classes,  and  his  famous  letter 
of  February  16,  1892,  urging  upon  French  Catholics  acceptance  of  the 
Third  Republic.  In  this  part  the  most  striking  feature  is  a  detailed  and 
illuminating  account  of  the  origin,  composition,  and  activities  of  the 
Popular  Liberal  Party,  the  most  powerful  and  significant  organization 
which  has  developed  in  connection  with  the  Social  Catholic  movement 
in  France.  Chapters  X.-XII.  furnish  a  contemporary  survey  of  the 
movement,  describe  the  dissident  groups,  and  set  forth  the  author's 
conclusions. 

In  general  and  in  nearly  all  particulars  the  work  of  the  author  has 
been  well  done.  A  vast  amount  of  widely  scattered  material  has  been 
carefully  examined.  The  results  are  set  forth  in  clear  and  interesting 
fashion.  In  a  commendable  endeavor  to  appeal  to  a  larger  public  than 
is  usually  secured  for  a  doctor's  dissertation,  the  documentation  has 
been  relegated  to  the  end  of  the  book.  To  the  reviewer  it  appears 
questionable  whether  the  gain  has  not  been  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  a  propensity  to  put  into  the  text  considerable  matter  which  might 
better  have  gone  into  the  notes. 

Aside  from  points  of  detail,  the  reviewer  has  only  two  considerable 
criticisms  to  make.  The  extent  to  which  Social  Catholicism  has  actually 
been  an  effective  factor  in  bringing  about  the  social  legislation  of  the 
Third  Republic  is  not  very  clearly  indicated.  The  author  rather  as- 
sumes that  because  the  movement  has  been  large  and  active  it  has 
therefore  been  an  effective  force.  Its  opponents,  especially  the  anti- 
clericals  and  socialists,  claim  for  themselves  nearly  all  the  credit  for 
the  social  legislation  actually  enacted.  An  examination  of  these  rival 
claims  would  have  added  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  book.  The  anti- 
clericals  are  not  always  treated  fairly;  for  them  there  is  an  undertone 
of  detraction,  often  implied  rather  than  expressed,  and  an  assumption 
that  their  attitude  was  due  to  unworthy  motives.  Justice  to  them 
requires  recognition  that,  whatever  their  faults,  they  were  striving  for 
the  public  welfare  as  they  conceived  it.  At  the  same  time  the  short- 
comings of  the  Catholics  in  such  matters  as  the  Boulanger  and  Dreyfus 
affairs  are  passed  over  very  lightly.  Despite  these  faults,  the  book, 
taken  as  a  whole,  is  a  notable  contribution  to  knowledge. 

Frank  Maloy  Anderson. 

Europe  since  1870.     By  Edward  Raymond  Turner,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor   of    European    History    in    the   University    of    Michigan. 
(Garden  City,  N.  Y. :  Doubleday,   Page,  and  Company.     1921. 
Pp.  xii,  580.     $3.00.) 
For  the  second  time  within  a  few  months  we  have  from  the  pen  of 


3 1 2  Reviews  of  Books 

Professor  Turner  a  work  of  merit  on  modern  European  history.  The 
first  traced  European  development  from  the  beginning  of  the  French 
Revolution  through  the  close  of  the  World  War.  The  second  aims  to 
treat  with  similar  breadth  the  period  of  fifty  years  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  to  the  present  day. 

Until  he  has  reached  chapter  VI.,  however,  the  author  does  not 
take  his  main  theme  directly  in  hand.  To  his  introductory  discussion  he 
gives  the  first  five  chapters,  occupying  123  of  the  548  pages  in  the  vol- 
ume, a  seemingly  disproportionate  amount  of  space  for  this  purpose, 
especially  when  one  considers  how  freighted  with  momentous  events  and 
profoundly  significant  changes  are  the  years  since  1870. 

These  opening  chapters  include  an  account  of  the  Old  Regime,  of 
the  topography  of  Europe,  of  the  French  Revolution,  a  chapter  of 
twenty-five  pages  on  the  Industrial  Revolution,  and  another  of  twenty- 
six  pages  on  intellectual  and  social  changes  before  1870.  But  all  of 
these  matters,  and  many  others  too,  which  are  included,  do  not  seem 
requisite  to  an  adequate  introduction  to  the  history  of  Europe  since 
1870.  True  it  is,  that  these  chapters  are  splendidly  done,  and  some 
parts  of  them  helpful  in  the  highest  degree,  others  indispensable  even, 
to  an  understanding  of  the  subsequent  presentation.  Had  such  valuable 
and  essential  features,  however,  been  combined  in  one,  or  at  most,  two 
introductory  chapters,  and  the  space  thus  saved  devoted  to  the  history 
of  Europe  since  1918,  the  title  of  the  book  would  fit  its  contents  with 
greater  exactitude.  When  the  general  reader,  teacher,  or  student,  pur- 
chases a  book  entitled  Europe  since  1870,  he  has  the  right  to  expect 
that  he  shall  find  therein  information  concerning  events  and  conditions 
in  Europe  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  year  at  least.  But  it 
is  just  here  that  Professor  Turner  disappoints  us.  As  far  as  this  vol- 
ume is  concerned,  European  history  since  1870  ends  approximately  with 
the  year  1918,  save  for  the  settlement  made  by  the  Peace  Conference 
during  1919,  which  subject  receives  adequate  treatment  (chapter 
XVIII. ).  Certainly  the  reader  can  rightfully  demand  that  a  work 
bearing  the  above  title,  and  appearing  in  the  autumn  of  1921,  should 
tell  whether  a  League  of  Nations  was  actually  organized,  what  states 
belong  to  it.  what  it  has  done,  if  anything;  should  give  more  than 
three  lines  to  the  new  government  of  Germany;  should  give  at  least 
a  brief  account  of  developments  in  the  various  European  states  since 
November,  1918.  Concerning  these  and  many  other  subjects  upon 
which  we  should  like  instruction  by  a  trained  and  scholarly  historian, 
Professor  Turner  gives  little  more  information  than  in  his  former 
volume,  Europe,  1780-1020,  published  early  last  year. 

The  two  volumes,  perhaps  of  necessity,  closely  resemble  each  other. 
The  second,  indeed,  is  part  two  of  the  first,  largely  reprinted,  but  ex- 
panded by  the  addition  of  109  pages  to  the  author's  original  treatment 
of  the   period  extending   from   Germany's  military   triumphs   in   1864- 


Conybeare:  Russian  Dissenters  313 

1870  to  the  close  of  the  World  War;  and  with  the  five  introductory 
chapters  already  mentioned,  which  consist  largely,  though  not  wholly, 
of  material  also  found  in  the  earlier  work,  hut  here  adapted,  remodelled 
and  reorganized  to  fit  the  later. 

Occasional  statements  occur  in  this  volume,  as  in  the  earlier  one,  to 
which  exception  may  fairly  be  taken,  For  example,  the  author  says 
in  reference  to  the  Germans:  "They  undertook  to  cut  the  communica- 
tions of  the  allies  and  starve  England  out  by  sinking  all  allied  ships 
by  means  of  submarines"  (p.  478).  As  the  Germans  also  used  their 
submarines  to  attack  neutral  ships,  and  actually  did  sink  approximately 
1,800,000  gross  tons  of  neutral  shipping,  ought  there  not  to  be  some 
indication  of  these  facts  in  the  above  statement?  Concerning  the 
number  of  deaths  in  battle,  we  read :  "  The  number  of  men  killed  was 
estimated  at  9,000,000  ..."  (p.  525).  But  the  figures  of  both  French 
and  American  officials  range  from  7.500,000  to  7,600,000. 

This  volume  is  not  based  on  research,  nor  can  it  be  considered  a 
new  and  suggestive  discussion  in  any  essential  respect.  It  is,  neverthe- 
less, a  valuable  and  useful  work.  It  is  unequalled  as  a  text-book  for 
use  in  courses  on  the  World  War,  where  a  preliminary  study  of  the 
antecedents  and  causes  of  the  struggle  is  deemed  desirable.  It  is  su- 
perior in  this  respect  to  the  other  treatises  on  nineteenth-century  Eu- 
rope, as  those  of  Hayes,  Hazen,  Schapiro,  and  Holt  and  Chilton,  and 
better  even  than  Seymour's  Diplomatic  Background  of  the  War,  because 
broader  in  scope.  It  is  clear,  well  organized,  contains  a  huge  store 
of  essential  information,  omits  details  without  leaving  the  story  vague 
and  meaningless,  covers  every  important  phase  of  European  civilization, 
and  is  admirable  on  international  relations  and  events  leading  to  the 
war. 

Earl  Evelyn   Sperry. 

Russian  Dissenters.  By  Frederick  C.  Conybeare.  (Harvard 
Theological  Studies,  vol.  X.)  (Cambridge:  Harvard  University 
Press.     192 1.    Pp.  x,  370.    $4.00.) 

But  little  has  been  written  in  Western  Europe  on  the  religious  life 
in  Russia.  I  mean  real  research  work,  not  half-fantastic  pictures  such 
as  that  of  Stephen  Graham.  One  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of 
Russian  religious  life  which  has  always  attracted  the  attention  of 
Western  Europe  is  the  problem  of  the  "Dissenters"  (Raskolniki)  and 
of  the  different  sects  both  rationalistic  and  mystic,  according  to  the 
usual  classification.  Much  has  been  written  on  this  subject  in  Russia. 
Careful  studies  of  the  written  sources,  careful  collections  of  oral 
evidence  have  been  printed,  and  yet  some  basic  questions  remain  still 
unsolved.  The  time  for  a  serene  and  unbiassed  solution  of  the  problem 
is  not  yet  come.  Until  the  last  revolution,  the  state  and  the  ruling 
church  kept  on  persecuting  the  dissenters  and  the  sectarians  and  trying 


3 1 4  Reviews  of  Books 

to  explain  their  attitude  toward  them  in  various  official,  semi-official, 
and  private  publications.  On  the  other  hand  the  Russian  liberals  took 
decidedly  the  side  of  the  dissenters  and  sectarians. 

One  of  the  main  problems  as  regards  the  dissenters  is  how  to  ex- 
plain their  schism  and  their  bitter  fight  against  the  official  Niconian 
church.  Was  it  purely  a  matter  of  religion,  or  one  of  the  signs  of 
the  decisive  break  between  the  main  population  of  Russia  and  the 
intellectuals,  or  one  of  the  forms  of  social  and  political  struggle?  On 
the  other  hand  the  main  problem  regarding  the  sectarians  is:  have  we 
to  regard  them  as  a  result  of  a  Western  influence  on  the  Russian  re- 
ligious life,  superficial  and  temporary,  or  is  it  a  peculiar  product  of  the 
Russian  religious  evolution,  bringing  back  some  of  the  most  ancient 
currents  of  the  early  Christian  and  perhaps  pre-Christian  religious  life 
of  mankind  in  general? 

We  must  welcome  therefore  the  publication  of  a  serious  unbiassed 
study  on  this  subject  by  a  prominent  student  of  the  history  of  religions 
in  general.  I  have  not  to  introduce  Dr.  Conybeare  to  the  readers  of 
the  Review.  He  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  students  of  the  Christian 
faith  in  general,  whose  knowledge  is  based  not  only  on  a  careful  study 
of  documents  written  in  different  languages  but  also  on  extended 
travels  which  brought  him  occasionally  to  Russia  also.  I  do  not  know 
how  far  he  is  acquainted  with  the  Russian  language.  The  translations 
from  the  Russian  given  in  his  book  are  generally  correct  although  the 
same  words  and  expressions  which  are  translated  in  some  parts  cor- 
rectly are  grossly  misunderstoood  in  others.1  Is  it  not  due  to  the  use  of 
several  different  secretaries?  To  the  same  use  of  secretaries  I  am  in- 
clined to  ascribe  many  repetitions  and  a  peculiar  structure  of  the  whole 
work.  Instead  of  giving  the  facts  as  he  understands  them,  Dr.  Cony- 
beare generally  gives  extensive  quotations  from  Russian  books  which 
very  often  repeat  the  same  facts  but  generally  from  different  points  of 
view.  It  is  awkward  to  read  a  passage  of  Ivanovski,  a  defender  of  the 
official  point  of  view,  followed  by  a  quotation  from  Usov,  a  strong 
supporter  of  the  idea  that  the  Raskols  represent  a  social  and  political 
movement,  and  a  quotation  from  Miliukov,  who  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  Raskol  was  a  reaction  of  Old  Russia  against  the  new  one.  From 
a  historian  we  should  expect  not  an  apposition  but  a  critical  selection 
of  ascertained  facts.2 

There  is  the  same  uncertainty  in  his  judgment  about  the  Raskol. 

1  See,  e.g.,  p.  104:  "This  was  the  establishment  of  a  hospital  for  the  sick 
.  called   the   Kladbich   in   the  village  of   Rogozh  " ;    Kladbishche  means   in   Russian 

cemetery ;  later  on  C.  gives  quite  a  good  description  of  this  Rogozhskoe  Klad- 
bishche. Many  times  C.  speaks  of  the  province  of  Nizhegorod  meaning  the  prov- 
ince of  Nizhnii-Novgorod,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  book  he  again  gives  the 
correct  form,  etc. 

2  I  regret  also  that  no  index  is  appended  to  the  book.  Every  author  should 
know  that  a  book  without  an  index  will  perhaps  be  read,  but  never  consulted. 


Raymond:  Portraits  of  the  Nineties  3[5 

Of  course  Dr.  Conybeare  is  far  from  supporting  the  official  optimism  of 
Ivanovski.  He  sympathizes  both  with  the  dissidents  and  with  the 
sectarians,  as  almost  everybody  in  Russia  does,  but  I  have  been  unable  to 
find  that  he  gives  a  definite  answer  to  the  main  question :  how  to  ex- 
plain the  Raskol.  In  his  introductory  chapter  he  seems  to  insist  on 
the  political  and  social  side  of  the  struggle,  following  Usov ;  on  p. 
262  he  adopts  the  view  of  Miliukov,  which  is  generally  accepted  by  the 
leading  Russian  historians  (Kliuchevski,  Platonov,  etc.).  I  have 
been  surprised  by  the  way  not  to  find  any  mention  of  the  views  of 
Kliuchevski,  whose  treatment  of  the  Raskol  forms  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  parts  of  his  history  of  Russia.  More  definite  are  the  views 
of  Dr.  Conybeare  on  the  sects  and,  while  his  dealing  with  the  Raskol 
has  not  brought  forward  the  question  of  its  nature  (except  in  some 
minor  points),  his  treatment  of  the  sects  is  both  interesting  and  stimu- 
lating. Here  he  appears  to  be  in  his  own  domain,  and  shows  with  full 
evidence  how  closely  connected  are  the  Russian  sects  with  many  analo- 
gous movements  in  the  early  history  of  Christianity. 

It  was  not  my  intention  in  pointing  out  some  minor  defects  of 
this  book  to  question  its  value  and  its  importance.  There  is  not 
very  much  that  is  new  to  Russian  scholars,  as  the  study  is  based  on 
secondary  sources,  but  it  should  be  read  by  every  scholar  in  America 
and  Western  Europe  who  is  interested  in  religious  problems.  Russia's 
religious  evolution  is  as  peculiar  and  as  full  of  interesting  phenomena 
as  is  everything  in  the  historical  evolution  of  that  land. 

M.    ROSTOVTSEFF. 

Portraits  of  the  Nineties.  By  E.  T.  Raymond.  (New  York? 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  1921.  Pp.  319.  $4.50.) 
Following  in  the  footsteps  of  McCarthy,  Russell,  and  Hutchinson, 
who  have  drawn  for  us  the  portraits  of  the  English  sixties,  seventies, 
and  eighties,  Mr.  Raymond  essays  a  similar  task  for  the  final  decade  of 
the  century.  Few  will  deny  his  success.  His  tone  is  sympathetic  and 
appreciative,  a  cheering  contrast  to  the  mordant  criticism  of  Mr. 
Keynes  and  the  "  Gentleman  with  the  Duster  ".  His  appreciation,  how- 
ever, is  discriminating  and  the  cloying  eulogies  of  the  old-fashioned 
biographical  sketch  are  wholly  lacking.  Like  most  biographical  essay- 
ists of  the  moment  he  seeks,  rather  too  overtly  perhaps,  to  make  his 
impression  through  humor.  Some  of  his  epigrams  seem  labored;  he  is 
often  too  obviously  in  search  of  an  anecdote,  which  sometimes  serves 
and  sometimes  does  not  serve  to  characterize  his  subject.  But  of  true 
wit  there  is  not  a  little,  and  by  his  wealth  of  literary  and  biographical 
allusion  he  has  imparted  a  flavor  of  nineteenth-century  "  culture  "  which 
more  than  anything  else  helps  to  explain  the  personalities  he  presents. 
He  recalls  the  nineties  as,  on  the  whole,  a  golden  age. 

The    sun    shone   brighter    in    those   days;    the    east    wind    was   less 


3  1 6  Reviews  of  Books 

bitter;  .  .  .  The  steaks  were  juicier;  the  landladies  were  a  kindlier 
race.  There  was  a  zest  and  flavor  in  life  lacking  today.  Youth  was 
emancipated  from  the  harsher  kind  of  parental  control  and  had  not 
yet  found  a  stern  step-father  in  the  State.  The  world  was  all  before  it 
where  to  choose  and  the  future  was  veiled  in  a  rose-colored  mist. 
Such  is  the  atmosphere  of  the  book. 

Mr.  Raymond  has  dealt  with  a  host  of  personalities.  No  less  than 
twenty-eight  are  portrayed  in  separate  chapters,  while  in  the  final 
three  he  brings  together  groups  of  lawyers,  journalists,  and  actors  for 
our  inspection.  The  majority  of  his  portraits  are  of  political  leaders 
and  his  choice  would  coincide  in  general  with  popular  judgment;  the 
reader  perhaps  might  be  surprised  by  the  inclusion  of  such  men  as 
Earl  Spencer,  Lord  Courtney  of  Penwith,  and  Sir  Henry  Fowler,  and 
by  the  omission  of  Bryce,  Sir  Charles  Dilke,  Mr.  Ritchie,  and  Sir 
Michael  Hicks-Beach,  to  none  of  whom  has  the  reviewer  been  able 
to  discover  even  an  allusion.  Cecil  Rhodes  naturally  finds  a  place,  as 
do  Archbishop  Temple  and  Mandell  Creighton,  Oscar  Wilde  and 
Thomas  Hardy,  artists  such  as  Leighton  and  Watts,  journalists  such  as 
Stead,  evangelists  such  as  Spurgeon  and  Booth.  The  book  is  in  no 
sense  a  biographical  dictionary ;  the  author  avoids  dates  except  as  the 
age  of  the  men  under  discussion  happens  to  affect  their  position. 
There  is  little  of  the  detailed  facts  of  their  careers,  which  are  sketched 
rapidly  and  broadly. 

In  general,  popular  judgment  has  been  accepted  and  re-enforced. 
The  writer  has  little  use  for  the  expert  analyst  who,  because  of  his 
presence  behind  the  scenes,  claims  to  make  final  judgment;  he  puts 
his  confidence  in  the  opinion  of  the  gallery  rather  than  in  that  of 
the  green-room.  "  On  the  whole ",  he  says,  "  the  gallery  knows  a 
good  play  when  it  sees  it  and  is  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  house 
free  from  the  many  cranky  prepossessions  of  the  moment.  ...  It  may 
be  too  generous  when  it  claps  and  a  trifle  unjust  when  it  hisses,  but 
it  is  honest  in  both  moods."  The  author  is  not  so  much  interested, 
therefore,  in  a  searching  analysis  of  his  characters,  as  he  is  in  showing 
the  impression  they  made  upon  their  age  and  what  their  contemporaries 
thought  of  them.  "  When  we  can  be  sure  of  doing  perfect  justice  in 
the  simplest  police  case  we  may  begin  to  talk  about  the  infallibility 
of  a  tribunal  of  pedants.  .  .  .  Carry  analysis  to  the  length  of  an 
autopsy  and  hero  and  scoundrel  look  very  much  alike."  Broadly  speak- 
ing, then,  Mr.  Raymond's  book  is  a  picture  of  public  opinion  rather 
than  a  gallery  of  personalities.  It  will  yield  no  concrete  material  for 
the  future  doctoral  dissertation.  It  is  filled  with  suggestions,  however, 
and  ought  not  to  be  neglected  by  anyone  interested  in  the  social  and 
political  chronicles  of  England,  particularly  of  London,  at  the  close  of 
the  Victorian  era. 


Stuart:  French  Foreign  Policy.  1898-1914       317 

French  Foreign  Policy  from  Fashoda  to  Serajevo  (1898-1914).     By 

Graham   H.   Stuart,  Ph.D.      (New  York:   Century  Company. 

1921.     Pp.  xii,  392.     $3.00.) 

A  sketch  of  the  diplomatic  position  of  France  in  the  Europe  of 
j  898  is  the  background  against  which  Dr.  Stuart  outlines  the  develop- 
ment of  French  policy  at  Fashoda,  at  the  first  Hague  Conference,  and 
during  the  Boer  War.  His  third  chapter  reviews  French  interests 
(1898-1905)  in  Turkey,  Crete,  and  Siam,  and  in  the  Boxer  uprising  in 
China;  his  fourth  treats  of  relations  with  Italy  and  the  Vatican.  Un- 
der the  heading  Entente  Cordiale  he  traces  at  some  length  the  growth 
of  Anglo-French  accord  through  the  problems  of  the  Bagdad  railway, 
African  difficulties,  and  the  Russo-Japanese  war.  Six  chapters  on 
the  Moroccan  question — European  rivalries,  the  fall  of  Delcasse,  Alge- 
ciras,  Franco-German  rivalry,  1907-1909,  the  Failure  of  the  1909  Settle- 
ment, and  Agadir — form  the  heart  of  the  book  and  contain,  perhaps,  its 
most  important  contribution.  The  final  chapter  leads  Towards  the 
World  War.  Although  the  heading  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  com- 
prehensive treatment,  many  important  developments  from  191 1  to  1914 
are  omitted;  there  is  no  discussion,  for  example,  of  French  policy  with 
reference  to  Belgium  or  the  question  of  neutrality;  no  adequate  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  Anglo-French  naval  understanding  or  to  the  Caillaux 
case  and  its  international  background.  With  respect  to  the  rest  of  the 
book  this  chapter  is  foreshortened  and  the  termination  is  distinctly 
weak.    No  attempt  is  made  to  carry  the  story  beyond  Serajevo. 

Morocco  is  rightly  emphasized  as  a  very  significant  feature  of 
French  foreign  policy,  1904-19 14,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  book  as  a 
whole  has  been  worked  up  as  a  setting  for  a  study  of  this  subject, 
rather  than  to  give  a  thorough,  well  proportioned  presentation  of  the 
course  of  French  diplomacy  within  the  limits  set.  Certainly,  im- 
portant aspects  have  been  overlooked  or  sacrificed  to  make  way  for  the 
Moroccan  problem.  Relations  with  Russia  throughout  the  period  1904- 
1914.  the  Bosnian  crisis,  the  Tripolitan  affair  and,  in  general.  Mediter- 
ranean interests  have  not  been  given  sufficient  emphasis.  Problems 
such  as  the  attitude  of  France  during  the  Spanish-American  War  and 
the  real  inwardness  of  the  French  position  during  the  Boer  War  have 
not  really  been  attacked. 

In  form,  Dr.  Stuart's  presentation  is  clear  and  readable ;  in  content, 
it  is  on  the  whole  an  admirable  recasting  and  elaboration  of  many  of 
those  expositions  which  were  so  hastily  prepared,  during  the  early  days 
of  the  war,  for  the  enlightenment  of  the  American  public.  As  a  manual 
for  the  general  reader  and  the  college  student  it  will  be  a  convenient 
synthesis.  And  yet  its  extensive  documentation  argues,  possibly,  a 
more  ambitious  intent.  For  a  well-rounded  piece  of  scholarship  the 
book  is  obviously  too  big  in  scope  and  too  small  in  compass.  The 
French  point  of  view  is  over-developed  in  proportion  to  the  attention 


3 1 8  Reviews  of  Books 

given  to  other  angles  of  consideration.  Although  the  author  is  gen- 
erally moderate  in  his  conclusions  and  treatment,  his  sympathies  are 
apparent;  he  has  drawn  his  material  too  exclusively  from  French 
sources.  An  extensive  acquaintance  with  French  official  documents  is 
demonstrated  but  there  are  no  signs  that  many-  excellent  secondary 
books  have  been  exploited — particularly  German  books.  The  recent 
books  of  Eckardstein,  Schwertfeger,  Hammann  and  Friedjung  have 
much  of  general  importance  to  contribute  to  a  study  of  this  kind.  It 
is  strange  that  no  reference  is  made,  in  presenting  the  Moroccan 
question,  to  the  work  of  Closs,  Zimmermann,  Diercks,  or  Wirth,  not  to 
mention  the  books  of  the  Frenchmen,  Bernard  and  Gourdin. 

A  bibliography  of  eight  pages,  although  not  announced  as  com- 
prehensive, ought,  in  a  book  of  this  character,  to  contain  some  critique, 
and  it  should  not  omit  so  many  obvious  titles;  at  least  all  books  cited  in 
the  text  should  be  included.  Cases  in  point  are  Jaray,  La  Politique 
Franco-Anglaise,  cited  p.  109,  note  23,  and  Millet,  Notre  Politique 
Exterieure,  cited  p.  121,  note  49.  There  are  many  similar  omissions 
in  the  index. 

Laurence  Bradford  Packard. 

My  Memoirs.  By  Prince  Ludwig  Windischgraetz.  Translated 
by  Constance  Vesey.  (Boston  and  New  York:  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company.     1921.     Pp.  356.     $5.00.) 

From  three  of  the  most  important  statesmen  in  Austria-Hungary 
during  the  war  we  now  have  valuable  personal  narratives  written  in 
the  time  of  their  downfall  or  exile — Czernin,  Andrassy,  and  Windisch- 
graetz. From  a  fourth,  greater  than  any  of  this  trio,  we  shall  probably 
have  nothing,  for  Stephan  Tisza  was  assassinated  on  the  flagstones 
of  his  own  baronial  hall  at  the  very  close  of  the  war,  just  as  the  rotten 
fabric  of  the  Hapsburg  monarchy  was  falling  to  pieces.  Czernin's 
In  the  World  War  is  valuable  for  its  inside  information  on  the  Brest- 
Litovsk  and  other  diplomatic  negotiations  which  he  conducted  as 
foreign  minister  until  his  fall  in  191 7;  but  as  an  apologia  it  is  hardly 
convincing.  Julius  Andrassy's  Diplomatic  ttnd  Weltkrieg  analyzes  with 
clear  penetration,  almost  with  philosophic  calm,  the  complex  internal 
conditions  in  the  Dual  Monarchy  into  which  he  had  been  initiated  by 
his  more  famous  father;  with  his  clear  grasp  of  the  situation  it  was 
probably  unfortunate  that  he  lacked  that  political  ambition  and  passion 
for  action,  of  which  most  of  his  fellow-Magyar  aristocrats  had  an 
excess,  and  so  did  not  finally  become  foreign  minister  until  October  25, 
1918 — when  it  was  too  late  to  salvage  any  of  the  wreckage.  Of  these 
three  volumes  of  memoirs,  the  most  valuable  to  the  historian  is  un- 
questionably that  of  Prince  Windischgraetz,  because  of  its  greater 
length,  its  vividness,  and  the  diary-like  detailed  accounts  of  the  tele- 
phone messages,  secret  meetings,   and  journeys  of  its  tireless  author. 


Windischgraetz:  My  Memoirs  319 

Prince  Ludwig  Windischgraetz,  grandson  of  the  field-marshal  who 
suppressed  revolution  in  Vienna  in  1848  and  son  of  one  of  the  highest 
officers  in  the  old  army,  by  birth  and  social  position  belonged  to  the 
circle  of  distinguished,  powerful,  and  narrow-minded  Magyar  aristo- 
crats. But  in  his  strenuous  youth  he  had  learned  that  there  was  a 
world  beyond  Tokay  and  that  he  was  no  longer  living  in  the  age  of 
feudalism.  As  military  attache  with  the  tsar's  troops  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  he  was  captured  at  Fakumen,  but  set  at  libeTty  by  the 
Japanese.  In  New  York  he  was  ambushed  by  thieves,  fired  upon  a 
mulatto,  and  had  to  spend  the  night  in  jail.  After  lion-hunting  in 
Africa  and  other  travels  he  returned  to  restore  the  prosperity  of  his 
ancestral  vineyards  in  Hungary,  married  Maria  Szechenyi,  and 
"  plunged  into  the  petty  arena  of  Hungarian  county  politics  with  my 
head  full  of  world  political  theories  and  studies  which  embraced  every 
quarter  of  the  globe"  (p.  23).  But  this  life  did  not  satisfy  his 
fiery  energy.  In  the  annexation  crisis  of  1908,  disguising  himself  as  a 
machinist  and  waiter,  he  collected  secret  information  in  Serbia.  Dur- 
ing the  following  months  of  calm  before  the  storm  he  constantly  at- 
tacked Berchtold  (a  cousin  of  his  wife's)  for  his  vacillation  and  in- 
competence. In  1914  this  stormy  petrel  was  only  thirty-two  years  old, 
but  he  had  learned  to  look  beyond  a  policy  of  petty  intrigue,  and  to 
recognize,  as  Sir  Robert  Hart  had  once  told  him  in  China,  that  "  Euro- 
pean policy  must  keep  in  view  an  area  extending  from  Vladivostok  to 
the  Rhine". 

The  greater  part  of  Windischgraetz's  memoirs  is  the  story  of  the 
fight  he  made,  during  the  war,  against  the  "  system ",  the  autocratic 
clique  of  corrupt  and  incompetent  military  and  diplomatic  officials  who 
had  plunged  the  Dual  Monarchy  into  a  war  which  they  did  not  know 
how  to  conduct  effectively.  But  for  three  years,  while  he  was  serving 
most  of  the  time  at  the  front,  he  could  do  little  but  protest  against 
the  unwise  orders  which  came  from  the  military  clique.  The  Austrian 
Supreme  Command  was  often  working  at  cross  purposes  with  the  Aus- 
trian Foreign  Office ;  to  one  of  his  protests  he  received  the  classic  reply, 
"  The  Foreign  Office  must  not  know  what  policy  the  Supreme  Command 
is  pursuing"  (p.  96)!  In  contrast  to  his  contempt  for  the  Austrian 
Supreme  Command  is  his  admiration  for  the  efficiency  of  Emperor 
William's  officers  on  the  southeastern  front ;  yet  he  was  equally  op- 
posed to  Burian's  foreign  policy,  "  which  was  characterized  from  the 
very  first  by  undiscriminating  and  slavish  recognition  of  German  con- 
trol" (p.  101). 

After  the  death  of  Francis  Joseph  some  of  the  Supreme  Command, 
who  were  more  concerned  with  military  decorations  than  service  at  the 
front,  were  dismissed.  At  the  Ballhausplatz  Burian  gave  way  to 
Czernin,  and  Tisza  yielded  the  Hungarian  premiership  to  Wekerle.  Fi- 
nally,  in   October,    1917,  Windischgraetz  himself  was   appointed  Hun- 

AM.   HIST.   RKV.,   VOL.    XXVII. 22. 


320  Reviews  of  Books 

garian  food  minister,  an  office  which  he  apparently  filled  with  great 
energy  and  success.  He  now  won  the  esteem  of  Emperor  Charles, 
became  one  of  his  most  intimate  advisers,  and  secured  his  theoretical 
approval  for  a  wide-reaching  programme  of  reform  which  Windisch- 
graetz  laid  before  him  in  M,ay,  1918;  an  unequivocal  statement  to  Ger- 
many of  Austria's  absolute  inability  to  carry  on  the  war  longer;  an 
immediate  separate  peace  with  the  Entente  if  Germany  insisted  on  con- 
tinuing the  war;  autonomy  for  the  subject  nationalities  (except  Galicia 
which  was  to  be  ceded  to  Poland)  ;  and  universal  suffrage  in  Hungary. 
But  Charles  had  not  the  courage  to  put  this  programme  into  practical 
effect — until  it  was  too  late.  Windischgraetz  and  Szilassy  both  think 
the  Monarchy  and  much  of  its  territory  could  have  been  saved  if  the 
emperor  had  acted  on  this  programme  at  once.  This  however  is  very 
doubtful;  at  least  it  must  remain  one  of  the  unsolved  "ifs"  of  history. 
When  at  last  Charles  did  act  on  Windischgraetz's  advice  by  appointing 
Julius  Andrassy  as  foreign  minister  (Oct.  25),  the  debacle  had  already 
begun.  National  councils  had  been  set  up  in  Prag,  Agram,  and  Buda- 
Pesth;  Germany  was  in  retreat  in  France;  and  the  Italians  were  break- 
ing through  in  the  South.  In  Hungary  Andrassy's  own  son-in-law, 
Karolyi,  driven  by  ambition,  treacherously  deceived  his  father  and 
dethroned  his  emperor.  Windischgraetz,  who  remained  loyal  to  Charles 
and  was  one  of  those  who  shared  in  his  second  ill-starred  effort  to  re- 
turn to  the  Hungarian  throne  in  October,  1921,  is  very  bittter  against 
Karolyi;  perhaps  he  paints  his  perfidy  too  black.  Here,  and  in  some 
other  passages,  his  statements  must  probably  be  taken  cum  grano  salis. 
Nowhere  is  there  a  better  account  than  in  this  spirited  book  of 
why  and  how  the  Dual  Monarchy  at  last  collapsed. 

Sidney    B.    Fay. 

Life  of  Veniselos.  By  S.  B.  Chester  (Chester  of  Wethersfield  and 
Blary),  with  a  Letter  from  His  Excellency  M.  Venizelos.  (New 
York :  George  H.  Doran  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xvi,  321.  $6.00.) 
Mr.  Chester  has  had  exceptional  advantages  in  the  performance  of 
his  task.  In  addition  to  five  friends  of  the  statesman,  among  them  his 
permanent  secretary,  to  whom  he  expresses  his  obligations  (add  Mr. 
Leonard  Magnus,  p.  305,  note),  M.  Venizelos  himself  "found  time 
...  to  enlighten  me  [the  author]  upon  various  matters  connected  with 
his  life  and  work"  (p.  vii),  and,  indeed,  in  the  introductory  letter  states 
that  he  read  that  part  of  the  book  which  deals  with  the  Cretan  Question 
(p.  vi).  We  may,  therefore,  regard  the  present  biography  as  being  in 
a  sense  "  inspired  ",  a  circumstance  which  should  guarantee  it  an  unusual 
value  among  books  of  the  kind,  and  in  particular  may  assume  that  the 
record  of  the  Cretan  imbroglio,  which  is  here  presented  at  considerable 
length,  gives  an  unusually  accurate  account  of  this  confused  period 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  chief  actor  therein ;  and  these  chapters 


Chester:  Life  of  Venizelos  321 

contain  what  is  probably  the  book's  most  valuable  contribution  to 
knowledge. 

One  other  point,  the  precise  bearing  and  implications  of  which  are,  I 
confess,  not  altogether  clear  to  me,  ought,  perhaps,  for  the  sake  of  the 
critical  student  of  history,  to  be  recorded  in  this  context.  In  the  same 
introductory  letter  M.  Venizelos  writes,  "  So  far,  I  have  declined  to 
read  manuscripts  of  books  sent  to  me  and  dealing  with  myself  and  I 
could  not  make  an  exception  in  your  case.''  This  statement  appears 
to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with  that  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Gibbons,  "  Much 
of  the  story  has  come  from  Premier  Venizelos  himself  and  from  M. 
Politis,  Greek  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  since  1917.  These  main 
actors  in  the  regeneration  of  Greece  have  been  gracious  enough  to  read 
my  manuscript  and  call  my  attention  to  errors  of  fact"  (Venizelos, 
1920,  pp.  x  ff.). 

The  composition  is  lucid,  and  there  are  numerous  but  not  wearisome 
quotations  from  conversations  and  documents  of  all  kinds,  but  unfor- 
tunately the  sources  for  these  are  seldom  given.  A  marked  vivacity  of 
style  helps  to  sustain  interest  during  the  bewildering  mazes  of  intrigue 
and  negotiations,  but  leads  to  occasional  lapses  from  dignity,  as  in  the 
case  of  some  pretty  sorry  puns  (pp.  190,  193,  239),  and  the  rather  over- 
done comparison  of  King  Constantine  with  a  balky  mule,  flinging  itself 
upon  the  ground  and  raising  a  "cloud  of  dust  and  dirt"  (pp.  233  ff.), 
a  variety  of  jeu  d'esprit  which  historians  might  perhaps  better  leave  to 
the  cartoonist's  less  rigorous  sense  of  decorum. 

Regarded  as  biography,  the  most  noteworthy  weakness  of  the  sketch 
is  the  failure  to  present  effectively  those  substantial  and  charming  traits 
of  intellect,  character,  and  bearing,  so  brilliantly  set  forth,  for  example, 
by  Mr.  Gibbons  (op.  cit.,  pp.  162  ff.),  which  make  M.  Venizelos.  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  world's  greatest  statesmen,  also  perhaps  its  most 
engaging  public  personality.  Mr.  Chester's  treatment  of  this  theme 
evinces  inexperience  in  the  delineation  of  character,  and  a  tendency  at 
times  to  descend  to  the  trivial.  Thus  the  formidable  list  of  French 
wines  which  "  would  "  or  would  not  "  probably  appeal  to  him  "  might 
properly   have   given   place   to   more    significant   traits   of    individuality. 

Considered  as  history,  the  present  work  gives  adequate  consideration, 
indeed,  to  the  military  and  especially  the  political  aspects  of  M.  Veni- 
zelos's  career,  but  there  is  hardly  more  than  a  mention  of  his  masterly 
programme  of  educational,  economic,  and  social  reforms.  These  con- 
stitute the  substantial  basis  upon  which  alone  could  have  been  erected 
the  brilliant  diplomatic  and  military  achievements  which,  although  for 
the  time  being  they  focus  attention  upon  themselves,  will,  in  the  juster 
perspective  of  the  future,  without  doubt  occupy  a  distinctly  less  con- 
spicuous position.  Even  in  politics  Mr.  Chester  omits  some  important 
facts  that  constitute  an  integral  part  of  the  story,  and  treats  others  with 
a  euphemism  and  optimism  which,  if  taken  at  their  face  value,  would 
leave  one  simply  bewildered  at  the  lamely  explained,  but  by  no  means 


322 


Reviews  of  Books 


inexplicable,  upheaval  of  the  election  of  November,  1920.  The  present 
work  cannot,  therefore,  escape  wholly  the  charge  of  a  measure  of  par- 
tizanship,  and  that  is  the  more  unfortunate  because  the  subject  of  it 
himself  and  the  large  outlines  of  his  public  policy  hold  so  secure  a 
place  in  history  and  the  respect  of  mankind  that  they  have  relatively 
little  to  fear  from  an  impartial  and  even  critical  examination  of  the 
complete  record.  King  Constantine's  basic  political  error  seems  to  have 
been  that  he.  together'  with  the  General  Staff,  believed  the  war  would 
end  in  a  stalemate — surely  a  not  unreasonable  conjecture  before  the 
entry  of  America^-but  of  his  devotion  to  what  he  believed  to  be  the 
best  interests  of  his  people,  and  of  the  confidence  which  great  numbers 
of  them  have  in  his  integrity,  there  can  hardly  exist  a  reasonable  doubt. 
The  prolonged  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  statesman  over  the 
methods  by  which  Greece  was  to  be  best  served  is  no  doubt  still  too 
recent  to  allow  on  either  side  the  magnanimous  treatment  of  an  adver- 
sary; but  now  that  Constantine,  in  striving  manfully  to  achieve  the 
long  overdue  redemption  of  the  Hellenes  of  Western  Asia  Minor, 
is  but  executing  the  policy  conceived  and  inaugurated  by  Venizelos,  it 
is  perhaps  not  too  quixotic  to  hope  that,  forgetting  the  past,  they  may 
find  a  basis  for  reconciliation  in  a  united  effort  to  safeguard  the 
future  of  the  nation. 

W.  A.  Oldfather. 

The  New  World  of  Islam.     By  Lothrop  Stoddard,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

(New    York:    Charles    Scribner's    Sons.      1921.      Pp.    vii,    362. 

$3.00.) 

Between  journalism  and  history  lies  a  debatable  ground,  having 
to  do  with  the  most  recent  or  "  current "  events.  The  journalist  stands 
on  the  field  of  time  at  that  advancing  line  called  the  present  which 
separates  the  partly  known  past  from  the  wholly  unknown  future. 
His  first  concern,  as  new  events  are  disclosed,  is  rapid  recognition,  ap- 
proximate discernment,  and  tentative  description.  He  is  not  held  by 
his  own  conscience,  or  the  demands  of  his  readers,  to  the  highest 
attainable  measure  of  accuracy,  perspective,  and  insight.  The  historian, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  less  concerned  with  promptness  than  with  the 
desire  to  record  reliably  what  has  indubitably  happened,  and  to  inter- 
pret it  with  some  measure  of  finality.  Not  long  since  he  often  scorned 
to  deal  with  affairs  of  the  latest  quarter-century,  on  the  ground  that 
adequate  materials  could  not  in  that  time  become  available  for  con- 
structing a  narrative  worthy  to  be  called  history.  With  more  rapid 
publication  of  documents  and  reporting  of  facts  (here  he  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  journalist),  and  under  the  pressure  of  present-day 
demands  for  timeliness  and  practical  service,  the  historian  ventures 
progressively  nearer  to  the  present. 

European   countries  have  developed,   and   America   is  beginning   to 


Stoddard:  The  Nciij  World  of  Islam  323 

produce,  an  intermediate  group,  the  publicists,  who  might  be  described 
as  historians  of  current  events,  or  as  historical  journalists.  They  write 
carefully  considered  editorials,  periodical  articles,  and  books,  in  which 
they  endeavor  to  interpret  the  most  recent  events.  They  are  frequntly 
tempted  by  popular  demand,  the  rewards  of  successful  trials,  and  the 
excitement  of  watching  the  onrush  of  events,  to  essay  another  role,  that 
of  anticipating  or  "  forecasting"  the  future.  The  American  public  wel- 
comes the  writings  of  the  publicists,  but  is  somewhat  suspicious  of 
them,  partly  because  of  possessing  too  little  information  and  back- 
ground to  distinguish  propagandists,  sensation-mongers,  and  would-be 
prophets  from  serious  and  scientific  writers,  and  partly  beause  it  is 
pleasanter  to  assume  that  the  world  is  settled  and  running  smoothly  than 
to  give  attention  to  the  endless  movements,  machinations,  intrigues,  and 
readjustments  which  mingle  with  the  elements  of  every  complex  of 
human  activities. 

Mr.  Stoddard  writes  as  a  publicist  who  wishes  to  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  historian.  There  is  nothing  in  the  present  volume  to  bear 
out  the  charge  which  has  been  brought  against  some  of  his  other 
writings  of  alarmist  intentions.  He  keeps  admirably  to  his  own  dictum: 
"  All  that  we  may  wisely  venture  is  to  observe,  describe,  and  analyze 
the  various  elements  in  the  great  transition  "  (p.  355)  ;  this  summarizing 
of  the  present  situation  in  the  Islamic  world  as  a  "great  transition"  is 
clearly  in  harmony  with  the  facts.  He  scrupulously  avoids  prediction, 
except  of  a  very  guarded  and  general  character  (pp.  156,  295,  for  ex- 
ample). He  refrains  from  affirmations  of  certainty  where  none  can  be 
attained,  as  when  he  balances,  sometimes  by  quoting  contrary  opinions, 
the  questions  of  the  moral  right  behind  benevolently  directed  imperial- 
ism (p.  98),  and  of  the  present  fitness  of  Asiatics  for  self-government 
(PP.  143  «■)■ 

The  first  quarter  of  the  book  is  introductory,  containing  such  a  brief 
general  sketch  of  Mohammedan  history  as  is  believed  to  be  necessary 
in  all  books  on  the  Near  and  Middle  East.  Mr.  Stoddard  handles  this 
vividly  and  freshly,  and  proceeds  to  a  somewhat  more  detailed  account 
of  Pan-Islamism,  which  he  holds  to  have  begun  in  its  modern  form 
with  the  Wahabi  movement,  and  to  sum  up  so  wide  a  range  of  move- 
ments, political,  religious,  educational,  missionary,  etc.,  as  to  amount 
almost  to  a  Mohammedan  Renaissance.  The  thesis  of  the  remainder  of 
the  book  is  to  estimate  the  effect,  up  to  the  present  moment,  of  western 
influence  upon  Islam.  This  is  no  simple  task,  involving  many  more  or 
less  self-conscious  peoples,  distributed  from  Morocco  to  India,  ruled 
in  various  ways  by  native  or  alien  governments,  and  moved  toward  evo- 
lution or  revolution  by  several  more  or  less  separate  groups  of  western 
influences.  It  would  perhaps  be  too  much  to  expect  evenness  of  treat- 
ment. The  political  side  is  handled  best,  with  especial  examination 
of  the  nationalist  movements  in  Persia.  Turkey,  Egypt,  India,  and 
Arabia.    A  number  of  leaders  little  known  to  the  West  are  introduced. 


324  Reviews  of  Books 

with  sketches  of  their  lives  and  epitomes  of  their  ideas:  for  example. 
Djemal-ed-Din  el-Afghani  (pp.  63  ff.)  and  Mustapha  Kamel  (pp.  179  ff., 
not  Mustapha  Kemal,  who  is  also  characterized,  pp.  226  ff.,  and  is  con- 
fused with  the  former  in  the  index)  ;  the  discrimination  of  personalities 
and  movements  is  in  general  clearly  and  effectively  done.  The  chap- 
ters on  economic  and  social  change  are  less  successful,  consisting  too 
much  of  insufficiently  digested  compilation  and  quotation,  failing  in 
completeness  as  surveys  of  all  the  Islamic  countries,  and  showing  too 
little  organic  connection  with  the  main  subject.  Religious  and  cultural 
changes  are  not  separately  considered,  but  receive  incidental  attention. 
Pan-Turanism  and  Hindu  nationalism  are  held  to  be  so  interwoven  with 
Islam  as  to  require  a  place  in  the  book.  Perhaps  disproportionate 
space  is  given  to  the  peculiar  situation  in  India,  where,  under  the  small 
group  of  skilfully  governing  Englishmen,  a  numerous  and  proud  Mo- 
hammedan community  lives  among  thrice  as  many  non-Moslems,  also 
proud,  and  eager  for  a  change  in  certain  directions. 

Mr.  Stoddard's  estimate  of  the  historical  role  played  by  Turks 
and  Mongols  is  at  the  lowest  extreme:  "Their  object  was  not  conquest 
for  settlement,  not  even  loot,  but  in  great  part  a  sheer  satanic  lust  for 
blood  and  destruction"  (p.  17)  ;  Leon  Cahun  sees  more  method  in  their 
madness.  The  description  of  Moslem  conditions  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury is  perhaps  too  dark  (pp.  25  ff.).  It  would  be  more  accurate  to 
say  that  the  Young  Turkish  Revolution  of  1908  followed,  than  that  it 
preceded,  Persian  action  (p.  68).  The  reference  to  32,000,000  deaths 
from  famine  in  India  during  1919  is  not  correct  (p.  262).  Mr.  Stod- 
dard is  unsympathetic,  as  are  Americans  generally,  with  many  of  the 
methods  of  twentieth-century  European  imperialism  in  Asia.  His 
analysis,  in  the  last  chapter,  of  the  effect  of  Bolshevism  upon  Islam  is 
clear  and  moderate.  His  style  is  often  striking  and  effective,  as  when 
he  speaks  of  "  an  East,  torn  by  the  conflict  between  new  and  old,  facing 
a  West  riven  with  dissension  and  sick  with  its  mad  follies"  (p.  129). 
The  book  is  as  a  whole  remarkably  illuminating  and  reliable;  neverthe- 
less many  of  the  facts  related  may  be  surprising  to  readers  who  have 
not  followed  closely  the  course  of  events  in  the  Orient. 

A  map  of  the  Old  World  is  used  to  show  the  extreme  limit  attained 
by  Moslem  political  rule,  and  within  it  the  "  solid  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation of  the  present  day";  the  latter  phrase  is  not  strictly  accurate, 
since  there  is  some  admixture  of  Christians,  Jews,  etc.,  in  much  of  the 
area  so  designated.  Numerous  footnotes  contain  brief  explanations  and 
a  large  number  of  bibliographical  references.  Judging  from  these,  the 
material  used  has  been  mainly  books  and  periodicals  in  English  and 
French. 

Albert  Howe  Lybyer. 


Gathome-Hardy:  The  Norse  Discoverers         325 

BOOKS    OF    AMERICAN    HISTORY 

The  Norse  Discoverers  of  America:  The  Wineland  Sagas.  Trans- 
lated and  discussed  by  G.  M.  Gathorne-Hardy,  F.R.G.S.  (Ox- 
ford: Clarendon  Press.  1921.  Pp.  304.  14s.) 
Since  Nansen's  slashing  attempt,  in  1911,  to  rob  the  Vinland  sagas 
of  their  historical  reliability,  four  important  works  on  the  Norse 
voyages  have  appeared,  none  of  which  have  shown  any  disposition  to 
accept  his  chief  contentions.  These  works  are  by  Hovgaard  (1914), 
Fossum  (1918),  Steensby  (1918),  and  the  volume  under  consideration. 
Only  one  of  these  investigators  (Steensby,  of  Denmark)  agrees  with 
the  Scandinavian  scholars  Storm  and  Jonsson  that  the  Saga  of  Erik 
the  Red  is  a  more  reliable  record  than  the  so-called  Greenland  narra- 
tive of  the  Flat  Island  Book.  Fossum  and  Gathorne-Hardy  believe 
with  Hovgaard  that  "  both  accounts  .  .  .  may  probably  be  considered 
as  essentially  historic  and  essentially  of  equal  value".  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  these  three  open-minded  investigators,  without  any  pre- 
tensions to  expertness  in  textual  criticism,  and  relying  largely  on  com- 
mon sense,  the  contents  of  the  sagas,  and  detailed  knowledge  concerning 
the  north  Atlantic  lands  and  coast-lines,  give  the  philologists  a  hard 
run ;  while  Nansen,  with  a  wealth  of  research  in  a  dozen  fields  of 
learning  involved  in  the  Vinland  controversy,  is  definitively  vanquished. 
Gathorne-Hardy  deftly  contends,  in  his  common-sense  way,  that  "  the 
successful  colonization  of  Greenland  is  an  historical  fact,  and  its  story 
is  chronicled  in  precisely  those  sagas  which  are  here  under  consideration 
with  regard  to  Wineland  ".  This  general  refutation  is  followed  up  by  a 
detailed  and  comprehensive  investigation,  presented  in  such  an  emi- 
nently fair  and  reasonable  spirit,  that  the  critical  reader  is  led  to  be- 
lieve that  the  final  verdict  on  the  vexed  questions  of  this  controversy, 
where  specialized  knowledge  in  so  many  fields  has  been  invoked,  will 
be  given  by  laymen. 

So  far  as  the  essential  historicity  of  the  Vinland  sagas  is  con- 
cerned, Mr.  Gathorne-Hardy,  erudite  in  Old  Norse  historical  lore,  and 
with  ample  geographical  knowledge,  makes  a  distinctive  contribution 
by  piecing  and  dovetailing  the  two  discordant  sagas  into  one  harmonious 
story — seemingly  a  hazardous  process  from  the  standpoint  of  the  aver- 
age scholar,  but  the  result  is  effective  and  convincing.  Nothing  is  lost 
to  the  reader,  however,  as  the  eliminated  parts  are  gathered  in  an 
appendix,  following  the  reconstructed  story.  Professor  Hovgaard  seems 
to  have  first  suggested  this  dovetailing  process,  but  Mr.  Gathorne- 
Hardy  has  executed  it  without  any  suggestion  from  his  predecessor. 
Though  the  four  authors  cited  above  agree  in  being  convinced  of 
the  historical  accuracy  of  the  Vinland  sagas  in  their  main  features,  they 
come  to  pronounced  disagreement  on  the  question  of  the  landfall  of 
the  voyagers.     Steensby   (a  professor  of  geography  in  the  University 


326  Reviews  of  Books 

of  Copenhagen)  and  Fossum  (an  American  philologist)  both  contend 
for  the  lands  on  either  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
making  very  plausible  arguments;  while  both  Hovgaard  and  Gathorne- 
Hardy  place  the  most  southerly  points  reached  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  United  States,  the  former  placing  the  ultimate  point  in  Rhode 
Island,  while  the  latter  pushes  on  to  the  western  end  of  Long  Island 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River. 

This  disagreement  seems  to  indicate  that  the  problem  of  establishing 
a  landfall  is  unsolved  and  unsolvable.  And  Gathorne-Hardy,  despite 
the  detailed  presentation  of  his  argument,  concedes  in  his  introduction 
that  "  the  geographical  details  can  probably  never  be  settled  with  ab- 
solute finality". 

Apart  from  the  question  of  the  landfall,  the  volume  in  hand  is  a 
readable  and  convincing  book  on  the  actualities  of  the  Vinland  voyages. 
It  has  both  an  adequate  bibliography  and  an  excellent  index. 

Julius  E.  Olson. 

John    Wentworth,    Governor   of  New  Hampshire   1767-1775.     By 

Lawrence    Shaw    Mayo.      (Cambridge:    Harvard    University 

Press.     1921.     Pp.  xi,  208.    $5.00.) 

John  Wentworth,  last  royal  governor  of  New  Hampshire,  repre- 
sents the  attractive  New  England  gentleman  of  colonial  days,  well- 
born, well-bred,  well-balanced,  in  that  charming,  somewhat  aristocratic 
circle  of  well-to-do  Portsmouth  and  Exeter  families  who  lived  large 
lives  in  small  towns  whose  Main  Street  led  to  the  open  sea. 

One  is  tempted  to  apply  to  this  excellent  biography  what  Went- 
worth, in  his  ponderous  eighteenth-century  style,  wrote  to  Jeremy 
Belknap  on  returning  the  latter's  manuscript  of  the  first  chapter  of 
the  History  of  New  Hampshire:  "Your  care  in  the  composition  disap- 
points the  ambition  of  critical  examination,  and  gratifies  the  more 
pleasing  candour  of  friendship.  Both  combine  in  justifying  my  declara- 
tion that  I  cannot  suggest  an  amendment." 

The  manuscript  and  printed  sources  have  been  used  with  discrimina- 
tion ;  and  where  the  reviewer  has  been  able  to  examine  the  originals, 
he  finds  himself  much  in  the  position  of  Wentworth  toward  Belknap, 
and  therefore  unable  to  follow  the  author's  modest  request  in  his  disarm- 
ing preface,  that  the  reader  "will  give  me  the  benefit  of  his  keener 
perception  if  he  finds  that  I  have  been  misleading".  In  the  discussion 
of  Wentworth's  relation  with  his  opponents,  his  correspondence  with 
President  Wheelock,  and  his  attitude  on  the  eve  of  the  American 
Revolution,  the  author  reflects  something  of  the  governor's  own  poise 
and  balance  in  his  judgments  of  men  and  situations,  his  wise  reserves 
where  the  evidence  is  incomplete,  his  open  candor  which  makes  one 
feel  that  there  is  nothing  suppressed. 

The  chapter  on  the  Church  and  the  College  is  admirable  in  temper 


Mayo:  Joint  Wentworth  $27 

and  illuminating  in  treatment,  and  it  was  worth  while  to  bring  out 
frankly  the  governor's  Anglican  tendencies;  but  there  was,  on  the 
whole,  more  of  co-operation  than  of  distrust  between  Wentworth  and 
Wheelock.  The  Wheelock  correspondence  does  not  seem  to  bear  out 
the  conclusion  of  the  chapter :  "  probably  the  President  of  Dartmouth 
College  felt  more  relief  than  he  would  have  liked  to  admit  when  the 
outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  put  an  end  to  the  ecclesiastical 
manoeuvres  of  Governor  Wentworth."  More  in  accord  with  the  cor- 
respondence and  the  facts  seems  the  conclusion  of  Chase :  "  the  most 
serious  blow  that  the  college  suffered  by  the  change  was  the  loss  of 
its  powerful  and  disinterested  friend,  Governor  Wentworth."  {History 
of  Dartmouth  College,  I.  318.)  In  the  very  document  cited  by  the 
author,  a  careful  comparison  would  show  in  the  matter  of  the  charter 
of  Dartmouth  College  that  the  draft  transmitted  by  Wheelock  contained 
the  notable  provision  for  religious  freedom,  but  that  the  final  form 
issued  by  the  governor  added  the  wise  provision  that  the  majority 
of  the  trustees  should  be  laymen — two  notably  liberal  features  in  an 
eighteenth-century  charter  which  not  only  redound  to  the  credit  of  the 
broad-minded  Congregationalist  and  Anglican,  but  also  illustrate  their 
felicitous  co-operation. 

Wentworth's  own  breadth  and  insight  are  shown  in  his  sympathetic 
understanding  of  both  the  English  and  the  American  positions  in  1775, 
and  in  his  abiding  loyalty,  even  after  his  exile  and  loss  of  property,  to 
"New  Hampshire  my  native  country".  Particularly  winning  is  his 
letter  reciprocating  John  Adams's  expression  of  affection.  "  I  always 
loved  John  Adams."  "  My  classmate  ",  he  added,  writing  at  the  time  of 
Adams's  election  as  President,  "  is  the  most  perfect  choice  that  could 
mark  the  good  sense  and  sound  judgment  of  the  United  States." 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  read  a  biography  which  so  felicitously  reproduces 
the  best  qualities  of  its  subject  and  glosses  nothing  over.  Worth  doing 
and  well  done,  it  is  a  real  contribution  not  only  to  the  history  of  New 
Hampshire  but  to  the  understanding  of  colonial  life  and  the  two  sides 
of  the  Revolution.  The  beautifully  reproduced  illustrations,  especially 
the  Copley  pastel  of  Wentworth  the  year  he  granted  the  Dartmouth 
charter  and  contracted  one  more  romantic  Wentworth  marriage,  and 
the  Copley  painting  of  his  bride,  married  at  seventeen,  and  at  twenty- 
four  a  widow  for  only  two  weeks  until  she  became  the  governor's  wife; 
the  wide  margins  and  excellent  press-work,  worthy  of  the  press  of 
Wentworth's  alma  mater;  the  author's  saving  sense  of  humor  and 
occasional  epigram,  all  combine  to  make  an  attractive  book  savoring  of 
the  gracious  style  of  Wentworth  House  in  Wolfeborough  or  Govern- 
ment House  in  Halifax. 

Herbert  Darling  Foster. 


328  Reviews  of  Books 

Letters  of  Members  of  the  Continental  Congress.  Edited  by  Ed- 
mund C.  Burnett.  Volume  I.,  August  29,  1774,  to  July  4,  1776. 
(Washington,  D.  C. :  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington.  1921. 
Pp.  lxvi,  572.     Paper,  $5.00;  cloth,  $5.50.) 

When  the  undertaking  of  which  this  is  the  first  volume  is  com- 
plete, we  shall  have  in  most  convenient  form  full  facilities  for  a  study 
of  the  work  of  the  Continental  Congress.  As  the  editor  modestly  says 
of  the  collection,  it  makes  on  the  whole  "a  quite  notable  contribution 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  proceedings  of  Congress",  though  there  is  no 
such  "transforming  body  of  information  as  will  tend  to  upset  estab- 
lished conceptions  of  the  Revolution",  or  Congress's  part  in  it.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  editing,  which  ranks  with  the  best  that  American  scholar- 
ship has  done,  affords  the  student  immense  resources  for  reference  and 
cross-reference  never  before  available.  Every  canon  of  good  editing 
has  been  scrupulously  followed,  and  so  admirable  is  the  preface  which 
describes  the  process  that  no  better  text  could  be  furnished  to  a  student 
of  editorial  method.  One  great  object  of  the  editor  in  assembling  and 
choosing  the  letters  to  be  published  has  been  to  supplement  the  meagre 
record  of  the  journal,  to  bring  together  "  into  one  place  whatever  in- 
formation touching  the  proceedings  of  Congress  may  have  come  down 
from  those  who  took  part  in  them".  Dr.  Burnett  explains  that  only 
those  letters,  or  parts  thereof,  are  included  "  which  add  something  to 
the  record  of  Congress  beyond  what  is  set  down  in  the  Journals". 
Mere  expressions  of  opinion  unless  spoken  on  the  floor  of  the  House, 
or  showing  the  member's  stand  on  a  measure,  have  been  excluded. 
All  notes  of  debates  have  been  brought  into  this  collection  except  such 
as  John  Adams's  notes  which  had  been  published  in  the  appendixes  of 
the  Ford  edition  of  the  Journals  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

In  addition,  all  fragmentary  journals  of  proceedings,  members'  di- 
aries, official  letters,  and  private  letters,  which  contribute  facts  of  value 
have  been  included.  In  general,  the  editor  has  admitted  only  such 
letters  as  were  written  from  the  seat  of  Congress  during  a  member's 
attendance  there.  A  few  exceptions  are  Galloway's  reminiscent  com- 
ments on  the  work  of  the  first  Congress,  and  the  correspondence  of 
Jefferson,  McKean,  and  John  Adams  in  their  declining  years  relative 
to  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

From  all  these  we  may  here  glean  new  fragments  of  the  story  of 
what  happened  in  that  momentous  assembly  wherein  there  were  no 
stenographers,  no  reporters,  and  wherein  men  were  rarely  proud 
enough  of  what  they  had  said  to  have  committed  it  to  paper.  A  disap- 
pointing thing,  as  Dr.  Burnett  comments,  is  that  "  a  large  proportion 
of  these  letters  come  from  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  members".  Many  members  left  behind  no  contribution  to  these 
pages. 

Although  there  was  an  injunction  of  secrecy  binding  the  members 


Burnett:  Continental  Congress  329 

not  to  reveal  the  proceedings  of  their  conclave,  there  were  many 
excuses  for  ignoring  the  order,  of  which  an  important  one  was  the 
inclination  of  delegates  to  look  upon  themselves  as  ambassadors  bound 
to  reveal  in  confidence  to  the  governors  of  their  sovereign  states  all 
matters  of  consequence  to  them.  Moreover,  there  was  the  natural  hu- 
man desire  to  confide  to  a  wife  or  friend  a  dread  secret  which,  of 
course,  must  go  no  further. 

Regarding  the  collecting  of  the  materials  for  this  and  the  forth- 
coming volumes,  the  editor  says  that  all  historical  and  biographical  pub- 
lications wherein  delegates'  letters  or  papers  might  occur  have  been 
searched.  Matter  suited  to  these  volumes  was  found  more  largely  in 
print  in  the  period  before  December,  1776,  than  thereafter.  Beyond 
that  date  the  editor  was  forced  to  rely  much  more  on  manuscript 
sources  which  he  found  in  the  archives  of  Washington,  particularly 
the  Library  of  Congress,  and  in  the  capitals  of  the  original  thirteen 
states,  as  well  as  in  private  and  historical  society  collections  of  that 
section.  There  is  a  most  useful  survey  in  the  preface  of  all  the  reposi- 
tories from  which  these  manuscripts  were  drawn.  In  fact  it  comes  near 
being  a  complete  summary  of  the  repositories  of  archive  material  on 
the  American  Revolution.  The  new  materials  embraced  in  this  first 
volume  are  letters  of  James  Duane  and  Oliver  Wolcott,  and  scattered 
letters  from  the  Schuyler,  Trumbull,  and  Bancroft  papers. 

The  editor  devotes  several  pages  of  his  preface  to  a  useful  sum- 
mary of  the  impressions  made  and  the  principal  revelations  of  the 
letters  in  the  present  volume.  Members  of  the  early  Congresses  begin  by 
writing  of  the  great  unanimity  of  the  members,  but  soon  they  speak 
of  it  not  as  existing  but  as  something  to  be  attained  if  they  are  not  to 
fail.  The  idea  of  independence  growing  at  first  slowly,  then  swiftly, 
and  finally  silencing  all  opposition  is  graphically  shown  here.  The  sec- 
tional motives  that  determined  Washington's  selection  as  commander- 
in-chief  are  clearly  shown,  and  the  insistence  of  each  jealous  province 
upon  its  proper  proportion  of  high  officers  in  the  army.  No  right- 
minded  reviewer  can  have  any  self-respect  if  he  fails  to  offer  some 
criticism,  and  the  one  blot  on  so  perfect  a  scutcheon  I  find  in  Dr. 
Burnett's  citation  of  Patrick  Henry's  assertion  that  he  was  no  longer 
a  Virginian  but  an  American  as  proof  that  some  were  lifted  "  to  a 
plane  of  idealism  above  sectional  predilections  and  prejudices".  When 
Henry  said  that  he  was  only  urging  that  Virginia  be  given  more  votes 
than  the  smaller  states !  The  reviewer,  though  he  has  read  several  hun- 
dreds of  the  letters  and  checked  up  the  editing  at  numerous  points  has 
found  little  to  say  in  the  review  that  is  not  said  in  the  long  and  ex- 
cellent preface,  which   in  this  case   is  not  an  obituary. 

C.  H.  Van  Tyne. 


330  Reviews  of  Books 

War  Powers  of  the  Executive  in  the  United  States.  By  Clarence 
A.  Berdahl,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  Political  Science,  University  of 
Illinois.  [University  of  Illinois,  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences, 
vol.  IX.,  nos.  i  and  2.]  (Urbana:  the  University.  1921.  Pp. 
296.     $2.25.) 

This  study  is  a  straightforward  dissertation  on  the  subject  indicated 
by  the  title.  Four  general  phases  of  the  topic  are  considered,  powers 
relating  to  the  beginning  of  war,  military  powers  in  war  time,  civil 
powers  in  war  time,  and  powers  relating  to  the  termination  of  war. 
Each  of  the  divisions  is  again  subdivided  into  chapters  wherein  sepa- 
rate aspects  of  the  general  phase  are  discussed;  for  example,  military 
powers  in  time  of  war  are  treated  under  Power  to  Raise  and  Organize 
the  Armed  Forces,  Powers  of  Command,  Powers  of  Military  Juris- 
diction, and  Powers  of  Military  Government.  The  reader  is  assisted 
by  a  somewhat  detailed  table  of  contents,  a  good  index,  and  a  full 
bibliography  of  the  materials  used  by  the  author,  although  it  is  a  little 
surprising  that  there  is  no  reference  to  Maclay's  biting  Journal, 

While  there  has  been  little  if  anything  new  brought  out  in  this  ac- 
count, a  large  portion  of  the  available  information  upon  this  highly 
important  matter  has  here  been  brought  together  and  summarized  in 
convenient  form.  Constitutional  provisions,  statutory  law,  custom,  and 
numerous  comments  both  of  contemporary  statesmen  and  writers  on 
law  and  government  are  marshalled  in  almost  encyclopedic  array.  The 
encyclopedic  flavor  is  somewhat  enhanced,  moreover,  by  a  style  which 
is  not  exactly  easy  or  inspiring,  although  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
subject  is  not  one  which  conduces  to  fine  writing.  The  author  has 
confined  himself  pretty  closely  to  the  strict  presentation  of  the  facts  as 
he  found  them,  and  has  not  often  ventured  to  intrude  his  own  opinions 
in  his  summaries.  However,  when  considering  the  question  of  the 
President  and  the  Senate  in  relation  to  the  making  of  treaties  con- 
cluding wars,  he  does  venture  to  state  that 

it  would  seem  that  much  of  the  recent  criticism  of  President  Wilson  by 
Senator  Lodge  and  his  followers  is  unjustified,  especially  in  so  far  as 
it  is  based  on  the  relative  constitutional  position  and  powers  of  the 
Senate  and  the  Executive  in  regard  to  the  making  of  treaties.  How- 
ever overbearing  and  tactless  the  President  may  have  been  in  his  rela- 
tions to  the  Senate,  clearly  he  has  at  no  time  in  his  negotiation  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  exceeded  the  traditional  view  of  his  constitutional 
powers  nor  encroached  on  those  of  the  Senate. 

A  slight  criticism  might  be  made  of  the  author's  too  great  reliance 
upon  general  histories  and  traditional  views  in  laying  his  background 
for  some  of  his  legal  points;  for  example  President  Madison  is  again 
made  to  purchase  his  re-election  in  1812  by  yielding  to  war  clamor 
(p.  85),  and  von  Hoist's  views  of  Polk  are  clearly  visible  when  the 
Mexican  war  and  its  inception  are  discussed  (p.  71,  86).    Again,  when 


Bell:  Opening  a  Highway  to  the  Pacific  331 

outlining  some  of  the  forces  determining  the  election  of  1916,  perhaps 
too  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  fact  that  Wilson  "kept  us  out 
of  war".  These  criticisms,  however,  are  of  matters  which  are  sub- 
sidiary to  the  main  purpose  of  the  book.  But,  when  the  Senate's  consti- 
tutional privilege  to  "  advise  and  consent "  to  treaties  is  under  consid- 
eration (p.  244)  and  there  is  found  the  statement  that  "  President  Polk 
in  1846  referred  to  the  practice  as  '  eminently  wise  '  ".  it  would  have 
been  more  satisfactory  had  it  been  brought  out  that  Polk  actually  did 
seek  the  "previous  advice"  of  the  Senate  before  he  submitted  to  that 
body  for  ratification  the  treaty  with  England  regarding  the  Oregon 
country,  even  though  this  was  not  a  treaty  closing  a  war. 

Opening  a  Highway  to  the  Pacific,  1838-1846.     By  James  Christy 
Bell,   Ph.D.      [Columbia  University   Studies  in   History,   Eco- 
nomics, and  Public  Law,  vol.  XCVL,  no.  1.]      (New  York:  Long- 
mans, Green,  and  Company.     1921.     Pn    209.     $2.25.) 
The  author  tells  us  in  the  preface : 

The  present  monograph  has  grown  out  of  a  wish  for  more  light  on 
one  early  phase  of  this  expansion  [to  the  Pacific].  .  .  .  The  pioneers 
opened  a  road  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Coast — the 
preface  to  territorial  expansion — because  they  wished  to  realize  the 
benefits  from  its  geographical  position  in  opening  a  new  market  for 
agricultural  produce,  and  because  they  could  not  await  but  must  have  a 
hand  in  making  their  own  destiny. 

The  above  quotations  give  by  far  the  clearest  statement  of  purpose 
which  the  book  affords,  and  the  reader  does  well  to  keep  this  declared 
purpose  clearly  in  mind  as  he  reads. 

The  author  departs  widely  from  the  method  of  exposition  through 
narrative,  traditional  with  writers  of  histories  on  the  scale  of  this  one. 
His  is  pronouncedly  a  monographic,  "  disquisitional  "  method.  By  this 
we  do  not  mean  that  he  fails  to  display  a  sufficient  grasp  on  facts  and 
incidents  bearing  on  his  theme.  He  has  an  abundance  of  these,  but 
instead  of  causing  them  to  stand  up  and  tell  their  own  story  he.  so  to 
speak,  makes  them  lie  down  while  he  explains  what  happened.  This 
method  always  involves  the  temptation  to  subordinate  facts  to  the 
discussion  of  their  meaning,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  the  author  has  not 
always  been  able  to  resist  that  temptation.  One  of  the  outstanding 
merits  of  the  book  is  the  thoroughness  of  his  search  for  the  printed 
sources,  and  the  author  has  used  some  unprinted  material  in  addition. 

As  interpretation  the  book  seems  needlessly  long  and  repetitious. 
The  interpretation,  in  fact,  is  given  practically  in  chapter  IX.,  which  is 
a  review  and  restatement  of  what  has  gone  before  and  is  far  clearer 
than  the  argument  of  the  body  of  the  book.  Another  partial  restate- 
ment occurs  in  the  appendix  which  follows  chapter  IX.  And  there  is, 
in  the  main  section  of  the  book,  much  repetition  of  ideas  and  facts,  and 
much  "  cutting  and  fitting  "  of  facts  to  new  turns  in  the  discussion. 


332  Reviews  of  Books 

This  last  tendency  is  particularly  disheartening  to  the  reader.  The 
author's  statements  have  an  inveterate  habit  of  modifying  themselves 
from  chapter  to  chapter,  and  page  to  page,  as  the  discussion  proceeds 
on  its  easy,  leisurely  course. 

On  some  points,  however,  he  is  very  decided.  He  is  convinced  that 
the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  was  "  almost  negative  as  far  as  com- 
mercial exploitation  and  settlement  were  concerned"  (p.  22),  therein 
denying  that  the  succession  of  American  events  following  that  expedi- 
tion, the  attempted  exploitation  of  the  upper  Missouri  trade  from 
St.  Louis,  the  Astor  enterprise,  and  the  restoration  of  Astoria,  were 
related  to  it  as  effects  to  a  cause,  which  is  the  usual  view.  He  is 
clear  that  "  the  earliest  effort  made  by  any  group  of  American  citizens 
with  material  interests  in  the  country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  terminate  the  joint  occupation  status  of  Oregon  and  determine 
upon  a  definite  boundary,  came  from  these  St.  Louis  fur  traders " 
[Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company].  In  this  he  denies  the  facts  brought 
out  by  Professor  E.  G.  Bourne  in  regard  to  the  Astor  influence  behind 
Floyd's  efforts.  He  minimizes  the  significance  of  Floyd's  pioneer  agi- 
tation in  Congress,  charging  that  "  the  purpose  of  the  move  was  prob- 
ably to  lend  dignity  to  his  opposition  to  John  Q.  Adams"  (p.  64  n.),  as 
if  motive  and  result  were  in  such  a  case  interchangeable  terms. 

Students  will  be  grateful  to  Mr.  Bell  for  giving  us  a  new  interpre- 
tation of  the  beginnings  of  Pacific  Coast  history,  and  this  gratitude 
would  be  all  the  greater  if  we  could  agree  that  the  new  interpretation 
is  also  a  true  interpretation  in  its  general  scope,  as  it  assuredly  is 
in  some  subordinate  particulars.  He  has  presented  a  perfectly  sound 
view  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  fur-trade;  has  shown  with  a  clearness 
never  before  equalled  how  large  a  part  the  mountain  trappers  assumed 
in  the  emigration  movement,  and  in  chapter  VI.  (Agrarian  Discon- 
tent) he  has  brought  together  a  good  many  interesting  historical  facts 
not  heretofore  fully  considered  in  determining  the  motives  of  the 
Oregon  emigrants.  But  the  present  reviewer  cannot  convince  himself, 
on  the  basis  of  that  showing,  that  it  was  economically  prudent  for  a 
few  thousands  to  go  to  the  Pacific  at  a  time  when  many  thousands 
were  making  shift  to  find  suitable  new  homes  along  the  older  frontier; 
nor  can  he  agree  that  the  search  for  a  new  market  probably  con- 
stituted the  dominant  motive  behind  the  Oregon  movement.  Of  course 
the  question  is  incapable  of  evidential  solution.  But  it  seems  incon- 
gruous to  assume  that  the  Oregon  emigrants  had  so  reflected  on  the 
subject  of  world  markets  as  to  convince  themselves  of  the  inadequacy 
of  existing  markets  for  farm  produce  and  the  adequacy  of  the  market 
on  the  Pacific. 

The  book  is  an  attempt,  not  altogether  successful  as  I  think,  to 
prove  an  hypothesis — that  stated  in  the  words  quoted  at  the  beginning 
of  the  review.     But  it  is  a  well  documented  effort,  it  abounds  in  pene- 


Hozvland:  Theodore  Roosevelt  333 

trating  observations,  and  there  is  in  it  much  that  any  student  of  western 
history  needs  to  know.  Some  minor  errors  occur  in  the  text,  as  is 
always  the  case;  but  these  can  be  easily  corrected. 

Joseph  Schafer. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  and  his  Times:  a  Chronicle  of  the  Progressive 

Movement.      By  Harold  Howland.      [Chronicles  of  America 

series,    vol.    XLVIL]       (New    Haven:    Yale   University    Press. 

1 92 1.     Pp.  xi,  289.) 
Woodrow  Wilson  and  the   World  War.     By  Charles   Seymour. 

[Chronicles  of  America  series,   vol.  XLVIII.]      (New  Haven: 

Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  ix,  382.) 

It  is  the  clear  right  of  the  public  man  to  have  his  biography  written 
by  a  friendly  hand,  and  to  be  represented  for  posterity  in  a  pose 
which  he  would  himself  regard  as  characteristic.  His  enemies  will,  of 
their  own  accord,  do  enough  to  portray  the  unattractive  and  unsuccess- 
ful aspects  of  his  career.  The  barrage  of  political  criticism  and  the 
smoke-screen  of  his  rivals  may  well  blur  not  only  the  philosophy  of  a 
useful  life  but  also  the  actual  attainments.  Here  the  general  historian 
has  limitations;  for  the  degree  to  which  he  understands  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son may  measure  inversely  his  appreciation  of  Alexander  Hamilton — 
and  similarly  as  to  Theodore  Roosevelt  and  Woodrow  Wilson.  There 
is  distinct  advantage  in  the  method  of  Professor  Allen  Johnson  who 
has  chosen,  as  his  chroniclers  of  the  two  outstanding  personalities  of 
our  own  day,  writers  well  fitted  each  to  understand  his  man.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  Chronicles  of  America  the  policy  does  not  make 
for  uniformity,  for  the  biographers  are  somewhat  contradictory,  by  in- 
ference or  by  statement.  But  as  yet  it  is  more  practicable  and  more 
important  to  understand  Wilson  and  Roosevelt,  severally,  than  to  reach 
a  final  judgment  as  to  their  relative  places  in  the  sun. 

Mr.  Harold  Howland  has  known  Colonel  Roosevelt  as  a  journalistic 
associate  on  the  Outlook,  and  has  followed  his  leadership  as  man  and 
citizen.  His  chronicle  of  the  times  of  Roosevelt  devotes  two-thirds  of  its 
pages  to  the  period  before  1909,  and  reduces  the  political  administra- 
tion of  President  Taft  to  the  position  of  one  of  the  episodes  of  the 
Roosevelt  Era.  Without  being  unfair  or  unfriendly  to  Taft.  he  makes 
clear  the  way  in  which  the  years  1900-1913  cover  the  transition  from 
Roosevelt  republicanism  to  the  democracy  of  Wilson.  He  has  caught 
the  spirit  of  his  subject.  The  real  "  T.  R."  whose  brief  and  rugged 
letters  were  made  personal  for  their  recipients  by  the  interpolated  sen- 
tences that  he  so  loved  to  add  with  his  pen  as  he  signed  the  daily  grist, 
fills  the  pages.  There  is  no  evidence  of  special  historical  research. 
Most  of  the  facts  here  given  may  be  found  easily  in  Roosevelt's  col- 
lected writings.  But  here  and  there  Mr.  Howland,  as  an  eye-witness, 
clarifies  or  expands  the  story  as  already  known.    Notably,  in  connection 


334  Reviews  of  Books 

with  the  appeal  of  the  governors  and  the  decision  of  Roosevelt  to  place 
his  hat  in  the  ring  in  1912  (pp.  206-212),  he  shows  how  the  scene  was 
set  and  the  formal  act  rehearsed.  "1  believe  I  shall  be  broken  in  the 
using",  said  Roosevelt  to  his  intimates  as  he  made  his  choice. 

Professor  Seymour's  companion  volume  is  the  effort  of  a  trained  pro- 
fessional historian  who  was  brought  into  confidential  and  appreciative 
relations  with  his  subject  through  his  labors  on  the  "House  Inquiry", 
and  his  work  as  expert  at  Paris  in  1918-1919.  It  is  too  exhaustively 
a  chronicle  of  the  World  War  to  give  a  complete  picture  of  Wilson  as 
President;  but  it  displays  him  as  most  of  his  admirers  will  like  to 
see  him.  Half  the  book,  roughly,  is  given  over  to  the  war  in  America; 
half  to  the  fighting  front  and  the  peace  negotiations.  The  estimate  of 
Mr.  Wilson's  character  is  measured  but  friendly.  "The  summary 
disregard  of  Lansing,  shown  by  Wilson  at  Paris,  was  less  striking  than 
the  snubbing  of  Balfour  by  Lloyd  George,  or  the  cold  brutality  with 
which  Clemenceau  treated  the  other  French  delegates"  (p.  13). 

Frequently,  in  the  things  Professor  Seymour  does  not  say,  and  in 
the  background  of  his  careful  statements,  there  can  be  perceived  facts 
relating  to  the  war  that  are  not  as  yet  fully  revealed.  The  sentences 
devoted  to  General  Pershing  make  one  wish  that  the  scheme  of  the 
Chronicles  called  for  a  study  of  the  war,  with  Pershing  as  the  central 
figure.  The  occasional  references  to  the  domestic  history  of  the  United 
States,  1913-1917,  are  made  with  less  precision.  One  would  like  to 
know  whether  it  is  inference  or  evidence  that  warrants  the  statement 
that  in  1916  "  Hughes  was  ordered  by  his  party  managers  not  to  offend 
foreign-born  voters"  (p.  91).  We  should  fear  for  the  personal  safety 
of  Professor  Seymour  in  certain  parts  of  Texas,  for  he  has  ventured  to 
spell  the  name  of  that  quaint  statesman,  the  Hon.  Jeff:  McLemore, 
without  the  colon  which  McLemore  trained  the  proof-readers  of  the 
Congressional  Record  never  to  omit  (p.  59). 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  two  volumes  on  these  two  themes  could 
have  been  better  adapted  to  what  we  understand  to  be  the  purpose  of 
the  Chronicles.  They  are  enlightening,  they  are  interesting,  they  are 
adequately  provided  with  bibliographical  aids,  and  they  are  beautifully 
made. 

Frederic  L.  Paxson. 

Woodrow  Wilson  and  His  Work.  By  William  E.  Dodd,  Professor 
of  American  History  in  the  University  of  Chicago.  Fourth  and 
revised  edition.  (Garden  City,  N.  Y. :  Doubleday,  Page,  and 
Company.     1921.     Pp.  xviii,  454.     $2.50.) 

It  is  Professor  Dodd's  object  to  "  set  somewhat  the  form  of  future 
history"  regarding  the  career  of  ex-President  Wilson  (Introduction, 
p.  x).  It  may  be  surmised  that  he  is  in  a  measure  the  victim  of 
his  own  qualifications  for  a  task  undertaken  prematurely.    A  friend  and 


Dodd:  JVoodrozv  Wilson  335 

correspondent  of  the  former  President,  hailing  from  the  same  section, 
and  exhibiting  much  the  same  political  and  religious  traditions,  he  has 
hardly  been  in  a  mood  even  to  seek  the  common  denominator  to  his 
theme  and  the  prejudices  he  would  enlighten  (Introduction,  p.  xiv.)  ; 
and  the  outcome  is  a  volume  which  must  frequently  prove  less  an  in- 
terpretation than   an   exacerbation. 

This  is  not  to  say  that  the  work  has  not  considerable  merits. 
Professor  Dodd  possesses  an  unexcelled  knowledge  of  the  political, 
social,  and  personal  forces  that  have  contributed  to  shape  recent  Ameri- 
can history,  while  his  acquaintance  with  earlier  American  history  fur- 
nishes him  at  will  the  pat  analogy  to  more  modern  instances;  his 
writing,  always  good,  is  at  times  moving,  as  in  his  closing  pages;  and 
his  aptitude  for  the  irony  of  bald,  unvarnished  statement  is  worthy  a 
Tacitus.  His  point  of  view,  too,  has  all  the  attractiveness — perhaps 
specious — of  sentimental  radicalism.  He  would  fain  do,  or  have  done, 
some  very  upsetting  things,  but  he  would  like  to  feel  all  the  while  that 
he  had  the  soundest  traditions  of  the  country  at  his  back.  He  finds 
the  "  farmer  ideals  "  of  American  democracy  (p.  270)  still  relevant  to 
our  political  and  industrial  problems,  and  he  spells  labor  with  a  u  as 
well  as  with  a  capital  L. 

The  general  temper  of  the  volume  is,  nevertheless,  unhappy.  Too 
great  resentment  is  shown  at  what  are  admitted  to  be  the  ordinary  haz- 
ards of  political  life  in  the  American  democracy  (p.  398)  ;  certain  ab- 
stractions, like  "  militarism "  and  "  industrialism ",  are  made  into 
veritable  bogeys;  the  opposition  to  Wilson  is  by  no  chance  credited 
with  a  worthy  purpose  or  a  moral  conviction ;  and  though  he  commends 
his  hero  for  refusing  to  indict  the  German  people,  Mr.  Dodd  himself 
does  not  hesitate  to  indict  sooner  or  later  the  greater  portion  of  his 
own  countrymen.  Moreover,  in  the  effort  to  portray  Mr.  Wilson  as  the 
preacher  "of  the  doctrines  of  primitive  Christianity"  (p.  293)  and  the 
martyr  to  certain  great  political  ideals.  Professor  Dodd  seems  almost  to 
miss  the  real  fibre  of  Wilson's  achievement,  his  vaulting  ambition,  his 
audacity  as  a  politician,  his  dexterity  as  a  parliamentary  leader,  and, 
above  all,  his  splendid  imperturbability,  despite  his  undoubted  sensitive- 
ness to  accumulating  criticism  and  hostility.  Conversely,  he  frequently 
exaggerates  the  difficulties  which  confronted  Air.  Wilson,  especially 
at  the  outset  of  his  presidency  (see  pp.  120-123).  The  importance  of 
Mr.  Bryan's  preliminary  role  of  a  voice  in  the  wilderness  is  duly  ap- 
preciated, but  not  the  smallest  comprehension  is  manifested  of  Mr. 
Roosevelt's  great  services  in  demonstrating  the  political  feasibility  of 
liberalism,  in  recasting  the  presidency,  in  forcing  a  relaxation  of  con- 
stitutional limitations,  and  in  opening  communications  between  the  gov- 
ernment and   the   universities. 

Furthermore,  the  volume  contains  numerous  assertions  or  implica- 
tions of  fact  which  the  well-informed  reader  will  feel  impelled  to  chal- 

AM.  HIST.  REV..  VOL.   XXVII. — 2j. 


336  Reviews  of  Books 

lenge,  at  least  in  the  absence  of  further  evidence.  Especially  would 
one  like  to  know  with  what  warrant  Professor  Dodd  would  foist  upon 
Mr.  Wilson  a  virtually  socialistic  programme  (pp.  121,  241-242)  ;  also 
the  authority  for  the  explanation  offered  (p.  244)  of  the  Lansing-Ishii 
agreement,  and  for  the  statement  (p.  180)  that  Mr.  Wilson  "had  be- 
come convinced"  by  August,  1915,  "that  he  would  be  unable  to  keep 
out  of  the  great  war".  The  assertion  that  Mr.  Wilson  entered  the 
White  House  "  against  the  utmost  protest  of  nearly  all  the  wealthy " 
(p.  1 10)  seems  to  overlook  the  list  of  contributors  to  the  Democratic 
campaign  fund  in  1912;  and  the  statement  that  the  railroads  favored 
the  Panama  tolls  exemption  (p.  117)  defies  the  probabilities  of  the  case. 
There  was  no  necessary  inconsistency  in  the  attitude  of  those  who 
demanded  a  firm  assertion  of  American  rights  against  both  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  (pp.  187,  208,  216),  nor  was  the  "reactionary  East" 
more  zealous  for  its  rights  against  the  latter  than  was  the  cotton- 
raising  South.  The  plea  in  extenuation  of  Mr.  Wilson's  capitulation  on 
the  Adamson  Act  (p.  181)  is  refuted  by  current  events;  and  the  con- 
jecture that  he  "  surely  felt  the  unworthiness "  of  the  shibboleth  "  he 
kept  us  out  of  war"  (p.  191)  overlooks  certain  of  his  own  words  at 
Shadow  Lawn,  as  does  also  the  assertion  (p.  208)  that  he  "knew  that 
he  could  not  adequately  resent  the  wrongs  upon  American  lives  .  .  . 
lest  he  set  loose  .  .  .  the  chaos  of  party  rivalries  and  racial  conflicts  ". 
The  explanation  of  why  General  Wood  was  kept  at  home  (p.  255) 
seems  at  least  incomplete;  and  the  designation  of  Secretary  Baker's 
statement,  in  January,  1918,  that  "no  army  of  similar  size  in  the  history 
of  the  world,  has  ever  been  raised,  equipped  and  trained  so  quickly " 
as  "  strictly  historical "  (p.  259)  ignores  the  fact  that  the  army  in 
question  was  at  that  date  neither  equipped  in  full  nor  more  than  par- 
tially trained.  Some  lesser  corrections  are  the  following:  Mr.  Bryan's 
peace  plan  was  not  a  scheme  for  "universal  arbitration"  (p.  133)  ;  the 
Clayton  Act  and  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act  are  distinct  meas- 
ures (p.  142)  ;  the  Pope's  peace  proposal  in  August,  1917,  was  not  "upon 
the  basis  then  existing",  but  upon  the  status  quo  ante  (p.  235);  "Sir 
Herbert  Asquith "  is  still  plain  Mr.  Asquith  (p.  305);  the  principle 
of  "  free  ships  make  free  goods  "  was  not  involved  in  the  second  of  the 
Fourteen  Points  (p.  309);  a  constitutional  amendment  must  be  ratified 
by  three-fourths,  not  two-thirds,  of  the  states  (p.  368).  The  reserva- 
tions which  Mr.  Hughes  and  Mr.  Root  proposed  to  Article  X.  were  not 
"minor"  in  Mr.  Wilson's  estimation  (p.  396).  There  are  also  some 
notable  omissions,  as  of  any  reference  to  Mr.  McCombs's  part  in  the 
Wilson  campaign  for  the  Democratic  nomination,  to  the  propagandist 
efforts  of  the  Creel  Committee  in  Italy  preceding  the  President's  visit  to 
that  country,  to  Colonel  House's  mission  to  Berlin  early  in  191 5,  to 
the  Suffolk  Pledge,  to  the  Zimmermann  note,  to  the  possible  reasons 
for   the   long   delay  between   the   breach    in   diplomatic    relations    with 


Minor  Notices  337 

Germany  and  the  final  declaration  of  war,  and  to  the  purely  adventi- 
tious character  of  some,  at  least,  of  the  support  which  the  League  of 
Nations  received  from  the  South. 

In  his  Introduction  (p.  xiv)  Professor  Dodd  asserts  that  "his- 
torians are  partisans  like  the  rest  of  mankind".  Perhaps  in  result;  yet 
surely  not  in  intention.  For  otherwise  who  is  to  draw  the  line  between 
truth  and  opinion?  And  that  line  is  an  important  one  in  an  era  of  H. 
G.  Wellses. 

Edward  S.  Corwin. 

MINOR    NOTICES 

Gli  Sciensiati  Itoliani  dall'Inizio  del  Medio  Evo  ai  Nostri  Giorni: 
Repertorio  Biobibliografico.  Diretto  da  Aldo  Mieli.  Volume  I.,  part 
I.  (Rome,  Attilio  Nardecchia,  1921,  pp.  viii,  235,  45  lire.)  The  present 
volume  is  the  first  installment  of  what  may  be  described  as  a  bio- 
graphical dictionary  of  Italian  scientists  with  especial  attention  to  the 
bibliography  of  their  writings  and  the  literature  concerning  them.  The 
period  covered  is  from  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  our  time, 
except  that  living  scientists  are  not  included.  A  supplementary  volume 
is  promised  on  scientists  of  classical  antiquity  who  were  born  or  lived 
in  Italy.  In  the  volume  before  us,  of  thirty-four  scientists  only  one, 
Leonardo  da  Pisa,  died  before  1500,  while  five  have  passed  away  since 
1900.  It  is  hoped  to  continue  the  publication  at  the  rate  of  a  volume 
annually, -which  manifestly  means  that  many  years  will  pass  before  its 
completion.  Professor  Aldo  Mieli,  also  editor  of  Archivio  di  Storia 
delta  Scienza,  is  assisted  thus  far  by  sixteen  collaborators — all  Italians — 
each  of  wdiom  is  responsible  for  the  complete  treatment  of  one  or  more 
of  the  scientists  discussed.  ,  The  book  thus  consists  of  thirty-four 
distinct  discussions  of  as  many  men  and  their  works,  varying  in  length 
from  two  and  one-half  to  twenty-three  large  double-columned  pages. 
These  discussions,  as  we  are  warned  at  the  start,  are  arranged  in  no 
particular  order,  either  alphabetical  or  chronological  or  of  importance, 
reminding  one  of  that  ancient  Italian  scientist,  Aelian  of  Praeneste  in 
our  third  century,  who,  refusing  to  apologize  for  the  utterly  whimsical 
and  haphazard  order  of  his  work  On  the  Nature  of  Animals,  remarked 
that  it  suited  him,  if  it  did  not  suit  anyone  else,  and  that  he  regarded 
a  mixed-up  order  as  more  motley,  variegated,  and  pleasing. 

For  each  individual  scientist  there  is  a  more  regular  method  of 
treatment:  first,  a  statement  of  the  known  facts  of  his  life,  then  an 
estimate  of  the  value  of  his  scientific  work,  then  a  bibliography  of 
writings  by  him  and  concerning  him.  Portraits  and  autograph  letters 
are  liberally  introduced,  and  if  the  scientists  are  not  always  exactly 
handsome,  their  features  are  more  regular  than  their  handwriting  in 
the  case  of  the  moderns,  whose  chirograph}*  evokes  painful  recollection 
of  the  sputtering  steel  pens  in  European  libraries  and  hotels,  and  con- 


338  Reviews  of  Books 

trasts  unfavorably  with  one  specimen  of  a  beautifully  written  letter 
of  1505.  Apparently  the  art  of  penmanship  has  declined  since  the 
invention  of  printing. 

In  the  competent  bibliographies  it  is  interesting  to  read  the  mere 
titles  of  books  of  science  representative  of  the  thought  of  several 
centuries,  although  the  number  of  treatises  turned  out  by  these  past 
scientists  suggests  a  mass  of  material  that  may  discourage  the  under- 
taking of  a  synthetic  history  of  science.  Some  of  the  scientists  here 
treated  have  been  neglected  by  previous  general  histories  of  the  sci- 
ences and  medicine.  On  the  other  hand,  some  persons  are  now  included 
who  seem  primarily  philosophers  and  theologians  rather  than  natural 
scientists.  One  also  inclines  to  think  that  too  many  pages  have  been 
given  to  certain  scientists  as  compared  with  others,  but  no  doubt  this 
was  a  difficult  matter  for  the  editor  to  regulate.  On  the  whole,  when 
completed  and  fully  indexed,  this  should  prove  a  very  useful  work  of 
reference  to  students  of  the  history  of  science. 

Lynn    Thoendike. 

Arabian  Medicine,  being  the  Fitzpatrick  Lectures  delivered  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  in  November  1919  and  November  1920.  By 
Edward  G.  Browne.  M.B.,  F.R.C.P.,  Sir  Thomas  Adams's  Professor 
of  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  (Cambridge,  University 
Press,  1921,  pp.  viii,  138,  12s.)  The  title  of  this  little  volume  is  in  the 
nature  of  the  case  more  or  less  misleading,  for,  as  the  author  points  out, 
there  was  no  medicine  worthy  of  the  name  in  Arabia  before  the 
Prophet,  and  very  few  native  Arabs  rose  to  eminence  in  science  under 
the  Caliphate,  nearly  all  the  writers  of  distinction  being  Jews,  Syrians, 
or  Persians.  The  medical  literature  is  Arab  only  in  a  linguistic  sense 
or  in  the  looser  usage  which  makes  "  Arabian  "  synonymous  with  "  Is- 
lamic ".  It  shows  little  originality,  being  "  an  eclectic  synthesis  of  more 
ancient  systems,  chiefly  Greek,  but  in  a  lesser  degree  Indian  and  old 
Persian,  with  a  tincture  of  other  exotic  systems  less  easily  to  be 
identified".  Historically,  "Arabian"  medicine  is  significant  in  the 
transmission  of  Greek  medicine  to  medieval  Europe,  thereby  preserving 
to  modern  times  some  material  otherwise  lost — like  the  seven  books  of 
Galen's  Anatomy — and  in  the  careful  observations  added  from  the  prac- 
tice of  the  great  physicians  of  Islam.  Four  of  these,  Raban,  Rhazes, 
Haly  Abbas,  and  Avicenna,  Dr.  Browne  analyzes  briefly,  but  without 
adding  notably  to  what  may  be  found  in  the  standard  histories  of  medi- 
cine. The  freshest  material,  and  that  of  most  interest  to  the  general 
reader,  is  drawn  from  the  anecdotes  describing  current  medical  practice 
and  from  the  unpublished  letters  of  Rashid,  physician  and  premier  at  the 
Mongol  court  ca.  1300.  Persian  sources  are  especially  utilized,  including 
the  information  (p.  93)  acquired  at  Teheran,  that  the  majority  of 
physicians   sitting   on   the    Persian   Council    of    Public   Health   in    1887 


Minor  Notices  339 

"knew  no  medicine  but  that  of  Avicenna"!  The  discussion  of  love's 
malady  in  Avicenna  would  have  gained  point  by  utilizing  Professor 
Lowe's  brilliant  study  of  Chaucer's  "  Lovere's  Maladye  of  Hereos " 
(Modem  Philology,  XI.  491-546).  The  book  is  pleasantly  written,  and 
will  interest  others  than  professional  students'of  the  history  of  medicine. 

C.  H.  H. 

The  First  Crusade:  the  Accounts  of  Eye-Witnesses  and  Participants. 
By  August  C.  Krey.  Associate  Professor  of  History  in  the  University 
of  Minnesota.  (Princeton,  University  Press:  London,  Humphrey  Mil- 
ford,  1921,  pp.  viii,  299,  $3.15.)  This  book  is  the  extensive  elaboration 
of  a  source-problem  in  medieval  history,  and  as  such  should  claim  the 
attention  of  university  teachers.  It  is  apparently  intended  for  use  in  a 
seminar  made  up  of  advanced  students  who  lack  the  linguistic  ability 
to  use  the  sources  in  the  original.  Some  scholars  may  doubt  the  wisdom 
of  attempting  to  train  students  who  labor  under  such  a  handicap,  but  if 
the  seminar  can  be  regarded  as  a  phase  of  general  education  rather 
than  a  mere  training  school  for  would-be  doctors  of  philosophy  the  use- 
fulness of  a  book  like  this  will  be  manifest.  Indeed  medievalists  might 
well  consider  whether  or  not  there  are  other  topics  which  could  be 
treated  after  the  manner  of  this  book. 

The  First  Crusade  is  a  subject  well  adapted  to  intensive  study.  It  is 
a  single  topic,  extensive  but  complete  in  itself.  The  sources  are  numer- 
ous and  not  only  recount  stirring  events  but  also  afford  glimpses  of 
eleventh-century  conditions,  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  times,  and  give  "  the 
first  fairly  full  description  of  European  society  since  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  the  West  ".  For  this  study  Professor  Krey  has  trans- 
lated fourteen  letters  from  the  crusaders,  the  complete  texts  of  the 
Anonymi  Gesta  Francorum  and  the  Historic!  Francorum  of  Raymond 
of  Aguilers,  and  numerous  extracts  from  all  the  other  principal  sources. 
The  book  is  arranged  topically  and  the  appropriate  extracts  from  each 
source  follow  one  another  under  each  heading,  so  that  the  student  finds 
the  work  of  selection  already  done  and  can  concentrate  his  attention 
on  the  problems  in  criticism  presented  by  the  different  passages.  In 
order  that  he  may  be  more  competent  to  judge,  there  is  an  introduction 
to  the  texts  explaining  who  each  of  the  chroniclers  was,  what  the 
general  importance  of  the  various  sources  is,  and  providing  such  neces- 
sary information  of  medieval  terminology  as  will  enable  a  novice  to 
study  the  text  with  intelligence.  In  addition  there  are  informative 
notes  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume  and  four  maps  ( unmentioned  in 
the  table  of  contents)  inserted  in  the  text.  The  translator  has  sought 
to  preserve  the  crudeness  of  expression,  the  vivid  realism,  and  the 
differences  in  style  and  manner  of  the  originals. 

Richard  A.  Newhall. 


34-Q  Reviews  of  Books 

Chetham  Miscellanies.  New  series,  volume  IV.  Edited  by  G.  A. 
Stocks,  James  Tait,  Ernest  Broxap,  H.  W.  Gemensha,  and  A.  A. 
Mumford.  [Remains  Historical  and  Literary  connected  with  the  Pala- 
tine Counties  of  Lancaster  and  Chester,  new  series,  volume  LXXX.] 
(Manchester,  Chetham  Society,  1921,  pp.  236.)  The  Dunkenhalgh 
Deeds  (ca.  1200-1600),  edited  by  Messrs.  Stocks  and  Tait,  occupy 
about  one-half  of  the  volume.  They  comprise  those  documents  in  the 
possession  of  Mr.  G.  E.  A.  Petre  of  Dunkenhalgh  Hall  which  relate  to 
the  possessions  of  the  family  of  Rishton  located  in  Rishton,  Church, 
Clayton,  and,  Dunkenhalgh  in  the  county  of  Lancashire.  They  are 
mainly  deeds,  but  there  are  a  few  miscellaneous  documents  in  the 
collection,  such  as  records  of  arbitrations  and  of  judicial  proceedings. 
The  documents  supply  copious  information  about  the  history  of  the 
Rishton  family,  which  has  been  utilized  by  the  editors  in  their  intro- 
duction. They  also  contain  much  of  interest  to  the  local  topographer 
and  genealogist,  and  to  the  student  of  medieval  agrarian  systems.  In 
this  connection  the  editors  advance  the  significant  conclusion:  "The 
details  of  land  grants  strongly  support  the  view  that  Lancashire  was 
outside  the  area  in  which  one  of  two  or  three  open  fields,  in  all  of 
which  tenants  had  an  equal  share,  was  annually  left  fallow"  (p.  3). 
The  documents  are  edited  in  the  form  of  a  calendar  with  occasional 
verbatim  citations. 

The  remainder  of  the  volume  contains  four  papers.  Mr.  Broxap 
edits  extracts  from  the  accounts  of  the  churchwardens  of  Manchester 
between  1664  and  1710.  They  are  primarily  of  local  interest,  although 
the  accounts  of  expenditures  yield  some  slight  evidence  of  social  and 
economic  conditions.  Mr.  Clemesha  describes  the  contents  of  the 
court-book  of  the  manor  of.Bramhall  (1632-1657),  but  he  edits  there- 
from only  two  brief  extracts.  The  record  illustrates  both  legal  and 
manorial  history.  Dr.  Mumford  edits  some  Latin  verses  and  speeches 
composed  by  scholars  of  the  Manchester  Grammar  School  in  1640 
and  between  1750  and  1800.  Conceivably  the  historian  of  education 
might  utilize  this  material,  but  its  chief  value  seems  to  be  sentimental. 
Dr.  Tait  contributes  some  records  of  the  portmoot  of  Salford  found 
among  the  muniments  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  They  come  from 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  they  supplement  the  records  of  the  same 
portmoot  for  a  later  period  edited  by  Mr.  Mandley  in  earlier  volumes 
published  by  the  Chetham  Society.  Their  contents  are  similar  to 
those  found  in  medieval  manorial  court-rolls.  The  editor  has  trans- 
lated  into   English  those   rolls  which   were   written   in   Latin. 

W.  E.  Lunt. 

Calendar  of  Deeds  and  Documents  [in]  the  National  Library  of 
Wales.  Volume  I.  The  Coleman  Deeds.  Compiled  by  Francis 
Green.     (Aberystwyth,  the  Library,  1921,  pp.  xi,  466.)     Mr.  Ballinger. 


Minor  Aroticcs  341 

the  librarian  of  the  National  Library,  writes  in  his  preface:  "This 
Volume  .  .  .  contains  a  Calendar  of  the  Deeds  relating  to  Wales 
purchased  from  the  representatives  of  the  late  Mr.  James  Coleman." 
Neither  he  nor  the  editor  vouchsafes  any  further  information  about  the 
history  of  the  documents.  With  few  exceptions  the  documents  are 
legal  in  character,  and  they  relate  mainly  to  the  transfer  of  real  estate. 
Deeds,  mortgages,  leases,  bonds,  wills,  and  marriage  settlements  are 
the  most  common,  although  judgments,  inquisitions,  coroners'  inquests, 
pleas,  trust  agreements,  and  extracts  from  court  rolls  appear  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  The  documents  range  in  date  from  1361  to  1884. 
Only  seven,  however,  were  written  before  1500,  and  comparatively 
few  were  issued  after  1850.  Many  come  respectively  from  the  sixteenth 
century  and  from  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth,  but  a  large  majority 
of  them  dates  from  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

.  The  Calendar  will  be  of  use  principally  to  students  of  local  history 
and  genealogy.  It  contains  thousands  of  names  of  persons  and  places, 
which  the  editor  has  preserved  in  their  original  forms.  The  present  value 
of  this  material  is  impaired  by  the  lack  of  an  index,  but  a  remedy  of 
this  defect  is  promised  when  the  whole  of  a  projected  series  of  similar 
volumes  has  been  completed.  An  index  will  make  the  book  a  notable 
addition  also  to  the  meagre  materials  available  for  the  difficult  task  of 
locating  Welsh  place-names.  The  documents  contain  a  small  amount 
of  information  about  agricultural  arrangements  and  about  some  other 
economic  aspects  of  the  period,  but  several  terriers,  rentals,  and  in- 
ventories, which  presumably  would  be  the  most  valuable  of  the  ma- 
terials in  this  field,  are  among  the  few  documents  not  summarized  in 
the  Calendar. 

The  documents  appear  to  have  been  well  edited.  The  summaries 
generally  are  comparatively  full,  and  the  selection  of  the  material  for 
inclusion  in  the  Calendar  seems  to  have  been  made  with  excellent 
judgment. 

W.  E.  Lunt. 

Une  Institution  d'Enseignemcnt  Superieur  sous  I'Ancien  Regime: 
I'Universite  de  Louvain  (1425-1/07).  Par  Leon  Van  der  Essen,  Pro- 
fesseur  a  I'Universite  de  Louvain.  (Brussels  and  Paris,  Vromant  and 
Company,  1921,  pp.  156,  5  fr.)  Dr.  Van  der  Essen's  little  volume  on 
the  University  of  Louvain  is  divided  into  two  sections,  containing  the 
history  of  the  university  from  its  foundation  down  to  the  sack  of 
the  city  in  August,  1914,  by  the  Germans,  and  the  organization  of  the 
faculties  and  the  university  colleges.  In  this  latter  part  of  the  book, 
the  author,  who  is  a  recognized  authority  in  his  field,  has  contributed 
a  valuable  addition  to  Rashdall's  treatment  of  medieval  student  life. 
The  description  of  the  dress  of  the  students,  their  games  and  pranks, 
the   ineradicable   practice   of   hazing  the   bleus,   or   freshmen,   and   the 


342  Reviews  of  Books 

gallant  though  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  part  of  scholars  like  Bellar- 
mine  to  limit  the  drinking  bouts,  are  included  in  a  picturesque  chapter. 
"  Les  etudiants  de  Louvain  buvaient  ferme !  ",  says  the  author,  in  refer- 
ring to  this  prohibition  movement  of  the  early  seventeenth  century. 
The  usual  quarrels  between  gown  and  town — the  Pettermans,  as  the 
students  called  the  citizens  of  Louvain,  and  the  hardy  venture  of  the 
noctivagi — the  night-prowlers — give  a  lighter  touch  to  the  tedious 
account  of  faculty  conflicts  or  of  difficulties  between  the  city  and  the 
university — ■"  puissance  a  puissance  ". 

Greater  interest  centres  around  the  first  half  of  Dr.  Van  der  Essen's 
volume,  namely  around  the  rise,  growth,  and  decadence  of  the  uni- 
versity during  its  five  centuries  of  life.  During  the  long  period  which 
has  elapsed  since  its  foundation  (1425),  the  University  of  Louvain  has 
been  the  victim  of  all  the  political  struggles  in  continental  Europe. 
Louvain's  first  age  of  grandeur  came  when  Erasmus  led  the  humanistic 
movement  in  the  university.  The  age  of  Albert  and  Isabella  saw  the 
apogee  of  Louvain's  glory.  The  famous  visit  of  161 7,  by  the  Archduke, 
is  unique  in  university  annals.  Suppressed  during  the  French  Revo- 
lution (1797),  the  university  was  resurrected  in  1835,  and  from  that 
time  down  to  the  unspeakable  tragedy  of  August,  1914,  Louvain  had 
waxed  strong  and  had  grown  in  numbers  and  in  intellectual  powers. 

Dr.  Van  der  Essen's  volume  is  the  first  of  a  series  entitled  Col- 
Icctio  Lovanium.  It  is  a  marvel  of  cogent  historical  synthesis,  and 
the  best  account  of  the  university  which  has  appeared  in  modern  times. 

P.  Guilday. 

A  Political  History  of  Modern  Europe,  from  the  Reformation  to 
the  Present  Day.  By  Ferdinand  Schevill,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Modern 
History  in  the  University  of  Chicago.  (New  York,  Harcourt,  Brace, 
and  Company,  1921,  new  ed.,  pp.  xiv,  663,  $2.50.)  This  new  edition  of 
Professor  Schevill's  text-book  is  a  reprint  of  all  the  chapters  (except 
the  last)  which  appeared  in  the  original  edition  of  1907.  As  indicated 
at  that  time  in  this  Review  (XIII.  668),  it  is  a  very  readable  and 
readily  assimilated  outline  of  European  history,  suitable  as  a  first  text- 
book in  good  high-schools  and  even  in  elementary  college  courses.  It 
is  written  in  sprightly  language  and  with  imagination.  It  adheres  ' 
closely  to  traditional  political  history,  but  is  very  successful  in  bringing 
out  sharply  the  high  points. 

In  the  new  edition  the  former  final  chapter  has  given  way  to  a 
new  one  on  the  Character  of  European  Civilization  at  the  Beginning 
of  the  Twentieth  Century.  It  emphasizes  successfully  the  progress 
of  science  and  the  scientific  method,  the  Industrial  Revolution  and  its 
consequences,  and  the  growth  of  colonization  and  imperialism.  Two 
other  new  chapters  explain  European  Diplomatic  Relations  and  the 
Outbreak  of  the  Great  War,  and  the  War  and  the  Peace.     It  is  here 


Minor  Notices  343 

that  the  author  is  at  his  best.  Though  necessarily  very  brief,  these 
chapters  show  skilfully  how  European  imperialism  was  the  underlying 
cause,  and  Russian  mobilization  the  immediate  occasion,  of  the  world- 
wide conflagration.  They  rightly  emphasize  the  crime  and  blunder 
of  invading  Belgium,  the  importance  of  sea-power,  the  idealism  with 
which  America  went  into  the  war,  the  greatness  of  President  Wilson's 
work  at  Paris,  and  the  crippling  effect  on  European  reconstruction 
of  America's  failure  to  back  up  her  leader  by  entering  the  League  of 
Nations. 

S.  B.  F. 

Cosimo  I.j  Duke  of  Florence.  By  Cecily  Booth.  (Cambridge,  Uni- 
versity Press,  1921,  pp.  xv,  325,  25s.)  The  aim  of  this  attractive 
but  outrageously  expensive  biography  of  the  first  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany is  "to  let  Cosimo  speak  for  himself  and  vindicate  his  character", 
and,  at  the  same  time,  "  to  avoid  any  appearance  of  partizanship  ".  The 
author  persistently  warns  us  that  Cosimo  de'  Medici  has  been  long  con- 
sidered a  cruel  and  hypocritical  tyrant,  with  all  the  vices  but  none  of 
the  virtues  of  the  earlier  Medici.  She  thinks  that  "  the  time  has  passed 
for  writing  in  the  style  of  1848,  when  the  word  prince  connoted  vice, 
and  that  of  republic,  virtue  ",  and  would  persuade  us  that  the  previous 
history  of  Florence  and  of  Siena  had  proved  that  a  limit  should  be  set 
to  a  "liberty"  which  was  seldom  peaceful  and  never  just.  She  believes 
that  Cosimo  strove,  more  than  any  of  his  forbears,  to  work  for  the 
good  of  Tuscany,  and  in  the  end  deserved  well  of  his  country.  In 
chapter  X.,  we  find  an  enthusiastic  but  convincing  summary  of  his  suc- 
cess in  restoring  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  grand  duchy. 

Miss  Booth  sustains  her  thesis  with  scholarly  care  and  moderation. 
She  has  used  little  unpublished  material,  except  the  correspondence  of 
Maria  Salviati,  Cosimo's  mother;  but  there  is  probably  little  new  matter 
available.  Her  use  of  the  published  sources  is  thorough,  and  her  bibliog- 
raphy helpful.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  she  uses  for  the  Sienese 
campaign  only  Courteault's  condensed  biography  of  Monluc  (  Un  Cadet 
de  Gascogne  an  Seizihne  Steele.  1909),  and  not  his  original,  critical, 
two-volume  study  of  190S;  and,  stranger  still,  quotes  the  Monluc  Com- 
mentaires  from  de  Ruble's  antiquated  edition  of  1861.  She  differs,  by 
the  way,  from  Courteault  in  her  view  of  Cosimo's  responsibility  for  the 
atrocity  of  the  warfare  waged  by  the  besieging  army  before  Siena,  con- 
sidering that  Marignano  probably  "  exceeded  Cosimo's  instructions  in 
his  cruelty  to  the  unhappy  peasants"  (p.  143).  Courteault  insists,  with 
good  evidence,  that  Marignano  was,  on  the  contrary,  urged  to  greater 
severity  by  Cosimo. 

The  book  will  be  of  considerable  value;  but  the  reviewer  feels  that 
the  author  has  placed  undue  emphasis  on  the  necessity  of  whitewashing 
Cosimo's  character.     Sismondi's  rage  against  tyrants  is  largely  forgot- 


344  Reviews  of  Books 

ten,  and  Armstrong,  in  the  Cambridge  Modem  History,  presents  prac- 
tically the  same  ideas  as  does  Miss  Booth.  One  finds  it  hard  to  under- 
stand why  she  has  consistently  used  the  spelling  concistory,  and  why, 
in  her  otherwise  excellent  translation  of  letters,  she  is  inconsistent  in 
sometimes  translating  such  un-English  phrases  as  Sua  Signoria,  Sua 
Maesta  Cesarea,  etc.,  but  in  more  often  leaving  them  untranslated. 

T.  F.  Jones. 

Zur  Vorgeschichte  des  Qudkcrtums.  Von  Theodor  Sippell,  mit  einem 
Vorwort  von  D.  Friedrich  Loofs.  (Giessen,  Alfred  Topelmann.  1920, 
pp.  viii,  56.)  Theodor  Sippell,  pastor  in  Schweinsberg  (Hessen),  is 
known  for  many  minute  and  subtly  discriminating  studies  in  the  English 
sects  of  the  seventeenth  century  bearing  on  the  origins  of  Continental 
pietism  and  English  Quakerism.  In  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Theologie  und 
Kirche  for  1913  Sippell  found  for  Labadie  a  formative  or  contributory 
influence  in  the  more  mystical  circles  of  the  English  Independents.  In 
Heft  12  of  the  Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  Neueren  Protestantismus, 
1920,  Sippell  presents  an  investigation  of  great  importance:  Zur  Vor- 
geschichte des  Qu'dkertums.  Apart  from  the  effort  here  made  to  trace 
a  connection  between  Luther  and  George  Fox  in  the  succession  Grindel- 
tonians,  Seekers,  Quakers,  the  student  of  New  England  history  will 
find  some  illumination  for  the  dark  topic  of  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  and 
the  Antinomians.  It  is  plain  enough  that  Cotton  and  his  admiring 
disciple  had  a  different  apprehension  of  religious  experience  from  that 
which  was  characteristic  of  Calvinism,  but  the  significance  of  the 
view  of  Cotton  and  Wheelwright  has  been  obscured  by  the  confused 
and  inexpert  utterances  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson.  Sippell  provides  meaning 
for  the  passage  in  Winthrop's  History  in  regard  to  the  prevention  of 
undesired  immigrants :  "  for  it  was  very  probable  that  they  expected 
many  of  their  opinion  to  come  out  of  England  from  Mr.  Brierly  his 
church".  This  implied  connection  between  the  ''Antinomians"  and  the 
Grindeltonians  or  followers  of  Roger  Brerely  helps  to  confirm  infer- 
ences independently  made  by  Sippell  in  his  study  of  Brerely's  sermons 
and  the  fifty  Articles  of  Accusation  against  him,  discovered  by  Sippell 
in  the  Bodleian  Library.  This  study  demonstrates  that  what  differ- 
entiated Brerely  and  generated  a  new  current  in  England  was  Brerely's 
adoption  of  Luther's  version  of  religion  unmodified  by  the  Melanchtho- 
nian  compromises.  It  is  in  this  Lutheran  piety  of  Brerely,  confused  by 
inconsistent  Calvinist  positions  in  the  minds  of  his  followers,  that  we 
have  the  genesis  of  the  Antinomian  Independents,  and  later  of  the 
Westmoreland  Seekers  who  were  recruits  of  George  Fox. 

To  this  monograph  Professor  Friedrich  Loofs  provides  an  intro- 
duction, and  an  appendix  contains  the  Articles  of  Accusation  from 
the  Bodleian  manuscript,  as  well  as  a  theological  poem  by  Brerely.  It 
is  on  the  basis  of  such  detailed  studies  that  the  spiritual  history  of 
Protestantism  will  ultimately  be  written. 


Minor  Notices  345 

De  Theologische  Faculteit  te  Leiden  in  dc  ijde  Eeww.  Door  Dr. 
A.  Eekhof,  Buitengewoon  Hoogleeraar  te  Leiden.  (Utrecht,  G.  J.  A. 
Ruys,  1921,  pp.  vii,  506.)  The  work  of  Dr.  Eekhof  contains  186 
documents  from  the  archives  of  the  theological  faculty  of  Leiden 
which  concern  the  extra-mural  relations  of  the  faculty  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  To  this  collection  is  prefixed  an  historical  sketch  which 
serves  to  elucidate  all  these  documents.  Both  the  historical  introduction 
and  the  documents  are  provided  with  minute  and  painstaking  annota- 
tions, biographical  and  bibliographical,  that  make  the  publication  of 
great  value  for  any  student  conscientiously  occupied  with  this  period. 
Polyander,  Walaeus.  Rivetus.  Thysius,  Trigland.  Spanheim,  Heidanus. 
Cocceius,  Hoornbeek,  Wittichius.  Hulsius— the  world  no  longer  cites 
these  names  or  consults  their  erudite  works  or  glimpses  any  personal 
characteristics  that  might  reveal  their  private  life;  yet  in  their  day 
thev  were  men  of  mental  power,  solid  learning,  and  voluminous  pro- 
duction,   and    historical    evolution    used    them    as    its    vehicles. 

The  University  of  Leiden  was  founded  in  1575  by  William  Prince  of 
Orange,  primarily  as  a  Calvinist  school.  Netherlanders  had  resorted 
formerly  to  Louvain  or  Wittenberg,  or  after  1559  to  Heidelberg  and 
Geneva,  but  now  Leiden  could  offer  theological  learning  from  men 
trained  by  Beza  in  Geneva.  After  the  Synod  of  Dordrecht  its  emi- 
nent scholars  drew  students  from  England.  Scotland,  Italy,  France, 
Poland,  and  Hungary.  It  was  a  characteristically  Calvinist  school,  oc- 
cupied, not  as  Lutheranism  was,  with  the  interest  of  soteriology,  but 
with  the  mysteries  of  divine  sovereignty  as  unfolded  in  the  revealed 
scriptures;  averse  to  all  mystics  or  Anabaptist  appeals  to  the  inner 
word,  resolving  the  Christ-in-us  in  the  historical  Christ;  a  school 
whose  eminence  was  therefore  greatest  in  the  exegesis  of  Scripture, 
with  more  than  usual  assistance  from  a  knowledge  of  Arabic.  Syriac, 
Ethiopic. 

The  documents  show  how  commanding  was  the  influence  of  these 
authoritative  exponents  of  the  Word  of  God.  We  see  them  as  censors 
of  literature.  When  Socinian  works  begin  to  circulate  the  magistrates 
ask  advice  of  the  theological  faculty  and  receive  so  drastic  a  condemna- 
tion of  the  heresy  that  the  books  are  ordered  to  be  burned.  But  the 
documents  show  that  the  condemnation  had  to  be  several  times  re- 
peated, and  was  ineffectual.  It  is  interesting  also  to  see  how  their 
judgment  was  sought  in  regard  to  controversies  and  church  adminis- 
tration, and  in  particular  for  the  decision  of  marriage  questions.  They 
enjoyed  a  dominance  like  that  of  the  clergy  in  the  early  days  of  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

Dr.  Eekhof's  editing  of  this  material  indicates  accomplished  scholar- 
ship, and  his  historical  sketch  is  well  ordered  and  interesting.  One 
criticism  is.  however,  in  order.  He  does  not  exhibit  distinctly,  in 
relation  to  the  development  of  Protestant  thought,  the  significance  of 


346  Reviews  of  Books 

the  federal  theology  of  Cocceius  and  the  Cartesianism  of  Heidan  and 
Wittich.  These  innovations  in  theological  method  were  the  means  of 
transition  from  Protestant  scholasticism  to  new  forms,  by  which  an 
historical  construction  of  the  Bible  and  the  eighteenth-century  debate 
over  Reason  and  Revelation  were  at  least  introduced.  Dr.  Eekhof 
might  well  have  given  us  these  perspectives. 

Francis   A.   Christie. 

The  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  Scotland,  from  the  Union  to 
the  Present  Time.  By  James  Mackinnon,  M.A.,  Ph.D..  D.D..  Regius 
Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  University  of  Edinburgh.  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  viii, 
298,  1 6s.)  As  another  reminder  that  Scotland,  in  consenting  to  par- 
liamentary union  with  England,  did  not  altogether  relinquish  her  iden- 
tity, comes  this  compact  but  comprehensive  book.  It  fills  a  gap  in  the 
literature  of  Scottish  history,  for  it  is  the  first  general  treatment  of 
that  history's  social  and  industrial  phases  which  gives  careful  attention 
to  the  last  half-century.  With  the  eighteenth  century,  indeed,  less  than 
a  fourth  of  the  volume  has  to  do.  because,  although  the  second  half  of 
that  period  saw  wide  industrial  and  social  revolution,  it  was  given  to 
the  times  that  followed  to  witness  "  the  rise  of  a  new  Scotland  in 
which  the  old  would  have  no  little  difficulty  in  recognizing  itself". 

The  author's  outlook  is  catholic.  He  has,  however,  his  predilections. 
Naturally,  as  one  who  finds  recreation  chiefly  in  gardening  and  golf, 
he  appears  keenly  interested  in  technique;  he  enjoys  picturing  clearly 
any  significant  process,  whether  the  mining  of  coal,  the  action  of  a 
screw-propeller,  the  making  of  linoleum  or  of  books,  or  the  cleansing 
of  a  city.  He  pays  more  attention  to  such  matters  than  to  details  of 
organization  and  management.  The  story's  human  interest  is  enhanced 
by  sketches  of  the  careers  of  epoch-making  or  epoch-marking  men, 
especially  inventors,  authors,  artists,  preachers.  The  author  reveals  his 
opinions  without  apology,  be  it  in  proclaiming  Carlyle's  Machtpolitik 
unwholesome,  condemning  a  continuance  of  war-time  animosity  towards 
Germany,  championing  the  church-union  movement,  voicing  pride  at 
the  record  of  the  Clyde  shipyards,  .or  admitting  shame  at  the  evils  of 
overcrowding  and  drunkenness.  He  shows  himself  a  true  Scot,  in 
stating  that  though  the  use  of  meat  had  become  common  among  farm 
servants  by  the  end  of  the  last  century  it  was  "  at  the  expense,  however, 
of  the  decrease  in  the  use  of  oatmeal,  which  is  greatly  to  be  deplored  ". 
Acknowledging  the  fundamental  importance  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial growth  as  conditioning  factors  in  Scotland's  recent  develop- 
ment, he  avoids,  nevertheless,  giving  them  disproportionate  emphasis. 
Education,  for  example,  receives  as  much  attention  as  agriculture; 
literature  and  journalism  as  much  as  the  mining,  iron,  and  steel  in- 
dustries.    With   a   reminder    that    "ecclesiastical    contention    and    theo- 


Minor  Notices  347 

logical  discussion  have  entered  very  deeply  into  Scottish  social  life ". 
more  space  is  allotted  to  religious  life  than  to  the  rise  and  extension 
of  railways.  One  might  wish  that  the  author  had  seen  fit  to  do  a 
little  more  generalizing  than  could  be  done  in  the  three  pages  devoted 
to  that  purpose;  the  book  as  it  stands  is  a  collection  of  rather  detached 
topical  studies.  Yet  altogether,  for  a  work  so  compact  with  detail,  it  is 
eminently  human  and  readable.  Presswork  of  the  usual  high  Edinburgh 
standard  makes  the  volume  a  delight  to  handle.  Used  with  college 
classes  this  book  should  correct  the  common  undergraduate  notion 
that  Scotland  socially  and  industrially  is  merely  an  appanage  of  England. 

Reginald  G.  Trotter. 

Tropical  Holland:  an  Essay  on  the  Birth,  Growth,  and  Development 
of  Popular  Government  in  an  Oriental  Possession.  By  H.  A.  van 
Coenen  Torchiana.  (Chicago,  University  Press,  1921.  pp.  xiv,  317, 
$2.50.)  The  Netherlands  East  Indies  might  well  appear  upon  the 
American  map  as  "  India  Ignota ".  During  the  war  when  it  became 
fashionable  to  talk  about  the  great  future  before  us  in  dealing  with 
foreign  countries,  a  vague  attempt  was  made  to  interest  our  younger 
business  men  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  For  almost  three  years  the 
Suez  Canal  was  closed  to  neutral  vessels,  and  trade  between  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  East  Indian  colonies  used  a  new  but  circuitous  route 
which  followed  the  general  line  of  Rotterdam,  New  York,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Honolulu,  Batavia.  Our  immigration  officials  encouraged  the 
entente  cordiale  between  these  valuable  colonies  and  ourselves  by  man- 
handling those  Hollanders  who  happened  to  have  been  born  in  the 
tropics  and  by  treating  them  as  "  colored  people  "  although  they  were  as 
white  as  the  best  Irishman  who  ever  handled  a  shillelagh.  Some  of 
those  peaceful  travellers  were  administrators  of  territories  which  in 
mere  size  compared  favorably  with  several  of  our  states.  Others  were 
high  in  the  councils  of  the  almighty  oil-companies.  And  the  treatment, 
as  recent  developments  in  the  oil-field  have  shown,  was  not  entirely 
appreciated.  As  for  the  new  trade-route  it  was  discontinued  the  mo- 
ment the  Armistice  whistles  ceased  to  blow.  The  Panama  Canal  was 
deserted  for  the  famous  desert  ditch  between  Suez  and  Port  Said, 
and  the  existence  of  the  populous  islands  of  the  distant  Indies  was 
forgotten. 

Perhaps  the  disarmament  discussions  will  make  our  people  more 
familiar  with  the  musical  names  of  Java  and  Sumatra  and  the  Moluccas 
and  Banda  and  Banka  and  Borneo.  The  inevitable  Japanese  have  found 
their  way  to  the  possessions  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  Dutch  govern- 
ment is  welcoming  the  general  unpopularity  of  these  foreign  wanderers 
as  a  godsend.  Dutch  papers  show  the  natives  what  would  become  of 
them  were  they  to  forsake  allegiance  to  Holland.  The  Japanese  is 
the   bogey-man   whose    grinning   menace   keeps  many   a  movement   for 


34s  Reviews  of  Books 

Indian  self-government  within  bounds.-  Of  these  movements,  of  the 
aspirations  of  the  native  and  the  indolent  inability  of  his  leaders,  Mr. 
Torchiana  speaks  with  sound  understanding.  He  wastes  no  sympathy 
upon  the  stock-conservative  who  "knows  the  natives,  my  dear  Sir, 
knows  them  better  than  they  know  themselves ",  and  who  insists  that 
all  ideas  of  self-government  are  so  much  bolshevik  nonsense.  Neither 
does  he  praise  the  ubiquitous  sentimentalist  who  loves  whatever  is 
brown,  slightly-brown,  or  pure  black  because  the  people  of  that  hue 
"  have  such  beautiful  souls  ".  He  shows  that  salvation  lies  on  the  very 
narrow  and  difficult  path  between  the  two  extremes  and  he  gives  an 
adequate  description  of  the  historical  background  which  is  responsible 
for  the  anomalous  condition  of  a  colonial  empire  of  fifty  million  people 
which  is  peacefully  administered  by  a  mere  handful  of  civil  adminis- 
trators and  fewer  soldiers  than  are  counted  among  the  legionaries  of 
New  York's  chief  of  police. 

The  book  is  hardly  what  the  Swiss  call  a  "  hochwissenschaftliche 
Arbeit  ".  It  makes  no  such  pretence.  It  is  an  excellent  compilation  and 
the  sort  of  little  book  which  saves  you  hours  of  irritating  and  puttering 
labor  when  you  must  know  something  connected  with  tropical  Holland, 
when  the  Britannica,  as  usual,  leaves  your  curiosity  unsatisfied,  and 
when  you  are  in  despair  to  discover  just  when  Raffles  was  governor- 
general  and  when  the  abominable  "  Cultuur  Stelsel "  was  abolished. 

H.  W.  v.  L. 

William  Bolts,  a  Dutch  Adventurer  under  John  Company.  By  N.  L. 
Hallward,  M.A.  (Cambridge,  University  Press,  1920,  pp.  viii,  210,  15s.) 
This  is  the  remarkable  story  of  a  Dutchman  in  the  service  of  the 
English  East  India  Company  "who  by  private  trade  accumulated  a  for- 
tune of  £90,000  in  six  years,  who,  single-handed,  defied  for  two  years 
the  civil  and  military  authorities  in  Bengal,  and  who  ruined  an  ex- 
Governor  (Verelst)  by  litigation,  and  revenged  himself  on  the  Com- 
pany for  his  forcible  deportation,  first  by  publishing  a  bitter  attack 
on  their  administration  in  Bengal,  and  afterwards  by  establishing  rival 
factors  in  the  East  Indies  under  the  protection  of  the  Imperial  Austrian 
Government ". 

The  book  is  not  a  narrative  but  a  series  of  episodes  occurring  in 
Bengal  following  Clive's  victory  in  1757.  The  episodes  reveal  the  Com- 
pany's relations  to  its  factors,  their  unscrupulous  disregard  of  the  Com- 
pany's interests,  their  devotion  to  their  own  private  trade,  their  in- 
trigues with  the  agents  of  other  countries,  their  arrogant  threats  against 
the  native  rulers  in  the  name  of  the  English  government,  and  above  all 
their  exasperating  oppression  of  the  natives  through  the  absurd  claim 
to  participation  in  the  inland  trade,  consisting  largely  of  salt,  betel-nut, 
and  tobacco,  without  payment  of  duties,  while  insisting  that  the  natives 
were  subject  to  such  duties.  The  latter  claim  was  the  direct  cause  of 
the  Patna  massacre  in   1763,  as  Governor  Van  Sittart,  who  honestly, 


Minor  Notices  349 

though  undiplomatically,  opposed  the  private  trade  interests  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Council,  shows  more  clearly  in  his  published  correspondence. 

The  circumstances  of  'Bolt's  deportation  to  England  raised  a  num- 
ber of  questions  concerning  the  legal  status  in  India  of  factors  who 
had  been  dismissed  from  the  Company's  service.  Indeed  the  book  illus- 
trates exceptionally  well  the  endless  variety  of  questions  and  disputes 
which  enabled  the  Company's  officials,  practically  irresponsible,  gradu- 
ally to  encroach  on  the  sovereignty  of  the  native  rulers. 

The  book  is  by  no  means  as  valuable  as  a  well-rounded  account  of 
this  period  in  Indian  history  would  be,  but  it  contains  interesting  illus- 
trations for  such  a  history. 

George  F.  Zook. 

D'Ulm  a  Icna:  Correspondance  inedite  du  Chevalier  de  Gents  avee 
Francis  James  Jackson,  Ministre  dc  la  Grande-Bretagne  a  Berlin,  1804- 
1806.  Par  Commandant  M.-H.  Weil.  (Paris,  Payot  et  Cie.,  1921,  pp. 
336,  18  fr.)  Few  men  were  possessed  so  completely  as  was  Friedrich 
Gentz  with  the  cacocthcs  scribendi.  His  active  mind  had  an  innate 
affinity  with  ink.  The  contemporary  French  Revolution  and  Napoleon, 
to  both  of  which  he  was  hostile,  and  the  old  order  and  Metternich  to 
both  of  which  he  was  attached,  were  large  and  engaging  subjects  for 
his  active  brain  and  ready  pen.  A  bibliography  of  his  writings  and  of 
material  about  him  published  fifteen  years  ago  fills  almost  seventy  pages 
of  the  Miiteilungen  des  Instituts  fiir  Oesterreichische  Geschichtsfor- 
schung.  Much  has  appeared  since.  Evidently  the  end  is  not  in  sight, 
for  Commandant  Weil  has  discovered  in  the  Record  Office  a  packet  of 
letters  not  hitherto  used.  M.  Weil  is  a  veteran  forager  in  archives. 
For  this  discovery,  he  has  all  the  enthusiasm  imparted  by  a  discovery. 
The  letters  are  by  Gentz.  They  are  addressed  to  Jackson,  the  English 
ambassador  in  Berlin.  They  fall  within  the  years  1 803-1 806.  They 
have  not  been  published,  therefore  they  are  important  and  should  be 
published. 

The  abundance  of  material  from  and  about  Gentz  enables  one  to  ask 
sharply,  do  these  letters  add  anything  to  our  knowledge  about  Gentz 
and  the  period?  The  frank  answer  is  that  the  contribution  is  small 
and  relatively  unimportant.  Jackson  scarcely  took  the  trouble  to  answer 
the  letters,  and  tried  to  silence  the  irrepressible  Gentz.  Gentz  was 
unabashed.  He  was  bound  to  keep  open  all  avenues  of  information  and 
persistent  in  stimulating  every  influence  against  Napoleon  and  against 
the  Austrian  ministers  who  paid  Gentz  four  thousand  florins  a  year. 
Furthermore,  he  was  anxious  to  the  point  of  distress,  at  the  possibility 
of  losing  the  stipend  paid  him  by  the  British  ministry.  He  could  not 
be  suppressed. 

There  is  interest  in  the  letters  on  the  confusion  and  despair  after 
Mack's  surrender  at  Ulm  and  after  the  allies'  defeat  at  Austerlitz. 
The  letter  in  which  Gentz  depicts  what  he  thinks  Haugwitz,  the  Prus- 


350  Reviews  of  Books 

sian  negotiator,  would  do  when  face  to  face  with  Napoleon,  is  so  un- 
cannily correct  that  you  might  surmise  Gentz,  writing  in  professed  ig- 
norance three  weeks  after  the  events,  was  making  a  great  impression 
on  Jackson  on  the  basis  of  information  received,  perhaps,  through 
Hoym,  the  governor  of  Silesia.  Gentz's  early  estimate  of  Metternich 
as  the  coming  man  is  made  clearer  by  these  letters. 

Many  of  the  letters  are  expansions  of  covering  notes  to  accompany 
the  stream  of  memoirs  to  be  transmitted  to  London.  These  memoirs 
are  not  here  published.  The  most  important  are  probably  in  print,  al- 
though the  editor  does  not  identify  them.  His  contribution  is  chiefly 
in  the  identification,  by  long  and  unnecessary  foot-notes,  of  persons 
mentioned  in  the  letters.  Ninety  pages  of  appendices  are  used  to  the 
same  purpose.  Thus  a  book  is  made  out  of  material  that  a  discrimi- 
nating editor  could  have  brought  within  the  compass  of  a  contribution 
to  an  historical  magazine. 

G.  S.  Ford. 

Twenty  Years:  Being  a  Study  in  the  Development  of  the  Party  Sys- 
tem between  1815  and  1835.  By  Cyril  Alington,  Head  Master  of  Eton. 
(Oxford,  Clarendon  Press;  London  and  New  York,  Oxford  University 
Press,  1921,  pp.  207.)  The  exact  scope  of  this  essay  is  not  easily 
defined.  The  anticipation  of  the  reviewer  that  it  would  be  a  dis- 
quisition on  the  party  system  was  no  less  happily  disappointed  than 
his  fear  that  it  might  be  a  chronicle  of  political  events  of  the  conven- 
tional type.  The  leaders  of  the  parties  constitute  the  main  consideration 
rather  than  the  parties  themselves.  Sketches  of  their  personalities, 
written  with  rapid  strokes  of  a  facile  pen,  and  judgments  of  their 
statesmanship,  given  with  mature  and  thoughtful  deliberation,  are  strung 
upon  a  slender  thread  of  political  narrative,  sufficient  to  provide  the 
unity  necessary  for  readers  whose  acquaintance  with  the  period  is 
slight,  but  not  so  long  as  to  burden  those  who  possess  greater  knowl- 
edge of  this  aspect  of  the  subject. 

The  value  of  the  contribution  does  not  rest  primarily  upon  the 
presentation  of  new  facts.  The  author's  modest  disclaimer  of  original 
research,  to  be  sure,  must  be  taken  with  some  qualification,  for  while 
he  does  not  cite  his  authorities  systematically,  his  text  gives  evidence 
of  acquaintance  with  many  contemporary  memoirs,  letters,  and  diaries; 
but  it  is  true  that  he  has  neither  discovered  material  hitherto  unex- 
plored nor  attempted  such  a  thorough  investigation  of  all  available 
evidence  as  might  produce  a  great  positive  addition  to  our  knowledge. 
The  book,  nevertheless,  fills  a  place  of  importance  in  the  historical 
literature  dealing  with  the  period.  This  place  is  so  happily  designated 
by  the  author,  that  nothing  better  can  he  done  than  to  quote  his 
words  (p.  9)  : 

.  .  .   first  impressions  honestly  recorded,  have  a  value  distinct   from 


Minor  Notices  35 ' 


those  arrived  at  by  long  thought  and  study.  A  rapid  survey  may  be 
inaccurate  but  it  has  a  unity  of  its  own,  and  laborious  historians  may 
fail  to 

recapture 
The  first  fine  careless  rapture 
with  which  they  have  once  believed  themselves  to  appreciate  the  true 
meaning  of  a  period  or  the  true  character  of  a  statesman. 

This  statement  of  his  purpose  is  an  accurate  measure  of  his  accom- 
plishment with  regard  to  the  personalities  of  the  statesmen  of  the  period. 
Since  Walpole  characterized  them  from  his  Whig  viewpoint  so  many 
studies  of  individual  statesmen  have  been  made,  that  it  is  high  time 
for  a  new  standard  of  measurement:  This  it  is,  which  Mr.  Alington 
gives  us. 

The  treatment  accorded  the  subject  is  such  that  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  the  type  of  reader,  be  he  historical  student  or  politician,  serious- 
minded  reformer  or  literary  dilettante,  who  would  not  derive  both 
pleasure  and  profit  from  the  perusal  of  the  volume.  The  narrative 
is  enlivened  by  the  author's  keen  sense  of  humor,  finding  outlet  some- 
times in  his  own  epigrammatic  expression  and  sometimes  in  the  quota- 
tion of  the  pointed  and  pithy  sayings  of  contemporaries.  The  author's 
selection  of  the  latter  material  displays  a  penetrating  judgment  of  his- 
torical values  and  his  application  of  it  a  particularly  happy  appreciation 
of  literary  values.  His  kindliness,  however,  removes  the  sting  which 
such  a  style  generally  carries  with  it.  In  all  men  he  sees  the  bad  but 
emphasizes  the  good.  The  strongest  partizan  must  admit  the  tolerance 
of  his  judgments,  while  the  historical  student  is  likely,  I  think,  to  be 
impressed  with  the  soundness  of  them. 

W.  E.  Lunt. 

Queen  Victoria.  By  Lytton  Strachey.  (New  York.  Harcourt, 
Brace,  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  iii,  434.  17s.  6d.)  It  is  not  easy  to  assign 
a  place  or  a  value  to  this  book.  To  judge  it  as  a  source  of  information 
would  be  useless,  because  it  is  nearly  devoid  of  substance.  To  test  it 
with  canons  of  historical  method  would  be  ungraciously  to  point  out 
that  it  follows  none.  Yet  there  is  about  the  book  such  an  undeniable 
attitude,  such  an  uncommon  presentation,  that  one  is  tempted  to  call 
it  simply  "  Mr.  Strachey's  Victoria " ;  and  to  trust  that  the  initiated 
will  grasp  the  implication. 

Mr.  Strachey  has  really  succeeded  in  turning  "  Victoria  "  into  some- 
thing that  resembles  a  light  opera.  Here  is  comedy  in  plenty,  pathos, 
satire,  irony;  at  the  end,  too,  a  tepid  recessional  likely  to  satisfy  the 
scruples  of  his  audience — though  perhaps  not  of  Mr.  Strachey  him- 
self— with  a  solemn  note  of  altered  measure  at  the  passing  of  the 
great  queen.  For  Mr.  Strachey  rather  creates  the  impression  of  being, 
self-consciously,  the  most  amused  spectator  of  his  own  composition, 
only  readjusting  his  features  slightly  at  the  funereal  moment  of  fare- 
amIhist.  rev.,  vol.  xxvii. — 24. 


352  Reviews  of  Books 

well.  His  biography  is  noj  so  much  a  gauge  of  character  as  a  subtle 
display  of  incident  and  circumstance.  He  skims  dexterously  over  a 
surface  of  anecdote  and  idiosyncrasy,  gathering  up  the  trivial  and  the 
familiar  as  he  hurries  along,  never  pausing  once  to  fathom. 

The  general  reader  relishing  entertainment  at  the  expense  of  royalty 
assuredly  will  adopt  Mr.  Strachey's  "Victoria"  as  his  very  own.  He 
will  be  amused  at  the  class  of  story  that  pictures  Victoria  stamping  her 
foot  in  vexation  at  the  Prince  Consort;  or  pounding  in  vain  at  "Al- 
bert's "  door  demanding  admittance  because  she  is  "  Queen  of  England  "  ; 
or  at  the  description  of  Victoria  in  later  life  sentimentally  plucking 
primroses  to  send  to  Disraeli  in  return  for  the  thick  and  fulsome  flat- 
tery of  that  "old  comedian".  In  such  a  field  an  anecdotist  finds  abun- 
dant scope.  Mr.  Strachey  has  kept  his  field  rather  unduly  restricted, 
however;  perhaps  because  he  confined  the  preparation  of  his  volume 
to  a  minimum  of  reading  effort.  Grouping  together  his  anecdotal  ma- 
terial, with  a  few  exceptions  it  is  apparent  that  it  comes  in  part  from 
the  journals,  letters,  and  diary  of  the  queen,  with  the  Life  of  the 
Prince  Consort  and  the  inevitable  Creevey,  Stockmar,  and  Greville ;  in 
part  from  the  lives  of  the  Victorian  prime  ministers:  in  other  words  from 
only  the  current  publications  on  the  Victorian  era  to  be  found  in  any 
small  private  library.  We  are  limited  then  to  two  sets  of  views  of  the 
queen:  one,  that  is  often  too  private  and  familiar;  another,  that  is 
often  merely  ceremonious  and  official.  Between  the  two  extremes  the 
real  queen  scarcely  emerges. 

When  the  character  of  the  queen — as  distinct  from  Victoria's  inci- 
dental career — is  made  the  subject  of  study,  it  were  better  done  by  a 
writer  temperamentally  more  in  sympathy  than  Mr.  Strachey  with  the 
Victorian  era,  and  less  prone  to  look  askance  at  its  moral  tempests. 
The  trivial  side  of  its  great  personages  belies  their  force  and  depth. 
Mr.  Strachey's  biography  is  essentially  an  essay  in  Victorian  trivialities 
■ — as  refreshing  to  the  student  as  it  is  captivating  to  the  general  reader — 
but,  after  all,  only  refreshing. 

C.  E.  Fryer. 

British  Policy  and  Opinion  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  By 
Dora  Ndll  Raymond,  Ph.D.  [Columbia  University  Studies  in  History, 
Economics,  and  Public  Law,  vol.  C,  no.  I.]  (New  York  and  London, 
Longmans,  Green,  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  435,  $4.50.)  Two  brief  chap- 
ters of  this  study  are  devoted  to  a  survey  of  Britain's  relations  with 
France  and  Prussia,  1 860-1 870,  and  of  the  political  situation  in  France 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1870.  The  author  then  traces  the  ne- 
gotiations and  events  of  the  momentous  July  days  and  discusses  with  a 
considerable  amount  of  detail  the  attitude  of  the  British  government 
and  of  the  public  to  the  war  and  the  various  problems  connected 
therewith.      Among    the    topics    treated    with    special    care    might    be 


Minor  Notices  553 

mentioned  Britain's  efforts  to  safeguard  Belgian  neutrality  by  reinsur- 
ance treaties  and  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  conflict  by  creating  a 
league  of  neutrals;  the  gradual  veering  of  public  sympathy  in  favor  of 
France;  the  reception  accorded  to  the  Third  Republic  and  the  German 
Empire;  the  attitude  toward  France's  efforts  at  enlisting  aid  or  se- 
curing mediation  by  a  friendly  power;  Russia's  abrogation  of  the  Black 
Sea  clause  in  the  Treaty  of  1856  and  the  London  Conference,  1871 ; 
Germany's  peace  terms  and  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort. 

The  book  is  based  chiefly  on  material  from  British  newspapers  and 
periodicals.  Journals  representing  different  social  and  political  views 
have  been  examined  with  great  care.  Biographies,  memoirs,  and 
reminiscences  of  men  and  women  active  and  prominent  at  this  time 
have  been  used,  but  the  list  of  these  is  not  exhausted.  It  is  hardly 
advisable  to  present  even  a  brief  survey  of  Britain's  foreign  relations 
during  the  sixties  without  consulting  the  lives  of  Palmerston,  Russell, 
and  Clarendon.  Important  omissions  are  noted  also  for  the  period  cov- 
ered by  the  main  part  of  the  study.  The  memoirs  of  Lord  Cranbrook 
and  Henry  Reeve;  Selborne.  Memorials;  Argyll,  Autobiography;  the 
lives  of  Goschen.  Lord  Houghton,  T.  A.  Roebuck,  and  Shaftesbury, 
among  others,  contain  bits  of  information  that  shed  light  on  both  policy 
and  opinion.  Use  has  been  made  of  Hansard  and  the  blue  books,  but 
one  searches  in  vain  for  the  most  important  French  and  German  sources 
on  the  war  and  its  origin. 

Dr.  Raymond  reveals  successfully  British  opinion  during  eventful 
months.  Excerpts,  skillfully  chosen  from  a  variety  of  sources,  admi- 
rable summaries,  and  interesting  episodes  are  knit  together  in  a  con- 
tinuous story.  As  a  study  in  policy  the  book  has  less  value.  It  is  too 
fragmentary  on  this  topic.  Nor  is  it  clear  that  the  author  appreciates 
the  tasks  faced  by  Gladstone's  great  ministry. 

Numerous  foot-notes,  a  bibliography,  and  a  good  index  make  the 
book  very  serviceable.  Several  errors,  some  of  which  are  doubtless  due 
to  careless  proof-reading,  have  been  noted.  S.  Low  and  L.  C.  Sanders 
are  the  authors  of  vol.  XII.  of  The  Political  History  of  England,  edited 
by  W.  Hunt  and  R.  L.  Poole.  The  numbers  for  foot-notes  on  page 
233  are  hopelessly  confused,  and  we  have  Gray  for  Grey  (page  31,  note 
3)_;  Morley  for  Fitzmaurice  (page  269,  note  2).  It  has  also  been  found 
impossible  to  trace  many  of  the  references  to  the  British  Parliamentary 
Papers.  Such  references  should  be  made  to  year  and  volume  of  the 
blue  books  and  the  page  of  the  "  command  paper ". 

Paul  Knaplund. 

Histoire  dc  la  Troisicmc  Rcpubliquc.  Par  Lieutenant-Colonel 
fimile  Simond,  de  l'Armee  Territoriale.  Tome  I..  Prcsidence  de  M. 
Carnot,  188--1804.  Tome  II.,  Prcsidence  de  M.  Casimir-Pcricr;  Prcsi- 
dence de  M.  Felix  Faurc,  1S04-1S06.  Tome  III..  Prcsidence  dc  M.  Felix 
Faurc,  180/-180Q.      (Paris,   Charles-Lavauzelle   et   Cie.,    1913.    1921,   pp. 


354  Reviews  of  Books 

470,  355,  444;  22.75  fr-)  The  first  of  these  three  volumes,  covering  the 
years  1887  to  1894,  was  published  in  1913.  At  that  time  the  intent  of 
the  author  appears  to  have  been  that  ultimately  it  would  become  the  fifth 
in  a  six-volume  series  on  the  history  of  the  Third  Republic  from  1870 
to  1899.  Then  something,  presumably  the  war,  led  to  long  delay  and  a 
change  of  plan.  Instead  of  going  back  to  1870,  the  author  decided  to 
go  on  to  1919.  Volumes  II.  and  III.,  which  have  just  appeared,  carry 
the  narrative  on  to  1899.  Four  more  volumes,  covering  the  period  from 
1899  to  1919,  are  announced  for  future  publication. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  space  is  devoted  to  a  sort  of  general  chron- 
icle of  public  affairs,  the  remainder  to  a  number  of  special  chapters 
dealing  with  colonial,  military,  and  naval  matters.  The  chronicle  por- 
tion consists  of  short  sections,  ranging  from  three  or  four  lines  to 
several  pages.  Each  section  gives  a  rather  arid  and  colorless  account 
of  some  event  which  attracted  considerable  attention  at  the  moment  of 
its  occurrence.  The  arrangement  is  strictly  chronological.  Little  in  the 
way  of  explanation  or  interpretation  is  attempted.  Each  section  stands 
so  completely  apart  that  if  the  reader  is  to  get  any  general  narrative 
he  must  construct  it  for  himself.  For  the  French  who  lived  through 
the  years  covered  by  this  chronicle  it  may  serve  to  call  to  mind  in 
concise  and  convenient  form  what  they  read  in  the  newspapers  at  the 
time  and  as  a  useful  statement  of  the  bare  facts  about  occurrences  of  a 
few  years  ago.  But  those  who  are  not  already  rather  well  informed  on 
the  subject  will  get  little  assistance  toward  an  understanding  of  the 
history  of  the  Third  Republic. 

The  special  chapters  include  two  upon  the  army  from  1887  to  1899, 
and  one  upon  the  navy  from  1871  to  1899.  They  consist  almost  ex- 
clusively of  statistics  and  administrative  details,  useful  perhaps  for  ref- 
erence, but  not  illuminating.  The  chapters  on  colonial  matters  are  dis- 
tinctly the  best  feature  of  the  entire  history.  Colonel  Simond  be- 
lieves strongly  in  the  value  of  the  French  colonial  empire.  In  spite 
of  the  inclusion  of  more  geographical  details  than  readers  can  readily 
assimilate,  his  accounts  of  the  hardships  endured  and  courage  displayed 
by  French  explorers  in  Africa  are  stirring  narratives.  The  story  of  the 
French  conflicts  with  the  natives  in  West  Africa,  especially  with 
Samory  and  his  followers,  is  told  almost  equally  well.  His  description 
of  the  difficulties  overcome  in  the  conquest  of  Madagascar  is  remark- 
ably vivid. 

Except  on  colonial  affairs,  Colonel  Simond  does  not  often  disclose 
his  own  opinion  about  the  matters  he  relates.  In  general  he  occupies 
a  middle  position  and  is  somewhat  disposed  to  be  severe  toward  the 
parliamentary  regime,  owing  to  its  frequent  changes  of  ministry  and 
its  manner  of  handling  the  budget.  Wherever  a  question  of  conflict 
between  civil  and  military  authorities  arises  his  sympathies  are  with 
the  army. 

Frank  Maloy  Anderson. 


Minor  Notices  355 

Collected  Papers,  Historical,  Literary,  Travel,  and  Miscellaneous. 
By  Sir  Adolphus  William  Ward.  Litt.D..  Hon.LL.D..  Master  of  Peter- 
house.  In  four  volumes.  Volumes  I.  and  II.,  Historical.  (Cambridge, 
University  Press,  1921,  pp.  xi.  407,  397;  48s.)  The  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press  has  done  a  graceful  and  fitting  thing  in  republishing  the 
essays  and  reviews  that  have  come  from  the  pen  of  the  learned  Master 
of  Peterhouse.  It  is  a  just  tribute  to  one  whose  erudition  has  con- 
tributed so  much  to  various  phases  of  literary  and  political  history. 

These  two  volumes  include  the  Splitter  and  Spone  from  the  political 
history  workshop.  There  are  thirty-seven  of  them  in  all.  Ten  are 
reprints  of  essays  or  lectures  and  the  rest  are  reviews  which  have  ap- 
peared chiefly  in  the  Saturday  Review,  Manchester  Guardian,  and  Eng- 
lish Historical  Review.  In  point  of  time  the  latter  range  from  the 
fourth  edition  of  Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  1873,  which  in  an 
additional  chapter  took  notice  of  the  new  German  Empire,  to  Lord's 
Second  Partition  of  Poland,  published  in  1916.  They  are  as  varied  in 
interest  as  Finlay's  History  of  Greece,  Friedlander's  Sittengeschichte 
Roms,  the  Songs  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Gardiner's  Reign  of  Charles 
I.,  Gentz's  Letters,  Hertslet's  Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty,  and  Hohenlohe's 
Memoirs.  Most  of  them  are  related  to  the  history  of  Germany,  espe- 
cially the  minor  states  and  the  seventeenth  century.  They  are  (except 
the  forty-two  pages  on  Gardiner)  essentially  brief  essays,  which  sum- 
marized for  the  readers  of  the  Spectator  or  Guardian  in  an  independent 
and  discriminating  way  the  contributions  of  scholars  to  whose  works 
the  intelligent  reader  might  not  have  access.  How  much  they  gave  or 
presupposed  of  a  factual  character  is  indicated  by  a  twenty-three-page 
double-column  index  of  proper  names. 

Of  the  essays,  the  most  familiar  is  that  which  opens  the  volume 
edited  by  Kirkpatrick  as  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (1904).  The  historian  of  the  development  of  the  idea  of  a 
league  of  nations  will  find  interesting  suggestions  as  he  compares  this 
with  the  opening  essay  on  the  Peace  of  Europe  written  in  1873  and 
again  with  Professor  Ward's  little  pamphlet  in  the  Helps  for  Students 
of  History  published  by  the  S.P.C.K.  in  1920.  There  will  not  be  many 
better  examples  available  of  the  development,  in  an  intelligent  mind, 
during  the  last  half-century,  of  a  significant  idea. 

The  most  extensive  essay  is  the  hundred  pages  devoted  to  the  de- 
cline of  Prussia  under  Frederick  William  II.  (17S6-1797. )  It  is  the 
only  treatment  of  this  reign,  of  any  length,  available  in  English. 
Written  in  189 1  it  leans  heavily  on  Philippson  and  Sybel  but  despite 
attacks  on  the  former  they  are  good  supports.  The  essay — like  others — 
is  sturdily  left  without  reference  to  any  literature  since  its  preparation. 
While  it  is  wholly  political  in  content  it  is  unsympathetic  and  therefore 
essentially  unpolitical  in  interpretation. 

•     In    the    reviews    of    the    historical    literature    of    the    Thirty    Years' 
War  and  of  the  lesser   German   states,   especially  Hanover,   Dr.  Ward 


356  Reviews  of  Books 

is  most  at  home.  Even  the  specialist  will  be  glad  to  have  available  what 
he  wrote  about  books  for  the  readers  of  enlightened  popular  periodicals, 
and  his  own  interpretations  of  Elizabeth  of  Bohemia,  the  effects  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  Leibnitz  as  a  politician. 

Le  Matfechal  Lyautey:  le  Soldat,  I'Hcrivam,  le  Politique.  Par 
Amedee  Britsch.  [Les  Cahiers  de  la  Victoire.]  (Paris,  La  Renais- 
sance du  Livre,  1921,  pp.  265,  6.75  fr.)  This  little  biography  may  at 
first  seem  superficial  and  thus  easily  be  underrated.  The  author  admits 
that  he  has  little  acquaintance  with  the  lands  in  which  the  marshal 
won  his  fame.  The  work  is  frankly  eulogistic  and  depends  largely 
upon  personal  impressions  received  through  contact  with  the  subject, 
supported  by  letters  and  other  works  of  Marshal  Lyautey  and  some 
magazine  articles  about  him,  yet  it  does  accomplish  the  chief  purpose  of 
the  author :  "  instruire  le  lecteur  de  l'oeuvre  coloniale  et  faire  rendre 
justice  a  ses  ouvriers ". 

The  reader  can  get  more  of  value  from  the  book  than  if  its  faults 
were  less  transparent.  It  vindicates  the  French  army  and  the  colonial 
wars.  Marshal  Lyautey  is  shown  as  a  wise  administrator  as  well  as  an 
able  general.  Quotations  from  his  letters  reveal  him  more  as  a  soldier 
and  statesman  than  as  a  writer.  Probably  the  achievement  for  which 
he  will  be  best  known  in  history  will  be  the  preservation  of  Morocco 
to  France  during  the  World  War.  He  sent  nearly  all  his  French 
soldiers  back  to  help  France,  and  when  ordered  to  retire  to  the  coast 
towns  he  stayed  where  he  was  with  his  handful  of  French  and  his 
African  troops,  kept  up  French  prestige,  and  lost  no  ground.  The 
result  was  that  Morocco  did  not  have  to  be  reconquered.  We  read 
with  interest  of  the  cabinet  crisis  at  Paris  in  which  he,  as  minister  of 
war,  appears  as  a  soldier  and  administrator  but  not  as  a  politician.  The 
book  gives  the  impression  that  Marshal  Lyautey  will  loom  up  still 
greater  from  the  perspective  of  the  future  than  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  present. 

The  book  is  well  and  sympathetically  written.  It  contains  con- 
siderable information  in  regard  to  French  expansion  in  Morocco  and  the 
political  atmosphere  there.  There  are  two  maps,  an  autograph  of  the 
marshal,  and  one  or  two  portraits.  There  is  no  index,  but  there  is  a 
bibliography  of  works  published  by,  or  relating  to.   Marshal  Lyautey. 

A.  I.  A. 

The  Economics  of  Communism,  with  special  reference  to  Russia's 
Experiment.  By  Leo  Pasvolsky.  (New  York,  Macmillan  Company, 
1921,  pp.  xvi,  312,  $2.25.)  Russia  has  been  so  abundantly  described 
and  explained  since  1917 — sufficiently  to  make  almost  any  country 
misunderstood — that  a  new  book  upon  it  might  expect  a  dubious  wel- 
come.    But  Mr.  Pasvolski  has  entered  a  rather  new  territory  in  that 


Minor  Notices  357 

broad  field;  or  rather,  he  has  explored  it  in  a  different  way.  He  has 
written  a  criticism  of  communism  as  an  economic  theory,  based  upon 
its  application  in  Russia.  He  has  performed  his  task  in  an  unexciting 
but  convincing  manner,  with  abundant  citation  of  facts  to  support  each 
statement  and  conclusion.  He  does  not  argue,  but  records  and  analyzes. 
His  style  might  be  better' — it  is  too  abstract,  and  his  points  sometimes 
lack  clear  definition  for  that  reason — but  it  takes  him  to  his  goal. 

The  book  contains  two  parts.  In  the  first  the  soviet  economic  sys- 
tem is  described  under  chapters  dealing  respectively  with  nationalized 
production,  co-operative  distribution,  and  the  agrarian  scheme.  In  the 
second  part  the  results  actually  attained  in  each  of  these  fields  are  stated 
and  discussed.     All  the  data  given  are  from  official  Bolshevist  sources. 

Mr.  Pasvolski  is  unusually  well  qualified  to  deal  with  the  theme 
which  he  has  treated.  He  was  born  in  Russia  and  knows  the  country 
and  its  language.  Though  he  has  not  been  there  since  the  Revolution, 
he  has  had  access  to  some  of  the  best  collections  of  Bolshevist  news- 
papers, reports,  and  documents  outside  of  the  Soviet  Republic.  He  has 
also  been  in  touch  with  eye-witnesses  of  events  and  conditions  in  Rus- 
sia. His  sympathies  are  not  Bolshevist;  but  his  bias  against  communism 
is  well  controlled,  and  his  book  is  thoroughly  judicial  in  spirit  as  well 
as  statement. 

Russia  has  been  much  more  thoroughly  studied  as  an  economic  clinic 
by  Europeans  than  by  Americans.  More  than  two  years  ago  the 
Osteuropa-Institut  in  Breslau  published  a  carefully  edited  volume  upon 
Russisches  U'irtschaftslcbcn  scit  der  Hcrrschaft  dcr  Bolschewiki.  It 
was  high  time  that  we  had  such  a  study  in  the  United  States. 

Victor  S.  Clark. 

La  Constitution  Allemande.du  n  Aout  ioio.  Par  Rene  Brunet, 
Professeur  de  Droit  Constitutionnel  a  la  Faculte  de  Droit  de  Caen. 
Preface  par  Joseph  Barthelemy,  Professeur  a  la  Faculte  de  Droit  de 
Paris.  (Paris,  Payot  et  Cie.,  1921,  pp.  xviii,  364.  18  fr.)  The  author 
of  this  book  has  distinct  qualifications  for  his  task.  He  is  an  excep- 
tionally promising  representative  of  the  younger  school  of  French  con- 
stitutional lawyers;  he  writes  with  characteristic  French  lucidity;  and 
he  has  had  several  years  of  experience  as  judicial  counsellor  to  the 
French  embassy  at  Berlin.  Accordingly  he  has  been  able  to  produce 
the  most  exhaustive,  dispassionate,  and  generally  learned  exposition 
of  the  German  republican  constitution  which  has  come  from  any  non- 
German  writer ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  no  German  discussion  of  the 
subject  with  which  the  reviewer  is  familiar  is  equally  satisfactory,  at 
all  events  for  non-German  students. 

Save  incidentally,  the  constitutional  history  of  Germany  prior  to 
1918  is  not  touched;  ten  pages  suffice  to  bring  the  author  to  the  col- 
lapse of  the  imperial  regime.     It  would  have  been  better  to  devote  a 


358  Reviews  of  Books 

fair  amount  of  space  to  an  account  of  tendencies  toward  ministerial 
responsibility  and  other  salient  phenomena  before  1914,  and  especially 
to  a  description  of  movements  for  political  reform  in  the  period  1915— 
1918;  the  historically-minded  reader  would  very  properly  like  much 
more  background  for  the  establishment  of  the  socialist  republic  than 
is  supplied.  Being  a  constitutional  lawyer,  however,  and  not  a  historian. 
Professor  Brunet  has  preferred  to  enter  almost  immediately  upon  his 
task  of  analysis  and  exposition.  Perhaps  he  has  felt  that  German  con- 
stitutional development,  down  to  1915  at  all  events,  has  already  been 
adequately  treated — as  indeed  it  has  been — in  Lcs  Institutions  Politiques 
dc  FAUcmagnc  Contcmpovaine  by  Professor  Joseph  Barthelemy,  who 
contributes  a  preface  to  the  present  volume.  At  any  rate,  after  a 
twenty-page  account  of  the  framing  and  adoption  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion, all  that  follows  is  concerned  with  the  basis  and  character  of  the 
republican  system:  the  position  of  the  states;  the  principle  of  democ- 
racy and  its  various  applications;  the  machinery  of  government;  the 
rights  and  duties  of  citizens;  and  the  extraordinary  economic  and  social 
provisions  which  give  the  constitution  its  principal  distinction. 

On  the  whole,  Professor  Brunet  thinks  well  of  the  constitution  as  a 
document,  and  not  badly  of  the  new  governmental  system,  considering 
the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  it  arose  and  must  operate.  He, 
however,  rarely  praises  or  condemns;  and  when  questions  about  the 
constitution's  durability  and  probable  lines  of  development  arise  he  en- 
tirely refuses  to  be  drawn  into  the  role  of  a  prophet.  Even  in  purely 
constitutional  matters  he  is  exceedingly  cautious,  as,  for  example,  when, 
after  presenting  the  arguments  on  the  question  whether  the  present 
German  system  is  federal  or  unitary,  he  dismisses  the  whole  matter  by 
saying  that,  since  the  place  of  the  states  in  the  union  is  fully  defined 
in  the  constitution,  the  question  of  federalism  is  academic  and  not 
worth  discussing.  In  this  instance,  and  in  some  others,  a  more  positive 
conclusion  would  be  welcome. 

Frederic  A.  Ogg. 

Historical  Source  Book.  By  Hutton  Webster,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in 
the  University  of  Nebraska.  (Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  D.  C. 
Heath  and  Company,  1920,  pp.  iv,  211,  $1.60.)  Mr.  Webster  states,  in 
the  preface  to  this  volume,  that  his  purpose  is  to  exhibit  to  high-school 
students  "  the  historical  development  in  England  and  America,  and 
later  on  the  Continent,  of  orderly,  constitutional,  and  democratic 
government.  .  .  r  Second,,  ...  to  trace  the  growth  of  international 
law  and  international  relations ".  For  these  purposes  thirty-three 
documents  are  given,  all  but  Magna  Charta  and  the  Confirmation  of 
Charters  of  1297  dating  from  the  last  three  centuries. 

With  the  use  of  about  two-thirds  of  his  material,  Mr.  Webster  at- 
tains his  first  aim  with  distinct   success.     The  connection  between  sue- 


Minor  Notices  359 

cessive  documents  is  not  often  close,  yet  as  a  whole,  they  give  an 
orderly  exposition  of  the  growth  of  democratic  ideals.  The  strictly 
chronological  arrangement  leaves  an  interesting  impression  of  close 
relationship   between   Western    Europe    and   America. 

The  second  objective  is,  in  the  nature  of  things,  more  difficult  to 
reach  and  the  limitations  of  space  are  more  keenly  felt.  The  docu- 
ments selected  are  indeed  of  great  significance  in  the  history  of  inter- 
national relations,  but  they  seem  too  few,  too  occasional,  to  trace  the 
many  slow  and  often  hesitant  steps  in  the  development  of  inter- 
national law. 

The  editor's  prefatory  paragraphs  are  excellent  in  giving  briefly 
the  reason  for  being  of  each  document  and  its  later  importance.  The 
index,  though  not  extensive,  is  consistent. 

S.  F. 

Guia  Historica  y  Descriptive  del  Archive*  General  dc  Simancas. 
[By  Don  Juan  Montero,  archivist  in  charge.]  (Madrid,  Rcvista  dc 
Archives,  Olozaga  I,  1920,  pp.  245.)  In  1916  the  Rcvista  dc  Archives, 
Bibliotccas,  y  Museos  began  to  publish,  in  sections  supplementary  to  its 
successive  issues,  a  series  of  guides  to  the  chief  Spanish  archives.  That 
relating  to  the  Archivo  Historico  National  at  Madrid  was  published 
first  (pp.  128)  ;  the  guide  to  the  archive  at  Simancas,  prepared  by  its 
accomplished  chief,  has  now  been  completed;  in  the  case  of  the  Archive 
of  the  Indies  at  Seville  a  catalogue  (list  of  legajos)  is  being  printed 
as  supplementary  matter  in  the  successive  numbers  of  the  Boletin  del 
Centra  dc  Estudios  Amcricanistas.  Sehor  Montero's  volume  for  Siman- 
cas contains  some  50  pages  of  history  and  general  description  of  the 
archive,  160  pages  of  detailed  description  of  the  various  sections,  an 
appendix  of  official  documents,  and  excellent  illustrations  (15  plates  in 
all).  The  latter  show  well  the  picturesque  and  interesting  character 
of  the  old  castle  in  which,  not  greatly  to  the  credit  of  Spanish  adminis- 
trative method,  these  wonderfully  rich  old  archives  are  still  permitted  to 
remain — for.  as  one  who  has  recently  visited  Simancas  can  testify, 
present  conditions  of  life  in  that  forlorn  village  are  no  better  than 
those  described  by  previous  visitors,  from  Bergenroth  to  Biaudet. 
Sefior  Montero's  description,  proceeding  section  by  section,  and  almost 
legajo  by  legajo,  is  scholarly  and  clear,  and  his  book  will  henceforth  be 
the  indispensable  manual  of  all  investigators.  Especially  will  it  be 
nee"ded  on  account  of  the  consolidation  and  renumbering  of  the  legajos 
in  the  section  called  "  Estado  ".  Yet  it  has  no  index,  and,  though  in 
•  fulness  of  information  it  far  surpasses  the  existing  guide  published 
by  Diaz  Sanchez  in  1885,  the  latter's  lists  have  so  perspicuous  an  ar- 
rangement that  his  book  will  still  have  some  utility,  and  not  be  wholly 
superseded.  Of  descriptions  of  the  place  by  foreigners  (who  can  speak 
more  freely  than  Don  Juan  might  choose  to  do),  Biaudet's.  in  the  An- 
nales  of  the  Finnish  Academy,  remains  the  best. 

J.   F.  J. 


360  Reviews  of  Books 

The  Builders  of  a  Nation:  a  History  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  By 
Frank  Grenville  Beardsley,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.  (Boston,  Richard  G.  Badger, 
1921,  pp.  56,  $2.50.)  A  book  such  as  this  could  hardly  have  found  a 
publisher  in  any  year  but  1920  or  1921.  Roland  G.  Usher's  Story  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  filled  more  than  adequately  the  long-felt  want  for 
a  sound  and  readable  history  of  the  Plymouth  Colony.  Only  new  ma- 
terial, or  a  fresh  interpretation,  could  excuse  another  presentation  of 
this  threadbare'  subject.  Dr.  Beardsley  gives  us  neither.  His  style  is 
undistinguished;  his  viewpoint,  precisely  what  one  would  expect  from 
the  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church  of  Aurora,  Illinois. 
Foot-notes,  bibliography,  and  indeed  all  critical  apparatus  are  lacking. 
In  his  preface,  to  be  sure,  the  author  refers  to  a  dozen  standard  au- 
thorities (not  including  Usher)  by  surname,  and  mentions  recently  dis- 
covered "  documents  and  writings  hitherto  unknown "  which  he  has 
used ;  but  from  these,  whatever  they  may  be,  little  juice  has  been  ex- 
tracted. The  economic  aspects  of  the  colony  are  barely  touched  upon. 
Minor  but  interesting  controversies,  such  as  the  actions  of  Captain 
Jones,  the  religion  of  Miles  Standish,  the  exact  force  of  the  Compact, 
and  the  history  of  the  Mayflower,  are  passed  by.  The  Bay  Colony 
and  the  expansion  of  New  England  are  dragged  in  as  a  sort  of  epilogue, 
giving  the  altogether  misleading  impression  that  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims 
provided  the  foundation-stones  of  New  England  and  of  the  United 
States.  In  short,  it  is  an  honest  but  feeble  performance  on  a  great 
though  hackneyed  theme. 

One  merit  let  us  recognize;  in  his  extensive  quotations  from  Brad- 
ford and  other  contemporaries,  the  author  has  spelled  out  their  con- 
tractions and  modernized  their  spelling.  Until  this  be  done  for  the 
whole,  or  the  greater  part  of  Bradford's  History,  that  matchless  chron- 
icle of  colonization  will  remain  inaccessible  to  the  average  reader.  At 
present,  beside  an  atrociously  Bowdlerized  version  by  an  English  editor, 
our  only  editions  of  Bradford  reproduce  so  much  of  the  original's 
phonetic  spelling  and  manuscript  abbreviations,  as  to  repel  the  un- 
scholarly  public. 

S.  E.  M. 

Voyage  of  the  Sonora  in  the  Second  Bucareli  Expedition.  By 
Don  Francisco  Antonio  Mourelle.  Translated  by  the  Hon.  Daines 
Barrington,  with  notes  by  Thomas  C.  Russell.  (San  Francisco,  pri- 
vately printed,  1920,  pp.  xii,  120.)  This  is  a  reprint  de  luxe'  of 
a  rare  and  useful  volume,  together  with  maps,  notes,  and  an  index 
which  have  been  added  by  the  editor  and  printer,  Mr.  Russell.  It  is  • 
directed  primarily  to  the  wealthy  bibliophile,  in  an  edition  of  two 
hundred   and   thirty  copies,   but   is   nevertheless   of   value   to   scholars. 

The  body  of  the  book  is  the  diary  of  Mourelle,  a  pilot  on  the 
Sonora  in  the  Spanish  expedition  of  1775  to  the  northwest  coast  of 
North   America.     A   copy   of   the   diary   came   into   the   possession   of 


Minor  Notices  361 

Daines  Barrington,  who  published  a  translation  (London,  1781)  in 
Barrington's  Miscellanies.  This  is  reproduced,  line  for  line  and  page 
for  page,  together  with  Barrington's  footnotes. 

The  voyage  of  the  Sonora  was  one  episode  in  perhaps  the  most 
important  series  of  expeditions  that  the  Spaniards  ever  sent  to  Alta 
California  and  the  northwest  coast.  They  succeeded  in  placing  the 
formerly  precarious  Spanish  establishments  of  Alta  California  on  a 
permanent  basis,  thus  averting  an  abandonment  that  might  have  op- 
erated against  the  eventual  American  acquisition  of  the  province. 
The  object  of  the  Sonora,  in  company  with  the  Santiago,  its  consort, 
was  to  explore  the  coasts  north  of  the  Spanish  settlements  and  en- 
quire into  the  supposed  activities  of  rival  powers. 

Obviously,  the  official  diary  of  a  prominent  figure  like  Mourelle 
is  material  of  value.  Still  more  worth  while,  though  clearly  not 
suited  to  Mr.  Russell's  special  purpose,  would  have  been  an  edition  of 
the  original  Spanish,  contemporary  copies  of  which  are  to  be  found 
in  Mexico  City  and  Seville,  besides  the  transcript  existing  in  the 
Bancroft  Library,  where  Mr.  Russell  did  much  of  his  work.  Some 
criticism  mav  be  made  of  his  evident  failure  to  consult  this  copy  in 
preparing  his  own  notes.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  too,  that  Mr.  Russell 
could  not  see  his  way  clear  to  run  off  a  cheaper  edition  which  would 
in  fact  be  more  available  to  scholars  than  the  present  work  is  likely 
to  be. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  much  to  commend  in  the  book  as  it  stands. 
The  editor's  notes,  while  not  always  abreast  of  the  latest  findings, 
were  evidently  prepared  with  care.  Exceptional  pains  were  taken 
in  proof-reading  and  printing.  For  once,  we  have  a  book  with  accents 
where  they  belong.  There  is  a  good,  topical  index.  Decidedly,  the 
work  is  worth  while,  and  a  credit  to  its  editor  and  publisher. 

Charles  E.  Chapman. 

Anthology  ami  Bibliography  of  Niagara  Falls.  By  Charles  Mason 
Dow,  LL.D."  In  two  volumes.  (Albany,  the  State,  1921,  pp.  xvi,  689, 
690-1423.)  The  late  Charles  M.  Dow  of  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  was 
verv  much  interested  in  Niagara  Falls  and  for  sixteen  years  was 
a  member  of  the  Reservation  Commission.  His  interest  led  him 
to  compile  this  work,  which  is  a  bibliography  and  anthology  of 
the  falls,  perhaps  the  most  visited  spot  in  America.  As  a  whole 
the  work  is  a  very  satisfactory  compilation  for  the  general  reader 
and  average  public  library,  for  it  contains  much  rare  and  interesting 
material  and  it  is  conveniently  arranged.  It  is  divided  into  twelve 
chapters  giving  accounts  of  travellers,  historical  and  reminiscent  ma- 
terial, natural  history  and  science,  music,  poetry  and  fiction,  maps 
and  pictures,  industrial  Niagara,  preservation  of  the  falls,  and  "the 
open   road,  guides,   railroads,   canals,   and  bridges".     When   selections 


362  Reviews  of  Books 

are  not  given  at  length,  comment  is  made  as  to  the  character  of  the 
account. 

The  accounts  are  most  interesting,  from  simple  statements  like 
Champlain's  to  affected  accounts  like  James  Dixon's  (p.  241)  and 
Lady  Stuart  Wortley's  (p.  246),  and  studied  descriptions  by  famous 
travellers  and  literary  people,  such  as  Dickens,  Alfred  Wallace,  Sir 
Edwin  Arnold,  Howells,  Margaret  Fuller,  Harriet  Martineau,  N.  P. 
Willis,  and  Hawthorne.  The  daring  of  Blondin  and  the  accounts  of 
escapes   are  thrilling. 

When  one  turns  to  the  work  not  as  a  casual  reader,  but  as  a  stu- 
dent and  investigator,  the  work  is  not  so  satisfactory.  It  was  done 
largely  by  compilers  and  their  historical  sense  was  frequently  defective. 
There  are  many  omissions.  There  is  nothing  on  aboriginal  Niagara. 
The  early  French  period  is  quite  weak :  for  instance,  Champlain's 
works  are  referred  to  only  in  modern  reprint  editions;  only  three  early 
editions  of  Hennepin  (of  about  thirty)  are  given;  Champlain's  map  of 
1613,  the  earliest,  is  omitted,  and  1632  is  given  as  the  first;  Joliet's 
map  of  1672  is  not  mentioned,  and  of  the  three  maps  of  1674  only  one 
is  cited;  of  Hennepin's  fifteen  early  editions  only  two  are  mentioned; 
twenty-one  maps  of  the  period  of  discoveries  are  likewise  omitted. 
The  alphabetical  list  of  authors  only  makes  it  difficult  to  find  items 
in  the  text.  For  instance,  LaSalle,  the  discoverer,  is  not  mentioned, 
such  subjects  as  "recession"  and  "bridges"  cannot  be  located,  and 
such  inequalities  appear  as  four  references  for  the  scholarly  work  of 
Dr.  Frank  H.  Severance,  and  seventy-two  for  a  newspaper  corre- 
spondent. 

Mr.  Dow  in  his  introduction  explicitly  disclaimed  completeness  in 
selections  and  editions.  With  this  in  mind  and  with  the  contribution 
which  has  been  made  to  the  resources  of  the  average  library  and  in- 
dividual, perhaps  the  scholar  will   forgive  the  omissions. 

Augustus  H.  Shearer. 

The  Life  of  Artcmas  Ward,  the  First  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
American  Revolution.  By  Charles  Martyn.  (New  York,  Artemas 
Ward,  1921,  pp.  xiii,  334.)  Few  things  are  more  difficult  than  to 
see  the  events  of  the  past  as  they  appeared  at  the  time.  We  know 
the  leaders  who  proved  their  ability  and  we  assume  unconsciously  that 
the  same  information  was  at  hand  when  it  would  have  been  most 
useful.  This  truth  must  be  constantly  remembered  when  we  read 
Charles  Martyn's  biography  of  Artemas  Ward,  for  in  the  mind  of 
both  author  and  publisher  the  first  commander-in-chief  of  the  Revolu- 
tion has  not  been  given  the  place  in  history  which  he  deserves  and 
their  purpose  is  to  assure  him  that  position.  There  has  been  a  careful 
examination  of  Ward  manuscripts  and  secondary  material  wherever 
found,  resulting  in  much  additional  information  on  disputed  points. 


Minor  Notices  363 

The  biography  opens  with  a  description  of  Ward's  youth  and  his 
training  in  the  enforcement  of  law  when  justice  of  the  peace.  His 
services  in  the  French  War  are  outlined  as  furnishing  the  education  in 
arms  for  the  future  Massachusetts  general.  An  account  of  the  begin- 
nings of  the  Revolution  in  New  England  follows,  in  which  the  im- 
portance of  the  villages  in  maintaining  the  sentiment  for  independence, 
in  spite  of  the  reluctance  of  many  of  the  larger  towns,  is  emphasized. 
Ward,  representing  the  country,  united  with  Samuel  Adams  of  Boston, 
and  a  revolutionary  government  was  established. 

About  eighty  pages  of  the  biography  are  devoted  to  this  introduction. 
Nearly  three  times  as  many  describe  Ward's  active  service  against  the 
British  in  Boston,  1775-1776,  and  these  are  the  vital  pages  of  the 
volume.  In  them  the  author  seeks  to  present  the  able  commander  to 
whom  the  first  successes  of  the  Revolution  were  due  and  he  believes 
it  unfair  to  give  the  credit  for  this  New  England  victory  to  subordi- 
nate generals.  He  considers  that  political  policy  rather  than  superior 
military  ability  dictated  the  appointment  of  Washington  as  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  Continental  Congress,  for  no  earlier  training  or  proved 
capacity  justified  it.  Ward  was  hurt  and  it  was  doubly  unfortunate 
that  Washington  should  have  obtained  his  first  impressions  of  his  prede- 
cessor from  James  Warren,  the  chief  among  Ward's  detractors,  and 
that  the  British  victory  at  New  York  served  to  discredit  the  new  leader. 
It  is  useless  to  follow  these  controversies,  but  the  grievance  continued 
for  years,  as  has  the  discussion  of  the  Boston  campaign. 

After  serving  eight  months  under  the  new  commander,  Ward  re- 
tired for  a  time  from  army  life  because  of  illness.  The  circumstances 
of  his  resumption  of  command  in  the  Eastern  Department  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  his  work  under  constant  fear  of  attack  by  the  British  are 
explained,  and  the  merits  of  his  activity  in  Massachusetts  during  Shays's 
Rebellion  are  shown.  The  monograph  closes  with  a  careful  description 
of  Ward's  work  in  Congress,  on  the  whole  as  a  supporter  of  Wash- 
ington's policies,  and  a  brief  summary  of  his  last  years  at  home.  The 
volume  is  a  useful  biography,  well  illustrated,  with  abundant  foot-notes, 
and  its  contents  are  well  indexed. 

Charles  H.  Lincoln. 

The  Greatest  American,  Alexander  Hamilton.  An  Historical  Anal- 
ysis of  his  Life  and  Works,  together  with  a  Symposium  of  Opinions 
by  Distinguished  Americans.  By  Arthur  Hendrick  Vandenberg.  (New 
York  and  London,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1921,  pp.  xx.  353,  $2.50.) 
Mr.  Vanderberg,  holding  with  enthusiasm  the  belief  that  Hamilton  was 
the  greatest  American,  has  conceived  a  laudable  desire  to  promote  ap- 
preciation of  him  among  American  readers.  His  method  of  doing  this 
has  been,  first,  to  address  inquiries  to  a  multitude  of  conspicuous  per- 
sons, asking  their  opinions  as  to  who  was  the  greatest  American',  and 


364  Reviews  of  Books 

to  publish  the  results.  Some  of  the  answers  have  a  certain  value,  but 
most  are  profitless.  Then  the  author  prints  an  amateurish  survey  of 
Hamilton's  life  and  qualities,  couched  in  the  language  of  conventional 
eulogy.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  end  he  had  in  view  would  not  have  been 
better  achieved  by  somehow  promoting  a  more  extensive  reading  of 
the  best  of  the  existing  biographies. 

Trailmakers  of  the  Northwest.  By  Paul  Leland  Haworth.  (New 
York,  Harcourt,  Brace,  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  viii,  277,  $2.50.)  Mr. 
Haworth's  volume  owes  its  origin  to  his  personal  enthusiasm  and  to 
his  keen  interest  in  the  achievements  of  the  men  who  explored  the 
Canadian  Northwest.  In  the  preface  the  author  says.  "  For  many 
years  I  have  been  an  eager  reader  of  the  literature  of  the  subject, 
and  repeatedly  I  have  myself  made  expeditions  to  the  dwindling  re- 
gions that  yet  remain  unexplored.  The  present  book  is  the  outcome 
of  this  reading  and  of  these  first-hand  experiences."  A  large  part 
of  the  volume  is  taken  up  with  a  narrative  of  the  expeditions  of 
leading  explorers  from  Henry  Hudson  to  Captain  Roald  Amundsen,  one 
of  whom  sought,  and  the  other  achieved,  the  famous  Northwest  Passage. 
There  are  chapters,  among  others,  devoted  to  Pierre  Radisson,  De  la 
Verendrye,  Alexander  Mackenzie,  Alexander  Henry,  and  Sir  John 
Franklin.  Another  chapter  deals  with  later  travellers  and  explorers  of 
the  Canadian  Northwest,  and  here  Mr.  Haworth  describes  his  own 
expedition  into  an  unexplored  region  lying  between  the  Peace  and 
Liard  Rivers.  Except  when  recounting  his  own  experiences,  the  author 
relies  for  his  material  almost  entirely  upon  the  diaries,  journals,  and 
memoirs  of  the  explorers  themselves  and  he  has  quoted  very  freely 
from  these  narratives.  An  effort  has  been  made,  not  only  to  tell  the 
story  of  the  exploration  of  the  Northwest,  but  also  to  picture  con- 
ditions in  the  great  region  of  ice  and  snow.  Some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting chapters  of  the  book  describe  the  habits  of  the  beaver,  methods 
of  travel  in  the  fur  country,  Indian  life,  and  the  "brotherhood  of  trap- 
pers and  prospectors ".  and  the  author  has  drawn  largely  from  his 
own  wealth  of  experience  for  the  descriptive  material  and  anecdote 
which  fill  these  pages.  The  volume  may  perhaps  be  criticised  as  lack- 
ing in  unity  but  in  passing  judgment  the  author's  limited  purpose  must 
be  borne  in  mind.  It  is  also  true  that  it  makes  no  definite  contribu- 
tion to  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  American  discovery  and  ex- 
ploration and  will  therefore  appeal  to  the  general  reader  rather  than  to 
the  special  student,  who  has  long  been  familiar  with  the  sources  from 
which  Mr.  Haworth  has  drawn.  The  volume  is  absorbingly  interesting, 
however,  and  leaves  one  with  a  vivid  impression  of  the  cold  and 
hunger  and  privation  endured  by  the  trailmakers  of  the  Northwest. 
There  are  a  number  of  good  illustrations  together  with  a  map  and  a 
bibliography  of  some  of  the  more  important  original  narratives  of 
northwestern   exploration.     Undoubtedly   the   volume   will  have   served 


Minor  Notices  365 

its  most  useful  purpose  if  it  awakens  in  the  reader  a  desire  to  seek  these 
original  narratives  for  himself. 

Wayne  E.   Stevens. 

The  Free  Negro  in  Maryland,  1634-1860.  By  James  M.  Wright, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Economics,  Georgetown  College.  [Columbia  Uni- 
versity Studies  in  History,  Economics,  and  Public  Law,  vol.  XCVIL, 
no.  3.]  (New  York,  Longmans,  Green,  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  362, 
$4.00.)  From  the  presence  of  so  many  thousands  of  free  negroes  in 
ante-bellum  times  in  the  small  state  of  Maryland  one  might  surmise  that 
their  group  must  have  attained  separate  organization  there  and  a 
considerable  measure  of  distinctiveness.  That  this  was  not  so,  is  ex- 
plained in  this  monograph's  conclusion,  which  is  a  philosophical  analysis 
of  the  free  negro's  status  as  a  part  of  the  "nether  crust  of  the  social 
body "  in  which  the  whites  exercised  control.  "  He  had  become  such 
as  he  was,  not  because  he  was  strong  but  because  he  was  weak,  be- 
cause what  was  outstanding  in  him  either  served  well  the  white  man's 
purposes  or  failed  to  give  offence  that  led  to  its  suppression"  (p.  335). 
The  free  negroes  were  "  passive  denizens  ",  and  the  larger  the  propor- 
tion of  them  in  a  community  the  more  unobtrusive  must  they  be  in 
order  to  procure  toleration.  In  Baltimore,  accordingly,  there  appears  to 
have  been  less  salience  of  individuals  than  in  Charleston  or  New  Or- 
leans; while  in  rural  Maryland,  as  elsewhere  in  the  South,  the  free 
negro  element  was  a  self-effacing  appendage  to  a  regime  shaped  for 
the  employment  of  slaves. 

In  the  body  of  the  monograph  new  light  is  thrown  upon  the  pre- 
cariousness  of  the  freedom  of  negroes  who  had  been  manumitted  by 
masters  whose  estates  were  afterward  found  to  be  encumbered  with 
debt,  and  also  upon  the  indenturing  of  free  negro  children ;  and  of 
course  the  Maryland  promotion  of  the  Liberian  project  is  enlarged 
upon.  But  for  the  most  part  the  successive  chapters  are  heavily  but- 
tressed elaborations -of  humdrum  themes.  The  style  of  these  chapters 
seems  needlessly  dull ;  for  even  if  there  were  no  picturesque  figures 
among  the  Maryland  free  negroes,  surely  in  the  thousands  of  documents 
which  the  author  has  cited  there  must  have  been  many  more  vivid  pas- 
sages than  the  few  which  he  has  quoted.  Yet  the  conclusion  lifts  the 
book  out  of  the  class  of  the  commonplace,  for  its  substance  is  new, 
sound,  and  vital. 

Ulrich  B.  Phillips. 

A  History  of  Lezvis  County,  West  Virginia.  By  Edward  Conrad 
Smith,  A.M.  (Weston,  West  Virginia,  the  Author,  1920,  pp.  427.) 
In  its  history,  West  Virginia  is  a  typical  American  state  and  Lewis 
is  a  typical  West  Virginia  county.  A  history  of  this  county  should 
therefore  be  both  of  local  interest  and  of  value  to  the  student  of  gen- 


366  Reviews  of  Books 

eral  American  history.  Mr.  Smith  has  successfully  measured  up  to 
this  opportunity,  for  it  is  just  such  a  work  that  he  has  produced.  He 
gives,  of  course,  a  good  many  details  that  are  of  interest  to  the  people 
of  this  county  only,  but  he  also  devotes  considerable  space  to  a  discus- 
sion of  those  events  and  movements  in  which  not  only  Lewis  County 
but  the  country  as  a  whole  participated.  He  discusses  pioneer  life,  de- 
scribing the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  and  detailing  their 
thrilling  experiences  with  the  Indians;  the  inconveniences  resulting 
from  the  lack  of  facilities  for  transportation  and  the  changed  condi- 
tions that  came  with  the  development  of  roads  and  railroads;  the  bitter 
strife  that  preceded  and  followed  the  secession  of  Virginia  from  the 
Union  and  the  secession  of  West  Virginia  from  Virginia;  and  finally 
the  industrial  revolution  that  came  to  Lewis  County  as  the  result  of 
the  construction  of  railroads  and  the  exploitation  of  the  mineral 
resources  of  that  section.  In  treating  these  topics  he  has  made  a  wise 
selection  of  materials  and  has  presented  the  results  of  his  studies  in  a 
clear  and  easy  style. 

The  author  does  not  indicate  by  foot-notes  or  otherwise  the  sources 
from  which  he  gets  his  facts,  except  that  he  gives  an  occasional  quo- 
tation from  the  documents.  His  failure  to  do  so  was  probably  due  to 
the  fear  that  cumbersome  foot-notes  would  detract  from  the  popularity 
of  his  book  as  a  local  history.  If,  however,  he  had  made  some  conces- 
sions to  the  convenience  of  historical  students  he  would  have  greatly  in- 
creased its  value  as  a  work  of  scholarship  without  hazarding  its  popu- 
larity with  his  local  clientele. 

O.  P.  Chitwood. 

The  Rise  of  Cotton  Mills  in  the  South.  By  Broadus  Mitchell.  Ph.D. 
[Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  History  and  Political  Science, 
series  XXXIX.,  no.  2.]  (Baltimore,  Johns  Hopkins  Press.  1921,  pp. 
viii,  2S1,  $2.50.)  This  is  an  informing  book  in  readable  English. 
The  first  chapter  contains  an  excellent  delineation  of  the  spirit 
of  the  old  South  and  shows  the  blighting  effects  of  slavery  and 
slave  methods  of  growing  cotton  on  manufacturing  development.  Later 
chapters  tell  of  the  beginnings  of  the  cotton  mills,  and  their  early 
vicissitudes.  There  was  in  the  South  leadership  of  sufficient  intelligence 
even  though  at  that  time  untrained,  to  make  use  of  natural  resources 
of  climate  and  labor  and  to  inaugurate  the  present  splendid  development 
of  the  cotton  industry. 

Early  leaders  like  Gregg  and  Hammett  are  freely  quoted,  newspaper 
files  are  drawn  upon  and  much  valuable  information  relative  to  the 
spirit  and  ideas  of  the  times  is  given.  Most  of  the  quotations  are 
from  the  Carolinas,  and  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  textile  develop- 
ments elsewhere.  However,  since  the  same  motives  and  conditions  pre- 
vailed generally  over  the  South  the  picture  drawn  for  the  Carolinas 
is  essentially  correct  for  the  entire  section. 


Minor  Notices  3^7 

The  chapters  covering  the  relation  of  labor, and  capital  to  the  mills 
are  particularly  well  done.  The  quotations  are  almost  too  numerous 
and  at  times  leave  one  in  doubt  as  to  the  author's  own  interpretations 
of  the  views  presented.  Men  like  Tompkins  are  too  much  quoted. 
Tompkins  was  a  prolific  writer  but  not  a  safe  guide  as  an  engineer  or 
a  prophet.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  views  of  engineers  like  Lock- 
wood,  Makepeace,  Sheldon,  and  Greene  are  not  put  forth.  The  ac- 
tivities of  the  New  England  mill  engineers  are  not  sufficiently  recog- 
nized but  the  part  played  by  commission  houses  and  machinery  houses 
is  lucidly  outlined. 

The  book  states  that  New  England  cotton  manufacturers  never 
sought  to  realize  Southern  advantages  in  a  large  way.  The  author  must 
have  overlooked  such  great  mills  as  those  owned  by  the  Dwight  Manu- 
facturing Co.  at  Alabama  City  or  by  the  Massachusetts  Mills  at  Lin- 
dale,  as  well  as  many  others  equally  important.  On  page  270,  10,000 
spindles  is  given  as  an  economical  size  for  a  mill.  This  is  the  practice 
for  small  yarn  mills  such  as  those  near  Gastonia,  but  the  average  for 
mills  in  South  Carolina  is  much  larger.  Probably  from  50,000  to 
100,000  spindles  would  be  considered  the  most  economical  unit  by  most 
Southern  manufacturers. 

On  the  whole,  the  book  is  excellent,  not  only  for  the  historian  but 
also  for  the  cotton  manufacturer. 

A  History  of  the  Constitution  of  Minnesota,  with  the  first  verified 
Text.  By  William  Anderson,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Political 
Science,  in  collaboration  with  Albert  J.  Lobb,  Ph.B.,  LL.B.,  Comptroller 
of  the  University.  [Research  Publications  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota, Social  Science  Series,  no.  15.]  (Minneapolis,  the  University, 
1921,  pp.  vii,  323,  $1.75.) 

Journal,  Missouri  Constitutional  Convention  of  1&75,  with  an  His- 
torical Introduction  by  Isidor  Loeb,  Ph.D.,  LL.B.,  and  a  Biographical 
Account  by  Floyd  C.  Shoemaker,  A.M.  In  two  volumes.  (Columbia, 
State  Historical  Society,  1920,  pp.  509,  515-954.)  Professor  An- 
derson has  prepared  a  clear  and  scholarly  history  of  the  constitution 
of  Minnesota.  Minnesota  is  the  one  state  having  experience  with  a 
bicameral  constitutional  convention.  Democratic  and  Republican  mem- 
bers elected  to  frame  the  constitution  of  1857  met  separately  in  two 
conventions,  but  finally  united  upon  a  single  document  for  submission 
to  the  people.  The  full  account  of  the  relationships  of  these  two  bodies  is 
of  great  interest  and  value.  One  criticism  of  this  book  is  that  it  confines 
itself  too  closely  to  the  textual  history  of  the  constitution,  once  that 
instrument  was  framed.  The  author  does  not  altogether  neglect  other 
factors,  and  makes  frequent  reference  to  judicial  decisions,  but  his 
chapter  on  amendments  to  the  constitution  would  have  been  more 
interesting  to  the  reviewer  had  it  commented  upon  the  experience  of 
Minnesota  with  five-sixths  verdicts  in  civil  cases  (p.  157),  and  with  the 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 25. 


368  Reviews  of  Books 

plan  of  expressly  subjecting  the  enactment  of  special  laws  to  judicial 
control  (p.  170).  In  his  comments  upon  "due  process  of  law"  the 
author  does  not  seem  to  have  in  mind  the  broad  judicial  construction  of 
that  constitutional  guarantee   (p.  160). 

One  defect,  perhaps  to  some  extent  necessary  in  a  work  upon  the 
constitutional  history  of  a  single  state,  is  that  the  author  does  not 
bring  out  sharply  the  more  important  tendencies  of  constitutional  de- 
velopment in  Minnesota  and  their  relationship  to  developments  through- 
out the  country  since  1857.  What  the  author  gives  us  is  good,  but 
more  of  comparative  discussion  would  have  been  helpful. 

Students  of  state  constitutional  history  will  be  pleased  with  the 
publication  of  the  Journal  of  the  Missouri  Constitutional  Convention 
of  1875.  This  is  one  of  the  important  conventions  for  which  neither 
journals  nor  debates  were  previously  available.  As  published,  the 
Journal  makes  an  attractive  appearance.  The  biographical  account  pre- 
ceding the  text  will  naturally  be  of  interest  chiefly  to  residents  of  Mis- 
souri ;  but  students  of  state  constitutional  history  throughout  the  country 
will  welcome  the  clear  though  brief  introduction  by  Professor  Loeb  on 
Constitutions   and   Constitutional   Conventions   in   Missouri. 

Publications  such  as  the  two  here  under  review  will  serve  as  ma- 
terial aids  to  the  preparation  of  a  comprehensive  history  of  state  con- 
stitutional development.  Such  a  history,  when  written,  must  take  full 
account  not  only  of  the  forces  which  determine  what  constitutions 
shall  contain,  but  also  of  those  which  determine  how  they  shall  op- 
erate and  be  construed. 

Walter   F.    Dodd. 

Erratum 

In  the  review  of  Hogan's  Ireland  in  the  European  System  (XXVI. 
768,  third  paragraph,  line  8),  "material  accessible  in  French"  should 
read,  material  accessible  in  print. 


HISTORICAL    NEWS 

The  printers'  strike,  which  delayed  publication  of  our  July  number 
until  the  beginning  of  October,  had  also  the  effect  of  delaying  the  issue 
of  the  October  number  till  the  middle  of  November,  but  it  is  hoped  that 
the  present  number  will  be  published  within  a  few  days  after  the  first 
of  January. 

AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    ASSOCIATION 

Before  this  number  of  the  Review  reaches  its  readers,  the  thirty- 
sixth  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association  will  have 
taken  place  at  St.  Louis,  on  December  28,  29,  and  30.  The  presidential 
address  by  Mr.  Jusserand,  on  the  Rearing  of  Ambassadors,  will  be 
printed  in  the  next  number  of  the  Review,  which  will  also  contain  the 
usual  article  descriptive  of  the  sessions  and  papers.  The  programme 
is  an  unusually  attractive  one.  The  nominating  committee  has  nomi- 
nated for  president  Professor  Haskins,  now  first  vice-president ;  for 
first  vice-president,  Professor  Cheyney,  now  second  vice-president ;  for 
second  vice-president,  Hon.  Woodrow  Wilson;  and  for  nominating 
committee  for  the  next  year.  Professors  William  E.  Dodd,  Henry  E. 
Bourne,  William  E.  Lingelbach,  Nellie  Neilson,  and  William  L. 
Westermann. 

PERSONAL 

We  note  with  great  regret  the  death,  on  October  8,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-one,  of  Mr.  Edward  Porritt,  for  many  years  a  valued  contributor 
to  this  journal.  An  English  journalist,  with  long  experience  of  the 
gallery  of  the  House  of  Commons,  he  devoted  years  of  labor  to  the 
preparation  of  his  classical  work  on  The  Unreformed  House  of  Com- 
mons (London  and  New  York,  1903),  a  book  of  the  highest  merit.  He 
had  already,  in  1892,  established  himself  in  America,  as  correspondent 
of  several  of  the  great  English  newspapers,  and  lived  in  Hartford, 
occupying  much  of  his  time,  however,  with  further  studies  of  English 
political  history  and  of  that  of  Canada.  He  was  held  in  high  and  de- 
served esteem  by  a  wide  circle  of  friends. 

Early  in  November,  1921,  Professor  Oscar  Montelius,  president  of 
the  Swedish  Academy  of  History  and  Antiquities,  died  in  Stockholm 
at  the  age  of  -J.  One  of  the  foremost  of  archaeologists,  he  was  espe- 
cially noted  as  an  authority  in  the  field  of  Scandinavian  antiquities. 
He  also  took  an  active  part  in  advancing  international  co-operation  in  the 
world  of  science,  and  was  for  a  long  time  a  chief  officer  in  the  American- 
Scandinavian  Foundation. 

Dr.  Samuel  E.  Morison,  of  Harvard  University,  has  been  appointed 
(369) 


37 o  Historical  News 

to  the  chair  of  American  history  in  the  University  of  Oxford  founded 
by  Lord  Rothermere. 

Mr.  Charles  M.  Knapp  of  Syracuse  University  has  been  promoted 
to  an  assistant  professorship  in  history  and  government  in  that  uni- 
versity. 

Professor  William  E.  Lingelbach,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
has  leave  of  absence  from  February  through  the  remainder  of  the  year, 
and  expects  to  spend  that  period  mostly  in  London. 

As  a  step  toward  securing  fuller  co-operation  of  Ohio  colleges  and 
universities  in  the  promotion  of  graduate  studies  at  the  Ohio  State 
University,  Professor  Henry  E.  Bourne,  of  Western  Reserve  University, 
has  been  appointed  a  member  of  the  graduate  council  of  that  institution 
for  the  present  year,  and  during  the  second  half  of  the  year  will  con- 
duct a  seminar  in  the  economic  history  of  the  French  Revolution. 

In  our  July  number  we  announced  that  Dr.  P.  V.  B.  Jones  had  been 
made  an  assistant  professor  in  the  University  of  Illinois,  but  we  should 
have  said  that  he  had  been  promoted  to  an  associate  professorship. 
Dr.  Rexford  Newcomb,  formerly  assistant  professor  of  architectural 
history  in  the  same  university,  has  been  promoted  to  a  full  professorship. 
Professor  Albert  H.  Lybyer  has  leave  of  absence  during  the  present 
academic  year,  and  is  spending  it  in  Cambridge. 

Capt.  Edward  L.  Beach,  U.  S.  N.  retired,  till  lately  superintendent 
of  the  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  has  been  appointed  lecturer  in  naval 
history  in  Stanford  University  for  the  present  academic  year. 

Professor  Waldemar  C.  Westergaard,  of  Pomona  College,  has  leave 
of  absence,  beginning  in  February,  for  a  year  and  a  half,  which  he 
intends  to  spend  in  study  in  London  and  in  northern  Europe. 

GENERAL 

General  reviews:  P.  Lauer,  Sciences  Auxiliaries  de  I'Histoire:  Pale- 
ographie,  Diplomatique,  Bibliographic,  divers,  1912-1920  (Revue  His- 
torique,  July)  ;  A.  Brackmann,  Literatur  zur  Kirchlichen  Verfassungs- 
geschichte  (Historische  Zeitschrift,  CXXIV.  2). 

The  October  number  of  the  Historical  Outlook  contains  an  article 
by  Henry  W.  Lawrence,  jr.,  entitled  the  Jolly  Puritan,  and  one  by 
Professor  R.  W.  Kelsey  on  German  Views  of  War  Responsibility. 
Articles  in  the  November  number  are :  American  History  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  by  Mary  Dudderidge,  the  Panama  Canal  and  Recent  World 
Politics,  by  G.  V.  Price,  and  the  Lecture  Method:  an  Indictment,  by 
Miss  Mary  W.  Williams.  Those  in  the  December  number  are:  Italy 
and  Albanian  Independence,  by  R.  J.  Sontag,  and  History  for  History's 
Sake,  by  H.  C.  Hill. 

The  October  number  of  History  contains  the  two  discourses  read 
by  the  Right  Hon.  Herbert  Fisher,  minister  of  education,  at  the  open- 


General  37 J 

ing  of  the  Institute  of  Historical  Research  last  July,  and  at  the  opening 
of  the  Anglo-American  Conference  of  Professors  of  History;  a  body  of 
remarks  on  the  study  of  legal  records,  made  at  one  of  the  sessions  of 
the  latter  body,  by  Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  Dr.  W.  S.  Holdsworth,  and 
Mr.  W.  C.  Bolland;  an  interesting  article  entitled  Illustrations  of 
Medieval  Commercial  Morality,  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Walker;  and  the  first 
part  of  a  lecture  on  London  and  its  Records,  by  Miss  E.  Jeffries  Davis. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Wells's  Outline  of  History,  which  formed  the  subject  of 
an  article  in  the  July  issue  of  this  journal,  has  been  published  by  the 
Macmillan  Company  in  a  single  volume  at  a  greatly  reduced  price 
(pp.  xxi.  1171;  $5.00).  This  third  or  "educational"  edition,  "revised 
and  rearranged  by  the  author  ",  is  substantially  the  same  as  the  second 
edition  in  two  volumes.  The  revision  has  consisted  chiefly  in  the  elimi- 
nation of  a  great  many  of  the  foot-notes  (over  fifty  per  cent,  in  the 
first  thirty  chapters),  especially  foot-notes  of  a  discursive  or  contro- 
versial character;  in  the  reduction  of  certain  chapters  or  sections  to  the 
status  of  paragraphs;  and  in  occasional  slight  modifications  of  the  text, 
such  changes  sometimes  taking  the  place  of  suppressed  foot-notes, 
sometimes  being  made,  so  it  is  to  be  assumed  from  the  abridged  intro- 
duction, upon  the  suggestions  of  correspondents. 

On  February  22,  1921,  the  ficole  des  Chartes  of  Paris  celebrated  its 
centenary.  Probably  no  other  single  organization  has  had  so  widespread 
an  influence  upon  the  development  of  medieval  historical  studies  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  centennial  has  been  marked  by  the  publication 
of  a  Livre  du  Centenaire  de  I'&colc  des  Chartes,  in  which  M.  Maurice 
Prou,  the  present  director  of  the  school,  has  written  a  full  account  of 
its  history. 

Students  resorting  to  Great  Britain  for  historical  or  other  study 
should  be  notified  that  it  is  for  their  interest  to  make  use  of  the  facilities 
for  securing  information  and  guidance  which  are  generously  afforded 
by  the  American  University  Union,  British  Branch,  at  50  Russell 
Square,  London,  and  that  they  should  resort  early  to  that  institution  and 
make  their  plans  and  desires  known  to  its  director.  Dr.  George  E.  Mac- 
Lean,  formerly  president  of  the  University  of  Iowa.  Historical  students 
coming  to  London  will  also  do  well  to  seek  relations  with  the  Institute 
of  Historical  Reasearch  in  Malet  Street  (see  pp.  58-60,  above). 

H.  Berr,  the  director  of  the  Revue  de  Synthese  Historique,  has  pub- 
lished a  discussion  of  the  relation  of  that  journal  to  historical  writing 
under  the  title  L'Histoire  Traditionnclle  et  la  Synthese  Historique 
(Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  146). 

Two  recent  studies  on  political  doctrines  are  Grondin's  Les  Doc- 
trines Politiqucs  de  Locke  et  les  Origines  de  la  Declaration  des  Droits  de 
I'Homme  (Bordeaux,  1920),  and  Smyrniadis's  Les  Doctrines  de  Hobbes, 
Locke,  et  Kant  sur  le  Droit  d' Insurrection  (Paris,  1921,  pp.  212). 


372  Historical  Nezvs 

The  Social  Interpretation  of  History:  a  Refutation  of  the  Marxian 
Economic  Interpretation  of  History,  by  Maurice  William,  is  brought 
out  in  Long  Island  City,  New  York,  by  the  Sotery  Publishing  Company. 

The  New  International  Year  Book  for  1920,  edited  by  Frank  Moore 
Colby,  has  appeared  (Dodd). 

We  note  a  fresh  volume  of  R.  Montandon's  Bibliographic  Gencrale 
des  Travaux  Palethnologiques  et  Archeologiques,  £poques  Prehistorique, 
Protohistorique,  et  Gallo-Romaine :  France,  II.  Alsace,  Artois,  Cham- 
pagne, Flandre,  Ile-de-France,  Lorraine,  Normandie,  Picardie  (Geneva, 
Georg,  1920,  pp.  iv,  xxviii,  5°7)- 

A  series  of  profitable  essays  by  Mr.  Edwyn  Bevan,  collected  from 
the  Quarterly  Review  and  other  periodicals,  is  published  under  the  title 
Hellenism   and  Christianity,  by  Messrs.   Allen  and  Unwin. 

The  Catholic  Historical  Revieiv  for  October  has  articles  by  Richard 
A.  Newhall,  on  the  Affair  of  Anagni,  by  the  Reverend  J.  Gorayeb,  S.J., 
on  St.  Ephrem,  and  by  Sister  Mary  Agnes  McCann,  on  the  general  his- 
tory of  Religious  Orders  of  Women  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Jenkins,  superintendent  of  the  Lancashire  and  Western 
Sea  Fisheries,  has  published  a  History  of  the  Whale  Fisheries  (London, 
Witherby.  pp.  336),  from  the  Basque  fisheries  of  the  tenth  century 
down  to  the  present  time. 

The  Magazine  of  History,  which  suspended  publication  at  the  end 
of  1917,  has  resumed  its  career,  but  as  a  quarterly,  beginning  with  July. 
1921.  Included  in  this  number  is  a  letter  from  Washington  to  General 
Nathanael  Greene,  May  20,  1785. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  A.  H.  Hansen.  The  Techno- 
logical Interpretation  of  History  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics. 
November)  ;  Commander  C.  B.  Mayo,  The  Study  .of  History  for  Naval 
Officers  (United  States  Naval  Institute  Proceedings,  November)  ;  Wil- 
bur Cross,  From  Plutarch  to  Strachey  (Yale  Review,  October)  ;  G. 
Zilboorg,  A  Century  of  Political  Experience  and  Thought  (Political 
Science  Quarterly,  September). 

ANCIENT    HISTORY 

General  review:  E.  Stein,  Bericht  iibcr  die  Litcratur  sur  Geschichte 
des  Uebergangs  vom  Altertum  cum  Mittelaltcr,  V.  uud  VI.  lahrhundert, 
cms  den  Jahren  1804-1913  (Jahresberichte  iiber  Klassische  Altertums- 
wissenschaft.  CLXXXIV.  3). 

A  notable  addition  to  the  Yale  Oriental  series  is  An  Old  Babylonian 
Version  of  the  Gilgamesh  Epic,  edited,  from  recently  discovered  tablets 
belonging  respectively  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  to  Yale 
University,  by  the  late  Dr.  Morris  Jastrow  of  the  former  institution  and 
Dr.  Albert  T.  Clay  of  Yale. 


Ancient  History  373 

Rev.  P.  E.  Creuveilhier,  in  a  small  book  called  Les  Principaux  Re- 
sultats  des  Nouvelles  Fouilles  de  Suse  (Paris,  Geuthner,  pp.  154),  sets 
forth  systematically,  under  the  heads  of  history,  religion,  law,  economics, 
and  philology,  the  results  shown  in  vols.  X.-XV.  of  the  Memoir es  de  la 
Delegation  en  Perse,  representing  the  excavations  at  Susa  directed  by 
M.  de  Morgan,  and  the  interpretative  work  of  Father  Scheil,  down  to 
the  time  of  the  war. 

Messrs.  Macmillan  have  nearly  ready  the  first  volume  of  Sir  Arthur 
J.  Evans's  very  important  work,  in  three  volumes,  on  The  Palace  of 
Minos:  a  Comparative  Account  of  the  Successive  Stages  of  Early  Cre- 
tan Civilisation  as  Illustrated  by  the  Discoveries  at  Knossos.  The  first 
volume,  elaborately  illustrated,  will  present  a  brief  survey  of  the  neo- 
lithic and  early  Minoan  civilization,  followed  by  an  account  of  the 
palace  in  the  middle  Minoan  Age. 

Two  recent  studies  in  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy  are  by  W. 
Kinkel,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  dcr  Philosophic :  Entwicklung  des  Philo- 
sophischen  Gedankens  von  Thales  bis  auf  unscre  Zeit,  I.  Geist  der 
Philosophic  des  Altertums  (Osterwieck,  Zickfeldt,  1920,  pp.  xi,  243), 
and  K.  Joel,  Geschichte  der  Antikcn  Philosophic,  volume  I.  (Tubingen, 
Mohr,  1921,  pp.  xvi,  990). 

Studies  in  the  history  of  ancient  religions  are  by  Bickel,  Der  Alt- 
romische  Gottesbegriff  ;  eine  Studie  zur  Antiken  Religionsgeschichte 
(Leipzig,  Teubner,  1921);  Ninck,  Die  Bcdeutung  des  Wa<ssers  im  Kult 
und  Leben  der  Alien  (Leipzig.  Dieterich,  1921);  and  Kern,  Orpheus, 
eine  Religionsgeschichtliche   Untersuchung    (Berlin,  Weidmann,   1920). 

Studies  in  early  law  are  A.  Steinwenter.  Studien  zu  den  Koptischen 
Rechtsurkundcn  aits  Oberdgypten  (Leipzig,  Haessel,  1920,  pp.  79)  ;  and 
B.  Ehrenberg,  Die  Rcchtsidee  im  Friihen  Gricchentum :  Untersuchungen 
zur  Geschichte  dcr  U'erdenden  Polis  (Leipzig,  Hirzel.  1921,  pp.  xii, 
ISO). 

The  Loeb  Classical  Library  (Putnams)  has  added  to  its  historical 
authors  Apollodorus  in  two  volumes,  translated  and  edited  by  Sir 
James  G.  Frazer,  who  departs  from  the  ordinary  method  of  this  series 
by  a  more  elaborate  annotation  and  by  the  addition  of  140  pages  of 
appendixes,  in  which,  more  suo,  he  pours  out  his  astonishing  learning 
in  discussion  of  such  matters  as  the  War  of  Earth  and  Heaven,  the 
Origin  of  Fire,  Clashing  Rocks,  the  Vow  of  Idomeneus,  and  the  story 
of  Odysseus  and  Polyphemus,  all  illustrated  by  parallels  from  the  most 
various  regions  of  the  earth ;  the  two  volumes  thus  become  a  store- 
house of  myth,  legend,  and  folklore. 

The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  has  issued  in  its 
series  of  translations  of  early  documents  The  Biblical-  Antiquities  of 
Philo,  and  The  Lost  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  both  edited  by 
Dr.  Montague  R.  James. 


374  Historical  News 

F.  Miinzer,  a  scholar  already  well  known  for  his  contributions  to 
ancient  history,  has  investigated  in  Romische  Adelsparteien  und  Adels- 
familien  (Stuttgart,  Metzler,  1920,  pp.  viii,  438)  one  phase  of  the 
politics  of  the  Roman  Republic. 

J.  Toutain  continues  his  Les  Cultels  Patens  dans  I' Empire  Romain, 
with  volume  III.,  Lets  Cultes  Indigenes  Nationaux  et  Locaux :  Afrique  du 
Nord,  Peninsule  Iberique  et  Gaule  (Paris,  Leroux,  1920,  pp.  470).  The 
work  is  already  well  known  for  its  scholarship. 

Signor  Gulielmo  Ferrero's.  long-announced  study  of  The  Ruins  of 
Ancient  Civilization  and  the  Triumph  of  Christianity,  covering  the  pe- 
riod from  the  death  of  Alexander  Severus  to  that  of  Constantine,  is 
now  published  by  Messrs.  George  Putnam's  Sons. 

A  conscientious  and  useful  study  is  A.  Stein's  Romische  Reichs- 
beamte  der  Provinz  Thracia  (Sarajevo,  Zemaljska  Stamparija,  1920. 
pp.  vi,  137). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  G.  Thilenius,  Primitives  Geld 
(Archiv  fur  Anthropologie,  XVIII.)  ;  K.  Sethe,  Die  Aegyptologie : 
Zzveck,  Inhalt,  und  Bedcutung  dieser  Wissenschaft  und  Deutschlands 
Anteil  an  Hirer  Entwicklung  (Der  Alte  Orient,  XXIII.  1);  E.  F. 
Weidner,  Die  Kbnige  von  Assyricn  (Mitteilungen  der  Vorderasiatisch- 
Aegyptischen  Gesellschaft,  XXVI.)  ;  W.  W.  Tarn,  Alexander's  vTrofivrj- 
f/MTa  and  the  World-Kingdom  (Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  XLI.  1 )  ; 
Tenney  Frank,  Placentia  and  the  Battle  of  Trebia  (Journal  of  Roman 
Studies,  IX.  2)  ;  Sir  J.  G.  Frazer,  Roman  Life  in  the  Time  of  Pliny 
the  Younger  (Quarterly  Review,  October)  ;  L.  Homo,  Les  Privileges 
Administratifs  du  Senat  Romain  sous  I'Empire  et  leur  Disposition 
Graduelle  au  Cours  du  Hie  Siccle,  I.  (Revue  Historique,  July)  ;  George 
Macdonald,  The  Agricolan  Occupation  of  North  Britain  (Journal  of 
Roman  Studies,  IX.  2). 

EARLY    CHURCH    HISTORY 

In  the  Bulletins  de  la  Classe  des  Lcttres  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Belgium  (Seance  du  2  mai,  1921)  Pere  Delehaye  discusses  persecu- 
tions of  Christians  in  the  army  under  Diocletian.  In  normal  times 
the  position  of  a  Christian  in  the  Roman  army  was  not  difficult, 
only  officers  above  a  certain  rank  being  obliged  to  sacrifice.  From 
Eusebius  and  Lactantius  Delehaye  argues  that  sacrifice  was  the  test 
which  in  the  Diocletian  persecutions  drove  many  officers  from  the 
army,  very  few  of  them  being  martyrs,  and  in  opposition  to  Babut  and 
Brehier  he  argues  that  the  test  was  not  adoration  of  the  emperor; 
that,  in  fact,  the  adoratio  introduced  by  Diocletian  and  maintained  by 
the  Christian  Constantine  had  lost  its  original  Asiatic  significance  and 
was  only  a  matter  of  royal  etiquette. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:    Dom  H.  Quentin,  La  Liste  des 


Modern  European  History  375 

Martyrs  dc  Lyon  dc  I'an  177  (Analecta  Bollandiana,  XXXIX.  1-2)  ; 
P.  de  Labriolle,  Lc  "Manage  Spirituel"  dans  VAntiquite  Chreticnnc 
(Revue  Historique,  July). 

MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 

A.  Dopsch  has  published  the  second  volume  of  Wirtschaftlichc  und 
Soziale  Grundlage  der  Europdischen  Ktdturentuncklung  aus  der  Zelt 
von  Cdsar  bis  auf  Karl  den  Grossen  (Vienna.  Seidel,  1920,  pp.  xi,  542). 
It  deals  with  the  political  structure,  the  reorganization  of  society,  the 
Church,  the  genesis  of  feudalism,  the  development  of  towns,  crafts,  and 
commerce,  and  the  monetary  system  and  coinage.  He  emphasizes  espe- 
cially the  permanence  of  the  essential  elements  of  antique  culture. 

Volume  II.  of  G.  Caro's  Sozial-  und  Wirtschaftsgeschichte  der  Juden 
im  Mittelalter  und  der  Neuseit  is  entitled  Das  Spdtere  Mittelalter  (Leip- 
zig, Fock,  1920,  pp.  xii,  413).  J.  Meisl  has  published  the  first  volume 
of  a  Geschichte  der  Juden  in  Polen  und  Russland  (Berlin,  Schwetschke, 
1921,  pp.  xii,  342). 

In  the  October  number  of  the  English  Historical  Revieiv,  H.  Idris 
Bell  completes  (pp.  556-383)  the  list  of  original  papal  bulls  and  briefs, 
427  in  number,  preserved  in  the  Department  of  Manuscripts  in  the 
British  Museum. 

W.  Cohn  is  the  author  of  Das  Zeitalter  der  Normannen  in  Sizilicn 
(Bonn,  Schroder,  1920,  pp.  213). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  M.  D.  Constant,  Saint  Dominique 
et  les  Fraternitcs  Laiques  au  XIIIe  Siecle  (Revue  des  fitudes  His- 
toriques,  January)  ;  P.  Joachimsen,  Die  Reformation  des  Kaisers  Sigis- 
mund  (Historisches  Jahrbuch,  XLI.  1). 

MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

Oswald  Spengler's  Der  Untergang  des  Abendlandes  has  called  out  a 
flood  of  pamphlets.  Noteworthy  among  them  are  C.  Stange's  Der 
Untergang  des  Abendlandes  von  Oswald  Spengler  (Guterloh,  Vertels- 
mann,  1921,  pp.  35)  ;  O.  Neurath,  Anti-Spengler  (Munich,  Callwey,  1921, 
pp.  96)  ;  K.  Heim  and  R.  H.  Griitzmacher,  Oswald  Spengler  und  das 
Christentum:  Zwei  Kritische  Aufsdtze  (Munich,  Beck,  1921,  pp.  73)  ; 
H.  Piper,  Altern  und  Neugeburt  im  Volkerleben,  Ein  Beitrag  su  Deutsch- 
lands  Neugeburt  (Hamburg,  Gente,  1921,  pp.  xx,  144)  ;  K.  Girgensohn, 
Der  Rationalismus  des  Abendlandes:  ein  Votum  sum  Fall  Spengler 
(Greifswald,  Bamberg,  1921,  pp.  24). 

G  Renard  and  G  Weulersse  have  prepared  Lc  Travail  dans  I'Europe 
Moderne  (Paris,  Alcan,  1920,  pp.  524),  a  volume  in  the  Histoire  Uni- 
versale du  Travail  edited  by  Renard.  It  fills  a  gap  and  is  well  done, 
but  attempts  to  cover  too  wide  a  range  of  time  and  space  to  be  entirely 
satisfactory. 


37 1>  Historical  ATezvs 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  Europdische  Geschichte  im  Zeitalter 
Karls  V.,  Philipps  II.  und  Elisabeths  (Leipzig,  Teubner,  1921,  pp. 
125)  by  G.  Mentz.  It  is  one  of  the  little  handbooks  in  the  Aus  Natur 
und  Geisteswelt  series,  being  number  528.  It  is  a  popular  political 
history  of  western  Europe;  economic  and  social  factors  are  practically 
neglected  and  eastern  Europe  is  mentioned  only  when  events  there 
influenced  in  a  marked  degree  political  events  in  the  West. 

Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company  have  issued  A  History  of  Europe; 
Our  Own  Times:  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  the  Opening 
of  the  Twentieth  Century  and  the  World  War,  by  Professors  James  H. 
Robinson  and  Charles  A.  Beard. 

The  Ford  Lectures  of  next  spring  will  be  given  by  Sir  Richard 
Lodge,  professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  on  the 
diplomatic  relations  between  Great  Britain  and  Prussia  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Two  books  dealing  with  Germany's  eastern  frontier  problems  have 
recently  appeared;  Laubert's  Die  Preussische  Polenpolitik  von  1772 
bis  1014  (Berlin,  Preussische  Verlagsanstalt,  1921),  and  Osteuropa  und 
Wir:  Das  Problem  Russlands  (Schliichtern,  Neuwerk-Verlag,  1921,  pp. 
99)    by  E.  Sauer,  E.  Rosenstock,  and  H.  Ehrenberg. 

General  ct  Trappistc:  le  P.  Marie-Joseph,  Baron  de  Geramb  (Paris, 
Jeque,  1921,  pp.  355),  by  A.  M.  P.  Ingold,  gives  a  biography  of  an 
Austrian  officer  active  in  the  interest  of  the  Neapolitan  and  Spanish 
Bourbons  during  the  Napoleonic  period,  who  became  a  Trappist  monk 
in  1816  and  eventually  procurer-general  of  the  order.  Although  a 
work  primarily  of  edification,  the  book  has  useful  information  for  the 
historian. 

A  volume  entitled  British  Diplomacy:  Select  Documents  dealing  with 
the  Reconstruction  of  Europe  (London,  Bell),  prepared  by  Professor 
C.  K.  Webster,  of  the  University  of  Liverpool,  is  designed  partly  to 
illustrate  by  comparison  with  the  period  of  Castlereagh  the  problems 
and  solutions  arising  out  of  analogous  conditions  in  our  own  time. 

Interesting  volumes  of  reminiscences  by  the  late  Princess  Metternich 
will  be  published,  at  intervals  of  some  months,  by  Messrs.  Eveleigh 
Nash  and  Grayson  of  London,  entitled  respectively.  The  Days  that  are 
No  More,  My  Years  in  Paris  (where  her  husband  was  Austrian  am- 
bassador during  the  Second  Empire),  and  Letters  and  Journals. 

The  French  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  continues  the  publication 
of  documents  on  Lcs  Origines  Diplomatiques  de  la  Guerre  de 
1870-1871,  the  twelfth  volume  (Paris,  Charles-Lavauzelle,  1921,  pp. 
480)  covering  the  period  from  Aug.  7  to  Oct.  15,  1866. 

The  Harvard  University  Press  has  published  vol.  II.  of  the  English 
edition,  edited  by  Professor  A.  C.  Coolidge,  of  Dr.  Alfred  F.  Pribram's 
Secret   Treaties  of  Austria-Hungary,   1870-1014.     This  volume,  which 


The  Great  War  377 

contains  the  account  of  the  negotiations  leading  to  the  treaties  of  the 
Triple  Alliance,  translated  by  J.  G.  d'Arcy  Paul  and  Denys  P.  Myers, 
completes  the  English  rendering  of  the  first  volume  of  the  German 
edition,  which  was  reviewed  in  this  journal  in  April,  1920  (XXV.  493)- 

While  in  the  service  of  the  Russian  embassy  in  London,  B.  von 
Siebert  secured  transcripts  of  documents  which  he  has  used  in  Diplo- 
matische  Aktenstucke  sur  Geschichte  der  EntentepoUtik  der  Vorkriegs- 
jahrc  (Berlin,  de  Gruyter,  1921,  pp.  vi,  827).  The  organization  of  his 
material  leaves  something  to  be  desired. 

The  recollections  of  Freiherr  von  Schoen,  German  ambassador  in 
Paris  in  1914  and  former  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  are  being  pub- 
lished in  English  by  Allen  and  Unwin  (London),  under  the  title  My 
Experiences. 

The  German  Treaty  (Oxford  University  Press,  pp.  302),  published 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute  of  International  Affairs,  contains 
not  only  a  text  of  the  treaty  with  Germany  negotiated  by  the  allied 
and  associated  powers,  but  the  contingent  treaty  of  alliance  between 
France  and  Great  Britain,  the  official  commentary  on  the  League  of 
Nations,  various  documents  respecting  the  terms  of  armistice,  and  the 
like,  together  with  three  illustrative  maps. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  E.  Konig,  Erasmus  und  Luther 
(Historisches  Jahrbuch,  XLI.  1);  Lieut. -Col.  R.  J.  Drake,  Secret 
Service  Studies:  France  and  England  in  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth 
Centuries  (Army  Quarterly,  October)  ;  Baron  S.  A.  Korff,  The  Peasants  in 
the  French  and  Russian  Revolutions  (Journal  of  International  Relations, 
October)  ;  Graf  F.  Pourtales,  Neues  fiber  die  Entente-Diplomatic  vor 
dem  Weltkriege  (Preussische  Jahrbucher,  September)  ;  A.  Cartellieri, 
Dcutschland  und  Frankrcich  im  Jahre  IQI2  nach  einer  Umfrage  des 
Figaro  in  Dcutschland  (Historische  Blaetter.  I.);  J.  P.  Niboyet,  La 
Nationalite  d'aprcs  les  Traitcs  de  Paix  qui  out  mis  Fin  a  la  Grand 
Guerre  de  1014-iQiS  (Revue  de  Droit  International,  II.  3-4)  ;  A.  Raf- 
falovitch,  L'Ahscncc  de  Solidarite  Financicrc  apres  la  Guerre  ct  la 
Conference  Internationale  de  Bruxcllcs  (Seances  et  Travaux  de 
TAcademie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  March)  ;  P.  Bignami, 
La  Conferenza  Generate  di  Barcelona,  I.  Liberta  del  Transito;  II.  Vie 
Navigabili,  Ferrovie,  e  Porti  Internazionali  (Nuova  Antologia,  July  I, 
July  16)  ;  W.  Lotz,  Die  Briisselcr  Internationale  Finanzkonferenz  von 
1920,  II.  (Schmoller's  Jahrbuch.  XLV.)  ;  W.  Padel.  Die  Tiirkischcn 
Kapitulationen  und  Dcutschland  nach  dem  1'crtrag  von  Sevres  (Preus- 
sische Jahrbucher,  September). 

THE   GREAT   WAR 

Fresh  revelations  concerning  the  origins  of  the  war  are  to  be  found 
in  Der  Untcrgang  der  Donau-Monarchie  (Berlin,  Berger,  1921),  the 
memoirs  of  von  Szilassy,  Hungarian  diplomat,  who  was  in  close  con- 
tact with  Berchtold  until  1913. 


378  Historical  News 

Histories  of  the  war  continue  to  appear  in  great  numbers.  The 
first  volume  of  E.  Renauld's  Histoire  Populaire  de  la  Guerre  d'apres 
les  Documents  Officiels  et  Officieux  et  les  Temoignages  des  plus  hautes 
Personalitcs  Militaires  ayant  Gommande  et  Combattu  au  Front  (Cha- 
tillon-sur-Seine,  Euvrard-Pichet,  pp.  vii,  312)  deals  with  diplomatic  pre- 
liminaries and  the  declaration  of  war.  It  also  deals  with  the  intervention 
of  America  and  of  Rumania,  out  of  their  chronological  order.  A 
satisfactory  manual  is  La  Route  de  la  Victoire:  Histoire  de  la  Grande 
Guerre,  1914-1918,  avec  toits  les  Traites  de  Paix  et  Conferences,  jusqu'a 
I'Acceptation  par  I'Allemagne  de  I'Ultimatum  des  Allies,  10  Mai  1021 
(Paris,  Gedalge,  1921,  pp.  240)  by  A.  Lomont.  A  brief  account  by  an 
old  soldier  is  General  Niox's  La  Grande  Guerre,  1914-1918:  Simple 
Recit  (Paris,  Gigord,  1921,  pp.  190).  The  third  and  final  volume  of 
Der  Krieg,  1914-1910  (Leipzig,  Bibliographisches  Institut,  1920,  pp. 
viii,  368)  has  appeared.  It  is  a  co-operative  work  by  competent  writers 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  Dietrich  Schafer.  At  the  end  is  a 
Kriegslexikon.  The  last  volume  of  E.  Guillot's  Precis  de  la  Guerre  de 
1914  (Paris,  Chapelot)  is  even  more  thoroughly  filled  with  facts  than 
the  two  preceding.  L.  Cornet  has  published  the  fifth  volume  of  his 
Histoire  de  la  Guerre  (Paris,  Charles-Lavauzelle,  1921,  pp.  436),  in 
which  he  deals  with  the  internal  situation  in  each  of  the  belligerent 
countries  from  April  to  November,  1915.  The  third  and  last  volume  of 
Das  Buck  vom  Grossen  Krieg  (Stuttgart,  Union,  1921)  by  von  Ardenne 
and  Helmolt  has  appeared.  A.  Veltze's  Die  Geschichte  des  Weltkrieges 
mit  besondercr  Beriicksichtigung  des  Frilheren  Oesterreich-Ungarns 
(Vienna,  Verlag  fiir  Vaterland,  1920)  has  reached  the  third  volume. 

The  War  Department  has  published  The  War  zvith  Germany:  a  Sta- 
tistical Summary,  by  Col.  Leonard  Ayres,  chief  of  the  Statistical  Branch 
of  the  General  Staff  (pp.  150),  embracing  statistical  material  of  a 
wide  variety,  with  many  diagrams. 

Freiherr  von  Freytag-Loringhoven  is  the  author  of  Generalfeld- 
marschall  Graf  von  Schlieffen:  scin  Leben  und  die  Verwertung  seines 
Geistigen  Erbes  im  Weltkriege  (Leipzig,  Schraepler,  1921).  W.  Foer- 
ster  has  published  the  second  part  of  his  Graf  Schlieffen  und  der  Welt- 
krieg   (Berlin,  Mittler,  1921). 

Les  Origincs  ct  les  Responsabilites  de  la  Grande  Guerre  (Paris. 
Hachette)  was  prepared  by  E.  Bourgeois  and  G.  Pages  for  a  commission 
of  the  French  senate  on  the  facts  of  the  war.    It  is  very  carefully  done. 

Volume  VI.  of  General  Palat's  La  Grande  Guerre  sur  le  Front  Occi- 
dental (Paris,  Chapelot,  1920,  pp.  496)  gives  a  detailed  study  of  the 
operations  between  the  5th  and  the  13th  of  September,  1914.  Commandant 
H.  Carre  writes  La  Veritable  Histoire  des  Taxis  de  la  Marne,  6,  ~,  et 
8  Septembrc  1914  (Paris,  Chapelot,  pp.  no).  A  German  study  is 
Deutsche  Hccrfithrung  im  Marncfcldsug  1914,  by  Baumgarten-Crusius. 


The  Great  War  379 

Biographies  of  the  more  important  French  generals  are  appearing 
steadily.  Le  Marechal  Gallicni  (Paris,  Fasquelle,  1921),  hy  P.  B. 
Gheusi,  is  based  largely  upon  unpublished  documents  and  is  written  by 
one  who  was  close  to  the  general.  It  attempts  to  establish  with  exacti- 
tude the  role  of  Gallieni  in  September,  1914,  in  the  first  hours  of  the 
battle  of  the  Marne.  Gabriel  Hanotaux  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Fabry 
have  published  a  biography  of  Joffre  (Paris,  Cres,  pp.  122).  Com- 
mandant Grasset  has  written  Franchet  d'Esperey  (Cres,  pp.  140),  and 
H.  Bordeaux  adds  Fayolle  (ibid.). 

Lcs  Transports  Automobiles  sur  le  Front  Francois  (Paris,  Plon, 
1920,  pp.  iv,  346),  by  C.  Doumenc,  traces  the  development  from  August, 
1914,  when  there  were  only  6000  vehicles,  to  November,  1918,  when 
there  were  92,000.  The  author  was  assistant  chief  of  this  branch  of 
the  service  from  1914  to  1917,  and  chief  1917-1919. 

A  detailed  story  of  the  bombardment  of  Paris  by  airships  and  long- 
range  guns  is  told  by  M.  Thiery  in  Paris  Bombarde  (Paris,  Boccard). 

The  Royal  Colonial  Institute  has  planned  a  series  of  five  volumes 
on  The  Empire  at  War,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  published  by  the 
Oxford  University  Press  early  in  November.  The  general  editor  is 
Sir  Charles  Lucas,  who  has  written  the  first  volume,  which  traces  the 
growth  of  imperial  co-operation  in  war  time  previously  to  the  late  war. 
The  four  remaining  volumes,  written  by  many  collaborators,  will  record 
the  effort  made  in  the  war  by  every  unit  of  the  empire  beyond  seas, 
and  the  effects  of  the  war  upon  each  such  portion  of  the  empire. 

Forty-five  narratives,  by  participants  of  all  sorts — commanders,  navi- 
gating officers,  gunnery  officers,  medical  officers,  sailors,  survivors  of 
sunk  ships — are  grouped  in  an  intelligent  order  in  The  Fighting  at 
Jutland,  edited  by  two  naval  officers,  H.  W.  Fawcett  and  G.  W.  W. 
Hooper  (Macmillan),  which  presents  in  a  most  interesting  manner  the 
human  side  of  a  great  naval  combat,  without  pretending  to  deal  with 
the  larger  matters  of.  strategy  or  tactics. 

Captain  A.  F.  B.  Carpenter,  R.  N.,  who,  under  Vice-Admiral  Sir 
Roger  Keyes,  had  the  leading  part  in  the  English  attack  on  Zeebrugge, 
furnishes  a  vivid  and  authoritative  account  of  that  gallant  feat  of  arms 
in  The  Blocking  of  Zeebrugge  (London,  Herbert  Jenkins). 

A  dramatic  episode  of  the  last  days  of  the  war  is  told,  with  detail, 
in  a  defensive  spirit,  in  Scapa  Flow:  der  Grab  der  Deutschen  Flotte 
(Leipzig),  by  Admiral  von  Reuter,  who  was  in  command  of  the  ships 
and  assumes  the  whole  responsibility  for  their  sinking. 

Among  the  numerous  publications  by  people  in  diplomatic  posts  is  H. 
de  Villeneuve-Trans's  A  I'Ambassade  de  Washington:  les  Heures  De- 
cisives  de  V Intervention  Americaine  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921,  pp.  287). 
The  author  was  an  attache  of  the  French  embassy  in  Washington  from 
1917  to   1919,  and  studies  the   relation  of  President  Wilson  with  the 


380  Historical  News 

Senate.  It  is  sharply  critical  of  the  President  and  attempts  to  explain 
his  loss  of  control  over  the  situation. 

A  volume  complementary  to  that  of  von  Lettow-Vorbeck  on  the 
war  in  German  East  Africa,  written  from  the  civilian  side,  but  with 
less  liberality  of  mind  than  that  of  the  military  commander,  is  Deutsch 
Ost-Afrika  (Leipzig,  Quelle  und  Mayer,  pp.  400),  by  Dr.  Heinrich 
Schnee,  who  was  governor  of  the  colony  during  the  war.  A  valuable 
book  surveying  the  whole  episode  from  the  British  point  of  view  is  The 
East  African  Force  (London,  Witherby)  by  Brig.-Gen.  C.  P.  Fendall, 
who  throughout  the  whole  period  was  attached  to  the  administrative 
staff  of  that  force. 

Recent  discussions  of  the  negotiations  for  peace  and  the  problems 
growing  out  of  them  include  Mermeix's  Les  Negotiations  Secretes 
et  les  Quatre  Armistices  (Paris  Ollendorff,  1921,  pp.  355),  Meurer's 
Die  Grundlagen  des  Versailler  Friedens  und  des  Vblkerbundes  (Wurz- 
burg,  Kabitzsch  und  Monnich,  1921),  and  Le  Traite  de  Versailles  devant 
le  Droit,  I.  La  Commission  Interalliee  des  Reparations  et  les  Dom- 
mages  de  Guerre  (Paris,  Berger-Levrault,  pp.  xii,  124)  by  M.  Orgia  and 
A.-G.  Martini.  Le  Droit  des  Gens  et  les  Rapports  des  Grandes  Puis- 
sances avec  les  Autres  £tafs,  avant  le  Facte  de  la  Societe  des  Nations 
(Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  iv,  544)  is  by  C.  Dupuis,  professor  in  the  Ecole 
des  Sciences  Politiques.  The  first  volume  of  an  Histoire  des  Violations 
du  Traite  de  Paix  (Paris,  Cres,  1921.  pp.  384)  by  Dr.  Lucien-Graux 
covers  the  period  from  June  28,  1919,  to  Sept.  24,  1920.  J.  Bardoux  has 
written  De  Paris  a  Spa:  la  Bataillc  Diplomatique  pour  la  Paix  Francaise, 
Fevrier  ipip-Octobre  1920  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  viii,  396). 

M.  Travers  has  published  a  second  volume  of  his  important  work 
Le  Droit  Penal  International  et  sa  Mise  en  Oenvre  en  Temps  de  Paix 
et  en  Temps  de  Guerre  (Paris,  Sirey,  1921).  He  discusses  the  legal 
questions  arising  during  the  war  and  those  connected  with  the  Sevres 
treaty,  particularly  exterritoriality.  A.  Merignhac,  professor  of  inter- 
national law  in  the  University  of  Toulouse,  and  Dr.  E.  Lemonon  have 
published  a  two-volume  study  of  Le  Droit  des  Gens  et  la  Guerre  de 
1914-1018  (Paris,  Sirey,  1921,  pp.  ii,  661,  680). 

Messrs.  Bale,  Sons,  and  Danielsson  have  published,  under  the  title 
Diplomacy  and  the  War,  an  English  translation  of  the  recollections  of 
Count  Julius  Andrassy,  formerly  Hungarian  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND 

A  series  of  five  volumes  which  teachers  of  English  history,  particu- 
larly in  high  schools,  should  welcome  and  use,  is  that  of  Readings 
in  English  Social  History  from  Contemporary  Literature,  selected  from 
a  wide  range  of  sources  (which  are  sufficiently  described)  by  Mr.  R. 
B.  Morgan,  inspector  of  schools  in  the  Croydon  district,  and  published 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  381 

by  the  Cambridge  University  Press.  The  work  of  selection  is  well  done, 
the  volumes  are  small  and  inexpensive,  and  the  three  thus  far  issued 
(to  1603)  are  very  interesting,  illustrating  manifold  aspects  of  the 
social  life  of  England. 

Allyn  and  Bacon  have  brought  out  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of 
Professor  Charles  M.  Andrews's  History  of  England. 

The  Cambridge  University  Press  will  soon  publish  vols.  V.,  VI.,  and 
VII.  of  their  new  edition  of  the  Collected  Historical  Works  of  Sir 
Francis  Palgrave.  The  fifth  volume  will  contain  The  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  while  the  sixth  and  seventh  will  be  devoted  to  The 
Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Commonwealth. 

Two  volumes  of  great  value  in  the  same  special  division  of  English 
economic  history  are  Mr.  E.  Lipson's  History  of  the  Woollen  and 
Worsted  Industries  (London,  A.  and  C.  Black),  and  Mr.  Herbert 
Heaton's  The  Yorkshire  Woollen  and  Jl'orstcd  Industries,  which  is 
volume  X.  of  the  Oxford  Historical  and  Literary  Studies  (Clarendon 
Press). 

In  The  Year  Books  (Cambridge  University  Press)  Mr.  W.  C.  Bol- 
land  prints  three  lectures  giving  a  general  account  of  the  manuscripts 
and  editions  of  these  books,  and  of  their  origin  and  purpose,  and  a 
general  introduction  to  their  stud)-. 

The  Dugdale  Society  has  begun  the  publication  of  Minutes  and  Ac- 
counts of  the  Corporation  of  Stratford-upon-Avon  and  other  Records, 
1553-1620,  by  the  issue  of  volume  I.,  running  from  1553  to  1566,  and 
supplied  with  introduction  and  notes  by  Mr.  Edgar  I.  Flipp  (Oxford, 
printed  for  the  Dugdale  Society  by  Frederick  Hall). 

Mr.  Frederick  Chamberlin,  in  The  Private  Character  of  Queen 
Elisabeth  (London,  John  Lane.  pp.  xxi,  334),  enters  elaborately,  and 
with  the  aid  of  first-rate  medical  authorities,  into  the  physical  history 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  on  physical  grounds,  with  due  consideration 
of  other  evidences,  acquits  her  of  the  scandalous  imputations  which 
have  been  frequent. 

Students  not  only  of  Shakespeare  but  of  early  Virginian  history  will 
be  interested  in  The  Life  of  Henry.  Third  Earl  of  Southampton, 
Shakespeare's  Patron,  by  Mrs.  Charlotte  C.  Stopes,  which  is  soon  to  be 
published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press. 

Comtesse  de  Longworth-Chambrun  has  published  a  brilliant  study 
of  Giovanni  Florio  (Paris,  Payot,  1921),  the  Italian  lexicographer  and 
translator,  temp.  Eliz. 

An  entertaining  and  extraordinary  story,  of  events  and  developments 
that  lie  at  the  basis  of  much  of  the  real-estate  holding  of  present-day 
London,  is  told  by  Mr.  Charles  T.  Gatty  in  Mary  Davies  and  the 
Manor  of  Ebury  (London,  Cassell,  two  volumes). 


382  Historical  News 

Marlborough  and  the  Rise  of  the  British  Army,  by  C.  T.  Atkinson, 
of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  has  just  been  published  by  Messrs.  Putnam. 

The  Influence  of  George  III.  on  the  Development  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, by  A.  Mervyn  Davies  (Oxford  University  Press),  is  the  Stanhope 
Historical  Prize  Essay  for  1921. 

In  Whig  Society,  1775-1818,  by  Mabell  Countess  of  Airlie  (London, 
Hodder  and  Stoughton),  is  compiled  from  hitherto  unpublished  cor- 
respondence of  Lord  Melbourne's  mother,  the  first  Viscountess  Mel- 
bourne, and  of  his  sister  Lady  Cowper,  afterward  the  wife  of  Lord 
Palmerston— two  exceptionally  brilliant  women.  Parts  of  the  book  re- 
late to  Byron. 

The  Life  of  the  First  Marquess  of  Ripion,  by  Lucien  Wolf,  based 
on  family  and  official  documents,  has  lately  been  published  by  the  house 
of  Murray.  Lord  Ripon's  connection  with  the  Treaty  of  Washington 
will  be  remembered.  The  same  firm  has  also  lately  published  a  volume 
on  Sir  Henry  Elliot,  ambassador  at  Naples  during  the  eventful  years 
1860-1861. 

Messrs.  Cassell  of  London  have  issued  the  authorized  life  of  James 
Keir  Hardie,  by  his  associate  William  Stewart. 

From  Private  to  Field-Marshal  (London,  Constable),  by  Field- 
Marshal  Sir  William  Robertson,  besides  being  the  record  of  an  un- 
exampled career  in  the  British  army,  casts  light  of  considerable  im- 
portance on  the  relations  between  the  author,  as  chief  of  staff,  and 
the  prime  minister,  and  on  the  genesis  of  the  united  command  of  the 
Allied  armies. 

An  important  contribution  to  the  medieval  history  of  London  is 
The  Records  of  the  Augustinian  Priory  of  St.  Bartholomew,  West 
Smithfield,  and  of  the  Church  and  Parish  of  St.  Bartholomew  the 
Great  in  the  City  of  London  (Humphrey  Milford),  from  original  docu- 
ments, with  illustrations,  plans,  and  genealogical  tables,  by  E.  A.  Webb, 
in  two  volumes. 

Rev.  A.  H.  Johnson  now  completes  his  History  of  the  Worshipful 
Company  of  the  Drapers  of  London  by  the  publication  of  volumes  III., 
IV.,  and  V.  (Oxford  University  Press). 

In  the  Scottish  Historical  Revieiv  for  October  the  chief  article, 
and  one  of  much  value,  having  also  an  aspect  toward  the  history  of 
emigration  to  America,  is  one  by  Miss  Margaret  I.  Adam,  on  the 
Eighteenth-Century  Highland  Landlords  and  the  Poverty  Problem; 
there  is  also  an  interesting  article  on  the  Western  Highlands  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century  by  Canon  Roderick  C.  MacLeod. 

Messrs.  MacLehose  and  Jackson  of  Glasgow  have  lately  brought  out 
the  first  volume  of  an  important  History  of  Glasgow  from  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  Present  Day,  by  Sir  John  Lindsay,  town  clerk,  and  the 
late  Dr.  Robert  Renwick,  town  clerk  depute. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  3§3 

Messrs.  Longmans  published  in  October  A  Short  History  of  the 
Irish  People,  by  Miss  Mary  Hayden,  professor  of  Irish  history  in  the 
National  University  of  Ireland,  written  in  collaboration  with  C.  A. 
Moonan. 

Dr.  R.  A.  S.  Macalister,  professor  of  Celtic  archaeology  in  Uni- 
versity College,  Dublin,  has  a  new  work  in  the  press  entitled  Ireland 
in  Pre-Celtic  Times,  to  be  published  in  Dublin  by  Messrs.  Maunsel  and 
Roberts,  and  to  be  followed  by  a  companion  volume  on  Ireland  in 
Celtic  Times.  The  same  firm  announces  also  a  History  of  Medieval 
Ireland,  1119-1500  A.  D.,  by  Edmund  Curtis,  professor  of  history  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Rev.  Charles  Plummer,  whose  edition  of  Latin  Lives  of  Irish  Saints 
was  issued  in  two  volumes  by  the  Oxford  University  Press  in  1910,  has 
two  companion  volumes  in  preparation  with  the  same  publishers,  con- 
taining an  edition  of  some  of  the  Irish  lives  of  the  same  saints,  hitherto 
unpublished,  but  now  edited  with  his  well-known  learning  and  care. 
The  Latin  and  Irish  Lives  of  Ciaran  (pp.  190),  edited  in  English 
translation  with  full  annotation  by  Professor  R.  A.  Stewart  Macalister 
for  the  S.  P.  C.  K.  series  of  Translations  of  Christian  Literature,  pre- 
sents three  Latin  lives  and  one  Irish  life  of  the  saint  who  founded 
the  monastery  and  schools  of  Clonmacnois. 

Alumni  Dublinenses,  a  register  of  the  students,  graduates,  professors, 
fellows,  and  provosts  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1593-1846  (London. 
Williams  and  Norgate),  edited  by  the  late  George  D.  Burtchaell,  K.C., 
and  Thomas  U.  Sadleir,  gives  details  respecting  each  man  similar  to 
those  in  Foster's  Alumni  Oxonienses;  not  a  few  names  are  those  of 
Americans,  or  are  connected  with  American  history. 

An  Historical  Atlas  of  South  Africa,  by  Eric  A.  Walker,  containing 
twenty-six  maps  with  explanatory  letterpress,  is  published  by  the 
Oxford  University  Press. 

In  that  series  of  the  Historical  Records  of  Australia  (Library  Com- 
mittee of  the  Commonwealth  Parliament)  which  consists  of  despatches 
and  papers  relating  to  the  settlement  of  the  states  other  than  New 
South  Wales  (series  III.)  a  second  volume  has  been  issued,  covering 
the  history  of  Tasmania  from  July,   1812,  to  the  end  of  1819. 

The  latest  issue  in  the  series  of  Helps  for  Students  of  History  (S.  P. 
C.  K.,  Macmillan)  is  The  Colonial  Entry-Books,  by  C.  S.  S.  Higham,  of 
the  University  of  Manchester. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  R.  E.  N.  Wheeler  and  P.  G. 
Laver,  Roman  Colchester  (Journal  of  Roman  Studies,  IX.  2)  ;  M. 
Treiter,  Die  Urkundendatierung  in  Angelsdchsischer  Zeit  nebst  Ober- 
blick  iiber  die  Datierung  in  der  Anglo-Normannischen  Periode  (Archiv 
fur  Urkundenforschung,  VII.  2-3)  ;  R.  N.  Sauvage,  La  Tapisserie  de  la 
Reine    Mathilde    a    Bayeux     (Bibliotheque    de    l'ficole    des     Chartes, 

AM.   HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 26. 


384  Historical  News 

LXXXII.  1-3)  ;  Felix  Liebermann,  New  Light  on  Medieval  England 
(Quarterly  Review,  October);  M.  H.  Mills,  " Adventns  Vicecomitum" ', 
1258-1272  (English  Historical  Review,  October)  ;  J.  E.  Neale,  Parlia- 
ment and  the  Succession  Question  in  1562/3  and  1566  (ibid.,  October)  ; 
C.  E.  Fayle,  The  Ship-Money  Fleets  (Edinburgh  Review,  October)  ; 
H.  P.  K.  Skipton,  Little  Gidding  and  the  Non-Jurors  (Church  Quar- 
terly Review,  October)  ;  G.  N.  Clark,  Trading  with  the  Enemy  and  the 
Corunna  Packets,  1680-160J  (English  Historical  Review,  October)  ; 
J.  A.  R.  Marriott,  The  Party  System  and  Parliamentary  Government 
(Edinburgh  Review,  October)  ;  Algernon  Cecil,  Cardinal  Manning 
(Quarterly  Review,  October)  ;  Charlotte  Mendelsohn,  Wandlungen  des 
Liberalen  England  durch  die  Kriegswirtschaft  (Archiv  fur  Sozial- 
wissenschaft  und  Sozialpolitik,  XVIII.)  ;  L.  Paul-Dubois,  Le  Drame  Irian- 
dais,  I.  Les  Origines,  1014-1018;  II.  Le  Sinn  Fein,  IQ18-1921  (Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,  September  15,  October  1). 

FRANCE 

General  review:  H.  Hauser,  Histoirc  de  France;  £poquc  Modcrnc, 
jusqu'en  1660  (Revue  Historique,  May). 

The  American  Anthropological  Association  and  the  Archaeological 
Institute  of  America  have  joined  in  establishing  an  American  School 
of  Prehistoric  Studies  in  France.  Dr.  Henri  Martin,  former  president 
of  the  Societe  Prehistorique  de  France,  has  given  to  the  new  school 
the  opportunity  of  making  extensive  excavations  at  a  promising  site  in 
the  department  of  the  Charente. 

The  Oxford  University  Press  has  published  this  autumn  the  first 
volume  (1483-1493)  of  a  History  of  France  from  the  Death  of  Louis 
XL,  by  John  S.  C.  Bridge. 

R.  de  Boysson's  L'Invasion  Calviniste  en  Bas-Limousin,  Perigord, 
et  Haut-Qnercy  (Paris,  Picard,  1920,  pp.  458)  is  really  an  account  of 
the  wars  of  religion  from  a  Catholic  point  of  view,  frankly  hostile  to 
Protestantism. 

E.  Berger  has  published  the  second  volume  of  the  late  Leopold 
Delisle's  Recueil  des  Actcs  de  Henri  II.  (Paris,  Klincksieck,  pp.  vi, 
465). 

Oeuvres  du  Cardinal  de  Retz:  Supplement  a  la  Correspondance 
(Paris,  Hachette,  1920,  pp.  xii,  328),  by  C.  Cochin,  is  a  posthumous  pub- 
lication of  the  Retz  documents  which  he  found  in  the  archives  of  the 
Vatican,  of  the  Medici,  and  of  the  Este,  all  hitherto  unavailable.  It  is 
enriched  with  good  notes  and  several  appendixes  and  forms  a  monument 
to  patience  and  scholarship. 

After  an  interval  of  four  years  two  more  volumes,  XL  and  XII.,  of 
the  French  Academy's  Correspondance  de  Bossuet  (Paris,  Hachette, 
1920,  pp.  510,  512)  have  appeared.     The  editors  are  C.  Urbain  and  E. 


France  3§5 

Levesque.  They  cover  the  period  from  December,  169S,  to  December, 
1700,  and  include  276  letters,  many  of  which  were  not  available  before. 

A  double  number,  nos.  1  and  2  of  vol.  VI.,  of  the  Smith  College 
Studies  in  History  (pp.  184),  is  devoted  to  a  monograph  in  French  on 
Lc  Dernier  Scjour  de  J. -J.  Rousseau  a  Paris,  1770-1778,  by  Elizabeth 
A.  Foster. 

Abbe  E.  Lavaquery  has  published  Le  Cardinal  de  Boisgelin,  1732- 
1804  (Paris.  Plon,  1921,  2  vols.,  pp.  410  and  412).  an  erudite  biography 
of  the  ambitious  archbishop  of  Aix,  whose  lack  of  character  it  tends  to 
excuse  rather  too  much.  It  throws  much  light  on  the  history  of  so- 
ciety in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Messrs.  Heinemann  have  lately  published  The  Life  of  Danton  by 
Louis  Madelin,  translated  into  English  by  Lady  Mary  Loyd. 

Abbe  M.  Giraud  has  prepared  an  Essai  sur  I'Histoire  Religieuse  de  la 
Sarthe,  de  1789  a  Fan  IV.  (Paris.  Jouve,  1920.  pp.  691),  with  impar- 
tiality and  moderation  of  statement  touching  a  period  which  easily  lends 
itself  to  a  different  treatment.  Lc  Regime  de  la  Libcrte  dc  Cultes  dans 
le  Departement  dn  Calvados  pendant  la  Premiere  Separation,  7705  d 
1802  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  290),  by  R.  Patry,  likewise  shows  con- 
scientious use  of  all  available  material. 

Bonaparte  an  Siege  de  Toulon  (Toulon.  Mouton  et  Combe,  1921) 
by  Commandant  Nel  (J.  Norel)  is  a  critical  study  of  the  terrain,  an 
investigation  of  the  manner  in  which  Bonaparte  chanced  to  be  there, 
and  a  capable  narrative  of  the  military  events.  A.  Chuquet's  Le  Depart 
de  Vile  d'Elbe  (Paris,  Leroux,  1921,  pp.  210)  is  a  fresh  investigation  of 
the  events  preceding  the  return  and  of  the  motives  which  prompted  it. 
Other  books  on  Napoleon  worthy  of  notice  are  Napoleon  d'aprcs  le 
Memorial  de  Saint e-Hclcne  (Paris,  Delagrave,  1921,  pp.  viii,  300)  by 
Captain  M.  Gagneur,  and  Lacour-Gayet's  Bonaparte,  Membre  de  I'lnsti- 
tut   (Paris,  Gauthier-Villars,   1921,  pp.  ii,  94). 

Gambctta  and  the  Foundation  of  the  Third  Republic,  by  H.  Stannard 
(London,  Methuen),  gives  the  first  detailed  account  in  English  of  Gam- 
betta's  creation  of  a  French  national  army  after  Sedan. 

The  years  since  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  and  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  two  institutions  to  the  new  relationship,  are  dealt  with  by 
P.  Bureau  in  Quince  Annies  de  Separation  (Paris,  Bloud  et  Gay, 
1921). 

The  third  volume  of  Lcs  Bouches-du-Rhone,  Encyclopedic  Dcparte- 
mentale  (Marseilles,  1921,  pp.  868),  edited  by  P.  Masson,  deals  with 
Les  Temps  Modcrncs,  1482-1789.  Twenty  chapters  out  of  twenty-eight 
are  by  Raoul  Busquet.  archivist  of  the  department,  and  are  devoted  to 
a  history  of  the  institutions  of  Provence.  It  is  not  only  the  largest  but 
the  most  original  contribution,  and  comprises  the  fullest  and  most  trust- 
worthy account  that  has  appeared.     Busquet's  chapters  have  been  pub- 


386  Historical  News 

lished  separately  under  the  title  Histoire  des  Institutions  de  la  Provence 
de  1482  a  1790  (Marseilles,.  Barlatier,  1920,  pp.  365). 

The  history  of  the  oldest  organization  of  its  character  is  to  be  found 
in  J.  Fournier's  La  Chambrc  de  Commerce  de  Marseille  et  ses  Repre- 
sentants  Permanents  a  Paris,  1599-1875  (Marseilles,  Barlatier,  1920, 
PP-  334)-  It  is  important  for  the  history  of  French  commerce  as  well  as 
for  its  local  interests.  Another  book  of  somewhat  similar  interest  is 
Souvenirs  de  Marseille  et  des  £chelles  du  Levant  au  XVIIIe  Siecle; 
Deux  Consuls  Marseillais  en  Levant:  un  Courtier  de  Commerce  et  un 
Notaire  Marseillais  sous  la  Revolution  (Marseilles,  Barlatier,  1921,  pp. 
in)  by  L.  Bergasse. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  L.  Levillain,  Etudes  sur  VAbbaye 
de  Saint-Denis  a  l'£poque  Merovingienne  (Bibliotheque  de  l'ficole  des 
Chartes,  LXXXII.  1-3)  ;  K.  Federn,  Das  Vermbgen  und  die  Gesch'dfte 
des  Kardinals  Mazarin  (Preussische  Jahrbiicher,  August)  ;  L.  Dubreuil, 
L' Election  de  Bucot  a  la  Convention  (Annales  Revolutionnaires,  Sep- 
tember) ;  A.  Mathiez,  Les  Enrages  contre  la  Constitution  de  1793 
{ibid.,  July)  ;  id.,  Les  Enrages  et  les  Troubles  du  Savon,  Juin 
1793  (ibid.,  September)  ;  L.  Dumont-Wilden,  Napoleon  et  le  Prince  de 
Eigne  (Revue  Critique,  June)  ;  Saint-Denis  dit  Ali,  Souvenirs  du  Se- 
cond Mameluck  de  I'Empereur:  III.  Waterloo,  vers  Sainte-Helcne;  IV. 
La  Vie  a  Sainte-Helcne;  V.  Les  Derniers  Jours,  les  Funcrailles  (Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,  August  1,  September  1,  October  1);  A.  Augustin- 
Thierry,  Augustin  Thierry  d'apres  sa  Correspondancc,  I.  La  Jeunesse 
(ibid.,  October  15);  V.  Giraud,  Nos  Grands  Chefs,  I.,  II.  Le  General 
Castelnau  (ibid.,  August  1,  15). 

ITALY,    SPAIN,   AND   PORTUGAL 

An  attempt  to  trace  the  influence  of  physical  factors  in  historical 
development  is  made  by  A.  von  Hoffmann  in  Das  Land  Italien  und  seine 
Geschichte:  eine  Historisch-Topographische  Darstellung  (Stuttgart, 
Deutsche  Verlangsanstalt,  1921,  pp.  458). 

A.  de  Bouard  has  written  Le  Regime  Politique  et  les  Institutions  de 
Rome  au  Moyen  Age,  1252-1347  (Paris,  Boccard,  1920,  pp.  xxx,  362). 

M.  Blanchard,  Bibliographic  Critique  de  I'Histoire  des  Routes  des 
Alpes  Occidentales  sous  VfLtat  de  Piemont-Savoie,  XVIIc-XVIIIe 
Siecles,  et  a  I'Epoqne  Napoleonienne,  1796-1815  (Grenoble,  Allie'r,  1920, 
pp.  120),  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  sources  for  the  study  of  public 
travel  over  the  Alps. 

In  the  Coleccion  de  Documentos  para  el  Estudio  de  la  Historia  de 
Aragon,  edited  by  E.  Ibarra,  D.  Sangorrin  has  published  volume  XII., 
El  Libro  de  Cadena  del  Concejo  de  Jaca  (Zaragoza,  1920,  pp.  392). 
The  editing  is  capable  and  the  transcription  faithful.  The  result  is  a 
piece  of  work  valuable  for  the  period  from  the  tenth  to  the  fourteenth 
century. 


Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland  3^7 

L.  Pfandl  has  published  in  book  form  Itincrarium  Hispanicum  Hier- 
onymi  Monetarii,  1404-1495  (Paris,  Paillart,  1920,  pp.  180),  which  first 
appeared  in  the  Revue  Hispanique. 

The  most  recent  Portuguese  historical  works  of  importance  are: 
A  Rainha  D.  Leonor,  1458-1525  (Lisbon,  Portugalia  Editora,  1921,  pp. 
400),  by  the  Conde  de  Sabugosa,  a  somewhat  rhetorical  biography  of 
the  queen  (and  cousin)  of  King  John  III.;  0  General  Visconde  de 
Leiria:  Retalhos  de  Historia  Contcmporanca  (Lisbon,  Ferin,  1920,  pp. 
719),  the  life  of  one  who  (b.  1794,  d.  1873)  fought  in  the  Peninsular 
War  against  Napoleon  and  had  an  important  part,  on  the  Constitu- 
tionalist side,  in  the  internal  wars  and  politics  of  the  ensuing  period,  writ- 
ten by  Sr.  Alexandre  Cabral,  husband  of  his  granddaughter;  and  D. 
Pedro  V.  e  0  sen  Reinado,  1853-1S61  (Coimbra,  Imprensa  da  Universi- 
dade,  1921,  two  vols.,  pp.  399,  463),  by  Sr.  Julio  de  Vilhena.  of  the 
Academy. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Sir  Denison  Ross,  Portuguese 
Relations  with  India  and  Arabia,  1507-1517  (Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  1921,  part  IV.).    ' 

GERMANY,    AUSTRIA,    AND    SWITZERLAND 

An  attempt  to  show  the  relation  of  the  course  of  German  history  to 
geographical  conditions  is  made  by  A.  von  Hofmann  in  Das  Deutsche 
Land  und  die  Deutsche  Geschichte  (Stuttgart,  Deutsche  Verlagsanstalt, 
1920,  pp.  603). 

A  very  competent  survey  of  the  whole  history  of  autobiography  in 
Germany  is  presented  in  Die  Deutsche  Selbstbiographie,  by  Dr.  Theodor 
Klaiber  (Stuttgart,  Metzler). 

A  third  edition  of  R.  Munch's  masterly  treatment  of  Deutsche  Stam- 
meskunde  (Berlin,  Vereinigung  Wissenschaftlicher  Verleger,  1920,  pp.  1, 
443)  has  appeared.  The  second  edition  was  published  sixteen  years  ago. 
There  is  new  discussion  of  questions  relating  to  Germanic  origins. 

Two  accounts  of  German  literature  in  the  Middle  Age  are  Geschichte 
der  Deutschen  Literatur  bis  sur  Mittc  des  XL  Jahrhunderts  (Berlin, 
Vereinigung  Wissenschaftlicher  Verleger,  1920,  pp.  ix.  261)  by  W. 
Unwerth  and  T.  Siebs,  and  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Literatur,  I.  Vom 
0.  Jahrhundert  bis  zu  den  Staufern  (Berlin,  Ebering,  1920,  pp.  vii,  512) 
by  S.  Aschner. 

The  third  volume  of  Berger's  Martin  Luther  in  Kulturgeschicht- 
licher  Darstellung  (Berlin,  Hofmann,  1921)  covers  the  years  1532  to 
1546.  Hartmann  Grisar  and  F.  Heege  have  published  Luthers  Kampf- 
bilder,  I.  Passional  Christi  und  Antichristi;  Eroffnung  des  Bilder- 
kampfes,  1521  (Freiburg,  Herder,  1921,  pp.  xii,  68).  Another  book  on 
Luther  is  Jordan's  Luther  und  der  Bann  in  scinen  und  seiner  Zeitge- 
nossen  Aussagcn  (Leipzig,  Breitkopf  und  Hartel,  1920).     Other  phases 


388  Historical  News 

of  the  Reformation  are  studied  by  L.  Lehmann  in  Bilder  aus  der 
Reformationsgeschichte  der  Mark  Brandenburg  (Berlin,  Vaterlandische 
Verlags-  und  Kunstanstalt,  1921);  by  R.  Bottachiari  in  Da  Worms  a 
Weimar:  Contribute?  alia  Storia  dello  Spirit o  et  dell  a  Civilta  Germanica 
(Bologna,  Oberosler,  1920)  ;  and  by  K.  Bauer  in  Die  Besiehungen  Cal- 
vins  su  Frankfurt  am  Main  (Leipzig,  Heinsius,  1921). 

A  recent  study  in  German  constitutional  history  is  P.  Haake's 
Deutsche  Verfassungsgcschichte  vow.  Anjange  des  10.  Jahrhunderts 
bis  zur  Gegenwart  (Leipzig,  Teubner,  1921). 

The  first  volume  of  J.  B.  Kissling's  Geschichte  der  Deutschcn 
Katholikentage,  prepared  under  the  auspices  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  German  Catholic  General  Assembly  (Miinster,  Aschendorff,  1920, 
pp.  xvi,  506),  brings  the  account  as  far  as  1849.  It  's  important  for 
the  historical  background  and  the  origins  of  the  Centre  party. 

The  Kulturkampf  and  the  war  scare  of  1875  are  dealt  with  in  Vvm 
Bismarck  der  joer  Jahre  (Tubingen,  Mohr,   1920)   by  A.  Wahl. 

Under  the  direction  of  his  widow  a  collection  of  the  minor  writings 
of  Gustav  von  Schmoller,  the  noted  economist  and  parliamentarian, 
has  been  published  under  the  title  Zwansig  Jahre  Deutschcr  Politik, 
1897-1917  (Munich,  Duncker  und  Humblot,  1921,  pp.  vi,  206).  The 
articles  are  not  intimately  associated  in  subject-matter  or  in  time.  Some 
of  the  more  significant  of  them,  from  the  historical  point  of  view,  are 
on  the  Economic  Future  of  Germany  and  her  Fleet,  1899;  Common  In- 
terests of  Germany  and  Austria,  1909;  Prussian  Election  Reforms,  1910; 
Social  Democrats  in  the  Reichstag,  1912;  the  Patriotic  Attitude  of 
the  Social  Democrats  at  the  beginning  of  the  War,  and  a  Resume  of 
the  Development  of  the  Party  in  Germany.  A  particularly  interesting 
paper  (1913)  has  to  do  with  the  danger  of  war.  It  sets  forth  the 
development  of  international  tension  as  a  result  of  the  democratization 
of  constitutions  and  the  influence  of  capital,  and  concludes  that  some 
questions  having  to  do  with  the  life  of  a  nation  are  too  large  to 
be  settled  in  any  manner  other  than  by  war. 

As  is  customary  after  a  period  of  sharp  crisis  there  is  a  flood  of 
memoirs  appearing  in  Germany.  An  important  publication  is  the  third 
volume  of  H.  von  Eckardstein's  memoirs  under  the  title  Die  Isolierung 
Deutschlands  (Leipzig,  List,  1921).  A.  Winnig  has  published  Am 
Ausgang  der  Deutschcn  Ostpolitik:  Persbnliche  Erlebnisse  und  Erin- 
nerungen  (Berlin,  Staats-Politischer  Verlag,  1921,  pp.  125).  The  sec- 
ond edition  of  Die  Alte  Generation,  nach  Familicnbricfen  und  eigenen 
Erinnerungen  (Braunschweig,  Maus,  1920,  pp.  286),  by  Bertha  von 
Krocher,  not  only  deals  with  the  old  Mark  family  of  Krocher  and  a 
branch  of  the  Gerlach  family,  but  shows  how  the  circles  once  Christian- 
Conservative  became   Christian-Socialist   in  politics. 


Germany .  Austria,  and  Switzerland  389 

A  phase  of  recent  German  revolution  is  dealt  with  by  Maercker  in 
Vom  Kaiserheer  zur  Reichswehr:  ein  Bcitrag  zur  Geschiclite  der 
Dcutsclien  Resolution  (Leipzig,  Koehler,  1921). 

Various  phases  of  the  history  of  socialism  are  set  forth  in  G. 
Mayer's  Friedrich  Engcls:  cine  Biographic,  the  first  volume  of  which, 
Fricdrich  Engcls  in  seiner  Fruhsseit,  1820-1851  (Berlin,  Springer,  1920, 
pp.  xiv,  317),  is  warmly  praised  by  Kautsky;  Oswald  Spengler's  Preus- 
scntuin  und  Sozialismus  (Munich,  Beck,  1920,  pp.  99)  ;  and  Dorzbacher's 
Die  Deutsche  Sozialdemokratie  und  die  Nationale  Maclitpolitik  bis 
1914  (Gotha,  Perthes,  1920). 

With  the  collaboration  of  a  number  of  archivists  C.  Schmidt  has 
published  Lcs  Sources  de  VHistoire  des  Territoires  Rhcnans  de  IJ92 
a  1014  dans  lcs  Archives  Rhcnanes  et  a  Paris  (Paris,  Rieder,  1921,  pp. 
332).  It  is  a  detailed  account  of  the  materials  in  the  archives  at  Paris, 
Trier,  Coblenz,  Darmstadt,  Mainz,  Wiesbaden,  Dusseldorf,  and  Speyer. 
In  a  general  introduction  the  editor  gives  an  historical  resume  of  the 
administration  of  the  area  under  occupation. 

The  fifth  volume  of  the  Beitrdge  zur  Geschiclite  der  Stadt  Mainz, 
subsidized  by  the  city,  is  Die  Stadt  Mainz  untcr  Kurfiirstlicher  Verwalt- 
ung,  1462-1702  (Mainz,  Wilckens,  1920,  pp.  x,  252)  by  H.  Schrohe,  a 
remarkably  well-executed  piece  of  research. 

W.  E.  Oefterings  has  written  Der  Umsturz  1018  in  Baden  (Con- 
stance, Reuss  und  Itta,  1920,  pp.  304),  which  recounts  the  events  of  the 
revolution  from  early  in  November,  1918,  to  January,  1919.  Documents 
on  the  revolution  of  1848-1849  in  Baden  are  published  by  F.  Lauten- 
schlager  in  Volksstaat  und  Einherrschaft  (Constance,  Reuss  und  Itta, 
1920,  pp.  507).  A  new  Badischc  Geschiclite  (Berlin,  Vereinigung  Wis- 
senschaftlicher  Verleger,   1921)   has  been  prepared  by  Krieger. 

On  May  16,  1920,  the  Swiss  electorate,  by  a  vote  of  416,870  against 
323,719,  voted  to  ratify  the  federal  decree  which  provided  for  the 
entrance  of  Switzerland  into  the  League  of  Nations.  Since  one  of 
the  chief  arguments  of  the  opposition  was  that  such  adhesion  was 
inconsistent  with  the  traditional  neutrality  of  Switzerland.  Professor 
Charles  Borgeaud,  of  Geneva,  published  an  historical  pamphlet  to 
sustain  the  contrary  opinion.  A  second  edition  of  this,  La  Neutrality 
Suisse  an  Centre  de  la  Societe  des  Nations:  Notice  Historique  (Geneva, 
Atar,  pp.  107),  expounding  the  history  of  Swiss  neutrality,  has  now 
been  published. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals  :  F.  Rorig,  Die  Hanse,  Hire  Euro- 
pdische  und  Nationale  Bedeutiing  (Deutsche  Rundschau,  September)  ; 
G.  B.  Volz,  Die  Ausw'drtige  Politik  Fricdrichs  des  Grossen  (ibid., 
September)  ;  S.  Kahler,  Das  Preussisch-Deuischc  Problem  seit  der 
Reichsgriindung  (Preussische  Jahrbiicher,  July)  ;  P.  Lenel,  Beitrdge 
zur  Biographie  'des  Preussischen  Staatsrats  von  Rehdiger  (Historische 
Zeitschrift.  CXXIV.  2). 


39°  Historical  News 

NETHERLANDS  AND   BELGIUM 

Volume  XLI.  of  the  Bijdragen  en  Mededeelingen  of  the  Utrecht 
Historical  Society  is  mostly  occupied  with  material  from  the  archives 
of  Amsterdam  and  of  Haarlem  relating-  to  the  trials  and  executions 
of  the  Dutch  Anabaptists,  from  1533  to  1539. 

The  subtitle  of  M.  des  Ombiaux's  La  Politique  Beige  depuis  V Armis- 
tice: la  Grande  Petir  de  la  Victoire  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921,  pp.  200)  in- 
dicates the  thesis  of  the  book,  viz.,  that  King  Albert  feared  a  revolution 
that  might  overthrow  his  throne.  The  author  details  the  political  moves 
that  were,  in  his  judgment,  inspired  by  that  fear. 

NORTHERN  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 

A  study  of  the  origin  and  significance  of  the  famous  Lex  Regia  of 
Frederick  III.  is  published  by  K.  Fabricius,  Kongeloven,  dens  Tilblivelse 
og  Plads  i  Samtidens  Natur-  og  Arveretlige  Udvikling  (Copenhagen, 
Hagerup,  1920,  pp.  xvi,  407). 

A  translation  into  French  of  S.  Askenazy's  Le  Prince  Joseph  Ponia- 
toit'ski,  Marechal  de  France,  1/63-1813  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  346),  has 
appeared. 

S.  de  Chessin,  who  has  previously  published  a  volume  on  the  first 
phases  of  the  Russian  revolution,  has  now  prepared  L' Apocalypse  Russe: 
la  Revolution  Bolchevique,  1918-1921  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  xxiv,  336). 
Another  recent  book  on  the  revolution  worthy  of  notice  is  La  Revolu- 
tion et  la  Russie  (Paris,  Berger-Levrault,  pp.  x,  316)  by  Nicolas  Ka- 
rabtchevsky. 

Mr.  I.  V.  Hessen,  formerly  editor  of  Rech,  the  organ  of  the  Cadet  Party 
in  St.  Petersburg,  is  producing  a  series  of  volumes  whose  object  is  to 
present  eye-witness  accounts  of  some  of  the  more  important  incidents  of 
the  post-revolutionary  period,  Archiv  Russkoi  Revolutzii  (Berlin. 
Slovo),  of  which  two  volumes,  containing  many  interesting  narratives 
of  the  sort  indicated,  have  already  been  published. 

Maj.-Gen.  Sir  Alfred  Knox,  K.C.B.,  C.M.G.,  who  had  been  for  more 
than  three  years  military  attache  of  the  British  embassy  at  Petrograd 
before  hostilities  broke  out  in  1914,  accompanied  the  Russian  army 
on  intimate  terms  from  the  beginning  of  the  war  until  the  Bolshevik 
coup  d'etat  in  1917.  The  two  volumes  which  he  now  publishes,  With 
the  Russian  Army,  1914-1017  (London,  Hutchinson,  pp.  750),  are  of 
the  greatest  interest  and  value. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  A.  Stern,  L' Insurrection  Polonaise 
de  1863  et  I'Impcratricc  Eugenic  (Revue  Historique,  May)  ;  Peter 
Struve,  The  Russian  Communistic  Experiment  (Edinburgh  Review,  Oc- 
tober) ;  S.  Zagorsky,  L' Evolution  Ac/ucllc  du  Bolchevisme  (Revue 
d'ficonomie  Politique,  May). 


Asia,  Medieval  and  Modern 


SOUTHEASTERN    EUROPE 


Charles  Richet  in  Lcs  Tchcco-Slovaques  (Paris,  Perrin)  gives  an 
account  of  the  renaissance  of  Bohemia  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  twen- 
tieth century,  and  discusses  the  difficulties  in  organizing  the  new  state. 

Milanko  Vesnitch,  who  represented  Serbia  at  Paris  from  1904  to 
1921,  published,  just  before  his  death,  La  Serbie  a  travers  la  Guerre 
(Paris,  Bossard,  pp.  xii,  162),  an  able  statement  of  Serbia's  case.  Le 
Royaume  des  Serbes,  Croatcs  ct  Slovenes  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921,  pp. 
316)  is  a  new  book  by  A.  Mousset,  who  occupied  a  position  where  he 
could  observe  and  judge  events  without  losing  his  freedom  to  comment. 

P.  Loti  in  Supremes  Visions  a" Orient:  Fragments  de  Journal  Intime 
(Paris,  Calmann-Levy,  1921)  tells  with  incomparable  charm  his  im- 
pressions of  Turkey  in  1910  and  1913. 

A  recent  book  on  modern  Greek  history  is  Les  Regimes  Gouveme- 
mentaux  de  la  Grccc  de  1S21  a  nos  Jours   (Paris,  1921)   by  Conclelis. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  R.  Lechat,  Lettres  de  Jean  de 
Tagliacosso  sur  le  Siege  de  Belgrade  et  la  Mort  de  S.  Jean  de  Capistran 
(Analecta  Bollandiana,  XXXIX.  1-2)  ;  Posthumous  Memoirs  of  Talaat 
Pasha  (Current  History,  November). 

ASIA,  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN 

General  review:  P.  Masson-Oursel,  Philosophies  de  V Orient  (Revue 
Philosophique,  September). 

A  serious  and  intelligent  study  of  La  Resurrection  Gcorgicnne 
(Paris,  Leroux,  1921,  pp.  xiii,  318)  is  published  by  P.  Gentizon  who 
was  sent  by  the  Temps  to  Georgia,  as  the  state  which  showed  the  most 
vitality  and  political  capacity  of  any  in  the  Caucasus  group.  W. 
Woytinski  in  La  Dhnocratie  Gcorgicnne  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  vii, 
304)  discusses  not  only  recent  events  in  Georgia  but  its  past  relations 
with  Russia,  its  ethnic  unity,  and  its  economic  condition. 

The  first  volume  of  the  Cambridge  History  of  India,  edited  by  Pro- 
fessor E.  J.  Rapson  (Cambridge  University  Press),  is  published  at 
about  this  time.  It  brings  the  history  of  ancient  India  from  the  earliest 
times  to  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century  A.  D.  The  contributors 
are  such  scholars  as  Sir  Halford  MacKinder,  the  Master  of  Emmanuel 
College  (Dr.  Peter  Giles),  Dr.  and  Mrs.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,  Professor 
E.  W.  Hopkins.  Professor  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  and  Mr.  Edwyn 
R.  Bevan. 

A  new  periodical,  entitled  Journal  of  Indian  History,  to  be  published 
three  times  yearly  by  the  University  of  Allahabad  and  edited  by  Shafaat 
Ahmad  Khan,  professor  of  modern  European  history  in  that  university, 
made  its  appearance  in  November.  The  editor  himself  contributes  the 
first  four  articles,  dealing  with  British  India  and  the  East  Indian  trade 
in  the  seventeenth  centurv. 


392  Historical  News 

The  Hakluyt  Society  has  issued  the  second  and  concluding  volume 
of  Mr.  M.  L.  Dames's  valuable  annotated  translation  of  The  Book 
of  Duarte  Barbosa,  mainly  concerned  with  the  Malabar  Coast  during 
the  long  period  of  the  author's  residence  there. 

Mr.  John  Murray  has  published  a  volume  by  Vice-Admiral  George 
A.  Ballard  on  The  Influence  of  the  Sea  on  the  Political  History  of 
Japan, 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Col.  T.  E.  Lawrence,  Arabian 
Nights  and  Days  (World's  Work,  September)  ;  id.,  Adventures  in 
Arabia's  Deliverance  (ibid.,  October)  ;  P.  S.  Reinsch,  The  Rise  and 
Fall  of  Yuan  Shih-Kai  (Asia,  December). 

AFRICA,    MEDIEVAL   AND   MODERN 

Georges  Hardy,  director  of  public  instruction  in  Morocco,  who  com- 
bines ripe  scholarship  with  years  of  colonial  experience,  has  published  in 
rapid  succession  four  volumes,  Les  Elements  de  I'Histoire  Coloniale 
(Paris,  Renaissance  du  Livre,  1921,  pp.  180)  ;  L'Enscignement  au 
Senegal  de  1817  a  1854  (Paris,  Larose,  1921,  pp.  v,  148)  ;  La  Mise  en 
Valeur  du  Senegal  de  181 7  a  1834  (ibid.,  pp.  xxxiii,  376)  ;  Les  Grander 
Etapes  de  I'Histoire  du  Maroc  (ibid.,  pp.  136). 

Mr.  H.  A.  MacMichael,  assistant  civil  secretary  in  Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan,  has  nearly  ready  for  publication  two  volumes,  largely  based  on 
native  records,  of  A  History  of  the  Arabs  in  the  Sudan  (Cambridge 
University  Press). 

M.  Sabry  in  the  second  part  of  La  Reiiolution  Egyptienne  (Paris, 
Win,  1921,  pp.  277)  has  treated  in  a  clear  style  of  the  relations  of  the 
British  Empire  with  Egypt  since  the  armistice — of  the  attempted  revolu- 
tion, the  futile  appeal  to  the  Peace  Conference,  the  Milner  mission, 
the  boycott  of  that  mission,  and  subsequent  events. 


GENERAL  ITEMS 

The  director  of  the  Department  of  Historical  Research  in  the  Car- 
negie Institution  of  Washington  returned  from  Europe  in  November, 
after  having  spent  three  months  in  London  in  the  collection  of  ma- 
terial for  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  Correspondence  of  the  British 
Ministers  in  Washington,  and  after  brief  visits  to  the  chief  Spanish 
archives.  Miss  Elizabeth  Donnan,  of  Wellesley  College,  returning 
temporarily  to  the  work  of  the  department,  spent  the  summer  in  the 
search  for  additional  materials,  among  the  papers  of  the  Royal  African 
Company  in  the  Public  Record  Office,  and  in  the  British  Museum,  for 
her  volumes  of  documents  respecting  the  African  slave-trade  to  English 
America.    For  the  series  of  volumes  of  the  Correspondence  of  Andrew 


America  3^3 

Jackson,  all  letters  of  Jackson  thus  far  found  have  been  copied,  and 
about  two-thirds  of  those  letters  to  Jackson  which  are  to  be  printed. 
The  second  volume  of  Dr.  Burnett's  Letters  of  Members  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  has  gone  to  the  printer. 

Following  are  some  recent  accessions  of  the  Manuscripts  Division 
of  the  Library  of  Congress:  Letter-books  of  John  Bradford,  Conti- 
nental agent  for  prizes  at  Boston,  two  volumes,  1 776-1 782;  letter-book 
of  Samuel  Bradford,  United  States  marshal  for  the  district  of  Massa- 
chusetts, one  volume,  1 796-1 804;  typewritten  copies  of  correspondence  of 
Col.  Nicolas  Fish,  one  volume,  1785-1786;  a  collection  of  more  than  a 
hundred  broadside  acts,  bills,  and  committee  reports  of  Congress,  17S9- 
1810;  letters  from  John  Marshall  to  his  wife,  1 797-1831  ;  letters  from 
various  Presidents  to  the  commissioners  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
and  others,  one  volume,  1791-1869;  J.  R.  Murray's  diary  of  travels  in 
Europe,  1799,  two  volumes;  papers  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  seven 
volumes;  papers  of  George  A.  Trenholme,  1853-1897;  the  George 
H.  Stuart  Collection  (Christian  Commission),  1861-1877,  two  volumes 
and  unbound  letters;  and  photostat  copies  of  the  following:  letters  from 
Braxton  Bragg  to  his  wife,  1861-1863  (22  pieces,  from  originals  in 
the  collection  of  W.  K.  Bixby),  Beauregard's  report  on  the  bombard- 
ment of  Fort  Sumter,  Apr.  16,  1861  (from  the  same  collection),  and 
miscellaneous  papers  and  letters  of  Col.  John  S.  Mosby,  1861-1886  (35 
pieces).  It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  the  original  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence and  the  original  Constitution  of  the  United  States  have 
been  transferred  to  the  library  from  the  Department  of  State,  by 
presidential  order. 

Though  this  journal  has  an  opportunity,  each  quarter,  through  the 
kindness  of  the  chief  of  the  Division  of  Manuscripts  in  the  Library  of 
Congress,  to  note  briefly  the  most  important  of  its  many  accessions, 
attention  may  well  be  called  to  the  fuller  description  of  those  of  the  last 
year  which  is  to  be  found  on  pp.  28-45  of  tne  Report  of  the  librarian 
for  1921 ;  also,  to  a  valuable  report  on  the  transcription  of  documents 
from  French  archives,  by  Mr.  Waldo  G.  Leland,  printed  as  an  appendix, 
on  pp.  177-186. 

The  Knights  of  Columbus  Historical  Commission  offers  five  prizes, 
ranging  in  amount  from  $3000  to  $500,  for  the  best  unpublished  studies, 
based  on  research  in  primary  sources,  in  the  field  of  American  history, 
submitted  respectively  by  (1)  professors  or  instructors  in  history  or 
other  social  sciences  in  the  colleges  of  the  U~nited  States,  (2)  other 
specialists  in  history  or  other  social  sciences.  (3)  scholars  and  graduate 
students  having  access  to  material  in  Hispanic  America,  dealing  with 
the  international  relations  of  the  Americas,  (4)  school  superintendents 
and  teachers — on  matters  within  the  school  curricula,  and  (5)  under- 
graduate students  in  colleges.  There  is  also  provision  for  a  co-operation 
not  competitive   in   character,   the  object  being  the   encouragement   of 


394  Historical  News 

historical  investigation.  Studies  submitted  in  competition  must  be  sent 
to  the  commission  on  or  before  May  31,  1922.  Descriptive  circulars 
may  be  obtained  by  addressing  the  commission  at  199  Massachusetts 
Avenue,  Boston. 

A  new  edition  of  Professor  John  S.  Bassett's  Short  History  of  the 
United  States  brings  the  narrative  down  to  the  election  of  President 
Harding  (Macmillan). 

The  house  of  Badger  (Boston)  has  brought  out  The  American  Dic- 
tionary of  Dates,  in  three  volumes,  compiled  by  Charles  R.  Damon. 

Professor  Waldo  S.  Pratt,  of  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary, 
has  edited,  and  the  Macmillan  Company  has  published,  an  American 
Supplement,  in  one  volume  (pp.  vi,  412),  to  Grove's  Dictionary  of 
Music  and  Musicians,  which  contains  on  the  one  hand  a  great  mass  of 
newly  collected  biographical  information,  and  on  the  other  hand  a 
valuable  series  of  chapters  and  essays  on  the  history  of  music  in 
America. 

Volume  VI.,  no.  3,  of  Smith  College  Studies  in  History  is  Letters 
of  Ann  Gillam  Storrow  to  Jared  Sparks,  edited,  with  an  introduction, 
by  Frances  B.  Blanshard.  The  letters,  beginning  in  1820  and,  with 
one  exception  (1857),  ending  in  1846,  give  interesting  glimpses  of  the 
intellectual  world  in  and  about  Boston.  No.  4  of  the  Studies  is  The 
Westover  Journal  of  John  A.  Selden,  Esqr.,  1858-1862,  with  an  intro- 
duction and  notes  by  Professor  John  S.  Bassett. 

In  the  June  number  of  the  Records  of  the  American  Catholic  His- 
torical Society  are  found  some  Notes  on  Franco-American  Relations  in 
1778,  compiled  from  contemporary  sources  by  Miss  Elizabeth  S.  Kite. 
The  letters  of  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick  to  the  Allen  family  are  con- 
tinued, this  installment  being  of  the  years  1857-1860. 

The  Journal  of  the  Presbyterian  Historical  Society  for  September 
and  December  contains  the  conclusion  of  Professor  Frederick  W.  Loet- 
scher's  article  on  Presbyterianism  in  Colonial  New  England;  it  also 
begins  the  printing  of  the  Journal  of  Rev.  Lemuel  Foster,  who  came 
to  Illinois  in  1832  as  a  home  missionary  and  wrote  an  account  of  his 
experiences,  which  was  continued,  after  his  death  in  1872,  by  his 
wife. 

The  Transactions  of  the  Huguenot  Society  of  South  Carolina,  no. 
25,  embodies  the  proceedings  of  the  society  in  1919  and  1920,  of  which 
the  most  significant  feature  was  the  celebration,  Apr.  10-13,  1920  (de- 
ferred from  April,  1919),  of  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
birth  of  Admiral  Gaspard  de  Coligny.  A  number  of  historical  ad- 
dresses of  value  and  interest  were  delivered  in  connection  with  the 
celebration,  among  which  we  note  the  Huguenots  of  New  Paltz,  by 
Hon.  Ralph  LeFevre,  of  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Family  of  Coligny 


America  395 

and   the    Colonial    Policy    of   the    Admiral,    by    Col.    William    Gaspard 
de  Coligny,  of  Hendersonville,  N.  C. 

ITEMS  ARRANGED   IN   CHRONOLOGICAL   ORDER 

In  commemoration  of  the  Pilgrim  Tercentenary,  the  University  of 
Illinois  Press  has  published  a  booklet,  of  48  pages,  containing  an  ex- 
cellent address  on  the  Place  of  the  Pilgrims  in  American  History,  by 
Professor  Evarts  B.  Greene. 

In  A  Day  in  a  Colonial  Home  (Boston,  Marshall  Jones,  1921).  Delia 
R.  Prescott  has  given  a  simple  sketch  of  a  day's  activities  in  a  colonial 
household  and  added  an  appendix  showing  how  a  typical  New  England 
kitchen  of  the  eighteenth  century  may  be  reconstructed  in  a  school, 
library  or  museum. 

Volume  V.  of  Professor  Edward  Channing's  History  of  the  United 
States  has  appeared  (Macmillan).  The  volume  covers  the  period  1815- 
1848  and  bears  the  subtitle  The  Period  of  Transition. 

The  life  of  Chief  Justice  Roger  B.  Taney,  on  which  Dr.  Bernard 
C.  Steiner  has  long  been  engaged,  is  now  in  press  (Baltimore,  Williams 
and  Wilkins  Company). 

The  Atlantic  Monthly  Press  announces  the  Life  and  Letters  of 
Henry  Lee  Higginson,  prepared  by  Dr.  Bliss  Perry. 

Roosevelt  in  the  Kansas  City  Star:  War-Time  Editorials  by  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt,  edited,  with  an  introduction,  by  Ralph  Stout,  and  Roose- 
velt in  the  Bad  Lands,  by  Herman  Hagedorn,  are  among  the  publications 
of  the  Roosevelt  Memorial  Association,  and  from  the  press  of  the 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons  have  brought  out 
My  Brother,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  by  Mrs.  Corinne  Roosevelt  Robinson. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  Ferdinand  C.  Inglehart  has  published  his  recollections  of 
Roosevelt  under  the  title  Theodore  Roosevelt:  the  Man  as  I  knew  him 
(New  York.  Burt).  Ouentin  Roosez'elt:  a  Sketch,  with  Letters,  edited 
by  Kermit  Roosevelt,  comprises  letters  written  by  Quentin  Roosevelt 
while  in  the  training  camps  and  in  France  (Scribner). 

Woodrozv  Wilson's  Administration  and  Achievements:  being  a  Com- 
pilation from  the  Newspaper  Press  of  Eight  Years  of  the  World's 
Greatest  History,  compiled  by  F.  B.  Lord  and  J.  W.  Bryan,  is  brought 
out  in  Washington  by  the  J.  W.  Bryan  Press  (513  Eleventh  Street, 
N.W.). 

The  Life  and  Letters  of  Walter  H.  Page,  late  American  ambassador 
to  Great  Britain,  by  Burton  J.  Hendrick,  will  be  published  in  book  form 
when  the  serial  publication  of  Mr.  Page's  letters  in  the  World's  Work 
is  completed. 


396  Historical  ATews 

THE    UNITED    STATES    IN    THE   GREAT    WAR 

Aided  by  a  bequest  of  the  late  Gen.  George  W.  Cullum,  his  Bio- 
graphical Register  of  Officers  and  Graduates  of  the  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  has  been  supplemented  by  an  addition,  called  volume  VI.  and 
bound  in  two  volumes.  Coming  to  the  year  1920,  it  gives  the  record  of 
all  graduates  of  the  academy  in  the  Great  War.  The  editor  is  Col. 
Wirt  Robinson. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps  in  the  Year  ioiy  in  the  \V\orld  War 
is  by  Henry  G.  Sharpe,  formerly  quartermaster  general,  U.  S.  A.  (New 
York,  Century  Company). 

The  National  Catholic  War  Council  has  brought  out  through  the 
Macmillan  Company  American  Catholics  in  the  War,  by  Michael 
Williams. 

The  Houghton  Mifflin  Company  has  brought  out  a  History  of  the 
American  Field  Service  in  France,  "Friends  of  France",  1914-ioij,  in 
three  volumes,  told  by  its  members  and  edited  by  J.  W.  D.  Seymour. 

LOCAL  ITEMS   ARRANGED   IN   GEOGRAPHICAL   ORDER 
NEW    ENGLAND 

An  attractive  story  of  an  out-of-the-way  locality  in  eastern  Maine 
has  been  written  by  Miss  Minnie  Atkinson,  with  affectionate  interest,  in 
Hinckley  Township,  <or  Grand  Lake  Stream  Plantation  (Newburyport, 
Mass.,  Herald  Press,  pp.  122,  with  many  illustrations). 

In  the  October  number  of  the  Essex  Institute  Historical  Collections 
the  papers  of  G.  G.  Putnam  on  Salem  Vessels  and  Voyages  are  con- 
tinued, as  are  also  the  Old  Norfolk  County  Records,  and  there  is  a 
first  installment  of  materials  relating  to  the  Essex  Guard  (War  of 
1812),  compiled  by  Lieut.-Col.  L.  W.  Jenkins. 

The  Connecticut  organization  called  the  Governor's  Independent 
Volunteer  Troop  of  Horse  Guards,  instituted  in  1788,  served  for  some 
years  on  formal  occasions  as  escort  and  the  like,  became  dormant  after 
one  generation,  and  in  191 1  was  revived  as  Troop  B,  Cavalry,  of  the 
Connecticut  National  Guard.  The  Origin  and  Fortunes  of  Troop  B, 
edited  by  James  L.  Howard  (Hartford,  Case,  Lockwood,  and  Brainard 
Co.,  pp.  261),  recounts  its  history,  chiefly  by  printing  the  annual  his- 
torians' chronicles.  The  only  active  service  seems  to  have  been  that 
of  1916  on  the  Mexican  border. 

MIDDLE    COLONIES     AND    STATES 

The  latest  publication  of  the  state  historian  of  New  York  is  an 
Historical  Account  and  Inventory  of  the  Records  of  Suffolk  County 
(eastern  portion  of  Long  Island),  prepared  by  the  county  clerk. 


America  397 

In  the  April  number  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  New  York 
State  Historical  Association  are  found  the  interesting  address  delivered 
by  Dr.  James  Sullivan  before  the  association  in  October,  1920,  on 
Sectionalism  in  Writing  History — Shirley  and  Johnson;  a  paper  by 
Harry  E.  Barnes  on  the  Origins  of  Prison  Reform  in  New  York  State; 
and  one  by  Mr.  A.  J.  F.  van  Laer  on  the  Schoolmaster's  Lot  at  New 
Paltz. 

The  principal  contents  of  the  October  number  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society  Bulletin  are  an  article  by  Charles  X.  Harris  on 
Pieter  Vanderlyn,  Portrait  Painter,  and  some  Notes  on  American  Art- 
ists, compiled  by  the  late  William  Kelby. 

The  October  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  New  Jersey  Historical 
Society  contains  an  address  by  Hon.  R.  Wayne  Parker  entitled  New 
Jersey  in  the  Colonial  Wars;  a  paper  by  J.  F.  Folsom  on  the  Preakness 
Valley  and  Reminiscences  of  Washington's  Headquarters  in  the  Dey 
Mansion;  Propositions  of  Gawen  Lawrie  for  the  Settlement  of  East 
Jersey,  1682;  and  a  letter  from  Charles  Thomson  to  his  wife,  August 
21,  1783,  relative  to  fixing  the  residence  of  Congress. 

Two  valuable  contributions  appear  in  the  January  number  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  and  Biography,  James  Wilson  and 
James  Iredell :  a  Parallel  and  a  Contrast,  by  Hon.  Hampton  L.  Carson, 
and  Charles  Lee:  Stormy  Petrel  of  the  Revolution,  by  Edward  Robins. 
The  April  number  contains  the  journal  of  Col.  John  May  of  Boston, 
concerning  a  journey  to  the  Ohio  country  in  1789.  The  correspondence 
of  Thomas  Rodney,  contributed  by  Mr.  Simon  Gratz,  is  continued  to 
1810. 

The  Pennsylvania  History  Press,  Haverford,  Pennsylvania,  has  pub- 
lished The  Forks  of  the  Delaware,  1704-1811:  Chronicles  of  Early 
Travel  to  Easton  and  neighboring  Parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey,  a  paper  read  by  Professor  R.  W.  Kelsey  before  the  Northampton 
County  Historical  and  Genealogical  Society  in  November,  1919. 

The  contents  of  the  October  number  of  the  Western  Pennsylvania 
Historical  Magazine  include  a  paper,  by  Harry  E.  Barnes,  on  the  Evo- 
lution of  American  Penology  as  illustrated  by  the  Western  Peniten- 
tiary of  Pennsylvania ;  one  by  Frank  R.  Murdock  on  Some  Aspects  of 
Pittsburgh's  Industrial  Contribution  to  the  World  War;  a  brief  sketch, 
by  B.  F.  Pershing,  of  Edgar  A.  Cowan,  United  States  senator  from 
Pennsylvania,  1861-1867;  and  a  short  paper,  by  Clarence  R.  Thayer,  on 
George  Croghan  and  the  Struggle  for  the  Ohio  Valley,  1748-1758.  In 
the  table  of  contents,  in  the  title,  and  in  the  running  headlines,  the 
name  is  printed  "  Groghan  ". 


398  Historical  News 

SOUTHERN    COLONIES   AND    STATES 

In  the  September  number  of  the  Maryland  Historical  Magazine  are 
found  the  second  part  of  William  B.  Marye's  paper  on  the  Baltimore 
County  "  Garrison "  and  the  Old  Garrison  Roads,  a  continuation  of 
Edward  S.  Delaplaine's  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  some  Notes 
from  the  Early  Records  of  Maryland,  by  Jane  B.  Cotton. 

Potomac  Landings  is  the  title  of  a  narrative  and  picture  history,  by 
Paul  Wilstach,  of  the  famous  old  manor  houses  on  the  great  plantations 
along  the  Potomac  in  colonial  times  (Doubleday,  Page). 

In  the  October  number  of  the  William  and  Mary  College  Quarterly 
Historical  Magazine  A.  J.  Morrison  presents  a  paper  on  the  Virginia 
Indian  Trade  to  1673,  which,  the  author  states,  "is  to  serve  by  way  of 
preface  to  a  rather  close  investigation  of  the  Southern  Indian  Trade 
from  1673  to  1763".  The  Professional  Biography  of  Moncure  Robin- 
son (1802-1891),  a  noted  civil  engineer,  is  a  reprint  of  the  biography 
by.R.  B.  Osborne  (1889).  The  Magazine  prints,  from  the  Dawson 
Manuscripts  in  the  Library  of  Congress,  some  letters  (i745-l75&)  of 
Patrick  Henry,  sr.,  Samuel  Davies,  James  Maury,  Edwin  Conway,  and 
George  Trask. 

Historical  articles  in  the  October  number  of  Tyler's  Quarterly  His- 
torical and  Genealogical  Magazine  are:  Ideals  of  America;  Virginia, 
Founder  of  the  World's  Navies;  and  Correspondence  relating  to  Lord 
Botetourt.     There  is  also  a  genealogical  account  of  the  Lanier  family. 

The  South  Carolina  Historical  and  Genealogical  Magazine  continues 
in  the  April  number  the  correspondence  of  Ralph  Izard  and  Henry 
Laurens,  printing  a  number  of  letters  of  Izard  to  Laurens  during  1777. 
The  Magazine  presents  some  documents  (1764-1765)  pertaining  to  the 
Excommunication  of  Joseph  Ash,  with  a  note  by  Judge  Henry  A.  M. 
Smith,  and  some  documents  (1735)  relating  to  Landgrave  Thomas 
Smith's  Visit  to  Boston,  contributed  by  Edward  L.  Smith. 

WESTERN    STATES 

The  June-September  issue  (double  number)  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley Historical  Review  contains  two  articles  of  monographic  scope.  They 
are :  In  re  that  Aggressive  Slavocracy,  by  Chauncey  S.  Boucher,  and 
the  Political  Career  of  Ignatius  Donnelly,  by  John  D.  Hicks.  The 
first  is  a  well-reasoned  argument  in  the  negative,  supported  by  much 
documentary  evidence;  the  second,  the  interesting  story  of  a  Don  Quix- 
ote in  politics.-  Among  the  articles  are  also  found  an  evaluation  by 
L.  B.  Shippee,  of  Rhodes's  History  of  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
an  account  of  the  fourteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
Historical  Association,  held  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  April.  In  the 
department  of  Notes  and  Documents  is  an  item  of  unusual  interest  and 


America  399 

value.  Trudeau's  Description  of  the  Upper  Missouri.  The  recent  dis- 
covery of  this  document  is  related  by  Miss  Annie  H.  Abel,  who  has 
efficiently  edited  it  for  the  Review. 

An  extra  number  (November)  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical 
Review  contains  the  Proceedings  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical 
Association,  1919-1920.  The  historical  papers  which  appear  in  this 
number  are  the  following:  the  Timber  Culture  Acts,  by  William  F. 
Raney;  an  Historical  Detective  Story,  by  Jacob  P.  Dunn;  Elijah 
Clarke's  Foreign  Intrigues  and  the  "  Trans-Oconee  Republic",  by  E. 
Merton  Coulter;  the  Undertow  of  Puritan  Influence,  by  Arthur  L. 
Kohlmeier;  the  Moravian  Mission  Settlement  in  Indiana,  by  Arthur  W. 
Brady;  the  Use,  the  Abuse,  and  the  Writing  of  Textbooks  in  American 
History,  by  Wilmer  C.  Harris;  How  the  War  should  affect  the  Teach- 
ing of  History,  by  Herriot  C.  Palmer;  the  Trials  of  a  History  Teacher, 
by  Charles  Roll ;  Perils  of  River  Navigation  in  the  Sixties,  by  William 
C.  Cochran;  Dr.  Tosiah  Gregg.  Historian  of  the  Old  Santa  Fe  Trail, 
by  William  E.  Connelley;  the  Construction  of  the  Miami  and  Erie 
Canal,  by  Arthur  H.  Hirsch;  and  the  Strategy  of  Concentration,  as 
used  by  the  Confederate  Forces  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  the  Spring 
of  1S62,  by  Alfred  P.  James. 

At  a  joint  session  of  the  Ohio  Valley  Historical  Association  and 
the  Ohio  History  Teachers'  Association  held  in  Columbus  November 
11  and  12  the  following  historical  papers  were  read:  Celoron  de  Blain- 
ville  and  French  Expansion  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  by  Professor  G.  A. 
Wood  of  Ohio  State  University;  the  Military  Office  in  America,  1763- 
1775,  by  Professor  Clarence  E.  Carter  of  Miami  University;  and  Three 
Early  Anti-Slavery  Newspapers  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  by  Miss  Annetta 
Walsh  of  North  High  School,  Columbus.  . 

The  July  number  of  the  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Quar- 
terly is  given  over  entirely  to  papers  and  materials  relating  to  John 
Brown.  The  principal  paper  is  by  C.  B.  Galbreath.  An  account  of 
John  Brown  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  Charlestown  is  a  lecture  by  Col. 
S.  K.  Donovan  (died  1902),  who  went  to  Harper's  Ferry  as  a  news- 
paper correspondent  immediately  after  the  raid.  There  is  also  a  reprint 
of  the  Execution  of  John  Brown,  by  Murat  Halstead. 

The  July-September  number  of  the  Quarterly  Publication  of  the 
Historical  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Ohio  contains  the  fourth  install- 
ment of  the  Gano  Papers.  These  are  of  the  year  1S13  and  include 
correspondence  of  General  John  S.  Gano  with  Governor  Return  J. 
Meigs,  Brig.-Gens.  Edmund  Munger  and  John  Wingate,  and  Col. 
Henry  Brush. 

The  June  number  of  the  Indiana  Magazine  of  History  contains  the 
concluding  installment  of  John  E.  Inglehart's  monograph  on  Methodism 
in  Southwestern  Indiana ;  a  discussion,  by  Logan  Esarey,  of  the  Ap- 

AM.  HIST.  REV.  VOL.  XXVII. — 27. 


400  Historical  Nezvs 

proach  to  History;  and  the  first  part  of  a  paper,  by  Charles  H.  Money, 
on  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  in  Indiana.  This  paper  is  concluded  in 
the  September  number,  which  also  contains  an  account  of  New  Albany 
and  the  Scribner  Family,  by  Mary  Scribner  Davis  Collins;  and  a  sketch 
of  Judge  M.  C.  Eggleston,  by  Blanche  G.  Garber. 

The  Centennial  Memorial  Volume  published  by  the  Indiana  Uni- 
versity upon  occasion  of  the  commemoration  which  occurred  in  July, 
1920,  contains  as  part  I.  a  history  of  the  university,  composed  of  six 
addresses  delivered  in  1889-1894  by  the  late  Judge  David  D.  Banta. 

As  a  part  of  the  seventy-fifth  anniversary  of  Earlham  College,  a 
careful  history  of  the  institution  is  being  prepared  for  publication  by 
Professor  Harlow  Lindley. 

The  contents  of  the  April  (1920)  number  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Illinois  State  Historical  Society  include :  Some  Pastors  and  Pastorates 
during  the  Century  of  Presbyterianism  in  Illinois,  by  Rev.  James  G.  K. 
McClure ;  Old  Time  Campaigning  and  the  Story  of  a  Lincoln  Campaign 
Song,  by  William  H.  Smith;  and  Pike  County  Settled  1820,  by  Jesse  M. 
Thompson.  The  more  important  articles  in  the  January  number  are :  the 
address  delivered  by  Lord  Charnwood  at  the  unveiling  of  the  statue  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  on  the  state  house  grounds,  Oct.  6,  1918;  In  Meade's 
Camp:  a  Diary  of  the  Civil  War  (February  and  March,  1864),  by 
Robert  M.  Hatfield;  the  Story  of  the  Baptist  Church  of  Waterman.  Illi- 
nois, by  George  E.  Congdon ;  and  the  Spirit  of  '76  from  the  Green 
Mountains,  by  Gaius  Paddock. 

The  Library  of  the  University  of  Illinois  has  recently  acquired 
the  library  of  the  Count  Antonio  Cavagna  Sangiuliana  di  Gualdana 
(of  La  Gelada,  Italy).  The  library  is  estimated  to  contain  about  40,000 
volumes,  in  addition  to  large  collections  of  manuscripts,  maps,  and 
prints.  It  is  especially  rich  in  material  for  the  study  of  Italian  history, 
literature,  and  art. 

In  the  September  number  of  the  Register  of  the  Kentucky  State 
Historical  Society  William  E.  Railey's  articles  on  Woodford  County  are 
concluded.  Col.  M.  C.  Taylor's  Diary  of  the  Lopez  expedition  to  Cuba 
(1850)  is  contributed  by  A.  C.  Quisenberry. 

The  Michigan  History  Magazine  covers  the  year  1921  with  two 
double  numbers,  January-April  and  July-October.  Among  the  contents 
of  the  first  are:  New  England  Men  in  Michigan  History,  by  William 
Stocking;  Recollections  of  Zachariah  Chandler,  by  O.  E.  McCutcheon;  a 
Sketch  of  some  Institutional  Beginnings  in  Michigan,  by  W.  O.  Hed- 
rick;  and  an  account  of  Michigan  War  Legislation,  1919,  by  Charles 
Landrum.  In  the  July-October  issue  are:  A  Daring  Canadian  Aboli- 
tionist (Alexander  M.  Ross),  by  Fred  Landon ;  a  Forgotten  City  (Port 
Sheldon),  by  Ralph  C.  Meima ;  and  Overland  to  Michigan  in  1846,  by 
Miss  Sue  I.  Silliman. 


America  401 

In  1918  the  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin  published  The 
Movement  for  Statehood,  the  first  of  four  volumes  designated  the  Con- 
stitutional Series.  The  second  and  third  volumes  of  the  series.  The 
Convention  of  1846,  and  The  Struggle  over  Ratification,  1846-1847, 
have  now  been  published,  and  the  fourth,  which  will  cover  the  debates  in 
the  second  constitutional  convention  (1847  an<3  1848),  together  with 
the  constitution  as  finally  adopted,  is  ready  for  the  press.  The  volumes 
are  edited  by  Dr.  M.  M.  Quaife.  The  Proceedings  of  the  society  for 
1920,  just  issued,  contains  two  historical  papers.  The  one  bears  the 
title  the  Rump  Council,  and  embraces  the  proceedings  of  the  first  legis- 
lative assembly  held  on  the  soil  of  Wisconsin  Territory  (at  Green  Bay, 
January,  1836).  It  is  edited  by  Dr.  Joseph  Schafer.  The  other  is  a 
monograph  by  Dr.  Schafer  on  Wisconsin's  Farm  Loan  Law,  1S49-1S63. 
At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  society,  October  20.  Miss  Louise  P. 
Kellogg  delivered  the  address,  which  was  in  memory  of  the  character 
and  services  of  Dr.  Lyman  C.  Draper. 

The  September  number  of  the  Wisconsin  Magazine  of  History  con- 
tains the  story  of  How  Wisconsin  Women  won  the  Ballot,  by  Theo- 
dora W.  Youmans;  a  sketch,  by  W.  W.  Bartlett.  of  Jean  Brunet.  Chip- 
pewa Valley  Pioneer;  and  an  account,  by  Dr.  M.  M.  Quaife.  of  Wis- 
consin's First  Literary  Magazine.  The  papers  by  W.  A.  Titus  on 
Historic  Spots  in  Wisconsin  are  continued,  as  are  also  the  letters  of 
Chauncey  H.  Cooke,  "  the  Badger  Boy  in  Blue  ".  There  are  also  two 
items  relative  to  the  Chicago  convention  of  i860,  the  one  a  letter  from 
Charles  C.  Sholes  to  James  R.  Doolittle,  May  21,  i860,  the  other  some 
Personal  Recollections  by  Amherst  W.  Kellogg. 

Articles  in  the  November  number  of  the  Minnesota  History  Bulletin 
are :  the  Family  Trail  through  American  History,  by  Cyril  A.  Herrick, 
and  the  Early  Norwegian  Press  in  America,  by  Theodore  C.  Blegen. 
The  Twenty-First  Biennial  Report  of  the  Minnesota  Historical  Society 
appears  as  an  extra  number   (October)   of  the  Bulletin. 

The  November  number  of  the  Palimpsest  contains  an  account  of 
Old  Fort  Atkinson,  by  Bruce  E.  Mahan.  and  some  newspaper  excerpts 
relative  to  the  beginnings  of  Burlington. 

Following  are  the  contents  of  the  October  number  of  the  South- 
western Historical  Quarterly :  Conditions  in  Texas  affecting  the  Col- 
onization Problem,  1795-1801,  by  Mattie  A.  Hatcher;  a  first  installment 
of  the  Correspondence  of  Guy  M.  Bryan  and  Rutherford  B.  Hayes 
(1843-1849)  ;  Early  Irrigation  in  Texas,  by  Edwin  P.  Arneson;  and  the 
Journal  of  Lewis  Birdsall  Harris,  1836-1842. 

Harper  and  Brothers  have  published  The  Party  of  the  Third  Part: 
the  Story  of  the  Kansas  Industrial  Relations  Court,  by  Henry  J.  Allen. 

The  Nebraska  Blue  Book  and  Historical  Register,  1920  (pp.  536). 
edited  by  Addison  E.  Sheldon,  contains  besides  the  usual  conspectus  of 
state  government,  central  and  local,   some  items  of  an  historical  sort : 


4-02  Historical  News 

for  instance,  an  historical  sketch  of  Nebraska,  a  history  of  the  capitol, 
of  the  state  seal  and  flower,  an  historical  roster  of  officers,  and  a  brief 
military  history  of  the  state.  There  is  also  a  sketch  of  the  constitutional 
history  of  the  state,  with  the  constitution  of  1875  as  amended  by  the 
convention  of  1919. 

James  H.  McClintock  of  Phoenix,  Arizona,  is  the  author  and  pub- 
lisher of  Mormon  Settlement  in  Arizona:  a  Record  of  Peaceful  Con- 
quest of  the  Desert. 

The  principal  articles  in  the  October  number  of  the  Washington  His- 
torical Quarterly  are  one  by  Judge  F.  W.  Howay  entitled  Captains  Gray 
and  Kendrick :  the  Barrell  Letters,  pertaining  to  the  voyage  of  the 
Columbia  and  Washington  (1787-1790);  one  by  W.  P.  Bonney,  on 
Naming  Stampede  Pass;  and  one  by  John  T.  Condon  on  the  Oregon 
Laws  of  1845. 

The  September  number  of  the  Quarterly  of  the  Oregon  Historical 
Society  contains  a  monograph,  by  Andrew  Fish,  on  the  Last  Phase  of 
the  Oregon  Boundary  Question,  and  a  second  installment  (1848-1849) 
of  the  Letters  of  the  Reverend  William  M.  Roberts,  third  superintendent 
of  the  Oregon  Mission. 

Stanford  University  has  recently  acquired  the  correspondence  of 
Stephen  M.  White,  Democratic  senator  from  California  1893-1899,  a 
large  and  important  collection. 

The  legislature  of  Hawaii  has  recently  created  an  Historical  Com- 
mission of  three  members  and  has  appropriated  $15,000  for  a  period  of 
two  years.  Professor  K.  C.  Leebrick,  formerly  of  the  University  of 
California  but  now  of  the  University  of  Hawaii,  has  been  appointed  a 
member  of  this  commission. 


The  September  number  of  the  Canadian  Historical  Review  contains 
a  discussion  of  Statistics  in  Canada,  by  Gilbert  E.  Jackson,  and  an  his- 
torical paper  on  the  Law  of  Marriage  in  Upper  Canada,  by  Hon.  W.  R. 
Riddell.  The  Review  also  reprints  Edward  Blake's  "Aurora  Speech" 
of  Oct.  3,  1874,  a  speech  which  possesses  especial  interest  at  this  time 
because  in  it  are  discussed  in  particular  the  need  for  cultivating  a 
national  feeling  in  Canada  and  the  future  relations  of  Canada  to  the 
empire. 

The  house  of  John  Murray,  London,  is  about  to  publish  a  Life  of 
General  the  Hon.  James  Murray,  a  Builder  of  Canada,  with  a  bio- 
graphical sketch  of  the  family  of  Murray  of  Elibank,  by  General  Mur- 
ray's descendant  Maj.-Gen.  R.  H.  Mahon. 

The  Oxford  University  Press  announces  the  publication  of  a  biog- 
raphy  of   Sir   Wilfrid   Laurier,   by   Professor   Oscar   D.    Skelton,   and 


America  403 

Correspondence  of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,  selected  by  his  literary 
executor,  Sir  Joseph  Pope,  which  in  this  country  is  published  by  Double- 
day,  Page  and  Company  (pp.  xxvi,  502). 

The  Papers  and  Records  of  the  Ontario  Historical  Society  for  three 
successive  years,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  (volumes  XVI.,  XVII.,  and 
XVIII. ,  respectively),  have  been  received.  The  first  is  a  thin  pamphlet 
of  53  pages  and  contains  articles  on  the  Books  of  the  Political  Prisoners 
and  Exiles  of  1838,  by  J.  Davis  Barnett;  a  Loyalist  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
(Justus  Sherwood),  by  Henry  H.  Noble;  and  a  History  of  the  Windsor 
and  Detroit  Ferries.  Volume  XVII.  (pp.  174)  includes:  the  Retreat  of 
Proctor  and  Tecumseh.  by  Judge  C.  O.  Ermatinger ;  Some  Unusual  Sources 
of  Information  in  the  Toronto  Reference  Library  on  the  Canadian  Rebel- 
lions of  1837-1838,  by  Miss  Frances  M.  Staton  ;  Canada's  Part  in  Free- 
ing the  Slave,  by  Fred  Landon ;  British  Naval  Officers  of  a  Century  ago. 
by  Lieut.-Col.  D.  H.  MacLaren  ;  and  lastly,  in  some  sixty  pages,  a  Con- 
cise History  of  the  Late  Rebellion  in  Upper  Canada  to  the  Evacuation 
of  Navy  Island  (1838),  edited  by  Judge  Riddell  from  the  manuscript  of 
George  Coventry,  who  died  in  1870.  Vol.  XVIII.  (pp.  no)  contains 
fifteen  articles,  of  which  the  following  are  of  general  interest :  Early 
Navigation  on  the  Georgian  Bar.  by  James  H.  Rutherford;  Ship  and 
Shanty  in  the  Early  Fifties,  by  Rev.  Canon  P.  L.  Spencer  ;  a  Trial  for 
High  Treason  in  1838,  by  Hon.  W.  R.  Riddell;  Colonel  Joel  Stone,  a 
LInited  Empire  Loyalist  and  the  Founder  of  Gananoque,  a  memoir  by 
Judge  H.  S.  McDonald,  which  includes  some  of  Stone's  correspondence; 
Pioneer  Schools  of  Upper  Canada,  by  Frank  Fames;  and  Genealogical 
Tables  and  their  Right  Uses  in  History,  by  A.  F.  Hunter. 

AMERICA,   SOUTH    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  August  number  of  the  Hispanic  American  Historical  Review 
contains  three  articles :  La  Primera  Negociacion  Diplomatica  entablada 
con  la  Junta  Revolucionaria  de  Buenos  Aires,  by  Julian  Maria  Rubio 
y  Esteban,  with  a  body  of  documents  appended;  the  Old  Spanish  Trail, 
a  study  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  trade  and  exploration  northwest  from 
New  Mexico  to  the  Great  Basin  and  California,  by  Joseph  J.  Hill; 
and  Some  Social  Aspects  of  the  Mexican  Constitution  of  1817,  by  N. 
Andrew  N.  Cleven.  There  are  also  a  report,  by  Miss  I.  A.  Wright,  of 
the  Second  Congress  of  Hispano-American  History  and  Geography,  Se- 
ville, May,  1921,  and  some  account  of  the  Arcbivo  General  de  Indias, 
by  Arthur  S.  Aiton  and  J.  Lloyd  Mecham. 

Cuba  before  Columbus,  by  M.  Raymond  Llarrington,  appears  among 
the  Indian  Notes  and  Monographs  of  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian,  Heye  Foundation. 

The  Hispanic  Society  of  America  expects  before  long  to  publish  a 
volume  on  Spanish  Colonial  Literature  in  South  America,  by  Professor 
Bernard  Moses. 


404  Historical  News 

J.  Humbert  is  the  author  of  a  new  Histoirc  de  la  Colombie  ct  du 
V enezuela,  dcs  Origincs  jusqu'd  no's  Jours  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  226). 

The  historical  section  of  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  and  Letters 
at  Buenos  Aires  has  published  in  a  substantial  volume  a  Relation 
Descriptiva  de  los  Mapas,  Pianos,  etc..  del  Virreinato  de  Buenos  Aires 
existentcs  en  el  Archivo  General  de  Indias,  carefully  prepared  by  the 
director  of  that  archive,  Don  Pedro  Torres  Lanzas. 

La  Vigia  Lecor,  by  Mario  Falcao  Espalter,  is  the  first  in  a  series 
of  twenty-two  volumes,  bearing  the  general  title  Historia  de  la  Domi- 
nation Portuguesa  en  el  Uruguay  (1815-1829).  According  to  the  plan 
of  the  work  there  will  be  three  volumes  on  the  economic  regime,  seven 
on  the  military,  eleven  on  the  political,  and  one  devoted  to  a  philo- 
sophico-historical  sketch  of  the  domination  (Bosquejo  Filosofico-His- 
torico  de  la  Domination  Lusitana) .  The  present  volume,  the  first  of 
the  economic  group  (Montevideo, 'Luis  y  Manuel  Perez,  1919),  covers 
the  period  181 7-1 820.  The  other  two  volumes  of  the  economic  group, 
which  have  the  title  Real  Hacienda  Cisplatina,  1820-1820,  and  are  by 
the  same  author,  are  in  press. 

A  temperate  and  judicious  study  of  an  Argentinian  warrior,  his- 
torian, and  publicist  is  Mitre:  una  Decada  dc  su  Vida  Politico,  1852- 
1862  (Buenos  Aires,  1921,  pp.  256)  by  R.  Rivarola. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  E.  E.  Prussing,  George  Washing- 
ton, Captain  of  Industry  (Scribner's  Magazine,  October,  November); 
Lord  Acton,  American  Diaries,  I.  [1853]  (Fortnightly  Review,  Novem- 
ber) ;  A.  J.  Morrison,  The  Commerce  of  the  Prairies  and  Dr.  Gregg 
(Texas  Review,  October)  ;  B.  J.  Hendrick.  Chapters  from  the  Life 
and  Letters  of  Walter  H.  Page  (World's  Work,  October-December)  ; 
Henry  Morgenthau,  All  in  a  Life-Time:  Chapters  from  an  Autobiog- 
raphy, cont.  (ibid.,  October-December)  ;  T.  G.  Frothingham,  Our  Part 
in  the  Strategy  of  the  World  War  (Current  History,  December)  ;  W. 
J.  Cunningham.  The  Railroads  under  Government  Operation  from  Janu- 
ary 1,  1010,  to  March  1,  1920  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics.  October, 
November)  ;  E.  S.  Gregg,  Failure  of  the  Merchant  Marine  Act  -of  1920 
(American  Economic  Review,  December)  ;  Mark  Sullivan,  One  Year 
of  President  Harding  (World's  Work,  November)  ;  R.  Roy.  L'Ancienne 
Noblesse  an  Canada.  (Revue  Canadienne,  September,  October)  ;  T. 
Chapais,  La  Politique  Canadienne  en  1835  (Le  Canada  Franqais,  Sep- 
tember) ;  A  Raffalovitch.  Le  Canada  pendant  les  Six  Dernicres  Annees, 
1914-1020  (Journal  des  ficonomistes,  July)  ;  J.  Conangla  Fontanilles, 
Pi  y  Margall  y  la  Independencia  Cubana  (Cuba  Contemporanea,  Oc- 
tober, November)  ;  M.  de  Carrion,  El  Desenvolvimiento  Social  dc  Cuba 
en  los  Ultimas  Veinte  Anas  (ibid.,  September)  ;  Francisco  Garcia  Cal- 
deron,  Simon  Bolivar  (Inter- America,  October)  ;  G.  Porras  Troconis. 
The  Dismemberment  of  Greater  Colombia  (ibid.,  October);  F.  Nieto 
del  Rio,  Chile's  Conflict  with  Bolivia  and  Peru  (Current  History,  De- 
cember). 


Volume    XX  VI 7]        April,  1922  [Number  3 

%mmm  liistimal  Itetricw 

e=>  O  <S 

THE  MEETING  OF  THE  AMERICAN  HISTORICAL 
ASSOCIATION  AT   ST.  LOULS 1 

^F)OSCIMUR".  if  one  may  borrow  an  exordium  from  Horace, 
1  and  freely  translate  it,  "  We  are  put  to  it  ".     It  is  expected 

and  required  of  the  editor  of  the  American  Historical  Review  that  in 
each  April  number  there  shall  be  one  article  "covering"  the  then 
recent  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association.  It  is 
a  large  order,  when  a  meeting  consists  of  twenty-five  sessions,  held  in 
eleven  different  places,  and  in  some  instances  held  three  or  four  at  a 
time,  and  including  in  the  aggregate  at  least  sixty-five  papers.  It 
may  be  that  so  prodigious  a  bill  of  fare  is  welcome  to  most  of  those 
who  attend,  each  member  being  sure  to  find  something  that  interests 
him,  something  that  lies  in  or  near  his  "  specialty  ".  It  may  be  that 
no  one  but  the  reporter  of  the  proceedings  is  confused  by  their  multi- 
plicity. Yet  sometimes  the  thought  arises,  that  it  is  not  the  soundest 
appetites  which  are  ministered  to  by  the  complicated  hotel  menu,  and 
that  healthy  minds  might  well  ask  the  question, 

What  neat  repast  shall  feast  us.  light  and  choice. 
Of  Attic  taste? 

The  experiment  of  a  simple  programme  of  high  quality  might  well 
be  tried,  and  might  have  unifying  effects  of  considerable  value. 

Howsoever  these  things  may  be.  the  attempt  to  deal  with  the  St. 
Louis  meeting  must  nevertheless  be  made.  No  one  has  the  right  to 
expect  that  such  a  chronicle  shall  be  highly  readable,  but  perhaps  it  is 
possible  this  year  to  lighten  it  by  some  omissions.  By  decree  of  the 
Association  a  vear  ago,  upon  recommendation  from  the  Committee 
on  Policy,  it  was  resolved  that  hereafter  a  carefully  composed  sum- 
mary of  each  paper  read  at  any  meeting  should  appear  in  the  Annual 

1  Another  account  of  the  meeting,  by  Dr.  Daniel  C.  Knowlton.  will  be  found 
in  the  Historical  Outlook  for  March,   iqjj. 

AM.   HIST.   REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 2S.  (4°5) 


406  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

Report,  whether  the  full  text  of  the  paper  were  printed  in  that  volume 
or  elsewhere  or  not  at  all.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  some  account  of 
each  paper  will  thus  be  accessible  in  print,  it  may  be  less  necessary 
than  heretofore  that  each  should  be  summarized  in  these  pages. 

It  added  to  the  diversity,  though  also  to  the  pleasure  and  interest 
of  the  occasion,  that  several  other  historical  societies  met  at  St.  Louis 
during  the  same  days,  December  28,  29,  and  30,  1921.  With  the 
Agricultural  History  Society,  which  by  treaty  has  an  organic  relation 
to  the  American  Historical  Association,  there  were  two  joint  sessions 
devoted  to  the  agricultural  history  of  the  United  States.  With  the 
Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association,  many  of  whose  members 
are  also  members  of  the  older  body,  there  was  a  joint  session  devoted 
to  topics  in  the  earlier  economic  history  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
and  that  society  had  also  a  subscription  dinner  on  the  evening  of  the 
27th.  The  American  Catholic  Historical  Association  also  began  its 
sessions  with  a  dinner  on  that  evening;  this  was  followed  on  the 
ensuing  days  by  sessions  comprising  many  interesting  papers  in 
American  and  European  church  history,  by  fruitful  practical  confer- 
ences on  the  general  bibliography  of  church  history,  on  Catholic 
archives  in  the  United  States,  and  on  Catholic  historical  publications, 
and  finally  by  a  general  session  in  which  Professor  James  J.  Walsh, 
president  of  the  society,  read  his  presidential  address,  on  the  Church 
and  Peace  Movements  in  the  Past.  Much  active  interest,  with  prom- 
ise of  much  useful  work  in  the  future,  was  manifested  in  the  meetings 
of  all  three  of  these  societies.  Two  other  organizations  which  con- 
vened at  the  same  time  were  the  Missouri  Historical  Society,  of  St. 
Louis,  and  the  State  Historical  Society  of  Missouri,  of  Columbia, 
both  of  which  participated  in  the  exercises  of  the  second  evening, 
when  there  was  a  general  session  commemorative  of  the  centennial 
anniversary  of  the  admission  of  Missouri  into  the  Union  in  1S21. 

But  besides  the  elements  of  diversity,  there  were  of  course  also 
elements  making  for  unity.  The  hotel  in  which  headquarters  were 
established,  the  Planters  Hotel,  gave  abundant  opportunities  for  con- 
versation and  sociability.  The  Missouri  Historical  Society  enter- 
tained the  guests,  on  one  of  the  evenings,  at  the  City  Club,  with  a 
"  smoker  "  for  the  men  and  a  reception  for  the  women ;  and  there 
were  several  occasions  on  which  the  society  came  together  as  a  whole, 
and  not  in  specialized  sections.  Most  notable  of  these  was  the  dinner 
offered  to  all  the  members  by  the  trustees  of  the  Missouri  Botanical 
Garden,  founded  as  an  institution  thirty-three  years  ago  by  the  will 
of  Henry  Shaw  of  St.  Louis.  After  the  dinner  an  address  of  wel- 
come was  delivered  bv  Dr.  Frederic  A.  Hall,  chancellor  of  Washing- 


American  Historical  Association  4°7 

ton  University;  and  the  president  of  the  Association,  the  French 
ambassador.  Air.  Jusserand.  delivered  the  brilliant  and  instructive 
address  which  we  have  the  honor  to  print  on  later  pages  of  this 
number. 

Another  unifying,  and  very  agreeable,  occasion  was  the  luncheon 
hospitably  offered  by  Washington  University  on  the  second  day, 
which  gave  members  a  gratifying  opportunity  to  see  the  noteworthy 
campus  and  buildings  of  that  institution,  in  whose  halls  most  of  the 
exercises  of  that  day  took  place.  To  these  should  be  added  two  gen- 
eral sessions,  in  which,  with  no  alternative  programmes  to  attract 
them  elsewhere,  members  listened  to  the  commemoration  of  the  Mis- 
souri centennial,  already  mentioned,  and  to  a  group  of  papers  in 
French  history;  at  the  latter  session— held,  it  will  be  remembered,  on 
soil  that  once  was  French — the  ambassador  of  France  presided. 

The  local  arrangements,  despite  the  number  of  places  involved, 
ran  very  smoothly.  For  them  the  Association  was  indebted  to  the 
local  committee  headed  by  Mr.  William  K.  Bixby  and  Mr.  Charles  P. 
Pettus,  and  especially  to  Professor  Thomas  M.  Marshall,  of  Wash- 
ington University.  Evidently  the  committee  must  have  exerted  itself 
valiantly  on  the  side  of  publicity  also,  for  the  St.  Louis  newspapers 
gave  the  meeting  an  amount  of  attention  to  which  the  Association  is 
not  accustomed ;  ordinarily,  in  the  cities  where  the  Association  meets, 
the  newspapers  devote  less  space  to  the  lucubrations  of  the  historians 
than  to  the  local  weather,  the  latest  bankruptcy,  or  the  firemen's  ball. 

By  a  very  gratifying  action  on  the  part  of  the  railroad  authorities, 
a  reduction  of  fares  such  as  used  to  be  granted  before  the  war  was 
accorded  once  more  on  this  occasion,  though  the  number  of  attendants 
required  in  order  to  secure  the  concession  was  placed  at  a  height 
which  it  will  often  be  difficult  for  the  combined  societies  to  reach. 
The  registration  of  the  American  Historical  Association  at  this  thirty- 
sixth  annual  meeting  was  $2$,  as  against  360  at  the  thirty-fifth.  The 
difference  is  only  such  as  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  greater  dis- 
tances by  which  Western  members  are  separated  from  St.  Louis  as 
compared  with  those  which  separate  the  average  Eastern  member 
from  Washington,  and  the  attendance  may  be  regarded  as  excellent 
even  upon  pre-war  standards. 

The  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  the  Programme  was  Professor 
Evarts  B.  Greene,  who  provided  what  was,  by  general  agreement,  an 
unusually  interesting  programme. 

In  accordance  with  the  customary  form  of  these  annual  surveys, 
one  may  well  report  first  upon  the  various  practical  conferences,  be- 
fore speaking  of  those  papers  which  lend  themselves  more  readily  to 


4-oS  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

a  systematic  or  chronological  order.  First,  then,  of  the  conference 
on  the  teaching  of  history  in  schools.  Its  topic  was  that  which  has 
been  so  anxiously  debated  in  recent  years,  that  of  the  relations  in  the 
school  curriculum  between  history  and  the  other  social  sciences  or 
studies.  The  two  papers  which  served  as  the  basis  of  discussion 
were  one  by  Professor  Rolla  M.  Tryon,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
describing  various  forms  of  adjustment  practised  in  elementary  and 
secondary  schools — independent  courses,  simultaneous  or  successive, 
in  history  and  the  cognate  studies,  and  courses  in  which  all  these 
elements  are  fused,  during  either  the  whole  or  the  earlier  part  of  the 
curriculum — and  one  by  Professor  Eugene  M.  Violette,  of  the  State 
Teachers  College  at  Kirksville,  Missouri,  on  the  various  adjustments 
possible  in  the  curriculum  of  the  college.  The  discussion  showed 
plainly  the  perplexities  of  the  present  situation,  the  uncertainty  as  to 
how  the  contending  claims  of  all  these  studies  upon  the  pupil's  time 
and  mind,  or,  more  exactly,  upon  the  minds  of  school  superintendents, 
can  be  reconciled.  It  would  appear  that  it  can  only  be  clone  by  joint 
effort  of  the  representatives  of  all  these  studies  in  some  one  organic 
body.  With  this  in  view,  though  many  efforts  at  solution  of  the 
problems  may  prove  helpful,  especial  interest  attaches  to  those  under- 
taken by  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  Social  Studies.2  a  body 
formed  for  just  such  co-operative  study,  and  in  which  it  was  intended 
that  the  American  Historical  Association,  the  American  Economic 
Association,  the  American  Political  Science  Association,  and  the 
American  Sociological  Society  should  each  be  represented.  The  Ex- 
ecutive Council  of  the  Association,  at  this  session,  requested  the  Com- 
mittee on  History  Teaching  in  the  Schools  to  take  an  active  part  in 
the  movement  of  co-operation  which  seems  to  be  indicated  as  afford- 
ing the  best  pathway  out  of  the  existing  perplexities,  and  appointed 
as  its  representatives  two  members  of  that  committee.  Professors 
Henry  Johnson  and  Arthur  M.  Schlesinger. 

In  the  conference  of  archivists,  the  question  how  the  states  can 
be  persuaded  to  take  better  care  of  their  archives  was  discussed  in 
the  light  of  the  experience  of  Iowa,  with  many  helpful  practical  sug- 
gestions, by  Mr.  C.  C.  Stiles,  of  the  Iowa  State  Department  of  His- 
tory, and  in  the  light  of  Connecticut  experience  by  Mr.  George  S. 
Godard,  of  the  Connecticut  State  Library.  Mr.  Victor  H.  Paltsits, 
chairman  of  the  Association's  Public  Archives  Commission,  read  a 
history  of  its  achievements  during  the  twenty-two  years  of  its  exist- 
ence, and  there  was  some  discussion  of  its  future,  in  view  of  the  fact 

=  More  recently  named  National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies;  see  post,  pp. 
491-492. 


American  Historical  Association  409 

that  the  reports  upon  the  contents  of  state  archives,  which  have  con- 
stituted its  chief  published  work,  are  now  nearly  completed. 

The  conference  of  historical  societies,  which  enjoys  a  certain  de- 
gree of  autonomy  under  the  auspices  of  the  Association,  elected  Air. 
Paltsits  as  its  president  for  the  next  two  years.  Two  papers  were 
read  in  its  session.  In  the  first.  Dr.  Newton  D.  Mereness  described 
the  different  varieties  of  Historical  Material  in  Washington  having 
Value  for  the  Individual  State — papers  in  the  War  Department  relat- 
ing to  frontier  defense,  in  the  Indian  Office  relating  to  Indian  rela- 
tions, in  the  Department  of  State  relating  to  the  administration  of 
territorial  governments,  in  the  Post  Office  Department  relating  to  the 
development  of  communications  and  transportation,  in  the  General 
Land  Office  on  land  matters,  and  in  the  House  and  Senate  files  on 
all  these  subjects.  Dr.  Theodore  C.  Pease,  of  the  Illinois  State  His- 
torical Library,  in  a  paper  on  Historical  Materials  in  the  Depositories 
of  the  Middle  West,  showed  how  collections  of  historical  material  in 
that  region  had  developed  under  a  succession  of  concepts  as  to  what 
constitutes  history — from  that  view  which  made  it  consist  almost 
solely  in  glorifying  the  heroes  of  the  frontier  and  the  wars  of  the 
republic,  to  the  study  of  past  politics  as  history,  and  ultimately  to 
broadening  inclusion  of  the  economic,  social,  and  religious  aspects  of 
the  history  of  the  state  and  of  the  whole  region  of  which  it  forms  a 
part. 

For  less  formal  consideration  of  special  fields  in  which  groups  of 
members  have  a  practical  and  effective  interest,  there  were  several 
"luncheon  conferences",  and  a  "dinner  conference"  of  those  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  work  of  the  hereditary  patriotic  societies.  At 
the  preceding  annual  meeting  the  Council  had  appointed  a  special 
committee  on  relations  with  these  societies,  and  this  committee,  under 
the  efficient  chairmanship  of  Professor  Dixon  R.  Fox.  of  Columbia 
University,  has  made  considerable  progress  in  drawing  the  representa- 
tives of  those  societies  into  common  consultation  on  matters  of  his- 
torical interest. 

The  topics  of  the  respective  luncheon  conferences  were:  the  his- 
tory of  science,  that  of  the  Great  War,  English  history,  American 
colonial  history.  Hispanic-American  history,  and  the  history  of  the 
Far  East.  The  original  intention  respecting  these  conferences,  when 
they  were  instituted,  some  years  ago,  was  that  they  should  be  occupied 
with  free  and  informal  discussion,  especially  with  practical  discussion 
as  to  what  tasks  or  problems  most  deserved  to  have  the  labor  of 
scholars  expended  upon  them,  and  in  what  manner  that  labor  might 
best  be  directed,  the  prime  objects  being  the  exchange  of  experience 


4io  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

and  the  promotion  of  scientific  work.  But  though  these  conferences, 
as  they  now  run,  by  no  means  lack  those  elements  of  interest,  in  the 
main  they  have  come  to  consist  of  formal  written  papers,  often  no 
different  in  character  from  those  read  in  the  main  sessions — and  no 
shorter.  It  would  seem  as  if  college  professors,  accustomed  to  talk 
informally  to  classes  several  times  a  week,  might  cut  loose  on  these 
occasions  from  written  texts,  and,  if  there  are  tasks  in  their  fields 
which  they  wish  to  urge  others  to  engage  or  co-operate  in,  tasks  suf- 
fering to  be  undertaken,  might  be  aware  of  the  superior  hortatory 
power  which  resides  in  the  spoken  word  as  compared  with  the  ten- 
minute  or  thirty-minute  "  paper  ". 

The  free  and  characteristic  talk  of  Professor  Breasted  on  wheat 
in  ancient  Egypt,  and  like  topics,  in  the  conference  on  the  history  of 
science,  and  that  of  Professor  Haskins  on  opportunities  for  research 
in  the  history  of  science  afforded  by  European  libraries,  were  exam- 
ples of  the  value  and  attractiveness  of  this  method.  Another  theme 
interestingly  handled  in  that  conference  was  that  of  Professor  Archer 
B.  Hulbert,  of  Colorado  College,  the  various  ways  in  which  the  nat- 
ural sciences  can  be  invoked  to  aid  in  the  study  of  American  history. 

In  the  conference  on  the  history  of  the  Great  War,  Dr.  Wayne  E. 
Stevens,  of  Dartmouth  College,  described,  with  illustrations,  the  criti- 
cal problems  involved  in  the  use  of  the  official  records  of  that  war, 
problems  of  both  external  and  internal  criticism,  attended  by  diffi- 
culties arising  out  of  the  enormous  volume  and  varied  character  of 
the  material,  the  multitude  of  inaccurate  and  unauthentic  versions  of 
documents,  the  haste  with  which  documents  were  prepared,  their  tech- 
nical language,  and  the  various  factors  of  human  and  military  falli- 
bility. Captain  Shipley  Thomas  described  the  contribution  made  to 
the  history  of  the  war  by  a  group  of  officers  of  the  American  Expe- 
ditionary Force,  mostly  regimental  intelligence  officers,  one  from  each 
combat-unit,  who  were  assembled  at  Langres  for  the  purpose,  a  few 
days  after  the  armistice,  and  for  two  months  were  occupied  with  the 
study  and  discussion  of  the  military  operations  in  which  they  had 
taken  part. 

In  the  "luncheon  conference"  on  English  history.  Professor 
Arthur  L.  Cross,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  indicated  the  dan- 
gers involved  in  the  growing  tendency  to  lay  the  chief  emphasis,  in 
historical  teaching,  on  recent  history  and  world-history.  Also  he 
pointed  out  the  advantage  of  legal  history  as  a  teaching  instrument. 
A  paper  on  this  subject,  the  need  of  the  study  of  legal  history  by  the 
law  student  or  by  college  students  preparing  for  the  law  school,  by 
Professor  Clarence  C.  Crawford,  of  the  Universitv  of  Kansas,  was 


American  Historical  Association  411 

read  at  this  luncheon,  and  one  by  Professor  Clarence  Perkins,  of  the 
University  of  North  Dakota,  on  Electioneering  in  the  Time  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole. 

The  conference  on  American  colonial  history  realized  most  com- 
pletely the  original  ideal  of  these  conferences,  the  speakers  directing 
attention  to  a  large  number  of  fields  calling  urgently  for  more  thor- 
ough research  and  indicating  methods  or  materials  for  their  cultiva- 
tion. Thus,  Professor  Root  of  Wisconsin  dwelt  on  the  financial 
relations  between  England  and  the  colonies  as  deserving  further 
study,  Professor  Bond  of  Cincinnati  on  studies  concerning  colonial 
agents  and  concerning  the  relations  between  different  regions  in  the 
colonial  period,  Professor  Gipson  of  Wabash  College  on  possibilities 
in  the  field  of  eighteenth-century  colonial  biography. 

In  the  conference  on  Hispanic-American  history,  Professor 
Hackett,  of  the  University  of  Texas,  described  the  materials  for 
Spanish  history  to  be  found  in  the  library  of  the  late  Sehor  Genaro 
Garcia  of  Mexico,  recently  acquired  by  that  institution ;  Dr.  Arthur 
S.  Aiton  of  Michigan  discussed  the  establishment  of  the  viceroyalty 
in  the  Xew  World,  under  Mendoza,  as  a  projection  into  that  continent 
of  a  Spanish  institution  which  had  already  had  a  long  development  in 
Spain  itself ;  and  Professor  Robertson  of  Illinois  read  a  paper  on  the 
policy  of  Spain  toward  her  revolted  colonies  in  1S23-1824. 

Finally,  in  the  conference  on  the  history  of  the  Far  East,  Pro- 
fessor Rostovtseff  of  Wisconsin  sketched  the  history  of  the  influence 
of  the  art  of  Central  Asia  on  South  Russia  and  China,  and  a  paper 
was  read  on  Prince  Shotoku  and  the  Taikwa  Reform  in  Japan  in 
645  A.  D.,  by  Mr.  Langdon  Warner,  director  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  in  Philadelphia. 

Of  the  more  formal  sessions  devoted  to  the  reading  and  considera- 
tion of  formal  papers,  the  one  which  had  the  widest  scope,  and  which 
may  therefore  deserve  to  be  first  spoken  of,  was  a  session  devoted  to 
the  history  of  civilization.  In  opening  it,  its  chairman.  Professor 
Breasted  of  Chicago,  in  an  extended  paper,  entitled  New  Light  on 
the  Origins  of  Civilization,  adverted  to  the  new  opportunities  for 
exploration  and  study  in  the  Near  East  opened  up  by  recent  events, 
and  to  the  want  of  adequate  organization  in  America  for  exploiting 
these  opportunities.  He  then  passed  to  a  description  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  methods  of  the  Oriental  Institute  established  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  its  collections,  and  its  undertaking  to  edit,  with  much 
European  aid,  those  early  Egyptian  coffin-inscriptions,  archaic  fore- 
runners of  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  which  should  present  us  with  our 
first  chapters  in  the  history  of  religion  and  morals.     He  then  de- 


412  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

scribed  his  very  interesting  and  fruitful  archaeological  expedition  of 
1920  in  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  Syria.  Finally,  from  general 
considerations  respecting  the  origins  of  civilization,  he  passed  to  the 
origins  of  science  in  particular,  and  described  the  contents  of  the 
Edwin  Smith  medical  papyrus  of  the  sixteenth  century  B.  C,  now 
belonging  to  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 

In  the  same  session.  Professor  Ferdinand  Schevill,  of  the  same 
university,  speaking  on  the  Relation  of  the  Fine  Arts  to  the  History 
of  Civilization,  maintained  with  emphasis  that  the  history  of  the  fine 
arts  could  not  be  brought  into  accord  with  those  theories  respecting 
progress  which  are  now  dominant  in  the  study  of  history.  General 
Eben  Swift,  U.  S.  A.,  had  a  paper  upon  the  Development  of  the  Art 
of  War,  Professor  William  L.  Westermann,  of  Cornell  University,  on 
historical  aspects  of  Commerce  and  Economics,  especially  on  the  diffi- 
culties attending  their  treatment  in  respect  to  periods  prior  to  the 
existence  of  trustworthy  statistics. 

In  a  session  specially  devoted  to  economic  history.  Professor 
N.  S.  B.  Gras,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  read  a  paper  on  the 
Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  in  Europe  and  America, 
which  we  shall  have  the  pleasure  of  printing  in  a  later  number.  That 
of  Professor  Harry  E.  Barnes,  of  Clark  University,  on  the  Signifi- 
cance of  Sociology  for  Economic  and  Social  History,  dwelt  on  the 
impossibility  of  treating  these  subjects  suitably  without  possessing  an 
adequate  knowledge  of  sociology,  and  of  sociology  in  its  latest  and 
most  satisfactory  and  most  inclusive  forms.  While  sociology,  he 
said,  furnishes  the  historian  with  his  knowledge  of  the  principles  and 
patterns  of  human  behavior,  with  which  alone  he  can  proceed  intelli- 
gently in  historical  synthesis,  the  historian  can  provide  the  sociologist 
with  invaluable  genetic  and  comparative  data,  by  recourse  to  which 
the  sociologist  can  vastly  improve  the  breadth  and  accuracy  of  his 
subject.  "  There  is  no  danger  of  sociology  engulfing  or  absorbing 
history.  There  will  always  be  an  ample  opportunity  for  productive 
labor  in  gathering  the  concrete  material  descriptive  of  human  prog- 
ress." The  last  part  of  the  paper  was  given  to  specific  illustrations 
of  the  workings  of  the  chief  sociological  factors  in  history. 

The  papers  on  ancient  history,  in  the  session  set  apart  for  that 
subject,  were  all  concerned  with  the  history  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Recent  Advances  in  our  Knowledge  of  that  field  were  indicated  by 
Professor  A.  E.  R.  Boak,  of  Michigan,  who  adverted  especially  to 
the  modern  debates  respecting  the  nature  and  theory  of  the  principate, 
the  worship  of  the  emperor,  the  growth  of  the  bureaucracy,  the  origin 
of  the  colonate,  the  religious  transformations,  the  influence  of  Egypt 


American  Historical  Association  413 

and  of  Parthia.  Professor  Frank  B.  Marsh,  of  Texas,  endeavored 
to  show  to  what  extent  and  in  what  sense  we  may  rightly  regard  the 
Empire  as  a  Continuation  of  the  Republic,  and,  urging  the  need  of 
emancipating  our  minds  from  the  influence  of  literary  sources  origi- 
nating in  the  Antonine  period,  argued  that  Augustus  made  a  serious 
effort  to  conform  his  settlement  of  the  world  to  the  old  republican 
and  aristocratic  tradition.  Professor  Charl'es  H.  Oldfather,  of  Wa- 
bash College,  described  the  chief  varieties  of  New  Light  from  the 
Papyri,  dwelling  particularly  on  their  contribution  to  our  knowledge 
of  administration  and  of  economic  conditions  in  Egypt. 

Of  the  papers  in  medieval  history,  that  of  Professor  August  C. 
Krey.  of  Minnesota,  on  the  International  State  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  Some  Reasons  for  its  Downfall,  may  be  expected  to  appear  ulti- 
mately in  the  pages  of  this  journal.  That  of  Professor  Louis  J. 
Paetow,  of  California,  on  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries  in 
the  History  of  Culture,  was  largely  a  plea  for  a  fuller  study  of 
medieval  Latin,  and  even  for  its  use  as  an  international  language  in 
our  time.  That  of  Professor  Lynn  Thorndike,  of  Western  Reserve 
University,  on  Guido  Bonatti,  dealt  with  an  astrologer  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  placed  by  Dante  in  the  eighth  circle  of  the  Inferno, 
and  especially  with  his  Liber  Astronomicus. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  an  afternoon  session  occupied 
with  the  history  of  France.  Of  its  five  papers,  four  related  to  French 
history  of  the  last  two  hundred  years,  one,  that  of  Professor  Earle  W. 
Dow.  of  Michigan,  to  a  medieval  theme,  that  of  Town  Privileges 
under  the  "  Etablissements  de  Rouen  ",  a  subject  which  derives  its 
importance  from  the  fact  that  the  Rouennese  system  was  adopted, 
wholly  or  in  part,  by  some  thirty  or  more  French  towns,  from  the 
Channel  to  the  Pyrenees.  The  ducal  or  royal  charters  of  various 
dates  from  1144  to  1278,  and  the  communal  Etablissements,  were 
carefully  analyzed,  their  development  traced,  and  allusion  made  to  the 
light  they  cast  on  municipal  life.  Professor  Albert  F.  Guerard,  of 
the  Rice  Institute,  followed  with  a  paper,  of  marked  excellence  of 
literary  quality,  fair  and  discriminating,  on  Voltaire's  Philosophy  of 
History,  as  shown  in  the  Essai  sur  les  Moeurs,  the  Histoire  de  la 
Civilisation,  and  the  Siecle  de  Louis  XII'..  and  on  the  rational 
humanitarianism  which  he  represented.  Monsieur  Bernard  Fay.  of 
Paris,  in  a  paper  characterized  by  similar  felicity  of  expression,  yet 
by  much  evidence  of  research,  discussed  the  close  relations  between 
the  Revolutionary  Philosophy  in  France  and  in  the  VJnited  States  at 
the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century — Luzerne's  press,  Vergennes's 
Nouvelles  d'Angleterre  et  d'Ameriqiic,  the  manner  in  which  the  voung 


414  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

French  revolutionaries  brought  American  ideas  of  politics  and  morals 
to  bear  on  bourgeois  minds  (moral  ideas  more  permanently  than 
political),  and,  after  the  moral  bankruptcy  of  the  Directory,  the 
manner  in  which  Madame  de  Stael,  Benjamin  Constant,  Chateau- 
briand used  their  ideas  of  American  society  in  their  efforts  toward  a 
new  Catholicism.  Professor  Fling,  of  Nebraska,  gave  a  sketch  of 
the  history  of  the  French  Revolution ;  Professor  Hazen,  of  Columbia 
University,  described  the'  Part  which  France  has  played  in  Liberating 
Other  Countries — Greece,  Belgium,  Rumania,  and  Italy.3 

Europe  after  the  Congress  of  Vienna  was  the  general  subject  of 
another  session,  with  papers  by  Professor  William  A.  Frayer,  of 
Michigan,  A  Criticism  of  the  Italian  Settlement  of  1815 ;  by  Pro- 
fessor Robert  J.  Kerner,  of  Missouri,  on  Nationalism  and  the  Met- 
ternich  System;  by  Professor  Parker  T.  Moon,  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, on  British  Jealousy  of  French  Imperialism  after  1815;  and 
by  Professor  J.  M.  S.  Allison,  of  Yale  University,  on  the  July  Days 
and  After.  Professor  Frayer  urged  that,  Italy  having  no  man  capa- 
ble of  ruling  the  whole  peninsula,  to  divide  it  again  into  individual 
states  checking  and  balancing  each  other  was  a  more  defensible  policy 
than  had  commonly  been  thought,  and  indeed  was  practically  inevi- 
table. Dr.  Kerner  drew  from  the  failure  of  Metternich's  policy  of 
repressing  nationalism  a  hundred  years  ago  the  lesson  that,  however 
nationalism  may  prove  to  be  outworn  in  regions  of  Europe  already 
industrialized  and  otherwise  economically  advanced,  it  marks  a  neces- 
sary stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  new,  chiefly  agricultural,  states  lying 
to  the  eastward.  Professor  Allison's  main  effort  was  to  account  for 
the  failure  of  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  considered  its 
downfall  to  have  been  due,  not  to  the  laborers,  but  to  the  radical 
leaders,  who,  though  unorganized  and  discordant,  were  able,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Friends  of  the  People,  to  take  sufficient  advan- 
tage of  the  ministry's  instability  to  wreck  the  general  control. 

In  the  session  arranged  for  military  history,  after  a  paper  by  Col. 
Charles  R.  Howland,  U.  S.  A.,  on  the  Causes  of  the  World  War, 
Col.  Conrad  H.  Lanza  read  one  on  the  Fifty-fifth  Division  on  Sep- 
tember 29,  1918,  of  particular  interest  to  a  St.  Louis  audience  because 
that  division  consisted  largely  of  Missouri  and  Kansas  troops.  The 
incident  discussed  occurred  in  the  Ardennes,  the  division  having  a 
position  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aire.  An  attack  which  it  was  to 
make  on  the  morning  of  the  day  named  proved  a  failure,  and  the 
division  was  "  withdrawn  for  reorganization ",  but  Colonel  Lanza 
showed  in  detail  that  the  responsibility  for  the  failure  must  be  widely 

"  Printed  in  the  North  American  Review  for  April. 


American  Historical  Association  4l5 

distributed,  that  it  was  due  to  misunderstandings  and  blunders  on 
the  part  of  many  officers  in  army,  corps,  division,  and  brigade  staffs. 

Few  if  anv  of  the  sessions  evoked  more  interest  than  that  which 
was  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  American  Revolution.  It  gave 
gratifying  evidence  that,  though  school-board  politicians  and  members 
of  legislatures  still  regard  that  history  as  solely  a  series  of  military 
events,  in  which  the  children  of  light,  uniformly  animated  by  the 
most  glorious  and  unexampled  patriotism,  were  uniformly  victorious 
over  the  base  children  of  darkness,  serious  students  of  history  in  in- 
creasing numbers  take  a  rational  view  of  the  episode,  and  study  it  as 
they  would  study  any  other  portion  of  history,  with  an  eye  chiefly  to 
the  political  and  social  developments  involved.  This  was  made  espe- 
cially manifest  in  the  discussion  which  followed  the  papers,  in  which 
Professors  McLaughlin,  Becker,  Schlesinger,  and  Morison  all  took 
an  illuminating  part,  and  which,  in  a  degree  unusual  in  our  meetings, 
was  real  discussion.  The  papers  were  two.  Professor  Claude  H. 
Van  Tyne,  of  Michigan,  in  his  paper  on  the  American  Revolution  in 
the  Light  of  the  Last  Two  Decades  of  Research,  described  and  criti- 
cally discussed  the  contributions  made  to  a  sounder  knowledge  of  the 
period  by  various  investigators,  including  the  late  George  L.  Beer  and 
Professors  Alvord.  Becker,  and  Andrews,  with  exposition  of  the 
present-day  opinion. 

In  the  other  paper,  entitled  In  re  the  American  People  vs.  George 
III..  Professor  Clarence  \Y.  Alvord.  of  Minnesota,  opposed  to  the 
older  habit  of  ascribing  all  objectionable  legislation  to  the  sole  influ- 
ence of  George  III.  the  need  of  more  thorough  and  discriminating 
study  of  the  views  and  actions  of  the  politicians  who  surrounded  him. 
Dr.  Alvord  maintained  the  hypothesis  that  the  factions  of  George 
Grenville  and  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  desiring  vindication  for  the 
repeal  of  the  stamp  tax,  were  the  leaders  in  ministry  and  Parliament 
who  caused  the  American  Revolution.  The  active  causes  in  the  col- 
onies were  the  financial  depression  succeeding  the  French  and  Indian 
War.  the  development  of  a  non-English  people  in  the  colonies,  and 
the  propaganda  put  forth  first  for  political  purposes  and  then  for  the 
gaining  of  independence.  The  remarks  of  Professor  Schlesinger 
included  some  very  pertinent  suggestions  as  to  lines  along  which  the 
history  of  this  propaganda  might  well  be  further  pursued. 

The  other  period  of  American  history  to  which  a  session  was 
given  was  that  of  the  generation  following  the  Civil  War.  Mr. 
Paul  L.  Haworth,  of  Indiana,  opened  the  session  by  a  discussion  of 
the  Emergence  of  the  Problems  of  the  Period  out  of  War  and  Recon- 
struction.    The  question  of  the  status  of  the  former  Confederates 


4i 6  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

and  of  that  of  the  seceded  states  proved  comparatively  simple.  The 
problem  of  the  negro  was  more  difficult,  and  remains  unsolved,  though 
by  reason  of  his  having  been  left  economically  dependent  upon  his 
former  master  no  very  acute  labor  problem  has  arisen.  But  in  the 
years  from  1865  to  1877  financial  problems  of  great  importance 
claimed  attention,  problems  connected  with  the  debt,  the  tariff,  and 
the  currency,  and  in  the  field  of  economics  the  stimulation  of  manu- 
factures accelerated  the  transition  from  the  agricultural  to  the  indus- 
trial age,  forcing  to  the  front  new  questions,  for  whose  solution  the 
American  mind  was  ill  prepared. 

Professor  Theodore  C.  Smith,  of  Williams  College,  illustrated  the 
Congressional  dealings  with  these  problems,  and  especially  with  those 
of  finance,  in  a  paper  on  Light  on  the  Period  from  the  Garfield 
Papers.  The  collection  was  described  as  a  rich  mine  of  information 
on  Congressional  and  party  history  from  1863  to  1S80.  but  especially 
for  the  period  after  1875,  when,  the  Democratic  party  controlling  the 
House,  Garfield  became  "  floor  leader  "  of  the  Republican  minority. 
When  his  own  party  was  in  power,  his  advocacy  of  resumption  and 
of  tariff  reform  had  prevented  him  from  becoming  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  ways  and  means. 

Three  of  the  papers  read  in  this  session  were  devoted  to  the  con- 
sideration of  fields  of  study  and  research  still  imperfectly  cultivated. 
Professor  Arthur  C.  Cole,  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  discussed  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  historical  criticism  to  newspapers  and 
periodicals,  and,  since  adequate  direct  use  of  these  voluminous  sources 
by  the  general  historian  has  become  a  physical  impossibility,  urged 
the  building-up  of  systematic  means  for  their  intelligent  use  through 
the  making  of  a  large  number  of  careful  monographs  on  various 
phases  and  various  examples  of  modern  American  journalism.  Pro- 
fessor Francis  A.  Christie,  of  the  Meadville  Theological  School, 
treating  of  the  Field  of  Religious  Development,  set  forth  as  the  most 
conspicuous  movement  of  the  period  the  national  organization,  or 
drawing  together,  of  loosely  related  churches,  combined  with  a  shift- 
ing of  emphasis  to  ethical  and  philanthropic  interests ;  hence  such 
developments  as  the  Christian  Commission  and  Sanitary  Commission 
of  the  Civil  War,  the  Conferences  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  the 
Federal  Union  of  the  Churches  of  Christ,  and  the  various  inter- 
denominational lay  societies.  Several  of  these  deserve  fuller  study. 
Another  factor  was  the  development  in  the  theological  schools,  with 
large  consequences  in  clerical  and  other  minds,  of  a  scientific  method 
for  dealing  with  the  data  of  religion.  Fields  awaiting  full  and  dis- 
passionate treatment  are  the  progress  of  efforts  toward  social  reform, 


American  Historical  Association  4l7 

the  marked  adaptation  of  Catholic  churchmanship  to  the  principles  of 
American  political  life,  and  the  vogue  of  a  new  conception  of  divine 
grace  in  the  circle  of  Christian  Science  and  New  Thought.  Miss 
Ella  Lonn,  of  Goucher  College,  propounded  a  remarkably  wide  va- 
riety of  questions  calling  for  investigation  in  the  political,  financial, 
economic,  social,  and  cultural  history  of  the  South  after  Reconstruc- 
tion, specifically  of  the  years  1875-1S90. 

The  papers  read  in  the  two  joint  sessions  held  with  the  Agricul- 
tural History  Society  happily  combined  the  history  of  American  agri- 
culture with  that  of  American  social  conditions.  Thus,  Professor 
Archer  B.  Hulbert,  of  Colorado  College,  discoursing  of  the  Soil  Fac- 
tor in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  Colonization,  showed  how  the  abun- 
dant wheat  crops  of  the  Lancaster  County  region  in  Pennsylvania 
enabled  that  region  to  take  the  lead  in  furnishing  the  means  of  trans- 
portation— developing  the  Conestoga  horse,  the  Conestoga  wagon,  the 
first  turnpike,  the  first  canal  of  any  length — and.  with  these  and  its 
manufacture  of  firearms,  in  promoting  the  earlier  waves  of  migration 
toward  the  West.  Dr.  Joseph  Schafer.  of  the  Wisconsin  State  His- 
torical Society,  showed  how  the  Wisconsin  Domesday  Book,  the  plan 
of  which  has  been  heretofore  described  in  this  journal,  and  which  is 
being  prepared  under  his  supervision,  casts  abundance  of  fresh  light — 
the  light  of  exact  data  in  place  of  tradition — on  the  processes  of 
pioneer  settlement  in  one  state  at  least,  and  illuminates  the  character 
of  land  speculation,  the  choices  made  of  lands,  the  differing  social 
results  of  settlement  in  forested  and  in  prairie  townships.  In  the 
paper  by  Professor  William  W.  Carson,  of  De  Pauw  University,  on 
Agricultural  Reconstruction  in  North  Carolina  after  the  Civil  War. 
two  matters  were  mainly  discussed :  the  transition  from  wage  labor, 
experimented  with  in  the  first  few  years  after  emancipation,  to  the 
system  of  cultivation  on  shares  ;  and  the  westward  extension  of  cotton 
cultivation,  by  means  of  fertilizers,  and  that  of  tobacco,  of  varieties 
suitable  to  lands  hitherto  considered  too  poor  for  that  staple. 

The  other  three  papers  in  agricultural  history  looked  rather  at  the 
political  relations  of  agricultural  industry  and  life.  Professor  Theo- 
dore C.  Blegen,  of  Hamline  University,  had  as  his  theme  the  Scandi- 
navian Element  and  Agrarian  Discontent.  Sketching  the  early  his- 
tory of  agricultural  settlement  on  the  part  of  the  Scandinavians,  and 
their  relation  to  the  Republican  party  down  to  the  nineties  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  he  attributed  their  defections  from  that  party,  at 
that  time  and  later,  to  the  general  agrarian  movement,  particularly 
the  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Population,  and  to  the  influx  of  immigrants 
unfamiliar  with  the  Republican  tradition.     The  Scandinavians  have 


41 S  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

been  influenced  almost  exclusively  by  economic  and  political,  rather 
than  by  racial  reasons ;  the  habit  of  independent  voting  has  continued. 
In  quite  another  quarter,  Professor  Melvin  J.  White,  of  Tulane  Uni- 
versity, traced  the  Influence  of  Agricultural  Conditions  upon  Louisi- 
ana State  Politics  during  the  Nineties,  from  the  initial  discontent  of 
the  small  white  farmer  of  the  hill  parishes,  and  his  adhesion  to  the 
Farmers'  Alliance  and  the  People's  Party,  through  the  movements  of 
fusion  with  the  Republicans  in  1892  and  1894,  to  the  electoral  reforms 
of  1896  or  the  constitutional  convention  of  1898,  which  redressed 
most  of  the  grievances  of  which  the  People's  Party  had  complained. 
The  paper  by  Professor  Edward  E.  Dale,  of  the  University  of  Okla- 
homa, on  the  Cattle  Ranching  Industry  in  that  state,  was  mainly  con- 
cerned with  governmental  relations  and  with  influences  of  the  indus- 
try upon  the  development  of  the  West  and  upon  the  country  as  a 
whole.  He  described  with  skill  the  rapid  growth  of  the  business,  the 
extraordinary  and  spectacular  developments  which  led  to  its  downfall 
and  to  the  opening  of  Oklahoma  to  agricultural  settlement,  and  the 
incompetence  of  Congress  and  government  to  deal  with  a  situation 
involving  an  industry  so  technical. 

Very  naturally  and  appropriately,  one  of  the  sessions  was  devoted 
to  papers  commemorating  Missouri  history.  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Leh- 
mann,  of  the  St.  Louis  bar,  described  the  state  constitution  of  1820, 
the  general  course  of  legislation  under  it,  and  the  experiences  which 
led  to  extensive  modifications  of  the  governmental  system  in  the  con- 
stitution of  1875.  Mr.  Floyd  C.  Shoemaker,  secretary  of  the  State 
Historical  Society  of  Missouri,  set  forth  a  variety  of  incorrect  Tradi- 
tions concerning  the  Missouri  Question  and  a  variety  of  paradoxes  in 
Missouri  history,  urging  a  closer  and  a  broader  study  of  its  develop- 
ment.4 Under  the  title,  A  Sidelight  on  the  Repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  Dr.  H.  Barrett  Learned  presented  an  investigation, 
based  on  contemporary  newspapers  and  the  papers  of  Philip  Phillips, 
M.  C.  from  Alabama  at  the  time  of  the  repeal,  designed  to  show  that 
Phillips's  careful  formulation  of  an  amendment  to  the  Nebraska  Bill 
about  January  19,  1854,  probably  influenced  the  ultimate  form  of 
that  bill.  Professor  William  O.  Lynch,  of  Indiana  University,  in  a 
paper  on  the  Influence  of  the  Movements  of  Population  on  Missouri 
History  before  the  Civil  War,  analyzed  the  population  according  to 
origins,  period  by  period,  and  showed  how  ineffective  relatively  were 
the  efforts  of  pro-slavery  and  anti-slavery  partisans  to  direct  immi- 
gration into  Kansas  at  the  height  of  the  Kansas  conflict;  between  1850 
and  i860  Tennessee  contributed  to  Missouri  eleven  times  the  number 

•1  For  these  two  papers,  see  the  Missouri  Historical  Review  for  January. 


American  Historical  Association  419 

of  people  that  she  furnished  to  Kansas.  Kentucky  five  times  the  num- 
ber, and  even  New  England  sent  more  settlers  to  Missouri.  In  1S60 
Missouri  ranked  seventh  in  population  among  the  Union  states ;  she 
also  ranked  seventh  in  the  number  of  soldiers  sent  to  the  Union  armies. 

Last  of  the  sessions,  and  last  to  be  here  spoken  of,  was  one  held 
in  concert  with  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association,  of 
which  the  general  theme  was  the  economic  history  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  Professor  Cardinal  Goodwin,  of  Mills  College,  read  a  paper 
on  the  Fur  Trade  and  the  Northwest  Boundary,  1783-181S.  a  topic 
closely  allied  to  that  of  Professor  Bemis's  article  printed  on  later 
pages  of  this  journal.  Mrs.  X.  M.  Miller  Surrey,  of  New  York, 
who  on  behalf  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington  is  compiling 
the  Calendar  of  Manuscripts  in  Paris  Archives  relating  to  the  Missis- 
sippi J 'alley  devised  originally  by  a  committee  of  the  Association, 
drew  from  her  great  repository  of  notes  the  materials  for  a  paper  on 
the  Growth  of  Industries  in  Louisiana,  1699-1763,  full  of  new  and 
detailed  information,  especially  on  the  development  of  agricultural 
industries  in  that  colony  during  the  French  period.  For  a  later 
period,  Professor  Albert  L.  Kohlmeier,  of  Indiana,  showed  the  rela- 
tions between  Commerce  and  Union  Sentiment  in  the  Old  Northwest 
in  i860,  demonstrating  how,  despite  the  commercial  attachments  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  region  to  the  northeastern  states  and  of  the 
southern  portion  to  those  of  the  southeast,  which  caused  discord  and 
hesitation  in  i860,  conditions  of  greater  force  held  the  region  to  unity, 
and  by  the  middle  of  1861  gave  Union  sentiment  an  overwhelming 
majority. 

It  is  difficult,  perhaps  it  is  unnecessary,  to  generalize  respecting 
papers  so  numerous  and  so  multifarious.  Many  contributed  new 
matter  or  new  points  of  view,  some  made  little  or  no  such  contribu- 
tion. There  was  a  gratifying  tendency,  which  we  believe  to  be  gen- 
eral in  the  historical  profession  since  the  war.  to  pursue  subjects  hav- 
ing real  importance,  episodes  which  have  had  significant  consequences 
or  aspects  of  history  which  the  interests  of  the  present  day  have  made 
worth  while,  as  distinguished  from  topics  which  are  pursued  because 
it  has  been  the  conventional  habit  of  our  guild  to  pursue  them,  idola 
tribus,  so  to  say.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  that  most  of  the  papers 
were  good,  but  that  few  were  of  extraordinary  excellence.  Certainly 
few  of  the  papers  by  Americans  showed  any  of  that  gift  of  expres- 
sion, those  fruits  of  wide  reading,  which  marked  the  papers  of  the 
two  Frenchmen,  and  many  were  distinctly  ill-written. 

It  remains  to  record  the  results  of  the  business  meeting  of  the 
Association,  at  which  the  first  vice-president,  Professor  Haskins,  pre- 


420  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

sided.  The  secretary's  report  showed  a  total  membership  of  2,633, 
as  compared  with  2,524  reported  a  year  ago,  a  gain  of  109  members. 
The  treasurer's  report  showed  receipts  of  $13,264,  expenditures  of 
$12,584,  but  it  is  to  be  noted,  from  the  summary  of  his  report  printed 
at  the  end  of  this  article,  that  the  excess  of  receipts  over  expenditures, 
$680,  is  almost  entirely  accounted  for  by  the  receipt  of  $650  in  life- 
membership  fees,  which  by  vote  of  the  Association  are  to  be  kept,  as 
is  proper  in  such  cases,  in  a  separate  fund.  Still  further  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  $2,904  of  the  receipts  was  derived  from  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions, additional  to  annual  dues,  which  members  have  made  in 
response  to  the  invitations  sent  out  in  company  with  the  annual  bills. 
Therefore  the  need  of  a  larger  regular  revenue  remains  apparent,  and 
the  constitutional  amendment  proposed  last  year,  increasing  annual 
dues  from  three  dollars  to  five,  and  life-membership  fees  from  fifty 
dollars  to  one  hundred,  beginning  with  September  1  next,  was  voted 
without  dissent.  It  is  hoped  and  believed  that  the  change,  in  which 
the  Association  only  follows  at  last  a  step  which  the  analogous  so- 
cieties have  already  taken,  will  not  cause  the  withdrawal  of  more  than 
a  very  few,  if  any,  of  the  members;  and  an  increased  revenue  will 
enable  the  Association  to  resume  or  promote  activity  along  several 
lines  of  investigation  or  other  work  which  in  recent  years  its  poverty 
has  compelled  it  to  suspend  or  renounce.  Meanwhile,  the  large  re- 
sponse to  the  suggestion  of  contributions  has  given  most  gratifying 
evidence  of  the  interest  which  members  have  in  the  Association  and 
of  their  desire  to  sustain  it  effectively.  The  budget  proposed  by  the 
Council  is  printed  on  a  later  page. 

The  amendment  to  the  by-laws,  relative  to  discontinuance  of  the 
primary  ballot  for  nominations  to  office  and  to  membership  in  the 
nominating  committee,  printed  a  year  ago  in  this  journal  (XXVI. 
436),  was  rejected;  it  was  voted  that  the  portion  of  the  by-laws  re- 
ferred to  should  be  so  interpreted  as  not  to  make  the  results  of  the 
preliminary  ballot  mandatory  upon  the  Committee  on  Nominations, 
but  merely  an  aid  in  the  making  of  its  recommendations. 

It  was  voted,  upon  hospitable  invitation  from  Yale  University  and 
upon  recommendation  from  the  Council,  that  the  annual  meeting  of 
December.  1922,  should  be  held  in  New  Haven.  The  Council  recom- 
mended that  that  meeting  should  begin  not  earlier  than  Wednesday 
morning,  December  27,  and  should  close  not  later  than  Saturday  noon, 
December  30.  It  was  recommended  that  the  meeting  of  December, 
1923,  be  held  in  Columbus. 

Reports  from  several  committees  were  presented,  and  an  oral 
report  on  behalf  of  the  Pacific  Coast  Branch,  by  Professor  Robert  C. 


American  Historical  Association  421 

Clark,  its  official  representative  on  the  present  occasion.  On  report 
from  the  Committee  on  the  Herbert  Baxter  Adams  Prize,  that  prize 
was  awarded  to  Dr.  Einar  Joranson,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
for  an  essay  on  the  Danegeld  in  France.  This  may  be  the  best  place 
in  which  to  mention  that  the  award  of  the  Justin  Winsor  prize, 
delayed  a  year  ago,  was  finally  made  to  Mr.  F.  Lee  Benns.  of  the 
University  of  Indiana,  for  an  essay  on  the  American  Struggle  for 
the  British  West  Indian  Carrying-Trade.  1815-1830.  A  series  of 
rules  for  the  award  of  the  George  Louis  Beer  Prize,  for  the  "  best 
work  .upon  any  phase  of  European  international  history  since  the  year 
1895  ",  was  proposed  by  the  committee  appointed  a  year  before,  and 
adopted  by  the  Association.  Copies  can  be  obtained  from  the  assist- 
ant secretary.  A  committee  of  five  was  appointed  for  award  of  the 
prize.  The  annual  elections  followed  precisely  the  list  presented  by 
the  Committee  on  Nominations.  Professor  Charles  H.  Haskins  was 
elected  president  for  the  ensuing  year.  Professor  Edward  P.  Cheyney 
first  vice-president.  Honorable  Woodrow  'Wilson  second  vice-presi- 
dent. Professor  John  S.  Bassett  and  Mr.  Charles  Moore  were  re- 
elected secretary  and  treasurer  respectively.  The  eight  elective  mem- 
bers of  the  Executive  Council  were  all  re-elected,  none  of  them  hav- 
ing yet  served  the  usual  three  years.  For  the  Committee  on  Nomi- 
nations to  be  presented  next  autumn,  the  Association  chose  Professors 
Henry  E.  Bourne,  William  E.  Dodd,  William  E.  Lingelbach,  Nellie 
Neilson,  and  William  L.  Westermann ;  the  committee  has  since  chosen 
Professor  Bourne  as  chairman.  The  Council  elected  Professor  Wil- 
liam E.  Dodd  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Editors  of  this  journal,  in 
the  place  of  Professor  Van  Tyne,  whose  term  had  expired.  A  full 
list  of  the  committee  assignments  for  jqj.:  follows  this  article. 

J-  F.  J. 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution 

That  in  article  III.  there  be  substituted  for  "  three  dollars  ".  "  five 
dollars";  and  for  "fifty  dollars",  "one  hundred  dollars";  so  that  the 
article  shall  read: 

Any  person  approved  by  the  Executive  Council  may  become  a  member 
by  paying  five  dollars,  and  after  the  first  year  may  continue  a  member  by 
paying  an  annual  fee  of  five  dollars.  On  payment  of  one  hundred  dollars 
any  person  may  become  a  life  member,  exempt  from  fees.  Persons  not 
residing  in  the  United  States  may  be  elected  as  honorary  or  corresponding 
members  and  be  exempt  from  the  payment  of  fees. 


AM.    HIST.    REV..    VOL.    XXVII. 29. 


422  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

Summary  of  Treasurer's  Report 
receipts 

Balance  on  hand  December  I,  1920 $5'°3I  •  J6 

Receipts  to  date : 

Annual  dues $7,059.71 

Life  memberships 650.00 

Registration  fees 54-25 

Voluntary  contributions 2,903.75 

Publications 336-44 

Royalties    78. 1 1 

Interest  on  investments 1,368.51 

Interest  on  bank  account 67 .  44 

Special  contribution  from  American  Historical 

Review   Fund 500 .  00 

Miscellaneous    56.87 

Transferred  from  Endowment  Fund 188.91 

13.263-99 

$18,295.15 

Gift,  George  L.  Beer  Prize  Fund 5,000.00 

Total  receipts $23,295. 15 

expenditures 

Office  of  secretary  and  treasurer ^2,g28.y~ 

Pacific  Coast  Branch 43-86 

Committee  on  Nominations 46-93 

Committee  on  Membership 23 .  85 

Committee  on  Programme 3S3 . 1 5 

Committee  on  Local  Arrangements 100.26 

Committee  on  Policy 39-75 

Committee  on  Agenda 75-03 

Committee  on  Bibliography 295 .  39 

Committee  on  Publications ■ 677.29 

Committee  on  History  and  Education 300.00 

Conference  of  Historical  Societies 25.00 

Writings  on  American  History 200.00 

American  Council  of  Learned  Societies 153.89 

Robert  M.  Johnston  Prize 250.00 

American  Historical  Review 7,040.90 

$12,584.07 
Investments   8,113.65 

20,697.72 

Cash  balance  November  30,  1921 $2,597.43 

Receipts  budget,  1922 

Annual   dues    $7,000.00 

Registration  fees 150.00 

Publications     100.00 

Royalties    50.00 

Interest 1 ,400.00 

Miscellaneous    50.00 

$8,750.00 


American  Historical  Association  423 

Expenditures 

Secretary  and  Treasurer $3,000.00 

Pacific  Coast  Branch   50.00 

Committee  on  Nominations 100.00 

Committee  on  Membership 100.00 

Committee  on  Programme 300.00 

Committee  on  Local  Arrangements 50.00 

Conference  of  Historical  Societies 25.00 

Committee  on  Publications 700.00 

Council  Committee  on  Agenda   300.00 

American  Historical   Review 7,000.00 

Historical  Manuscripts  Commission 20.00 

Herbert  Baxter  Adams  Prize 200.00 

Writings  on  American  History   200.00 

American  Council  of  Learned  Societies 150.00 

Committee  on  Bibliography   500.00 

Committee  on  the  Writing  of  History 75-°° 

$12,770.00 

Deficit,  $3,695.00 

Officers  and  Committees  of  the  American  Historical  Association 
President,  Charles  H.  Haskins,  Cambridge. 
First  Vice-President,  Edward  P.  Cheyney,  Philadelphia. 
Second  Vice-President,  Woodrow  Wilson,  Washington. 
Secretary,  John  S.  Bassett,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass. 
Treasurer,  Charles  Moore,  Library  of  Congress,  Washington.5 
Assistant  Secretary-Treasurer,  Patty  W.  Washington,  1140  Woodward 

Building,  Washington. 
Editor,  Allen  R.  Boyd,  Library  of  Congress,  Washington. 
Executive  Council  ( in  addition  to  the  above-named  officers)  : 
James  Ford  Rhodes,0  William  R.  Thayer, 

John  B.  McMaster,  Edward  Channing, 

Simeon  E.  Baldwin,  Jean  J.  Jusserand,s 

J.  Franklin  Jameson,  Arthur  L.  Cross, 

George  B.  Adams,  Sidney  B.  Fav, 

Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Carl  R.  Fish," 

Frederick  J.  Turner,  Carlton  J.   H.  Hayes, 

William  M.   Sloane,  Frederic  L.   Paxson, 

William  A.  Dunning,  Ruth  Putnam, 

Andrew  C.  McLaughlin,  James  T.  Shotwell, 

George  L.  Burr,  St.  George  L.  Sioussat. 

Worthington  C.  Ford, 
Committees  : 

Committee  on  Programme  for  the  Thirty-seventh  Annual  Meeting: 
David  S.  Muzzey,  492  Van  Cortlandt  Park  Avenue,  Yonkers,  N.  Y., 
chairman;  Eloise  Ellery,  Walter  L.  Fleming,  Charles  Seymour, 
Wilbur  H.  Siebert;  and  (ex  officio)  Nils  A.  Olsen  and  John  C. 
Parish. 

5  For  the  purposes  of  routine  business  the  treasurer  may  be  addressed  at 
1 140    Woodward    Building,    Washington,    D.    C. 

«The  names  from  that  of  Mr.  Rhodes  to  that  of  Mr.  Jusserand  are  those 
of   ex-presidents. 


424  St.  Louis  Meeting  of  the 

Committee  on  Local  Arrangements:  Max  Farrand,  Yale  University, 
chairman. 

Committee  on  Nominations:  He»iry  E.  Bourne,  Western  Reserve  Uni- 
versity, Cleveland,  chairman;  William  E.  Dodd,  William  E.  Lingel- 
bach,  Nellie  Neilson,  William  L.  Westermann. 

Editors  of  the  American  Historical  Review:  Carl  Becker,  Archibald  C. 
Coolidge,  William  E.  Dodd,  Guy  S.  Ford,  J.  Franklin  Jameson, 
Williston  Walker. 

Historical  Manuscripts  Commission:  Justin  H.  Smith,  7  West  Forty- 
third  Street,  New  York,  chairman;  Annie  H.  Abel,  Eugene  C. 
Barker,  Robert  P.  Brooks,  Logan  Esarey,  Gaillard  Hunt. 

Committee  on  the  Justin  U'insor  Prise:  Isaac  J.  Cox,  Northwestern 
University,  Evanston,  chairman;  Chauncey  S.  Boucher,  Thomas  F. 
Moran,  Bernard  C.  Steiner,  C.  Mildred  Thompson. 

Committee  on  the  Herbert  Baxter  Adams  Prise:  Conyers  Read,  1218 
Snyder  Avenue,  Philadelphia,  chairman;  Charles  H.  Mcllwain, 
Nellie  Neilson,  Louis  J.  Paetow,  Bernadotte  E.  Schmitt,  Wilbur  H. 
Siebert. 

Public  Archives  Commission:  Victor  H.  Paltsits,  48  Whitson  Street, 
Forest  Hills  Gardens,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  chairman;  Solon  J. 
Buck,  John  H.  Edmonds,  Robert  B.  House.  Waldo  G.  Leland. 

Committee  on  Bibliography  (including  the  Manual  of  Historical  Lit- 
erature) :  George  M.  Dutcher,  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  chairman;  Henry  R.  Shipman,  27  Mercer  Street,  Princeton, 
acting  chairman ;  William  H.  Allison,  Sidney  B.  Fay,  Augustus  H. 
Shearer.  Subcommittee  on  the  Bibliography  of  American  Travel: 
Solon  J.  Buck,  Milo  M.  Quaife,  Benjamin  F.  Shambaugh. 

Committee  on  Publications:  H.  Barrett  Learned.  2123  Bancroft  Place, 
Washington,  chairman;  Allen  R.  Boyd,  Library  of  Congress, 
Washington,  secretary;  and  (ex  officio)  John  S.  Bassett,  J.  Frank- 
lin Jameson,  Herbert  A.  Kellar,  Justin  H.  Smith. 

Committee  on  Membership:  Louise  F.  Brown,  263  Mill  Street,  Pough- 
keepsie,  chairman;  Elizabeth  Donnan.  August  C.  Krey,  Frank  E. 
Melvin,  Richard  A.  Newhall,  John  W.  Oliver,  Charles  W.  Rams- 
dell,  Arthur  P.  Scott,  John  J.  Van  Nostrand,  jr.,  James  E.  Win- 
ston. 

Conference  of  Historical  Societies:  Victor  H.  Paltsits.  48  Whitson 
Street,  Forest  Hills  Gardens,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  chairman;  John 
C.  Parish,  State  Historical  Society,  Iowa  City,  secretary. 

Committee  on  the  National  Archives:  J.  Franklin  Jameson.  1140  Wood- 
ward Building.  Washington,  chairman;  Gaillard  Hunt,  Charles 
Moore.  Eben  Putnam,  Oliver  L.  Spaulding,  jr. 

Editors  of  the  Historical  Outlook:  Albert  E.  McKinley.  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  managing  editor;  Edgar  Dawson, 
Sarah  A.  Dynes,  Daniel  C.  Knowlton.  Laurence  M.  Larson,  Wil- 
liam L.  Westermann. 

Committee  on  Military  History:  Eben  L.  Swift,  Army  and  Navy  Club, 
Washington,  chairman;  Allen  R.  Boyd.  Thomas  R.  Hay.  Eben 
Putnam,  Oliver  L.  Spaulding,  jr.,  Jennings  C.  Wise. 

Committee  on  Hereditary  Patriotic  Societies:  Dixon  R.  Fox,  Columbia 
University,  chairman;  Natalie  S.  Lincoln.  Harry  B.  Mackoy,  Annie 
L.  Sioussat,  R.  C.  Ballard  Thruston. 


American  Historical  Association  425 

Committee  on  Sen  ice:  J.  Franklin  Jameson.  1140  Woodward  Build- 
ing, Washington,  chairman;  Elbert  J.  Benton,  Clarence  S.  Brigham, 
Worthington  C.  Ford,  Stella  Herron,  Theodore  D.  Jervey,  Louise 
P.  Kellogg,  Albert  E.  McKinley,  Herbert  I.  Priestley,  James 
Sullivan. 

Committee  on  History  Teaching  in  the  Schools:  Guy  S.  Ford,  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  chairman;  Henry  E.  Bourne, 
Philip  P.  Chase,  Henry  Johnson,  Daniel  C.  Knowlton,  Albert  E. 
McKinley,  Arthur  M.  Schlesinger,  Eugene  M.  Violette. 

Committee  on  Endowment:  Charles  Moore,  Library  of  Congress, 
chairman. 

Committee  on  Obtaining  Transcripts  from  Foreign  Archives:  Charles 
M.  Andrews,  424  St.  Ronan  Street,  New  Haven,  chairman;  Gail- 
lard  Hunt,  Waldo  G.  Leland. 

Delegates  in  the  American  Council  of  Learned  Societies:  J.  Franklin 
Jameson,  Charles  H.  Haskins. 

Committee  on  the  George  L.  Beer  Prize:  Bernadotte  E.  Schmitt,  1938 
East  116th  Street,  Cleveland,  chairman;  George  H.  Blakeslee,  Rob- 
ert H.  Lord,  Jesse  S.  Reeves,  Mason  \Y.  Tyler. 

Committee  on  Historical  Research  in  Colleges:  William  K.  Boyd, 
Trinity  College,  Durham,  N.  C,  chairman;  E.  Merton  Coulter, 
Benjamin  B.  Kendrick,  Asa  E.  Martin,  William  W.  Sweet. 

Representatives  in  the  National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies: 
Henry  Johnson,  Arthur  M.  Schlesinger. 

Special  Committee  on  Bibliography  of  Modern  English  History:  Ed- 
ward P.  Cheyney,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  chair- 
man; Arthur  L.  Cross,  Roger  B.  Merriman,  Wallace  Notestein, 
Conyers  Read. 

Special  Committee  on  the  Historical  Congress  at  Rio  Janeiro:  John  B. 
Stetson,  jr.,  Elkins  Park,  Pa.,  chairman;  Percy  A.  Martin,  Stan- 
ford University,  Cal.,  vice-chairman;  James  A.  Robertson.  142J 
Irving  Street,  N.  E.,  Washington,  secretary;  Charles  L.  Chandler, 
Isaac  J.  Cox,  Charles  H.  Cunningham,  Julius  Klein,  Manoel  de 
Oliveira  Lima,  Edwin  V.  Morgan,  Constantine  E.  McGuire,  Wil- 
liam L.  Schurz. 

Committee  on  the  Documentary  Historical  Publications  of  the  United 
States  Government :  J.  Franklin  Jameson.  1140  Woodward  Build- 
ing. Washington,  chairman ;  Charles  Moore. 

Committee  on  the  Writing  of  History:  Jean  J.  Jusserand,  French 
Embassy,  Washington,  chairman;  Wilbur  C.  Abbott,  John  S.  Bas- 
sett,  Charles  W.  Colby. 


THE   SCHOOL  FOR  AMBASSADORS1 

Of  the  various  honors  with  which  I  have  been  favored  in  the 
course  of  a  long  career,  none  gave  me  more  pleasure  with  less  trouble 
than  the  presidency  of  the  American  Historical  Association :  for 
which,  as  the  last  sands  in  my  presidential  hour-glass  are  about  to 
fall,  I  beg  to  renew  to  the  members  of  this  society  the  expression  of 
a  truly  felt  gratitude.  The  lack  of  trouble  is  for  me  a  cause  of 
regret:  I  wish  I  had  been  better  able  to  show  my  zeal  for  the  great 
cause  we  have  at  heart.  And  what  is  that  cause,  outsiders  may  say? 
The  cause  of  truth,  with  the  persuasion  that  the  past,  better  known, 
does  not  merely  afford  amusement  to  dilettanti,  but  may  help  us  to 
discern  the  future,  to  avoid  mistakes,  to  hasten  the  coming  of  better 
days.  The  past  is  like  a  great  reflector;  we  want  to  keep  it  bright 
and  its  light  turned  toward  the  future. 

A  long  career,  I  said :  a  very  long  one,  indeed,  begun  forty-five 
years  ago  and  continued  without  a  break  for  illness  or  any  other 
cause.  The  war  of  1870  determined  my  choice;  too  young  to  enlist, 
at  school  while  the  older  boys  had  joined  the  army  and  were  defend- 
ing Belfort,  during  that  gloomy  winter,  when  half  the  college  was  set 
apart  for  troops  on  their  way  to  the  front,  we  heard  our  professors 
tirelessly  repeating  that  our  ignorance,  and  especially  our  ignorance 
of  foreign  countries,  had  been  our  bane.  And  we  were  studying 
furiously,  at  the  same  time  developing  our  bodies,  by  riding,  fencing, 
swimming,  climbing,  trying  to  be  complete  men,  learning  dead  lan- 
guages and  three  or  four  modern  ones,  graduating  in  several  branches 
instead  of  one,  in  the  hope  to  be  some  day  useful  citizens  for  hard- 
tried,  bleeding  France.  I  took  degrees  in  law,  literature,  and  science, 
and  was  studying  a  variety  of  other  matters  besides,  when  my  family 
remonstrated,  declaring:  This  cannot  go  on,  you  should  select  one 
special  profession  ;  we  leave  you  alone  this  afternoon  ;  when  we  return 
you  must  have  made  your  choice. 

So,  I  remained  alone,  in  our  country  home,  overlooking  the  valley 
of  the  Loire,  with  the  familiar  landscape  before  me,  trees,  fields,  and 
distant  mountains ;  mute  advisers.  Would  it  be  a  military  career  or 
a  civil  one?  I  spent  some  hard  moments  of  doubt,  then  thought  that, 
with  such  a  terrible  war  (we  considered  it  so  in  those  days)  so  recent, 

1  Presidential  address  delivered  before  the  American  Historical  Association 
at   St.   Louis,   December  28,    192 1. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  427 

there  would  probably  be  no  other  for  a  great  many  years ;  that  if  there 
were,  everybody  would  serve  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  that  other 
callings  might  offer  chances  of  more  immediate  usefulness.  When 
the  family  returned,  I  had  made  up  my  mind,  and  shortly  after,  hav- 
ing reached  the  necessary  age,  I  passed  the  competitive  examination 
and  entered  the  profession  which  I  have  now  followed  for  nearly 
half  a  century,  my  good  fortune  having  secured  for  me  as  my  post  of 
longest  duration,  the  United  States  of  America. 

Of  this  profession  I  should  like  to  say  a  few  words  to  you.  What 
was  it  in  former  times,  and  what  is  it  now?  Will  it  continue  of  use 
when  there  shall  no  longer  be  any  distant  posts ;  when,  from  his  seat, 
your  Secretary  of  State  will  be  able  to  call :  "  Hello,  give  me  Paris, 
give  me  London  " ;  and  even  when  Bleriot's  prediction  shall  have 
proved  true,  if  ever  it  does,  of  people  taking  their  breakfast  in  Paris, 
their  lunch  in  Xew  York,  and  flying  back  for  their  dinner  in  Paris 
the  same  day? 

I. 

Of  very  ancient  lineage,  born  of  necessity,  this  profession  reached, 
in  the  fifteenth  and  immediately  following  centuries,  such  prominence 
as  to  become  the  subject  of  numerous  treatises  in  Latin,  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  in  which  was  taught  and  described  the  art  of  diplo- 
macy, the  functions  of  the  ambassador,  the  qualities  the  man  should 
possess,  the  means  he  should  resort  to  and  abstain  from,  with  hints 
as  to  his  dress,  his  table,  his  manners,  his  talk,  his  secretaries  and 
servants,  his  wife  and  whether  he  had  better  take  her  with  him,  his 
rights  and  privileges,  the  subject  and  style  of  his  letters,  and  many 
more  topics:  a  complete  schooling.  Those  manuals  of  the  perfect 
ambassador  ("which  is  the  title  of  several  of  them)  were  especially 
numerous  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  with  some  excel- 
lent ones  of  an  earlier  or  later  date,  the  work  of  Rosergius,  Barbara, 
Dolet,  Braun,  Danes,  Maggi.  La  Mothe-Le-Yayer,  Tasso,  Paschal, 
Hotnian,  Gentili,  Marselaer,  Yera  de  Cuniga,  Bragaccia,  Germonius. 
Wicquefort,  Rousseau  de  Chamoy,  Callieres,  Pecquet,  and  a  host  of 
others,2  belonging  most  of  them  to  the  profession.  Many  are  of  great 
interest,  not  only  on  account  of  their  actual  subject,  but  for  the 
insight  they  give  into  the  private  manners  and  public  morals  of 
the  day. 

On  the  antiquity  and  nobility  of  the  art  all  agree.  Ambassadors, 
according  to  La  Mothe-Le-Yayer,  became  a  necessity  among  men  at 

-  See  a  short  bibliography  of  the  subject  in  Xys,  "  Les  Commencements  de  la 
Diplomatic",  in  the  Revue  de  Droit  International  (Brussels  and  Leipzig).  XVI. 
170,  and  Delavaud.  Rousseau  de  Chamoy   (1912).  p.  46. 


428  /.  /.  Jusserand 

the  moment,  "  or  shortly  after  ",  when,  Pandora's  fateful  box  having 
been  opened,  evils  were  scattered  throughout  the  world,  and  pros- 
pered, finding  for  their  growth  "a  fruitful  well-tilled  ground".3 
Vera  de  Cuniga  agrees,  ambassadors  became  a  necessity  after  Pan- 
dora's days,  when  the  golden  age  came  to  an  end,  and  men  began  to 
live  in  houses  and  to  divide  mine  from  thine :  "  Ambassadors  had 
then  to  try  and  show  where  equity  was,  and  recover  what  the  ambition 
and  the  force  of  the  ones  had  usurped  upon  the  weakness  or  sim- 
plicity of  the  others.  ...  It  is  reported  that  King  Belus  first  made 
use  of  this  means ;  poets  however  attribute  it  to  Palamedes."  4 

Other  writers  find  for  ambassadors  an  even  more  exalted  origin : 
the  first  ones  were  the  angels  of  God,  as  was  so  appropriately  recalled 
to  his  troops  by  King  Herod,  whose  envoy  had  been  done  to  death  by 
the  Arabs,  a  most  execrable  deed  in  the  eyes  of  every  nation,  he  said, 
especially  for  us  who  have  received  "  our  sacred  laws  from  God, 
through  his  angels,  who  are  his  heralds  and  ambassadors  ".5  Several 
commentators  took  pleasure  in  recalling  how  Solomon  was,  in  his 
wisdom,  favorable  to  ambassadors :  "  A  faithful  one  is  for  his  sender 
like  the  coolness  of  the  snow  during  the  harvest ;  he  gives  rest  to  the 
sender's  soul." 6 

Pecquet  at  a  much  later  date  declares  that  "  for  men  to  live  to- 
gether in  a  state  of  society  implies  a  kind  of  continuous  negotiation. 
.  .  .  Everything  in  life  is,  so  to  say,  intercourse  and  negotiation,  even 
between  those  whom  we  might  think  not  to  have  anything  to  hope 
or  fear  from  one  another  " .'  De  Maulde  in  our  own  days  wrote  to 
the  same  effect :  "  Diplomacy  is  as  old  as  the  world  and  will  not  die 
before  the  world  does."  s 

3  Lcgahis  sen  de  Legatione,  Legatorumque  Privilegiis,  Officio,  ac  Munere 
Libcllus  (1579).  The  institution  began,  according  to  Bragaccia,  when  the  world 
was  still  in  its  cradle:  "  Cominciarono  adunque  gli  huomini  quasi  nelli  primi  in- 
cunabuli  del  mondo  essercitar  questo  ufficio,  trattando  fatti  di  pace  e  confedera- 
tion; di  guerre."  L'Ainbasciatorc,  del  Dottore  Gasparo  Bragaccia,  Piacentino, 
Opera  .  .  .  utilissima  alia  Giovcutu,  eosi  de  Republics-  cosi  de  Corte  (Padua, 
1626). 

4  El  Enba.vador,  por  Don  Juan  Antonio  de  Vera  y  Cuniga,  Commendador  de 
la  Barra  (Seville,  1620),  fol.  22.  The  author,  born  in  15SS,  had  been  Spanish 
ambassador  to  Venice.  A  French  translation  by  Lancelot,  Le  Parfait  Ambas- 
sadeur  (Paris,  1635,  several  times  reprinted,  one  last  edition,  Leyden,  1709), 
greatly  contributed  to  the  spreading  of  his  ideas.  The  work  is  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  Jules  and   Louis. 

5  In  Josephus's  History  of  the  Jc-^s,  bk.  XV.,  ch.  S;  referred  to  by  Alberico 
Gentili,  De  Legationibus  (London,  15S5),  ch.  XT'...  "  De  Legationum  Caussa  et 
Antiquitate." 

sProv.,  xxv.  13. 

7  Discours  sur  VArt  de  Ncgocicr  (Paris,   1737),  pp.  viii,  x. 

s  La  Diploiuatie  an   Temps  dc  Machiavel   (Paris,   1S92,   3   vols.),   I.   1. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  429 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  whether  Belus  or  Palamedes.  the  angels  or 
unconscious  Pandora,  were  the  founders  of  the  order,  it  is  a  very 
ancient  one,  and  the  oldest  and  remotest  nations  had  of  necessity 
recourse  to  it.  The  more  so  that,  before  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  however  did  not  entirely  sweep  away  the  evil,  every 
nation,  including  the  most  civilized,  saw  in  the  others,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  whatever  their  state  of  development,  enemies  and  bar- 
barians. In  the  Greek  language,  the  word  fidpj3apo<;  means  a  for- 
eigner, a  man  who,  being  not  a  Greek,  is,  of  necessity,  a  barbarian. 
In  Latin  the  word  hostis  means  both  a  foreigner  and  an  enemy ;  the 
poet  Lucan  calls  a  civil  war  helium  sine  hoste,  a  war  with  no  foreigner 
(no  enemy)  in  it. 

In  spite  of  prejudices,  intercourse  was,  however,  conducive  to  a 
better  understanding  of  each  other  and  to  the  discovery  of  the  fact  that, 
notwithstanding  a  man's  having  a  native  tongue  different  from  ours, 
he  might  possibly  be  something  else  than  a  barbarian  and  an  enemy. 
Embassies  were  sent,  temporary  ones,  it  is  true,  by  all  nations,  from 
the  earliest  days;  the  Greeks  use  ambassadors,  -n-peafitK.  in  the  Iliad, 
among  whom  figures,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  that  shrewd,  unscrupulous 
slacker,  Ulysses.  Plato,  under  the  name  of  Socrates,  derides  the  use 
sometimes  made  of  sophists  for  the  purpose,  and  shows  one  of  the 
most  famous,  Hippias,  thus  explaining  the  infrequency  of  his  visits 
to  Athens :  "  Time  has  failed  me,  Socrates.  Tin  each  occasion  Elis 
has  some  business  to  settle  with  another  city,  it  is  of  me,  first  of  all. 
that  she  thinks  for  an  ambassador,  considering  me  cleverer  than  any, 
either  to  form  a  judgment  or  to  pronounce  the  words  necessary  in 
those  relations  between  states."  9  Temporarv  satisfaction,  especially 
for  the  speaker,  but  no  durable  advantage  could  be  expected,  Plato 
leads  us  to  understand,  from  the  eloquence  of  sophists. 

Immense  hopes  were  raised  when  that  new  regime  was  established 
in  the  world  which  had  for  its  dogma  no  longer :  any  foreign  nation 
is  an  enemy  nation,  but  "  love  ye  one  another  ".  The  consequence 
was  a  wonderful  attempt  to  form,  in  the  midst  of  rampant  barbarity 
and  ferocity,  of  unspeakable  sufferings  and  destruction,  of  falling 
empires  and  dying  former-day  religions,  a  first  grouping  of  all  the 
nations  of  the  world  or  at  least  the  Christian  ones,  not  in  a  league, 
or  a  societv,  but,  for  a  wonder  at  such  a  period,  a  family  of  nations : 
love  ye  one  another.1" 

9  Beginning  of  the  dialogue  Hifpins  Major. 

10  There  were  even  attempts  at  general  arbitration  covenants,  one  of  1304: 
"  Quant  an  principe  de  1'arbitrage  pour  la  solution  des  difficultes  internaiionales, 
de  tout  temps  il  a  ete  pose  et  Ton  a  cherche  a  le  faire  penetrer  dans  la  pratique. 


430  /.  /.  lusserand 

The  father  of  the  family,  the  ever  ready  umpire,  the  peacemaker, 
was  to  be  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  the  pope.  The  prodigious  attempt 
was  a  comparative  success  and  a  comparative  failure,  the  sum  total 
being  however  progress,  with  the  introduction  of  the  "  truce  of  God  ", 
the  efforts  to  localize  wars,  to  suppress  private  ones,  to  settle  disputes 
peacefully.  God  was  admittedly  the  real  ruler  of  the  world ;  popes, 
holding  their  powers  direct  from  him,  exalted  themselves  high  above 
kings :  hence  the  devising  by  kings  of  the  theory  of  their  own  divine 
right,  so  as  not  to  have  to  go  any  more  to  Canossa. 

As  the  powers  of  kings  rose,  that  of  the  pope  diminished,  but 
the  notion  of  a  family  of  Christian  nations  long  survived.  "  Man- 
kind," wrote  the  doctor  eximius,  Suarez,  in  1613,  "although  divided 
into  various  peoples  and  realms,  ever  has  a  certain  unity,  not  only  a 
specific,  but  a,  so  to  say,  political  and  moral  one,  as  evidenced  by  the 
natural  precept  of  reciprocal  love  and  pity,  which  extends  to  all.  in- 
cluding even  foreigners  of  whatever  nation."  lx     Love  ye  one  another. 

Xo  wonder  that  the  first  diplomatic  service  to  develop  was  that 
of  the  pope;  that  of  the  princes  and  republics  of  Italy  followed  suit, 
the  Venetian  one  foremost,  endowed  with  strict  regulations  as  early 
as  the  thirteenth  century.  The  dangerous,  ill-paid  function  being  not 
attractive  to  everybody,  the  Venetian  appointees  were  forbidden  under 
severe  penalties  to  refuse  to  serve  except  by  reason  of  confirmed  ill- 
health ;  the  slightest  indiscretion  was  punished;  on  their  return  the 
ambassadors  were  expected  to  hand  to  the  public  treasury  any  pres- 
ents they  had  received  while  abroad ;  they  had  to  draw  up  a  general 
report  on  their  mission,  and  those  reports  early  enjoyed  wide  fame, 
well  deserved  and  still  enduring.  The  clever  French  diplomat  and 
writer  Hotman  de  Villiers  declares  in  his  treatise  on  L'Ambassa- 
dcur,1-  that  Venetian  envoys  will  have  nothing  to  learn  from  him. 
being  themselves  past  masters. 

Des  patentes  du  roi  de  France  du  17  Juin  1304  promulguent  un  pacte  d'arbi- 
trage  permanent  avec  le  comte  de  Hainaut  .  .  .  les  cas  seront  juges  par  quatre 
arbitres  au  choix  des  deux  gouvernements.  .  .  .  Mais  cette  pratique  ne  fit  aucun 
progres ".  De  Maulde  La  Claviere.  La  Diplomatic  au  Temps  de  Machiavel 
(1892),  III.   102. 

11  "  Ratio  autem  hujus  partis  et  juris  est,  quia  humanum  genus  quantumvis 
in  varios  populos  et  regna  divisum,  semper  habet  aliquam  unitatem,  non  solum 
speeificam,  sed  etiam  quasi  politicam  et  moralem,  quam  indicat  naturale  praecep- 
tum  mutui  amoris  et  misericordiae,  quod  ad  omnes  extenditur,  etiam  ad  extraneos 
et  cujuscumque  nationis."  Tractatus  de  Legibus  ac  Deo  Legislatore  .  .  .  authorc 
P.  D.  Snares,  Granatensi  (Antwerp,   1613),  p.    129. 

12  L'Ambassadenr,  par  le  Sienr  de  Vill.  H.  (n.  p.,  1603)  ;  this  remarkable  work 
enjoyed  great  success  and  had  several  editions;  the  author,  a  Protestant.  1552- 
1636,  filled  several  missions  as  secretary  or  envoy  in  Switzerland  and  to  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  431 

The  advantage  of  possessing  such  a  service  was  so  obvious  that 
all  nations  arranged  to  have  one,  selecting  for  the  function  their  best 
men,  and  most  famous  writers,  poets,  thinkers,  speakers.  Ambassa- 
dors, a  word  in  use  from  the  thirteenth  century,  and  like  that  of 
minister  meaning  servitor,  were  often  called  orators.  Without  speak- 
ing of  numerous  preachers  and  prelates,  Italy  had  recourse  to  Dante. 
Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Machiavelli ;  Tasso  was  secretary  of  embassy; 
France  employed  Eustache  Deschamps,  the  friend  of  Chaucer,13  Alain 
Chartier.  "  father  of  French  eloquence  ",  using  at  the  Renaissance 
the  services  of  the  famous  humanist  Bude  as  an  ambassador,  and  of 
Ronsard  and  Joachim  du  Bellay  as  secretaries  of  embassy;  England 
had  for  her  envoys  Chaucer,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  Sir  Philip  Sidney;14 
Scotland  had  Sir  David  Lindsay,  and  others  of  great  fame. 


Those  missions  were  temporary  ones ;  the  custom  of  having  per- 
manent embassies  spread  greatly  however  toward  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century;  the  increase  was  coeval  with  the  establishment  of 
permanent  armies,  the  one  being  as  the  antidote  of  the  other. 

The  idea  of  a  family  of  nations  had  definitively  failed ;  the  father 
of  the  family  had  been  unequal  to  the  task ;  the  great  schism  had 
shown  a  house  divided  against  itself ;  worldly,  military,  political,  in- 
terests had  made  it  impossible  for  the  popes  to  inspire  in  the  con- 
flicting nations,  with  one  or  the  other  of  which  they  were  themselves 
more  or  less  in  league,  confidence  in  their  impartiality ;  a  new  religion 
had  sprung  up,  and  there  was  no  longer  one  Christianity  but.  a-  it 
seemed,  several,  each  warring  on  the  other. 

That  keen  observer  of  the  ways  of  the  world,  Erasmus,  was  stag- 

13  Who  described  in  one  of  his  poems  the  woes,  in  those  days,  and  in  other 
days,  of  an  "  Ambassador  and  messenger  ". 

Vous.  ambasseur  et  messager, 

Qui  allez  par  le  monde   es  cours 

Des  grands  princes  pour  besogner, 

Votre   voyage  n'est  pas  court.   .   .  . 

II    faut  que  votre   fait   soit  mis 

Au  conseil,  pour  repondre  a  plein  : 

Attendez   encor.   mon   ami  ! 

Temps  passe  et  tout  vient  a  rebours. 
Oeuvres,  ed.   de   Queux  de   St.   Hilaire,   VII.    116. 

«  The  only  perfect  ambassador  that  ever  was,  according  to  Gentili :  "  In  uno 
enim  viro  excellentem  hanc  formarn  inveniri  et  ostendi  posse  confido  ;  nam  omnia 
sic  habet,  quae  ad  summum  huiic  nostrum  oratorem  constituendum  requiruntur, 
ut  cumulatoria  etiam  habeat  et  ampliora.  Is  est  Philippus  Sydneius."  De  Lc- 
gationibus   CHannover,    160;-).  last  chapter. 


43 2  /•  /•  Jusserand 

gered  at  the  sight,  and,  writing  in  the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century  his  book  of  advice  for  the  young  prince  who  was  to  be  the 
famous  Emperor  Charles  V.,  he  wondered  how  this  retrogression 
could  be  possible  among  Christian  nations :  how  can  they  try  to  de- 
stroy one  another?  "  In  both  camps  Christ  is  present,  as  if  He  were 
fighting  against  Himself."  How  could  the  idea  of  a  family  of  na- 
tions have  fallen  into  such  disregard  ?  "  Plato  calls  the  fights  be- 
tween Greeks  and  Greeks  sedition,  not  wars,  and  they  should  be 
conducted,  he  recommends,  with  great  moderation.  "What  shall  we 
therefore  call  battles  between  Christians  and  Christians  when  they  are 
bound  together  by  such  links?"  Family  ties  are  falling  into  dis- 
respect and  the  world  goes  back  to  the  time  when  the  words  foreigner 
and  enemy  meant  one  and  the  same  thing :  "  Nowadays  the  English- 
man hates  the  French,  the  Frenchman  the  English,  for  no  other  cause 
except  that  he  is  English."  The  same  with  all  the  others.  "How 
can  it  be  that  we  are  absurdly  separated  by  those  mere  names,  more 
than  we  are  bound  together  by  the  name  of  Christ?"15 

No  hope,  indeed,  was  left  for  a  family  of  nations.  In  the  cease- 
less turmoil,  with  religious  wars  added  to  political  ones,  and  armies 
overrunning  France,  Italy,  Germany,  whence  could  come  any  faint 
ray  of  hope  for  better  and  more  peaceful  days?  There  seemed  to  be 
no  hope ;  writing  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  his 
famous  Arbre  des  Bataillcs,  Prior  Honore  Bonet  had  already  devoted 
one  of  his  chapters  to  the  question:  "Is  it  a  possible  thing  that  nat- 
urally the  world  be  in  peace?"  and  the  first  sentence  in  the  chapter 
was :  "  To  this,  I  answer,  No."  10  And  it  had  gone  since  from  bad 
to  worse. 

Having  nowhere  else  to  turn,  many  thought  of  those  messengers 
of  peace,  and  assuagers  of  quarrels,  the  public  envoys ;  and  then 
began  to  flourish  that  extraordinary  literature  of  manuals  to  teach 
those  men  their  duties,  and  to  impress  on  them  the  sacredness  and 
the  quasi-sacerdotal  character  of  a  mission,  the  chief  object  of  which 
was,  of  course,  the  service  of  their  country,  but  moreover  that  of  the 
peace  and  welfare  of  the  whole  world.  Early  expressed,  this  view 
was  maintained  for  ages,  the  consequence  being  more  and  more  strict 

15  And  this  when  our  fragile  lives  are  troubled  by  so  many  calamities:  "  Quam 
fugax,  quam  brevis,  quam  fragilis  est  hominum  vita,  et  quot  obnoxia  calamitatibus, 
quippe  quam  tot  morbi,  tot  casus  impetunt  assidue,  ruinae,  naufragia,  terrae  motus, 
fulmina  ?  Nihil  igitur  opus  bellis  accersere  mala  et  tamen  hinc  plus  malorum 
quam  ex  omnibus  illis."  Institutio  Principis  Christians  (first  ed.,  Louvain, 
1516). 

18 "  Si  c'est  chose  possible  que  naturellement  le  monde  soit  en  paix  ?  A 
quoy  je  vous  respons  que  nennil."  VArbrc  dcs  Bataillcs,  ed.  Nys  (1SS3),  part 
III.,  ch.  2.     Eonet  was  prior  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Salon. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  433 

requirements  exacted  from  people  on  whose  action  so  much  depended. 
In  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  French  prelate  Bernard  du 
Rosier  (Rosergius),  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  had  written  one  of  the 
first  manuals  for  ambassadors,  "grande  hoc  officium  ne  vilescat".17 
As  late  as  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  Lescalopier  de 
Nourar  wrote  his,  in  order  to  show  that,  smoothed  by  negotiators, 
the  road  followed  by  mankind  could  "  become  the  road  to  happiness. 
The  welfare  of  nations  is  in  the  hands  of  ambassadors ;  their  designs 
maintain  calm  or  blow  troubles.     They  arm  or  pacify  nations  ",1S 

Immense  therefore  was  the  responsibility  of  those  men ;  immense 
the  need  that  they  be  well  chosen,  well  prepared  for  the  task, 
and  that  they  act  properly.  Never  was.  and  no  wonder,  a  public 
career  the  occasion  of  so  many  studies  and  guide-books,  a  rather 
puzzling  collection,  it  is  true,  for  the  advice  in  it,  sometimes  contra- 
dictory, was  always  imperative,  being  ever  justified  by  examples  from 
the  Bible  and  the  almost  equally  indisputable  practice  of  the  ancients. 

In  the  theories  of  an  art  so  important  for  mankind  nothing  was 
neglected,  from  the  physical  appearance  of  the  person  to  the  most 
exalted  of  the  religious  and  moral  virtues.  According  to  those  ex- 
perts, an  ambassador  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  good-looking;  a 
man  who  is  lame,  says  the  Greek  scholar  and  former  secretary  of 
embassy,  Dolet,  whose  remark  does  not  indicate  much  kindhearted- 
ness  in  his  contemporaries,  "  is  received  with  laughter  ",19  Arch- 
bishop Germonius  insists :  "  Beauty  commends  a  man  better  than  any 
letter  "  ;  remember  that  "  David  is  called  handsome  by  God  ",  and  that 
one  "  could  not  be  a  Vestal  if  afflicted  with  any  deformity  ".2rt  Vera 
y  Cuniga  tolerates  baldness,  for  the  unanswerable  reason  that  Caesar 
was  bald,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  this  great  general  would 
not  have  been  a  great  ambassador  if  he  had  tried. 

Each  is  however  wise  enough  to  add  that  talent  is  after  all  the 

17  Ambaxiator,  Brerilogus  Prosaico  Moralique  Dogmate  pro  Felici  et  Pros- 
pero  Ducatu  circa  Ambaxiatas  Insistencium  Excerptus,  in  MS.  at  the  National 
Library,  Paris,  printed  by  V.  E.  Hrabar  in  his  De  Legatis  et  Legationibus  Trac- 
tatus  Varii  (Dorpat.  1906).  The  author,  Bernard  du  Rosier  (or  de  la  Roseraie), 
wrote  his  Ambaxiator  in  1436;  he  died,  archibishop  of  Toulouse,  in  1475. 
See  also  Hrabar  in  Revue  de  Droit  International,  second  series,  I.  314. 

19  Le  Ministere  du  Negociateur  (Amsterdam,  1763),  p.  xvi.  The  author,  a 
"  maitre  des  requetes "  and  writer  on  political  subjects,  was  born  in  Paris,  1709, 
and  died  there   1779. 

19  "  Quod  si  deformes  sumus,  aut  vitio  aliquo  deturpati,  aut  re  aliqua  manci, 
turn  cum  risu  excipimur."     De  Officio  Legati  (1541),  p.  11. 

20  Anastasii  Germonii 4rchiepiscopi  et   Comitis    Tarantasiensis   et.  .  .  . 

Allobrogorum  Ducis.  .  .  .  Legati.  De  Legatis  Princifum  et  Populorum  (Rome, 
1627I,  bk.  I.,  ch.  \2.  Born  in  Piedmont  in  1551,  in  great  favor  with  several 
popes,  he  died  in   1627,  being  then  ambassador  of  Savoy  to  Spain. 


434  J-  J-  Jusserand 

chief  thing,  and  must  be  considered  first  in  the  selection  of  an  am- 
bassador. So  much  the  better  if  he  has  good  looks,  if  he  is  in.  at 
least.  "  moderately  easy  circumstances  ",21  and  possesses  "  a  well 
sounding  name"  (legatum  bene  sonans  nouien  habere  debet),  but 
merit  outranks  all  else;  Cicero's  name  was  commonplace,  ignobilis; 
none  more  famous.  Actual  merits  are  of  more  import  than  the  deeds 
of  our  ancestors.22 

According  to  nearly  all,  the  envoy  should  be  neither  so  old  as  to 
be  inactive  through  ill-health  or  the  number  of  his  years,  nor  so 
young  as  to  prove  immature  or  inconsiderate.23  Vera  wonders 
whether  it  would  not  be  appropriate  to  send  in  some  cases  two  am- 
bassadors, an  older  one  who  would  shine  by  his  wisdom  and  a  younger 
one  by  his  sprightliness.  The  temper  of  the  prince  to  whom  the 
ambassador  is  sent  should  moreover  be  taken  into  account,  for  this 
as  for  the  rest ;  it  would  never  do,  Hotman  says  with  unimpeachable 
wisdom,  to  send  a  Protestant  to  the  pope  or  a  bishop  to  the  Turk. 

Written  most  of  them  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  or  under  its 
influence,  those  treatises  want  the  ambassador  to  be  very  learned  and 
supremely  eloquent.  He  should  be  able  to  speak  admirably,  either 
in  private  or  in  public,  the  latter,  says  Hotman,  being  of  importance 
especially  "  in  popular  states  ",  which  continues  indeed  to  be  true. 
All  insist  on  eloquence.  The  Italian  jurist  Maggi  wishes  his  perfect 
ambassador  to  possess  "supreme  eloquence,  the  most  splendid  gift", 
he  says,  "  bestowed  on  mankind  by  immortal  God  ".-*  No  one,  ac- 
cording to  Tasso,  who  wrote  on  ambassadors  a  dialogue  less  famous 
than  his  Gcriisalenunc  Liberata,  "can  be  a  perfect  ambassador,  who 
is  not  at  the  same  time  a  good  orator ",  and  for  this  reason  the 
Romans  had  early  called  their  envoys  "  orators  "."  For  Vera,  elo- 
quence "  is  the  most  essential  part  of  the  ambassador  " ;  Gentili  has  a 
whole  chapter,  "Legatus  ut  sit  orator".20     Some  ambassadors  of  the 

-i"  En  quelque  mediocrite  pour  le  moins."  Hotman,  L'Ambassadeur  (1603), 
p.  12. 

22  Germonius,  De  Lcgatis  Principum  et  Populorum  (1627),  bk.  I.,  ch.  11. 
"  On  ne  choisit  pas,"  Blaise  Pascal  said  later,  "  pour  gouverner  un  vaisseau 
celui  des  voyageurs  qui  est  de  meilleure  maison."     Pensees. 

23  "  Trop  gay,  leger  et  imprudent,  comme  un  qui  fut  envoye  a  quelques  al- 
liez  de  ceste  couronne,  lequel  se  pourmenoit  le  soir  et  partie  de  la  nuit  par  les  rues, 
avec  des  gens  de  son  aage,  jouant  de  la  mandore,  en  chausses  et  en  pourpoint." 
Hotman,  L'Ambassadeur,  p.  iS. 

2<  De  Legato  Libri  Duo  Octaviani  Maggi  (Venice,   1566). 

25  "  Non  puo  dunque  alcuno  esser  perfetto  ambasciatore,  ch'insieme  non  sia 
buon'  oratore."  //  Mcssagiero,  Dialogo  del  Signor  Torquato  Tasso,  first  ed. 
(Venice,   15S2). 

-i' De    Lcgaliotubus    Libri    III.     (London,    15S5,    several    editions).     Alberico 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  435 

period  had  among  their  personnel  a  professional  orator  to  help  them 
with  their  speeches. 

The  envoy  must,  however,  be  careful  not  to  allow  himself  to  be 
carried  away  by  his  own  gift  of  speech.  After  having  stated  that 
"  prudence  and  learning  are  of  little  avail,  for  an  ambassador,  without 
eloquence",  Braun,  whose  treatise  is  of  1548,  says:  "The  name  of 
eloquent  we  refuse  however  to  the  verbose,  the  irrepressible,  the  in- 
considerate, the  empty  and  insincere  speakers,  such  as  the  courts  of 
kings  and  princes  are  wont  to  produce  and  foster,  who  fill  the  lands 
and  the  seas  with  the  vain  sound  of  their  words  ...  to  them  applies 
the  saying  of  the  Scriptures :  the  fool  multiplies  his  words."  The 
really  eloquent  aptly  fit  their  discourse  to  the  occasion ;  "  their  words 
do  not  come  from  their  lips  but  from  their  hearts."  =T 

Able  to  speak  at  length  when  there  is  need,  the  ambassador  should 
by  preference  be  brief. -s  "His  way  of  speaking",  Hotman  says, 
"  will  be  grave,  brief  and  weighty,  not  interspersed  with  many  quota- 
tions, as  a  master  of  arts  would  do.  or  with  rare  words,  and  anti- 
quated :  I  have  seen  more  than  one  fail  through  affectation."-9  He 
must  attune  himself  to  the  people  he  addresses ;  to  "  pindarize  "  is 
not  the  way  to  touch  the  Swiss  or  the  Dutch.  He  should  prepare 
his  public  speeches  with  care,  but  never  learn  them  by  heart,  for  fear 
that,  if  a  word  escapes  him,  he  might  utterly  break  down. 

As  for  knowledge,  that  of  the  ambassador,  according  to  his  most 
zealous  teachers  and  well-wishers,  should  be  boundless.  Sir  Thomas 
More's  Utopians  had  ambassadors  and  they  selected  them,  as  well  as 
their  priests,  "  oute  of  this  ordre  of  the  learned  ".3"  The  envoy  must 
be  an  indefatigable  reader,31  else  he  is  as  sure  to  fail  as  a  soldier  who 
should  be  indifferent  to  physical  exercise.  History  is  to  be,  of 
course,  his  chief  study ;  on  this  all  agree,  but  this  is  only  one  item  of 
the  living  encyclopedia  he  must  be.  Maggi  wants  him  well  versed 
in  the  Scriptures,  in  the  art  of  dialectics,  in  the  civil  science,  that  is 

Gentili,  an  Italian  Protestant  refugee  and  very  prolific  author,  was  professor  of 
civil  law  at  Oxford;  he  died  in  160S. 

27  One  of  the  rare  good  passages  in  Eraun>  a  Wiirttemberg  jurist  (d.  1563), 
himself  remarkably  verbose:  D.  Conradi  Bruni  Jureconsulti  Opera  Tria.  .  .  . 
De  Legationibus,  etc.  (Mainz,  154S,  fol.i.  Of  pedantic  disposition,  he  examines 
not  only  who  can  be  an  ambassador  but  who  should  not,  taking  the  trouble  to 
exclude  children. 

2S  "  Quid  enim  juvat  inanis  loquacitas  ?  cui  Usui  est  supervacanea  scribendi 
ostentatio?"     Dolet,  Dc   Officio  Lcgati   (1541).  p.   12. 

=»  L'Ambassadeur,  pp.   16  if. 

so  Ralph  Robinson's  English  version,  first  ed.   1551.  Arber's  ed.  p.  S6. 

si "  Legato  itaquc  opus  est  lectione,  eaque  assidua ;  ne  sit  inutilis  labor 
atque  inanis  opera."      Germonius,  p.  79. 


436  /.  /.  Jusserand 

the  government  of  states  and  cities,  in  natural  history,  astronomy, 
mathematics,  geography,  the  military  art,  philosophy,  for,  as  Plato 
has  observed,  the  city  will  not  be  happy  until  philosophers  reign  or 
kings  philosophize;  he  must  know  the  lands  and  the  seas  and  be  a 
good  musician ;  he  should  practise  contemplation,  for  it  is  the  source 
of  action. 

Maggi,  who  had  painted  his  ambassador  as  his  compatriots  painted 
their  glorified,  godlike  princes  on  the  ceilings  of  their  palaces,  had 
gone  so  far  that  some  protested,  Hotman  for  instance,  who  re- 
proaches him  and  his  like  for  making  of  their  diplomat  "  a  theologian, 
astrologer,  dialectician,  excellent  orator,  learned  as  Aristotle  and  wise 
as  Solomon  ".  But,  while  recalling  that  to  be  an  expert  de  omni  re 
scibili  was,  especially  for  a  man  in  active  life,  an  impossibility,  critics 
might  have  acknowledged  the  fact,  still  a  fact,  that  there  is  no  kind 
of  knowledge,  science,  or  accomplishment  that  cannot  happen  to  be 
of  use  in  such  a  profession,  and  therefore  as  many  as  "  nostra  tarn 
actuosa  vita  "  allows  us,  to  use  Maggi's  words,  should  be  acquired. 
I  should  have  been  greatly  surprised,  if  I  may  quote  a  personal  ex- 
ample, had  any  one  told  me,  when  in  boyhood  days  I  was  swimming 
rivers  and  climbing  rocks,  that  this  "  accomplishment "  would  be  of 
service  years  later,  when,  an  ambassador  in  far-off  America,  in  order 
to  keep  company  with  the  chief  of  the  state,  President  Roosevelt,  I 
swam  the  Potomac  and  climbed  the  quarries  south  of  the  stream. 
The  same  with  contemplation ;  many  may  have  experienced,  as  I 
often  have,  the  good  done  by  a  solitary  walk,  in  inspiring  resolutions 
and  rectifying  judgments. 

Even  those  however  who  did  not  go  so  far  as  Maggi,  mapped  out 
a  wide  enough  plan  of  studies  for  their  ambassadorial  pupil.  Hot- 
man,  for  all  his  criticism,  wants  his  envoy  to  know  history,  moral  and 
political  philosophy,  foreign  languages,  Roman  civil  law,  and  gen- 
erally speaking,  to  be  addicted  to  letters,  for  such  an  intellectual 
training  "teaches  you  how  to  talk  and  answer,  to  judge  of  the  justice 
of  a  war,  of  the  equity  of  all  pretensions  and  requests  .  .  .  how  to 
weigh  reasons  and  escape  sophisms  and  subtilities  ".  If  the  appointee 
lacks  that  education,  he  must,  even  while  in  office,  try  to  acquire  as 
much  of  it  as  he  can,  "  though,  truth  to  say,  it  is  rather  late  to  begin 
digging  a  well  when  feeling  thirsty.  .  .  .  He  will  especially  avoid 
showing  disdain  for  lettered  people,  but  display  consideration  to  men 
of  learning  and  experience,  who  are  cherished  in  all  civilized  states  ".32 
A  just  measure  must  be  observed  by  him  and  he  shall  carefully  ab- 

32  L'Ambassadeur,  p.   13. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  437 

stain  from  imitating,  says  YVicquefort,  "  1'humeur  contredisante  "  of 
pedants.33 

Foreign  languages  were  to  be  learned  by  the  ambassador,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  necessarily  possessed  Latin  which  was  in  early 
times  the  common  language  of  all  Christian  nations,  and  French 
which  had  succeeded  Latin,  being  spoken,  says  Rousseau  de  Chamoy, 
"  by  most  princes  and  ministers  with  whom  ambassadors  of  France 
have  to  deal  ".'ji  It  is  nevertheless  a  great  advantage  to  know  the 
idiom  of  the  country  where  you  are.  and  the  people  are  grateful  to 
you  for  the  effort.  The  idea  however  that  English  should  be  one  of 
the  languages  to  be  learned  never  occurred  to  any  one,  and  it  does  not, 
to  my  knowledge,  appear  in  any  list  drawn  then,  of  those  to  be  studied. 
Besides  Italian,  Latin,  Spanish,  French,  German.  Maggi's  list  includes 
Turkish,  but  not  English.  Even  Callieres's  list,  which  is  of  1716, 
omits  English.35 

As  to  the  moral  virtues  of  the  ambassador  the  manuals  of  the 
period  are  no  less  exacting  than  as  to  his  learning.  Was  not  the  am- 
bassador a  kind  of  lay  priest,  with  a  sacred  task  and  moral  duties  to 
fulfill,  of  interest  for  the  whole  of  mankind?  The  Ruler  of  the  world 
must  guide  him  ;  piety  must  therefore  be  one  of  his  basic  qualities  :  on 
this  all  manuals  agree.  Bernard  du  Rosier  draws,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  a  list  of  twenty-six  virtues  with  which  this  pacificator  of 
quarrels  must  be  endowed:  he  is  expected  to  be  "  veracious,  upright, 
modest,  temperate,  discreet,  kindly,  honest,  sober,  just  ",  etc.,  etc.3'3 
Ermolo  Barbaro.  in  the  same  century,  wants  him  to  have  "  hands  and 
eyes  as  pure  as  those  of  the  priest  officiating  at  the  altar.  Let  him  re- 
member that  he  can  do  nothing  more  meritorious  for  the  Republic  than 
to  lead  an  innocent  and  holy  life  ".37  The  same  views  in  the  following 
centuries:  "The  ambassador."  says  the  friend  of  Ronsard,  Bishop 
Pierre  Danes,  who  had  taught  Greek  at  the  College  de  France  and  rep- 
resented the  king  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  "  must  appear,  in  his  private 
life,  pious,  just,  and  a  friend  of  the  common  quiet  ".:js  Dolet  want? 
him  irreproachable  in  his  morals  even  in  countries  where,  immorality 

33  L'Ambassadeur  et  scs  Fonctions  (the  Hague,   1681),  I.   16S. 
ML'Idee  du  Parfait  Ambassadeitr  (16071,  ed.  Delavaud.  p.  24. 

35  "  II  serait  encore  a  souhaiter  qu'ils  apprissent  les  langues  vivantes  afin  de 
n'etre  pas  exposes  a  l'infidelite  ou  ['ignorance  des  interpretes  et  d'etre  delivres 
de  l'embarras  de  les  introduire  aux  audiences  des  Princes  et  de  leur  faire  part 
de  secrets  importants."  His  list  includes  German.  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Latin. 
De  la  Maniere  de  Negocier,  p.  oS. 

36  Ambaxiator,  Brevilogus,  as  above,  p.  5. 
3-  De   Officio   Legati.   as   above,  p.   70. 

3SCo)iseils  a  un  Ambassadeur  (15611,  ed.  Delavaud  (1915).  P-  "■ 

AM.   HIST.   REV.,   VOL.   XXVII. — 30. 


433  J.  J.  Tusserand 

being  widely  practised,  his  conforming  to  the  general  custom  would 
possibly  be  rather  approved  than  blamed :  "  Virtutis  studiosissimus 
habeatur  "  ;  avoiding  however  crabbedness  :  "  summamque  severitatem 
summa  cum  hnmanitate  jungat".30  Hotmail's  ambassador  is  to  be 
above  all  an  honest  man,  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  trustworthy  for 
all,  "  careful  not  to  promise  lightly,  but  religiously  doing  what  he  has 
once  promised ;  for,  of  course,  people  are  less  offended  by  a  refusal 
than  by  a  perfidy  ".  Bragaccia  wants  him  to  possess  every  virtue, 
and  devotes  a  separate  chapter  in  his  huge  treatise  to  each  virtue, 
recommending  moreover  to  his  envoy  to  appeal,  in  his  difficulties, 
"first  to  God,  the  source  of  all  good".40  Let  him  be  virtuous,  says 
Germonius,  who  however,  as  we  shall  see,  condones  lying,  "  for  there 
is  nothing  more  lovable  than  virtue,  nothing  that  better  wins  men's 
love,  so  much  so  that  we  love,  in  a  way,  for  their  virtue  and  probity, 
even  men  whom  we  have  never  seen  ".41 

An  anonymous  Frenchman,  of  about  1600,  desires  the  ambassador 
to  show  himself  "  a  great  observer  and  defender  of  his  religion,  of 
justice,  and  of  the  common  weal  "A  Louis  XIV.  had  observers  to 
tell  him  whether  his  ambassadors  went  to  mass  every  day,  and  one  of 
them,  Barrillon,  accredited  to  England,  got  a  severe  remonstrance 
because  he  did  not,  and  because  he  had  been  seen  talking  with  his 
neighbors  during  the  service.43  This  however  was  no  longer  piety, 
but,  in  an  age  of  pomp,  gold  lace,  wigs,  and  feathers,  a  show  thereof. 

Drinking,  which,  as  one  of  the  manuals  recalls,  is  described  by 
Seneca  as  "  a  voluntary  madness  ",  is  wrong  and  dangerous,  but  in 
some  countries  of  central  and  northern  Europe,  indispensable;  it  is 
therefore  regretfully  allowed. 

A  fundamental  virtue  in  an  ambassador  is  punctuality.  "  The 
people  of  Troy  sent  their  deputies  to  Tiberius,  in  order  to  offer  him 
condolences  on  the  death  of  his  sons,  seven  or  eight  months  after  the 
event.  'And  I,'  said  the  emperor,  'deeply  regret  the  loss  you  sus- 
tained of  Hector  your  good  and  valorous  compatriot.'  At  which  all 
laughed  for  Hector  had  died  several  centuries  before."  44 

39  Dc  Officio  Lcgali  (1541),  p.   17. 

*o  L'Ambasciatore    (Padua, 
verso  Dio  dell  Ambasciatore  " — ' 
a   Dio,   fonte  d'ogni  bene,   senza 
humani  sforzi  e  consigli." 

"Df  Lcgalis   (1627I,  p.   70. 

*-  "  Instruction     Generalle    des 
ioire  Diplomatique  (191,0.  P-  773- 

•»3  Unprinted  letter  of  Colbert  de  Croissy  to  Barrillon,  April  13,  16S6,  Archives 
of   the   French   foreign   office,   "  Angleterre ",   CLVIII.,   fol.   209. 

"Hotman,  quoting  Suetonius;   L'Ambassadeur,  p.   27. 


6261,   bk.    I., 

ch.    S.    "  Delia    Pieta    e    Religione 

Diciamo  adu 

nque,  ch'egli  dovra  prima  ricorrere 

I'aiuto   e   con 

siglio   del  quale   sono   vani  tutti   gli 

■s    Ambassad 

curs  ",    ed.    Grisclle,    Revue    d'H:s- 

The  School  for  Ambassadors  439 

The  good  ambassador  will  watch  over  his  words,  never  deride  the 
country  he  is  in  nor  disparage  the  prince  to  whom  he  is  accredited; 
he  must  not  "blame  the  form  of  a  popular  government",  much  less 
will  he  venture  any  obloquy  to  the  detriment  of  his  own  people: 
"  Our  country  is  our  mother  .  .  .  we  must  be  as  jealous  of  her  honor 
as  of  our  own."  45 

Owing  to  the  dangers  accompanying  certain  missions,  a  tempera- 
ment impervious  to  fear  was  held  indispensable : 

For  which  cause  the  Romans  and  other  republics,  well  aware  of  the 
perilous  character  of  legations,  honored  with  a  statue  the  memory  of 
those  who  had  died  in  fulfilling  such  missions.  Hence  the  blunt 
reply  of  an  Athenian  ambassador  to  King  Philip  of  Macedon  who  threat- 
ened him  with  having  his  bead  cut  off:  "  If  thou  hast  this  head  removed, 
my  country  will  give  me  another  which  will  be  immortal,  statuam  pro 
capite;  pro  morte  immortalitatem." 

It  is  not  everybody  however  that  would  enjoy  the  change,  and  more 
than  one  would  prefer  keeping  his  own.4" 

III. 

Among  the  moral  questions  relating  to  the  ambassadorial  profes- 
sion, none  was  more  passionately  discussed,  for  centuries  in  succes- 
sion, than  that  of  whether  an  ambassador  should  swerve  from  the 
truth,  when  his  country's  good  is  at  stake,  that  is,  whether  he  should 
answer  the  definition  of  his  calling  humorously  inscribed  in  the  album 
of  a  German  merchant  at  Augsburg,  in  1604,  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton, 
when  on  his  way  to  Venice  as  English  ambassador :  "  Legatus  est  vir 
bonus  peregre  missus  ad  mentiendum  reipublicae  causa ",  a  joke 
which,  brought  to  the  notice  of  a  king  who  could  never  understand 
one,  James  I.,  caused  the  envoy  to  fall  into  temporary  disgrace.47 
Casuists,  innumerable  in  those  days,  had  a  splendid  field  for  the  exer- 
cise of  their  ingenuity,  and  of  their  knowledge  of  precedents,  classical 
authors,  and  the  Bible. 

For  a  few.  there  was  no  question:  Solus  populi,  suprcma  lex;  for 
fewer,  there  was  no  question  :  Super  omnia  Veritas.     Machiavelli  can- 

« ibid.,  p.  3S. 

■*6  Same  page. 

47  Under  the  name  of  Oporinus  Grubinius,  one  of  his  many  aliases,  the  in- 
famous blackmailer  Gaspard  Scioppius.  a  man  of  several  religions  and  no  faith, 
who  alleged  that  Wotton  had  tried  to  have  him  assassinated  in  Milan,  wrote  a 
whole  pamphlet  on  this  incident,  concluding  that,  so  far  as  Wotton  himself  was 
concerned,    the    true    definition    was:    "Legatus    Calvinianus,    maxime    Anglicanus, 

latrocinandum   Reipublicae  suae 
~st    Definitio    Legati    Calviniani 


vir  bonus,  peregre  m 

issus  ad  mentiendi 

isa."     Oporini    Grubin 

U    Legatus    Latro , 

igolstadt,   16 1 5>. 

440  /.  /.  Jusserand 

not  imagine  that  discussion  be  possible :  when  the  country  is  at  stake, 
the  result  only  counts,  and  there  is  "no  longer  any  question  of  just 
or  unjust,  merciful  or  cruel,  praiseworthy  or  shameful  ",48  For  most, 
however,  the  question  has  to  be  discussed  and,  true  casuists  as  they 
are.  they  first  peremptorily  state  that  an  ambassador  should  never  lie, 
for  "  lying  is  a  mortal  sin  "  ;  and  then  they  add  that,  in  certain  circum- 
stances, he  must.  They  busy  themselves  thereupon  to  find  the  con- 
cord of  this  discord  and  their  usual  way  consists,  after  having  elo- 
quently declared  in  favor  of  absolute  truth,  in  adding  a  little  but  or  a 
subtle  distinguo. 

Many  save  themselves  by  setting  apart  what  they  call  officious  lies, 
officiosa  mcudacia,  by  which  they  mean  those  caused  by  the  function, 
officii  causa:*9  a  sufficient  justification  even  for  an  ambassador  an- 
swering Wotton's  ironical  definition. 

Braun  first  rejects  the  officious  lie,  then  admits  it  if  no  third  party 
is  to  suffer.  Tasso  has  also  recourse  to  a  distinguo/'"  Gentili  writes 
a  treatise  Dc  Abusu  Mendacii  which  is  rather  one  Dc  I'stt,  so  numer- 
ous are  the  cases  when  lies  are  justifiable,  according  to  his  count,  on 
the  part  of  physicians,  poets,  historians,  theologians,  and  politicians ; 
an  admirer  of  Machiavelli  he  agrees  with  him :  the  saving  of  the  coun- 
try is  the  supreme  law.51  Paschalius  declares  decidedly  against  lying, 
adding  however  the  usual  but:  "1  want  the  ambassador  to  shine  by 
truth,  the  best  assured  of  virtues.  .  .  .  But  I  am  not  so  boorishly 
exacting  as  to  entirely  close  the  lips  of  the  envoy  to  officious  lies."  52 
For  pompous,  pedantic,  retrograde  Marselaer  the  ideal  ambassador 
must  be  very  noble  by  birth,  very  rich,  and  perfect  at  dissembling  and 
lying;  such  is  the  rule  of  the  game;  it  is  necessary  cum  vulpe  vulpi- 
nari.s3  Bacon's  essay  "  On  Truth  "  resembles  that  of  Gentili,  so  much 
does  it  contain  in  favor  of  lies,  a  necessary  alloy  to  the  pure  gold 
of  truth:  "A  mixture  of  a  lie  doth  ever  add  pleasure."  Truth  abso- 
lute is  "  the  honor  of  man's  nature  ",  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  a 
"  mixture  of  falsehood  is  like  alloy  in  coin  of  gold  and  silver,  which 
may  make  the  metal  work  better,  but  it  embaseth  it  ",54 

48  "  Dove  si  delibera  al  tutto  della  salute  della  patria,  non  vi  debbe  cadere 
alcuna  consideratione  ne  di  giusto,  ne  d'ingiusto,  ne  di  pietoso,  ne  di  crudele,  ne 
di  laudabile,  ne  d'ingnominioso  anzi  prosposto  ogn'altro  rispetto  seguire  al  tutto 
quel  partito  che  li  salvi  la  vita  et  mantenghile  la  liberta."  Discorsi  .  .  .  sopra 
la  Prima  Dcca  di  Tito  Lirio  (Venice,   154°)- 

*»  Scioppius.   as   above,   p.   3. 

50"  Ma  io  teco  favellando,  cosi  distinguero."     //  Messagiero. 

51  Alberici  Gentilis  .  .   .  Dc  Abusu   Mendacii  (Hannover,   1599). 

62  Legatus   (Paris,    1613),  cliap.   LIV.;   first  ed.   Rouen,   1598. 

53  Frederici  de  Marselaer  Equitis,  Legatus  (Antwerp.  1626),  p.  170;  first  ed.. 
less  complete,  1618. 

■•*  A  late  essay,  first  published  in   1625. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  44' 

Vera  and  Bragaccia  surpass  all  as  casuists.  According  to  the 
latter.  "  Pythagoras  being  asked  when  men  most  resembled  the  gods, 
answered,  '  when  they  speak  truth  '.  And  wisely  to  be  sure,  for  there 
is  nothing  belonging  so  properly  to  God  as  truth."  35  He  demon- 
strates, however,  that  "  in  case  of  urgency  or  for  a  good  reason  ",  one 
may  consent  not  to  be  so  very  godlike;  there  are  moreover  many 
ways  to  speak  the  truth  without  revealing  it,  "  for  example  when  you 
include  the  lesser  in  the  greater,  as  one  would  say,  when  having  ten 
crowns,  that  he  has  two ".  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the 
officious  lie,  bugia  officiosa,  is  a  sin,  but  circumstances  can  attenuate 
the  fault. 

Vera  is  in  no  way  inferior  as  a  casuist.  For  him,  "there  is  no 
end  so  honest  that  may  cause  a  lie  to  be  condoned,  or  may  exempt 
the  liar  from  mortal  sin  ".  True  it  is  that  the  people  of  a  different 
opinion  allege  that  inventions  and  artifices  are  indispensable  antidotes 
against  "  the  venom  of  a  powerful  enemy  ",  and  are  a  means  for 
transforming  inequality  into  equality.  They  say  also  that  "  Nature, 
and  God  her  maker,  have  endowed  with  ruse  and  shrewdness  the 
animals  which  they  have  not  armed  with  teeth  and  nails,  so  that  the 
ones  may  compensate  the  others  ".  But  this  is  a  false  doctrine,  based 
on  pagan  authors  and  misinterpreted  Bible.  "  The  ambassador  must 
avoid  this  path,  and  beware  of  causing  the  plans  of  his  king  to 
develop  along  such  a  line." 

We  seem  to  be  on  firm  ground,  but  we  are  not,  for  Vera  now 
comes  to  the  usual  distinguo,  and  persuades  himself  that,  "between 
those  two  extremes,  that  is  to  say  to  conduct  business  with  down- 
right falsehood  or  downright  truthfulness,  there  can  be  found  a  mid- 
way which  is  the  golden  path  of  Horatius,  and  we  shall  move  forth 
without  falling  into  the  abyss  of  evil,  though  swerving  a  little  from 
the  straight  line  of  perfect  purity  "/""'  Numerous  examples  follow, 
of  people  who.  in  old  or  recent  times,  acted  thus  and.  according  to 
Vera,  deserved  praise. 

On  dissembling,  which  is  very  near  lying,  Vera  has  no  doubt. 
"  Blamable  in  a  private  man,  it  is  excusable  in  public  business,  since 
it  is  impossible  to  manage  government  affairs  well  if  one  is  unable  to 
dissemble  and  feign.  This  ability  is  acknowledged  as  the  true  at- 
tribute of  kings,  and  it  has  been  observed  long  ago  that  one  who  does 
not  know  how  to  feign  is  inapt  to  reign." 

To  the  credit  of  Hotrhan,  chief  spokesman  of  the  early  French 
school  of  diplomacy,  it  must  be  said  that,  while  referring  to  the  Bible 

"  L'Ambasciatore  (Padua.   1626),  p.  430. 

50  El  Enba.rador   (Seville,    1620),  fol.  87,  88,  99,    107,    in. 


442  /.  /.  Jusserand 

and  admitting  that  there  are  cases  when  a  falsehood  is  unavoidable, 
he  feels,  at  the  thought,  pangs  of  regret,  which  is  very  much  to  his 
honor.  "  To  act  thus  is  hard,"  he  says,  "  for  a  man  of  worth  who 
does  not  care  to  wound  his  conscience  in  order  to  be  considered 
clever ;  it  is  hard  for  a  frank  and  generous  soul  who,  in  lying,  strains 
his  nature :  and  no  wonder,  since  to  lie  and  dissemble  is  an  undoubted 
mark  of  a  low-hearted  and  low-born  individual."  There  is  however 
a  difference  between  delusive  words  used  to  harm,  or  used  to  help, 
as  happened  when  Abraham  and  Isaac  declared  that  their  wives  were 
their  sisters,  which  they  did  in  order  to  save  the  honor  of  these 
women.  And  remembering  the  time  when  he  was  himself  employed 
abroad,  Hotman  adds  from  personal  experience : 

There  was  no  choice  but  to  disguise  to  the  Swiss  Leagues,  to  Ger- 
many, England,  and  the  other  Protestant  states  and  princes  the  folly  of 
the  Saint-Bartholomew;  and  I  know  some  of  those  who  were  thus  em- 
ployed who  would  have  willingly  passed  on  this  duty  to  cleverer  liars. 
But  what?  It  was  for  the  service  of  the  king  and  to  endeavor  to  shield 
our  nation  from  a  stain  which  however  no  water  has  been  able  to  wash 
away  since.57 

The  solution  of  the  problem  continued  remote.  Well  within  the 
seventeenth  century  appeared  the  characteristic  work  before  men- 
tioned, of  Archbishop  Germonius,  whose  authority  in  such  matters 
was  great,  he  being,  at  the  same  time,  a  prelate  and  an  ambassador. 
After  having  demonstrated  that  "  to  lie  is  servile  and  cannot  be  tol- 
erated even  in  a  slave  " ;  that  "  any  lie  is  a  sin  " ;  that,  according  to 
Aristotle,  "  the  penalty  of  the  liar  is  that  he  will  not  be  believed  even 
when  he  speaks  the  truth  ",  the  learned  author  bravely  goes  on  to 
show  that  there  is  nevertheless  a  good  deal  to  say  in  favor  of  lying: 
"What  is  not  permitted  by  natural  reason,  is  by  civil  reason;  else 
princes  and  republics  would  often  be  upset  and  perish.  In  the  same 
way  as,  among  the  laws  of  old,  the  most  famous  is,  saius  populi 
supreme!  lex  csto,  for  the  same  reason,  to  an  ambassador,  the  safety 
of  the  republic  must  be  the  supreme  law."  Can  we  aspire  to  be  wiser 
than  the  Greeks  or  the  Romans  ?  Asked  by  Neoptolemus  whether  it 
was  shameful  to  lie,  Ulysses  answered:  "Not  at  all  if  safety  is  to  be 
the  result."  5S  Titus  Livius  praises  Xenophanes  "  for  having  used 
the  subterfuge  of  a  lie  ".  No  one  blames  physicians  because  they 
cheer  their  patients  with  false  hopes. 

In  war,  continues  the  archbishop,  who  obviously  would  have  been 
favorable  to  "camouflaged"  communiques,  untrue  news  may  be  in- 
dispensable to  keep  up  the  morale  of  troops. 

57  L'Ambassadcur   (1603),   pp.  48,  49. 

53  He  speaks  so  in  the  Philocteies  of  Sophocles,  to  which  Germonius  refers. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  443 

How  much  greater  and  nobler,  one  may  remonstrate,  the  peoples 
who  need  no  such  falsifications  of  the  truth  and  whose  force  of  re- 
sistance grows  because  they  know  that  the  peril  is  great  and  not 
because  they  fancy  it  to  be  small,  the  nations  able  to  offer  thanks 
even  to  a  Varro  for  not  having  despaired  of  the  Republic,  or  able  to 
defend  and  save  Verdun  when  the  defense  seemed  hopeless.  A 
"They  shall  not  pass"  from  men  of  heart  is  worth  any  amount  of 
sophisticated  communiques. 

In  defense  of  his  system,  Germonius  appeals  also  to  the  Bible  as 
being  full  of  lies  which  "get  there  no  condemnation,  but  praise";  a 
list  follows  of  those  of  Abraham,  "a  man  of  worth,  and  very  pleasing 
to  God ",  and  of  others.  Jacob's  lie  when  securing  for  himself 
Esau's  birthright  was  worse  than  one  in  words,  being  one  in  action, 
"unless  we  believe  with  Saint  Augustine  that  we  are  not  confronted 
with  a  lie,  but  with  a  mystery  ",59  We  may  accept  such  an  interpre- 
tation if  we  please,  but  cannot  be  prevented  from  remembering  be- 
sides that  we  have  each  of  us,  within  ourselves,  a  guide,  also  God- 
inspired,  called  conscience. 

Corruption,  the  use  of  spies,  a  good  deal  of  intriguing,  were 
admitted  as  necessities.  And  then  the  question  arose :  Is  an  ambas- 
sador justified  in  wrong-doing  if  he  is  so  ordered  by  his  master?  Is 
it  permissible  for  him  to  interfere  in  local  politics  to  the  detriment  of 
the  local  sovereign?  Tasso  bluntly  answers:  "If  the  prince  orders 
something  unjust  ",  the  envoy  must  try  to  open  his  eyes,  and  if  he 
fails,  must  obey :  "  Egli  altro  non  pud  facere,  ch'essequir  il  com- 
mendamento  del  Prencipe."  Vera  thinks  it  is  a  pity,  but  decides  in 
the  same  fashion,  and  saves  the  ambassadors  possible  doubts  by  some 
new  sample  of  his  ever  ready  casuistry:  the  envoy  should  discard  all 
scruples,  saying  to  himself  that,  after  all,  what  he  is  aiming  at  is  not 
primarily  the  destruction  of  the  prince  to  whom  he  is  accredited,  but 
the  salvation  of  his  own : 

And  if  it  happened  that  the  advantage  procured  hy  the  ambassador 
to  his  master  should  result  in  damage  to  the  other  prince,  it  would  be 
enough  for  the  ambassador  to  have  no  load  on  his  conscience,  that  his 
object  and  intention  were  only  to  protect  his  own  prince  against  dangers 
threatening  him ;  the  more  so  that  accidents  cannot  be  prevented.00 

But  there  were,  even  in  those  days,  some  men  with  a  stricter  con- 
science who  would  answer  such  questions  with  a  no.  the  same  Hot- 
man  foremost  among  them.  The  ambassador  should,  according  to 
him,  entirely  abstain  from  intrigues  hurtful  to  the  country  where 
he  is: 

MDe  Lcgatis   (1627),  bk.  II..  ch.   VI. 
so  El  Enbaxador  (1620),  fol.   101. 


444  J-  J-  Jusserand 

What,  however,  if  he  is  commanded  to  act  otherwise?  .  .  .  Will  he 
be  allowed  to  excuse  himself,  to  judge  of  the  justice  of  his  master's 
intentions  and  of  the  equity  of  his  commands?  Does  it  belong  to  him 
to  penetrate  the  secret  or  control  the  will  of  his  prince?  Here  the  man 
of  worth  will  once  more  find  himself  greatly  embarrassed.  .  .  .  The 
solution  of  the  problem  seems  to  me  to  be  the  same  as  that  adopted  by 
philosophers,  jurists,  and  theologians  concerning  the  obedience  due  by 
the  son  to  his  father,  the  slave  to  his  master,  the  subject  to  his  prince, 
and  the  vassal  to  his  liege  lord:  for  all  agree  that  this  obedience  does 
not  cover  what  is  of  God,  of  nature,  and  of  reason.  Well,  to  lie,  mis- 
lead, betray,  to  attempt  a  sovereign  prince's  life,  to  foster  revolt  among 
his  subjects,  to  steal  from  him  or  trouble  his  state,  even  in  peace-time 
and  under  cover  of  friendship  and  alliance,  is  directly  against  the  com- 
mand of  God,  against  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations;  it  is  to  break 
that  public  faith  without  which  human  society  and,  in  truth,  the  general 
order  of  the  world  would  dissolve.  And  the  ambassador  who  seconds 
his  master's  views  in  such  a  business  doubly  sins,  because  he  both  helps 
him  in  the  undertaking  and  performing  of  a  bad  deed,  and  neglects  to 
counsel  him  better,  when  he  is  bound  to  do  so  by  his  function  which 
carries  with  it  the  quality  of  councillor  of  state  for  the  duration  of  his 
mission,  even  if  he  had  not  had  the  honor  of  being  previously  received 
as  a  councillor.61 

With  a  number  of  fighting  bishops  along  the  Rhine  ("Bishops' 
Street",  the  valley  was  familiarly  called),  with  the  omnipresent  but 
often  nebulous  pretensions  of  an  elective  emperor  and  an  elective 
pope,  with  an  elective  king  in  Poland,  with  innumerable  princelings 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  accessible  to  many  reasons  with  which  reason 
had  little  to  do,  intrigue  had  an  immense  field.  An  infinity  of  tiny 
states  had  an  infinity  of  petty  ambitions,  petty  wars,  petty  pacifica- 
tions ;  greater  states  played  some  of  the  smaller  ones  against  the 
others,  the  more  efficaciously  that  these  diminutive  countries  could, 
according  to  the  ideas  of  the  time,  be  parcelled  out,  sold,  given  away, 
serve  as  the  pledge  for  a  loan  or  the  portion  of  a  princess,  without 
the  inhabitants  being  any  more  consulted  than  their  own  cattle.  The 
fate  of  flocks  of  men  and  of  a  number  of  countries  had  been  changed 
by  such  marriages  as  that  of  Eleanora  of  Aquitania  to  the  future 
Henry  II.  Plantagenet.  or  Mary  of  Burgundy,  only  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  to  Maximilian,  the  future  emperor.  Cardinal 
Wolsev  had  however  found  means  to  make  sure  of  preserving  an 
even  mind  in  the  quarrels  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  by 
accepting  pensions  from  both. 

In  the  hope  of  winning  the  help  of  a  nation  in  a  great  war,  pen- 
sions were  offered  to  her  ministers,  sometimes  to  her  king,  rich  jewels 
to  the  mistress  of  the  king,  and  the  whole  court  would  be  in  ecstasies 
as  to  the  good  taste  and  generosity  of  the  sender.     The  ministers 
01  UAmbassadeur   (1603),  p.  84. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  445 

would  not  only  accept  but  occasionally  insist  on  an  increase,  for  hav- 
ing so  well  betrayed  their  country.  "  Money,*'  says  Hotman,  "  opens 
the  most  secret  cabinets  of  princes."  Rousseau  de  Chamoy  recom- 
mends that  "gratifications"  be  adroitly  offered  to  the  foreign  com- 
missioners with  whom  the  ambassador  has  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  but 
deplores  that  the  French  neglect  too  much  this  means  of  success. c'- 

Presents  were  constantly  on  the  move,  between  monarchs,  min- 
isters, ambassadors,  members  of  public  assemblies,  etc.,  and  it  was  no 
easy  matter  to  discern  where  courtesy  stopped  and  corruption  began. 
Venice,  as  we  have  seen,  solved  the  problem  by  obliging  her  ambassa- 
dors to  hand  to  the  public  treasury  the  gifts  received  by  them  in  for- 
eign countries.  Parsimonious  Bishop  Danes  advises  ambassadors 
to  provision  themselves,  before  starting,  with  "objects  of  small 
value,  but  rare  and  therefore  greatly  esteemed  where  they  go  " ;  and 
we  know  that  Regnault  Girard,  sent  to  Scotland  in  1434  to  fetch 
Princess  "Margaret,  the  betrothed  of  the  future  king  of  France,  Louis 
XL,  had  brought  as  presents  "a  gentle  mule",  considered  "a  very 
strange  beast,  because  they  have  none  there,  six  barrels  of  wine  and 
three  of  chestnuts,  pears,  and  apples,  for  there  is  little  fruit  in  Scot- 
land ".03  But  you  could  not  win  thus  the  good  will  of  a  royal  mis- 
tress, and  the  presents  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  to  a  Duchess  of  Cleveland 
or  a  Duchess  of  Portsmouth  were  not  of  so  homely  a  nature;  the 
ladies  themselves  were  not  of  a  homely  nature. 

The  question  was  again  one  in  which  casuists  could  give  free  play 
to  their  distinguos.  Vera  and  others  are  thus  able  to  both  exclude 
and  admit  presents.'54  "Most  manuals  however  specify  that  no  ambas- 
sador should  consent  to  receive  any  except  with  the  assent  of  his 
prince,  or  when  he  leaves  the  country  :  "  An  effect  of  his  abstemious- 
ness." says  Hotman,  "  will  be  his  refusal  to  accept  any  gifts  or  pres- 
ents, either  from  the  prince  to  whom  he  is  sent  or  from  any  of  his 
people  for  any  cause  whatsoever,  unless,  having  already  taken  leave, 
he  is  about  to  mount  his  horse."  Many  princes  regretfully  spent 
large  sums  at  those  partings  but  considered  it  a  kind,  as  is  now  said, 

62  L'Idce  du  Parfait  Ambassadeur  (1697),  ed.  Delavaud,  pp.  36,  40.  I  note 
with  pleasure  in  the  excellent  article  of  Professor  Xys,  of  Belgium,  written  in 
1883,  the  remark:  "On  doit  cependant  dire  a  l'honneur  des  hommes  d'etat 
frangais  qu'ils  ne  se  laissaient  point  acheter  et  demeuraient  incorruptibles." 
"  Les  Commencements  de  la  Diplomatic ",  in  Revue  de  Droit  Internationa/, 
XVI.   67. 

63  The  mission,  at  that  date,  was  a  very  dangerous  one.  and  Girard,  to  the 
indignation  of  his  king,  had  offered  400  crowns  to  any  who  would  go  in  his 
stead.     Romance  of  a  King's  Life   (1896),  pp.  62,  66. 

64  El  Enbaxador,  fol.  129.  131. 


446  7.  J.  Jusserand 

of  "  propaganda  ",  useful  for  their  good  fame  and  glory.63  "  The 
custom  is,"  says  Rousseau  de  Chamoy,  "that,  on  such  occasions,  the 
prince  give,  as  a  present  to  the  ambassador,  his  portrait  set  in  dia- 
monds or  some  similar  object,  and  that  he  cause  to  be  sent  to  his 
secretary  a  golden  chain  with  his  medal  or  something  else."  °6  This 
use  was  so  well  established  that  when  the  American  republic  was 
founded  it  was  considered  indispensable  to  submit  to  it,  and  George 
Washington  bestowed  on  foreign  envoys  as  they  left  the  country  a 
golden  chain  with  a  medal,  choosing  however  to  send  to  the  French 
representative  a  heavier  one  than  to  the  others.  To  that  extent  at 
any  rate  did  the  great  man  practise  secret  diplomacy. 

Portraits  continue  to  be  given  in  our  days,  but  consisting  in 
signed  photographs,  a  great  improvement  and  leaving  no  room  for 
casuistry;  they  are  accompanied  however  in  most  countries  with  a 
decoration,  a  more  debatable  practice. 

IV. 

Endowed,  as  much  as  nature  and  study  would  allow,  with  so  many 
accomplishments,  political,  moral,  or  literary,  having  bought  expen- 
sive carriages,  liveries,  and  plate,  secured,  as  best  he  could,  trust- 
worthy secretaries  and  "  chiffreurs  "  67  and  very  numerous  servants, 
selected,  some  for  their  "  taciturnity  "  and  others  for  their  ability  to 
play  the  part  of  semi-spies,  but  of  otherwise  good  morals,63  the  am- 
bassador would  enter  his  coach  or  mount  his  horse  (Eustache  Des- 
champs  complains  that  his  "  sits  on  its  knees  ",  out  of  fatigue,  on  the 
long  road  from  Paris  to  Prague)  and  start  on  his  mission. 

The  manuals  keep  their  eyes  on  him  and  flood  him  with  advice. 
How  should  he  behave  when  he  arrives  ?  Whom  should  he  see  first  ? 
Ought  ladies  to  be  the  object  of  his  attention?  Yes.  says  Pecquet, 
provided  he  does  not  fall  in  love  with  them.  What  should  be  his 
table,  his  expenses,  the  style  and  subject  of  his  despatches,  the  cere- 
monial and  rules  of  precedence  he  should  observe?  Must  lie  be 
secretive?     Yes,  the  wiser  manuals  answer  on  this  last  point,  but 

es  Hotman,  U Ambassadeur ,  p.  35. 

ML'Idee  du  Parfail  Ambassadeur  (1697).  ed.   Delavaud,  p.  43. 

07  "  Ea   illi  comm;,,enda  sunt  quae  Uteris   ignotis   (chiffrum   vulgus   Gallicum 


vocat)   significari  res 

ipsa  postulat."     Dolet,  De  Officio  Lcgati  (1541).  p.    14. 

6S  "  Porro  autem 

ex  servis  unum  aliquem   cautum  atque  versipellem   Legatus 

habeat  qui  per  urbem 

vagando  et  in  multorum  turn  sermonem,  turn  familiaritatem 

se  insinuando,   omnes 

rumorum  ventos   colligat."     Ibid.,  p.    15.     The   ambassador 

will    watch    over   their 

morals,   for  maybe   he   will   be  judged   in   accordance   with 

them:    "Sciendum    es 

;t    tale    fere    fieri    de    moribus    nostris    judicium,    qualis    est 

servorum  nostrorum  % 

ita."     Ibid.,  p.   13- 

The  School  for  Ambassadors  447 

within  due  limits.     They  do  not  back  Ben  Jonson's  advice  to  Politick 
Would-bes : 

First  for  your  garb,  it  must  be  grave  and  serious, 

Very  reserv'd  and  lock'd ;  not  tell  a  secret 

On  any  terms,  not  to  your  father,  scarce 

A  fable,  but  with  caution.69 

The  question  of  precedence,  being  of  immense  importance  in  those 
days,  gets  of  course  ample  attention.70  For  questions  of  precedence, 
which  were  supposed  to  imply  the  rank  and  dignity  of  their  country, 
people  would  risk  their  lives  and  sometimes  lose  them,  the  rivalry  as 
is  well  known  being  especially  keen  between  France  and  Spain.  The 
"  most  Christian  "  kings  of  France,  anointed  with  the  miraculous  oil 
at  Rheims,  considered  themselves  as  without  a  peer.  Their  right  had 
been  recognized  at  the  meeting  of  more  than  one  council,  that  of 
Constance  among  others  in  1434.  "And  not  without  cause,"  wrote 
Claude  de  Seissel  in  1558,  "did  the  king  of  the  Romans,  Maximilian, 
playfully  say  more  than  once  that  if  he  were  God  and  had  several 
children,  he  would  make  the  eldest  God  after  him.  but  the  second  he 
would  make  him  king  of  France."  T1  The  quarrel  nevertheless  con- 
tinued more  and  more  fierce,  until  the  terrible  d'Estrades  incident 
occurred,  when  for  a  question  of  precedence  between  two  ambassa- 
dorial carriages  several  people  remained  dead  on  the  London  pave- 
ment, a  general  war  was  with  difficulty  averted,  and  the  "  Catholic 
King "  had  to  definitively  admit  the  pretension  of  his  "  most  Chris- 
tian "  but  very  unyielding  brother,  young  Louis  XIV.7- 

The  ambassador  must  be  liberal  in  his  expenses,  but  not  extrava- 
gant ;  certain  envoys  have  so  behaved  that  it  seemed  as  though  they 
wanted  to  outshine  the  greatest  of  the  land  where  they  lived ;  they 
have  thus  displeased  the  very  people  they  wanted  to  conciliate.  A 
sense  of  measure  is  an  important  item  in  the  art  of  diplomacy,  and 

ated  1607.  De  la  Sarraz  du  Franquesnay 
du  monde  regardent  cet  air  misterieux  des 
jmme  un  caractere  de  pedanterie  ;  ce  dehors 
que  ceux  qui  l'ont  viennent  donner  lecon 
au  public."     Le  Ministre  Public  dans  les  Cours  Etrangcres   (1731),  p.   171. 

70  For  instance  in  Wicquefort,  MSmoire  tov.chant  les  Ambassadeurs  (Co- 
logne, 1679),  II.  48  ft.  "II  faut  aussi  parler  de  la  preseance,"  says  Hotman,  "oil 
il  y  a  mille  belles  choses  a  dire,  qui  sont  pour  un  discours  a  part."  L'Ambas- 
sadeur,  pp.  -2  ff. 

-i-Histoirc  Singuliere  du  Roy  Lays  XII.  (Paris,  155S),  fol.  69. 
'-  Year  1661.  Not  long  after,  however,  in  1697,  Rousseau  de  Chamoy  saw 
a  sign  of  narrow-mindedness  in  paying  too  much  attention  to  questions  of  cere- 
monial:  "  Sur  cela  comrae  sur  toute  autre  chose  il  evitera  d'estre  pointilleux  et 
homme  a  incidents  ;  c'est  la  marque  d'un  petit  esprit  d'estre  remply  et  vivement 
touche  de  ces  sortes  de  choses."     L'ldee  du  Parfait  Ambassadeur,  p.  29. 


so  Volpone,   IV.   i 

;    dedication 

writes   on   this   subject 

:    "  Les  gens 

ministres,  soit  naturel, 

soit  affecte,  < 

magistral   les   blesse ;    i 

il   leur   sembh 

44^  /.  /.  Jusserand 

is  of  value  whatever  the  occasion.  For  selecting  the  chief  ohjects  of 
expense,  account  must  be  taken  of  local  tastes:  "The  expenditure  of 
the  house  must  be  well  regulated,  yet  splendid  in  every  respect,  chiefly 
for  the  table  and  cooking,  to  which  foreigners,  especially  those  of  the 
North,  pay  more  attention  than  to  any  other  item.  In  Spain  and 
Italy  the  table  is  frugal ;  but  one  must  shine  there  in  the  matter  of 
horses,  carriages,  garments,  and  followers."  73 

Now  for  the  ambassador's  actual  functions,  his  raison  d'etre. 
They  are,  as  we  have  seen,  of  the  highest  a  man  can  be  honored  with. 
Whatever  the  circumstances  and  the  temptations,  he  should  never 
forget  what  the  paramount  duty  of  an  ambassador  consists  in,  which 
is  to  "  zealously  act  in  such  fashion  that  he  be  rather  the  maker  of 
peace  and  concord  than  of  discord  and  of  war  ",74  His  task  will  be 
comparatively  easy  if  he  is  personally  trustworthy  and  if  he  repre- 
sents a  nation  which  also  can  be  trusted :  hence  the  constant  recom- 
mendations to  keep  promises;  one  of  the  elements  of  Louis  XIV. 's 
power  in  Europe  was  that,  with  all  which  now  appears  to  us  as 
blemishes  on  his  politics,  he  kept  his  promises  more  faithfully  than 
any  monarch  of  his  time. 

The  untrustworthiness  of  many  envoys,  whose  word  was  empty 
and  promises  meant  nothing,  whose  conscience  was  as  pliable  as 
casuists  would  have  it,  and  whose  very  presence  was  a  danger  for 
the  state,  had  retarded,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  progress  of  the 
institution.  Several  kings,  among  them  Henry  VII.  of  England, 
were  averse  to  receiving  any.  Philippe  de  Commines  the  historian, 
who  had  himself  been  an  ambassador  (e.g.,  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici), 
has  strong  words  on  the  subject :  "  'Tis  not  too  safe  a  thing,  those 
constant  goings  and  comings  of  embassies,  for  very  often  bad  things 
are  treated  of  by  them;  yet  the  sending  and  receiving  of  them  cannot 
be  avoided."  What  is  the  remedy  ?  some  will  ask  ;  others  might  give 
a  better  answer, 

As  for  me,  this  I  would  do.  Ambassadors  who  come  from  true 
friends  and  not  to  be  suspected,  I  deem  that  they  should  be  well  treated 
and  be  granted  permission  to  see  the  prince  pretty  often,  taking  however 
into  account  what  the  prince  himself  actually  is;  I  mean  if  he  be  wise 
and  honest;  for  when  he  is  otherwise,  the  least  shown  the  better.  And 
when  he  is  shown,  let  him  be  well  dressed  and  well  informed  of  what 
be  ought  to  say,  and  let  him  not  stay  long.  [If,  on  the  other  hand,  am- 
bassadors come  from  princes  filled  with  a  perpetual  hatred,]  as  I  have 
seen  it  among  those  many  of  whom  I  have  spoken  before,  there  is,  I 
think,  no  safety  in  their  coming.  They  must  however  be  well  and  honor- 
's Hotman,  L'Ambassadcur,  p.  22. 

"*"Videat  praeterea  scdulo  ut  pacis  concordiaeque  potius  auctor  sit  quam 
belli  et  discordiae."     Dolet,  De  Officio  Lcgati  (1541),  p.  20. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  449 

ably  treated;  they  should  be  met  on  their  arrival,  comfortably  lodged,  and 
safe  and  sensible  people  should  be  ordered  to  accompany  them  ;  which 
is  both  safe  and  honest,  for  thus  one  knows  who  is  about  them,  and 
light-headed  and  discontented  men  are  prevented  from  giving  them  news, 
for  in  no  house  is  everybody  content. 

They  must  be  well  feasted,  offered  presents,  promptly  heard,  and  sent 
back,  "  for  it  is  a  very  bad  thing  to  keep  one's  enemies  in  one's 
house  ".  In  the  meantime  a  continuous  watch  ought  to  be  kept,  night 
and  day,  to  know  whom  they  see.  "  And  for  one  messenger  or  am- 
bassador that  would  be  sent  to  me  I  would  send  two.  .  .  .  Some  will 
say  that  your  enemy  will  take  pride  on  it.  I  do  not  care,  for  thus  I 
shall  get  more  news  of  him."  75 

The  ambassador  knows  from  his  instructions  what  he  has  to  do, 
and  if  he  has  followed  the  wise  advice  to  men  of  his  calling,  given 
in  1436  by  Archbishop  Bernard  du  Rosier,  he  must  have  verified, 
before  leaving,  that  they  were  perfectly  clear  and  straightforward, 
whether  expressed  verbally  or  in  writing.76  Being  moreover  an  am- 
bassador, and  present  on  the  spot,  powers  of  appreciation  are  left 
him ;  he  may  have  lights  that  his  sender  had  not,  and  he  must,  under 
his  responsibility,  follow  them ;  which  is  just  as  true  today  as  in  the 
past  centuries,  and  which  I,  for  one,  had  to  put  more  than  once  into 
practice  during  the  Great  War.  Danes,77  Montaigne,  Tasso,7S  Hot- 
man,  Wicquefort,  Rousseau,  all  agree.  "  It  should  be  noted,"  says 
Montaigne,  who  wrote  no  treatise  about  ambassadors,  but  who,  inter- 
ested in  all  kinds  of  men  and  things,  has  a  variety  of  observations  to 
make  about  them : 

"3  Memoires,  bk.  III.,  ch.  VIII.  The  sending  of  several  ambassadors  to- 
gether became  exceptional  after  the  custom  was  established  of  having  permanent 
embassies.  The  several  ambassadors  forming  one  single  mission  rarely  agreed 
on  all  points;  rivalries  and  quarrels  arose,  and  it  was  thought  better  to  send 
only  one  man  professionally  prepared  to  assume  alone  the  complex  task,  "  except 
however",  Callieres  says,  "when  the  question  is  of  a  peace  conference";  no 
single  man  could  then  suffice.     Dc  la  Maniire  de  Negocier,  p.  378. 

76  "  Caveant  tamen  ambaxiatores,  ne  instrucciones  acephalas,  ambiguas,  vel 
dupplicitatem  continentes  verbo  vel  scriptis  a  mittentibus  suscipiant."  Am- 
baxialor,  Brevilogus,  as  above,  ch.  X. 

~~  "  Son  maistre  lui  pent  bien  prescrire  en  gros  ce  qui  est  de  son  instruction 
pour  son  service,  mais  il  ne  pent  lui  bailler  ni  la  direction  ni  l'industrie  pour  la 
conduite  des  accidens  inopines  et  casuels :  ainsi  le  jugement  et  la  vigilance  sont 
deux  parties  bien  requises  a  celui  qui  est  constitue  en  cette  charge."  Conseils 
a   un   Ambassadeur  (1561),   ed.   Delavaud,  p.   13. 

"s  "  E  se  l'Ambasciatore  altro  no  fosse  die  semplice  relatore  delle  cose  coni- 
mendatelo.  non  havrebbe  bisongno  ne  di  prudenza.  ne  d'eloquenza,  e  ciascun' 
huomo  ordinario  in  quest'  ufficio  sarebbe  atto :  ma  noi  veggiamo  che  i  Principi 
con   diligente    investigazione    fanno    scielta   de   gli   ambasciatori."     //   Messagiero. 


45°  /•  /■  Jusserand 

It  should  be  noted  that  unswerving  obedience  fits  only  with  precise  and 
peremptory  commands.  Ambassadors  have  somewhat  freer  duties  the 
fulfilling  of  which,  in  several  respects,  entirely  depends  on  their  own  dis- 
positions. They  do  not  simply  execute,  but  form  also  and  direct  by  their 
own  advice  the  will  of  their  masters.  I  have  seen  in  my  day  people  in 
authority  blamed  for  having  rather  obeyed  the  words  in  the  king's  letters 
than  the  dictates  of  the  affairs  in  the  midst  of  which  they  themselves  were. 

Hotman,  shortly  after,   wrote 

that  a  number  of  things  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  a  prudent  am- 
bassador without  thus  tying  his  tongue  and  hands.  Mitte  sapicntcm,  nihil 
dicito.  But  when  he  has  played  the  part  of  a  man  of  worth,  'tis  ill  done 
to  repay  him  with  a  disavowal ;  and  such  princes  do  not  deserve  to  be 
served  by  people  of  worth,  especially  when  these  have  done  for  the  best. 
Industry  and  diligence  are  of  ourselves;  a  successful  issue  is  of  heaven/9 

The  same  views  in  Rousseau  de  Chamoy  a  century  later : 

As  he  is  bound  to  know  the  interests  of  his  master,  he  may  and  must 
make  up  his  mind  (without  waiting  for  instructions)  in  accordance  with 
events,  and  those  are  the  occasions  when  the  clever  and  true  negotiator 
distinguishes  himself  from  the  common  man  and  the  ordinary  minister 
of  no  parts. so 

In  negotiating  the  ambassador  will  be  careful  not  to  be  brusque, 
haughty,  arrogant : 

Prudence  demands  [said,  in  early  days,  Bishop  Danes,]  that  he  listen 
with  gentleness  and  modesty  to  the  reasons  of  others,  without  being 
enamored  of  his  own  nor  too  absolute  in  his  opinion.  When  one  has 
to  contradict  somebody  else's  advice  in  a  conference,  be  the  cause  one 
sustains  ever  so  good  and  well  justified,  the  words  must  be  tempered  in 
such  a  way  that  none  may  remain  offended  at  the  opposition,  but  that 
everybody,  on  the  contrary,  may  notice  the  respect  felt  by  the  contra- 
dictor for  the  company.  One  must  yield  sometimes  out  of  complaisance, 
and  then  avail  himself  of  the  next  colloquy  to  amicably  bring  back  the 
others  to  the  cause  of  justice.si 

Having  to  keep  his  government  well  informed,  the  ambassador 
will  neglect  no  opportunity  in  order  to  lie  himself  aware  of  what  goes 
on,  and  since  nothing  in  the  world  stands  quite  apart,  and  everything 
has  ramifications  everywhere,  he  must  be  able  to  establish  compari- 
sons. Early  written  books  advised  him  to  keep  up  therefore  a  con- 
stant correspondence  with  the  other  ambassadors  of  his  country  in 
different  lands,  having  if  need  be  a  special  code  to  exchange  confiden- 
tial views  with  them.  He  must  also  take  care  to  keep  well  posted  on 
what  happens  or  threatens  to  happen  in  his  own  country,  counting  for 
this,  less  on  the  secretary  of  state,  often  very  remiss  in  that  respect, 
than  on  some  friends  or  even  on  paid  informers.  "  not  grudging  two 

"9  L'Ambassadeur,  p.  57. 

80  L'Idee  du  Parfait  Ambassadcur  (169-),  ed.  Delavaud,  p.  26. 

M  Conscils  ;   as   above,  p.   13. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  45 l 

or  three  hundred  crowns  for  this,  if  need  be  ".  He  will  thus  be  able 
to  counteract  enemy  propaganda  (the  thing,  not  the  word,  being  in 
use  at  an  early  date),  especially  hurtful  to  his  own  country  in  war 
time.82 

If  he  uses  spies,  as  was  then  the  custom,  he  is  to  be  very  much 
on  his  guard.  In  order  to  get  pay,  rascally  fellows  will  bring  him 
thrilling  news  in  abundance,  even  when  there  is  no  news ;  being  more- 
over men  of  no  conscience  they  will  never  hesitate  to  betray  one  pay- 
master to  the  advantage  of  another  and  to  their  own  profit.  Xo 
account  should  therefore  be  taken  of  their  statements,  unless  it  be 
possible  to  control  them. 

The  importance  of  being  well  informed  is  such  that  Rou^  au  de 
Chamoy  goes  the  length,  alone  then  of  his  kind,  of  recommending  the 
ambassador  to  read,  would  you  believe  it  ?  "  the  gazettes  ".  The  news 
they  give  is,  to  be  sure,  abundantly  false,  but  it  may  chance  that  some 
be  true,  though  rather  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  imaginary ; 
nothing  however  should  be  neglected ;  false  news  has  moreover  its 
advantage,  in  "  evidencing  the  spirit  of  partiality  in  the  place  where 
it  is  devised  ".S3 

But  above  all  the  ambassador  must  study  the  country  where  he  is, 
and  do  so  personally,  see  people  of  all  ranks,  talk  with  them,  under- 
stand the  trend  of  opinion  and  discover  the  various  forces  at  play 
there.  The  task  is  not  so  easy  for  French  ambassadors  abroad  as  for 
foreign  ambassadors  in  France :  "  Everything,  in  France,  is  bared  to 
the  curiosity  of  foreigners,  partly  owing  to  the  natural  freedom  with 
which  we  speak  of  every  subject,  partly  because  of  the  factions  in  the 
state  and  the  divisions  in  religious  matters  which  have  torn  France 
for  the  last  forty  years."*4     This  was  written  in  1603. 

The  ambassador's  despatches  will  convey  to  his  government  all 
the  information  he  can  gather.     Must  he  also  send  data  which  are 

s-  "  Et  d'autant  que  les  secretaires  d'Estat  ne  font  si  frequentes  despesche  a 
l'ambassadeur  et  ne  luy  donnent  toujours  advis  de  ce  qui  se  passe  en  la  Cour 
et  en  l'Estat  si  souvent  comme  il  le  voudroit  bien  et  qu'il  seroit  parfois  ex- 
pedient qu'il  en  eust  la  cognoissance  pour  les  faux  bruits  que  sement  ordinairement 
les  ennemis  d'un  Estat,  mesmement  en  temps  de  guerre.  .  .  il  sera  fort  bien 
d'avoir  quelque  amy  en  court  qui  l'advertisse  souvent  de  ce  qui  se  fait,  voire 
jusques  aux  moindres  particularitez  par  lesquelles  il  peut  quelquefois  faire  juge- 
ment  des  choses  d'importance.  La  peine  oil  j'ay  veu  en  Suisse  Monsieur  de 
Sillery  Brulart  et  en  Angleterre  Monsieur  de  Beauvoir  la  Xocle  ...  me  fait 
donner  cet  advis  a  ceux  qui  vont  en  Legation,  et  qu'ils  n'y  doivent  espargner 
deux  ny  trois  cens  escus  par  an   si  bcsoin   est."      Hotman,   L'Ambassadeur,  p.   24. 

S3  L'Idce   du   Parfait   Ambassadcur,  p.   35. 

"  Hotman.  UAmbassadcur,  p.   66. 


45  -  /•  /■  Jusserand 

sure  to  displease  and  irritate  his  own  prince,  playing  the  unwelcome 
part  of  the  carrier  of  bad  news?  Without  doubt  he  must,  sternly 
answers  Bishop  Danes : 

Hold  it  as  a  maxim  that  displeasing  things  must  be  sent  as  well  as 
pleasing  ones,  and  the  prince,  in  the  end,  if  he  is  a  man  of  wisdom 
and  understanding,  will  be  better  satisfied  with  the  ambassador  who  will 
not  have  concealed  from  him  any  item  he  may  have  learnt  where  he  is 
stationed,  than  with  the  one  who,  to  spare  him  annoyance,  will  have  ab- 
stained from  writing  unpleasant  things  (des  choscs  fachcuscs),  but  which 
it  would  have  been  of  interest  for  him  to  know  in  time.85 

Hotman  agrees,  adding  one  proviso,  however,  that  is  :  except  when 
the  conveying  of  such  information  can  only  cause  useless  irritation 
and  diminish  the  chances  of  that  good  understanding  between  nations, 
which  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  chief  object  of  diplomacy.  If  however 
any  untoward  incident  has  been  public  the  ambassador  has  no  choice : 

The  matter  would  be  different  if,  in  full  council  of  the  prince,  or 
in  the  pulpit  by  preachers,  or  on  the  stage  by  comedians,86  or  by  writings 
or  lampoons,  the  ambassador  saw  his  master's  honor  defamed,  for  then 
he  must  send  the  information  at  once  and  crave  justice  and  reparation 
from  those  who  owe  it,  using  however  moderation  not  to  make  the  harm 
greater  than  it  is,  for  the  case  is  similar  to  that  of  ladies  who  often  by 
over-defending  their  honor  render  it  more  suspected  and  doubtful. 

The  lady,  Shakespeare  thought,  should  not  protest  too  much. 

Doubts  as  to  the  sending  of  the  whole  truth  scarcely  exist  at  all 
nowadays,  especially  in  democratic  countries,  but  still  linger  in  some 
others.  A  change  of  foreign  minister  having  happened  in  an  im- 
perial country  some  years  ago,  I  was  asked  by  that  country's  ambas- 
sador for  information  as  to  the  new  man,  who  happened  to  lie  un- 
known to  him  but  well  known  to  me.  I  made,  in  general  terms,  a 
polite  answer.  "  But  that  is  not  what  I  want,"  the  other  said,  "  Is 
he  a  man  to  speak  the  truth  to  the  Emperor?"  The  only  answer  I 
could  conscientiously  return  was,  "  Yes,  if  it  is  agreeable." 

The  ambassador,  according  to  the  manuals,  will  avoid  giving 
room  in  his  letters  to  trifling  incidents,  piquant  as  they  may  be,  to 
news  of  the  amours  of  the  court  ladies,  to  the  quarrels  of  their 
admirers,  and  similar  subjects,  though  in  great  demand  on  the  part 
of  certain  princes  and  their  fair  friends  "  who  want  to  know  every- 

85  Canseils  a  un   Ambassadcur   (1561),  p.    15. 

8G  The  Chapman  incident,  with  the  intervention  of  the  French  ambassador 
La  Boderie  and  the  sending  to  jail  of  the  players  for  an  objectionable  passage 
in  The  Tragedie  of  Charles  Duke  of  Byron,  is  an  exactly  contemporary  example 
of  such  a  case,  the  play  having  been  performed  in  1602  or  1603,  when  the  chief 
personages,  including  the  King  of  France,  Henry  IV.,  were  still  alive.  See 
Modern  Language  Review,  IV.   158,  and  VI.  203. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  453 

thing  ".  The  best,  if  he  can  not  avoid  writing  on  these  "  frivolous 
topics,  just  fit  to  amuse  idle  persons",  is  to  treat  of  them  in  "sep- 
arate letters  which,  since  they  would  not  deal  with  what  is  the 
business  of  the  office,  would  not  have  to  be  submitted  to  the  council 
and  read  there ".  This  advice  was  followed  later  by  the  ambas- 
sadors to  England  of  Louis  XIV.,  who,  though  no  "idle  person", 
greatly  relished  full  accounts  of  what  was  going  on,  in  the  way  of 
loves  and  scandals,  at  the  court  of  his  royal  brother  the  merry  mon- 
arch Charles  II.  Separate  sheets  added  to  the  official  correspondence, 
and  of  which  many  remain  in  our  foreign  archives,  kept  him  informed. 

In  his  style  the  envoy  will  imitate  good  models,  who  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  periods  and  countries :  French.  Italian,  or  Spanish,  d'Ossat, 
du  Perron.  Mazarin,  Bellievre,  d'Estrades,  the  Spaniard  Saavedra, 
the  texts  collected  by  Yittorio  Siri.  and,  for  a  wonder,  one  English- 
man, but  at  a  late  date,  and  in  a  translation.  "  le  Chevalier  Temple  ".ST 

The  despatches  will  be  "  grave,  brief,  compressed,  containing  much 
in  a  few  words,  drawn  in  terms  rather  plain  than  far-fetched,  sea- 
soned but  only  seldom  with  traits  and  maxims.  For  the  better  intelli- 
gence of  the  facts,  it  would  be  appropriate  that  each  question  be  dealt 
with  in  a  separate  letter,  according  to  the  example  of  Monsieur  de 
Yilleroy".  The  report  might  else  seem  "grotesque",  that  is  to  say 
like  the  artificial  grottoes  so  much  the  fashion  in  those  days,  "  a  patch- 
work made  of  different  pieces  ".-s 

Thus  admonished,  garnering  information,  remembering  prece- 
dents, studying  the  approved  models  of  the  art,  looking  splendid  in 
their  silks,  laces,  and  embroideries,  assisted  by  the  renown  of  their 
cook  in  the  North  and  of  their  horses  in  the  South,  now  obeying,  now 
guiding  circumstances,  and  displaying  talents  sometimes  of  the  highest 
order,  ambassadors  worked  for  two  centuries  at  the  establishment  in 
Europe  of  the  system  which  gradually  replaced  the  family  of  Chris- 
tian nations,  namely  that  of  the,  not  yet  so  called,  balance  of  power. 
The  first  had  for  its  basis  a  hard-to-realize  brotherly  love  ;  the  second, 
more  practical,  was  grounded  on  safety.  The  moment  one  power,  be 
it  the  house  of  Austria,  the  house  of  France,  or  that  of  Spain,  became 
so  strong  that  it  might  dominate  all  the  others  if  it  chose,  these  others, 
by  instinct  or  treaty,  united  together  for  the  preservation  of  equi- 
librium. The  establishment  and  maintenance  of  this  order  of  things, 
which  rendered  great  service,  and  which  though  much  abused  and 

s"  Pecquet,  Discours  sur  I'Art  de  Negocier  (1737),  p.  xlviii.  He  had  in 
mind  the  Lettres  de  M.  le  Chevalier  Temple  et  autres  Ministres  d'Etat  (the  Hague, 
1700,   2  vols.;  several  editions). 

ss  Hotman,  L'Ambassadeur  (1603),  p.  71, 

AM.    HIST.   REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.  —  JI. 


454  J-  J-  Jusserand 

held  antiquated  is  not  yet  dead,  gave  occasion  to  innumerable  negoti- 
ations and  treaties  in  which  envoys  could  show  whether  they  answered 
the  requirements  of  the  manuals.  They  have  a  right  to  be  judged  by 
the  outcome,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  some  of  the  treaties  negotiated  by 
them,  those  of  Westphalia  or  of  Utrecht  for  example,  count  among 
the  sreat  events  in  the  history  of  mankind. 


Important  results  and  a  wider  practice  having  permitted  the 
guiding  principles  of  the  profession  to  be  better  tested,  manuals  ap- 
peared in  the  eighteenth  century  in  which  former-day  advice  was 
filtered,  exaggerations  were  pruned  off,  and  new  pictures  were  drawn 
of  what  a  modern  ambassador  should  be.  The  best  of  those  portraits 
are  so  carefully  devised  as  to  be  worthy  of  attention  even  now  and 
doubtless  in  after  time.  The  most  characteristic  trait  in  them  is 
increasing  austerity. 

Visible  already  in  Rousseau  de  Chamoy,  1697,  the  change  is  much 
more  striking  in  such  manuals  as  those  of  Callieres,  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  and  a  former  ambassador,  1716.  and  Pecquet,  a 
clerk  in  the  French  foreign  office,  173",  especially  the  latter,  by  far 
the  best.  Without  neglecting  the  gifts  of  the  mind  necessary  for  an 
ambassador,  these  two  writers  give  an  unwonted  place  to  the  qualities 
of  his  heart:  we  are  moving  further  and  further  away  from  Machi- 
avelli.  "  It  is  not  enough,"  according  to  Callieres,  "  in  order  to  make 
a  good  negotiator,  that  he  have  all  the  dexterity  and  the  other  fine 
gifts  of  the  intellect;  it 'is  necessary  for  him  to  possess  also  those 
resulting  from. the  sentiments  of  the  heart;  there  exists  no  function 
needing  more  elevation  and  nobility  in  conduct."  One  who  enters 
this  profession  without  disinterestedness  and  who  wants  "  to  promote 
other  interests  than  those  consisting  in  the  glory  of  having  succeeded 
...  is  sure  to  play  in  it  the  part  of  a  very  mediocre  individual  and 
if  any  important  negotiation  happens  to  succeed  in  his  hands  the  re- 
sult should  be  attributed  only  to  some  happy  chance  that  cleared  for 
him  all  difficulties  ".  Pomp,  gold  lace,  embroideries,  great  wealth, 
ancient  lineage,  are  but  secondary  matters :  "  There  are  temporary 
embassies  for  mere  ostentation,  for  the  fulfilling  of  which  nothing  is 
needed  but  a  great  name  and  much  wealth,  like  those  for  the  cere- 
mony of  a  marriage  or  a  baptism.  .  .  .  But  when  affairs  have  to  be 
negotiated,  a  man  is  needed,  not  an  idol."89 

so  De  la  Manibre  de  Negocier  avec  les  Soitverains  .  .  .  par  Monsieur  de 
Callieres  .  .  .  cy-devant  Ambassadeur  .  .  .  du  feu  Roy  pour  les  Traites  de  Paix 
conclus  a   Riswick,  el  I'un   des  Quarante  tie   I'Acadimie  Frangaise    (Paris,    i;i6). 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  455 

Callieres's  ambassador  must  have  travelled  abroad  and  studied 
foreign  nations,  "but  not  in  the  fashion  of  our  young  men  who.  on 
leaving  the  academy  or  the  college,  go  to  Rome  to  see  fine  palaces, 
gardens,  and  the  remains  of  some  ancient  buildings,  or  to  Venice  to 
see  the  opera  and  the  courtesans ;  they  ought  to  travel  when  a  little 
older  and  better  able  to  meditate  and  to  study  the  form  of  govern- 
ment of  each  country  ". 

Agreeing  with  his  predecessors,  Callieres  wants  the  envoy's  learn- 
ing to  be  considerable,  on  condition  however  that  he  be  not  crushed 
bv  it,  or  make  of  it  his  chief  occupation.  It  is  appropriate  that  "  ne- 
gotiators should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  sciences  sufficient 
to  enlighten  their  understanding,  but  they  must  possess  it  and  not  be 
possessed  by  it.  that  is  to  say  that  they  must  not  make  more  of  the 
sciences  than  they  are  worth  for  their  profession,  but  see  in  them 
only  a  means  to  become  wiser  and  cleverer ;  abstaining  from  pride 
and  from  showing  scorn  for  those  less  well  informed  ".  They  should 
moreover  not  give  too  much  time  to  those  studies.  "  A  man  who  has 
entered  public  employ  must  consider  that  his  duty  is  to  act  and  not 
to  remain  too  long  closeted  in  his  study;  his  chief  work  must  be  to 
learn  what  goes  on  among  the  living  rather  than  what  went  on  among 
the  dead." '-'" 

In  the  way  of  austerity  Pecquet"1  is  stricter  than  all.  The  aims 
of  true  diplomacy  are  so  high,  the  responsibilities  so  great,  that  such 
a  calling  has  a  sacred  character;  for  him,  more  even  than  for  the 
mentors  of  early  days,  it  is  a  kind  of  apostleship,  and  in  the  same 
way  as  for  other  sacred  vocations,  a  severe  mental  and  especially 
moral  training,  to  be  begun  in  boyhood,  is  indispensable.  Fathers  of 
families  are  guilty  in  not  understanding  these  truths  and  in  abstaining 
from  a  timely  preparation  of  their  sons  for  such  a  service.  The 
result  is  that  the  French  do  not  succeed  in  it  as  they  should : 

Though  desirous  of  avoiding  a  partiality  which  every  writer  should 
eschew,  it  is  certain  that  our  nation  produces  a  large  number  of  bright 
minds  who  join  to  attractive  parts  great  sagacity;  but  these  natural 
talents  are  obscured  by  faults  born  of  inapplication  or  are  devoted  to 
objects  entirely  foreign  to  the  profession  of  the  negotiator.  I  do  not 
speak  thus  out  of  an  undue  predilection  for  a  profession  which,  I  con- 
fess, is  dear  to  me.  I  only  speak  as  a  citizen.  I  have  always  considered 
editions  same  year,  Brussels  and  Amsterdam ;  another,  "  aug- 
London,  1750.  An  English  translation  was  published  in  London,  1716: 
of  Negotiating  with  Sovereign  Princes.  By  the  same,  e.  g.,  De  la 
Monde  et  des  Connoissances    Utiles  a  la  Conduite  de  la   Vie   (Brus- 


pp. 

35.   75: 

mer 

tee  •'.  L 

The 

Art    0, 

Sci, 

■nee   dn 

Scls 

■    1717). 

'■"'  Ibid. 

01  Disc 

456  /.  /.  Jusserand 

it  shameful  and  hurtful  for  my  country  that  the  lack  of  preparation  and 
an  unjust  prejudice  on  the  part  of  fathers  of  family  leave  us  inferior 
in  this  to  other  nations  who  give  us  very  different  examples. 

Think  how  important  is  such  a  calling  "  which  prepares  those 
great  events  whose  eclat  strikes  the  eye ",  war,  peace,  conciliation, 
alliances.  "  The  fate  of  his  country  is  in  the  hands  of  the  negotiator  "  ; 
his  functions  are  of  the  most  difficult,  for  "  all  in  them  is,  so  to  say, 
conjectural  ",  and  requires  deeper  thought  than  "  matters  offering 
fixed  and  demonstrated  points  ", 

Just  therefore  as  for  the  Church,  the  prentice  ambassador,  "  if  he 
is  to  become  superior,  should  be  prepared  from  childhood  for  those 
important  functions.  His  studies,  his  amusements  too,  must  have  no 
other  object;  he  must  ceaselessly  labor  to  form  his  judgment,  accus- 
tom himself  early  to  get  clear  ideas  on  every  matter,  and  to  fill  his 
mind  with  principles  capable  of  guiding  him  as  infallibly  as  possible 
in  every  juncture  ".  He  thus  should,  when  studying  history,  even 
modern  history  which  will  be  the  chief  subject  of  his  attention  and 
offers  so  many  burning  problems,  try  to  remain  impartial :  "  Since 
every  country  has  taken  part  in  public  events,  it  is  only  too  usual, 
while  reading,  to  favorably  judge  one's  own  nation  and  feel  a  passion 
for  her  to  the  detriment  of  the  others."  From  such  prejudices  may 
flow  "  consequences  of  no  small  importance  ".02  It  is  never  an  ad- 
vantage, when  walking,  to  be  blindfolded. 

Former  writers  had  drawn  up,  as  we  have  seen,  interminable  lists 
of  the  accomplishments  necessary  for  an  ambassador.  Pecquet,  with- 
out forgetting  the  study  of  foreign  languages,  in  spite  of  "  ours  having 
become  in  a  way  that  of  all  Europe  ",03  offers  to  ambassadors  a  no 
less  impressive  list  of  the  moral  qualities  indispensable  to  any  worthy 
member  of  this,  in  his  eyes,  quasi-holy  profession.  The  ambassador 
he  approves  of  is  fair  and  moderate  in  his  judgments,  avoids  vain  fits 
of  enthusiasm  or  hatred,  is  careful  not  to  "confuse  nervousness  (in- 
quietude d'esprit)  with  activity",  is  patient  and  plucky,  never  feels 
disheartened. 

While  neglecting  nothing  of  what  may  secure  the  success  of  an  un- 
dertaking, all  the  obstacles  should  be  considered  coolly,  a  firm  stand  being 
taken  against  those  sometimes  encountered  at  every  step.  The  ambas- 
sador must  never  be  discouraged,  but  feel  satisfied  when  he  has  done 
all  that  accords  with  humanity,  and,  above  all.  keep  no  ill  humor  nor 
prejudice  against  the  people  who  put  obstacles  in  his  path;  they  do  noth- 
ing else,  in  many  cases,  than  what  we  should  have  done  if  we  had  been 
in  their  place. 

•'-  Discours,  pp.   xix.  xxiii,   xxxi,   xxxiv,    xli. 
83  ibid.,    p.   XXV. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  457 

Personal  modesty  should  be  practised. 

Being  not  incompatible  with  the  dignity  attached  to  the  representative 
character  of  the  ambassador;  without  this,  it  is  hard  to  please  men.  All 
the  moments  in  the  life  of  an  envoy  do  not  require  that  he  be  hampered 
by  his  professional  character;  he  would  become  a  burden  to  himself  and 
to  the  others.  .  .  .  The  honors  accorded  to  the  representative  character 
are  easily  mistaken  by  the  one  who  enjoys  them  as  a  personal  homage. 
.  .  .  The  fault  is  frequent  with  beginners;  they  fancy  they  have  become 
new  men ;  they  consider  themselves  as  actual  princes,  they  exact  every- 
thing, and  think  they  are  dispensed  from  everything,  the  language  soon 
accords  with  the  attitude,  and  the  name  of  dignity  is  given  to  what  is 
nothing  but  pride  and  self-sufficiency.1'4 

Disinterestedness  is  of  the  highest  importance ;  not  only  presents 
will  always  be  refused,  even  when  allowed  by  custom  and  by  one's 
government,  but  no  ambition  of  wealth  or  profit  of  any  sort  can  be 
tolerated  in  an  ambassador,  except  that  of  properly  serving  his  coun- 
try. Let  all  those  who  entertain  other  desires  besides,  look  else- 
where; in  "a  profession  so  important  ",  those  desires  are  the  sign  of 
a  great  risk  that  should  be  avoided  at  all  cost,  the  risk  of  a  "  corrup- 
tion of  the  heart".  This  exclusion  is  applied  even  to  rewards  from 
one's  own  country,  which  may  come  or  not,  the  thing  is  of  no  impor- 
tance ;  one  should  never  work  in  view  of  them : 

It  is  good  to  be  able  to  say  to  one's  self  that,  with  a  pure  heart  and 
innocent  hands,  one  deserved  to  be  well  treated.  It  is  in  itself  a  recom- 
pense, to  be  worthy  of  one.  Let  us  moreover  agree  that  every  man  owes 
himself  to  the  service  of  his  country  without  having  any  title  to  exact 
rewards.  We  are  born  in  a  country  and  partake  in  her  glory,  splendor, 
and  safety;  we  owe  to  her  the  goods  and  fortune  inherited  from  our 
fathers;  we  therefore  owe  a  service  to  her  of  one  sort  or  another.  .  .  . 
If  men  were  well  penetrated  with  these  principles  they  would  take  the 
habit  of  not  serving  their  mother  country  as  mercenaries.95 

Military  service  for  all,  with  no  pay,  as  established  later  in  France, 
is  in  essence  in  these  remarks. 

The  tendency  was  decidedly  toward  austerity.  The  ambassador  is 
to  be  the  more  exacting  toward  himself  that  he  is  so  much  in  view  and 
so  many  people  have  an  interest  in  finding  out  his  faults  and  foibles 
and  taking  advantage  of  them  against  him.  Even  when  he  has  no 
choice  and  must  needs  follow  custom  he  should  not  be  the  dupe  of  it. 
He  will  have  a  sumptuous  establishment,  "  and  yield  to  this  folly  since 

84  Sairte  idea  in  Callieres  :  "  Ces  negociateurs  novices  s'enivrent  d'ordinaire 
des  honneurs  qu'on  rend  en  leur  personne  a  la  dignite  des  maitres  qu'ils  repre- 
sentent,  semblables  a  eet  ane  de  la  fable  qui  recevait  pour  lui  tout  l'encens  qu'on 
brulait  devant  la  statue  de  la  deesse  qu'il  portait."  De  la  Maniere  de  Ncgocicr 
(1716),  P.  7- 

05  Ibid.,  pp.   51,    16,  20.   :;. 


458  /.  /.  Jusserand 

the  opinion  of  men  has  made  it  a  consequence  of  his  representative 
character  " ;  hut  he  will  remember  that  it  is  a  folly.  He  will  become 
acquainted  with  all  sorts  of  people,  especially  in  republican  states 
where  the  sovereignty  belongs  to  all,  but  be  careful  to  keep  absolutely 
aloof  from  internal  politics  and  avoid  taking  sides  with  one  party  or 
another,  especially,  again,  in  republican  states.  "  This  care  to  seek 
out  everybody,  this  kind  of  popularity,  must  not  be  accompanied  by 
anything  that  might  lead  people  to  suppose  that  the  envoy  is  en- 
deavoring to  enter  into  the  detail  of  domestic  affairs,  which  he  should 
not,  or  profit  of  the  multiplicity  of  the  members  composing  the  sov- 
ereignty, to  sow  division  among  them."  He  would  become  at  once 
suspected.  "  The  republican  spirit,  or  spirit  of  liberty,  which  liberty, 
to  be  solid,  must  rest  on  internal  union,  ever  leads  all  the  other  affec- 
tions to  this  rallying  point."  The  envoy  who  forgets  those  truths 
becomes  useless  to  his  government  in  the  country  where  he  is  and  in 
all  others.96 

There  may  be  cases,  to  be  sure,  when  the  right  course  will  be 
difficult  to  discern.  The  heart  then  will  decide:  "The  heart  it  is  that 
causes  us  to  make  a  good  or  a  bad  use  of  the  qualities  of  the  mind." 

Needless  to  say  that  on  all  questions  of  sincerity  and  truthfulness, 
Pecquet  is  absolutely  positive.  No  casuistry  with  him,  no  room  for 
"  Faux-Semblant ".  Not  in  vain  had  Pascal  in  his  Provinciates 
passed  sentence  on  easy-going  casuistry,  nor  Moliere  said  by  the 
mouth  of  Alceste : 

Je  veux  qu'on  soit  sincere  et  qu'en  homme  d'honneur 
On  ne  lache  aucun  mot  qui  ne  parte  du  coeur. 

At  that  date  the  cause  of  truth  had  been  won;  Rousseau  de 
Chamoy,  in  1697,  had  been  equally  positive  there  was  "no  quality 
more  important  for  an  ambassador  than  probity."97  Bayle  in  his 
great  Dictionnaire  Historique  has  nothing  but  scorn  for  dissembling 
ambassadors  ;03  De  la  Sarraz  du  Franquesnay,  Lescalopier  de  Nourar, 
at  a  later  date,  fully  agree.  "  We  must  recognize,"  says  the  first, 
"  that,  generally  speaking,  bad  faith  is  destructive  of  society  .  .  . 
cunning  and  guile  are  of  no  avail  to  those  who  use  them."  ,J0  "  Curi- 
ae Callieres,  pp.  120  ft'. 
97  idee  du  Parfait  Ambassadeur,  p.  22. 

113  And.  an  aggressive  skeptic,  he  generalizes  against  them:  "  Agir  selon 
la  doctrine  des  equivoques,  c'est  le  metier  des  ambassadeurs ;  c'est  pour  eux 
principalement  qu'elle  aurait  du  etre  inventee ;  "  sub  verbo  Bellai  (Guillaume 
du).  Cf.  La  Bruyere's  sarcastic  portrait  of  the  "chameleon  plenipotentiary". 
Caracteres,   ed.   Lacour,   II.  74. 

!>»  Le  Ministre  Public  Jans  Ics  Cours  ttrangcres  (Amsterdam,    i;3il.  p.   171. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  459 

ning,"  says  the  second  (an  optimist  it  is  true,  according  to  whom  the 
"  detention  of  a  king  or  an  attempt  on  his  sacred  person  had  become 
impossibilities";  and  he  was  writing  in  1763),  "has  been  banished 
from  politics."  10° 

The  ambassador,  according  to  Pecquet,  will  offer  in  his  despatches 
nothing  but  unalloyed  truth,  and  the  desire  to  please  his  master  will 
never  induce  him  to  color  it  falsely  : 

The  most  essential  care  of  the  envoy  should  be  exactitude  in  the  facts 
he  reports;  he  must  neither  weaken  them  nor  change  their  hue,  but  dis- 
tinctly state  which  are  in  his  eyes  certain,  and  which  doubtful.  .  .  .  He 
must  not  flatter  his  master  by  his  selection  of  the  facts  he  narrates  or 
by  his  way  of  narrating  them.  The  object  of  his  mission  is  not  to 
lead  his  chief  astray  but  to  enlighten  him. 

The  judgments  of  certain  men  are  biassed  by  personal  considera- 
tions ;  nothing  can  be  worse  in  an  ambassador : 

It  often  happens  that  an  envoy  who  does  not  believe  himself  well 
enough  treated  or  enough  considered  in  a  court,  poisons  the  simplest 
things.  In  other  cases,  if  he  sees  that  a  disposition  to  a  good  under- 
standing does  not  subsist  between  the  prince  he  serves  and  the  one  to 
whom  he  is  accredited,  he  thinks  he  pays  his  court  to  the  former  by  em- 
bittering everything  and  giving  violent  advice.  [The  duty  of  a  nego- 
tiator is]  to  make  a  complete  abstraction  of  his  own  person.101 

The  use  of  spies  is  utterly  contemptible.  The  envoy  should  have 
recourse,  for  information,  not  to  traitors,  but,  what  is  a  little  more 
difficult,  to  his  own  brains.  "  The  other  means,  consisting  in  keeping 
paid  spies  and  corrupting  men  in  a  position  to  know,  cannot  be  con- 
sidered praiseworthy  or  honorable.  Most  people,  as  is  well  known, 
have  no  scruples  in  using  this  means  and  they  hope  that  their  master 
will  consider  it  a  merit  in  them."  Their  merit  however  is  nil,  gold 
does  all.  "  One  would  perhaps  risk  being  stoned,  in  the  political 
world,  if  one  wanted  to  positivelv  forbid  all  recourse  to  such  sources 
of  information,  but  at  least  let  the  use  thereof  be  restricted  to  occa- 
sions when  every  other  means  fails."  There  is  little  to  choose  be- 
tween the  scorn  due  to  the  seduced  and  that  due  to  the  seducer.  Add 
moreover,  from  the  practical  point  of  view,  that  there  is  never  any 
safety  in  using  a  traitor.102 

100  Le  Ministdre  du   Negociateur   (Amsterdam,    1763'!,  p.   .299. 

101  Pp.  95,  96.  Pascal  in  his  Pensees  had  already  denounced  the  lack  of 
courage  of  those  who  acted  otherwise  :  "  Dire  la  verite  est  utile  a  celui  a  qui  on 
la  dit,  mais  desavantageux  a  ceux  qui  la  disent  parce  qu'ils  se  font  hair.  Or  ceux 
qui  vivent  avec  les  Princes  aiment  mieux  leurs  interets  que  celui  du  Prince  qu'ils 
servent,  et  ainsi  its  n'ont  garde  de  lui  procurer  un  avantage  en  se  nuisant  a 
eux-memes." 

102  p.  gi. 


460  /.  /.  Jusserand 

The  question  of  falsehoods  pro  bono  publico  does  not  exist  for 
Pecquet :  none  can  ever  be  allowed.  A  man  is  not  bound  to  say  all 
he  knows,  but  he  must  never  speak  an  untruth.  "  It  has  often  been 
the  stumbling-block  of  many  negotiators,"  he  says,  "  to  have  ignored 
or  have  wanted  to  ignore  that  one  can,  without  the  help  of  falsehood, 
well  serve  one's  master  and  one's  country."  He  does  not  even  admit 
the  political  definition  of  a  lie  which  I  recently  heard  given  by  a  man 
of  note :  "  A  lie  consists  in  not  speaking  the  truth  to  one  who  has  a 
right  to  know  it."  It  is,  he  considers,  a  question  of  the  heart,  and 
we  have  seen  the  part  reserved  to  the  heart  in  the  new  manuals, 
written  in  the  century  of  sentiment  and  sensibility,  the  century  of 
Richardson,  Rousseau,  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre : 

The  qualities  of  the  heart  in  every  profession,  and  especially  that 
of  the  negotiator,  are  the  most  important.  His  success  chiefly  depends 
upon  the  confidence  he  inspires;  sentiments  of  candor,  truth,  and  probity 
are  indispensable  to  him.  One  may  seduce  men  by  the  brilliancy  of  one's 
talents,  but  if  these  are  not  guided  by  probity,  they  become  useless  and 
even  dangerous  instruments.     Men  do  not  forgive  having  been  deceived. 

Nothing  built  on  falsehood  has  any  duration ;  events  are  not  long  in 
bringing  truth  to  light.  "  We  are  persuaded  that  there  remains  to- 
day none  of  those  princes  who  prided  themselves  on  cleverly  deceiving 
others.  There  is  nothing  a  man  jealous  of  his  reputation  must  avoid 
more  carefully  than  missions  contrary  to  probity."  103 

When  the  mission  of  an  ambassador  comes  to  an  end,  his  duties 
continue.  The  knowledge  he  has  acquired  belongs  not  to  him  but  to 
his  government,  he  must  sum  it  up  in  a  general  report  which  will 
instruct  those  who  sent  him ;  he  will  not  publish  it  for  fear  of  hurting 
the  interests  of  his  own  country.  "  The  public,  usually  curious,  with- 
out any  advantage  for  the  state,  will  possibly  see  in  this  reserve 
nothing  but  ridiculous  scruple  and  useless  secrecy,  instead  of  respect- 
ing a  discretion  inspired  by  probity  and  the  love  of  the  state."  The 
envoy  must  not  yield,  but  resist  an  inducement  the  more  dangerous 
"that  self-love  and  a  desire  to  shine  may  cause  him  to  find  a  certain 
satisfaction  in  falling  into  this  kind  of  temptation  ". 

Like  the  man  who  has  once  pronounced  perpetual  vows,  Pec- 
quet's  ambassador,  when  he  has  returned  home,  will  not  become 
indolent ;  he  may  be  wanted  again  by  his  country.  "  An  envoy  must 
consider  himself,  even  in  his  moments  of  rest,  as  consecrated  forever 
to  a  special  service,  the  obligations  of  which  should  be  ever  present 
to  his  mind,  be  the  object  of  his  studies,  and  serve  as  a  rule  of  con- 
duct in  his  conversations  and  actions."  104 

10a  Pecquet,   pp.    xiv,    6   ff. 
104  Pp.    ,56.    15S. 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  461 

VI. 

Most  of  the  principles  propounded  by  modest  and  now  forgotten 
Pecquet  have  been  justified  by  events.  The  most  terrible  revolutions, 
the  most  cruel  wars  mankind  has  ever  seen,  have  one  after  the  other 
proclaimed  to  the  world,  as  the  moral  of  their  tale  of  destruction  and 
slaughter :  Falsehood  and  cruelty  do  not  pay. 

They  will  more  and  more,  and  in  louder  tones,  proclaim  the  same 
dogma.  That  mankind  progresses  does  not,  for  sincere  observers, 
allow  the  possibility  of  a  doubt.  Old  Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  the 
translator  of  Aristotle,  used  to  say  to  me  years  ago  when  he  was  our 
foreign  minister:  "The  proof  that  good  prevails  over  evil  in  the 
society  of  men  is  that  this  society  still  exists."  Certain  it  is,  there- 
fore, that  honorable  ways  of  acting  will  increasingly  be  the  onlv  ones 
admitted;  the  others  will  be  rejected,  and.  if  resorted  to.  will  entail 
such  punishment  as  to  more  and  more  efficiently  prevent  their  use. 
The  ideas  of  Pecquet  will  triumph,  and  those  of  Germonius  be 
defeated. 

In  spite  of  whatever  set-backs,  let  us  keep  our  faith.  Set-backs 
may  occur  in  the  future ;  the  most  appalling  ones  are  of  yesterday, 
when  some  peoples  were  seen  following  the  wrong  road,  re-enacting 
and  obeying  a  gospel  of  force,  of  inequality  among  nations,  of  the 
weaker,  because  weaker,  having  to  obey  the  stronger,  of  the  end  justi- 
fying the  means  whatever  the  end  and  whatever  the  means,  proclaim- 
ing as  their  guiding  principle  that  of  wolves  and  ravens,  that  necessity- 
has  no  law,  persuaded  that,  hand  in  hand,  force  and  falsehood  were 
sure  to  triumph,  and  relying  so  much  on  them  that  when  they  wanted 
to  start  that  "fresh  and  joyous  war",  which  was  to  result  in  the 
agonizing  death  of  millions  of  brave  and  useful  citizens,  yours,  ours, 
theirs,  they  did  not  even  take  the  trouble  to  devise  probable  stories, 
but  declared  war  on  France  because  she  had  bombarded  Nuremberg. 
Had  she  indeed? 

What  was  retrogression,  they  called  progress,  forgetting  that,  as 
John  Morley  observed,  "  the  law  of  things  is  that  they  who  tamper 
with  veracity,  from  whatever  motives,  are  tampering  with  the  vital 
force  of  human  progress".105  The  moral  of  the  tale  is  there,  how- 
ever. Men  and  nations  obeying  different  tenets  have  been  powerful 
men  and  nations — for  a  time;  rising,  but  only  unde  altior  cssct  casus. 

Xo  one  would  now  relate  as  a  fine  trait  to  the  credit  of  a  great 
man  what  Moritz  Busch  admiringly  reports  of  Bismarck's  instruc- 
tions to  him  when  the  memoirs  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  began  to 

10=  On  Compromise,  ch.  III. 


462  /.  /.  Jusserand 

appear  in  the  Deutsche  Rundschau  :  "  I  myself  consider  the  diary  even 
more  genuine  than  you  do,"  said  Bismarck  to  his  trusty  confidant ; 
nevertheless,  "  first  assert  it  to  be  a  forgery,  and  express  indignation 
at  such  a  calumny  upon  the  noble  dead.  Then,  when  they  prove  it 
to  be  genuine,  refute  the  errors  and  foolish  ideas  which  it  contains, 
but  cautiously".106  The  trusty  confidant  made  this  public  in  order 
to  increase  the  admiration  of  his  compatriots  for  their  great  man. 

The  day  for  such  things  has  gone  by,  we  hope ;  evidence  is  grow- 
ing that  the  rules  of  honesty  cannot  be  of  one  sort  for  ordinary  men 
and  of  another  for  powerful  ones  or  for  nations.  "  I  know  but  one 
code  of  morality  for  men,"  Jefferson  had  written  to  Madison,  at  an 
earlier  date,  Paris,  August  28,  1789,  "whether  acting  singly  or  col- 
lectively. He  who  says,  I  will  be  a  rogue  when  I  act  in  company  with 
a  hundred  others,  but  an  honest  man  when  I  act  alone,  will  be  believed 
in  the  former  assertion  but  not  in  the  latter."  The  code  of  Jefferson 
will  more  and  more  triumph  and  that  of  Bismarck  be  more  and  more 
contemned. 

In  their  sorrow  for  the  past,  their  anxiety  for  the  future,  honest 
nations  have  recently  been  considering  what  could  be  tried  to  prevent 
the  recurrence  of  catastrophes  and  to  secure  the  safety  of  even  the 
smaller  among  them.  And,  as  in  the  time  of  the  barbaric  invasions 
of  yore  which  had  so  greatly  contributed  to  the  attempted  formation 
of  a  family  of  Christian  peoples,  with  an  ever  ready  pacific  judge  and 
umpire,  they  bethought  themselves  of  that  organism  which  we  now 
see  struggling  for  a  useful  existence,  the  League  or  Society  of  Na- 
tions, with  its  permanent  tribunal.107  No  Perdita  ever  had  a  stormier 
infancy  than  the  new  being, 

Thou  'rt  like  to  have 
A  lullaby  too  rough:  I  never  saw 
The  heavens  so  dim  by  day. 

The  mere  fact  however  of  such  a  birth  is  an  important  symptom, 
and  another  of  an  even  greater  value  is  that  the  very  men  who  dis- 
agree with  the  plan  such  as  it  is,  agree  with  the  object :  the  fate  of 
nations  must  depend  in  the  future  on  something  else  than  force  and 
falsehood. 

10G  Sept.  26  and  2S.  188S.  Bismarck  .  .  .  being  a  Diary  kept  by  Dr.  Morita 
Busch   (London  and  New  York,   1898,  2  vols.).  I.  42S,  435. 

107  The  League  of  Nations  was  devised  chiefly  to  replace  the  "  balance  of 
power  ",  held  to  be  inadequate,  by  something  more  exalted,  which  would  be, 
though  no  one  probably  thought  of  it  at  Versailles,  an  attempt  at  a  more  prac- 
tical family  of  nations:  "There  must  now  be",  said  President  Wilson  in  his 
Guildhall  speech  of  Dec.  28.  1918,  "not  a  balance  of  power,  not  one  powerful 
group  of  nations  set  oft"  against  another,  but  a  single,  overwhelming,  powerful 
group  of  nations  who  shall  be  the  trustees  of  the  peace  of  the  world." 


The  School  for  Ambassadors  463 

Years  may  elapse  before  the  goal  is  reached,  and  in  the  meantime 
no  precautions  necessary  for  safety  should  be  neglected,  for  neglect 
would  result  in  lengthening  the  journey.  But  a  great  thing  it  is  that 
the  goal  stands  visible  as  a  beacon  before  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world. 
Without  perhaps  reaching  it  in  our  days,  to  come  nearer  will  be  a 
great  boon.  And  how  much  nearer  shall  we  not  be,  how  much  lighter 
the  burdens  and  anxieties  of  mankind,  when  one  nation  whose  think- 
ers, poets,  and  scientists  had  won  for  her  of  yore  the  admiration  of 
the  world,  may  find  her  way  to  pronounce  these  three  short  words: 
"  We  are  sorry  !  " 

In  the  task  of  hastening  better  days,  honest  negotiators,  busy 
with  the  task  and  not  with  the  building  of  their  own  fortunes,  obeying 
the  most  austere  of  the  olden-day  manuals,  will  have  an  important 
part  to  play:  Conamur  tenues  grandia.  Xo  invention,  no  telephone, 
no  aeroplane,  no  wireless,  will  ever  replace  the  knowledge  of  a  coun- 
try and  the  understanding  of  a  people's  dispositions.  The  impor- 
tance of  persuading  a  prince  and  his  minister  has  diminished;  that  of 
understanding  a  nation  has  increased.  The  temper,  qualities,  and 
limitations  of  many  a  man  can  sometimes  be  divined  on  short  acquaint- 
ance; those  of  a  nation  need  a  longer  contact.  Temporary  missions 
may  suffice  in  the  first  case ;  permanent  ones  are  indispensable  in  the 
second,  and  will  therefore  be  continued.  Instead  of  showing  signs 
of  reduction  in  the  more  recent  period,  the  ambassadorial  system  has 
been  adopted  bv  more  and  more  numerous  countries.  "  It  would  be 
an  historical  absurdity,"  one  reads  in  such  a  recent  and  authoritative 
work  as  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  ninth  edition,105  "to  suppose 
diplomatic  relations  connecting  together  China  .  .  .  and  Japan " ; 
this  has  nevertheless  come  to  pass. 

Secret  treaties,  already  forbidden  by  the  present  League  covenant, 
which  has  been  accepted  by  the  immense  majority  of  nations,  will 
cease  to  be  resorted  to.  Nothing  better  shows  the  change  of  senti- 
ment throughout  the  world  than  another  anecdote  triumphantly  told 
by  Busch  in  his  memoirs  of  Bismarck.  The  latter  is  represented 
giving  as  an  "  exquisite  example  "  of  the  political  incapacity  of  Em- 
peror Frederick  III.,  the  fact  that,  being  informed  by  him  of  a  secret 
treaty  of  neutrality  concluded  by  his  country  with  Russia,  in  case  of 
an  Anglo-Russian  war,  the  then  Kronprinz  replied:  "'Of  course 
England  has  been  informed  and  has  agreed  to  it.'  Great  laughter,  in 
which  the  ladies  also  joined."  l09  There  would  be  no  laughter  now- 
adays and  the  ladies  would  not  join. 

if?  Published   1S-5-1SS9. 

109  Sept.  29,  iSSS.     Busch's  Diary,  as  above.  I.  436. 


464  /.  /.  Jusserand 

Actual  negotiations,  however,  will  be  initiated  and  conducted  in 
public  in  all  their  phases,  only  when  humanity  is  composed  of  men 
impervious  to  the  praise,  the  sarcasms,  the  exigencies,  the  threats,  the 
fury,  the  ridicule,  the  idolatry  of  the  agora :  not  a  thing  for  today,  we 
may  fear,  nor  perhaps  for  tomorrow. 

Born  on  the  day  when  the  evils  escaped  from  Pandora's  box,  am- 
bassadorial functions  will  cease  only  on  the  happy,  but  maybe  distant 
day,  when  the  evils  go  back  to  their  box. 

Let  us  trust  however  that  history  in  the  making  will  more  and 
more  have  the  same  ideal  and  motto  as  history  in  the  telling,  the  same 
as  our  American  Historical  Association,  Super  omnia  Veritas.  May 
future  ambassadors  never  forget  that,  as  old  Dolet  wrote  centuries 
ago,  their  chief  duty  "  is  to  be  rather  the  makers  of  peace  and  concord 
than  of  discord  and  of  war  ",  and  that,  as  Erasmus  wrote  in  his  book 
for  the  guidance  of  the  future  Emperor  Charles  V.:  "Wars  beget 
wars ;  good  will  begets  good  will ;  equity,  equity."  110 

J.  J.  Jusseraxd. 

no"Bellum  quid  gignat  nisi  bellum?  At  civilitas  civilitatem  invitat, 
aequitas  aequitatem."     Institutio  Principis   Christian^  ch.   XI. 


JAY'S  TREATY  AND  THE  NORTHWEST  BOUNDARY  GAP 

Had  the  negotiators  of  the  treaty  of  peace  and  independence 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  1782  been  accom- 
panied by  the  staffs  of  experts  so  indispensable  to  twentieth-century 
peacemakers  there  probably  never  would  have  been  any  northwest 
boundary  gap.  As  it  was,  the  peace  commissioners,  after  some  de- 
bate, agreed  to  fix  the  northern  boundary  on  the  general  principle  of 
the  now  familiar  river-and-lake  line  from  45  degrees  north  latitude 
on  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  the  Mississippi. 
There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  these  men  ever  made  use  of  any 
other  knowledge  of  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  United  States 
than  was  contained  in  the  official  British  Mitchell's  Map  of  1755. 
This  showed  the  territory  as  far  west  as  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and 
to  that  body  of  water  the  line  was  carried  with  reasonable  precision. 
But  over  the  northwest  corner  of  Mitchell's  Map  from  forty-seven 
to  fifty-two  degrees  north  latitude  is  spread  an  inset  map  of  Labrador 
and  Hudson's  Bay.  Out  from  under  the  inset  flows  the  Mississippi, 
its  source  shrouded  in  mystery.  A  legend  on  the  main  map  reads : 
"  The  head  of  the  Mississippi  is  not  yet  known.  It  is  supposed  to 
arise  about  the  50th  degree  of  latitude  and  western  bounds  of  this 
map."  The  commissioners  complacently  projected  the  line  from  the 
northwesternmost  corner  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  due  west  to  the 
hypothetical  Mississippi.1  Any  professor-expert,  had  there  been 
such  in  those  days  of  inefficient  diplomacy,  could  have  shown  the 
commissioners  that  such  a  line  was  impossible  because  the  Mississippi 
really  rises  well  to  the  south  of  the  latitude  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
as  many  maps  drawn  between  1755  and  17S2  indicate  with  fair 
accuracy.2 

The  treaty  thus  left  a  boundary  gap  of  approximately  175  miles 
in  an  air  line  between  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  north- 
westernmost  corner  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  It  was  not  until  nine 
years  after  ratification  that  this  fact  was  discovered  and  became  a 

1  For  facsimile  of  Mitchell's  Map,  see  Channing.  History  of  tiie  United 
States,  III.  361.  For  discussion  of  the  northern  boundary  negotiations,  1779- 
1782,  ibid.,  386;  A.  J.  Hill,  in  Minnesota  Historical  Society,  Collections.  VII. 
305-317;  A.  X.  Winchell.  id.,  VIII.   1S7-194. 

-  For  enumeration  and  description  of  contemporary  maps,  see  Statutes, 
Documents,  and  Papers  respecting  the  Northern  and  Western  Boundaries  of 
Ontario   (Toronto,   1S78).  pp.   133-140- 

(465) 


466  S.  F.  Bcmis 

matter  of  diplomatic  negotiations.  From  the  first,  however,  the  new 
boundary  line  was  the  cause  of  consternation  to  British  subjects  in 
Canada.  Immediately  the  terms  of  the  preliminary  articles  of  peace 
were  known  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  it  was  apparent  that 
the  British  diplomatists  in  yielding  to  the  extensive  territorial  claims 
of  their  adversaries  had  overlooked  a  matter  of  great  economic  con- 
sequence to  Canada,  a  geographical  detail  which  might  have  been 
adjusted  easily  had  the  negotiators  known  anything  about  the  lands 
they  were  dividing.  This  was  the  location  of  the  Grand  Portage 
between  Lake  Superior  and  the  navigable  portion  of  Pigeon  River, 
up  which  stream  went  the  goods  of  the  Montreal  fur  merchants  to 
be  carried  across  the  height  of  land  and  by  way  of  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  intricate  canoe  routes  of  the  virgin  fur  country  of  the 
great  territory  of  the  Northwest. 

The  Canadian  fur  trade,  the  prostration  of  which  appeared  to  be 
threatened  by  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  terms  and  which  thus  came  to 
be  connected  intimately  with  the  boundary  question,  was  the  most 
profitable  single  industry  of  eighteenth-century  North  America.  On 
it  depended  the  immediate  prosperity  of  the  remaining  British  conti- 
nental possessions.  For  the  ten  years  after  the  peace  of  17S3  the 
business  produced  furs  worth  £200,000  sterling  annually.3  Half  of 
this  came  from  United  States  territory  to  the  south  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  country  dominated  until  1796  by  British  occupation  in  viola- 
tion of  Article  II.4  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  Moreover,  furs  to  the 
value  of  £40,000  annually  already  were  coming  in  from  the  Northwest 
over  the  Grand  Portage,5  which  portage  to  their  disappointment  the 
fur  princes  of  Montreal  discovered  to  have  been  ceded  to  the  United 
States  through  the  ignorance  of  the  king's  peacemakers.  At  the 
same  time  that  the  traders  contemplated  the  withdrawal  of  British 
forces  from  control  of  their  fur  preserves  in  what  was  now  American 
territory  to  the  south  of  the  new  boundary  line — a  withdrawal  against 
which  thev  vigorously  protested  6 — it  was  by  no  means  pleasant  to 

3  "  Importation  of  Skins  from  Canada,  17SS  ",  Canadian  Archives  (here- 
inafter cited  as  C.  A.).  Q  43.  p.  S^6,  from  C.  O.  4-':  66;  "Report  to  Grenville 
on  the  Fur  Trade  of  Canada,  furnished  by  John  Inglis  to  Lord  Grenville  "  ,  Mark- 
Lane,  May  31,  1790,  C.  A.,  Q  49,  p.  2S7,  from  C.  O.  42:  72:  "  Memoir  in  regard 
to  the  Fur  Trade,  about  1794",  Chatham  MSS..  bdle.  346.  These  three  docu- 
ments are  now  available  in  print  in  the  appendix  to  Davidson's  North  West 
Company. 

*  That  American  soil  should  be  evacuated  by  British  troops  "  with  all  con- 
venient speed  ". 

'•  Account  of  the  fur  trade  of  Canada  furnished  by  John  Inglis,  supra,  note  3. 

'•Benjamin  Frobisher  to  Adam  Mabane,  Montreal,  Apr.  19,  17S4,  C.  A., 
B    75-;.   i>.   75,   printed   in   Michigan    Pioneer   ami   Historical  Collections   (herein- 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   467 

observe  that  the  Grand  Portage,  artery  of  the  fur  trade  to  the  new 
and  unexploited  regions  of  the  Northwest  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
had  been  carelessly  ceded  away.7 

The  first  effort  to  escape  the  consequences  of  this  loss  was  to  send 
out  explorers  to  find  some  other  route,  wholly  within  British  territory, 
between  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  Lake  Superior.  Under  the 
employ  of  the  North  West  Company,  Umfreville  and  St.  Germain  in 
1784  did  find  an  alternative  route  by  way  of  the  Kaministiquia  River 
and  Lake  Nipigon.s  a  passage  previously  known  to  old  French  traders 
but  neither  so  convenient  nor  so  direct.  But  it  soon  became  evident 
that  recourse  to  the  new  waterway  would  not  be  necessary.  The 
British  government,  acting  in  the  interests  of  the  fur  merchants  of 
Canada  and  London  and  in  behalf  of  the  Indian  nations  of  the  Ohio 
Valley,  their  former  allies  who  were  uneasy  at  anticipated  American 
dominion  over  their  lands,  decided  not  to  fulfill  for  the  time  being 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace.9  •  Orders  to  the  governor-general  of 
British  North  America  to  refuse  delivery  of  the  frontier  posts  went 
forth  from  Whitehall,  in  fact,  the  day  before  George  III.  proclaimed 
ratification  of  the  treaty  and  publicly  promised  to  enforce  it.10  Soon 
thereafter  it  developed  that  the  United  States  on  its  side  was  unable 
to  carry  out  faithfully  some  of  the  American  obligations  under  the 
treaty,  notably  the  guaranty  of  unimpeded  collection  of  ante-bellum 
debts  due  to  British  creditors.  In  this  way  the  armory  of  British 
diplomacy  was  furnished  with  a  plausible  enough  excuse  for  refusing 
to  deliver.  As  long  as  these  strategic  positions  thus  continued  to  be 
garrisoned  by  British  troops  the  fur  trade  on  United  States  soil  went 

after  cited  as  Mich.  P.  H.  C),  XX.  219-222.  Compare  this  letter  with  that  of 
Haldimand  to  Captain  Robertson,  Quebec,  May  6,  17S4,  ibid.,  p.  226.  For  direct 
solicitations  of  the  fur  traders  to  the  government,  see  Benjamin  and  Joseph 
Frobisher  to  Haldimand.  Montreal,  Oct.  4,  17S4,  Report  on  Canadian  Archives, 
1S90,  p.  50;  Haldimand  to  Thomas  Townshend,  C.  A.,  Q  21,  p.  220;  unsigned 
letter  to  Xepean,  Detroit.  Sept.   1.   1784,  Mich.  P.  H.  C,  XXIV.    17. 

7  "  Observations  by  Isaac  Todd  and  Simon  McTavish  ",  etc.,  Chatham  MSS., 
bdle.  346,  printed  in   Davidson,  op.  cit.,  p.  278. 

s  Benjamin  and  Joseph  Frobisher  to  Haldimand.  Montreal,  Oct.  4,  17S4. 
C.  A.,  Q  24-2.  p.  409;  James  McGill  to  Hon.  Henry  Hamilton,  ibid.,  Q  25,  p.   111. 

0  Evidence  on  this  point  has  been  abundantly  found  by  the  present  inves- ' 
tigator  after  painstaking  examination  of  the  Canadian  Archives  and  of  the  Colo- 
nial Office  Papers  in  the  Public  Record  Office,  the  results  of  which  he  hopes  to 
embody  in  another  work.  The  correspondence  is  too  voluminous  to  cite  here. 
Some  of  it  has  been  presented  in  McLaughlin's  "  British  Debts  and  Western 
Posts",  in  American  Historical  Association,  Annua!  Report,  1S94,  p.  444.  See 
also  Douglas  Brymner's  comments  in  his  introduction  to  Report  on  Canadian 
Archives,   1890.  p.  xxxi. 

10  Sydney  to  Haldimand,  Apr.  8,  1785,,  C.  A.,  Q  23,  p.  55.  The  ratification 
of  the  treaty  was  proclaimed  by  the  king  on  April  9. 


468  5".  F.  Bemis 

on  unrestricted  and  the  Xorth  West  Company's  voyageurs  used  the 
Grand  Portage  without  hindrance,  the  nearest  American  being  hun- 
dreds of  miles  away. 

The  question  of  the  retention  of  the  posts  soon  developed  into 
that  protracted  diplomatic  contest,  familiar  to  students  of  the  period, 
which  eventually  ended  by  their  evacuation  in  1796  according  to  the 
terms  of  Jay's  Treaty  (signed  November  19,  1794).  Observing  that 
the  matter  of  the  frontier  boundary  had  thus  passed  into  a  long  diplo- 
matic contest  the  fur  traders  importuned  the  government  to  secure 
their  interests  in  any  final  settlement  to  be  reached  with  the  United 
States :  ( 1 )  by  providing  that  British  traders  might  freely  pass  and 
repass  the  boundary  to  trade  with  the  Indians  on  the  American  side.11 
and  (2)  by  securing  for  British  subjects  liberty  of  passage  through 
the  few  miles  of  United  States  territory  to  the  southward  of  Pigeon 
River  over  which  ran  the  Grand  Portage.12  It  might  even  be  possi- 
ble, some  of  them  thought,  to  secure  such  minor  rectification  of  the 
boundary  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  United  States  as  would 
include  the  Grand  Portage  within  British  territory.13 

Affairs  were  in  this  posture  when  the  British  minister  at  Phila- 
delphia. George  Hammond,  received  from  Montreal  a  map  proving 
that  the  line  due  west  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  could  never  strike 
the  Mississippi.  It  was  evident  that  a  new  line  would  have  to  be 
drawn  in  that  part  of  the  country,  and  England  now  had  a  good 
reason  for  wishing  to  change  the  boundary  there.  It  dawned  on 
Hammond  that  the  necessity  for  a  boundary  rectification  might  be 
turned  to  the  great  profit  of  his  government.14  At  the  time,  he  was 
competing  in  an  unequal  contest  with  the  astute  Jefferson  in  regard 
to  the  whole  field  of  questions  in  dispute  between  the  two  govern- 
ments, the  most  important  of  which  was  the  frontier  question — which 
involved  the  posts.  The  British  minister  now  introduced  the  recti- 
fication of  the  northwest  boundary  gap  as  another  matter  to  be  regu- 

11  "  Memoir   in   regard   to   the   Fur   Trade,    about    1704".   supra,   note   3. 

12  The  topography  of  the  country  on  the  north  or  British  bank  of  the  river 
made  a  portage  there  impossible.  For  map,  see  J.  B.  Moore,  International  Ar- 
bitrations, vol.  VI.,  pi.  57. 

13  Frobisher  to  Mabane,  Apr.   19,   17S4,   C.  A.,   B  75-2,  p.   75. 

«  Hammond  to  Grenville,  Philadelphia.  Feb.  2,  1792:  "I  trust  that  this 
Government  [1.  <?.,  the  United  States]  will  not  endeavour  to  take  advantage  of  this 
accidental  geographical  error,  which,  if  not  rectified,  will  not  only  leave  the 
limits  between  the  two  countries  undefined,  but  also  render  entirely  nugatory 
the  eighth  article  of  the  treaty,  which  stipulates  that  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  from  its  source  to  the  ocean  is  to  remain  free  and  open  to  the  sub- 
jects of  the  two  countries  respectively."  Foreign  Office  Papers,  Public  Record 
Office  (hereinafter  cited  as  F.  O.),   115:    1  ;  printed  in  Dropmore  Papers,   II.  254. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   469 

lated  in  any  general  diplomatic  settlement,  and  he  proceeded  further 
to  couple  the  boundary  question  with  that  article  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  had  guaranteed  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  subjects  and  citizens  of  both  nations. 

To  appreciate  fully  Hammond's  argument  on  this  point  we  should 
keep  in  mind  that  the  boundary  of  the  United  States  is  fixed  by 
Article  II.  of  the  treaty,  the  article  which  follows  immediately  after 
recognition  of  independence.  Six  articles  then  intervene  before  the 
eighth,  which  is  the  last  but  one  of  the  whole  document.  The  eighth 
article  reads :  "  The  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to 
the  ocean,  shall  remain  free  and  open  to  the  subjects  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  citizens  of  the  United  States."  Hammond  argued  that  the 
fixing  of  a  boundary  from  the  Lake  of  the  'Woods  "  on  a  due  west 
course  to  the  River  Mississippi  "  was  proof  of  intention  of  the  negoti- 
ators of  the  treaty  to  bring  the  territory  of  British  North  America  to 
abut  on  the  river.  He  then  cited  the  navigation  article  (which  occurs 
in  another  part  of  the  treaty  and  has  no  textual  relationship  to  the 
boundary  article)  to  prove  that  the  geographical  impossibility  of  a 
line  due  west  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  river  would  render 
"  nugatory  "  one  of  the  chief  guaranties  of  the  treaty  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  ones  for  Great  Britain,  for  of  what  use  would  a  guar- 
anty of  navigation  be  if  the  territory  of  that  power  were  prevented 
from  touching  the  river?  The  boundary,  he  maintained,  should  be 
rectified  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  British  territory  up  to  the  banks 
of  the  river  and  thus  to  realize  the  true  intention  of  the  men  who 
drew  up  the  treaty.  Such  a  rectification.  Hammond  presumed  to 
suggest,  would  be  to  the  interest  of  the  L'nited  States  in  that  it  would 
place  a  British  buffer  between  that  nation  and  Spanish  Louisiana. 

Observing  the  map,  the  reader  will  notice  that  the  insertion  of 
British  territory  to  act  as  an  appreciable  buffer  between  the  LTnited 
States  and  the  vacant  prairies  of  Spanish  Louisiana  would  have  made 
necessary  a  long  southward  extension  down  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mississippi.  This  was  exactly  what  Hammond  ventured  to  propose, 
an  extension  which  would  bring  a  finger  of  British  soil  as  far  south 
as  the  "  navigable  waters  "  of  the  river,15  which  become  navigable,  for 
other  craft  than  canoes  and  small  boats,  below  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony  near  the  present  city  of  St.  Paul.  It  was  an  effort  to  create 
a  situation  out  of  which,  in  the  give-and-take  of  the  pending  general 
diplomatic  settlement.  England  might  obtain  a  much  desired  cession 
of  commercially  strategic  territory  in  a  little-heard-of  part  of  the 
North  American  continent. 

15  "Notes  of  a  Conversation  with  Mr.  Hammond,  Tune  3,  i?9^  ".  Jefferson. 
Writings  (Ford  ed.),  I.   193-198. 

AM.    HIST.   REV.,  VOL.   XXVII.—  -.2. 


470  S.  F.  Bonis 

It  is  certain  that  some  English  students  of  colonial  affairs  were 
estimating  the  future  importance  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  as  the  seat 
of  a  great  future  Anglo-Saxon  population  which  would  constitute  a 
market  for  English  manufactures  more  valuable  than  the  existing  fur 
trade  of  that  valley,  a  trade  certain  to  be  exhausted  as  soon  as  the 
country  should  be  settled.  Both  Hammond  and  Simcoe,  the  first 
governor  of  Upper  Canada,  placed  great  stress  on  the  advantages  to 
England  of  establishing  a  commercial  connection  with  the  future 
population  of  the  Illinois  country  by  way  of  the  navigation  system  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes.  In  the  words  of  Simcoe, 
Upper  Canada  might  become  the  vestibule  of  trade  between  the  in- 
creasing population  of  the  future  Mississippi  Valley  and  England,  in 
the  same  way  in  which  the  Netherlands  was  then  the  vestibule  of 
commerce  between  the  German  states  and  England.16  Hammond,  in 
describing  the  possibilities  of  rectification  of  the  boundary  gap,  wrote 
to  Grenville,  the  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs : 

The  rapid  progress  in  population  and  improvement  of  the  settlements 
formed  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  undoubtedly  renders  the  free 
navigation  of  that  river  an  object  highly  desirable,  as  it  will  open  a  new, 
extensive  and  unrivalled  market  for  British  manufactures,  with  which 
the  inhabitants  of  those  settlements  can  be  more  reasonably  and  plenti- 
fully supplied  by  the  means  of  water  communication  with  Canada  than 
through  the  United  States.17 

Such  arguments  as  these,  made  during  the  Industrial  Revolution 
when  English  manufactures  were  demanding  wider  markets  and  when 
the  British  ship  of  state  was  wafted  to  a  considerable  degree  by  trade 
winds,  did  not  escape  the  attention  of  Pitt's  government.  We  are 
not  surprised  to  find  among  the  papers  of  the  prime  minister  in  1794 
an  anonymous  memorandum  on  frontier  policy  which  must  have  been 
under  his  eye  during  the  Jay  negotiation.  The  writer  of  this  docu- 
ment advocated  evacuation  of  the  frontier  posts  in  order  to  reach  a 
peaceable  settlement  with  the  United  States.  Military  protection,  he 
held,  was  not  necessary  for  the  fur  trade,  as  could  be  instanced  in 
the  trade  about  Lake  Superior.  The  great  aim  which  British  policy 
should  serve  was  not  protection  of  a  commerce  in  peltries,  bound  soon 
to  perish;  rather,  the  Americans  should  be  conciliated  and  England 
should  encourage  the  population  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys — 
territory  which  would  then  furnish  extensive  markets  for  British 
manufactures  to  be  supplied  by  water  carriage  from  Canada. 

The  only  object  Great  Britain   can  have  in  retaining  Canada   in  a 

18  Simcoe  to  Dundas,  London.  June  2,  1791,  C.  A..  Q  278,  pp.  228-255 ; 
report   of   Simcoe   to   the   Lords   of   Trade,   Sept.    1.    1794.   ibid.,  Q   280-2,   p.   307. 

i'  Hammond  to  Grenville,  Feb.  2,   1792,  supra,  note  14. 


lay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   47 1 

commercial  view,  is  that  Canada  extends  all  along  the  back  of  America. 
It  will  at  all  times  secure  to  Great  Britain  a  sale  of  her  manufactures 
and  oblige  the  Government  of  America  to  be  moderate  in  their  duties, 
otherwise  the  goods  will  be  smuggled  in  upon  them.  A  good  under- 
standing must  be  courted  with  all  the  subjects  of  America  that  joins 
Canada.  ...  It  is  our  business  from  every  tie  of  justice,  humanity  and 
sound  policy  to  put  an  end  to  the  Indian  war,  and  to  encourage  the  Back 
Settlers  all  in  our  power.  It  is  from  that  country  that  we  will  be  sup- 
plied with  hemp.  The  settlers  there  will  never  rival  us  either  in  shipping 
or  in  sailors  nor  for  ages  in  manufactures.  We  will  have  all  their 
trade  without  any  expense  of  maintaining  them.  What  more  would  you 
require?  .  .  .  Receive  their  wheat  on  moderate  terms  and  they  will  take 
our  manufactures.  Every  check  on  the  sale  of  their  wheat,  etc.,  will 
drive  them  the  sooner  to  manufactures.13 

In  the  light  of  such  considerations  the  proposal  of  Hammond  to 
extend  a  strip  of  British  territory  south  to  the  "  navigable  waters  " 
of  the  Mississippi  assumes  no  small  significance.  It  was  a  design  the 
importance  of  which  has  since  been  emphasized  by  the  economic  his- 
tory of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  It  was  not  only  of  economic  impor- 
tance; such  a  projection  of  British  territory  might  have  been  used 
as  an  entering  wedge  for  future  political  connections.  Any  one 
familiar  with  the  intrigues  between  the  officials  of  British  North 
America  and  the  frontier  settlements  of  the  American  back-country 
knows  that  such  a  connection  had  been  plotted  frequently  in  the  years 
between  the  establishing  of  American  independence  and  the  ratifica- 
tion of  Jay's  Treaty.  Even  if  economic  penetration  should  not  lead 
eventually  to  political  connection,  the  commerce  with  the  American 
West,  with  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  closed  by  Spain,  was  likely 
to  prove  of  great  profit.  Finally,  as  will  be  shown,  it  would  have 
worked  against  future  American  sovereignty  over  an  important  area 
of  the  Far  West. 

Jefferson  was  quick  to  discern  Hammond's  purpose.  The  Vir- 
ginian agreed  that  there  should  be  no  objection  to  closing  the  bound- 
ary gap,  but  insisted  that  it  should  be  done  by  "as  small  and  unim- 
portant an  alteration  as  might  be  ",  such  as  a  line  drawn  from  the 
most  northern  source  of  the  Mississippi  due  north  to  strike  a  line 
extending  due  west  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  The  navigation 
article  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  boundary  article,  he  asserted.  It 
concerned  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  and  the  secret 
article  of  the  preliminaries  of  peace  which  had  contemplated  British 
possession  of  Florida  as  a  result  of  a  peace  between  England  and 

1S  Chatham  MSS.,  bdle.  344.  Unsigned  and  undated,  but  indorsed,  "  Con- 
siderations on  the  propriety  of  Great  Britain  abandoning  the  Indian  Posts  and 
coming  to  a  good  understanding  with  America  "  ;  see  also  letter  of  N.  Miller  to 
Alexander  Hamilton.   Feb.   19,    179-',  Miss.   Valley  Hist.   Rev.,  VIII.  264-266. 


472  5".  F.  Bonis 

Spain,  in  which  case  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  would  have 
been  most  important  to  Great  Britain  as  a  riparian  power.19  In 
bringing  up  the  subject  in  this  fashion  the  British  minister,  Jefferson 
decided,  "  showed  a  desire  that  such  a  slice  of  our  Northwest  Terri- 
tory might  be  cut  off  for  them  as  would  admit  them  [the  English]  to 
the  navigation  and  profit  of  the  Mississippi."  20 

The  subject  having  now  been  introduced  by  Hammond,  it  came 
up  for  attention  in  Washington's  cabinet,  but  not  as  a  result  of  the 
conversation  between  Hammond  and  the  Secretary  of  State.  On 
October  31,  1792,  a  Cabinet  meeting  was  held  to  consider  what  reply 
ought  to  be  made  to  Spain  on  the  matter  of  Spanish  interference  in 
the  execution  of  a  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  Creek 
Indians,21  and  on  the  question  of  the  southwestern  boundary  then  in 
dispute  between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  According  to  Jeffer- 
son's notes  of  the  meeting,  he  himself  favored  transferring  the  whole 
discussion  from  Philadelphia  to  Madrid,  thus  postponing  the  question 
and  creating  a  delay  during  which  new  developments  might  make  it 
possible  to  avoid  a  rupture,  which  delay  was  "  much  to  be  desired, 
while  we  had  similar  points  to  discuss  with  Great  Britain  ". 

Alexander  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  then  spoke.  He 
advised  peace  as  a  growing  period  for  national  strength  but  antici- 
pated eventual  war  with  Spain  and  sought  an  ally — England.  To 
purchase  that  alliance  he  proposed  among  other  equivalents  the  ad- 
justing of  the  northwest  boundary  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  England 
to  "  some  navigable  part  of  the  Mississippi  ".  and  argued  that  joint 
possession  with  Great  Britain  of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi 
would  be  desirable  because  it  would  mean  joint  protection  of  the 
same.22 

How  did  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  confessedly  had  not  even 
looked  the  matter  up  on  a  map,  come  to  make  a  proposal  that  fell  in 
so  neatly  with  the  project  for  rectification  suggested  by  the  British 
minister  at  Philadelphia?     In  other  pages  the  writer  has  shown  the 

is "  Notes  of  a  Conversation  with  Mr.  Hammond.  June  3.  i/"9^  ",  supra, 
note    15. 

20  Jefferson  to  Madison,  June  4,  179.2,  Jefferson.  Writings  (Library  ed.). 
VIII.  364.  Hammond's  account  of  this  part  of  the  conversation  is  very-  brief. 
He  merely  states  that  he  emphasized  the  necessity  of  ascertaining  with  precision 
the  respective  boundaries,  particularly  those  of  the  St.  Croix  [1.  c,  in  Maine] 
and  in  the  northwest.  "  Mr.  Jefferson  acknowledged  the  truth  of  this  observa- 
tion, but  assured  me  that  this  government  would  readily  concur  in  any  reason- 
able settlement."      Hammond  to   Grenville.  June  8,   1792,   F.  O.  4  :    15. 

21  American  State  Papers,  Foreign  Relations  (hereinafter  cited  as  A.  S.  P., 
F.  R.),  I.  259. 

22  Jefferson,  Writings,  I.  237- 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   473 

intimacy  which  existed  between  Hamilton  and  Hammond.  It 
amounted  to  collusion  between  the  two  to  thwart  what  Hamilton 
feared  to  be  the  "  personal  predilections  "  of  "  honest  "  Jefferson  in 
favor  of  France  and  his  prejudice  against  England.-3  In  pursuit  of 
a  perspicuous  foreign  policy  of  his  own,  Hamilton  considered  peace 
between  England  and  the  United  States  vitally  necessary  to  the  newly 
engendered  American  nationality,  and  he  went  great  lengths  to  pre- 
vent any  interruption  of  Anglo-American  commerce,  upon  which  the 
revenues  of  his  financial  system  depended.  Such  would  have  been 
his  excuse  for  intriguing  with  the  British  minister  who  was  supposed 
to  conduct  his  negotiations  with  Jefferson,  secretary  of  state. 

Enjoying  as  he  did  close  relations  with  Hamilton,  whose  advice 
he  considered  the  most  weighty  of  any  of  Washington's  advisers, 
Hammond  had  discussed  the  boundary  rectification  with  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  more  intimately  than  with  the  Secretary  of 
State.  He  wrote  Lord  Grenville  that  Hamilton  had  said  in  the  "  last 
conversation  "  that  undoubtedly  the  United  States  government  would 
allow  a  "  free  intercourse  "  with  the  Indians  on  the  American  side  of 
the  boundary  (a  matter  to  which  Hammond  had  not  been  inattentive) 
if  the  British  government  would  allow  the  same  privilege  to  Ameri- 
cans trading  with  the  Indians  on  the  British  side  of  the  line.24  In 
his  confidence  the  British  minister  then  asked  Hamilton — who  had 
agreed,  in  the  course  of  a  general  conversation  on  the  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi,  that  it  was  for  the  interest  of  the  United  States  to 
share  with  Great  Britain  the  defense  as  well  as  the  enjoyment  of  that 
navigation — whether  anything  contrary  to  British  interests  might  be 
expected  in  the  negotiations  which  were  going  on  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain.  Hamilton  gave  assurances  that  nothing  would  be 
agreed  to  that  was  contrary  to  the  British  rights  of  navigation  on  the 
river.  Hammond  then  ventured  to  presume  that  the  United  States 
would  have  no  objections  to  regulating  the  northwest  boundary  so  as 
to  afford  His  Majesty's  government  an  effective  communication  with 
the  Mississippi.  Here  Hamilton  stiffened.  He  would  give  no  assur- 
ances but  replied  that  he  believed  the  United  States  would  consent  to 
as  liberal  an  accommodation  as  would  not  be  detrimental  to  its  own 
interests.  Hammond  did  not  consider  this  as  a  rebuff.  On  the  con- 
trary he  wrote  to  Downing  Street :  "  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  this 
government  would  consent  to  such  a  regulation  of  the  northwest 
boundary  as  would  afford  a  free  and  effectual  connection  with  the 

=3  See  this  Review,  XXIV.  26-48. 

=J  Hammond    to    Grenville,    no.    26,    Philadelphia,   July    3,    1792,    F.    0.    4  :    16. 


474  S.  F.  Be  mis 

Mississippi  by  means  of  some  of  the  rivers  falling  into  Lake 
Superior."  25 

This  conversation  had  occurred  in  July,  over  three  months  before 
the  Cabinet  meeting  above  described.  We  conclude  that  at  the  Cabi- 
net meeting  of  October  31,  Hamilton  was  seeking  official  sanction  to 
an  overture  which  for  lack  of  authority  he  had  not  been  able  to  make 
behind  the  back  of  Jefferson,  some  weeks  before.  We  infer  that,  as 
a  means  of  erecting  an  Anglo-American  alliance,  he  wished  to  take 
advantage  of  the  English  desire  to  get  into  the  Mississippi.  The 
arguments  which  he  advanced  to  his  colleagues  in  the  administration 
reflect  what  had  already  passed  between  him  and  Hammond.  Knox, 
secretary  of  war,  agreed  in  general  with  Hamilton,  and  Randolph, 
attorney  general,  with  Jefferson,  who  opposed  the  overtures  to  Eng- 
land. Fortunately  for  the  future  of  the  American  West  Hamilton's 
proposal  was  dismissed  by  President  Washington  with  the  comment 
that  "  the  remedy  was  worse  than  the  disease  ".26 

The  next  stage  in  the  history  of  the  northwest  boundary  gap  is 
to  be  noticed  in  connection  with  the  Jay-Grenville  negotiations  in 
London  during  the  summer  of  1794.  The  general  negotiation  be- 
tween Hammond  and  Jefferson,  into  which  Hammond,  in  1792,  had 
introduced  the  northwest  boundary,  had  dragged  along  slowly  until 
in  1793  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  France  and  England  monop- 
olized the  energies  of  the  Foreign  Office  and  postponed  discussion  of 
the  boundary  until  John  Jay  arrived  in  England  in  the  summer  of 
1794  on  a  mission  which  was  to  determine  peace  or  war  at  a  time 
when  the  British  navy  was  only  too  busy  in  controlling  the  European 
situation. 

Lord  Grenville,  following  Hammond's  emphasis  on  the  impor- 
tance of  the  rectification,  and  doubtless  adopting  the  minister's  confi- 
dence that  the  United  States  would  accept  it,  brought  forward  the 
matter  as  one  of  the  necessary  settlements  in  any  general  treaty.27 
He  made  use  of  Hammond's  suggestion  that  the  northwest  boundary 
should  be  rectified  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  real  effect  to  the  naviga- 
tion article  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  That  article,  he  asserted,  meant 
to  give  access  to  the  navigable  part  of  the  river  "without  passing 

25  Hammond  to  Grenville,  no.   27,  Philadelphia,  July   3,   1792,  ibid. 

26  "  Notes  of  a  Cabinet  Meeting,   Oct.   31,    1792",  Jefferson,    ll'rilings,   I.   237. 
-~  In  answer  to  Hammond's  communication   on  the  diplomatic  importance  of 

the  northwest  boundary  gap,  Grenville  had  written  the  following  to  Hammond, 
Apr.  25,  1792:  "It  will  be  an  object  of  greatest  Importance,  at  all  Events,  to 
secure,  if  possible,  to  His  Majesty's  Subjects  in  Canada  the  free  and  uninter- 
rupted Communication  between  the  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi,  either  by  the 
Ouisconsing  River,  which  I  understand  affords  great  Facility  for  that  Purpose, 
or  by  such  other  Rivers  as  .  .  .  shall  appear  more  proper."     F.  O.   115:   1. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   475 

through  foreign  territory  ".  He  argued  with  Jay  that  because  of  the 
impossibility  of  the  line  due  west  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  a 
wholly  new  line,  now  a  proper  subject  for  negotiation,  might  be 
drawn  in  that  quarter  with  no  necessary  reference  to  the  old  attempt 
to  fix  a  boundary.  Accordingly  he  offered  to  the  United  States  a 
choice  of  two  lines  based  on  such  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  country  as  was  afforded  by  Faden's  map  of  1793- 
One  of  the  proposed  lines  ran  due  west  from  Lake  Superior,  at  West 
Bay,  to  Red  Lake  River  (represented  by  Faden  as  one  of  the  western 
tributaries  of  the  Mississippi),  and  thence  down  that  river  to  its  sup- 
posed confluence  with  the  Mississippi.  This  would  have  moved  the 
American  frontier  of  western  Canada  south  to  the  latitude  of  the 
present  city  of  Duluth.  That  is,  it  would  have  done  so  had  it  been 
itself  geographically  possible,  but  in  fact  it  was  a  line  as  impossible 
as  the  delimitation  laid  down  at  Versailles  in  1783;  Red  Lake  River 
does  not  flow  into  the  Mississippi  but  into  the  Red  River  of  the 
North.28  Such  a  line  undoubtedly  was  calculated  by  Grenville  to 
secure  British  possession  of  the  Grand  Portage,  but  really  it  would 
still  have  left  a  northwest  boundary  gap  to  be  settled.  The  acceptable 
alternative  to  this  boundary  was  described  as  running  due  north  from 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix  River  to  the  water  communication  between 
Lake  Superior  and  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  the  communication  already 
followed  in  the  treaty  of  1783.  It  would  have  left  the  Grand  Portage 
on  American  soil  but  would  have  extended  a  wedge  of  British  terri- 
tory south  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  to  an  apex  located 
about  twenty-five  miles  below  the  present  city  of  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
sota— that  is,  to  the  "navigable  portion  "  of  the  great  river  below  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  One  line  would  have  given  to  Great  Britain 
undisputed  possession  of  the  Grand  Portage;  the  other  would  have 
recognized  an  extension  of  territory  of  even  greater  commercial  im- 
portance, a  trade  entrance  into  the  American  West  and  a  port  on  the 
upper  navigable  waters  of  the  Mississippi  River.  In  case  the  latter 
line  were  chosen,  Grenville  had  more  than  provided  for  the  security 
of  British  trade  over  the  Grand  Portage  by  introducing  into  the  new 
treaty  a  clause  by  which  British  subjects  were  to  have  freedom  of 
passage  "  over  the  several  waters,  carrying-places,  and  roads  adjacent 
to  the  Lakes  or  connecting  with  them  ".-s 

2S  Although  Grenville  was  one  of  the  best-informed  men  in  England  on 
North  America,  he  was  not  wholly  at  home  in  the  geography  of  the  American 
West,  a  subject  little  known  at  best.  See  his  instructions  for  Vancouver's  cele- 
brated expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  northwest  coast  of  America  in 
1791.     Report  of  Provincial  Archivist  of  British    Columbia  for    1913,   p.   46. 

29  A.  S.  P.,  F.  R.,  I.  490-495.     All  the  papers  relating  to  the  Jay  negotiation 


476  5".  F.  Bcmis 

To  his  eternal  credit  this  is  one  of  the  few  demands  of  the  British 
foreign  minister  which  John  Jay  in  his  anxiety  for  peace  did  not 
accept.  The  adoption  of  either  of  the  proposed  lines,  as  Jay  pointed 
out,  would  have  meant  the  cession  of  between  30,000  and  35,000 
square  miles  of  United  States  territory.  Had  he  accepted  such  a 
limitation,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  in  the  future  boundary  con- 
ventions the  United  States  could  have  obtained  the  line  of  forty-nine 
degrees  north  latitude,  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  eventually, 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Jay  showed  that  on  the  very  map  on  which  Grenville  relied  for 
his  geographical  information  several  other  streams  were  marked 
"  Mississippi  by  conjecture  ",  and  he  contended  that  it  would  be  only 
reasonable,  in  view  of  admitted  uncertainty  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge in  that  quarter,  to  have  a  joint  survey  made  which  should  serve 
as  the  basis  for  future  definitive  settlement.  This  proposition,  which 
was  far  from  closing  all  possibilities  of  rectification  favorable  to 
Great  Britain  at  some  future  date,  Grenville  had  to  accept.30  The 
reasonableness  of  Jay's  contention  is  reinforced  when  one  examines 
the  modern  map,  and  finds  that  the  Red  Lake  River  line  would  have 

are  not  published  here,  nor  were  they  submitted  to  the  Senate.  In  the  case  of 
the  northwest  boundary  gap,  the  unpublished  papers  of  the  Foreign  Office, 
which  include  copies  of  all  notes  exchanged  (the  negotiation  took  place  in 
writing),  and  which  the  writer  has  examined,  add  nothing  to  the  material  in 
Foreign  Relations;  neither  do  the  Jay  Papers  in  the  library  of  the  Xew  York- 
Historical   Society. 

so  A.  S.  P..  F.  R.,  I.  490-493.  Jay  refusing  to  accept  either  of  the  proposed 
rectifications  Grenville  drafted  an  article  providing  for  an  immediate  joint  survey 
on  the  basis  of  this  formula  :  "  Whereas  it  is  a  question  of  difference  between  the 
said  parties,  in  case  these  lines  [i.  e.,  the  boundary  lines  of  the  Treaty  of  1783] 
should  be  found  not  to  close,  whether,  according  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  of 
the  2d  and  8th  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  these  lines  ought  to  be  closed  in 
such  a  manner,  as  that  Canada  should  border  on  navigable  water  of  the  said 
river — which  question  it  would  be  premature  to  discuss  and  endeavour  to  settle, 
while  the  said  Parties  remain  uninformed  of  the  actual  extent  and  many  other 
material  circumstances  of  the  said  river ",  etc.  The  survey  was  to  measure 
the  depth  and  channel  of  the  river,  particularly  "  the  intervals  where  it  may  be 
found  to  be  navigable  ".  A  copy  of  this  draft  was  recently  secured  for  the 
writer  by  the  editor  of  this  Review,  who  found  it  among  the  private,  unprinted, 
manuscripts    of   Lord   Grenville   preserved   at    Dropmore,    England. 

Jay  refused  to  consider  any  article  which  discussed  in  any  way  the  ques- 
tion of  bringing  Canada  to  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  though  he 
included  in  his  treaty  draft  of  September  30  an  article  for  a  joint  commission 
to  survey  the  region  of  the  supposed  boundary  gap.  Article  IV.  of  the  treaty 
finally  signed  provided  that  "  measures  shall  be  taken  in  concert  "  for  a  joint 
survey,  but  did  not  provide  the  measures  at  that  time.  Xo  commission  was  set 
up  for  the  purpose,  as  was  done  in  Article  V.  for  the  settlement  of  the  disputed 
northeastern   boundary.     A   definite   settlement   was   in   this  way   postponed. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   477 

still  left  a  northwest  boundary  gap,  and  when  one  reflects  that  up  to 
that  time  there  had  been  no  question  of  the  identity  of  the  boundary 
as  far  west  as  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  part  of  which  accepted  line 
Grenville,  under  guise  of  fashioning  an  entirely  new  boundary,  was 
now  attempting  to  rectify. 

Though  Lord  Grenville  was  not  successful  in  securing  British 
title  to  a  tract  of  land  of  incalculable  value  to  the  future  United 
States,  the  treaty  which  he  and  John  Jay  signed  provided  abundantly 
for  the  protection  of  the  British  fur  trade  of  the  Northwest  and  for 
the  security  of  the  Grand  Portage  route.  Article  III.  of  Jay's  Treaty 
stipulated : 

It  is  agreed  that  it  shall  at  all  times  be  free  to  His  Majesty's  subjects, 
and  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  also  to  the  Indians  dwelling 
on  either  side  of  the  said  boundary  line,  freely  to  pass  and  repass  by  land 
and  inland  navigation  into  the  respective  territories  and  countries  of  the 
two  parties  on  the  continent  of  America  (the  country  within  the  limits  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  only  excepted),  and  to  navigate  all  the  lakes, 
rivers  and  waters  thereof,  and  freely  to  carry  on  trade  and  commerce 
with  each  other.  .  .  .31 

The  river  Mississippi  shall  .  .  .  according  to  the  treaty  of  peace,  be 
entirely  open  to  both  parties;  and  it  is  further  agreed,  that  all  ports  and 
places  on  its  eastern  side,  to  whichsoever  of  the  parties  belonging, 
may  freely  be  resorted  to  and  used  by  both  parties,  in  as  ample  a  manner 
as  any  of  the  Atlantic  ports  or  places  of  the  United  States,  or  any  of  the 
ports  and  places  of  His  Majesty  in  Great  Britain.  .  .  . 

[Reciprocal  favored-nation  privileges  were  agreed  to  by  the  same 
article,  which  further  provided]  that  no  duty  shall  ever  be  laid  by  either 
party  on  peltries  brought  by  land  or  inland  navigation  into  the  said  ter- 
ritories respectively,  nor  shall  the  Indians  passing  or  repassing  with 
their  own  proper  goods  and  effects  of  whatever  nature,  pay  for  any  im- 
port or  duty  whatsoever.  But  goods  in  bales,  or  other  packages  unusual 
among  Indians,  shall  not  be  considered  as  goods  belonging  bona  fide 
to  Indians. 

Again,  free  passage  across  the  portages  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary 
was  stipulated,  and  goods  and  traders  thus  crossing  portages  and  back 
into  their  own  territory  were  to  be  free  from  tariffs. 

Thus,  even  though  in  fulfilment  of  Jay's  Treaty  Great  Britain 
finally  evacuated  American  soil,  she  secured  permanent32  commercial 
privileges  on  the  frontier  which  enabled  her  to  hold  the  rich  fur  trade 
she  had  built  up  among  the  United  States  Indians  and  to  secure  the 
use  of  the  Grand  Portage  to  the  Canadian  Northwest.  More  than 
this,  by  the  right  to  use  the  inland  water  navigation  and  to  establish 
warehouses  and  other  facilities  for  trade  anywhere  on  the  east  bank 

si  An  exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  rivers  other  than  the  Mississippi 
which   were   navigable  from  the   sea. 


47§  S.  F.  Bcmis 

of  the  Mississippi,  equal  in  privilege  to  the  port  privileges  extended 
by  the  United  States  to  foreign  subjects  in  Atlantic  ports,  the  way 
was  open  for  that  future  great  commerce  which  sanguine  Englishmen 
hoped  would  flow  into  the  American  West  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
making  Montreal  and  not  New  Orleans  the  future  entrepot  of  the 
commerce  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

That  these  trading  privileges  were  nominally  reciprocal33  did  not 
make  them,  to  any  great  extent,  advantageous  to  the  United  States. 
By  virtue  of  their  long-standing  connections  with  the  Indians  within 
American  territory,  British  traders  were  able  to  cope  successfully 
with  American  competition34  until  the  War  of  1812.35  Until  that 
time  they  had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  upper  Mississippi  country.36 
Alexander  Hamilton,  who  became  the  most  powerful  advocate  before 
the  public  for  the  ratification  of  Jay's  Treaty,  in  elucidating  Article 
III.  dwelt  on  the  advantages  of  this  reciprocity.  Only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  Canadian  furs  had  come  from  American  territory,  he 
argued,  while  now  all  of  Canada  would  be  open  to  the  enterprise  of 
American  fur  traders.37  This  argument  rested  on  mistaken  infor- 
mation. As  pointed  out  above,  one-half  of  the  Canadian  furs  had 
depended  on  American  territory  for  their  production  in  the  years 
before  Jay's  Treaty,  while  no  American  traders  had  resorted  to 
Canada.  The  nominal  reciprocity  which  was  now  opened  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States  to  pursue  the  trade  among  the  Indians  dwelling 
on  British  soil  was  to  a  large  degree  cut  away  by  the  treaty's  inhibi- 
tion to  Americans  to  enter  the  territory  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany.38 It  was  a  great  boon  to  the  United  States  when  the  War  of 
1S12  put  an  end  to  this  wholly  one-sided  arrangement. 

33  As  first  drafted  by  Grenville,  this  article  did  not  even  contain  reciprocal 
privileges  for  American   traders  in   British   territory. 

31  Astor's  company,  which  was  tied  up  with  Canadian  stock-holders,  carried 
on  from  Mackinaw  a  considerable  fur  trade  within  British  territory  on  the  east 
side  of  Lake  Huron.  See  H.  M.  Chittenden,  History  of  the  American  Fur  Trade 
of  the  Far  West,  I.  su- 
ss Gallatin  to  Astor,  Aug.  5,  1835,  Irving's  Astoria,  appendix. 
"'"'  Pike,  in  1S07,  found  only  British  fur  traders  in  the  upper  Mississippi 
country.  They  were  flying  the  British  flag  and  distributing  British  medals  to 
the  natives,  until  he  requested  them  to  stop  the  practice.  Coues,  Journals  of 
Z.  M.  Pike,  pp.   is  ft. 

3T  "  Camillus ",  no.  XII.,  Hamilton,  Works  (J.  C.  Hamilton  ed.),  VII.  277. 
as  This  possibility  did  not  escape  Washington.  "All  this  [Article  III.] 
looks  very  well  on  paper,  but  I  much  question  whether  in  its  operation  it  will 
not  be  found  to  work  very  much  against  us.  1st.  What  are  the  limits  of  that 
Company?  ...  2d.  Admitting  the  fact,  will  they  not,  having  possession  of  the 
trade,  and  the  Indians  being  in  their  interest,  by  every  artifice  of  their  traders, 
prevent  ours  from   extending  themselves  into   the  country,  sharing  in  the  profits. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   479 

The  limits  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  a  curious  connec- 
tion with  the  northwest  boundary.  The  charter  granted  by  Charles 
II.  to  the  company  in  the  year  1670  conveyed  ownership  outright  to 
all  the  land  within  the  watershed  of  the  streams  flowing  into  Hudson 
Bay  in  so  far  as  such  territory  was  not  already  under  the  domain  of 
some  Christian  prince  other  than  the  King  of  England.  The  water- 
shed of  Hudson  Bay  extends  south  into  the  present  states  of  Minne- 
sota and  North  Dakota.  In  1670  this  upper  portion  of  the  watershed 
had  not  been  occupied  by  any  other  Christian  prince,  nor  had  any  part 
of  the  great  Northwest  of  Canada.  Nor  for  a  long  time  thereafter 
was  it  occupied  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  itself,  which  for  a 
hundred  years  could  not  have  known  the  precise  southern  limits  of 
its  charter  rights.  For  a  century  the  company  did  not  venture  more 
than  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  shores  of  the  bay,  relying  on  the 
Indians  to  bring  their  furs  down  the  rivers  to  the  factories  there. 
Before  the  company  had  occupied  any  of  the  great  interior  described 
by  the  royal  charter,  a  Christian  prince,  the  King  of  France,  through 
the  operations  and  explorations  of  his  subject  fur  traders  and.  path- 
finders, took  possession  of  Canada  as  far  west  as  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, including  much  of  the  territory  over  which  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  would  have  considered  that  it  had  legal  ownership.  Soon 
the  French  in  peace  and  war  were  disputing  possession  of  the  shores 
of  the  bay  itself.  By  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713  France  "re- 
stored "  to  England  the  territory  on  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay.  The 
King  of  France  did  not  restore  the  interior  country  drained  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  rivers.  Of  the  southern  part  of  this  territory  he  had 
occupied  a  great  part,  just  how  much  nobody  precisely  knew.39 

By  the  terms  of  Article  N.  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  an  Anglo- 
French  commission  was  to  meet  and  determine  the  boundary  between 
New  France  and  the  territory  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  When 
the  commission  finally  met,  in  1719,  the  English  representatives,  acting 
on  the  behests  of  the  company,  claimed  a  line  from  Grimmington's 
Island,  off  the  coast  of  Labrador  (latitude  58°  30'  north)  through 
Lake  Mistassine  (the  source  of  Rupert's  River)  thence  deflecting 
southwest  to  490  north  latitude,  which  parallel  thenceforth  was  to  be 

and  thereby  bringing  on  disputes  which  may  terminate  seriously?"     Washington 
to   Hamilton,  July   13.    1795.   Hamilton,   Works   (J.   C.   Hamilton   ed.).  VI.    17. 

S3  That  the  King  of  France  did  not  restore  more  than  the  immediate  shores 
of  Hudson  Bay  did  not  necessarily  destroy  the  English  claims  to  portions  of  the 
interior,  as  some  writers  against  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  would  have  us 
•believe  (Lindsey,  An  Investigation  of  the  Unsettled  Boundaries  of  Ontario, 
p.  104).  It  really  depends  on  just  how  much  France  could  claim  as  having  oc- 
cupied,  for  she  could   not  restore  what  she  had  never  occupied. 


480  5".  F.  Be  mis 

the  southern  limit  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  territorial  posses- 
sions.40 This  claim  the  French  would  not  accept,  and  the  commission 
broke  up  without  achieving  any  result.  When  New  France  was 
ceded  to  Great  Britain,  in  1763,  the  northern  limits  of  the  province — 
that  is,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's 
lands — never  had  been  established.  Either  the  charter  of  1670  or 
the  undetermined  claims  of  New  France  had  to  be  taken  as  the 
eventual  boundary  between  the  new  British  provinces  and  the  terri- 
torial claims  of  the  great  corporation,  a  matter  which  led  later  to 
much  Canadian  litigation.  What  interests  the  investigator  of  the 
northwest  boundary  gap  is  the  fact  that  contemporary  English  map- 
makers  began  to  consider  as  the  southern  limit  of  western  Canada 
(that  is.  the  boundary  between  Spanish  Louisiana  and  British  North 
America)  the  line  of  490  north  latitude  which  had  been  claimed  un- 
successfully in  1 719  by  England  on  behalf  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany.41 This  cartographical  fiction  later  became  the  sole  precedent 
for  the  international  boundary  of  49°. 

The  provision  of  Article  IV.  of  Jay's  Treaty  for  a  joint  survey 
of  the  gap  was  never  carried  out.  The  first  accurate  survey  of  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Mississippi  was  made  in  1 797-1 798  by  David 
Thompson,  the  distinguished  pathfinder  and  geographer  of  the  North 
West  Company.  Thompson  designated  Turtle  Lake  (47°  37'  north 
latitude)  as  the  source,4-  a  fact  which  became  known  to  the  world  by 
the  publication  in  1801  of  Alexander  Mackenzie's  famous  Voyages.*3 
He  found  the  "source"  while  searching  for  the  precise  location  of 
the  parallel  of  490  north  and  seeking  to  locate  geographically  the 
North  West  Company's  trading  posts  in  relation  to  that  parallel,  the 
purpose  for  which  he  was  employed. 

Thompson  explains  in  his  Narrative  why  the  North  West  Com- 
pany had  this  survey  made.  The  motive  which  he  attributes  to  them 
can  easily  be  shown  to  be  false,  and  his  explanations  on  this  point 
give  a  fatal  blow  to  his  Narrative  as  a  trustworthy  historical  source. 
Thev  show  that  the  old  man  who  wrote,  after  1S50,  the  record  of 
events  of  his  youth,  fifty  years  before,  unconsciously  observed  the  sig- 

40  Petition  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations, 
1714,  Docs,  respecting  Northern  and  Western  Boundaries  of  Ontario,  p.  131. 
For  description  of  accompanying  map,  ibid.,  p.   136  i. 

4i  James  White,  "  Boundary  Disputes  and  Treaties  ",  in  Canada  and  Her 
Provinces  (Toronto,  1913).  VIII.  S38-S43 ;  Docs,  respecting  Boundaries  of 
Ontario,  p.    136   f. 

•»-  The  Lake  of  the  Woods  he  located  at  49°   46'. 

«  Voyages  from  Montreal  on  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  through  the  Conti- 
nent of  North  America  to  the  Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans  (London,  1S01).  See 
1902  ed.,  I.  xev-xevi. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   481 

nificance  of  those  events  through  an  imagination  stimulated  by  re- 
flection on  the  great  changes  which  had  taken  place  in  the  half- 
century  intervening.  He  occasionally  departed  from  the  skeleton  of 
his  old  field-notes  to  embellish  his  narrative  with  comments  of  his 
own.  Thompson  declares  that  the  North  West  Company's  desire  to 
learn  the  precise  location  of  the  parallel  of  49°  north  was  prompted 
by  the  treaty  of  1792,  which  had  made  that  parallel  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  He  states  that  such  a  line  was  then  adopted 
to  remedy  the  gap  left  in  1783.  The  veteran  geographer  further  de- 
clares, in  his  indignation  at  Britain's  ever  conceding  such  a  boundary 
(490  north  by  that  time  had  been  projected  by  the  Oregon  treaty 
through  to  the  Pacific),  that  the  adoption  of  the  line  by  the  treaty  of 
1792  was  due  to  the  machinations  of  one  Peter  Pond.44  an  ubiquitous 
and  quick-tempered  American  partner  of  the  North  West  Company 
who  had  explored  the  upper  Mississippi  as  a  trader.  Pond,  who 
returned  to  Connecticut,  his  home,  some  time  after  1790,  is  asserted 
by  Thompson  to  have  been  "  at  the  elbow  "  of  the  American  commis- 
sioners who  signed  the  treaty  of  1792.  The  British  diplomatists,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  wholly  ignorant  of  the  country  to  the  west  of 
Lake  Ontario  and  had  no  adequate  maps.  Hence  thev  were  duped 
by  the  Americans,  who  got  expert  advice  from  Peter  Pond.43  A 
comparatively  recent  Canadian  writer,  among  the  several  who  have 
relied  implicitly  on  Thompson's  Narrative,  lamenting  the  terms  of 
this  treaty,  writes  that  the  real  reason  for  the  British  concessions 
embodied  in  the  treaty  was  a  "  supreme  indifference  to  the  territorial 
interests  of  British  North  America  which  had  been  so  painfully 
apparent  in  all  the  boundary  disputes  with  the  United  States ;  for  the 
British  commissioners  must  have  had  at  the  time  of  the  negotiations, 
and  for  some  time  before,  access  to  a  map  of  the  western  country, 
with  remarks  upon  its  character,  prepared  by  Pond  himself".4'' 

«  For  Pond,  see  "  Journal  of  Peter  Pond  ",  Wisconsin  Historical  Society, 
Collections,  XVIII.  314-354,  with  editorial  introduction;  Davidson,  North  West 
Company,  p.  37;  Report  on   Canadian  Archives.   iSqo,  p.  52. 

*5  David  Thompson,  Narrative,  p.    176. 

40  Burpee,  Search  for  the  Western  Sea,  p.  337.  In  his  old  age  Thompson 
got  pitifully  little  reward  for  his  great  services  to  his  country.  His  last  years 
were  spent  in  abject  poverty,  with  little  attention  to  his  petitions  for  relief  by 
the  government  on  account  of  his  sixty  years  of  distinguished  services.  The 
harassments  of  fortune  which  beset  him  during  these  years  and  his  patriotic 
indignation  at  the  impending  danger  of  loss  to  Great  Britain  of  the  Columbia 
Basin  (and  finally  its  actual  loss),  into  a  large  portion  of  which  he  had  been 
the  first  white  man  to  penetrate,  and  which  he  had  claimed  for  England,  can 
easily  account   for  the  confusion   of  his  statements.      From    1S42   to    1845    Thomp- 


482  5.  F.  Bcmis 

As  to  the  capacity  of  British  negotiators  in  general  in  boundary 
controversies  with  the  United  States  the  present  writer  feels  no  call 
to  make  comment,  but  to  accuse  the  Foreign  Office  of  negligence  in 
this  instance  is  to  be  too  severe;  there  was,  of  course,  never  any 
treaty  of  1792.  The  line  of  490  was  not  established  as  the  inter- 
national boundary  west  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  until  the  year  1818. 

Dismissing  this  strange  historical  figment,47  why  should  the  North 
West  Company  have  desired  such  geographical  information,  to  the 
extent  that  they  were  willing  to  employ  a  professional  geographer  to 
make  the  survey  for  them?  The  records  of  the  company  are  not 
available  to  testify,  because  the  papers  of  its  successor  (after  the 
merger  of  1821),  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  are  not  open  to  his- 
torical research;  but  a  book  published  in  1801  by  one  of  the  principal 
partners  of  the  North  West  Company  affords  the  clue.  This  partner 
was  Alexander  Mackenzie  and  the  book  is  none  other  than  his  famous 
Voyages.  Mackenzie  in  1797  had  been  located  at  the  Grand  Portage, 
and  it  was  he,  and  William  McGillivray,  who  engaged  Thompson  for 
the  company.  Mackenzie's  Voyages  appeared  in  London  in  1S01, 
but  there  are  indications  that  the  author  was  at  work  on  this  book 
very  soon  after  Thompson  had  completed  his  survey  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  country.  In  this  work,  apropos  of  the  northwest  bound- 
ary gap,  Mackenzie  declared  that  if  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi 
were  considered  of  any  consequence  to  Great  Britain,  "  the  nearest 
way  to  get  at  it " 4S  was  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  by  way  of 

son's  advice  on  the  geography  of  the  Oregon  dispute  was  sought  by  officials  of 
the  government,  and  he  wrote  several  reports  on  his  observations  of  the  country. 
Two  of  these  are  important  evidence  of  the  absolute  untrustworthiness  of  this 
ill-treated  and  indignant  old  patriot's  ex  post  facto  accounts  of  the  northwest 
boundary  dispute,  for  not  only  do  they  conflict  as  to  dates  and  persons  and  cir- 
cumstances, but  they  conflict  also  with  the  statements  of  Thompson  noted  in  the 
above  text,  and  with  each  other.     Note  particularly: 

1.  "  Statement  of  David  Thompson  on  the  Seventh  Article  of  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent"  (undated,  but  apparently  included  with  papers  written  in  1842-1S45),  and 

2.  "Remarks  on  the  Oregon  Boundary"  made  by  David  Thompson,  June  10, 
1S45,   at   Montreal,   for   Sir  James  Alexander. 

My  attention  was  called  to  these  documents  by  Mr.  T.  C.  Elliott,  of  Walla 
Walla.  They  are  printed  in  Report  of  the  Provincial  Archivist  of  British 
Columbia  for  1913,  pp.   1 14-124. 

47  The  manuscript  of  David  Thompson's  Narrative  fell  into  the  possession 
of  Mr.  Charles  Lindsey,  who  followed  it  trustfully  in  An  Investigation  of  the 
Unsettled  Boundaries  of  Ontario  (Toronto,  1S73).  It  has  been  repeated  from 
Lindsey  by  various  Canadian  writers,  for  example,  Burpee,  Search  for  the 
Western  Sea  (London,  190S).  It  was  respected  even  as  late  as  1916  in  J.  B. 
Tyrrell's   excellent   edition   of  Thompson's   Narrative    (Toronto,    1916I. 

48  Mackenzie,  Voyages  (1902  ed.  I,  I.  xcvi.  Mackenzie  published  a  map 
with  his  work,  the  most  accurate  description  of  western  Canada  which  had 
appeared. 


Jay's  Treaty  and  the  Northwest  Boundary  Gap   4$3 

the  St.  Louis  River  and  the  portage  to  the  Mississippi.  But  the 
navigation  of  the  Mississippi  was  only  incidental  to  the  real  scope  of 
this  great  pathfinder's  plans,  which  are  to  be  read  in  some  general 
reflections  with  which  he  closes  his  remarkable  book : 

.  .  .  the  line  of  American  boundary  runs,  and  it  is  said  to  continue 
through  Lake  Superior  (and  through  a  lake  called  Long  Lake  which  has 
no  existence),  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  in  latitude  49.37  North,  from 
whence  it  is  also  said  to  run  West  to  the  Mississippi,  which  it  may  do, 
bv  giving  it  a  good  deal  of  Southing,  but  not  otherwise ;  as  the  source 
of  that  river  does  not  extend  further  north  than  latitude  47.38  North, 
where  it  is  no  more  than  a  small  brook;  consequently,  if  Great  Britain 
retains  the  right  of  entering  it  along  the  line  of  division,  it  must  be  in  a 
lower  latitude,  and  wherever  that  may  be,  the  line  must  be  continued 
West,  till  it  terminates  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  the  South  of  the  Colum- 
bia.49    [Italics  are  the  present  writer's.] 

Mackenzie's  great  ambition  at  this  time,  as  is  well  known,50  was 
a  merger  of  the  North  West  and  Hudson's  Bay  companies  to  control 
the  fur  trade  of  British  North  America  as  far  west  as  the  Pacific 
Ocean  (to  which  he  had  been  the  first  to  penetrate  overland),  includ- 
ing the  basin  of  the  Columbia.51  The  legendary  boundary  line  of 
490  north  latitude,  if  accepted  as  the  southern  boundary  of  Canada 
in  the  west,  would  leave  on  foreign  soil  several  of  the  posts  of  the 
North  West  Company  west  of  the  Mississippi  and,  if  eventually  pro- 
jected to  the  ocean,  would  shut  out  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the 
Columbia  River  basin,  as  well  as  much  of  the  fur  regions  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Mackenzie's  anxiety  about  the  northwest  bound- 
ary gap  was  due  to  his  desire  to  obtain  an  advantageous  point  of 
departure,  for  the  projection  through  to  the  Pacific,  of  the  line  which 
some  day  would  have  to  be  drawn  between  British  North  America 
and  Louisiana.  He  wanted  that  line  drawn  in  a  latitude  far  enough 
south  to  secure  the  future  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  Far  West. 

The  boundary  rectification  contemplated  by  Hammond  and  taken 
up  by  Lord  Grenville  in  the  Jay  negotiations  for  the  sake  of  the 
British  fur  interests  and  other  commercial  interests  would  have  se- 
cured the  territorial  basis  for  such  far-sighted  plans  of  empire  as 
those  imagined  by  Mackenzie.  If  the  proposal  to  extend  a  wedge  of 
British  territory  down  to  the  "  navigable  "  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
say  to  the  latitude  of  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix,  had  been  accepted 
by  Jay,  the  future  line  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  would 
in  all  likelihood  have  followed  the  parallel  of  450  north  instead  of 
490  ;  had  Grenville's  alternative  line  been  accepted   (the  latitude  of 

49  id.,  II.  343-344. 

50  See  particularly  Joseph  Schafer's  illuminating  article,  "  British  Attitude 
toward   Oregon,    1815-1846",   in   this   Review,  XVI.   2-6-278. 

si  Mackenzie.    Voyages,   II.   353-355- 


484  5".  F.  Ban  is 

the  present  city  of  Duluth)  it  would  have  been  a  strong  argument  for 
making  the  future  northern  boundary  run  west  along  the  parallel  of 
about  47°  30'.  Either  line  was  likely  to  entail  the  loss,  to  the  future 
American  West,  of  great  areas  of  land. 

Concerning  Jay's  refusal  to  recognize  what  would  have  been  a 
cession  of  American  territory  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  country, 
the  most  distinguished  student  of  western  history  has  observed: 

The  modifications  which  England  proposed  in  1794  to  John  Jay  in 
the  northwestern  boundary  of  the  United  States  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  Mississippi,  seemed,  doubtless,  to  him  significant  chiefly 
as  a  matter  of  principle  and  as  a  question  of  the  retention  or  loss  of 
beaver  grounds.  The  historians  hardly  notice  the  proposals.  But  they 
involved,  in  fact,  the  ownership  of  the  richest  and  most  extensive  de- 
posits of  iron  ore  in  America,  the  all-important  source  of  a  fundamental 
industry  of  the  United  States,  the  occasion  for  the  rise  of  some  of  the 
most  influential  forces  of  our  time.52 

Unwittingly  Jay  was  defending  more  than  the  territorial  basis  of 
the  American  steel  industry.  Without  realizing  it  he  held  in  his 
hand  the  destiny  of  a  part  of  Minnesota,  of  North  Dakota,  Montana, 
and  the  commonwealths  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  He  was  holding 
for  the  United  States  the  starting  point  of  the  1S18  boundary,  which 
extended  the  line  of  490  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  thus  at  last  elimi- 
nating the  boundary  gap  and  establishing  a  basis  for  the  final  exten- 
sion of  the  international  boundary  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  These  future 
states,  which  now  elect  as  many  United  States  senators,  as  old  New 
England  did  and  which  have  incalculably  rich  natural  resources 
(water-power  so  abundant,  for  example,  as  to  make  it  possible  to 
transfer  industrial  development  in  the  twentieth  century  from  the  old 
northeastern  to  the  new  northwestern  states),  were  the  invisible 
stakes  for  which  Jay  and  Grenville  unconsciously  played,  amidst  the 
immediate  problems  of  a  great  world  war,  in  those  fateful  days  of 
1794.  From  the  twentieth-century  point  of  view  the  historical  stu- 
dent may  well  see,  in  the  defeat  of  the  Hammond-Grenville  rectifica- 
tion project  by  the  patriotic  principles  of  Jefferson  and  Jay,  one  of 
those  strokes  of  good  fortune  which  have  so  strikingly  and  abundantly 
illustrated  the  boundary  diplomacy  of  the  United  States.  Had  the 
suggestions  of  the  equally  patriotic  Hamilton  been  adopted  it  is  not 
very  likely  that  much  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  Montana,  and  a  part 
of  Minnesota  and  South  Dakota  as  well  as  all  of  North  Dakota  would 
be  in  the  American  Union  today."3  Samuel  Flagg  Bemis. 

52  In  Professor  F.  J.  Turner's  presidential  address  to  the  American  Historical 
Association,  Dec.  28,  1010,  "  Social  Forces  in  American  History",  in  this  Review, 
XVI.  226. 

52  For  a  history  of  the  northwest  boundary,  1803-1815,  see  Dr.  Schafer's 
paper,  above  cited,  note  5'  ■  A.  .1.  Hill,  in  Minnesota  Hist.  Soc.  Collections,  VII. 
317-35^:  A.  X.  Winchell,  id.,  VIII.   185-212. 


NOTES  AND   SUGGESTIONS 
On  the  Term  "  British  Empire  " 

During  the  past  few  years  the  question  has  been  raised  whether 
we  are  strictly  justified  in  applying  the  term  "British  Empire"  to 
that  complex  of  Great  Britain,  her  overseas  dominions  and  planta- 
tions, slave  stations  and  trading  posts,  as  it  existed  prior  to  1763. 
By  all  means  let  us  be  accurate,  but  if  we  are  to  be  condemned  to 
substitute  "  Old  Colonial  System  "  for  the  simple  "  empire "  used 
hitherto  by  all  the  authorities,  let  us  be  sure  that  it  is  indeed  necessary 
to  make  three  words  always  grow  where  one  grew  before,  and  to 
search  for  complicated  phrases  to  express  such  matters  as  imperial 
finance  or  imperial  defense. 

The  objections  alleged  to  the  use  of  the  term  to  express  what  is 
commonly  meant  by  it,  prior  to  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  are  two  :  first,  that 
there  was  no  empire  before  that  date  and  that  the  condition  of  affairs 
was  so  different  before  and  after  as  to  require  two  terms  to  express 
the  two  states;  and  secondly,  that  the  term  was  not  used  contem- 
poraneously until  after  1763  to  include  the  overseas  possessions.  The 
first  point  taken  may  well  be  questioned,  I  think,  on  several  grounds, 
but  the  present  paper  is  concerned  only  with  the  second. 

So  far  as  I  know,  the  question  of  contemporaneous  usage  was 
first  raised  by  Professor  C.  H.  Firth,  in  an  interesting  article  in  the 
Scottish  Historical  Review  of  April.  1918.  In  that  he  takes  the  stand 
that  from  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland  until  an  indefinite  date. 
"  British  Empire  "  connoted  Great  Britain  only  and  did  not  include 
the  colonies.  In  the  latter  sense  he  notes  only  two  examples  before 
1762,  and  says  that  "the  phrase  was  not  used  officially,  nor  was  it 
part  of  the  common  political  vocabulary  of  the  day  ",  and  that  it  did 
not  come  into  general  use  until  the  reign  of  George  III.  The  fact 
that  he  cites  only  two  instances — one  in  1689  and  the  other  in  1708 — 
prior  to  1762  is  a  little  misleading,  I  think,  for  although  it  is  true  that 
the  term  was  much  more  commonly  used  after  1763  than  before, 
nevertheless  it  is  so  frequently  met  with  earlier  that  it  must  have 
been  entirely  familiar  as  applied  to  the  colonies,  to  anyone  who  was 
interested  in  colonial  matters. 

In  any  question  of  a  territorial  sort  it  is  well  to  begin  with  the 
maps,  and  if  we  do  so  we  find  a  succession  of  them  from  1690  on- 
ward every  few  years  showing  the  West  Indies  and  American  conti- 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.— 33.       (4S5! 


4§5  Notes  and  Suggestions 

nental  colonies  under  such  titles  as  "  the  English  Empire  in  the  Con- 
tinent of  America",  "English  Empire  in  America",  "English  Em- 
pire in  the  Ocean  of  America,  or  West  Indies  ",  "  British  Empire  in 
America",  "British  Empire  in  North  America",  and  "English  Em- 
pire in  North  America  ".' 

Turning  now  to  the  texts,  our  first  reference  is  one  of  the  two 
noted  by  Professor  Firth.  In  1689,  Edward  Littleton  wrote  from 
Barbadoes  that  "  we  by  our  Labour,  Hazards,  and  Industry,  have  en- 
larged the  English  Trade  and  Empire — the  English  Empire  in  Amer- 
ica ",-  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  first  use  of  the  term  that  I  have 
noted  in  the  colonial  sense  coincides  approximately  in  time  with  the 
first  map  on  which  it  is  used  and  with  Barbon's  enthusiastic  picture 
of  an  overseas  empire  in  1690.  After  discussing  the  difficulties  of 
extending  empire  on  land,  he  writes  that : 

those  Things  that  Obstruct  the  Growth  of  Empire  at  Land,  do  rather 
Promote  its  Growth  at  Sea.  .  .  .  There  needs  no  Change  of  the  Gothick 
[English]  Government;  for  that  best  Agrees  with  such  an  Empire. 

The  Ways  of  preserving  Conquests  gain'd  by  Sea,  are  different  from 
those  at  Land.  By  the  one,  the  Cities,  towns  and  villages  are  burnt,  to 
thin  the  People,  that  they  may  be  the  easier  Governed  and  kept  into  Sub- 
jection; by  the  other,  the  Cities  must  be  inlarged,  and  New  ones  built.  .  .  . 
The  Seat  of  such  an  Empire,  must  be  in  an  Island,  that  their  Defence 
may  be  solely  in  Shipping;  the  same  way  to  defend  their  Dominion,  as 
to  enlarge  it. 

To  Conclude,  there  needs  no  other  Argument,  That  Empire  may  be 
raised  sooner  at  Sea,  than  at  Land,  than  by  observing  the  Growth  of  the 
United  Provinces.  .  .  .  But  England  seems  the  Properer  Seat  for  such 
an  Empire ;  .  .  .  The  Monarchy  is  both  fitted  for  Trade  and  Empire  .  .  . 
and  if  the  Subjects  increase,  The  ships.  Excise,  and  Customs,  which  are 
the  Strength  and  Revenue  of  the  Kingdom,  will  in  Proportion  increase, 
which  may  be  so  Great  in  a  short  time,  not  only  to  preserve  its  Antient 
Soveraignty  over  the  Narrow  Seas,  but  to  extend  its  Dominions  over  all 

iA  Map  of  the  English  Empire  in  the  Continent  >/  America,  viz.  Virginia 
Maryland,  Carolina.  New  York.  New  larsey,  New  England,  Pensilvania  [1690  ?J  ; 
A  New  Map  of  the  English  Empire  in  America,  viz.  Virginia,  Maryland.  Carolina, 
New  York,  New  larsey,  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  Newfoundland,  New  France, 
etc.  [1695  ?]  ;  A  New  Map  of  the  English  Empire  in  America,  etc.  (1701) — this 
map  reappears  with  the  same  title  in  Wit's  Atlas  Maior  [1706  ?]  :  A  New  Map 
of  the  English  Empire  in  America,  etc.,  revis'd  by  Io.  Sencx  (1719)  ;  A  New  Map 
of  the  English  Empire  in  the  Ocean  of  America,  or  the  West  Indies  (1721)  ;  Map 
of  the  British  Empire  in  America,  etc..  [Popple],  completed  in  manuscript  in 
1727;  the  same  map  published  under  the  semi-official  patronage  of  the  Lords  of 
Trade  (1732)  ;  two  more  editions  of  the  above  (1733),  and  an  edition  in  Amster- 
dam [1734  ?],  all  with  the  same  title:  A  New  Chart  of  the  British  Empire  in 
North  America  [Southack's]  (1746);  A  Nczc  and  Accurate  Map  of  the  English 
Empire  in  North  America,  etc.  (1755).  I  have  cited  only  those  which  may  be 
found   in   the  Library  of  Congress. 

=  The  Groans  of  the  Plantations  (London,    1689),  p.  26. 


Adams:  ''British  Empire"  487 

the  Great  Ocean  :  An  Empire,  not  less  glorious,  and  of  a  much  larger 
Extent  than  either  Alexander's  or  Caesar's.3 

No  words  could  paint  more  clearly  the  imperial  destiny  of  the  island 
kingdom,  and  whether  or  not  it  was  due  to  this  pamphlet,  it  is  from 
this  time  that  we  may  date  the  use  of  the  terms  "  British  Empire  "  or 
"  English  Empire  ",  both  in  hooks  and  maps,  as  including  the  over- 
seas possessions. 

In  1 70S,  Oldmixo'n  published  his  history  of  The  British  Empire 
in  America,  in  which  he  distinctly  speaks  of  the  colonies  as  forming 
part  of  the  empire.4  This  book  may  well  have  been  read  by  Samuel 
Vetch,  then  much  interested  in  his  expedition  to  Canada ;  in  the  year 
after  its  appearance  he  wrote  to  the  English  authorities  at  home  that 
the  colonists  had  hoped  that  the  conquest  might  prove  of-  advantage 
to  themselves  "and  all  the  Brittish  Empyre  "."'  Two  years  later  the 
Massachusetts  government  sent  an  address  to  the  queen  in  which 
they  prayed  that  the  Canadian  expedition  of  that  year  might  prove 
"  of  unspeakable  benefit  and  advantage  to  the  Whole  British  Em- 
pire "."  In  1728.  we  find  Defoe  sealing  the  use  of  the  term  for  "all 
the  colonies  and  plantations  which  ".  he  says,  "  form  what  they  call 
the  English  Empire  in  America  ".7  The  next  year  a  writer  advocated 
bounties  as  a  means  of  enlarging  "  our  Empire  in  America  "  ;s  in  1731 
another  wrote  that  the  legislation  then  pending  in  Parliament  tended 
to  the  weakening  of  "  the  English  Empire  "  in  America  ;'■'  in  the  same 
year  the  General  Assembly  of  Barbadoes  represented  to  the  Lords 
of  Trade  that  the  same  act  might  "  put  an  end  to  the  British  Empire 
in  America  "  ;10  and  two  years  later  another  writer  pleaded  for  laws 
favorable  to  the  "  British  Empire  in  America  "."     In  1734,  Governor 

a  Nicholas  Earbon,  A  Discourse  of  Trade,  1690  (A  Reprint  of  Economic 
Tracts,  Johns   Hopkins  Press.   1905,  pp.   3of.). 

■s  John  Oldmixon.  The  British  Empire  in  America,  etc.  (London,   1708),  I.  xxx, 

:>  Letter   from   Boston.  Aug.    12,    1709.   C.   O.  5  :   9. 

6  July  5.   i7i  1.  C  O.  5:   10.     Cf.  similar  address.  Oct.   17,   1711,  ibid. 

"Daniel  Defoe,  A  Plan  of  the  English  Commerce,  etc.  (London,  1728), 
p.  xiii. 

s  Directions  to  judge  whether  a  Nation  to  be  in  a  Thriving  Condition,  etc. 
(London,   1729),  p.  29. 

0  A  Short  Answer  to  an  Elaborate  Pamphlet  .  .  .  shewing  that  the  Bill  .  .  . 
tends  to  the  Impoverishing  and  Ruin  of  those  Colonics,  the  Weakening  of  the 
Pozeer  of  the  English  Empire   in   those  Parts,  etc.    (London,    1731).   title. 

10  C.  O.  5  :  4.  Aug.  27.  1731.  There  is  a  passage  in  Joshua  Gee's  Trade  and 
Navigation  Considered  (London.  1730).  p.  79,  in  which  he  speaks  of  England  as 
"  the  head  and  seat  of  the  English  Empire  ",  but  it  is  a  little  ambiguous  just  what 
he  means. 

11  Proposals  offered  for  the  Sugar  Planters  Redress,  etc.   I  London.  1733).  p.  4. 


488  Notes  and  Suggestions 

Belcher  wrote  to  Oglethorpe  congratulating  him  on  having  made,  in 
the  colony  of  Georgia,  "  a  fine  addition  to  the  British  Empire  in 
America",  and  used  the  same  term  in  writing  to  the  Lords  of  Trade 
in  1740. 12  In  1743,  John  Ashley  uses  the  term  frequently  and  with 
even  wider  inclusiveness.  "  No  Nation  in  the  World  ",  he  writes, 
"  is  more  commodiously  situated  for  Trade  or  War,  than  the  British 
Empire,  taking  all  together  as  one  Body,  viz.  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  the  Plantations  and  Fishery  in  America,  besides  its  Possessions 
in  the  East  Indies  and  Africa."  He  speaks  many  times  of  the  colo- 
nies as  "  branches  "  of  the  empire,  or  "  the  junior  branches  of  this 
great  empire  ".13  Meanwhile,  there  had  been  a  second  edition,  in 
1741,  of  Oldmixon's  history  of  The  British  Empire  in  America  show- 
ing the  continued  popularity  of  that  book. 

In  the  next  decade,  the  use  of  the  term  as  including  the  colonies 
is  very  frequent.  In  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  January,  1755,  a 
writer,  after  describing  the  colonies,  says  "  such  is  the  British  Empire 
in  North  America,  which  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia  is  a  tract  of 
1600  miles".14  Huske  speaks  of  "his  Majesty's  Northern  Colonies 
in  particular  and  the  British  Empire  in  general  ",  and  of  the  conti- 
nental-West Indian  situation  as  calling  for  the  "  most  vigorous  efforts 
of  the  combined  nerves  of  the  whole  Empire  ".15  Another  writer,  in 
the  same  year,  speaks  of  the  "  British  Empire  in  America "  being 
divided  into  many  considerable  settlements ;  another  hopes  that  Geor- 
gia will  "  prove  a  useful  barrier  of  the  British  Empire  in  North 
America " ;  a  third  carries  the  bounds  of  "  the  British  Empire  in 
America"  out  to  the  "great  western  ocean".1"  Yet  another  com- 
plains that  the  colonies  under  their  charters  act  as  though  they  were 
independent  states  "  rather  than  as  provinces  of  the  same  empire  ",1T 
and  in  the  same  year  there  began  to  appear  in  numbers  a  New  and 
Complete  History  of  the  British  Empire  in  America.18  It  is  not 
necessary  to  multiply  instances  from  this  time  onward.     Several  more 

12  Belcher  Paters,  II.  69,  349. 

13  John  Ashley,  The  Second  Part  of  Memoirs  and  Considerations  .  .  .  to 
shew  that  .  .  .  the  Traffick,  Wealth  and  Strength  of  the  whole  British  Empire  may 
thereby  be  greatly  increased  (London,  1743).  pp.  vii,  xii.  2.  -2.  77  n.,  7S.  94,  95. 
96,   100,    101. 

"XXV.  1S.  This  article  was  reprinted  the  following  month  in  the  Scots 
Magazine.  XVII.  77. 

i-"'John  Huske,  The  Present  State  of  North  America,  pt.  I.,  second  ed.  (Lon- 
don.   1755).  PP-  "2,  77- 

10  Miscellaneous  Correspondence  (London,  1759V  vol.  I.  (1755I,  pp.  56,  95; 
Scots  Magazine.  XVII.   224. 

i"  State  of  the  British  and  French   Colonics,  etc.   (London,    1755L  p.   57. 

ls  London,   1755.      It  was  never  completed,  perhaps  owing  to  the  war. 


Fitspatrick:  Secret  Journal  489 

could  be  given  before  we  find  Franklin  describing  the  North  Ameri- 
can colonies  "  as  the  frontier  of  the  British  Empire  on  that  side  ".1!l 
From  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  term  becomes  the  usual 
one  employed,  and — with  increasing  frequency — without  the  adjective. 
The  reason  for  this  is  probably  to  be  found  quite  as  much  in  the 
Treaty  of  Huberts] >urg  as  in  that  of  Paris.  Until  the  end  of  that  war, 
"  the  empire  "  in  the  common  parlance  of  Europe  was,  of  course,  that 
Holy  Roman  Empire  that  had  survived  through  the  ages,  but  which 
ceased  thereafter  to  be  of  importance,  although  it  lasted  nominally 
until  1806.  The  coincidence  of  its  downfall  with  the  enormous  ex- 
pansion of  the  British  Empire  allowed  the  latter  to  discard  its  qualify- 
ing adjective  and,  in  turn,  to  become  merely  "  the  empire  "  to  its  citi- 
zens. That  throughout  the  whole  eighteenth  century,  however,  the 
term  "  British  Empire  "  was  held  by  many  to  have  included  far  more 
than  merely  Great  Britain  seems  to  me  to  be  shown  by  the  citations 
given,  citations  gleaned  in  the  pursuit  of  quite  other  objects  and  which 
could  probably  be  multiplied  many  times  by  those  more  familiar  with 
the  whole  economic  literature  of  the  period. 

James  Truslow  Adams. 

A  Rough  Secret  Journal  of  the  Continental  Congress 

Among  the  papers  of  the  Continental  Congress  transferred  from 
the  Department  of  State  to  the  Library  of  Congress  by  the  Executive 
Order  of  December  19,  1921,  is  a  folio  blank-book — of  46  leaves.  30 
of  which  are  written  upon — in  the  original  paper  covers,  hideous  with 
floral  decoration.  All  but  five  of  the  written  pages  (two  and  a  half 
leaves)  are  in  the  writing  of  Charles  Thomson,  the  five  are  in  that  of 
George  Bond,  deputy  secretary. 

This  volume  is  a  hitherto  unknown  and  unrecorded  Rough  Secret 
Journal  of  the  Continental  Congress  and  contains  the  proceedings  of 
Congress  on  various  dates  from  September  17.  1776,  to  January  1, 
1779,  inclusive,  relating  to  foreign  affairs.  It  is  the  original  from 
which  the  first  part  of  the  Secret  Journal  (no.  6,  of  the  Bulletin  of 
the  State  Department  list  of  the  Continental  Congress  Papers,  Sept. 
17.  1776.  to  Sept.  16,  1788  [imperfect]  )  was  transcribed.  From 
September  17.  1776,  to  May  12,  1777,  inclusive,  of  no.  6,  is  included 
in  this  Rough  Secret  Journal.  Other  material  in  the  volume,  such  as 
the  letter  to  King  Louis  XVI.  of  October  26,  1778,  instructions  to 
Benjamin  Franklin,  of  the  same  date,  a  plan  of  attack  on  Quebec,  and 
Observations  on  the  Finances  of  America,  are  all  to  be  found  in  the 


49Q 

various  other  manuscript  journals  of  the  Congress  and  have  been 
duly  printed,  though  not  always  in  accordance  with  the  dates  given  in 
this  Rough  Secret  Journal,  in  the  Library  of  Congress  edition. of  the 
Journals  of  the  Continental  Congress.  In  this  printed  edition  of  the 
Journals  the  dates  invariably  used  are  those  of  the  adopted  measure. 
The  variations  found  may  be  of  interest  and  are  as  follows : 

Sept.  17,  1776,  Plan  of  a  treaty  with  France — a  few,  very  slight,  verbal 
differences,  of  no  consequence. 

Sept.  17,  1776,  Instructions  to  Franklin — printed  in  L.  C.  edition  of  the 
Journals  under  the  date  when  agreed  to,  Sept.  24. 

Sept.  17,  1776,  Commission  to  Franklin — printed  in  L.  C.  edition  as  "  Let- 
ter of  Credence  "  under  date  when  agreed  to,  Sept.  28. 

Jan.  2,  1777,  Form  of  commission  to  Franklin  to  the  court  of  Spain — 
printed  in  L.  C.  edition  from  a  former  printed  edition  of  the  Journals, 
under  the  proceedings  of  July  I,  1777. 

June  5,  1777.  Commission  to  Arthur  Lee — follows,  in  this  Rough  Secret 
Journal,  the  proceedings  of  May  12,  1777. 

July  1,  1777,  Commission  to  William  Lee,  is  followed  by  the  instructions 
to  him  and  these  instructions  are  followed  by  the  instructions  to  Ralph 
Izard,  dated  in  blank.  These  June  5  and  July  1  entries  are  printed  in 
the  L.  C.  edition  from  a  former  printed  edition  of  the  Secret  Journals 
under  the  proceedings  of  July  1,   1777. 

Oct.  26,  1778,  Letter  of  Credence  for  Franklin,  to  the  King  of  France — 
printed  in  L.  C.  edition  from  a  copy  by  Gouverneur  Morris,  in  the 
Papers  of  the  Continental  Congress,  no.  25,  1,  folio  35  (undated), 
under  the  proceedings  of  Oct.  21,  1778.  The  instructions  to  Franklin. 
with  this  letter  of  credence,  follow  the  letter  in  this  Rough  Secret 
Journal,  and  are  dated  Oct.  26.  They  are  printed  in  the  L.  C.  edition 
under  the  proceedings  of  Oct.  22.  The  Plan  of  Attack  on  Quebec 
follows  Franklin's  instructions  in  this  Rough  Secret  Journal.  It  is 
printed  in  the  L.  C.  edition  under  the  proceedings  of  Oct.  22.  The 
Observations  on  the  Finances  of  America  follow  the  Plan  of  Attack 
and  are  also  printed  in  the  L.  C.  edition  under  the  proceedings  of 
Oct.  22. 

The  principal  value  of  all  this  lies,  of  course,  in  now  having  these 
copies  in  the  handwriting  of  Thomson  for  the  papers  which  we  have 
hitherto  been  obliged  to  print  from  former  printed  copies.  This 
Rough  Secret  Journal  now  furnishes  the  original,  official  manuscript 
for  the  first  time. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  entry  in  the  back  of  this  volume  that  the 
highest  interest  and  value  centres,  for  here  Charles  Thomson  has 
copied  out  the  important  Agreement  of  Secrecy  of  November  9.  1775. 
with  a  transcript  of  the  signatures  of  all  the  members  who  signed 
that  agreement  between  November  9,  1775  and  June  28.  1777.  Rut 
to  this  Thomson  copy  in  this  volume  thirteen  additional  members  have 
affixed  their  original  signatures  instead  of  putting  them  to  the  separate 
paper  signed  by  eighty-six  of  their  colleagues.     These  thirteen  are: 


Dawson:  National  Council  491 

Richard  Law,  of  Connecticut ;  Nathaniel  Folsom,  of  New  Hampshire, 
who  signed  July  21,  1777;  Cornelius  Harnett,  of  North  Carolina,  who 
signed  July  23.  1777;  Henry  Laurens,  of  South  Carolina,  who  signed 
July  29,  1777;  Daniel  Roberdeau,  of  Pennsylvania;  Joseph  Jones,  of 
Virginia,  who  signed  August  16.  1777;  John  Harvie,  of  Virginia, 
who  signed  October  23,  1777;  Francis  Dana,  of  Massachusetts;  Wil- 
liam Clingan,  of  Pennsylvania;  Joseph  'Wood,  of  Georgia;  Edward 
Langworthy,  of  Georgia;  John  Henry,  jr..  of  Maryland,  and  James 
Forbes,  of  Maryland. 

The  presence  of  these  original  signatures  with  this  Thomson  copy- 
makes  it  fully  as  important  an  original  as  the  separately  signed  docu- 
ment/ the  body  of  which  is  also  in  Thomson's  handwriting. 

This  hitherto  unrecorded  volume  of  the  Journals  seems  to  have 
experienced  the  same  forgetfulness  or  neglect  as  that  accorded  to  the 
Agreement  signed  by  eighty-six  of  the  delegates.  It  is,  of  course, 
possible  that  this  volume  is  the  one  that,  in  Thomson's  original  ar- 
rangement of  the  papers  in  his  office,  was  considered  as  preceding 
no.  4  of  the  Department  of  State's  list  of  the  Continental  Congress 
Papers,  to  wit,  Secret  Journal,  Foreign  and  Domestic,  1780,  October 
18  to  1786,  March  29;  but,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  such  a  large  part  of 
it  is  transcribed,  as  noted  above,  in  the  beginning  of  no.  6  of  that  list, 
it  has  been  deemed  best  to  record  it  as  no.  6A  of  the  Papers  of  the 
Continental  Congress.  In  the  proper  chronology  of  its  creation  it 
antedates  no.  6.  John  C.  Fitzpateick. 

National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies 
A  National  Council  for  the  Social  Studies  completed  its  organ- 
ization in  Chicago  on  February  25.  Its  purpose  is  to  lay  the  foun- 
dations for  training  democratic  citizens ;  and  its  sponsors  believe  that 
such  training  can  result  only  from  a  carefully  developed  and  ade- 
quately supported  system  of  teaching  in  the  elementary  and  secondary 
schools.  Its  plan  looks  to  promoting  co-operation  among  those  who 
are  responsible  for  such  training,  including  at  least  the  university 
departments  which  contribute  knowledge  of  facts  and  principles  to 
civic  education ;  and  the  leading  groups  of  educational  leaders,  such 
as  principals,  superintendents,  and  professors  of  education,  who 
develop  the  methods  of  handling  these  facts. 

An  advisory  board  was  set  up,  composed  of  representatives  of  (  1 ) 
the  five  associations  of  scholars  most  nearly  related  to  the  purpose  of 
the  National  Council — historians,  economists,  political  scientists,  soci- 
ologists, and  geographers;  (2)  the  national  organizations  of  educa- 
tional investigators  and  administrators — elementary  and  high  school 


492  Notes  and  Suggestions 

principals,  teachers  of  education,  normal  school  principals,  and  super- 
intendents;  and  (3)  regional  associations  of  teachers  of  history  and 
civics.  The  function  of  this  advisory  board  is  to  bring  into  the 
National  Council  the  points  of  view  of  the  organizations  represented 
by  its  members  and  to  insure  a  development  of  the  social  studies 
which  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  best  educational  thought  as  well 
as  based  on  the  best  present  practice. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for  the  year  1922-1923:  L.  C. 
Marshall,  professor  of  economics  in  the  University  of  Chicago,  presi- 
dent ;  Henry  Johnson,  professor  of  history  in  Teachers  College,  vice- 
president ;  Edgar  Dawson,  professor  of  government  in  Hunter  Col- 
lege, secretary-treasurer ;  E.  U.  Rugg,  Lincoln  School,  New  York, 
assistant  secretary.  An  executive  committee,  charged  with  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  the  policies  of  the  association,  will  consist  of  the 
officers  and  the  following  elected  members :  C.  A.  Coulomb,  district 
superintendent,  Philadelphia;  W.  H.  Hathaway,  Riverside  High 
School,  Milwaukee;  Bessie  L.  Pierce,  Iowa  University  High  School. 

The  first  task  the  National  Council  is  undertaking  is  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  Finding-List  of  those  experiments  or  undertakings  in  the 
teaching  of  the  social  studies  which  now  give  promise  of  being  useful. 
This  list  will  contain  such  exposition  of  the  character  and  aims  of 
these  experiments  as  to  make  it  possible  for  those  working  along 
parallel  lines  to  discover  each  other  and  to  co-operate  more  fully  than 
would  otherwise  be  probable.  This  expository  material  will  have 
another  purpose — that  of  indicating  outstanding  differences  of  opin- 
ion and  programme  in  order  that  these  differences  may  be  systemati- 
cally stated  for  purposes  of  analysis  and  discussion. 

To  aid  in  the  discovery  and  assessment  of  these  experiments,  the 
National  Council  has  in  preparation  a  list  of  "  Key  Men  and  Women  " 
who  will  be  appointed  in  the  various  states  to  represent  the  National 
Council  in  its  efforts  to  collect  useful  information  and  then  to  give 
currency  to  it.  While  this  organization  seems  to  represent  all  the 
elements  out  of  which  the  best  development  of  the  social  studies  must 
proceed,  the  most  useful  work  will  be  done  only  with  the  co-operation 
of  teachers  and  investigators  in  all  parts  of  the  country  to  the  end 
that  lost  motion  and  useless  repetition  may  be  eliminated  and  that 
mutually  strengthening  experiments  may  be  pressed  forward. 

Persons  who  are  interested  in  the  wholesome  development  of  the 
social  studies,  whether  teachers  or  others,  and  if  teachers,  whether 
teachers  of  the  social  subjects  or  of  some  other  subject,  are  urged  to 
communicate  at  the  earliest  convenient  moment  with  the  secretary  of 
the  National  Council,  Edgar  Dawson,  671  Park  Avenue,  New  York 
City.  E.  D. 


DOCUMENTS 

Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia,  1613-1631,  I. 

Lionel  Ceanfield,  first  earl  of  Middlesex,  was  lord  treasurer 
from  September  30,  1622,  to  May  13,  1624,  and  thus  during  nearly 
all  the  Sturm  mid  Drang  period  of  the  history  of  the  Virginia  Com- 
pany, and  before  that  he  had  been  for  several  years  surveyor  general 
of  the  customs.  Many  papers  respecting  the  company  and  respect- 
ing Virginia  came  therefore  into  his  hands,  and  when  he  retired 
from  office  he  took  many  with  him,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
time.  The  second  and  third  earls  dying,  these  papers  came  to  the 
hands  of  his  daughter  Frances,  who  married  Richard,  fifth  earl  of 
Dorset,  whose  father  Edward,  fourth  earl,  had,  as  Sir  Edward  Sack- 
ville,  played  an  important  part  in  the  Virginia  Company.  Therefore 
Charles,  the  sixth  earl,  the  poet,  son  of  Richard  Sackville  and 
Frances  Cranfield,  may  have  inherited  Virginian  papers  from  the 
Sackville  house  as  well  as  from  that  of  his  mother.  From  him 
Cranfield's  papers  descended  to  his  son,  grandson,  and  great  grand- 
son, the  first,  second,  and  third  dukes  of  Dorset.  While  they  were 
in  the  hands  of  the  third  duke,  who  was  ambassador  to  France 
from  17S3  to  1789,  and  died  in  1799,  they  were  examined  by  Dr. 
Peter  Peckard,  master  of  Magdalene  College.  Cambridge,  when  he 
was  preparing  his  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Mr.  Nicholas  Ferrar 
(Cambridge.  1790).1 

John  Ferrar,  in  the  biographical  sketch  which  is  the  foundation  of 
Peckard's  book,  in  speaking  of  the  two  volumes  of  records  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Company,  which  Nicholas  Ferrar  had  prepared  for  the  Earl 
of  Southampton  ( the  same  volumes  which  are  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Library  of  Congress,  and  which  it  has  printed  under  the 
editorship  of  Miss  Kingsbury),  says  that  Southampton  entrusted 
them  to  Sir  Richard  Killigrew.  and  he  to  the  fourth  Earl  of  Dorset, 
"and  it  is  hoped  that  this  noble  family  still  hath  them  in  safe  keep- 
ing".2 Upon  this.  Peckard  says  in  a  foot-note,  "On  application  to 
the  [third]  Duke  of  Dorset,  his  Grace  with  the  utmost  liberality  of 
mind  ami  most  polite  condescension,  directed  his  library  to  be 
searched   for  this  manuscript.     The  search  was  fruitless  ;  but  some 

1  Peckard.  p.  156. 

-  John   Ferrar,  writing:  after   1646.  in   Peckard,   ibid. 

(493) 


494  Documents 

detached  papers  were  found  which  his  Grace  most  obligingly  sent 
to  me  ".  He  describes  them  as  consisting  of  separate  documents, 
numbered  (perhaps  he  means  by  himself)  from  i  to  21.  He  gives 
the  text  of  three  or  four,  and  summarizes  some  of  the  others. 

From  the  third  duke,  or  from  his  son,  the  fourth,  Cranfield's  pa- 
pers passed  into  the  possession  of  his  daughter,  who  married  the  fifth 
Earl  De  La  Warr,  representative  of  another  family  notably  concerned 
in  the  early  colonization  of  Virginia,  though  it  does  not  appear  that 
additional  papers  came  from  this  source. 

While  the  papers  were  in  the  possession  of  the  sixth  Earl  De  La 
Warr,  who  died  in  1873,  his  papers  were  examined  by  an  agent  of 
the  Historical  Manuscripts  Commission,  and  the  main  portion  of 
them  is  described  at  length  in  the  Fourth  Report  of  that  commission, 
appendix,  part  I.  (1874).''  The  remainder  were  described  in  the 
Seventh  Report,  appendix,  part  I.  (  1879 ),4  as  papers  of  Lord  Sack- 
ville,  for  in  the  meantime  they  had  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
fourth  son  of  the  fifth  Earl  De  La  Warr,  who  had  inherited  the  estate 
of  Knole  Park  and  had  been  created  Baron  Sackville.  From  him  the 
papers  passed  to  his  younger  brother  and  heir,  the  second  Lord  Sack- 
ville, better  known  in  the  United  States  as  Hon.  Lionel  Sackville-West, 
British  minister  to  the  United  States  1881-1888,  and  to  the  present 
possessor,  his  nephew,  the  third  Lord  Sackville. 

When  Miss  Kingsbury  was  preparing  her  edition  of  the  Records 
of  the  Virginia  Company,  she  was  informed  by  a  member  of  the 
family  that  the  then  possessor  knew  of  "  no  other  papers  at  Knole 
relating  to  the  colony  of  Virginia  than  those  mentioned  in  the  report 
of  the  commissioners ",  four  in  number.  Professor  A.  Percival 
Newton,  of  the  University  of  London,  has  however  been  so  fortunate 
as  to  obtain  from  the  present  Lord  Sackville  the  opportunity  to  con- 
duct a  more  careful  search,  which  has  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
some  threescore  documents,  and  to  have  copies  of  them  made.  These 
Professor  Newton  has  been  so  good  as  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the 
American  Historical  Review,  and  they  are  presented  in  this  number 
and  the  succeeding  number,  with  the  exception  of  the  very  few  that 
are  already  in  print."'  Grateful  acknowledgments  are  made  to  him. 
and  to  Lord  Sackville. 

3  Pp.  2-6-317.    *  Pp.  249-260. 

5  No.  6215,  "A  note  of  the  shipping,  men,  and  provisions  sent  to  Virginia 
by  the  Treasurer  and  Companie  in  the  year  1619",  nearly  identical  with  that 
printed  in  Force's  Historical  Tracts,  III.,  no.  5;  nos.  6174  and  6175,  letter  of 
Governor  Yeardley  and  council  to  the  Virginia  Company,  Jan.  23,  1621.  and  "  the 
humble  peticion  of  the  distressed  colony  in  Virginia  ",  printed  together  in  Peck- 
ard,    pp.    157-159    (his    no.    21);    no.    61S7,   order    in    council    respecting   tobacco, 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       495 

The  group  embraces  all  but  four  (nos.  1,  2,  5  and  14)  of  the  21 
mentioned  by  Peckard,  and  of  these  he  gives  the  text  of  no.  i';  and 
a  brief  description  of  no.  5.  His  nos.  7  and  18  are  number  XXIX. 
below  ;  his  no.  15  is  our  VI. ;  his  no.  16  our  XXVIII. ;  his  nos.  3,  4. 
6,  8-13,  17,  19,  20,  and  21  will  appear  in  our  second  installment.  His 
numbers  are  written  in  red  ink. 

The  documents,  as  will  be  seen,  are  of  various  quality.  The  most 
important  illustrate  the  struggles  which  the  Company  went  through 
with  respect  to  the  tobacco  contract ;  others  relate  to  importations  of 
tobacco  in  general,  to  cattle  claimed  by  Samuel  Argall  and  others 
and  by  the  Company,  or  to  the  provision  of  arms  after  the  massacre, 
or  are  letters  or  petitions  of  colonists  or  of  Sir  Edwin  Sandys  or  of 
other  members  of  the  Company.  It  has  seemed  best  to  print  all,  as 
exhausting  this  source  of  knowledge  respecting  early  Virginia,  to 
which  indeed  several  papers  make  signal  additions,  while  all  illus- 
trate economic  conditions  or  procedure.  The  best  method  of  ar- 
rangement has  seemed  to  be  to  form  three  groups,  and  to  relegate  to 
the  third,  as  bearing  on  the  latter  part  of  the  Company's  history, 
those  which  concern  its  relations  to  the  contract  for  the  importation 
of  tobacco,  while  assigning  to  the  first  those  which  are  miscellaneous 
illustrations  of.  early  Virginia  history,  and  to  the  second  those  which 
relate  to  tobacco  in  general.  The  rlrs.t  two  groups  are  printed  in  the 
present  number;  the  third  will  appear  in  that  of  July. 

Most  of  the  transcripts,  as  they  come  to  us,  bear  numbers  indicat- 
ing their  place  in  Lord  Sackville's  collection,  and  these  numbers  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  foot-notes.  A  few  documents  are  not  thus 
designated.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  dates  are  all  of  old  style, 
unless  the  contrary  is  indicated. 

A.     Miscellaneous. 

I.     CUSTOMS  ENTRIES   FROM   VIRGINIA  AND   BERMUDA,    1613-1614.7 

Customs 
Inwardes 

Goodes  and  marchandiezes  entred  from  the  Sinner  Hands  and  Virginia. 

July  30.  1621,  printed  in  Acts  of  the  Privy  CouncH,  Colonial.  I.  43-44;  and  parts 
of  drafts  of  the  Propositions  regarding  tobacco  which  duplicate  those  printed  in 
Records  of  the  Virginia  Company.  II.  58-59.  S6-SS,  under  date  of  June  29  and 
July  3.  \b22.  Professor  Xewton  writes,  "There  are  also  to  be  found  among  the 
Knole  papers  printed  copies  of  various  proclamations  relating  to  Virginia,  the 
Bermudas,  and  Tobacco.  These  have  not  been  copied  as  they  are  accessible  else- 
where ". 

8  P.    162. 

•  Doc.  no.  6203  in  Lord  Sackville's  collection. 


496  Documents 

Valor  Subsidy 

Vicesimo  quarto  die  Septembris 
Anno  Domini  1613 

In  le  Martha  of  London,  Tho. 
Bab,  master,  a  Somers  Hands. 

Sir  Tliomas  Smith  etc.  1  chest 
containing  viiic  lxvi  ounces  am- 
ber greece*  xxv1  iiiixx  xviii  //'.  ic xxix  U.  xviii  s. 

xxxi0  Maii  1614 

In  le  Elizabeth  of  London,  Robert 
Adams,  master,0  a  Barmudos. 

Idem  Sir  Thomas  etc.,  1  caske 
containing  icxxxiii  /.  of  white 
corrall,  box  containing  ii'  vii 
ounces  of  amber  greece,  cer- 
tain caske  containing  xxic 
xxviii  /.  sasaffrax  rootes,  viii 
Firkings  sturgeon,  iiic  wt.  cavi- 
are viii''  xxxvi  /.  xiii .?.    xli  /.  xvi  j.  viii  d.  ob. 

In  le  Elizabeth 

Idem,  Sir  Thomas  etc.  iiii  barells 
containing  ic  lxx  pound  pudding 
tobacco  iiiixxvZ.  iiii  J.  vj. 

xxi°  July  1614 

In   le  Margret   of   London,    Tho. 

Bab,  master,  a  Bermudos 
Idem  Sir  Thomas  etc.  lxi  pound 

pudding    tobacco,    i'  xx    ounces 

amber  greece  iiic  iiiixx  viii  /.  xix/.     viiis. 

SGondomar,  in  a  despatch  of  Oct.  5  (N.S.),  1613,  to  Philip  III.,  mentions 
the  arrival  of  this  ship  from  Bermuda,  about  six  days  before,  say  September  19 
(O.S. ),  with  sixty-four  pounds  of  ambergris.  John  Chamberlain  mentions  it  more 
fully;  Brown,  Genesis  of  the  United  States,  II.  661,  666.  In  a  petition  of  Capt. 
Matthew  Somers,  1622,  it  is  said  that  the  whole  cake  found  was  of  160  lbs. 
weight,  worth  £12,000.  Records  of  the  Virginia  Company,  II.  46.  See,  for  the 
story  of  its  finding,  Smith,  Gcnerall  Historic,  pp.  176-1-S.  The  account  here  is 
for  54'4  lbs.  (S66  oz.),  at  £3  an  ounce  (  £2598),  and  the  subsidy  or  duty,  at 
5  per  cent.,  was  £129  18s.  Capt.  Thomas  Babb  of  Wapping  was  afterward, 
1635,  associated  with  Edward  Trelawny  in  Maine,  Doc.  Hist.  Maine,  III.  So;  a 
petition  from  his  wife  is  in  Cat.  S.  P.  Col.,  I.  261. 

0  The  Elizabeth  sailed  for  Virginia  in  October,  1613,  and  sailed  thence  for 
England  in  March,  1614,  bringing  Sir  Thomas  Gates.  Brown,  Genesis,  II.  659. 
6/S,  6S9,  724.  Capt.  Robert  Adams  had  made  voyages  to  Virginia  every  year 
from  1609  to  1614.  Later,  from  161-  to  1633,  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Co.  Cal.  S.  P.  Col.,  E.  I.,  and  Diary  of  Richard  Cocks  (HaUluyt  Soc.1, 
passim  ;   Court  Minnies,  1635—1639,  p.   155. 


Lord  Sackville's  Paper. 


tpecting  Virginia       497 


xxxi0  Augustii   1614 
In  le  Treasure1"  of  London,  Grif- 

fen  Purnell  master,  a  Virginia 
Idem  Sir  Thomas  etc.  i'  lxxv 
beaver  skinns,  xviii  otter  skinns, 
ii  Elke  or  Losh11  hides,  v  wild 
catt  skinns,  i  deare  skins,  xiii 
tonn  cedar  tree  tymber 
Summa  totalis 


r.     ix  d. 
v  d.  ob. 


II.  ALLOWANCE  FOR  CUSTOMS  DUTIES   XOT  LEVIED,  DECEMBER  24,   l6l  I-l6l  S.12 

Defalcacion13  made  to  the  Farmers  of  the  Customes  for  the  Subsidy  of 
goodes  and  comodytves  brought  from  Virginia  and  the  Somer  Hands 
and  carved  thither  in  the  severall  yeares  underwrytten  viz  : 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii0  die  Dec  1618 
anno  xvi°  Regis  Jacobi  for  48572  pound  of 
puddinge  Tobacco,  956  pound  of  leafe  To- 
bacco and  diverse  other  comodytves  In- 
wardes  m  eclx  /('.  vii  .5".  xi  d.  And  oute- 
wards  lxxi  li.  xviii  s.  v  [qu.  ix?]  d.     In  all  mccexxxii  li.  vi  .■>.  viii  d. 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii0  die  December 
1617  for  18839  pound  of  Tobacco  and  di- 
verse other  comodytves  Inwardes  iiiic  iiiixx 
vii  li.  iii  .?.  iiii  d.  And  for  comodyties 
transported  thither  xliiii  li.  i  d.  ob'q.  in  all  V  xxxi  li.  iii  J.  v  d.  ob'q. 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii0  December 
1616  for  2300  pound  of  Tobacco  brought 
from  Virginia  and  diverse  other  comodytves 
as  well  Inwardes  as  outwardes  exxv  li.  iiii  .J.  iiii  d.  ob'q. 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii  Dec.  1615  for 
diverse  comodytves  Inwardes  but  no  To- 
bacco xxviii//.  xj.  x  d. 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii0  Dec.  1614  for 

10  Treasurer,  Argall's  ship. 

11  Losh  hides  were  hides  untanned,  wash-leather. 

12  No.  6176. 

is  A  defalcation  was  an  abatement,  allowance,  or  set-off.  In  this  case  the 
allowance  was  made  to  the  farmers  of  the  customs  because  under  its  patent  of 
1612  the  Virginia   Company   was   exempt   from   the   payment   of   duties    on   its   im- 


ports into  England  and  its  exports  from  Engla 
that  exemption  the  farmers  of  the  customs,  un 
of  1608,  would  have  been  entitled  to  receive,  a; 
roll  tobacco  and  fourpence  for  leaf  tobacco.  Be 
System,  pp.   109,   1 1 1.     The  allowances  therefon 


until  Mar.  12.  1619.  But  for 
r  King  James's  Book  of  Rates 
oundage,  sixpence   a  pound   for 

Origins  of  the  British  Colonial 
lue  to  them  are  here  calculated 


for  Sir  Lii 
the   custon 


nel   Cranfield, 


July  26.   1613,  had  be 


-gene 


of 


498  Documents 

1 193    ounces    of    Ambergreece    and    other 

comodytyes  but  no  Tobacco  c  iiiixx  xviii  U.  vii  s.  v  d.  ob. 
In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii  Decembris  1613  nihil 

In  the  yeare  ended  xxiiii  Dec.  1612  nihil 

[Endorsed  in  the  hand  of  Sir  Lionel  Cran field:]  Certificate  what  de- 
falcation the  Farmeres  have  had  for  Goodes  exported  and  imported  U 
Virginia. 

III.    SIR  EDWIN   SANDYS  TO  SIR  LIONEL  CRANFIELD,   SEPTEMBER  9,   1619.14 

Sir 

It  was  my  good  fortune  to  fyncl  you  at  home,  when  I  had  occasion  to 
have  experience  of  your  good  love  and  favour,  but  when  afterward  I  was 
desirous  to  expresse  unto  you  my  affectionate  thankfulnes  for  the  same,  it 
was  my  ill  fortune,  that  when  I  sent  or  came  you  were  abroad.  I  have 
therefore  (conceiving  that  together  with  the  end  of  the  progresse1"'  you 
are  returned  to  the  Cittie)  in  supplie  of  my  present  absence,  dispatched 
these  few  lines  to  prezent  my  thankfull  affection  and  assured  service  to 
you  which,  were  there  abilitie  in  me  correspondant  to  my  will,  should  not 
rest  barren,  but  approove  to  you  that  your  courtesies  are  far  from  beeing 
sowne  on  a  soile  unthankfull.  It  will  not  be  long  now,  ere  I  wayt  upon 
you.  From  hence16  there  is  nothing  woorth  the  advertizing,  but  (which 
is  my  care)  that  by  a  ship  lately  returned.  I  understand  that  all  stands  well 
in  Virginia :  the  people  encrease  apace,  and  they  folo  their  labours.  We 
have  nuely  sent  them  a  supplie  of  ioo  good  men  for  the  Publick:17  a  part 
of  that  Commonwealth  hetherto  too  much  neglected,  and  I  would  that 
neglect  had  been  all  the  fait.  But  falts  must  be  mended,  and  so  an  end 
of  their  memories.  I  am  enjoyned  by  my  wife,  together  with  my  owne, 
to  prezent  also  hir  thanks  and  best  respect  unto  you  and  to  signifie  to  you 
that  your  little  Francis18  is  well,  and  if  he  were  able  would  crave  your 


11  Xo.    6206.      Holograph.     Sir    Ed 

tvin    Sandys    (1561-1629),    well    known 

as 

one    of    the    chief   leaders    in    the    Virgi 

lia    Company   and   in   the    House   of   Co 

in- 

mons,  was   assistant   to   the   treasurer   0 

f   the   company,   Sir   Thomas    Smyth,   fr 

early' in    1617    to    Apr.   28,    1619,   and  ti 

easurcr    (chief    officer)    from    that    date 

to 

June   2S,    1620. 

15  A   progress  in  the  midland  coun 

ies,  on   which  King  James  set  out  on  J 

iiy 

19   and   from   which   he  returned   to   Wi 

ndsor  by   Sept.   5.     Nichols,   Progresses 

"/ 

King  James  the  First,  III.  556-565. 

10  Northbourne  in    Kent,   of  which 

manor   King   Janus   had   in    1614   besto\ 

ed 

the  moiety   on   Sir   Edwin   Sandys. 

1T  /.  e.,  the  company's  land,  as  dis 

inguished   from  the  plantations  granted 

to 

individuals. 

■•"Seventh    and    youngest    son    of 

Sir    Edwin    Sandys.     Visitation    of   Kt 

nt, 

1619-1631   (Harleian  Soc. ).  p.    14S. 

Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       499 

blessing.     So  Sir.  I  betake  you  to  the  happie  tuition  of  the  Highest  and 
rest 

Yours  very  assured  to  doo 
you  his  best  service 

Edwin  Sandys 
northborn 
9  September  1619 

[Addressed:]  To  my  Honorable  frend 
Sir  Lionell  Cranfeild,  knight, 
Master  of  the  Wards.10 

IV.    A    MEETING    OF    THE    COUNCIL    OF    THE    VIRGINIA    COMPANY,    MARCH     I  5, 
l620.20 

Att  a  meeting  of  the  councell  att  Mr.  Farrer's  the  15th  of  March  1619 
where  was  presente  Mr.  Threasuror,-1  my  Lord  of  Warwick,  Mr. 
John  Wroth,  Sir  Tho.  Roe.  Sir  Dudley  Diggs,  Sir  Tho.  Gats.  Sir 
Fardinando  Gorge,  Sir  John  Danvers,  Sir  John  Worsenholme,  Sir 
Nathaniel!  Rich,  Mr.  Gibbs,  Mr.  Recorder.-  Alder.  Johnson,  Mr. 
Morris  Abbott,  Mr.  Offlie.  Mr.  Farrer  deputy. 
Sir  Edwin  Sands  produced  first  a  paper  of  lawes  or  orders  to  bee  sent 
into  Virginia  drawne  out  of  former  Orders  of  late  Courts. 

Secondly  hee  red  a  letter  which  he  had  drawne  to  Sir  George  Yearley23 
faire  ingrossed  and  signed  with  his  owne  hand  and  Sir  John  Danvers  with 
one  or  two  more,  in  which  letter  were  divers  sharpe  and  bitter  touches 
against  Captain  Argall  and  in  the  speciall  Sir  Edw.  Sands  without  any 
order  of  Councell  had  directed  Sir  George  Yearley  to  seize  divers  of 
Captain  Argall's  Cattell  and  to  dispose  of  them  to  other  persons  which 
was  generally  much  mi  si  iked  and  held  unjust  both  to  touch  a  gentleman 
is  Cranfield  had  become  master  of  the  court  of  wards  Jan.  15.  1619. 
20  The  "Court  Book"  (Records  of  Va.  Co..  I.  319-322)  gives  the  record  of 
a  general  meeting  of  the  company  on  Mar.  15,  and  makes  mention  of  a  meeting 
of  the  council  on  the  17th,  but  not  of  one  on  the  15th.  The  record  of  the  next 
meeting  of  the  company,  however,  Mar.  20  (I.  323),  seems  to  refer  to  the  counciJ 
meeting  here  recorded.  The  place  of  meeting  was  the  house,  in  St.  Sithes  Lane, 
of  Nicholas  Ferrar  the  elder,  father  of  John  Ferrar  who  was  deputy  treasurer 
from  1619  to  1622  and  of  Xicholas  who  succeeded  him  in  that  office.  "The  Vir- 
ginia courts  after  this",  says  John  Ferrar  ( Peckard,  Life  of  Nicholas  Ferrar. 
p.  85).  meaning  after  the  election  of  Sandys  in  April,  1619,  "were  kept  at  the 
house  of  Mr.  Ferrar  the  father,  who  from  his  singular  affection  for  that  hon- 
ourable company,  himself  being  one  of  the  fir>;  adventurers  of  that  plantation 
and  the  Somers  Islands,  allowed  them  the  use  of  his  great  hall  and  other  best 
rooms  of  his  house  to  hold  their  weekly  and  daily  meetings  ".  Xicholas  Ferrar 
the  elder  died  in  the  next  month,  April,  1620. 
=1  Sir  Edwin    Sandys. 

22  Sir  Robert  Heath. 

23  Yeardley.  governor  of  Virginia   161S-1621,    1626-1627.     The  matter  of  the 
cattle  claimed  by  Argall  is  further  illustrated  by  docs.  nos.  V.,  XVI.-XX1.,  below. 


500  Documents 

in  his  reputation  before  he  had  his  tryalle  of  those  things  whereof  he 
stands  accused  and  alsoe  it  was  held  most  unjust  to  proceed  to  a  kinde  of 
execution  before  sentence  given  which  were  both  altered.  Yet  Captain 
Argall  give  his  consent  that  for  the  present  those  cattell  mencioned  in  the 
letter  should  be  disposed  of  to  some  of  the  generalitie  for  the  better 
Sustentation  with  direction  to  the  Governor  to  provide  for  theire  well 
looking  to  them  and  restoring  them  if  they  fell  out  to  bee  his  and  accord- 
ingly Mr.  Recorder  was  requested  to  drawe  that  parte  of  the  letter  which 
he  did  and  being  redd  was  allowed.  Captain  Argall  presented  a  Petition 
consisting  of  three  branches,  I,  that  he  might  have  all  his  accusations  ere 
he  put  in  any  more  answers.  To  this  itt  was  answered  and  resolved  that 
he  should  putt  in  his  answers  forthwith  to  the  accusations  which  already 
he  had  which  contayned  fully  2  partes  of  his  whole  accusations  being 
devided  unto  3  private  wrongs,  first  concerning  the  estate,  2lie  deprivation 
of  the  Collony.24  Now  for  that  this  last  did  not  depend  on  the  former 
and  by  some  namely  Sir  Dudley  Diggs  not  thought  fitt  at  all  to  be  ques- 
tioned before  complaint  made.  Therefore  hee  havinge  received  fully  the 
accusations  of  the  two  first  kinds  wee  resolved  he  should  putt  in  his  answer 
to  them  and  so  be  noe  further  charged  in  that  kinde  save  only  he  must 
staye  for  a  hearinge  untill  the  returne  of  the  Bona  Nova  every  daye 
expected2'  because  by  the  shipp  wee  expect  returne  of  the  comissions 
which  were  sent  into  Virginia  to  examine  witnesses  of  which  profes  wee 
are  to  make  use  of,  and  if  these  profes  come  not  by  that  shipp  then  to 
proceed  to  a  finall  hearing  and  determination  of  the  Cause  without  any 
further  or  after  questioninge.  And  as  sone  as  Captain  Argall  had  putt 
in  his  answers  it  was  ordered,  that  he  should  have  a  Comission  to  examine 
what  witnesses  he  would  and  as  was  limited  by  the  Letters  Pattentes  by 
which  Letters  Pattentes  if  itt  were  requisitte  that  the  Threasuror  should 
be  one  that  must  take  those  depositions  then  the  Treasuror  and  such  other 
as  Captain  Argall  should  choase  and  take  the  sayd  examinations,  But  if 
it  were  soe  that  others  of  the  Councell  without  the  Treasuror  might  take 
the  sayd  examination  that  then  Captain  Argall  might  chose  whom  of  the 
Councell  he  would  to  be  his  Comissioners.2'5  the  3  poynt  of  his  petition 
was  that  his  bussines  in  Virginia  and  his  Plantation  cattle  etc.  might  stand 
on  the  same  foote  that  he  left  them  without  alteration  which  was  formerly 
thought  just  not  to  proceed  to  the  execution  before  sentence,  only  by  his 
Consent  the  dispossing  of  some  of  his  cattell  was  ordered  as  aforesayd. 

[Endorsed :]  A  Meeting  of  the  councell  att  Mr.  Farrar's  house,  15° 
Mart.  1 619. 

24  His  supersession  as  governor  by  Yeardley,  elected  Nov.  1S,  161S.  arrived 
in  Virginia  Apr.  iS,  16 19.  Argall,  forewarned,  sailed  away  ten  or  twelve  days 
earlier.     Smith,  Generall  Historic,  p.   126. 

2.'.  The  Bona  Nova  did  not  arrive  till  June.     Records  of  Va.  Co.,  I.  369. 

20  Arranged  for  at  the  extraordinary  court  of  Mar.   20.     Ibid.,  I.   3J4. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       501 

V.    ORDER    IN   VIRGINIA   RESPECTING   CATTLE   CLAIMED   BY   ARGALL.    SEPTEMBER 
26,    l620. 

An  order  set  downe  by  the  Governor  and  Counsell  of  State  in  Virginia 

about  the  disposing  of  certaine  Kynne  in  that  country  claymed  by 

Captain  Sam.  Argall  and  of  their  Increase. 

Wheras  his  Majestie's  Councell  for  Virginia  in  England  towardes  the 

conclusion  of  a  letter  of  theirs  dated  att  London  the  15th  of  March  1619: 

and  directed  to  me  George  Yeardly  knight,  Governor  and  Captaine  gen- 

erall  of  Virginia,  by  the  good  shipp  the  London  Marchant,  weare  pleased 

to  writt  these  wordes  following 

"  Yett  in  perticuler  wee  may  not  omitt,  which  wee  doe  conceive  may 
much  availe  to  farther  the  publique  plantacion,  that  wheras  Captain  Argall 
hath  disposed  of  the  kyne  as  his  owne,  which  before  belonged  to  the  Com- 
pany and  of  which  kyne,  as  conceiving  them  to  bee  the  Company's,  wee 
gave  promise  and  order  for  ten  to  have  bine  lent  to  Smith's  hundred  and 
as  many  to  Marttin's  hundred,  and  six  to  Captain  Lawne,  and  yet  wee 
fynd  complaint  made  of  the  not  performance  therof,  wherby  the  publique 
Plantacion  hath  bine  hindred;  of  which  amongst  other  thinges.  Captain 
Argall  standeth  accused,  and  he  standeth  uppon  his  justificacion  wherin 
wee  may  not  in  justice  either  condempe  or  acquit  him,  before  the  Maturity 
of  Tyme  and  due  proceedinges  shall  bring  the  cause  to  Judgment,  never- 
theles  in  the  meanetyme  without  prejudice  to  the  cause,  Captain  Argall 
himself  now  present  in  Courte  consenting  their  unto,  wee  praie  and  re- 
quest you  with  the  assistance  of  the  Councell  their  and  other  officers 
requisitt,  leaving  six  of  your  kynne  with  your  Captain  Marchant27  as  the 
undoubted  goodes  of  Captain  Argall,  to  take  the  rest  with  the  increase  and 
to  dispose  of  them  according  to  the  former  graunts  or  intentions  of  the 
Company  and  the  remainder  to  distribut  equally  among  the  Tennantes  of 
the  Governor,  the  Colledge2S  and  Company  least  they  also  should  perish 
for  want  of  necessary  releife.  And  our  spetiall  directions  are  that  all 
those  kynne  with  ther  ofspring  be  well  keept  and  preserved  that  they  may 
hereafter  be  disposed  off  absolutely  either  to  the  company  or  to  Captain 
Argall  as  to  Justice  shall  appertaine  uppon  heareing  of  the  cause." 

I  the  said  Governor  with  the  Assistance  of  the  Councell  of  State  here 
resident  and  of  other  requisit  officers,  doe  (as  I  am  enjoyned  out  of  the 
premisses)  by  way  of  love  dispose  of  the  said  kynne  with  ther  increase 
which  are  in  all 

Cowes  1 g 

Hayfers  14 

Steires  3 

Bulls  2 

Young  calves  of  this  yeare  21 

27  Cape  merchant,  superintendent  of  the  corporate  trading. 

=  s  The    college    or    university    at    Henrico,    for    which    ten    thousand    acres    of 
land  had  been  set  aside  by  the  company  in   1618.      Neill,  Virginia  Company,  p.  137. 
AM.  HIST.  REV.,   VOL.  XXVII.— 34. 


502 


Documents 


As  followeth  vizt. 


To  Smith's  hundred  ] 

To  Marttin's  hundred  ] 

To  the  Captain  Marchant 

To  Captain  Geo  Thorpe  for  the  plantation  of 
Brackley29 

To  Mr.  John  Pounds30  for  a  debt  of  75  /.  due 
from  the  Company  originally  to  George  Lyle, 
and  now  by  assignment  from  him  to  John 
Woodall,31  as  appeareth  out  of  three  severall 
orders  from  the  company  and  a  letter  of  Attor- 
ney from  the  said  John  Woodall  to  Mr.  Pountis 
aforesaid 


4  cowes 
15  calves 
1  bull 


The  remainder  being  3  steires,  one  bull  and  6  calves,  wee  hold  fitt  to 
retaine  here  in  the  Hand  of  James  Citty,  till  they  shalbe  of  fitt  growth  to 
be  disposed  off. 

To  Captain  Lawne's  plantacion  wee  have  not  disposed  of  any  of  the 
said  catle  because  Captain  Lawne  is  dead,  his  plantacion  is  disolved,  and 
no  man  ther  left  to  take  charge  of  the  same  cattle.3u 

In  wittnes  and  confirmacion  wherof  wee  the  Governor  and  Councell 
have  to  these  present  sett  our  handes  and  the  signett  of  the  Collony.  Given 
at  James  Citty  September  26th  1620. 

George  Yeardly  John  Rolfe 

Natha.  Powle  Sam.  Macocke 

Georg  Thorpe  Jo.  Pory  Seer: 

Copy 
[Endorsed :]  Disposing  of  Captain  Argols  cattle  by  the  Governor  and 
Councell  in  Virginia.     26°  September,  1620. 


VI.     SIR    PETER    VAN    LOORE    TO    LORD    TREASURER    CRANFIELD,    NOVEMBER    12, 
I62I.83 

Right  honorable  and  my  verie  good  Lord, 

The  care  wee  have  upon  the  buisenes  which  I  (and  the  rest  of  those 
your  lordship  knoweth )  have  undertaken  doth  move  me  (in  all  our  names) 

29  Berkeley.  Capt.  George  Thorpe  was  associated  with  Governor  Yeardley, 
Sir  William  Throckmorton,  Richard  Berkeley,  and  John  Smith  of  Xibley  in  the 
partnership  for  that  plantation. 

3"  A   member   of  the  council,  later  vice-admiral   in   Virginia. 

31  Surgeon  and  writer  on  surgery  (d.  1643),  and  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
Company.     See  no.  XVI.,  post. 

32  Capt.  Christopher  Lawne's  plantation  was  on  Lawne's  Creek  in  Isle  of 
Wight  County.  Tyler,  Cradle  of  the  Republic,  p.  205.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
assembly  of  1619,  but  his  executors  are  mentioned  in  the  company's  records  of 
June  28,    1620.     Records,  I.  381. 

33  No.    616S.     Peter   van    Loore   was   a   Dutch   jeweller   and   money-lender   in 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5°3 

to  sollicite  your  Lordship  that  wee  may  have  that  warrant  or  order  which 
your  Lordship  promised  us.  Upon  Satturdaie  last  I  was  very  willing  to 
have  come  to  your  Lordship  myself  e.  But  indeed  I  have  this  daie  gotten 
an  extreame  colde  on  the  Thamis  this  morninge  hopinge  to  have  found 
your  lordship  att  Westminster  this  morninge  as  aforesaid.  Your  lordship 
knoweth  how  this  buisenes  is  recommended  by  his  Majestie  and  how  much 
it  doth  concerne  your  lordship  to  see  it  effected,  and  that  the  tyme  doth 
requier  speed.  So  not  doubtinge  of  your  Lordship  to  see  this  despatched 
with  all  speed,  I  humblie  rest 

Your  Lordship's  to  commaund 

Pieter  Van  Loore 
London,  12  November,  1621 

[Endorsed  by  Richard  Willis :]34  12  November,  1621.  Sir  Peter  Van 
Lore  letter  to  my  Lord. 

VII.    MEMORANDUM   OF  ARMS.  JULY    (  ?),   l622.35 

A  note  of  such  Armes  as  are  in  the  Tower  and  \ 
Virginia  company  are  humble  suitors  to  the  Lorde 
receave  them,  their  Shipps  being  ready  to  departe. 

Briggandines37 

Plate  cotes 

Shirts  and  cotes  of  male 

Skulls  of  iron 

Murdering  peeces,  chambers,  folders,  'etc.31 

Halberts  and  Browne  bills 

Bowes  and  Arrowes 

Bucklers  and  Targetts 

So  many  of  the  Calivers,  Alusketts,  Pistolls,  Daggs,3'-'  etc.  as  out  of 

London,  knighted  by  King  James  Nov.  5.  The  connection  of  this  letter  with  the 
affairs  of  the  Virginia  Company  is  not  clear,  but  is  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  one  (no.  15)  of  the  papers  numbered  in  red  ink,  as  mentioned  in  the  intro- 
duction, above.  Cranfield  had  become  Lord  Treasurer  Oct.  13.  Van  Loore's 
chief  business  with  him  at  the  moment  consisted  in  lending  a  large  sum  for  the 
Palatinate.      Cal.  S.  P.  Dom..   1619-1623,  pp.  308,  320. 

3*  Richard   Willis  was   Cranfield's    secretary. 

35  No.  62 1 8.  The  effort  of  the  company  to  obtain  arms  from  the  king, 
through  Sir  Edward  Sackville,  and  the  royal  response,  are  recounted  under 
date  of  July  17,  1622,  in  Records  of  Va.  Co.,  II.  96.  Another  copy  of  this  note 
is  in  State  Papers,  Colonial,  James  I.,  vol.  II.,  no.  g;  Cal.  S.  P.  Col.,  I.  32.  The 
wofds   in   italics  were  added  by   Richard  Willis. 

just   outside  Ald- 


dag  was   a  large 


ries36 

which 

the 

r   a   warrant 

to 

100" 

40 

. 

400 

v.* 

2000 

5°' 

1000 

2000 

1000 

ar. 

38  The   Minories   was  a   street 

in   the   east    end   of   London, 

gate,  noted  for  gunmakers. 

37  Coats  of  linen  or  leather  on 

which  overlapping  scales  of 

a  platecote  was  a  coat  of  plate  ar 

lor. 

as  Small  pieces  of  ordnance. 

39  A   caliver  was  a  hand-firea 

m,  lighter  than  a  musket:   a 

pistol.      Sir   Richard    Morrison   was 

master-general   of  the  ordn 

504  Documents 

the  2000  at  Sir  Richard  Morrisons  in  the  Minories  shalbe  serviceable  and 
fitt  for  their  use. 

Also  they  are  humble  suitors  for  20  Barrells  of  Powder  to  be  delivered 
out  of  the  Tower  and  lent  the  Company  which  Powder  they  will  repay 
againe  soone  after  christmas  next. 

[Endorsed  by  Willis:]  Virginia,  Amies. 

VIII.     LORD   TREASURER'S    WARRANT    RESPECTING   ARMS,    JULY   29,    l622.40 

After  etc.  His  Majesty  is  graciously  pleased  upon  the  humble  suite 
of  the  Governor  and  company  for  the  plantation  in  Virginia,  to  graunt 
unto  them,  one  hundred-  Brigandines,  fortie  plate-cottes,  foure  hundred 
shirts  and  cotes  of  Made  and  2000  skulls  of  Iron,  of  those  which  remaine 
in  your  custody  and  chardge,  and  are  out  of  use  for  the  present  tymes : 
which  they  are  to  receave  as  of  his  majesties  princely  guift  and  bountie, 
without  anything  to  be  paid  for  the  same.  These  are  therfore  to  will  and 
require  you,  to  make  present  delivery  of  the  said  severall  parcells  of 
armes,  to  such  as  they  shall  appoint  to  receave  the  same  accordingly.  For 
which  his  majestie's  pleasure  herby  signified  unto  you,  must  be  your 
warrant  and  discharge.     From  Whitehall  the  29th  of  July  1622. 

Subscribed  by  my  Lord. 

{Directed:]  To  Sir  Wm.  Cope,  Knight,  Master  of  the  Armory  and  to 
his  Deputie  and  Deputies  and  others  whome  the  same  may  concerne. 

IX.    COMMISSIONERS  OF  ORDNANCE  TO  LORD  TREASURER  CRANFIELD,  AUGUST  J, 
l622.« 

It  may  please  your  Lordship 

Wee  have  according  to  your  letters  of  direccion  surveyed  all  the 
parcells  of  old  armes  remaining  in  the  office  of  Armory  mencioned  in 
your  Lordship's  said  letters,  except  the  500  Bucklers  and  Targets,  wherein 
it  seemeth  the  Peticioners  were  misinformed  there  being  not  any  such  at 
all  decayed  in  that  Office. 

Of  the  old  Brigandyns  wee  find  in  all  115 

Of  Plate  Cotes  or  Jackes  of  Plate  050 

Of  Shirtes  and  Jerkins  of  Mayle  400 

Of  Skulls  2000 

All  which  are  not  only  old  and  much  decayed  but  with  their  age  growne 
also  altogether  unfit  and  of  no  use  for  moderne  service.  And  for  any 
other  use  save  for  that  for  which  they  are  desired  wee  conceave  them  to 
bee  of  very  little  worth.     But  beeing  required  by  your  Lordship  to  deliver 

40  Xo.  6221.  The  order  of  the  Privy  Council  authorizing:  this  warrant.  July 
20,  is  printed  in  Acts  P.  C.  Colonial,  I.  54.  Another  copy  is  in  the  Public  Record 
Office.  C.  O.  5:    1354,  P.  -o-'. 

■»i  No.  6217. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       505 

our  opinions  aswell  for  their  goodnes  and  value  as  for  their  use,  wee  doe 
esteeme  the  said  Brigandines  at  [MS.  imperfect]  the  peece,  the  Shirtes  of 
Maile  at  v  .r.  the  peece,  the  Jackes  of  Plate  at  iiii  J.  the  peece,  and  the 
Sculls  at  iii  d.  the  peece,  amounting  together  to  the  some  of  one  hundred 
three  score  eleven  pounds  and  five  shillinges. 
Soe  wee  humbly  take  leave  and  rest 

At  your  Lordships  comaundment 
7  August  1622. 

Tho.  Smythe  John  Leay 

jo.  wolstenholme  rl.  sutton"  w.  burrei.l 

Fra.  Morice  Ed.  Johnson 

[Endorsed  by  ll'Mis:]  Commission[ers]   for  [Ordnance]  their  Certifi- 
cate touching  the  decayed  arms  for  the  Virginia  Company. 
[Addressed:]  To  the  right  Hono'ble  the  Lord  Cranfield, 
Lord  High  Treasurer  of  England. 

X.     MEMORANDUM    OF   ARMS,    AUGUST    (?).    l622.42 

A  note  of  the  armes  delivered  by  the  Officers  to  the  Courte  to  be  in  the 
Tower   for  the  service  of  the  Virginia  Company,  vizt, 
Briggandines  alias  Plate  Coates  280 

Jackes  of  Plate  40 

Jerkins  or  Shirtes  of  Maile  400 

Sculls  2000 

Besides  swordes,  Calivers  and  other  pieces,  pistolls  and  daggs 
Also  Hallbertes  what  nomber  they  please 
[Endorsed :]  A  note  of  the  armes  which  are  to  be  delivered  into  the 

Tower  for  the  service  of  the  Virginia  Company. 

XI.     ROBERT   BENNETT  TO   EDWARD   BENNETT,   JUNE  9,    1623.43 

From  Bennetes  Wellcome  this 
9th  of  June.  1623 
Loving  Brother 

Yours     Out  of  the  John  and  Frances44  I   received  with  letters  from 

4=  No.  6219.  The  governor  and  council  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  these 
arms,   in  a  letter  of  Jan.  20,   1623.      Xeill,   Virginia   Company,  p.  363. 

43  Xo.  6212.  Edward  Bennet,  a  London  merchant,  who  dealt  largely  in  to- 
bacco, was  listed  in  April,  1623,  as  one  of  S5  "  adventurers  that  dislike  the 
present  proceedings  of  business  in  the  Virginia  and  Somers  Islands  Companyes  ". 
Brown,  Genesis,  II.  982.  The  plantation  of  Edward,  Robert,  and  Richard  Bennet, 
patented  Nov.  21,  1621  (Records,  I.  562),  was  at  the  Rock  Wharf  in  what  is  now 
Burwell's  Bay,  on  the  south  side  of  James  River,  in  Isle  of  Wight  County. 
Tyler,  Cradle  of  the  Republic,  p.  204.  Robert  Bennet  was  the  father  or  uncle  of 
Richard  Bennet,  governor  of  Virginia  1652-1655.  See  Virginia  Magazine  of 
History,  XXV.  393.  He  died  before  Nov.  20,  1623.  the  date  of  a  manuscript  docu- 
ment preserved  among  the  early  Virginian  records  in  the  Library  of  Congress, 
"  Records   Va.   Co.   III.",  p.   53,   relating  to   debts    of   the   late   Robert   Bennet. 

«  The  John   and  Francis,    100   tons,   had   made   several   voyages   to   Virginia; 


506  Documents 

Edwarde  Haresse  and  Robert  Bennet  out  of  Spain,  the  27th  of  Maye  the 
shippe  arrived  heare  in  saftie  God  be  thancked,  and  out  of  her  I  received 
some  19  Buttes  of  exclent  good  wynes,*5  750  jarse  of  oylle,  16  Barelles 
of  Resones  of  the  Sonne,46  and  18  Barelles  of  Rysse,  tooe  halfe  hoghedes 
of  Allmondes,  3  halfe  hoghedes  of  wheate  and  one  which  was  staved  at 
seae,  18  hoghedes  of  Olives  and  some  5  ferkenes  of  butter  and  one  Chesse. 
Allso  I  received  1  chest  and  tooe  barelles  of  Candells,  with  3  packes  of 
Linen  Cloth  marked  in  your  marke  and  tooe  dryfattes47  of  Mr.  Kinge's. 
All  these  goodes  came  safe  and  well  condisioned  to  my  handes  and  the 
beste  that  I  received  since  I  came  in  to  the  lande,  and  I  macke  noe  question 
but  to  macke  you  by  God's  helpe  good  profet  one48  them,  and  your  retorne 
to  sende  you  home  in  the  same  shipe.  She  is  gone,  God  sende  her  well, 
for  Canadaye  but  with  her  ladinge  to  retorn  hether  agene.  For  the  yeare 
beinge  soe  fare  spente  I  knowe  that  fysh  will  yealde  more  her  thene40  in 
Spayne  and  I  knowe  her  frayght  horn  wilbe  a  great  mater  more,  soe  I 
hope  I  shall  not  incore  your  displesures  doinge  as  I  hope  all  thinges  to  the 
best  for  your  profet.  My  laste  letter  I  wrotte  you  was  in  the  Adamc  from 
Newfowndland  the  which  I  hope  you  have  received  er  this.  God  sende 
her  backe  in  saftye  and  this  from  Canaday.  I  hope  the  fyshe  will  come 
to  a  good  reckning  for  vytelese50  is  verye  scarse  in  the  contrye.  Your 
Newfowndland  fyshe  is  worthe  30  .?.  per  cente,  your  Drye  Canada  3  /. 
10  s.  and  the  wette  5  /.  10  s.  per  cent,  and  I  doe  not  knowe  nor  hier  of 
anye  that  is  comyinge  hether  with  fyshe  but  onlye  the  Tcgcr,  which  wente 
in  companye  with  the  Adam  from  this  plase  and  I  knowe  the  contrye  will 
carye  awaye  all  this  forthe  with.  Our  men  stande  well  to  ther  helthe  God 
be  thanckd  and  I  hope  to  macke  you  a  good  crope,  bothe  for  Tobaco  and 
Corne.  The  Fortte  is  abuyldinge  apase.51  I  hope  yt  wilbe  a  great  strenth- 
ning  unto  us,  for  God  sende  us  well  to  doe  this  yeare ;  the  nexte  year, 

the  commission  for  this  present  one  was  granted  by  the  company  Nov.  27,  1622 
(Records,  II.  156),  and  apparently  she  sailed  in  April.  1623   (II.  496). 

45  Governor  Wyatt  and  the  Virginia  council,  in  a  letter  of  Jan.  30,  1624, 
declare  that  Robert  Bennet  in  his  lifetime  boasted  that  the  mere  sale  of  four 
butts  of  wine  would  clear  a  voyage.     J'a.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  VI.  376. 

4<3  Raisins,  then  pronounced  the  same  as  reasons.  "  If  reasons  were  as  plenti- 
ful as  blackberries,  I  would  give  no  man  a  reason  upon  compulsion  ",  says  Fal- 
staff. 

47  Packing  cases.  This  Mr.  King  was  perhaps  the  one  who  went  ou:  to 
Virginia  in   1620  to  establish  iron-works.     Records  of  Va.  Co.,  I.  322. 

4*On. 

49  Here    than. 

50  Victuals.  "Per  sente  "  means  per  hundredweight,  presumably  of  ::2 
pounds. 

51  Roger  Smith,  who  had  spent  twelve  or  thirteen  years  in  the  wars  in  the 
Low  Countries,  is  commissioned  to  build  a  fort  at  Wariskoyack,  upon  the  river 
shore,  by  a  document  of  May  11,  1623.  preserved  in  the  manuscript  mentioned 
in  note  43.  at  p.  40.  and  there  are  provisions  respecting  labor  for  the  work. 
Apr.  20,  May   13.  ibid.,  pp.   50,  51. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5°7 

God  willinge,  we  meane  to  seatte  by  them  and  sette  out  all  this  lande,  and 
howsses.  Therefore  praye  lette  me  intreat  you  to  wrytte  me  at  large 
whether  Capten  Basse5-  or  Leftenent  Barklye  or  anye  other  have  anye 
thinge  to  doe  or  claym  anye  lande  as  ther  ryghte,  for  I  macke  noe  question 
yf  plese  God  but  to  blese  us  this  yeare  the  nexte  to  have  tooe  or  three 
hondred  men  more  into  our  plantasions  to  be  our  terretory  for  yt  is  the 
beste  state  in  all  the  lande,  and  not  the  lycke  quantitie  is  grown  for  good- 
nes  in  the  lande.  Newse  I  have  not  anye  worthe  the  wryting  but  onlye 
this.  The  22  of  Maye  Captin  Tucker'3  was  sente  with  12  men  in  to 
Potomacke  Ryver  to  feche  som  of  our  Engleshe  which  the  Indianes  de- 
tayned,  and  withall  in  culler  to  conclude  a  pease  with  the  great  Kinge 
Apochanzion;54  soe  the  interpreter  which  was  sente  by  lande  with  an 
Indian  with  hime  to  bringe  the  kinge  to  parle  with  Captain  Tucker 
broughte  them  soe.  After  a  manye  fayned  speches  the  pease  was  to  be 
conclued  in  a  helthe  or  tooe  in  sacke  which  was  sente  of  porpose  in  the 
butte  with  Capten  Tucker  to  poysen  them.  Soe  Capten  Tucker  begane 
and  our  interpreter  tasted  before  the  kinge  woulde  tacke  yt.  but  not  of 
the  same.  Soe  thene  the  kinge  with  the  kinge  of  Cheskacke,33  [their] 
sonnes  and  all  the  great  men  weare  drun[£or«]  howe  manye  we  canot 
wryte  of  but  yt  is  thought  some  tooe  hundred  weare  poysned  and  thaye 
comyng  backe  killed  som  50  more  and  brought  horn  parte  of  ther  heades. 
At  ther  departure  from  Apochinking  the  worde  beinge  geven  by  the  inter- 
preter which  stode  by  the  kinge  one  a  highe  rocke.  The  interpretour,  the 
worde  beinge  paste  tumbled  downe,  soe  they  gave  in  a  volie  of  shotte  and 
killed  the  tooe  kinges56  and  manye  alsoe  as  ys  reporte  to  the  cownsell  for 
serten.  Soe  this  beinge  done  yt  wilbe  a  great  desmayinge  to  the  blodye 
infidelles.  We  purpose  god  willinge  after  we  have  wedid  our  Tobaco  and 
cornne  with  the  helpe  of  Captn  Smythe  and  otheres  to  goe  upon  the 
Waresquokes  and  Nansemomes  to  cute  downe  ther  corne  and  put  them  to 
the  sorde.  God  sende  us  vyctrie.  as  we  macke  noe  question  god  asistinge."7 
I  praye  comende  me  most  kyndlye  to  Mr.  Oxwige"'s  and  tell  hime  that 

52  Nov.  21,  1621,  Capt.  Nathaniel  Basse  and  others  received  a  patent  for 
300  acres  on  the  west  side  of  Pagan  River  near  its  mouth,  but  east  of  Bennet. 
Records,  I.  561  ;  Tyler,  Cradle  of  the  Republic,  p.  204.  Berkeley's  lay  on  the 
other  side  of  James  River. 

53  Capt.  William  Tucker,  who  had  represented  Elizabeth  City  in  the  as- 
sembly of  1619.  An  official  account  of  these  ferocious  reprisals,  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  council.  June  14.  describing  them  in  mild  and  general  terms,  is  in 
Records  of  J'a.  Co.,  II.  486-4S7.  Another  private  letter  in  which  they  are  de- 
scribed is  that  of  Delphebus  Canne  to  John  Delbridge,  July  2,  in  Cat.  St.  P.  Col.. 
I.  48.  and  Va.  Mag.  of  Hist..  VI.  373-374- 

54  Opechancanough.  The  endorsement  on  this  document  has  it  "  Apochun- 
kinoe  ". 

55  Near  York-town. 

56  Opechancanough    was    not    killed,    but    lived    till    1645. 

5r  Their  pious  purpose  was  achieved  July  23,  by  a  force  under  Captain  Tucker. 
5S  Robert  Oxwicke,  draper.      See  docs.  nos.  XXXIII..  XXXV. 


508  Documents 

I  hope  at  the  comynge  home  of  the  shipes  which  I  hope  shalbe  the  firste 
that  comes  for  Englande,  he  shall  receive  a  good  parsell  of  Tobacoe  from 
me  with  good  profet :  praye  forgete  me  not  to  all  the  reste  of  our  good 
frindes  yourselfe  and  your  wyfe,  my  brother  Richarde™  and  his  wyfe 
with  your  farther  in  lawe  and  mother  and  all  the  reste  not  forgettinge  my 
chillder  whom  I  praye  God  to  blesse  and  us  all  and  sende  us  a  joyfull 
mettinge.  This  in  some  haste.  I  leve  you  to  the  mersifull  tuision  of 
thallmyghtie  in  whom  I  reste 

Your  loving  brother, 

Robt.  Bennett. 

Praye  comende  me  to  Air.  Bowne  and  tell  him  that  his  boye  is  with 
me,  for  vittilles  being  scarse  in  the  contrye  noe  mane  will  tacke  servantes. 
Soe  he  shalbe  with  me  untill  I  cane  put  thinges  forthe.  Thancke  him  for 
the  cheese  he  sente  me,  but  his  boye  made  use  of.  Since  Tho.  Pope  and 
Mr.  Danell  are  gone  to  George  Harison00  to  live  with  hime  untill  the  crope 
be  in.  Mr.  Kinge's  mane  rane  awaye  in  Spayne,  the  reste  I  received  all 
well,  God  be  thanckd. 

[Endorsed :]  1623  From  Brother  Robert  dated  in  Bennettes  Wellcome 
the  9th  June.      [There  follows  a  summary  of  the  document.'] 

[Endorsed  by  one  of  the  Lord  Treasurer's  Secretaries:]  9  Junii,  1623. 
Robert  Bennett. 

[Addressed:]  To  my  Lo.  Brother  Mr.  Edward  Bennett,  Merchant  in 
Bartholomew  Lane  in  London. 

XII.  CAPTAIN  JOHN  BARGRAVE  TO  LORD  TREASURER  MIDDLESEX,  JUNE  10, 
.  l623.« 

Right  Honorable 

The  Kinge,  the  State,  the  plantacion,  and  my  poore  self,  will  all  have 
cause  to  thank  you   for  procureing  this  Commission.''1-     Expedition  will 

58  Associated  in  the  patent. 

so  Mar.  6,  1621,  Governor  Yeardley  makes  a  grant  of  200  acres  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river  opposite  the  governor's  mansion  house,  to  George  Harrison  of 
Charles  City,  gentleman.  Harrison  in  letters  to  his  brother  John  in  London,  May 
12,  1622,  and  Jan.  24,  1623,  speaks  of  "  Cousin  Bennett  "  and  of  accounts  with 
Mr.  Bennett.  He  died  in  the  spring  of  1624,  as  the  result  of  a  duel.  Cat.  St 
P.  Col.,  I.  25,  29,  36,  61  ;   Brown,  First  Republic,  pp.  581-582. 

61  No.  6204.  Capt.  John  Bargrave  of  Patricksbourne  in  Kent,  brother-in-law 
of  the  dean  of  Canterbury,  brother  of  a  later  dean,  and  father  of  a  canon  of  that 
cathedral  (Hasted,  History  of  Kent,  III.  721),  was  an  esteemed  but  contentious 
member  of  the  company,  who  had  sued  or  entered  complaints  against  a  varied 
number  of  its  officers  and  members,  and  had  offered  no  less  than  five  treatises  on 
the  reform  of  the  government  of  Virginia.  A  few  days  before  this,  May  16, 
he  had  shown  Sir  Nathaniel  Rich  such  a  paper  and  accused  Sir  Edwin  Sandys  of 
grave  political  machinations.  Records  of  I'a.  Co..  I.  444:  Cal.  St.  P.  Col.,  I.  2S- 
32 ;  Brown,  First  Republic,  pp.  446-44S,  520-530.  See  no.  XV.,  below.  Cran- 
field   had  been   made  Earl   of   Middlesex   Sept.    17.   1622. 

02  The  commission  of  May  9,  1623,  appointing  seven  commissioners  to  in- 
quire into  all  matters  concerning  the  Virginia  Company. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5°9 

nowe  bee  the  life  of  it.  That  it  may  be  putt  into  accion.  by  Bartholmew 
day,63  else  this  yeare  will  bee  lost  as  the  last  yeare  was;  your  Lordship 
hath  tendered  the  importacion  of  the  Spanish  Tobacco  to  the  Companie, 
they  (as  they  doe  all  thinges  els)  applie  it  to  the  benefitt  of  a  few,  for 
want  of  a  Stock.0,4  I  make  noe  doubt  but  if  this  Commission  be  expedi- 
ated,  but  there  wilbe  a  Stock  procured  time  enough  to  farme  the  Tobacco 
for  the  publique,  soe  as  the  benefitt  gayned  shall  returne  to  the  good  of 
the  Kinge,  and  the  plantacion.  Good  my  Lord  in  all  your  grauntes  that 
carrie  profitt  with  them,  use  the  name  of  the  Publique ;  The  word  Com- 
panie governed  by  populer  voices,  is  it  that  covereth  all  their  secrett  prac- 
tises. And  it  is  a  shame  that  the  Common  weale  of  Virginia,  dependinge 
on  the  Monarchic  here,  should  be  governed  soe.  as  this  little  treatise  here 
inclosed65  will  show  you.  All  the  examples  that  I  produce  to  expresse  the 
injuries  done,  were  for  the  most  part  in  Sir  Thomas  Smith's  goverment, 
because  from  it  the  planters  have  learned  their  inhumanitie  and  injustice 
which  they  nowe  use,  both  against  the  new  comers  and  adventurers,  offer- 
inge  the  same  measure  which  hath  bene  measured  before  to  them.  But 
if  I  should  call  in  question  the  present  governors,  whoe  beinge  not  ignorant 
that  the  populer  goverment  doth  directlie  take  away  the  power  of  the 
monarchic  and  shew  what  mischeife  they  have  done  by  their  profuse 
throwinge  out  libertie,  amongst  the  planters,  whereby  they  have  made 
them  forsake  their  former  discipline,  strength  and  vertue  to  defend  them- 
selves against  the  domestick  enemie,  and  yet  beinge  fore  warned  of  these 
thinges  it  should  appeare  that  they  did  it  knoweingely  and  wittinglie 
against  the  soveraignitie  in  England,  extreame  libertie  beinge  worse  then 
extreame  Tirranie,  as  it  appeared  by  the  troubles  in  Rome  after  Neroes 
death,  and  the  Romans  (when  their  estate  was  most  populer)  never  pun- 
ishinge  their  governors  more  for  anie  fault,  then'10  the  neglect  of  disci- 
pline; this  might  make  our  governors  nowe  as  much  to  bee  blamed  as  the 
former  weare,  but  I  delight  not  to  bee  an  accuser,  unles  necessitie  enforce 
it,  although  all  the  remainder  of  my  estate  sent  into  Virginia  is  nowe 
lost  therby.     And  soe  I  rest 

Your  lordships  to  commaund 

John  Bargrave 

[Endorsed  by  Willis:]  Received  10  June  1623.     Captaine  Bargrave 

63  August    24. 

ai  But  measures  toward  the  underwriting  of  a  joint  stock,  for  undertaking 
the  farming  of  the  Spanish  tobacco,  had  been  taken  by  the  company  on  May  12. 
Records,  II.  420. 

65  Probably  some  one  of  the  five  treatises  to  which  Bargrave  alludes  in  a  letter 
to  the  company.  Cat.  S.  P.  Col.,  I.  30,  perhaps  no.  XV. 

ee  Than. 


510  Documents 

XIII.    SIR  EDWIN   SANDYS  TO  LORD  TREASURER  MIDDLESEX,  JTTN2    19,    1623.67 

Right  Honorable 

I  have  understood  from  Sir  Arthur  Ingram68  of  your  Lordship's  most 
noble  favour  towards  me  unto  his  Majestie  in  procuring  my  libertie  to 
return  to  the  cittie,  both  to  the  comfort  and  help  of  my  distressed  wife  in 
hir  health  and  for  the  ordering  of  my  owne  important  busines,  which  so 
honorable  favour,  as  I  acknowledge  with  all  due  and  possible  thankfullnes, 
so  shall  I  rest  ever  obliged  to  be  answerable  for  the  same,  with  the 
[torn]  and  faithfullest  services  that  the  meannes  of  my  abilities  may 
extend  unto. 

But  my  good  Lord,  give  me  leve  ( knoweing  that  in  noble  and  gen- 
erous natures,  one  favour  or  benefit  dooth  often  draw  on  another)  give 
me  leve,  I  say,  my  good  Lord,  to  renue  unto  your  lordship  my  much  elder 
suite,  which  it  pleased  your  Lordship  to  entertain  with  much  approbation, 
and  to  comfort  me  in  it  with  your  noble  promise  that  your  Lordship 
would  be  pleased  to  take  tyme  and  oportunitie  to  restore  me  again  thor- 
oughly to  his  Majestie's  gracious  favour.  Which  suit  I  now  tender  again 
with  all  fervent  duetie  if  your  Lordship  doo  knowe,  that  ever  since  you 
were  pleased  to  reintegrate  me  in  your  owne  favour,  I  have  applyed 
myself  in  all  things  to  do  his  Majestie  service  according  to  your  Lord- 
ships directions:  and  now  promise  so  to  continue  to  the  best  of  my  power. 

I  understood  also  from  Sir  Arthur  Ingram,  that  your  Lordship's 
pleasure  was  that  at  my  return  I  should  attend  you.  But  understanding 
that  your  Lordship  wilbe  absent  for  some  few  dayes,  I  make  bold  to  crave 
your  Lordships  fufrther]  pleasure  therein  for  the  tyme,  either  by  Sir 
Arthur  Ingram  or  otherwise  as  shall  please  your  lordship.  And  so  humbly 
take  leve  and  rest 

In  all  duetie  at  your  Lordship's  Command 
19  June  1623  Edwin  Sandys. 

[Indorsed  by  Willis:']  19  June  1623.     Sir  Edwyn  Sandes. 

[Addressed:]  To  the  Right  Honorable  my  especiall  good  L.  the  Earl 
of  Middlesex,  L.  High  Treasurer  of  England. 

XIV.     CAPTAIN   RORERT  BACON    TO   RICHARD   WILLIS,   NOVEMBER  9,    l623.0!' 

Sir 

I  acquainted  you  at  our  last  meeting  that  I  had  moved  my  Lord  Threas- 
urer  on  the  cittie's  behalfe  for  the  stay  of  a  sute  commenced  against  them 

ct  No.  6207.  Holograph.  The  next  April,  Sandys  took-,  with  Coke,  the  lead- 
ing part  in  the  prosecution  of  Middlesex  by  the  Commons.  Old  Pari.  Hist., 
VI.   14S. 

<i»  Comptroller  of  the  customs  of  the  port  of  London.  For  his  character,  see 
Goodman,  Court  of  James  I..  I.  252.  By  order  of  the  Privy  Council,  May  13, 
1623,  Sandys  was  confined  to  his  house.  Acts  P.  C.  Col.,  I.  64.  The  editors  of 
that  work  say  that  his  release  seems  to  be  dated  May  21,  but  this  document 
seems  to  indicate  a  later  date. 

00  No.  6205.  The  suit  here  referred  to  has  not  been  identified.  Captain 
Robert   Bacon    was   remembrancer  of  the   city  of   London    from    16 ig   to    1633. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       511 

by  one  Farrar  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  for  the  recovery  of  his 
monye  lent  his  majestie  at  his  going  into  Scottland.  I  moved  my  Lord 
since  that  at  Whitehall,  and  his  lordship  appointed  me  to  repaire  unto  you 
for  an  answer.  Good  Sir  favour  me  soe  much  as  to  mind  my  Lord  of 
the  busines  and  the  rather  because  yt  appeares  by  a  subscription  to  the 
copy  of  the  wrytt  delivered  to  my  lord  that  Farrar  makes  x\ccompt  to  find 
an  easy  way  given  to  his  proceedings.  Good  Sir  favour  my  late  indis- 
posicion  so  much  as  to  procure  my  Lord's  answer  [and]  appoint  me  a 
tyme  when  I  shall  attend  you  for  that,  which  yf  yt  bee  not  speedy,  will 
come  too  late.     So  Sir  I  rest 

Yours  very  assuredly 
to  be  commanded 
November  9,  1623  Rob.  Bacon. 

[Endorsed  by  Willis:}  Captayne  Bacon,  for  stay  of  Farrar's  suite 
against  the  citty. 

[Addressed:]  To  my  very  worthy  friend  Mr.  Willis.  Secretary  to  the 
Right  Hon'ble  the  Lo.  Thr'er. 

XV.     CAPTAIX   JOHX    RARGRAVE's   PROPOSALS,  DECEMBER.    1623.™ 

Right  hon'ble.  I  have  tendered  to  my  Lord  President71  and  some  other 
the  Lords  of  the  Councell  a  forme  of  Pollicy  thus  condicioned. 

1.  Firste  I  undertake  to  shew  the  meanes  to  drawe  a  sufficient  number 
of  men  that  have  good  estates  here  to  plant  in  Virginia  with  their  persons 
and  goods  and  to  cause  the  planters  in  Virginia  to  plant  estates  in  England. 

2.  Secondlie  soe  to  sever  and  devide  the  faculties  of  Soveraigntie  and 
the  Commaund  of  the  forces  amongste  those  men  soe  estated,  that  they 
shall  never  meet  united  in  power,  but  to  advance  our  polliticke  end,  of 
houldinge  the  plantacion  to  England. 

3.  Thirdlie  by  makinge  use  of  the  naturall  strength  and  lardgenes  of 
the  place  soe  to  Marshall  those  men  as  they  shall  not  onely  make  the 
plantacion  spread  and  growe  to  finde  out  the  best  Commodities  and  inlarge 
the  king's  domynions,  but  they  shall  secure  it  both  from  Forraigne  Ene- 
mies, and  enable  it  to  give  lawes  to  the  domesticke  Indians. 

4.  Fourthlie  the  ymployinge  those  men  there  to  make  the  beste  and 
suddenest  returnes  hether. 

5.  Fiftlie  the  mannaginge  and  orderinge  those  returnes  soe  as  they 
shall  not  onely  supplie  and  maynteyne  the  plantacion  with  apparrell  and 
necessaries  but  it  shall  make  a  publique  stocke  and  treasury  that  shall 
increase  as  the  plantacion  increaseth. 

6.  Sixtlie  the  Patent  standing  as  it  cloth  and  the  practice  and  faction 
■0  No.  6157.     See  no.  XII. 

"  Henry  Montagu,  viscount  Mandeville,  afterward  earl  of  Manchester,  lord 
president  of  the  council  1621-162S.  The  ''forme  of  Pollicy"  here  described  is 
to  be  found  among  the  papers  of  his  descendant  the  Duke  of  Manchester.  Hist. 
MSS.  Comm..  Eighth  Report,  II.  47,  no.  40.'. 


512  Documents 

beinge  taken  away,  it  shall  have  such  further  liberties  and  jurisdictions 
added  to  the  governement.  as  shalbe  necessarie  and  for  the  good  of  the 
plantacion. 

7.  Seaventhlie  and  lastlie,  the  doeinge  of  all  those  thinges  by  waie  of 
righte  and  intereste  to  the  maynteynance  of  Justice  and  peace,  and  to  the 
honor  of  God  our  king  and  state. 

All  theis  qualities  beinge  treated  of  in  five  severall  treaties  are  lastlie 
composed  into  one  forme  w'ch  may  aptlie  be  termed  a  Military  intendencie 
by  tribe  it  beinge  a  way  not  onely  to  plant  Garrisons  without  paie,  but 
each  Garrison  bruinging  with  it  a  certeyne  revenewe  to  the  Crowne  it 
shall  tie  Virginia  as  fast  to  England  as  if  it  were  one  terra  fir  ma  with  it. 

The  bruite  of  it  I  had  from  Charles  the  5,  and  if  he  himselfe  or  kinge 
Phillip  his  sonne  had  used  the  like  pollicie  in  the  West  Indies,  Low  Coun- 
tries, Millanie,  Naples  and  the  rest  of  his  provinces  to  mainteyne  his  sov- 
ereignty there,  he  had  not  spent  soe  many  Millions  to  keepe  Garrisons  as 
he  hath  done,  neither  wold  his  provinces  be  soe  ready  to  fall  from  him  as 
now  they  will  be.  if  this  plate  fleet  should  faile  him.72 

I  ever  held  (and  soe  I  expressed  myselfe  in  my  Articles  2  yeeres 
sithence  at  the  Councell  Board)73  that  this  busines  must  be  tenderly 
handled  till  the  public  stocke  was  gayned  and  the  forme  was  consented  to 
by  the  company.  And  that  this  taking  away  the  patent  from  the  company 
is  merely  by  a  devise  of  the  delinquents  whoe  havinge  fowerscore  articles 
put  in  against  them  and  but  4  of  them  examyned  doe  by  troblinge  the 
busines  and  makinge  the  company  to  give  over  their  Compl'nts  conceal 
from  the  kinge  the  Iniquitie  of  the  former  governem't,  it  will  appeare  by 
theis  reasons  followinge: 

1.  First  it  will  weaken  the  confidence  that  Patentees  should  have  in 
Patents. 

2.  Secondlie  it  will  appeare  that  the  company  and  the  governem't  by 
voices  must  by  necessitie  contynue,  aswell  for  their  grantinge  of  Patents, 
because  the  kinge  hath  alreadie  granted  them  the  soile  of  the  Contry  as 
also  for  the  giving  of  their  consent  to  lawes  that  shall  bynde  their  estates, 
it  being  the  right  of  all  free  subjects. 

3.  Thirdlie  the  forme  proposed  ( consideringe  the  former  reason)  must 
be  consented  to  both  by  the  kinge  and  company.  By  the  kinge  because 
there  will  be  in  it  divers  priviledges  and  Jurisdiccions  that  transcend  to 
Common  law,  and  all  authority  formerly  granted,  By  the  Company  be- 
cause the  forme  will  bynde  their  estates. 

4.  Fourthlie  the  patent  was  granted  beinge  to  the  adventurer  and 
planter  and  the  governement  beinge  in  the  company  here,  if  the  company 
wil  by  consenting  to  this  forme  transfer  the  governement  to  the  Planter 

'-  Captain  Bargrave  apparently  thought  that  the  fleet  of  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  under  Jacob  Willekens  and  Piet  Hein,  which  sailed  out  this 
month  against  Bahia,  might  capture  the  King  of  Spain's  annual  silver  fleet— as 
Hein  did  in   1628. 

-■■'  Probably  those  summarized  in  Cal.  S.  P.  Col.,  I.  29. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5l3 

(to  whom  of  right  it  belongs)  there  is  noe  necessitie  that  the  Patent  must 
be  delivered. 

5.  Fiftlie  because  this  consent  of  all  parties  interested  in  the  plantacion 
will  make  the  forme  more  firme  and  perpetuall. 

6.  Sixtlie  all  changes  in  governement  should  be  insensible  gentle  easie 
and  not  extorted. 

7.  Seaventhlie  because  this  very  governement  doth  make  many  adven- 
ture w'ch  otherwise  would  not. 

8.  Eightlie  because  everythinge  should  be  fostered  by  that  that  bred  it. 
And  the  Companie  havinge  bred  this  plantacion  it  should  likewise  have  a 
hand  in  the  fosteringe  of  it. 

9.  Nynthly  because  it  is  a  question  whether  it  be  fit  that  the  kinge 
should  take  the  name  of  the  plantacion  as  a  worke  of  his  owne.  till  such 
time  as  the  state  did  so  that  it  should  be  able  to  Subsist  of  it  selfe  and  to 
defend  it  selfe  against  forraigne  and  domesticke  power. 

10.  Tenthlv  because  the  kinge  will  have  righte  in  the  benefitt  that 
shalbe  made  by  the  publique  servants  sent  by  reason  of  his  soveraigntie, 
though  he  be  noe  more  seene  in  the  busines  than  formerly  he  hath  byn. 

11.  Lastlie  because  the  plantacion  beinge  divided  into  severall  Collonies 
each  one  of  them  Consisting  of  three  hundred  planters,  if  the  said  Col- 
lonys  shall  nomynate  out  of  the  Company  heere  three  adventurers  for  each 
one  of  them,  two  of  \v*ch  shall  doe  their  busines,  as  the  Comittees  doe 
now,  and  the  third  to  be  Agent  for  them  to  preconsult  in  matters  that  shall 
concerne  the  plantacion  and  to  make  contracts  with  the  king  or  Company, 
and  the  whole  Classis  of  their  pre-consulters  having  a  Negative  voice  this 
will  both  prevent  all  prejudice  that  shall  come  to  the  plantacion  by  practice 
and  faction  of  the  popular  governement  here  and  will  alsoe  fas  the  state 
desires )  drawe  the  governement  into  fewer  hands  and  then  there  will 
nothinge  remayne  in  the  company  but  the  passing  of  patents,  together  with 
their  consent  to  lawes  that  shall  bynde  their  estates  without  the  w'ch  noe 
man  will  adventure. 

And  whereas  the  state  takes  it  ill  that  there  are  soe  many  counsellors 
made,  the  reason  of  the  doeinge  of  it  was  to  draw  men  of  quallity  to  come 
to  the  Courte,  and  if  all  shalbe  put  from  the  Counsell,  that  forbeare  com- 
inge  together  with  those  that  are  not  sworne,  the  counsell  will  quicklie  be 
found  not  to  be  many. 

And  whereas  the  lords  doe  desire  that  both  the  governem't  in  Virginia 
and  the  Governement  here  should  have  relacion  to  the  Lords  of  the 
Counsell  there  is  such  a  Clause  in  the  patent  alreadie,  that  no  weightie 
busines  shalbe  done  but  fower  of  the  great  lords  and  standinge  officers 
of  the  Counsell  shall  be  made  acquainted  and  give  their  consente  to  it. 

Consideringe  theis  reasons  my  humble  suite  is  that  yo'r  pet.  may  lie 
suffered  and  the  Companie  may  be  comaunded  to  make  good  their  Compl'ts 
before  the  Comissioners  .that  the  kinge  takinge  notice  who  have  abused 
the   governement   and    who   not,    rewards   and    punishm'ts    may   be   duly 


514  Documents 

administred,  and  that  in  the  meane  tyme  there  may  be  a  Comittee  or 
reft'erence  to  some  best  experienced  in  such  publique  busines  either  of  the 
Company  or  otherwise  that  may  examine  correct  amend  or  allow  of  the 
governement  proposed  that  soe  both  the  lords  and  the  Companies  agree- 
inge  in  one  end  to  wit  the  good  of  the  plantacion  the  busines  may  goe 
cheerily  forward. 

yor  Lordshipp's 

John  Bargrave. 

[Endorsed  in  the  hand  of  Richard  Willis:}  John  Bargrave  his  Propo- 
sicions  concerning  Virginia,  Received  J°  Decemb.  1623. 

XVI.    PETITION  OF  JOHN  WOODALL,  MARCH   (  ?),  163O.74 

To  the  right  honorable  the  Lords  and  the  rest  of  his   Majesties  most 
honorable  privie  Councell 

The  humble  petition  of  John  Woodall 
an  adventurer  and  planter  of  the 
Collony  in  Virginia 

Humblye  sheweth  that  your  petitioner  having  ben  longe  an  Adventurer 
thither  did  heretofore  buy  an  estate  of  Lands,  goods  and  chattells  which 
did  belong  unto  Sir  Samuell  Argall  Knight  deceased  sometimes  Governor 
there,75  whereby  your  petitioner  was  occasioned  to  send  Factors  and 
Agents  theither  to  gett  the  sayd  estate  into  his  possession. 

But  soe  it  is,  may  it  please  your  good  honours,  that  since  the  departure 
of  the  sayd  Sir  Samuell  Argall  from  that  collonie  (being  about  twelve 
years  sithens)76  the  sayd  estate  by  divers  mutations  there  is  disperced  into 
many  men's  hands  whoe  now  frame  unto  themselves  a  colorre  to  delaye 
and  detayne  the  same  from  your  petitioner,  by  reason  of  some  contro- 
versies and  difference  which  happened  concerning  the  government  wherein 
divers  accusations  were  objected  against  the  sayd  Sir  Samuell  for  sup- 
posed wrongs  by  him  don  unto  the  publique  there,  which  though  they  were 
not  proved  neyther  did  they  ever  proceed  to  any  trvall  of  lawe,  and  that 
only  some  of  his  goods  were  sequestred,  yett  neverthelesse  your  petitioners 
factors  have  been  still  delayed  upon  pretence  of  those  Controversies. 

t*  See  no.  V.,  above,  and  note  31,  Va.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  XXIII.  13.  and  nos. 
XVII.-XXI.,  below.  It  appears  that  this  petition  was  the  occasion  of  the  letter 
addressed  on  Apr.  30,  1630,  by  the  Privy  Council  to  the  governor  and  council 
of  Virginia,  and  mentioned  in  the  order  of  June  30,  Acts  P.  C.  Col.,  I.  163  ; 
hence  the  date  here  suggested. 

75  Argall  died  in  1626.  A  petition  of  Samuel  Percevall  and  Ann  his  wife. 
Argall's  daughter  and  heiress,  presented  to  the  House  of  Lords,  June  25,  1641 
(House  of  Lords  MSS.),  declares  that  Woodall  had  wrongly  acquired  from 
them  Argall's  estate  and  cattle  in  Virginia,  and  by  influence  in  the  Privy  Council 
had  eluded  payment;  the  petition  will  be  printed  in  vol.  I.  of  Dr.  L.  F.  Stock's 
Proceedings  and  Debates  of  Parliament  respecting  North  America  (Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington). 

"8  April,    1619. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       515 

May  itt  therefore  please  your  good  honours  and  because  that  since  the 
dissolution  of  the  late  Virginia  Companie  your  suppliant  hath  noe  other 
Court  to  petition  unto  for  redress,  And  that  for  this  honorable  Board  hath 
ever  ben  gratiously  pleased  to  order  and  direct  the  affayrs  of  that  Collony, 
That  your  honours  would  now  be  pleased  to  tender  consideration  of  your 
petitioner's  great  losses  and  damages  in  the  premises  of  your  accustomed 
favours  to  grant  unto  your  petitioner  your  honorable  letters  to  be  directed 
unto  the  Governor  and  Councell  there  resident,  willing  them  that  uppon 
resonable  demand  made  unto  them  by  your  petitioner  or  his  assignes  that 
they  cause  diligent  enquirie  and  searche  to  be  made  of  all  the  particuler 
dispossinge  of  the  Cattell  and  theire  encrease  and  also  of  the  Lands  and 
goods  which  did  lately  belonge  unto  the  sayd  deceased,  And  by  the  dewe 
examination  of  wittnesses  and  other  circumstances  fitting  to  explayne  the 
true  finding  out  of  the  estate  and  to  deliver  the  same  unto  your  petitioner 
his  factors  or  Agent,  and  to  administer  all  favorable  Justice  therein  ac- 
cording as  the  right  of  his  cause  shall  require,  that  your  suppliant  be  not 
further  enforced  to  be  troublesome  to  your  honours. 

And  your  petitioner  shall  dailey  pray. 

[Endorsed :]  Mr.  Woodall  his  petition  to  the  Lords  in  England. 

XVII.     PETITION    OF  ROBERT   BARRIXGTON.    (AFTER   JUNE.)     163O.77 

To  the  right  worshipfull  the  Governor  and  Councell  of  State 
in  Virginia 

The  humble  petition  of 
Robertt  Barrington 

Sheweth  that  your  petitioner  the  last  Quarter  Courte  prefered  a 
petition  on  the  behalfe  of  Mr.  John  Woodall  for  the  recoverie  of  divers 
cattell  which  of  late  belonged  to  Sir  Samuell  Argall  Knight  deceased 
wherein  he  was  an  humble  suiter  to  the  board  for  a  finall  ende  in  that 
cause,  whereuppon  your  worships  were  pleased  to  make  an  order  that 
some  parte  of  them  should  be  delivered  and  the  rest  should  hange  in 
suspence  till  further  order  from  the  Lords  of  his  Majesties  most  honorable 
Privie  Councell  in  England,  and  bee  further  sheweth  the  Lords  of  his 
Majesties  Councell  did  direct  their  letters  to  the  Governor  and  Councell 
heere  requesting  that  a  finall  ende  of  the  same  might  be  had  with  such 
lawful]  favour  and  expedition  as  might  be  expected  uppon  their  letters  of 
recommendations.  Your  petitioner  humbly  prayeth  that  forasmuch  as  the 
sayd  order  is  noe  finall  ende,  but  leaveth  the  cause  in  the  greatest  parte 
undetermined,  that  the  same  may  bee  revoked  and  that  a  full  conclusion 
therein  may  be  made  according  to  theire  Lordships  letters  and  expecta- 

77  Robert  Barrington  was  member  for  James  City  in  the  general  assembly  of 
1630.  The  date  is  shown  by  the  text  to  be  subsequent  to  that  of  the  order  of 
the  Privy  Council,  June  30.  printed  in  Acts  P.  C.  Col..  I.  163,  in  which  the  gov- 
ernor and  council  are  enjoined  to  do  justice  to  Woodall. 


5 1 6  Documents 

tions  of  your  [.sic]  That  Mr.  Woodall  may  have  noe  cause  to  be  further 
troublesome  unto  them  nor  complayne  of  injustice  or  delay  in  this  Courte. 
And  hee  will  al waves  praye,  etc. 
[Endorsed:]  Robert  Barrington  his  petition  to  the  Governor  and  coun- 
cell  in  the  behalfe  of  Mr.  Woodall. 

XVIII.  ORDER  OF  COURT  IN  VIRGINIA,  DECEMBER   12.    163O. 

A  Courte  att  James  Citty  the  12th  daye  of  December  1630. 

Present. 

Sir  John  Harvey  Knight  Governor  etc.78 
Captain  West  Captain  Basse 

Captain  Mathewe  Captain  Utey 

Captain  Tucker  Captain  Purifie 

Mr.  Farrar  Captain  Bullocke 

Captain  Stevens 

Itt  is  ordered  by  this  Courte,  that  all  the  Cattle  that  shall  appeere  to 
belonge  to  Sir  Samuell  Argoll  Knight  without  dispute,  shalbe  delivered 
to  Mr.  Robertt  Barrington  att  the  springe  time  when  without  danger  they 
may  well  be  transported,  vizt.  the  cattle  in  the  hands  of  Captain  Mathew, 
Martins  Hundred,  Roger  Tompson,  Captain  Perrie,  Mr.  John  Arundell, 
and  others 

Examinat.  per  W.  Claiborne,  Secretary  T9 

[Endorsed :]  An  order  of  court  at  James  Cittie  the  12th  day  of  De- 
cember 1630. 

XIX.  DEPOSITION    OF  ROGER  TOMPSON,    MARCH    25,    I63I.80 

The  relation  of  Roger  Tompson  concerning  the  cattell  called  by  the  name 
of  Sir  Samuell  Argall's  cattell  delivered  uppon  oath  the  25th  day 
of  March  1631  before  Sir  John  Harvey  Knight  etc. 
Mr.  Will :  Farrar 
Mr.  Henry  Finch 
Captain  Tho.  Purifie. 
The  sayd  Tompson  sayth  that  those  cattle  were  found  in  James  Hand 
and  were  fieftie  eyght  in  number  but  the  originall  of  theire  stocke  he 

7s  Governor  1628-1639. 

79  Secretary    1625-1635.    1652-1660. 

so  See  no.  V.  The  name  of  Roger  Thompson  appears,  as  of  Flowerdieu 
Hundred,  in  the  "  Listes  of  the  Livings  and  Dead  ",  1623,  in  Colonial  Records 
of  Va.   (Senate  Doc.,   1874),  p.  40. 

si  The  disposition  here  stated,  as  of  date  June  10,  1619,  agrees  in  general 
with  that  given  in  no.  V.  for  Sept.  26,  1620,  it  being  understood  that  Smith's 
Hundred  had  meantime  been  renamed  Southampton  Hundred,  and  that  Abraham 
Peirsey  was  the  cape  merchant  mentioned  in  no.   V. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5r7 

knoweth  not  and  were  dispossed  of  by  Sir  George  Yearley  the  ioth  of 
June  1619s1  as  followeth. 

1.  First,  Six  Cowes  to  the  Lady  Yearley. s-  three  of  which  died  in  the 
Hand  and  the  other  three  Cowes  remaininge  were  sold  to  Captain  Stone 
of  London. 

2.  Secondly,  foure  Cowes,  foure  oxen,  and  one  old  Bull  to  South- 
ampton hundred,  which  remayne  among  that  Stocke. 

3.  Thirdly,  ten  Cowes  to  Martin  hundred,  of  which  ten,  Mr.  Emerson83 
had  two,  one  of  which  two  had  her  backe  broken  going  to  Hogg  Hand 
the  other  was  carried  to  Mrs.  Emerson  att  Kickcoutan,-4  of  the  increase 
of  which  cowe,  one  shee  killed  at  her  son's  wedding,  one  cowe  she  sould 
with  one  oxe  Calfe  and  att  her  death  shee  gave  one  Cowe  to  her  daughter; 
for  the  old  cowe  that  was  first  brought  downe,  she  was  killed,  and  the 
sayd  Roger  Tompson  put  a  younge  heyfer  in  her  rome  and  the  rest  of 
her  increase  doe  make  eight  in  number:  five  of  which  wilbe  Milch  this 
yeare.  Of  the  other  three,  two  are  Cowe  Calves,  and  one  an  oxe  Calfe, 
all  in  the  hands  of  the  sayd  Tompson,  for  the  other  eyght  that  wee  deliv- 
ered to  Martin  hundred  the  sayd  Tompson  never  knew  butt  of  fouer  of 
them  that  were  in  James  Hand  in  the  possession  of  one  Mr.  Harwood  of 
Barnestable85  but  what  is  now  become  of  those  foure  or  the  rest  the  sayd 
Tompson  knoweth  not. 

4.  Fourthly,  six  old  cowes,  one  old  bull  were  delivered  to  Mr.  Abraham 
Percey  which  remaine  in  the  hands  of  his  executors. 

5.  Fieftly,  foure  old  Cowes,  one  old  Cowe,  twelve  Cowe  Calves  and 
three  oxe  calves,  were  delivered  to  Mr.  Pountis,  for  Mr.  Woodall. 

6.  Sixtly,  one  oxe  Sir  Francis  Wiatt86  kildd  for  Pamunkey  March. 

7.  Seaventhly,  one  steere  the  Lady  Yearley  killdd. 

8.  Eightly,  two  Cowes  and  two  Steirs  to  Captain  Thorpe  for  Berkley 
hundred.  But  what  became  of  them  the  sayd  Tompson  knoweth  nott. 

[Endorsed ;]  The  relation  of  Roger  Tompson,  Cowekeeper,  uppon  oath 
taken  25°  March  1 631. 

XX.    ORDER  OF  COURT  IN  VIRGINIA,  JUNE   2~ ,    163I. 

A  Courte  att  James  Citty  the  27th  of  June  1631. 

Present. 

Sir  John  Harvey  Kt.  Governor  etc. 
Captain  John  West  Captain  John  Utye 

Mr.  Henry   Finch  Captain  Tho.  Purine 

Captain  Rich.   Stevens  Captain  Will.  Peirce 

Captain  Natha.   Basse  Captain  Will.  Perrie 

82  Temperance,  wife  of   Sir  George  Yeardley. 

83  Presumably  Ellis  Emerson,  member  of  the  convention  of   1625. 
"  Elizabeth    City. 

S5  William  Harwood  of  Martin's   Hundred. 
SIJ  Governor   1624-1626,   1639-1641. 


5 1 S  Documents 

Whereas  itt  hath  hen  formerly  ordered  by  this  Courte,  that  Robertt 
Barrington  the  assign  and  Atturney  of  John  Woodall,  gentleman,  should 
have  certayne  Cowes  and  other  Cattell  out  of  the  stocke  of  Berkley  hun- 
dred, being  att  this  present  twenty  eight  young  and  ould,  for  satisfaction 
of  three  cowes,  with  theire  increase,  long  since  sent  to  the  sayd  Hundred, 
But  did  not  order  what  certayne  number  he  should  receive,  out  of  the 
sayd  stocke,  but  referred  the  same  to  a  further  hearinge, 

This  present  day  uppon  the  motion  of  the  sayd  Robertt  Barrington, 
the  Courte  takinge  the  same  into  there  considerations,  have  thought  itt  fitt 
and  accordingly  ordered  that  the  sayd  Robertt  Barrington  shall  receave 
for  the  use  of  Mr.  Woodall  halfe  the  stocke  of  cattell.  At  this  time  be- 
longing to  the  sayd  Hundred,  with  this  provisoe  neverthelesse  that  if  any 
of  Barkley  hundred  adventurors  or  any  for  them  shall  beetwene  this  and 
the  feast  of  Christmas  shew  good  and  sufficient  cause  why  soe  many  Cat- 
tell should  not  be  allowed  to  Mr.  Woodall  for  the  Cowes  soe  lent  to  the 
sayd  Hundred,  then  this  order  shalbe  of  none  effect. 

And  if  in  case  the  sayd  Mr.  Woodall  or  any  for  him  within  the  time 
aforesayd  shall  make  appeere  to  this  courte,  that  there  ought  more  of  the ' 
sayd  stocke  to  bee  allowed  for  satisfaction  of  the  three  Cowes,  with  theire 
increase.  Then  this  Courte  will  make  a  further  allowance  to  the  sayd 
Mr.  Woodall  out  of  the  remainer  of  the  sayd  stocke. 

Vera  copia  teste  me 

W.  Claiborne  Seer. 

[Endorsed:]  An  order  of  court  the  27th  of  June  at  James  Cittie  1631 
about  Mr.  Woodall. 

XXI.    ORDER  OF  COURT  IN   VIRGINIA,  DECEMBER    ]-,,    I  63 1 . 

A  Corte  helde  att  James  Citty  the  15th  of  December  1631 

Present 

Sir  John  Harvey  Knt.  Governor  etc. 
Capt.  Fra.  West  Mr.  William  Farrar 

Capt.  Jo.  West  Capt.  Natha.  Basse 

Capt.  Sam.  Mathew  Capt.  John  Utye 

Capt.  William  Claybourne  Capt.  Tho.  Puryfie 
Capt.  William  Tucker 
I  Today  was  held]  .  .  .  and  serious  deliberation  concerning  the  estate 
of  Cat.  .  .  .  belonging  to  Sir  Samuell  Argall  knight  deceased,  transported 
over  to  Mr.  Woodall  whose  assignes  have  often  peticioned  the  [Corte] 
...  to  be  delivered  unto  them,  first  weare  reade  the  sayd  Woodalls  com- 
plainte  and  petition  to  the  Lords  of  his  Majestie's  most  Honorable  privie 
Council  .  .  .  theire  Lordship's  letter,  recommending  the  cause  and  requir- 
ing that  speedy  execution  of  justice  should  be  done,  there  was  also  .  .  . 
and  order  of  sequesteration  made  in  England  by  the  Councell  for  Virginia 
anno  161 9  and  the  disposall  of  the  cattell  there  .  .  .  Governor  and  Coun- 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5'9 

cell  heere  the  20th  of  September,  anno  i620.ST  Likewise  there  were  read 
letters  of  recommendation  from  Sir  Robert  Heath  Att[orney  Genera]lls8 
in  this  behalf e,  and  his  absolute  and  cleere  oppinion  that  the  sayd  seques- 
teration  is  ended  and  that  wee  ought  by  law  to  proceed  to  the  .  .  .  ing 
the  right,  as  if  the  sequesteration  had  not  ben,  The  Court  having  for- 
merly by  an  order  of  Court  the  first  of  March,  [i6]30  entred  into  the 
determination  of  this  cause  and  ordered  that  one  third  part  of  the  said 
Southampton  hund[red  ca]ttell  should  be  held  and  accompted  as  the  cattell 
of  Sir  Samuell  Argall,  Doth  now  likewise  approve  thereof  and  give  order 
that  the  Cattell  of  Sir  Samuell  Argell's  stocke  left  in  Mr.  Abraham  Persies 
hand  which  are  not  yett  delivered,  t [hough  ?]  they  have  allways  ben 
cumbred[?]  with  a  desire  to  be  ridd  of  them,  should  forthwith  be  deliv- 
ered unto  the  assigns  of  the  sayd  Mr.  Woodall,  and  for  the  rest  which 
can  any  way  appertayne  to  Sir  Sammuell  Argall  out  of  Barkley  hundred 
and  Martin's  hundred,  itt  is  thought  fitt  they  be  likewise  delivered,  And 
therefore  itt  is  resolved,  because  it  [se]mes  the  greatest  part  of  them  are 
intermingled  with  the  stocke  belonging  to  Southampton  hundred,  to  have 
the  exactions  and  oathes  taken  of  the  cowkeepers  and  such  who  can  best 
give  information  therein,  those  of  the  councell  having  [ha]d  noe  knowl- 
edge neyther  are  there  any  records  left  to  direct  them  in  these  proceedings. 
And  .  .  .  the  rather  because  they  may  give  that  satisfaction  unto  those 
honorable  and  noble  adventurers  of  the  severall  hundreds,  the  cattell  being 
almost  the  only  remayns  of  those  large  expences,  Butt  because  they  shall 
heerein  walke  in  the  darke  stepps  of  forepassed  and  forgotten  times,  they 
deliver  theire  advise.  That  all  the  sayd  cattell  delivered  in  the  right  of 
Sir  Samuell  Argall  be  noe  further  alienated  then  those  hands  into  which 
they  are  now  to  be  putt,  untill  a  finall  resolution  and  determination  of  this 
Cause  be  sent  from  the  right  honorable  and  others  his  Majestie's  Com- 
missioners for  these  affayeres,s;'  unto  whom  itt  is  thought  fitt  that  together 
with  our  letters  copies  of  all  the  aforesayd  severall  papers  be  transmitted, 
because  many  of  them,  as  they  conceive,  have  further  knowledge  of  the 
grounds  of  the  premises  then  any  of  the  Councell  heere. 

Vera  copia  teste  me 

W.  Claiborne  Seer. 

[Endorsed :]    An   order   of  Courte   concerning   Southampton   Martin's 
and  Barkley  hundred  cattell  for  Mr.  Woodall.     11°  December  1631. 

st  No.  V..  above. 

ss  Attorney  general    1626-1631 
to  the  bench  as  chief  justice  of  the 

S9  Commissioners   for  Virginia   appointed  June    17,-  1631.      Cal.  Si.   P.   Col.,  I. 
130;   Va.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  VIII 


but 

on   Oct. 

2fi, 

163 1, 

:ourl 

:  of  common 

pleas. 

ippo: 

nted  Jul 

le   1 

7,-  1631 

520  Documents 

B.     Concerning  Tobacco. 

XXII.     CERTIFICATE    CONCERNING   TOBACCO    ENTERED    IN    PORTSMOUTH, 
FEBRUARY    10,    l6l6(?).90 

In  Portesmouth 

The  trueth  of  the  quantitie  of  Tobacco  accordinge 
to  two  entryes  past  by  William  Budd  vizt. 

The  xxx,h  of  September  1615 
In  the  Flycingc  Horse  of  Flushinge  of  xxx  tonnes, 
William  Johnson,  master,  from  Virginia.     For  William 
Budd,   one  greate   Roall   containing  one   hundred   and 
fyve  pounds  of  puddinge  tobaccoe. 

The  xl.h  of  February  161 5 
In  the  Flycingc  Horse  of  Flushinge  aforesaid,  the 
said    William    Johnson,    master,    from    Virginia.     For 
William  Budd,  five  hundred  and  foure  pounds  of  pud- 
dinge tobaccoe. 

Tho.  Wulfris  Collector  W.  Dingi.ey,  Comptroller 

Ed.  Dawson  Collector  pro  farmers. 
Both  these  entries  in  the  Kinges  bookes  delivered  by  the  custom 
and  comptroller  are  mencioned  to  be  from  the  West  India. 
[Addition  in  Cran field's  hand:] 
100  //.     the  Spanish  Embassador 


2. 

12. 

6 

5- 

5. 

0 

25- 

4- 

12. 

12. 

43- 

13- 

6 

45- 

J3- 

6  02 

9"  No.  6182.  The  William  Budd  here  mentioned  as  importing  tobacco  from 
Virginia  may  have  been  the  William  Budd  of  the  Fishmongers  Company  who  is 
listed  by  Brown,  Genesis,  I.  282,  as  refusing  to  invest  in  the  Virginia  Company, 
but  Mr.  Brown  is  quite  wrong  in  his  comment,  II.  772,  on  Budd's  tobacco.  He 
says,  "  '  30th  Sept.  1615,  From  W.  Budd,  one  great  roll  containing  105  lbs.  of 
Midding  Tobacco  '.  There  is  also  another  certificate  of  February  10,  1616,  which 
gives  the  number  of  pounds  as  104,  showing  the  loss  of  weight  with  time,  which 
those  who  deal  in  tobacco  have  long  been  familiar  with  ".  But  the  second  num- 
ber, as  will  be  seen  from  our  text,  is  properly  504.  Also,  "  from  "  should  be 
"  for  ",  and  "  midding "  should  be  "  pudding ".  The  errors  are  in  the  brief 
entry  respecting  the  document  in  the  Fourth  Report  of  the  Historical  Manu- 
scripts Commission,  p.  314,  whence  Mr.  Brown  doubtless  derived  his  item.  He 
says,  First  Republic,  p.  231,  that  this  item  is  the  first  definite  account  he  has 
seen  of  tobacco  from  Virginia  reaching  England. 

91  Customer  meant  the  collector  of  the  port,  as  distinguished  from  the  comp- 
troller, who  kept  an  account  serving  as  a  check  upon  his,  and  from  the  collector 
for  the  farmers  of  the  customs.  Hubert  Hall,  History  of  the  Custom-Revenue, 
II.  44.  50. 

■'-The  true  addition   is    £45.    13s.  6d. 


45- 

13- 

6 

i8. 

3- 

- 

19. 

14- 

6 

83- 

17. 

- 

Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       521 

4t  /i.  13  .j".  6  rf.     In  the  entries  at  Portsmouth  from  Vir- 
ginia but   in   the   customes   boockes   from   the   West 
Indies  which  is  the  reason  the  auditor  will  not  allow.93 
[Fragment:]  mistacking. 

Portsmouth  due 
His  Majestie's  officers  rCardife.    due    Jourdaine    and 

-j       Comptroller 
are  the  debitors  [due  in  Cornwall,  dead 

for 
[Endorsed:]  A  certificate  from  Portesmouth  for  Budd's  Tobacco. 

XXIII.    REPORT  TO  SIR  LIONEL  CRAXFIELD,   DECEMBER  2j(  ?),    l6l6.'J4 

The  Tobacco  entred  in  the  port  of  London  betweene  midsomer  1615 
and  midsomer  1616  at  xviii  rf.  imposition  and  custome95  the  same  amount- 
eth  to  3935  li.     8.     3 

The  benefite  of  the  custome  and  imposition  of  this  yere  did  passe  by 
the  contracte  of  his  Majestie  with  the  fermers  with  the  rest  of  ther  estate 
in  the  ferme  for  the  some  of  4000  li.  the  which  was  paid  by  the  collectors 
of  the  said  imposition  and  custome  to  the  said  fermers  for  ther  interest 
by  warrant  from  his  Majestie  under  the  great  seale. 

There  is  come  in  to  this  port  of  London  since  midsomer  soe  muche 
Tobacco  as  the  custome  and  imposition  thereof  at  the  rate  aforesaid  (the 
Entries  thereof  being  perfected)  will  amounte  to  about  the  some  of 

2000.     o.     o 

XXIV.     NOTES  OF  CRAXFIELD.   DECEMBER  2?,    l6l6(  ?).9C 

The  Farmers  of  the  Imposte  upon  Tobackoe  at  mydsomer  anno  1615 
had  an  estate  in  it  for  3  yeares  which  was  then  worth  to  them  cleere  (his 
Majestie's  Rente  and  all  charges  defrayed)  above  4000  /.  per  annum  as 
by  his  Majestie's  custome  boockes  appear. 

For  this  3  yeares  Sir  Lyonell  Cranfield  contracted  with  the  parties 
interessed  (on  the  behalffe  of  his  Majestie)  for  the  some  of  fower  thou- 
sand poundes  and  with  this  condicion  that  the  King  should  disburse  no 

°3  If  it  came  in  from  Virginia  it  was  exempt  from  customs  dues,  under  the 
patent  of  1612;   if  from  the  West   Indies,  it  should  pay  duty. 

"■1  No.  6180.  Report  to  Cranfield  as  surveyor  general  of  the  customs,  with- 
out signature, 

S5  The  impost  was  a  shilling  (raised  in  1615  to  eighteenpenee),  the  subsidy 
sixpence  for  roll  and  fourpence  for  leaf  tobacco.  In  this  year  2300  lbs.  were 
imported  into  London  from  Virginia,  52673  lbs.  from  foreign  parts.  Beer,  Origins 
of  the  British  Colonial  System,  p.   109. 

96  No.   6179.      In  the  hand,  throughout,   of  Cranfield.   surveyor  general   of  the 


522  Documents 

monye,  but  that  the  Farmers  should  receive  the  said  4000  I.  owt  of  the 
said  Farme. 

The  4th  of  Maye  1616  the  said  Farmers  past  all  their  Interest  to  his 
Majestie  with  all  promtts  and  receiptes  from  mydsomer  1615. 

From  mydsomer  1615  untill  mydsomer  1616  ther  was  received  upon 
the  said  Farme  of  Tobackoe  for  the  Porte  of  London  onlye  3935  /.  8  [>.] 
3  d.,  soe  that  ther  was  monye  to  paye  the  Farmers  with  a  surplusadge 
(the  Portes  reckoned)"7  within  seven  weeckes  after  it  was  past  to  his 
Majestie. 

From  mydsomer  1616  untill  Christmas  161 6  being  halff  a  yere  ther  is 
received  and  to  bee  received  upon  the  perfectinge  of  the  entryes  for 
Tobackoe  come  into  the  Porte  of  London  only  above  Two  thousand 
poundes. 

[Endorsed:]  Tobacko. 

XXV.     RECEIPTS   FROM    DUTIES    ON    TOBACCO,    JANUARY    23,    1619. 

The  Receipte  of  the  Tobacco  from  our  Lady  day 
1618  to  Michaellmas  following  is  the  some  of  2751      :     02     :     00 

From  Michaelmas  1618  to  the  xxiii'.h  day  of 
January  followinge  is  1605      :     16     :     06 


Totall  4356 


More  remayninge  in  the  Custome  howse  about 
1200  wayght  uppon  billes  at  sight  which  comethe98 
unto  0090?   .     00     .     00 

Abraham  Jacobb 
Collector  pro  Imp.09 

[Endorsed :]  Receipt  of  tobacco  by  Mr.  Abraham  Jacob.     1618. 

XXVI.     ACCOUNT  OF  THE  FARM    OF   TOBACCO.   NOVEMBER   5,    1619.100 

Redditus  fermi  Tobacco  pro  anno  5000  li.  et  solut.  per  Tallias  levat.  pro 
anno  finit.  ad  festum  sancti  Michaelis  Archangeli  anno  Regis  Jacobi 
xvii  mo. 

117  /.  e.,  with  the  addition  of  what  came  from  the  other  ports. 

98  At   1  s.  6  d.  a  pound,  the  impost  alone. 

99  In  1618  the  office  of  collector  of  the  tobacco  impost  was  granted  for  life 
to   Abraham   and  John  Jacob.     Beer,  p.    111. 

100  This  document  may  be  translated  thus:  "  Receipts  of  the  farm  of  tobacco 
for  the  year,  £5000,  and  payments  by  tallies  raised  [see  Hall,  Custom-Revenue, 
II.  186-195]  for  the  year  ended  Michaelmas  17  Jac.  I.  Easter  term,  1619:  by 
tally  raised  Apr.  17,  1619,  £1500;  do.  Apr.  30,  £925  ;  do.  May  7,  £2000.  Michael- 
mas   term,     1619:    do.    Nov.    5.   £4^5-     Total    payments,   £4850;    collector's    fee. 

£150;  total,   £5000." 


Termino 
Pasche  1619 


Termino 

Michaelis 

1619 


Lord  Sackvillc's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       523 

Totall.  solut. 

i'mo 

mV/i. 


per     Talliam     levat.     xvii'n 

Aprilis  1619 
per  aliam   Talliam   levat.   xxx 

Aprilis  1619  ix'xxv/;'. 

per    aliam    Talliam    levat.    vii 

Maii  1 61 9  mm  li. 

Et    per    aliam    Talliam    levat. 

quinto  Novembris  1619  iiiirxxv//. 

And  for  the  fee  of  the  Collector 


cl  li. 

Totall.  vm  li. 


Examined  by  me  Robertus  Pye 
[Endorsed  by  Cranfield :]  Sir  Robert  Pye,  abowte  tobacko. 


XXVII.     OFFER   OF   ABRAHAM    JACOB   FOR   THE   FARM    OF   THE   TOBACCO   DUTIES. 
DECEMBER    (   ?),    1619.10- 

Articles  agreed  one  with  Mr.  Abraham  Jacob  for  the  Farming  of  the 
Tobacco  for  seaven  yeeres  from  Michaelmas  nexte  1620  for  the 
yeerely  Rente  of  eight  thousand  poundes  per  annum  vizt. 

Firste  that  all  Tobaccoes  whatsoever  that  shall  come  into  theise  his 
Majestie's  dominions  of  England  Wales  and  Barwicke  from  beyond  the 
Seas  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  onely  excepted  shall  pay  the 
Imposition  or  increase  of  Subsidie  of  xviii  d.  per  pound  or  under  att  the 
Farmer's  pleasure  and  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  att  the  rate  of 
vi  d.  per  pound  And  yf  it  shall  not  bee  lawfull  for  the  Farmer  to  receive 
the  same  rates  then  defalcation  to  bee  made  unto  him  yeerely  out  of  his 
Majestie's  rent  for  the  same. 

The  Rente  to  bee  paid  halfe  yeerely  or  within  Fortie  dayes  after  each 
Rent  day.103 

101  Robert  Pye  was  remembrancer  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  not  knighted 
till  July   13,    16.21,  hence  Cranfield's  endorsement  is  later. 

102  No.  6184.  The  words  italicized  are  inserted  in  a  different  hand.  In- 
ternal evidence  places  the  document  between  Michaelmas  and  Christmas.  1619 
(Sept.  29-Dec.  25),  and  probably  after  Dec.  2.  Abraham  Jacob,  one  of  the  col- 
lectors of  the  impost  on  tobacco,  now  desired  to  farm  it  for  seven  years.  From 
July  to  December  he  had  contended  that  tobacco  from  Virginia,  the  seven  years 
of  exemption  (note  13,  above)  having  expired  in  March,  should  pay  impost. 
Records,  I.  245.  24$,  276,  277.  On  Dec.  2  the  attorney  general,  Yelverton,  ren- 
dered an  opinion  to  the  Privy  Council  {id.,  I.  2S1-2K4)  that  the  company  was 
now  clearly  exempt  from  all  but  the  five  per  cent,  subsidy,  which,  under  the  exist- 
ing book  of  rates,  would  amount  to  sixpence  a  pound.  Jacob  in  his  present  pro- 
posals takes  account  of  this  opinion,  but  not  of  the  fact  that  the  Somers  Islands 
Company's  exemption  had   still   nearly  three  years  to   run. 

103  To  wit.  Michaelmas  and  Lady-day.  Sept.   29   and   Mar.   25. 


524  Documents 

That  his  Majestie  shall  prohibite  and  forbid  before  Christmas  1619 
the  plantation  of  all  English  Tobacco  within  this  Realme  of  England 
dominions  of  Wales  and  towne  of  Barvvicke  and  the  dominions  thereunto 
belonging104  and  the  same  plantation  to  bee  utterly  surpressed  or  ells  to 
bee  lawfull  for  the  Farmer  to  keepe  his  Rente  in  his  owne  handes  untill 
hee  have  receaved  full  satisfaction  for  his  damadge  by  reason  of  the  said 
plantation  according  unto  the  rate  and  quantety  of  the  Imposition  paiable 
uppon  Tobacco  Imported  out  of  Spaine  beeing  for  every  pound  xviii  d. 
per  pound  and  likewise  to  bee  free  of  all  Covenauntes  and  payments  and 
to  bee  Accomptant  onely  for  the  same. 

Allsoe  that  his  Majestie  dureing  the  terme  of  the  said  Farmer's  Patent 
shall  not  raise  or  sett  any  newe  Imposition  Custome  or  Taxe  uppon  any 
Tobacco  imported  nor  graunt  any  lycence  or  restraint  in  forbidinge  the 
subject  to  sell  the  same  freely  by  retaile  or  otherwise  more  then  was  in 
force  and  practise  at  Michaelmas  last  that  then  and  from  thenceforth  all 
covenauntes  and  other  reservations  mentioned  in  the  letters  patentes  to 
bee  voyde  and  to  bee  an  Accomptant  onely  from  that  tyme  forwardes. 

And  whereas  there  is  allowed  unto  the  now  Collector  one  hundred  and 
fifty  poundes  per  annum  for  the  Collection  of  the  said  Tobacco  by  Patente 
under  the  greate  Seale105  the  said  fee  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  poundes 
per  annum  to  bee  yeerely  paid  from  tyme  to  tyme  dureing  the  Collector's 
Patent  out  of  his  Majestie's  rent  of  eight  thousand  poundes  per  annum. 

That  yf  att  any  tyme  dureing  the  terme  their  shall  happen  any  warrs 
betwixt  England  and  Spaine  or  any  Imbargement  of  trade  then  it  shalbee 
lawfull  for  that  tyme  to  relinquish  the  said  Patente  and  to  bee  an  Ac- 
comptant onely  for  the  same. 

Allsoe  that  yf  the  Patentee  shall  dislike  after  twoe  yeeres  to  bee  ac- 
compted  from  Michaelmas  next  and  make  knowen  such  his  dislike  as 
aforesaid,  at  Michaelmas  or  within  xl  dayes  after  in  any  yeere  dureing 
the  terme  that  hee  determineth  to  hold  the  same  no  longer,  then  in  such 
case  uppon  one  yeeres  warning  as  aforesaid  the  Patente  to  bee  voyde  and 
the  Patentee  to  bee  freed  from  all  paymentes  and  covenauntes  and  to  bee 
an  Accomptant  onely  for  the  same. 

To  have  all  such  further  covenauntes  as  the  Farmers  of  the  Tobacco 
now  hath  for  the  safe  enjoying  therof  as  by  the  Kings  Majestie's  Councell 
and  the  Farmers  shalbe  thought  fitt  and  necessary. 

[Endorsed  by  Cranfield:]  Tobacko:  Mr.  Jacobs  new  offer  of  8000  /. 
per  annum. 

10*  The  proclamation  was  dated  Dec.  30,  1619,  and  issued  somewhat  later. 
Beer.  Origins,  p.  113.  The  text  is  in  the  American  Antiquarian  Society's  volume 
of  British  Royal  Proclamations  relating  to  America  (Transactions  and  Collec- 
tions, XII.),  pp.  18-21. 

105  See   the  preceding  document. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       525 

XXVIII.     OFFER  OF  THE   IMPORTERS   OF   SPANISH   TOBACCO,    162O.1"0 

An  offer  of  the  Spanish  Marchantes  for  the  Farming  of  the  Imposte, 
Increase  of  Subsidy,  and  the  Sole  Importation  of  Tobacco  for 
seaven  veers  from  Michaelmas  next  1620  without  any  defaulcacion 
for  the  Increase  of  Subsidy  dureing  the  privelidge  of  the  Bermudos 
Company  beeing  for  twoe  yeeres  to  come  or  ther  abouts  and  after 
to  pay  as  the  Virginia  Company  doth. 

Wheras  there  hath  bin  an  offer  made  unto  his  Majestie  by  divers  which 
have  never  delte  in  the  Trade  of  Tobacco  but  onely  as  Adventurers  in 
the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Company  for  the  taking  to  Farme  from  his 
Majestie  the  Imposts  etc.  and  Sole  Importation  of  Tobacco.  And  for  that 
wee  not  onely  our  selves  for  many  yeeres  traded  in  Tobacco,  but  alsoe 
have  brought  up  many  servantes  in  that  faculty  And  wee  doe  conceive 
that  the  trade  of  Tobacco  is  not  soe  proper  unto  any  as  unto  ourselves 
wee  beeing  more  able  to  give  Satisfaction  unto  the  State  for  the  venting 
of  our  native  comodetyes  at  the  best  and  highest  rates  as  alsoe  for  the 
selling  of  Tobacco  at  reasonable  prices  unto  his  Majesties  Subjectes  and 
to  answer  all  other  objections  concerning  that  trade  wee  haveing  of  long 
tyme  exercised  the  same, 

In  regard  wherof  wee  in  all  humblenes  implore  his  Majestie's 
gracious  Favour  with  your  honour's  favourable  Furtherance  that  our  trade 
may  bee  continued  unto  us.  And  wee  will  give  unto  his  Majestie  for  the 
Farme  of  the  Impost,  Increase  of  Subsidy  and  Sole  Importation  of  To- 
bacco for  seaven  yeeres  to  begin  at  Michaelmas  next  1620  (Provided 
alwayes  that  noe  greater  charge  bee  laid  on  the  Tobacco  then  is  at  this 
present)  these  Rentes  following  vizt.  For  the  first  veer's  Rent  to  bee 
paid  halfe  yeerly  att  our  Lady  Day  and  at  Michaelmas  or  within  forty 
dayes  after  16000  /.  per  annum1"7  and  for  the  sixe  laste  ensuing  yeeres 
20000  /.  per  annum,  And  the  Rentes  to  bee  divided  by  twoe  severall 
Patentes  vizt.  6000  /.  per  annum  for  the  Impost  and  Increase  of  Subsedy 
dureing  the  said  seaven  yeeres  And  10000  /.  per  annum  for  the  first  yeere 
for  the  sole  Importation,  And  yf  wee  shall  thinck  fitt  to  continue  the 
same  then  14000  /.  per  annum  for  the  sixe  ensuing  yeeres.  Allsoe  wee 
wilbee  contented  to  take  from  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  company  50,000 
lb.  of  Tobacco  soe  it  bee  made  marchantable,  at  reasonable  prices,  or  in 
case  the  same  bee  not  marchantable,  then  wee  will  give  them  liberty  to 
make  saile  of  the  said  50000  lb.  to  their  best  advantage.  And  for  any 
greater  quantetyes  the  said  companyes  shall  bring  in  the  same  to  bee  trans- 
ice  Xo.  6183.  The  offer  referred  to  in  the  beginning  of  the  document  is  that 
of  Sir  Thomas  Roe  and  others,  presented  Apr.  5,  1620,  Acts  P.  C.  Co!..  I.  32,  33, 
and  the  date  of  this  document  must  lie  between  that  and  July  30.  when  the 
grant  was  authorized  to  be  made  to  them.      Cal.  S.  P.  Dom..   1619-1623.  p.    170. 

10"  A  memorandum  of  Cranfield's  summarized  in  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Fourth 
Re  fort.  I.  281,  estimates  receipts  from  tobacco  in  the  next  year  (i.  <?.,  from  Roe 
et  als.)  at    £16,000. 


26 


Documents 


ported  beyond  the  Seas,  and  not  to  bee  vented  in  his  Majestie's  Kingdome 
of  England  or  Dominion  of  Wales.  And  yf  this  our  offer  may  bee 
accepted  of  wee  will  tender  such  Articles  for  the  Patentes  to  bee  drawne 
up  by  as  is  fitt  for  his  Majesties  service  and  reasonable  for  us  to  have. 

Alsoe  wee  humbly  desire  that  the  Patent  for  the  Garbling  of  To- 
bacco108 may  upon  reasonable  composition  bee  passed  over  unto  us,  for 
haveing  that  Patent  wee  will  soe  marke  all  our  owne  Tobacco  as  wee  will 
not  easely  bee  deceived,  and  soe  those  officers  may  serve  for  both  uses, 
And  all  which  wee  humbly  leave  unto  your  honours  further  considerations. 

[Endorsed  by  Cranficld:]  Offer  for  Impost  Tobacko. 

XXIX.     IMPORTATIONS    OF    TOBACCO,    SEPTEMBER   29,    1614,    TO    SEPTEMBER   29, 
l62I.100 

An  abstracte  of  what  Spanish  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  hath  bin 
imported  into  the  Porte  of  London  and  the  Out-Portes  from 
Michaelmas  1614  to  Michaelmas  1621,  vizt. 


1 61 5 
1616 
1617 
1618 
(619 
1620 
1 621 


Spanish 

Bermudos 

IOO926 

OOOOO 

S692S 

O23OO 

452/9 

18839 

57058 

49518 

1 19634 

45764 

9/149 

1 1  7981 

159873 

71777 

636S44 


308179 


Spanish 

Bermudo 

OI35I 

OOOO 

OI406 

0200 

OI797 

OOOO 

08371 

OI50 

08493 

OOOO 

12248 

IO4O 

14520 

OOOO 

48186 


1390 


The  Medium  per  annum  of  Spanish  Tobacco  in  Lon- 
don and  the  Outportes  is 

The  Medium  per  annum  of  the  Virginia  and  Ber- 
mudos Tobacco  etc.  is 


97SO1  3/7 

44223  1/7 

Some  Totall  142084  4/7 

97861  3/7  lb.  of  Spanish  Tobacco  at  ii  .j.  per  pound110 

108  Garbling  was  governmental  inspection,  for  the  protection  of  the  con- 
sumer. A  patent  for  the  office  of  garbling  tobacco  for  thirty  years  was  granted 
May  25,  1619,  to  Francis  Nicholls  and  others.     Cal.  St.  P.  Bom.,  1619-1623.  p.  47. 

100  No.  6161. 

ii"  This  line  and  the  next  are  calculations  of  the  impost  on  the  above  aver- 
age annual  quantities,  the  Spanish  at  2  s..  the  ordinary  rate  (Beer.  p.  109),  that 
of  Virginia  and  Bermuda  at  the  rate  of  i  s.  to  which  the  company  had  agreed  on 
Jan.  8,  1620  (Records,  I.  291).  The  third  line  calculates  the  five  per  cent,  sub- 
sidy on  the  whole,  at  the  rale  of  6  d.  a  pound. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       5*7 

is 9786  .  03  .  00 

44223  1/7  lb.  of  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  at  i .?. 

per  lb.  is 2211    .   03   .   02 

1 1997   .   06   .   02 


142085  at  vi  d.  per  Pound  is 3552   •   02 


06 


[Endorsed:]  The  medium  of  Tobacco  imported  into  the  port  of  London 
and  Out-portes  for  vii  yeares  endinge  at  Michaelmas  1621. 

[A  duplicate,  doe.  no.  61JI,111  has  the  following  addition,  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Richard  Willis,  but  signed  by  his  patron:]  30  June  1622.  Lett 
distinction  be  made,  how  much  of  this  tobacco  is  Leafe  Tobacco,  and  how 
much  is  Rowle  and  Pudding  Tobacco:  because  the  rates  are  severall.  L. 
Cranfeilde. 

xxx.  notes  of  richard  willis  concerning  tobacco,  l62l(  ?).112 

A  proclamation  to  prohibit  the  plantinge  of  Tobacco  in  Ireland  with 
reference  to  the  proclamation113  and  a  transcript  of  the  like  to  be  sent  with 
the  King's  warrant. 

A  proclamation  accordinge  to  the  old  forme,  for  restrayning  the  Im- 
portation of  Tobacco  into  Ireland  or  to  do  it  by  letters  as  effectuall ;  and 
therin  to  advise  with  Mr.  Attorney. 

A  letter  to  the  Kinge  to  take  notice  of  the  wronge  of  exporting  the 
Virginia  Tobacco  into  the  Low  Contryes ;  and  to  procure  his  Majesties 
express  letters  to  both  the  Companies  that  the  plantations  to  prohibit  theyr 
uttering  of  any  other  comodities  then  in  England  and  Ireland. 

To  speak  with  Geles114  for  compounding  aboute  the  seisures  of  Tobacco, 
at  the  rate  of  the  former  composition. 

To  take  some  course  that  the  patent  of  Importation  of  Tobacco  in 
Ireland  may  not  prejudice  the  contract  with  the  plantacions. 

To  send  the  warrant  to  Mr.  Attorney  for  dispatch  of  the  patent. 

The  Patent  for  Garbling  the  Tobacco  to  be  provided  for,  in  some  fytt 
and  convenyent  manner. 

[Endorsed :]  Tobacco. 

111  No.  6161  is  marked  in  red  ink  as  no.  7.  no.  6171  as  no.  18,  and  these 
are  the  numbers  by  which  Peckard  described  them  when  he  borrowed  them  from 
the  Duke  of  Dorset.     Life  of  Xicholas  Ferrar,  p.   161. 

112  No.  61S9.  The  date  must  lie  between  July  1S,  1620,  when  the  company 
resolved  to  send  surplus  tobacco  to  the  Netherlands  (  Records.  I.  406,  422)  and  the 
complaints  of  the  Privy  Council  thereon,   Oct.    12,    162!    (I.  526). 

113/.  e.,  to  the  English  proclamation  of   Dec.   30.    1610:   see  note    104.  above. 
111  Probably  Richard  Gyles  of  doc.   no.   XXXIY. 


52S  Documents 

XXX.    DRAFT  AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  FARM    OF  TOBACCO,   NOVEMBER   19,    l62I.115 

Agreementes  made  with  William  Burton  and  Peter  Sanderson  concerning 
the  Tobacco  farme. 

19  November,  1621. 

They  are  to  have  in  farme  the  Impost  and  sole  Importacion  of  all 
tobacco  (except  that  which  comes  from  Virginia  and  Bermudos)  for  one 
wholl  yeare  from  Michaelmas  last  1621  at  Eight  Thousand  pounds  rent 
payable  half  yeerlie  at  the  Anunciacion  and  Michaelmas  or  within  40  daies 
after  either  feast. 

They  are  to  be  lymitted  not  to  exceede  the  proportion  of  Three  skore 
thousand  waight  in  the  wholl  upon  this  bargaine.  And  if  they  or  any  for 
them  their  partners  or  factors  bring  in  more,  they  are  to  paie  ii  5.  vi  d. 
impost  upon  everie  pounde  that  shall  exceede  that  proportion  over  and 
above  the  Rent  aforesaid. 

To  the  ende  there  maie  be  the  better  reckoninge  kept  for  the  Kinge, 
of  what  shalbe  brought  in  upon  this  Contract,  the  same  shalbe  unladen  in 
the  port  of  London  onelie;  except  by  extremyty  of  wether  at  Sea,  they  be 
dryven  into  anie  other  Port ;  and  in  that  case  to  give  notice  to  the  Kinge's 
officers,  before  they  unlade. 

They  are  to  have  such  covenantes  for  assistance  with  libertie  to 
assigne  bondes  to  the  Kinge  as  is  usuall  in  Grauntes  of  like  nature:  as 
also  to  serch  seize  and  carrie  to  the  Kinge's  storehouse  at  the  Custome 
house  any  Tobacco  imported  contrary  to  this  priviledge. 

[Reference  to  attorney  general  for  preparation  of  patent:]  Mr.  At- 
torney— I  pray  you  drawe  up  a  Bill  for  his  majesties  signature  to 
warrant  the  passing  of  this  Graunt  to  the  parties  abovenamed. 

The  fee  of  150  /.  per  annum  graunted  to  Mr.  Abraham  Jacob  out  of 
the  Tobacco  by  former  letters  patentes,110  is  to  be  contynued  unto  him, 
accordinge  to  his  Majesties  said  graunt  therof. 

[Endorsed:]  29  November  1621,  Agreement  for  the  farme  of  tobacco. 

XXXII.     PROPOSALS   AS   TO   LICENSING   RETAILERS,    l622.11T 

The  conditions  and  articles  of  agreement  betwixt  the  King's  Majestie 
and  the  undertakers  for  the  granting  of  lisenses  to  all  those  that  shall  sell 
or  retaile  Tobacco  within  his  Majestie's  dominions  of  England  and  Wales. 

us  Xo.  6193.  Roe  and  his  associates  gave  up  their  contract  at  Michaelmas 
1 621,  and  Abraham  Jacob  took  it  at  a  reduced  rate.  Records  of  I'a.  Co.,  II.  6S. 
Dec.  4,  1621,  Cranfield  wrote  to  Buckingham,  "  I  have  agreed  with  the  farmers  of 
tobacco  for  this  year,  for  £8000,  and  have  told  them  to  bring  in  but  threescore 
thousand  weight,  and  have  left  the  Virginia  and  Bowrmoothes  free  to  bring  in 
without  restraint,  and  his  Majesty  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  impost.  This  is 
£2000  more  than  could  be  gotten  by  the  Lords  at  Hampton  Court  ".  Goodman, 
Court  of  King  James  the  First,  II.  211. 

ii|!  As  collector.     See  doc.  no.   XXVI.,  and  note    [00. 

11"  Xo.  6202.  The  licensing  of  retailers  of  tobacco  was  not  actually  carried 
into  effect  till  1633;  its  history  is  given  in  Beer.  Origins,  pp.  160-165. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       529 

1.  First  that  a  Proclamation  bee  granted  from  his  Majestie  that  no 
Alehouse  Tipling  or  victualing  house  nor  any  parson115  of  what  trade  or 
condition  soever  shall  vente  sell  utter  or  retayle  in  there  houses  shops  or 
warehouses  any  Tobacco  of  any  kinde  from  [date  blank]  next  without 
his  Majestie's  spetiall  graunte  or  lisence  upon  paine  of  his  Majestie's  high 
displeasure  and  of  such  further  punishment  as  shalbe  inflicted  upon  him 
or  them  so  offending  in  his  .Majestie's  highe  courte  of  Starre  Chamber. 

2.  That  also  those  persons  so  lisensed  to  have  pouer  and  authoritie  to 
sease  upon  all  suche  Tobacco  as  theye  shall  finde  unsealed  by  such  a  seale 
appoynted  by  his  Majestie  or  soulde  without  lisenses  the  one  movetie 
thereof  to  his  Majestie  the  other  parte  for  the  seasor  or  informer. 

3.  That  his  Majestie  assume  unto  himself e  by  the  said  proclamation 
that  this  Tobacco  to  bee  his  owne  commoditie  by  the  lawe  and  costome  of 
this  his  kingdome  in  regarde  it  is  neither  victum  nor  vestitutum.110 

4.  That  this  buysines  be  carved  by  a  commission  graunted  by  certaine 
commissioners  under  the  greate  seale  whome  his  Majestie  shall  athorise 
or  appoynte  giving  them  or  any  of  them  full  pouer  and  athoritie  together 
with  such  undertakers  as  his  Majestie  shall  so  assine  there  unto  to  give 
and  grante  lisences  to  suche  parsons  as  they  shall  thinke  fitt  and  the  said 
undertakers  hereof  onlv  to  levie  take  and  receive  such  fines  somes  or 
somes  of  money  as  thie  in  there  wisdomes  shall  thinke  fitt  and  expedient 
in  that  behalfe. 

5.  That  there  bee  pouer  and  authoritie  graunted  to  the  undertakers 
under  the  greate  seale  to  appoynte  commissioners  whome  theye  shall  please 
to  send  abroade  into  any  Cittie  Toune  or  Villadge  in  his  Majestie's  Do- 
minions of  England  and  Wayles  and  there  to  grante  lisences  and  to  levy 
and  reseive  such  fines  and  somes  of  mony  as  theye  shall  thinke  fitt  and 
reasnable. 

6.  That  the  said  lisence  maye  bee  granted  to  continue  for  lives  or  21 
yeeres  as  the  undertakers  shall  thinke  expeidient  in  theire  discretions  for 
the  better  improvement  of  this  buysines  for  his  Majesties  future  benefitt 
and  proffitt. 

7.  That  a  seale  bee  graunted  by  his  Majestie  to  the  undertakers  for 
the  sealing  of  the  aforesaid  lisence. 

8.  That  if  it  shall  so  happen  by  a  Parlament  or  otherwise  the  under- 
takers shalbe  hindred  in  theire  proceedings  according  to  the  true  tenure 
and  meaning  hereof  or  bee  withstood  by  any  opposition  or  injunction  and 
not  have  redresse  against  the  opposers  thereof  that  then  and  at  such  times 
the  undertakers'  Rente  to  his  Majestie  shall  sease  and  determine  without 
ther  further  troble  or  molestacion. 

9.  That  his  Majestie's  Rente  to  begine  the  25th  of  Marche  next  and  so 
to  continue  for  three  yeeres. 

10.  That  the  undertakers  shalbee  bounde  to  pave  unto  his  Majestie  the 
some  of  five  thousand  pounds  per  annum  to  be  paid  at  2  equall  payments 

us  Person. 

us  Meaning,   neither  victus   nor  vestitus. 


530  Documents 

vizt.  2500  pound  at  Michaelmas  and  2500  pounde  at  our  Lady  dayes  or 
within  40  dayes  after. 

11.  That  the  Proclamation  bee  forthwith  putt  in  execution  and  pro- 
claymed  and  the  undertakers  to  have  the  benefitt  of  the  interim  to  settle 
the  buysines. 

[Endorsed  by  Cran field :]  Concerning  the  lycensing  to  sell  tobacko. 

XXXIII.     NOTES  RESPECTING  THE  FARMERS   OF  TOBACCO,   JANUARY   4,    l622.120 

Le  4th  of  January  1621 

Securitie  to  be  tendered  for  the  rent  of  Tobacco  beinge  8ooo  /.  vidz. 
whereof  500  /.  to  be  reserved  for  defalcacions  for  certayne  Tobacco 
brought  in  by  the  Irishe  men  from  the  Amazones121  and  the  fee  of  150  /. 
to  Abraham  Jacob,  esquier. 

It  is  humbly  desired  to  have  letters  of  assistants  for  serche  and  seazure 
of  Tobacco  which  is  refused.  Also  it  is  desired  that  Warrants  from  my 
Lord  Treasurer  to  all  the  Portes  of  England  for  assistants  of  those  depu- 
ties as  shalbe  imployed  in  this  service  may  be  granted. 

The  names  of  the  securitie  as  followeth 

Abraham  Jacob  esquier 

Clement  Harby  merchant        skynner 

John  Wiseman  merchant         merchant  taylcr 

George  Langham  merchant         merchant  taylcr 

Robert  Oxwicke  merchant        draper''-2 

Henry  Lee  merchant         grocer 

Thomas  Hampson  merchant         haberdasher 

These  thinges  beinge  performed  the  undertakers  for  the  importacion 
of  tobacco  are  ready  to  seale  this  securitie  either  to  his  Majestie  or  to 
whom  your  Lordship  shall  appoynt  accordinge  to  such  dayes  and  tymes 
as  are  lymited  in  the  letters  pattents. 

More  it  is  humbly  desired  that  whereas  there  is  a  shipp  lately  arrived 
that  hath  brought  great  store  of  Tobacco  from  the  Bermudos,  whereof  it 
is  supposed  by  reason  of  a  Racke  of  a  Spanishe  Shipp123  uppon  the  sayd 
Hand  that  there  is  brought  over  in  this  Bermudo  shipp  some  good  quantitie 
of  Weste  India  tobacco :  In  regard  whereof  the  undertakers  doe  humbly 
desire  that  letters  may  be  written  downe  to  the  Custome  house,  not  to 
suffer  this  Tobacco  to  be  delivered  before  such  tyme  as  the  sayd  Tobacco 
be  viewed  by  some  appoynted  by  the  undertakers  to  distingwishe  the  same, 

12"  No.  61S8.  See  doc.  no.  XXXI.  The  words  in  italics  are  in  the  hand- 
writing of   Richard   Willis. 

i^i  By  Capt.  Roger  North,  some  at  least  of  whose  investors  were  Irish. 
See  Acts  P.  C.  Col.,  I.  31-48,  passim. 

1=2  See  no.   XI.,  ad  fin. 

12a  The  Scrn  Antonio.  Lefroy,  Memorials  of  the  Bermudas,  I.  240,  241.  ^57; 
Acts  P.  C.  Col,  I.  si-53. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       53  * 

and  if  any  be  fownd,  to  make  stay  therof,  as  likewise  for  all  shippes  that 
shall  come  from  Virginia  and  Bermudos  duringe  the  tearme  of  theire 
contracte. 

[Endorsed:]  Somer  Islands. 

[There  arc  also  the  following  notes  in  the  hand  of  Richard  Willis:} 
Tobacco  Farmers  to  be  bound  to  Mr.  Heryott.124 

The  want  of  powder  in  the  Tower 

King's  Sedgmore 

Mr.  Auditor  Gofton's1"  patent  stayd 

Lord  Privy  Seale's  docquet 

Mr.  Harby  for  Mr.  Wright 

Mr.  Duquester's  letter 

Mr.  Townley  a  shoemaker  over  against  the  Black  Spred  Eagle  in  Little 
Drury  Lane. 

XXXIV.    ROGER   HALL  TO   RICHARD  GYLES,   APRIL    l6,    l622.12" 

Yarmouth  the  16th  of  Aperell  1622 
Ser 

My  comendations  unto  you  beinge  remembered  Theise  ar  to  sartifie 
you  that  I  sent  you  the  last  weeke  a  letter  concerninge  som  sarfese1-7 
which  Hill  and  I  did  at  Norwich  for  tobaco  which  wee  seased  beinge 
unsealled  contrary  to  the  prokllymacion.  Wee  toke  away  from  on1-5  Wil- 
liam Pleassantes  36  lb.  of  tobacow  which  was  unesealled  and  from  Enucke 
Verpost  22  lb.  and  from  on  Richard  Mallom  13 '4  lb.  besids  wee  seased  in 
on  Jeames  Fathering's  alias  Farthering  howse  (as  wee  take  it  his  nam  is 
so)  som  60  lb.  of  tobaco  and  upwards  which  was  unsealled  But  beinge 
resisted  by  hym  wee  went  unto  the  maior  of  Norwich  for  to  crav  his  aide 
and  asistancs  and  he  maeid  a  quicion1-"-'  of  our  unabelnes  whether  wee  wer 
abell  for  to  anser  the  tobacow  so  seased  by  us  or  no;  wee  shewed  hym 
first  the  procklimacion  and  the  lord  thresorer's  writ  of  assistanc  and  the 
pattenties'  deputation  wher  unpon  he  would  do  this  for  to  undertake  that 
the  tobaco  should  be  forthcomynge  in  the  morning  it  beinge  som  what  in 
the  evening  wee  wer  constarned130  so  to  do.  The  next  morninge  when 
wee  cam  to  the  maior  he  had  the  tobacow  in  his  howse  and  bed  us  go 
with  hym  for  to  see  it  waved  for  wee  should  not  have  it     But  he  would 

VI.   152,   156, 


12*  George  Herrio 

t   r 

ield   the 

farm 

of 

sugars. 

O: 

Id  P 

art.  1 

list., 

1-172,  25 

6  ;  Cat. 

St. 

P. 

D0111., 

1619- 

1623, 

P.   193. 

i-'5  Sir 

Franci 

s  Goftc 

>n,  audil 

:or  of 

the 

imprest 

in 

the 

exch 

equer 

12c  No. 

6191. 

Probably    the 

Richard 

Giles    v 

tho 

in 

1616 

had 

■reting    0 

ut   and 

bu: 

rni| 

rig    false 

dye- 

-woods.     Re} 

net 

nbra 

ncia, 

PP. 

.  P.  Don 

!..     l6l1 

-16 

'8, 

p.   407. 

127  Ser 

vice. 

12s  One. 

120  Que 

:stion. 

130  Cor 

d. 

532  Documents 

keepe  it  for  the  Kinge  and  the  partie  said  ther  was  not  Brot  but  45  lb. 
which  remanes  in  Mr.  maior's  hand.  I  pray  if  the  seasur  be  good  as  I 
thinke  it  take  a  course  that  wee  may  comand  the  tobaco  from  Mr.  Maior. 
the  parties  which  oweth  the  tobaco  dose  threten  us  much  for  to  arest  us 
with  prosses  the  next  tearm  for  takinge  away  of  ther  tobaco.  I  pray 
advise  me  what  course  I  shall  take  and  what  shalbe  don  with  this  tobaco 
which  wee  touke  from  them  as  also  that  which  is  in  the  maiore's  hands, 
and  so  in  haste  I  rest 

Yours  to  comand 

Roger  Hall. 
[P.  S.]     I  pray  remember  Mr.  Tesmound's  pack  for  to  send  order  for 
the  dellivery  of  it  as  soon  as  may  be. 

[Endorsed:']  23  Aprill  1622,  From  Roger  Hall  aboute  tobaccoe. 
[Addressed:]  To  his  Loving  Friende  Mr.  Richard  Gyles 
at  the  Sign  of  the  Anworth  in  Thames  Street 
near  Somers  Key  deliver  this  in  London. 
[The  following  unsigned  draft  warrant  is  attached  to  tin-  foregoing:] 
After  my  harty  comendacions,  Whereas  I  am  informed  that  diverse  per- 
cells  of  Tobaccoe  have  bene  found  by  the  officers  and  Farmers'  deputies 
of  Yarmouth  unsealed  in  the  city  of  Norwich  which  they  seized  as  goodes 
uncustomed  and  part  therof  was  detained  from  them  being  the  goodes  of 
James  Fatheringes  alias  Farthinge  who  as  it  seemeth  much  dependeth 
upon  your  favour  and  assistance  to  save  his  tobacco  for  the  officers  have- 
inge  seized  lx  /.  waight  or  thereaboutes  as  I  am  informed  were  not  per- 
mitted to  take  the  same  into  the  custodie  as  is  usuall  for  matters  concern- 
ing his  majesties  customs  but  that  the  same  was  taken  into  your  possession 
as  a  favour  to  the  said  Fatherings  alias  Farthing  and  the  officers  rather 
discoraged  then  assisted  by  you  as  also  more  then  halfe  the  tobaccoe  de- 
tained by  you  and  fas  they  suppose)   changed  for  Virgenia  or  Bermuda 
tobaccoe  instead  of  Spanish  Tobaccoe,  in  regard  wherof  these  are  to  will 
and  require  you  to  take  such  order  as  the  whole  quantety  of  tobaccoe  be 
delivered  to  the  officers  that  seized  the  same  and  that  you  give  your  best 
assistance  for  his  Majesties  service  in  all  things  touching  the  importacion 
of  tobaccoe  And  soe  I  bidd  you  hartely  farewell 
Whitehall  this  [blank] 

Your  loveing  freind 

[Unsigned.] 
To  my  loveing  freind  the 

Maior  of  the  city  of  Norwich 

XXXV.     NOTE  OF  RESISTANCE  TO  GARBLING,    MAY  2S,   l622.lnl 

The  28th  May  1622 
The  27th  present  there  did  attend  two  appoynted  for  the  garbling  and 
sealinge  that  Tabbacco  brought  in  by  Mr.  Hampson  and  the  rest  of  the 

131  No.   6223.     See   no.   XXVIII.,   note    10S.     The   names  of  Wiseman,   Hamp- 
son.  and   Oxvvicke   appear   in    no.    XXXIII..    that    of   O.xwicke   also   in   no.    XI. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       533 

contractors,  sethence  the  29th  of  September  last  according  to  ther  owen 
desyre  and  appoyntment  the  24th  of  this  instant.  Notwithstanding  thes 
heireunder  named  and  as  they  say  with  consent  of  the  rest  doe  both  refuse 
to  have  the  sayd  tabbacco  garbled  and  also  to  pay  the  4  d.  per  pound  dewe 
for  the  garbling  thereof. 

Mr.  Anys 

Mr.  Wyseman 

Mr.  Hampson 

Mr.  Borne 

Mr.  Charlton 

Mr.  Oxewicke 

Mr.  Sanborne 

[Endorsed  by  Willis:]  From  Bridgwater. 

Edward  Crathen  of  Merton  500  quarters  of  wheate  beanes  and  barly 
to  be  transported  into  Cornewall  or  Wales  where  he  shall  have  best 
commoditye. 

XXXVI.    COMPLAINT  OF  RICHARD  YOUNG,  AND  REPLY,  JUNE,   l622.132 

The  losses  of  Richard  Younge.  Grocer,  by  the  Patentees  of  Tobacco  and 
their  Deputies. 

1.  They  took  awaie  in  June  1621  42^  li.  of  To- 

bacco which  cost  xi  s.  per  li.  which  by  reason 
of  their  longe  and  ill  keeping  it  6  monethes 
beecame  spoiled  soe  that  I  was  compelled  to 
sell  it  for  ii  .?.  vi  d.  per  /('.  in  which  I  loste  xviii/f.  is.     iiid. 

2.  Delivered   them    in   money   to   have   the   same 

againe  viii  s. 

3.  More  taken  awaie  at  the  same  time  xi  ownces 

of  an  other  sorte  which  I  never  had  againe 

worth  iiii .?. 

4.  More   taken    from    mee    two    rolles    of    iS    li. 

weight  for  the  which  I  can  prove  the  cus- 
tome  to  bee  paid  and  yet  am  forced  to  sue 
them  for  the  same  in  thexchequer  then 
worth  x  s.  per  li.  as  the  informer  himself 
offred  for  it 

5.  The  charges  of  that  suite  allreadie 

6.  Spent  in  the  marshallseas133 

7.  To  the  messenger  for  his  fees 


L32  No 

.  6 

199. 

L33  A 

pri 

son    in 

Soi 

ithwark, 

for 

debtors, 

:    (cou 

rt 

Df  the 

lord 

steward 

and 

marshal 

AM.  HI 

:st. 

REV., 

VOL. 

XXVII.— 

-36. 

ix/ 
iii  / 

vl 
vl 

1. 

xxxx  / 

1.     xiii  j.     iii  d. 

ttached    to 

the    Marshalsea 

534  Documents 

Moreover  they  tooke  away  xix  li.  of  rich  leafe  which  cost  xxx  .s.  per 
li.  by  the  wante  of  which  I  lost  the  custome  of  2  loades  and  others  of 
worth  which  was  the  best  of  my  livinge. 

[Reference  by  the  Lord  Treasurer :]  June  30,  1622.  Let  the  farmers 
for  the  importation  of  tobacco  see  theis,  and  give  there  present  answere 
herein.     L.  Cranfeilde. 

Right  Honorable 

The  sole  importacion  of  Tobacco  was  grownded  uppon  his  Majesties 
proclamacion  bearinge  date  the  xx'th  day  of  June134  anno  domini  1620 
wherby  all  Spanishe  Tobacco  beinge  fownd  unsealed  after  the  x'th  day 
of  July  followinge  is  forfeited. 

1.  First  for  the  42^  powndes  of  tobacco  or  thereaboutes  heare  men- 
tioned, the  same  was  fownd  unsealed  ten  monethes  or  thereaboutes  after 
the  tyme  lymited  in  the  proclamacion  and  for  the  lyinge  of  it  sixe 
nrxiethes  it  was  his  owne  fawlte;  in  that  uppon  the  first  stay  therof  he 
was  offered  uppon  makinge  affadavitt  that  the  custome  was  payd  he  should 
have  his  Tobacco  delivered  him ;  and  as  soone  as  he  had  made  oathe,  the 
same  was  soe  delivered. 

2.  Secondly  if  he  gave  to  the  officers  that  went  up  and  downe  to  helpe 
to  cleare  his  Tobacco  viii  s.  it  is  more  then  wee  knowe,  yet  they  might 
well  deserve  it. 

3.  Thirdly  if  he  wanted  11  ozs.  of  his  waight  it  may  very  well  be  true, 
for  wee  understand  he  gave  of  his  owne  free  will  1 1  ocs.  of  Virginia 
Tobacco  unto  the  officers  when  he  tooke  the  rest  away. 

4.  And  for  the  18  poundes  of  Tobacco  the  same  was  brought  into 
Southwork  to  one  Hockley  his  howse  by  a  fellowe  in  the  habitt  of  a  saylor 
alleadginge  he  brought  the  same  out  of  Spayne,  and  there  offered  it  to 
be  sould  which  beinge  unsealed  the  same  was  theare  sealed,  and  is  by 
informacion  put  into  the  Excheker  wheare  he  may  have  a  legall  tryall  as 
in  all  other  cases  of  that  nature  for  the  safety  of  his  Majesties  Customes. 

5.  6,  7.  The  seaverall  charges  he  hath  bin  at,  it  is  his  owne  faulte, 
and  by  his  owne  meanes  beinge  refractory  to  his  Majesties  proclamacion, 
graunt,  and  your  Honour's  warrant,  in  abusinge  the  officers  when  they 
came  to  doe  theare  service,  and  by  force  tooke,  and  yet  deteyneth  the 
Tobacco  they  fownd  in  his  custodye  beinge  53  poundes  sealed  in  a  bagge, 
which  wee  humbly  desire  may  be  delivered  to  his  Majestie's  use  and  those 
as  seazed  the  same ;  for  by  his  meanes  and  such  as  he  is,  the  whole  bussines 
hath  soe  far  suffered,  as  the  companies  are  likely  to  be  great  loasers  and 
his  Majestie  much  wronged  in  the  tyme  to  come. 

And  if  doubte  be  made  of  the  truth  of  this  certificate  wee  are  ready 
by  wittnes  to  prove  it  by  oathe.  All  which  wee  humbly  leave  to  youf 
Lordship's  grave  consideracion. 

is*  June   29,   not   20.     Am.   Antin.    Soe,   Royal  Proclamations,  pp.   27-31. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       535 

XXXVII.    REPLICATION   OF  RICHARD  YOUNG,   JUNE   IJ,    l622.135 

The  replication  of  Richard  Young  to  the  answere  made  by  the  Farmers 
for  the  Importacion  of  Tobacco  and  their  deputies  to  his  former 
objeccions. 

i.  By  way  of  affirmacion  of  his  former  objeccions,  he  doth  averre  and 
wilbe  ready  to  prove  them  to  be  all  true,  as  appeareth  in  that  they  deny 
not  in  their  answere.  any  one  of  the  objeccions,  but  excuse  them  by 
evasions  and  colour  their  owne  fraudes  and  deceiptes  with  circumstance. 
And  whereas  they  answere  that  he  might  have  had  his  42^2  lb.  of  Tobacco 
againe  upon  affidavit  that  the  Custome  was  paid,  This  Repliant  affirmeth 
that  in  the  presence  of  8  or  10  of  the  Farmers  by  himself e  and  the  parties 
of  whome  he  bought  the  same,  he  offred  to  prove  the  Custome  thereof 
was  paid,  and  that  the  same  was  of  a  sort  of  Tobacco,  which  they  them- 
selves knewe  was  lawfully  bought. 

2.  Whereas  they  alledge,  that  if  he  gave  to  their  officers  that  went  up 
and  downe  to  help  to  cleere  his  Tobacco  viii  s.  it  was  more  then  they 
knewe,  yet  they  might  well  deserve  it.  He  replyeth  that  the  labour  was  on 
his  part,  for  that  they  made  him  (to  his  greate  hindrance,  losse  of  time 
and  expences  of  money)  attend  them  many  daies  which  they  clayme  as  a 
duety  from  every  man  that's  in  their  power  to  deale  with,  neither  was  it 
a  free  guilt  from  this  Repliant,  for  that  they  would  have  scrued  from  him 
5  I.  before  they  would  yeild.  (as  he  can  manifest  under  the  handes  and 
seales  of  foure  of  them  besides  other  witnesses). 

3.. That  he  wanted  11  ounces  of  his  waight  which  they  pretend  he  gave 
way  of  his  owne  free  will  to  the  officers  when  he  tooke  away  the  rest,  He 
affirmeth  that  he  never  had  it  to  give,  after  they  first  tooke  it  away,  neither 
would  any  of  them  acknowledge  the  haveinge  thireof  but  shifted  it  of13" 
one  to  another. 

4.  Whereas  they  alledge,  he  may  have  a  legall  triall  in  the  Exchequer 
for  the  18  lb.  weight  of  Tobacco:  He  confesseth  it  to  be  true,  but  not 
without  the  losse  of  halfe  as  much  as  the  Tobacco  is  worth,  besides  the 
Tobacco  itself e  wilbe  cleane  spoyled,  before  he  shall  obteyne  the  same 
tryall,  whereas  otherwise  he  might  have  had  money  for  the  same  in  his 
purse  long  since. 

5.  6,  y\y.  Whereas  they  say  his  severall  charges  hath  beene  by  his 
owne  fault  and  by  his  owne  meanes,  being  refractory  to  his  Majestie's 
proclamacion,  graunt,  and  your  Honour's  warrant  in  abusinge  the  officers 
when  they  came  to  doe  their  service,  he  replyeth  first  that  all  this  expence 
and  trouble  is  risen  upon  him  by  their  negligence  in  refusing  to  seale  that 
Tobacco,  which  himselfe  bought  of  them  and  indeed  it  is  their  pollicie, 
for  they  refuse  to  seale  three  kindes  of  lawfull  Tobacco  which  they  by 
his  Majestie's  proclamacion  are  comaunded  to  seale,  vizt.  all  Virginia  and 
Burmothoes   Tobacco   which   they    receive   benefit   by,   likewise   all    such 

"5  No.  6195. 
130  Off. 


536  Documents 

Spanish  tobacco  as  they  seize  or  take  composicion  for,  and  oft  times  as 
in  this  particuler,  the  very  Tobacco  that  is  bought  of  themselves,  whereby 
ensueth  such  a  confusion,  that  the  law  full  is  not  to  be  knowne  from  the 
unlawfull  whereby  they  after  finding  the  same  Tobaccoes  unsealed  in 
other  mend's  [sic]  handes  (though  bought  of  themselves  or  otherwise 
allowed  by  them)  they  take  that  advantage  thereof  that  they  seize  the 
same  againe  to  bring  a  double  benifitt  to  themselves  which  hath  produced 
all  this  trouble  and  charge  to  this  Repliant  through  their  wilfull  refusall 
to  seale  the  same  and  so  consequently  he  was  noe  way  refractory  to  his 
Majestie's  proclamacion  or  graunt,  but  the  guilt  thereof  remaines  entyrely 
in  themselves  and  for  his  obedience  to  your  Honour's  warrant  and  the 
officers  the  Constable  and  all  his  servantes  wilbe  ready  to  depose,  that  he 
offered  them  no  violence:  But  was  so  farr  from  resisting  or  opposing 
authority  that  he  willingly  submitted  himself e  to  them,  weighed  the  To- 
bacco for  them,  lent  them  a  bagg,  suffred  them  to  seale  it  up  with  their 
owne  signetts,  and  offred  them  the  security  of  any  of  his  neighbours  for 
the  producinge  of  the  same,  whensoever  they  or  any  of  them  should  call 
for  it.  And  for  that  one  of  them  hath  made  oath,  that  he  had  bloud 
drawne  of  him,  the  same  was  onely  a  scratch  against  the  chest  by  his 
owne  suddeyne  catching  of  the  Tobacco  from  the  same. 

And  so  humbly  submitting  himself e  to  your  Honour  not  doubting  but 
(he  beeing  ready  to  make  proofe  of  the  truthe  of  all  this)  you  will  vouch- 
safe him  that  releife  for  theis  his  wronges  that  the  equity  of  his  cause 
shall  meritt,  And  (as  in  duety  bound)  he  will  ever  pray  for  your  Honours 
happines. 

[Endorsed  by  Willis:]  Received  17  June  1622.  Richard  Yonge's 
Replication  to  the  Tobacco  Farmers. 

XXXVIII.     PETITION   OF  THOMAS  VINCENT,    l622.13T 

To  the  right  honourable  Lyonell  Earle  of  Middlesex 
Lord  High  Treasurer  of  England 

The   humble   petition   of   Tho.    Vincent,   the   assigne   of   John 

Deargomedo  de  Lixbo.13*  merchant. 
Humblie  Sheweth :  That  uppon  your  honours  licence  for  a  quantitie  of 
tobacco  to  be  brought  into  this  port  paying  only  the  customes  and  impost 
for  the  same  as  in  tymes  past,  uppon  notice  whereof  the  said  John  Dear- 
gomedo hath  consigned  heither  2  pipes  conteyning  about  900  weight,  the 
petitioner  hath  tendred  the  wonted  customes  and  imposte  but  it  will  not 
be  accepted  without  4  rf.  per  lb.  for  garbling  the  said  Tobacco:  which  for 
that  it  hath  not  bene  usuallie  paid  and  was  not  knowne  unto  the  said  John 
Deargomedo,  your  petitioner  regarding  his  creditt  and  the  profitt  of  the 

137  No.  6169.  The  date  must  be  subsequent  to  Sept.  17,  1622,  when  Cran- 
field  was  created   earl  of  Middlesex. 

138  Lisbon. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       537 

said  Spanish  merchant  forbeareth  to  paie  the  same  untill  your  Lordships 
pleasure  be  further  knowne  therein. 

Maie  it  therfore  please  your  honour  to  give  order  that  the  said  Tobacco 
maie  bee  landed  upon  payment  of  the  old  duties :  without  anie  other  duties. 

And  your  petitioner  shall  ever  pray  etc. 

[Endorsed  by  Richard  Willis:]  A  Spanish  Marchant  concerning  the 
garbling  of  Tobacco. 

XXXIX.    CERTIFICATES  RESPECTING  TOBACCO,  JANUARY  I4,  FEBRUARY  22, 
l623.13» 

May  yt  please  your  good  lordship  it  doth  plainely  appeare  unto  us 
upon  examynacion  of  the  merchant's  Factor  and  the  oath  heerunto  an- 
nexed that  the  Tobacco  in  this  peticion  mencioned,  was  never  intended  tc 
be  landed  within  this  Realme  of  England,  but  directly  to  be  transported 
into  Ireland  as  is  aleaged  Soe  as  in  our  opynions  yt  may  please  your 
Lordship  to  gyve  order  for  the  redelyvery  of  the  said  tobacco  upon  caution 
taken  that  the  same  shalbe  shipped  out  of  this  Kingdome  of  England  and 
not  sold  within  this  Realme  all  which  wee  humbly  refer  to  your  Lordship's 
further  consideration. 

Customehouse  the  xiiii'th  January  1622 
Jon.  Holloway,  Comptroller.140 
Ric.  Carwarden,  Su.141  Abraham  Jacobb,  Farmer. 

Wee  the  farmers  of  his  Majesties  Customes  are  contented  that  th'affore 
saide  Tobacco  shall  passe  without  payinge  custome  or  Impost  provided 
good  Caution  be  given  for  th'exportinge  of  yt  out  of  this  Kingdome,  dated 
this  xxii°  February,  1622. 

Hexrie  Garwaie,  Farmer.14-         Abraham  Jacobb,  Farmer. 

[Endorsed:]  January  xiiii'th  1622.  Certificat  of  the  farmers  and  offi- 
cers of  his  majesties  customes  concerning  Mr.  Wood's  Tobacco  brought 
into  Hull. 

XL.     CERTIFICATE   RESPECTING   TOBACCO,    FEBRUARY    19,    1623.143 

Right  honorable 

Upon  examinacion  of  this  peticion  wee  can  find  no  likelihood  that  ther 
was  any  intent  to  land  the  Tobacco  in  England  as  appeareth  by  the  affa- 

139  n0    6,96^ 

140  Apparently  the  Mr.  Holloway  who  gave  the  company  its  balloting-box, 
and  was  thereupon  made  a  member.     Records,  I.  315. 

Ki  Richard  Carwarden,  surveyor  of  the  customs,  as  his  father  had  been  at 
an  earlier  time. 

"2  Afterward  Sir  Henry  Garraway,  lord  mayor  of  London  in  1640,  son  of 
a  chief  farmer  of  the 

"3  Xo.   6197. 


538  Documents 

davit  annexed  yet  it  should  seme  the  Searcher's  servant  hath  landed  the 
tobacco  upon  imaginacion  that  the  same  was  put  cut  of  one  shipp  into 
another  within  some  of  his  Majestie's  Ports  which  appeares  plainely  to 
the  contrary  yet  the  same  being  landed  cannot  againe  be  transported  with- 
out your  honor's  order  which  must  be  directed  to  the  Searcher  for  wee 
can  find  no  cause  of  seizure.  And  for  the  duties  outwards  wee  the 
farmers  are  satisfied  and  soe  leave  the  peticioners  to  your  honor's  further 
directions  and  humblie  take  leave.  Custome  house,  London  this  19th 
February,  1622. 

Jo.  Wolstenholme,  Collector.1" 

Jon.  Holloway,  Comptroller. 

Richard  Heney,  Comptroller. 

Abraham  Jacobb,  farmer. 
[Endorsed  by  Willis:']  Certificat  of  the  officers  and  Farmers  concern- 
ing some  Tobacco  to  bee  exported. 

i«  Sir  John  Wolstenholme,  one  of  the  farmers  of  the  customs,  and  son  of  a 
customs  official,  was  one  of  the  chief  members  of  the  Virginia  Company  and  an 
ardent  promoter  of  voyages  of  exploration,  especially  for  the  northwest  passage. 
Robinson  and  Brewster  applied  to  him  to  intercede  with  the  Council ;  letter  of 
1618  in  Bradford,  Plymouth  Plantation    (ed.  Ford),  I,  77.  82,  85. 


REVIEWS   OF   BOOKS 

GENERAL   BOOKS   AND   BOOKS   OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

L'Humanite  Prehistorique:  Esquisse  de  Prihistoire  Generate,  avec 
1300  Figures  et  Cartes  dans  le  Texte.  Par  Jacques  de  Morgan, 
Ancien  Directeur  General  des  Antiquites  de  l'Egypte,  Ancien 
Delegue  General  en  Perse  du  Ministere  de  l'lnstruction  Publique. 
[L'Evolution  de  l'Humanite,  Synthase  Collective,  dirigee  par 
Henri  Berr.]  (Paris:  La  Renaissance  du  Livre.  1921.  Pp. 
xix,  330.     15  fr.) 

This  book  is  the  second  number  of  a  library  of  one  hundred  volumes, 
the  Bibliothcque  de  Synthese  Historiquc.  The  first  series  of  twenty-five 
volumes  is  devoted  to  pre-history  and  protohistory.  M.  de  Morgan  has 
already  contributed  generously  to  our  knowledge  of  the  earliest  cultures 
of  Egypt  and  the  nearer  East.  He  is  qualified  to  take  a  cosmopolitan 
view  of  his  vast  subject.  The  book  is  divided  into  three  parts:  1,  "  The 
Evolution  of  Industries";  2.  "The  Life  of  Prehistoric  Alan";  3.  "The 
Intellectual  Development  and  Mutual  Relations  of  Peoples  ".  It  covers 
the  whole  of  prehistoric  time  and  life  in  all  their  aspects;  not  only  in 
Europe,  but  with  glances  toward  the  almost  unexplored  regions  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  even  of  America.  The  whole  panorama  is  condensed  in 
a  volume  of  330  pages,  where  space  is  also  found  for  nearly  two  hundred 
plates.  It  is  certainly  an  ambitious  and  hazardous  undertaking.  The 
author  has  made  good  use  of  his  space.  Both  as  explorer  and  student 
M.  de  Morgan  speaks  with  authority.  His  conclusions  have  crystallized 
out  of  immediate  acquaintance.  He  writes  on  a  vast  variety  of  subjects 
with  a  freedom,  a  vigor,  and  a  certain  bold  caution  which  is  always  re- 
freshing. We  may  shake  our  heads  over  his  condensed  arguments,  where 
space  does  not  allow  even  an  attempt  at  completeness.  But  he  always 
interests  or  fascinates  us.  We  differ  from  him  regretfully.  The  general 
tone  of  the  book  is  cautious,  that  of  a  man  who  has  made  a  world  of  facts 
the  basis  of  his  thought,  who  feels  the  narrowness  and  weakness  of  the 
foundations  of  many  of  our  present  theories,  and  warns  us  against  prema- 
ture and  hasty  generalizations.  In  his  description  of  Lower  Palaeolithic 
art  and  implements  he  shows  us  the  world-wide  distribution  and  general 
similarity  of  form  of  the  earliest  axes  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  He 
doubts  the  probability  or  possibility  of  any  single  centre  of  their  origin, 
and  therefore  of  their  chronological  sequence.  Hence  Chellean,  Acheu- 
lian,  and  Alousterian  cultures  represent  not  epochs  but  "  sub-industries  ", 
forms  of  work,  contemporaneous,  dictated  by  local  needs  and  aptitudes. 
He  seems  also  to  apply  this  to  limited  areas  and  provinces,  like  northern 
(539) 


54-0  Reviews  of  Books 

Europe,  where  his  argument  is  less  convincing.  Perhaps  we  have  no 
right  to  expect  that  the  surveyor  of  so  wide  a  field  can  always  find  space 
to  explain  why  and  where  the  general  rule  fails  to  apply  to  details.  The 
warning  is  certainly  wise  and  timely. 

The  few  pages  devoted  to  Egyptian  proto-history  bristle  with  inter- 
esting suggestions.  He  objects  to  the  current  modern  chronology  as  not 
allowing  sufficient  time  for  the  successive  stages  of  progress.  His  sug- 
gestion concerning  Chaldaean  or  Asiatic  influences  on  the  earliest  Egyptian 
development  should  attract  the  attention  of  Egyptologists,  and  will  arouse 
opposition  of  believers  in  the  autochthonous  character  of  its  civilization. 

The  author's  survey  of  prehistoric  pottery  is  less  satisfactory.  He 
seems  to  have  despaired  of  finding  any  thread  on  which  he  can  arrange 
and  string  his  facts.  Perhaps  it  could  not  be  otherwise  with  so  vast  a 
subject.  His  account  of  the  probable  place  of  origin  of  the  earliest  use 
of  metals  might  have  been  clearer  even  with  our  present  meagre  informa- 
tion. His  treatment  of  the  origin  of  the  dolmen  is  excellent.  His  fifteen 
pages  of  "  conclusions  "  summarize  well  the  chief  results  of  his  study. 
The  author  has  undertaken  a  most  difficult  task  and  is  to  be  congratulated 
on  his  success.  He  has  given  us  an  excellent  introduction  to  a  field  of 
surpassing  interest  and  of  steadily  increasing  importance  to  every  student 
who  would  see  and  understand  the  trend  and  meaning  of  history. 

Lcs  Indo-Europeens:  Prehistoire  dcs  Langncs,  des  Maeurs,  ct  dcs 
Croyanccs   dc    VEuropc.      Par    Albert    Carnoy,    Professeur    a 
l'Universite  de  Louvain.      [Collection  Lovanium  III.]      (Brussels 
and  Paris:  Vromant  et  Cie.     1921.     Pp.  256.     7  fr.) 
This  is  the  first  modern  book  on  its  subject,  by  a  competent  scholar, 
in  the  French  language ;  and  there  is  even  yet  none  in  English.     It  should 
therefore  be  welcomed,  especially  by  those  who  do  not  read  German  easily. 
It  is  much  more  compact  than  the  similar  German  works  of  Schrader, 
Hirt,  or  Feist — a  great  advantage  to  those  who  wish  merely  a  layman's 
general  orientation.     To  such,  one  can  recommend  heartily  the  chapters 
in  which,  in  a  few  clear  strokes,  are  sketched  the  outlines  of  prehistoric 
Indo-European  culture,  as  they  appear  to  present-day  philologists.     Be- 
yond these,  we  find  the  usual  discussions  of  the  original  home  (Carnoy, 
following  Schrader,  puts  it  in  southern  Russia;  he  is  .particularly  sure 
that  it  lay  eastward,  and  was  not  in  Germany),  and  of  the  race  of  the 
primal  Indo-Europeans,  which  he  connects  with  the  brachycephalic  "  Al- 
pine "  stock,  not  the  dolichocephalic  "  Nordic ",  as  generally  assumed.1 
No  proposed  solution  of  either  of  these  questions  can  command  our  con- 
fidence at  present.     Of  course  Carnoy  does  not  confuse  race  with  lan- 
guage; he  means  only  the  speakers  of  the  Ursprache.     But  the  fact  is 
that,  for  aught  we  know  or  probably  ever  shall  know,  they  may  have  been 
1  Similar    views    have    been    expressed,    though    more    hesitantly,    by    others, 
e.g.,    De    Michelis,   L'Origine    degli  Indo-Europci    (Turin,    1903). 


Fiskc:  Invention  541 

nearly  as  mixed  in  race  as  the  peoples  of  Central  Europe  to-day.  Further 
speculation  seems  hardly  fruitful.  And  the  chapter  on  "  Le  Caractere  des 
Indo-Europeens :  leur  Role  dans  l'Histoire  de  la  Civilisation  "  might  better 
have  been  omitted,  in  the  reviewer's  opinion. 

One-third  of  the  book  deals  with  Indo-European  religion — the  author's 
predominant  interest.  Here  he  necessarily  relies  largely  on  comparisons 
of  ideas,  not  of  words.  The  results  are  less  conclusive,  as  the  author 
usually,  though  not  always,2  recognizes.  Yet  perhaps  the  most  stimu- 
lating and  original  features  of  the  book  are  found  in  this  part. 

Misprints  are  not  rare,  nor  are  minor  slips  for  which  the  printer  can- 
not be  blamed.  Greater  care  in  small  matters  might  have  been  expected 
from  so  good  a  scholar.3  For  the  "  general  reader  "  these  are  unimpor- 
tant, as  they  seldom  vitiate  the  conclusions  drawn. 

Carnoy's  style  combines  condensation  with  perfect  lucidity,  and  makes 
the  book  one  which  anyone  can  not  only  understand,  but  enjoy. 

Franklin  Edgerton. 

Invention,  the  Master-Key  to  Progress.     By  Rear-Admiral  Bradley 
A.  Fiske,  LL.D.,  United  States  Navy.      (New  York:  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  and  Company.      192 1.     Pp.  ix,  356.     $4.00.) 
This   is  a   remarkable   book,   noteworthy   alike    for   the   range   of   its 
subject-matter,  for  the  breadth  of  its  views,  for  the  wealth  of  its  illustra- 
tive materials,  and  for  the  clearness  with  which  the  author  develops  his 
arguments.     The  fact  should  be  emphasized,  however,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  prospective  reader,  that  the  term  "  invention  "  is  used  in  no  narrow 
sense,  and  least  of  all  in  the  popular  sense  of  something  which  leads  to 
riches   by   way   of   letters-patent   or   other    forms   of   monopoly.     To   the 
author  the  term  applies  to  the  entire  group  of  activities  that  have  led  to 
discoveries  and  advances  in  man's  slow  ascent  from  barbarism  to  civiliza- 
tion.    To  him  the  creative  works  of  artists,  poets,  philosophers,  statesmen, 

-On  p.  172  we  are  told  that  "  mythologists  now  agree"  that  Mitra  was 
originally  not  a  sun-god.  Contrast  Bloomfield,  Religion  of  the  Veda,  p.  182: 
"  The  one  solid  point  in  the  genesis  of  these  myths  is  the  solar  character  of 
the  Aryan  Mitra."  Yet  both  Carnoy  and  Bloomfield  are  sober  and  responsible 
scholars,    and    specialists    in    Indo-Iranian    mythology  ! 

3  P.  12,  "  russ.  ogni",  read  "  anc.  slaw  ognl";  p.  13,  Sanskrit  "  tishtami, 
tishtasi,  tishtati",  read  tishthami,  tishthasi,  tishthati;  p.  19,  "anc.  slav.  seto  ", 
read  siito  ;  p.  S3,  "anc.  slave  vasna",  read  vesna;  p.  88,  "  ficus  religiosa", 
read  /.  infectoria ;  p.  112,  tashta  is  Iranian,  not  Sanskrit;  p.  119,  "  earbhuta  ". 
read  cirbhata  or  carbhata ;  p.  151,  "  sansc.  sabha  "  means  not  "reunion  de  vil- 
lages" but  "meeting"  (of  people,  not  villages),  and  certainly  does  not  help  to 
prove  that  the  IEs.  had  the  concept  of  a  "nation"  (the  old  identification 
with  German  Sipfc  is,  moreover,  more  than  doubtful);  Lithuanians  are  con- 
founded with  Letts  (pp.  170,  187);  p.  199,  "  Pere  Volga"  should  be  "Mere 
Volga  "  (as  correctly  on  p.  75 )  ;  etc.  Diacritical  marks  are  employed  or  dis- 
pensed with  seemingly  at  random.  A  peculiarly  unfortunate  misprint  occurs 
p.    13,    line    2,    ■' sti"    for    nti. 


542  Reviews  of  Books 

military  commanders,  captains  of  industry,  and  the  designers  and  builders 
of  canals,  roads,  and  engines  of  construction  and  destruction  are  all,  in 
appropriate  measures,  to  be  classed  among  the  inventions  of  men.  In  this 
widely  inclusive  sense,  inventions  are  held  by  the  author  to  have  been, 
and  to  be,  the  main  factors  in  the  evolution  of  mankind,  and  hence  worthy 
of  special  attention  by  us  and  by  our  successors. 

The  aims  of  the  book  are  set  forth  briefly  by  the  author  in  the  first 
paragraph  of  his  preface: 

To  show  that  inventors  have  accomplished  more  than  most  persons 
realize,  not  only  in  bringing  forth  new  mechanisms,  but  in  doing  creative 
work  in  many  walks  of  life,  is,  in  part,  the  object  of  this  book.  To  sug- 
gest what  they  may  do,  if  properly  encouraged,  is  its  main  intention.  For, 
since  it  is  to  inventors  mainly  that  we  owe  all  that  civilization  is,  it  is  to 
inventors  mainly  that  we  must  look  for  all  that  civilization  can  be  made 
to  be. 

Again,  on  p.  8,  in  his  account  of  invention  in  primitive  times,  the 
author  makes  plain  that  his  vision  is  not  limited  by  any  special  field  of 
endeavor : 

It  may  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  inventors  of  mechanical  appli- 
ances are  not  the  only  men  to  whom  original  conceptions  come;  for 
original  conceptions  evidently  come  to  the  poets,  the  novelists,  the  musical 
composers,  the  artists,  the  strategists,  the  explorers,  the  statesmen,  the 
philosophers,  the  founders  of  religions  and  to  the  initiators  of  all  enter- 
prises great  and  small. 

The  book  consists  of  sixteen  chapters,  each  with  a  clearly  suggestive 
title.  Some  of  these,  without  being  sensational  or  sententious,  are  so 
striking  as  to  justify  quotation  here:  IV.  Invention  in  Rome:  its  Rise 
and  Fall;  V.  Invention  of  the  Gun  and  of  Printing;  VIII.  The  Age  of 
Steam,  Napoleon  and  Nelson;  XL  Invention  and  Growth  of  Liberal 
Government,  and  American  Civil  War:  XIII.  The  Conquest  of  the 
Ether — Rise  of  Japan  and  the  United  States;  XV.  The  Machine  of  Civil- 
ization, and  the  Dangerous  Ignorance  concerning  it  shown  by  Statesmen. 

What  the  author  has  to  say  in  the  last  two  chapters  of  his  book  is  of 
profound  significance  to  the  future  of  our  race.  He  has  shown  that  what 
he  calls  "  the  Machine  of  Civilization  "  is  a  highly  complex  aggregate, 
requiring  many  specialists  of  many  kinds  to  keep  it  in  running  order.  But 
while  this  aggregate  is  growing  daily  in  complexity  and  in  the  delicacy 
of  adjustment  of  its  parts,  the  author  asserts  there  has  been  no  corre- 
sponding growth  in  the  capacities  of  the  men  who  are  actually  in  charge 
of  the  "  Machine  ".     Thus  he  writes,  p.  335  : 

Now  it  is  to  the  hands  of  statesmen  of  each  country  that  the  actual 
management  of  the  Machine  of  Civilization  is  committed.  Yet  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that,  although  there  are  but  few  men  in  the  world  so 
wise  and  learned  that  they  know  much  about  the  Machine  or  any  of  its 
parts,  it  is  not  from  the  wise  and  the  learned  class  that  the  great  officials 
of  government  are  selected! 


Stevenson:  Globes  543 

This  fact  [he  continues,  p.  336]  demands  attention.  Of  what  avail  is 
it  to  train  men  to  handle  the  separate  parts  of  the  Machine,  if  the  Machine 
as  a  whole  is  to  be  handled  by  untrained  men?  Of  what  avail  is  it  to 
train  engineers,  warriors,  priests,  physicians,  lawyers,  and  merchants  to 
handle  their  several  parts,  if  the  Machine  as  a  whole  is  to  be  handled  by 
statesmen  who  have  not  been  trained  to  handle  it  ? 

These  are  pertinent  questions  at  the  present  epoch,  especially  in  view 
of  recent  governmental  experiences,  demonstrating,  many  are  coming  to 
think,  the  inadequacy  of  the  administrative  parts  of  governmental  ma- 
chinery. We  have  "  mulled  through  "  the  recent  crisis,  but  civilization 
must  ultimately  break  down,  according  to  our  author,  unless  we  are  able 
to  secure  a  higher  degree  of  competence  on  the  part  of  the  men  we  choose 
to  direct  our  affairs. 

The  book  deserves  to  be  widely  read.  Although  of  necessity  frag- 
mentary, since  it  alludes  to  a  great  variety  of  topics  and  to  a  large  number 
of  individuals,  it  is  full  of  fruitful  ideas  set  forth  in  vigorous  terms. 
We  may  not  approve  altogether  the  author's  style  or  his  conclusions,  but 
it  must  be  admitted  that  his  style  is  always  clear  and  that  his  conclusions 
are  generally  sound. 

The  volume  is  supplied  with  a  good  index. 

R.  S.  Woodward. 

Terrestrial  and  Celestial  Globes:  their  History  and  Construction.     Bv 

Edward  Luther  Stevenson,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.     In  two  volumes. 

(New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  xxvi,  218;  xi, 

291.     $12.00.) 

This  work  is  by  America's  foremost  historical  geographer  and  cartog- 
rapher. It  is  the  first  detailed  work  of  its  kind  in  English  and  it  is  the 
only  extensive  historical  treatise  on  terrestrial  and  celestial  globes  in  any 
language.  The  narrative  reads  easily.  With  the  illustrations  in  juxta- 
position, one  may  read  as  if  listening  to  a  series  of  lectures  by  an  en- 
thusiastic lecturer.  There  are  168  illustrations  and  twelve  tail-pieces. 
They  are  good,  on  the  whole,  considering  the  reductions  and  the  difficulty 
of  photographing  for  half-tone  plates  the  curved  surfaces  of  spheres,  and 
are  introduced  to  show  their  general  appearance,  rather  than  with  the 
expectation  of  providing  minutiae.  However,  they  emphasize  the  oppor- 
tunities for  future  independent  monographs,  with  large  reproductions,  and 
critical  data — desiderata  which  are  needed  "  to  the  end  of  clearly  setting 
forth  their  great  documentary  value  ".  The  important  legends  on  the 
globes  are  cited  verbatim  in  the  text,  and  translations  generally  follow,  so 
one  may  skip  the  Latin,  German,  etc.,  and  read  on  in  English.  Stevenson 
has  endeavored  to  list  and  briefly  describe  all  globes  "  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  ".  When  he  began,  it  was 
thought  that  about  100  extant  globes  might  be  located,  and  some  others 
now  lost  might  be  mentioned;  but  the  result  of  years  has  been  the  listing 
of  more  than  850  of  them. 


544  Reviews  of  Books 

The  work  is  divided  into  fourteen  chapters.  The  "  foreword  "  and 
chap.  XIV.,  taken  together,  are  essentially  a  resume  of  the  whole  work. 
The  logical  division  is:  Terrestrial  Globes  in  Antiquity  (I.);  Celestial 
Globes  in  Antiquity  (II.)  ;  Globes  constructed  by  the  Arabs  (III.)  :  Ter- 
restrial and  Celestial  Globes  in  the  Christian  Middle  Ages  (IV.)  ;  Globes 
constructed  in  the  Early  Years  of  the  Great  Geographical  Discovery 
(V.)  ;  Globes  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  (VI.-IX.)  ;  Globes  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  (X.-XL);  Globes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (XII- 
XIII.)  ;  The  Technic  of  Globe  Construction — Materials  and  Methods 
(  XIV.).  There  are  references  and  elucidations  at  the  end  of  each  chap- 
ter; also  a  bibliographical  appendix  (II.  220-248)  of  works  cited,  and 
some  others,  "as  a  working  list"  for  "  further  investigations".  This  is 
followed  by  an  ingenious  index  of  globes  and  globe  makers  (II.  249- 
273),  from  which  can  be  quickly  discerned  the  name  of  the  maker,  the 
kind  of  globe,  the  given  or  approximate  date,  diameter  in  centimetres, 
references  to  text  where  described,  and  location  of  extant  exemplars.  A 
general  index  (II.  276-291)  completes  this  work,  printed  in  an  edition 
of  a  thousand  sets  by  the  Yale  University  Press  on  "  Old  Stratford  " 
paper. 

Globes  were  made  primarily  "  for  the  useful  purpose  of  promoting 
geographical  and  astronomical  studies  ",  and  secondarily  they  were  "  con- 
sidered almost  essential  as  adornments  for  the  libraries  of  princes,  of 
prosperous  patricians,  and  of  plodding  students  ".  Time  was  when  his- 
torians neglected  the  early  newspapers  and  magazines  as  fundamental 
sources.  Too  much,  even  now,  the  old  maps,  portolan  charts,  and  globes 
are  neglected  in  the  interpretation  of  old  narratives  and  documents,  for 
only  by  understanding  the  geographical  ideas  regnant  in  a  period  can  the 
language  of  that  period,  as  used  by  navigator  or  explorer,  be  assessed. 
From  ancient  times  only  one  exemplar  has  survived,  the  Farnese  celestial 
globe  of  marble,  accredited  to  the  time  of  Eudoxus  (fourth  century 
B.  C. ).  The  Mohammedans  constructed  celestial  but  not  terrestrial 
globes.  In  the  so-called  Dark  Ages  geography  and  astronomy  were 
studied  and  taught,  "and  globes  celestial  as  well  as  armillary  spheres,  if 
not  terrestrial  globes,  were  constructed  ".  Behaim's  globe  of  1492  is  the 
oldest  extant  terrestrial  globe.  The  post-Columbian  period  was  at  once 
rich  in  great  advances  in  geographical  depiction,  first  on  great  plane  maps, 
and  then  on  metal  globes  or  globes  covered  with  paper  gores.  Thereafter 
the  terrestrial  globe  in  Europe  had  diverse  forms.  In  Italy  the  manu- 
script or  metal  globe  had  favor,  whilst  in  northern  countries  copper- 
engraved  gore  maps  were  favored  and  found  their  climax  in  the  wonder- 
ful works  of  Jodocus  Hondius,  the  Blaeu  family,  and  others  in  the  Nether- 
lands.    The  mountings  often  presented  a  remarkable  art  in  themselves. 

It  is  regrettable  that  a  work,  otherwise  so  fine,  should  be  marred  by 
numerous  evidences  of  careless  proofreading,  and  perhaps  also  of  faulty 
copy.     Some  definite  examples  are:  vol.   I.,   p.    12,   for  "Philipps"  read 


Munro:  The  Middle  Ages  545 

Phillips;  p.  45.  in  "Opus  Magnus  "  read  Mains;  p.  141  (and  elsewhere), 
for  "Thatcher"  read  Thacher ;  p.  143  (and  II.  230),  for  " E.  H.  Hall" 
read  Elial  F.  Hall ;  p.  143,  for  "  Lafrere  "  read  Lafreri ;  p.  144.  read  Zon- 
dervan;  p.  167  (Naples  library),  read  Nazionale;  p.  203,  not  "Leenwar- 
den  "  but  Leeuwarden,  and  not  "  Miller  "  but  Muller ;  p.  210,  for  "  Heriot  " 
read  Hariot;  p.  211  (and  II.  272),  for  "  Plantin-Moritus  "  read  Plantin- 
Moretus;  vol.  II.,  p.  94.  1.  5,  for  "Society"  read  Association;  p.  179 
(Urbino  library),  read  Universitaria;  p.  220,  George  Adams,  elder  and 
younger,  in  confusion,  and  "geographical  essays"  should  be  graphical 
essays;  p.  220  (Albertus  Magnus),  for  "  Leyden "  read  Lyons;  p.  221, 
Badia  and  Del  Badia  duplications;  p.  222  (Beste),  read  under,  and  1867 
accessible  edition  should  have  been  added;  223  (British  Museum),  for 
"  1841  "  read  1881  ;  228  (Frisius),  repeated  under  Gemma;  228  (Garcia), 
for  "navigation"  read  navegacion ;  231  (Harris),  for  three  times  "  et  " 
read  and,  and  other  errors;  231  (Harrisse),  his  Cabot  issued  in  1882,  not 
1862:  234  (Kramm),  several  errors;  also  error  in  236  (Marchese,  and 
Medina)  ;  238  (Navarrete)  ;  241  (Restout)  ;  242  (Schmidt)  ;  246  (Vivien, 
and  Waldseemiiller). 

Victor  Hugo  Paltsits. 

BOOKS  OF  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  Middle  Ages,  395-1273.  By  Dana  Carleton  Munro,  Dodge 
Professor  of  Medieval  History,  Princeton  University.  (New 
York:  Century  Company.  1921.  Pp.  iv,  446.  $3.50.) 
Professor  Munro's  The  Middle  Ages  forms  the  fourth  volume  in  the 
Century  series  of  which  Professor  George  L.  Burr  is  the  general  editor 
and  of  which  so  far  only  this  and  the  volume  by  Professor  Bourne  on  the 
Revolutionary  period  have  appeared.  Its  general  character  and  purpose 
are  thus  obviously  dictated  by  the  scheme  of  the  series  as  a  whole.  It  is 
a  text-book,  but  it  is  not  a  book  of  texts.  It  aims  to  tell  something  about 
almost  everything,  to  give  a  current  narrative  of  events  in  all  important 
countries,  including  England,  and  also  to  deal  specially  with  institutions, 
social,  religious,  economic,  and  intellectual.  Of  the  thirty-three  chapters, 
six  are  thus  set  apart  for  such  subjects  as  the  nobles,  the  peasants,  towns 
and  trade,  monasticism,  heresy  and  the  friars,  the  universities,  and  feudal- 
ism. The  remaining  chapters  follow  the  general  course  of  European 
history  from  the  beginning  of  the  Germanic  migrations  to  the  death  of 
St.  Louis,  in  other  words,  to  the  full  splendor  of  the  distinctively  medieval 
civilization. 

The  problem  of  such  a  book  is  a  very  perplexing  one.  The  vast  mass 
of  material,  all  of  it  subject  to  the  uncertainties  of  a  time  distinctly  un- 
historical  in  its  attitude  toward  the  world,  makes  drastic  sifting  impera- 
tive. The  relations  of  society  become  more  complicated  as  one  moves  on 
from  the  simpler  forms  of  early  Germanic  life  to  the  closely  interlocking 


546  Reviews  of  Books 

stratifications  of  the  feudal  state.  Above  all,  the  intrusion  of  a  wholly 
new  element,  the  all-embracing  church  system,  creates  a  situation  new  to 
history,  demanding,  not  merely  a  familiarity  with  documentary  and  narra- 
tive material,  but  a  profound  insight  into  the  motive  forces  lying  beneath 
the  record. 

Professor  Munro  attacks  this  exacting  problem  with  the  patience  and 
steadiness  of  a  veteran  scholar  and  teacher.  He  does  not  parade  his 
material  but  at  frequent  intervals  selects  from  it  such  characteristic  bits 
as  serve  to  illustrate  his  narrative.  The  story  itself  moves  steadily  along 
on  an  even  level.  There  is  little  contrast  of  light  and  shade  and,  happily, 
no  attempt  at  "  fine  writing ".  The  excellence  of  these  traits  is  seen 
especially  in  the  earlier  chapters  where  the  great  mass  movements  of  the 
peoples  can  be  dealt  with  in  broad  strokes  and  with  a  certain  sureness 
of  touch. 

Later,  when  personalities  become  more  important,  these  steady-going 
qualities  are  less  effective.  Even  such  an  epoch-making  figure  as  Karl 
the  Great  rather  sinks  into  the  general  level.  In  the  account  of  the  mid- 
medieval  conflict  of  Church  and  State,  on  the  other  hand,  the  great  issues 
are  often  obscured  by  undue  emphasis  upon  personal  motive.  To  say  that 
"  Gregory  felt  that  a  married  priest  could  not  give  his  whole  service  to 
the  Church  "  is  to  assign  a  very  inadequate  motive  for  the  passionate 
propaganda  of  a  Peter  Damiani.  That  the  reproofs  of  Gregory  made 
Henry  IV.  "  intensely  angry  "  is  not  greatly  to  the  point.  The  summing 
up,  however  (p.  174),  shows  that  the  author  fully  grasps  the  meaning  of 
the  great  struggle. 

Criticism  of  a  book  of  this  type  is  always  embarrassing.  To  pick  out 
defects  of  detail  is  mere  pettifogging.  The  real  question  is  whether  the 
book  will  serve  the  only  purpose  that  can  justify  its  existence,  that  is,  to 
provide  a  background  for  further  study  and  to  stimulate  interest  in  the 
subject.  The  answer  to  that  question  depends  here  as  always  upon  the 
quality  of  the  teacher  who  uses  it.  In  the  right  hands  this  volume  may 
open  the  way  to  an  intelligent  understanding  of  a  difficult  period.  In  the 
wrong  hands  it  could  hardly  make  a  very  definite  impression.  It  is  an 
honest,  solid,  useful  piece  of  work  with  no  claim  to  "  originality  "  either 
in  research  or  in  point  of  view. 

Of  the  eight  maps  three  suffer  from  the  usual  defect  of  including 
under  "  Europe "  vast  stretches  of  Russia,  Asia,  and  Africa  and  thus 
reducing  the  scale  so  that  there  is  little  room  for  detail,  an  unfortunate 
circumstance  in  an  elementary  book.  The  other  maps  illustrating  special 
conditions  are  rather  better,  but  these  too  are  painfully  bare  of  details. 
The  bibliographies  are  sufficiently  full  to  provide  "  collateral  reading  ", 
though  here  we  miss  all  reference  to  specific  selections  of  original  mate- 
rial, always  the  most  stimulating  pabulum  for  the  thoughtful  student. 

E.  E. 


Hauotaux:  La  Nation  Frangaise  547 

Histoirc   dc   la   Nation   Frangaise,     Par   Gabriel   Hanotaux,   de 

l'Academie  Frangaise.     Tome  XII.,  Histoirc  dcs  Lcttrcs,  volume 

I.j  Dcs  Origincs  a  Ronsard.     Par  Joseph  Bedier,  Alfred  Jean- 

rov,  et  F.  Picavet.   (Paris:  Plon-Nourritet  Cie.    1921.    Pp.590.) 

M.  Francois  Picavet's  survey  of  Latin  literature,  which  opens  this 

new  volume  of  Hanotaux,  begins  with  the  writings  of  the  Gallo-Romans 

of  northern  Italy,  and  continues  with  authors  of  French  birth  down  to 

the  eighteenth  century.     Claiming  that  the  "  French  soul  "  first  expressed 

itself  in  Latin,  and  emphasizing  the  influence  of  Latin  on  literature  in 

French,  M.  Picavet  finds  in  the  works  of  the  Carolingian  period  a  steady 

growth  of  French  national   feeling,  and  attributes  the  ideas  and  many 

words  of  the  larger  part  of  French  literature  of  the  twelfth  century  to  a 

Latin  renaissance,   which  also  carried   with   it  the   especial   qualities   of 

clarity,  precision,  and  order.     It  was  through  translations  from  Latin  that 

French  authors  of  the  thirteenth  century  gained  in  flexibility  and  elegance, 

while  the  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth  led  them  to  a  correct  understanding 

of  the  spirit  of  antiquity. 

This  outline  is  followed  by  a  chapter  on  the  chansons  dc  gcstc,  by  M. 
Bedier.  Affirming  quite  positively  that  the  earliest  known  epics.  Roland, 
the  Chanson  dc  Guillaume,  and  Gonnond  et  Iscmbard  started  with  pious 
legends  that  centred  around  Blaye  and  the  road  to  the  Pyrenees  from 
Blaye,  the  monastery  at  Saint-Guilhem-le-Desert,  and  Saint  Riquier  re- 
spectively, M.  Bedier  sees  these  legends  stimulated  by  the  rising  vogue 
of  the  pilgrimage  to  Santiago,  often  made  under  armed  escort,  and  broad- 
ened by  the  belief  that  Charlemagne,  whose  fame  was  fostered  by  his 
many  religious  foundations,  had  once  gone  that  way.  Given  substance  by 
borrowings  from  chronicles  and  epitaphs,  they  were  rhymed  toward  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  monks  shared  them  with  the 
minstrels  who  entertained  the  crowds  at  the  various  shrines.  Thus  clerk 
and  singer  joined  to  announce  warfare  with  the  infidels  as  the  peculiar 
mission  and  glory  of  France.  Before  this  time  the  French  epic  did  not 
exist  in  any  shape.  But  it  had  prototypes  in  medieval  Latin,  not  yet 
determined. 

All  manuscripts  of  the  epic  except  the  Oxford  Roland  date  from  the 
thirteenth  century  or  later.  In  numerous  instances  these  manuscripts 
contain  only  revisions  of  earlier  originals.  They  occasionally  offer  also 
competing  versions  of  the  same  poem,  a  feature  probably  due  to  the  efforts 
of  associations,  formed  to  exploit  the  epic,  not  to  infringe  on  one  another's 
literary  rights.  Retaining  a  popular  plot  they  would  vary  the  language. 
The  mass  of  epic  poetry  was  divided,  primitively  perhaps,  into  three  sec- 
tions, or  gcstcs.  The  gcstc  of  the  king  presented  the  theocratic  idea, 
crusades  under  the  leadership  of  Charlemagne.  The  second  gcstc,  of 
Garin  de  Monglane,  saw  this  sacred  calling  pass  from  Charlemagne's 
degenerate  descendants  to  a  younger  family,  whose  utter  devotion  to  the 
holy  cause  strongly  contrasted  with  the  indifference  of  an  indolent  court. 


54s  Reviews  of  Books 

The  third,  the  geste  of  Doon  de  Mayence,  told  of  strife  among  Christians, 
of  the  perils  of  individualism,  of  the  results  of  pride  and  ''  desmesure  ". 
Conflicts  between  feudal  fealty  and  blood  ties  in  this  geste  frequently 
gave  rise  to  highly  dramatic  situations. 

The  remaining  kinds  of  medieval  French  literature,  down  to  1547.  are 
discussed  by  M.  Jeanroy  in  the  second  half  of  the  volume.  Measuring  his 
subject  approximately  by  centuries,  and  including  a  chapter  on  Provenqal 
authors,  to  whom  he  assigns  the  invention  of  the  nouvelle  while  denying 
any  direct  contact  between  them  and  the  French  lyrists  during  the  Second 
Crusade,  M.  Jeanroy  shows  a  preference  for  the  naturalness  of  the  roman 
d'aventure  and  its  variety  of  plot,  notes  the  infiltration  of  Greek  novelistic 
material  into  Western  fiction,  and  looks  to  a  more  correct  interpretation 
of  the  music  of  lyric  poetry  for  a  better  understanding  of  it. 

The  thirteenth  century,  of  a  realistic  trend,  began  to  replace  poetry 
with  prose,  for  greater  freedom,  and  to  avoid  word-padding  in  order  to 
fill  out  lines.  Arthurian  poetry  had  been  restricted  in  ideas  and  was  con- 
ventional, but  the  prose  Lancelot  discloses  a  study  of  character  and  a 
conversational  style.  The  jeux-partis  of  the  day  still  interest  by  their 
personal  tone ;  and  allegory  produced  in  Jean  de  Meung,  not  a  subversive 
spirit,  like  Voltaire,  but  the  first  humanist.  Under  Philip  the  Fair  social 
conditions  were  freely  criticized,  and  the  early  fourteenth  century  saw 
many  religious  and  political  treatises.  But  imagination  was  lacking  and 
lyric  poetry  docilely  accepted  its  recently  fixed  forms.  Later,  translations 
and  prose  fiction  were  favored,  while  poetry,  personal  as  well  as  learned, 
found  a  Chartier,  who  was  also  the  first  writer  of  classical  French  prose. 

In  Chartier's  day  there  were  patrons  of  literature,  and  libraries  of 
richly  illuminated  manuscripts  were  being  formed.  Charles  d'Orleans's 
language  was  almost  modern,  and  after  him  came  Villon.  A  surprising 
development  of  the  liturgical  drama  characterized  the  last  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  in  addition  there  was  comedy  that  professionals 
often  acted,  while  outright  materialism  animated  Pathelin  and  the  works 
of  La  Salle.  The  reign  of  Francis  I.  witnessed  the  overturnings  of  the 
Reformation,  a  movement  that  M.  Jeanroy  tellingly  analyzes,  and  after 
1540  idealism  returned,  with  romances  like  Amadis,  and  poetry  after 
Italian  and  ancient  models.  The  volume  is  abundantly  illustrated  through- 
out by  G.  Ripart,  and  also  by  Rene  Piot.  F.  M.  Warren. 

Oxford  Studies  in  Social  and  Legal  History.  Edited  by  Sir  Paul 
Vinogradoff,  Corpus  Professor  of  Jurisprudence  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  Volume  VI.  Studies  in  the  Hundred  Rolls: 
some  Aspects  of  Thirteenth-Century  Administration,  by  Helen  M. 
Cam,  M.A. ;  Proceedings  against  the  Crown,  1216-1377,  by  Lud- 
wik  Ehrlich,  B.Litt.,  D.Jur.  (Oxford:  Clarendon  Press.  1921. 
Pp.  x,  198,  274.) 

The  two  monographs  included  in  the  present  volume  treat  from  oppo- 
site sides  the  same  general  constitutional  question,  namely,  the  position 


Vinogradoff:  Oxford  Studies  549 

of  the  king  in  regard  to  the  law,  and  the  responsibility  of  his  officers. 
In  seeking  some  guiding  theory  of  monarchy,  the  medieval  mind  halted 
between  two  opinions :  the  one  moral  and  religious,  regarding  the  king  as 
subject  only  to  God  and  His  punishments ;  the  other  adhering  to  the  possi- 
bility of  legal  limitations.  Both  of  these  ideas  are  reflected  in  apparently 
contradictory  passages  of  Bracton. 

The  surest  test  of  monarchial  rights  Dr.  Ehrlich  finds  in  the  practice 
of  the  courts,  wherein  the  king  was  perpetually  a  litigant.  Records  of 
cases  are  abundant,  although  for  a  view  of  every  side  of  the  question  the 
investigator  must  go  far  afield  into  the  unprinted  rolls  of  exchequer  and 
chancery.  A  thorough  analysis  of  all  the  royal  claims  that  came  into 
dispute  in  the  thirteenth  century  confirms  the  sentient  view  of  Maitland. 
that  monarchial  rights  were  "  intensified  private  rights  ".  This  was  not 
at  all  incongruous  with  recognizing  that  the  king  held  a  privileged  posi- 
tion, which  made  him  inaccessible  to  the  ordinary  forms  of  law.  The 
first  positive  assertion  that  the  crown  is  for  certain  purposes — pro  utilitate 
communi — above  the  law  is  found  in  the  celebrated  case  of  20  Edward  I. 
Other  cases  give  variants  of  the  same  principle.  That  special  remedies 
should  be  devised  for  proceedings  against  the  crown,  far  from  being  a 
matter  of  grace,  as  a  later  age  might  regard  it,  was  at  first  considered  to 
be  an  obligation,  not  the  less  real  because  it  was  moral.  Much  new  light 
is  thrown  on  the  history  of  petitions,  which  the  author,  inclining  to  a 
Romanist  view,  believes  were  brought  to  a  system  by  Edward  I.  as  a 
result  of  his  visit  to  Italy.  It  has  not  been  proved,  however,  that  in  this 
or  any  other  feature  of  English  procedure  the  influence  of  the  Church 
was  more  than  a  bare  suggestion. 

As  to  responsibility  of  officers,  there  was  none  except  as  the  king  him- 
self permitted  or  required  it.  The  development  of  a  mode  of  accounta- 
bility is  traced  by  Miss  Cam  in  the  special  inquests  which  Henry  II.  intro- 
duced and  his  successors  elaborated.  A  careful  tabulation  of  the  articles 
and  returns  of  these  inquests  shows  a  transition,  from  a  stage  in  which 
the  king's  proprietary  rights  were  the  chief  concern,  toward  a  conception 
of  public  administration.  In  many  instances  the  articles  of  inquisition, 
having  thus  been  tested  and  applied,  were  incorporated  by  Edward  I.  into 
his  statutes.  Incidentally  it  is  discovered  how,  from  these  "  ragged  rolls  ". 
the  Statute  of  Rageman  got  its  name.  A  scrutiny  of  the  Hundred  Rolls 
also  reveals  that  the  edition  of  the  Record  Commission  is  misleading  in 
many  points.  The  workmanship  of  both  studies  maintains  the  high  stand- 
ard of  the  series.  It  is  a  surprise,  however,  after  what  has  lately  been 
written,  to  find  Parliament  mentioned  as  a  body  of  three  estates.  The 
literal  abbreviation  of  references  (e.g.,  C.  D.  D.,  D.  D.  C,  A.  P.  E.,  etc.), 
without  standardization,  may  also  be  objected  to  as  causing  a  needless 
difficulty  for  the  reader. 

James  F.  Baldwin. 


am.  HIST.  REV. 


550  Reviews  of  Books 

The  King's  Council  in  the  North.     By  R.  R.  Reid,  M.A.,  D.Litt. 
(London  and  New  York  :  Longmans,  Green,  and  Company.    1921. 

Pp.   X,   532.       28s.) 

"  The  problem  of  the  north  ",  as  it  was  defined  twenty  years  ago  in 
the  pages  of  this  Review  (V.  440-466),  has  at  length  received  treatment 
adequate  to  its  importance  and  complexity.  This  problem  was  the  out- 
growth of  a  long  provincial  history  of  the  country  beyond  the  Trent, 
which  for  reasons  of  military  defense  had  been  made  the  seat  of  the 
greatest  baronies,  marcher  lordships,  and  franchises  of  every  sort. 
Strongly  entrenched  by  local  law  and  custom,  these  units  remained  into 
modern  times  a  dangerous  reactionary  element  in  the  kingdom,  requiring 
exceptional  forms  of  authority. 

In  the  face  of  a  strong  tradition  that  the  Council  in  the  North  was  a 
creation  of  the  Tudors,  the  author  traces  its  origin  to  an  enlargement  of 
the  general  commissions  of  oyer  and  terminer  such  as  were  first  granted 
by  the  Lancastrian  kings  to  bring  the  country  to  order.  By  a  fortunate 
discovery  among  the  documents,  it  is  shown  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  first 
establishment  of  a  council  was  by  Richard  III.,  who  from  his  own  experi- 
ence as  a  marcher  lord  enacted  a  statesmanlike  plan  for  the  government 
of  Yorkshire  and  the  Marches.  Because  it  was  a  Yorkist  measure  the 
plan  was  not  continued  by  Henry  VII.,  nor  was  it  resumed  by  Henry 
VIII.  until  events  culminating  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  demonstrated 
its  necessity.  Resembling  in  some  respects  the  Council  of  the  Welsh 
Marches,  the  Council  in  the  North  is  distinguished  in  points  of  contrast 
to  this  and  every  other  conciliar  organization  of  the  period.  For  a 
rounded  view  of  the  system,  therefore,  nothing  is  now  more  needed  than 
a  similar  study  of  the  Council  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

Contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  it  appears  that  the  Council  in  the  North 
never  received  the  whole-hearted  support  even  of  the  Tudors.  Without 
statutory  foundation,  it  rested  solely  upon  royal  commissions  and  instruc- 
tions, which  were  altered  from  time  to  time  according  to  the  party  or 
policy  that  happened  to  be  dominant.  Gradually  deprived  of  its  powers 
of  administration,  the  Council  continued  for  a  century  to  function  as  a 
law-court,  this  phase  of  its  history  comprising  the  main  part  of  the  present 
work.  Although  records  of  cases  are  lacking,  so  strong  was  the  impres- 
sion made  by  the  court  upon  the  life  of  the  community  that  sources  of 
every  other  kind  are  remarkably  abundant.  The  scope  of  its  jurisdiction, 
both  civil  and  criminal,  in  common  law  and  equity,  was  perhaps  larger 
than  that  of  any  other  tribunal;  in  certain  respects  it  went  further  than 
the  Star  Chamber,  while  in  the  matter  of  enclosures  and  tenant-right  it 
took  a  course  far  more  drastic  than  did  the  Chancery  at  Westminster. 
On  the  other  hand,  from  the  nature  of  the  aforesaid  commissions,  its 
limitations  were  equally  positive,  so  that  the  extent  of  its  authority  was 
always  open  to  dispute,  and  ultimately  even  the  right  of  the  crown  to 
grant  such  commissions  was  questioned.     Like  the  Court  of  Requests  the 


Warner:  The  Nicholas  Papers  551 

Council  was  in  a  fair  way  of  being  "  bled  "  to  death,  when  Thomas  Went- 
worth  by  a  vigorous  reassertion  of  its  power  brought  the  whole  matter 
into  the  arena  of  political  controversy.  This  is  a  most  revealing  chapter, 
which  by  weight  of  evidence  carries  the  conviction  that  the  court  com- 
posed of  the  king's  councillors  in  the  North  was  on  the  whole  assiduous 
and  successful  in  the  performance  of  its  task;  that  compared  with  other 
courts  it  was  neither  severe,  oppressive,  nor  corrupt ;  and  that  its  fall,  in 
depriving  the  country  of  a  needed  local  court,  was  nothing  less  than  a 
catastrophe. 

The  merits  of  the  work  as  a  product  of  research,  bringing  into  view 
a  new  field  of  local  and  national  history,  need  no  further  demonstration. 
In  spite  of  its  correctness  as  a  whole,  however,  there  are  many  minor 
errors  that  have,  from  lack  of  sufficient  criticism,  been  allowed  to  stand. 
Misprints  in  names  and  numerals,  as  many  as  six  on  p.  4S2,  are  excessively 
frequent.  Statute  6  Rich.  II.  (p.  51  n. )  should  be  16  Rich.  II.  There 
are  disconcerting  allusions  to  the  "  Council  of  State  "  and  to  "  prerogative 
courts  ",  which  are  terms  of  no  constitutional  validity,  while  statements 
concerning  the  Court  of  Chancery  (pp.  66,  450)  are  incorrect  as  they 
stand.  As  a  matter  of  historical  synthesis  the  reviewer  feels  that  de- 
scriptive material  is  regarded  too  much  as  accessory  to  a  legal  treatise, 
instead  of  being  made  a  vital  part  of  the  theme.  The  search  for  new 
material  has  not  been  abundantly  rewarded,  but  several  documents  of 
value  have  been  printed  in  the  appendixes. 

James  F.  Baldwin. 

The  Nicholas  Papers:  Correspondence  of  Sir  Edward  Nicholas,  Sec- 
retary of  State.  Edited  for  the  Royal  Historical  Society  by  Sir 
George  F.  Warxer,  D.Litt.,  F.B.A.  Volume  IV.,  1657-1660. 
[Camden,  third  series,  vol.  XXXI.]  (London  :  the  Society.  1920. 
Pp.  xxix,  283.) 

This  volume  completes  the  publication  of  the  correspondence  of  Sir 
Edward  Nicholas.  Some  of  the  letters  fall  within  each  of  the  vears  1657— 
1660,  but  they  are  very  unevenly  distributed.  More  than  half  are  within 
the  period  March.  1659-March,  1660.  This  period  is  not  only  the  most 
thoroughly  covered;  its  letters  are  also  of  the  greatest  interest  and  impor- 
tance. Nicholas  was  at  the  time  living  in  Bruges  and  receiving  frequent 
reports  from  royalist  agents  in  England.  City,  army.  Parliament,  all  were 
being  watched  by  them  for  any  opening  favorable  to  the  king.  As  would 
be  expected,  the  writers  tell  of  the  anarchy  and  confusion  in  England  after 
the  death  of  Oliver,  and  of  the  inability  of  Richard  to  maintain  his  posi- 
tion. They  tell  something  of  royalist  plots  and  plans  encouraged  bv  those 
conditions.  But  greater  chaos  was  not  the  chief  hope  of  the  royalists; 
rather  the  establishment  of  an  orderly  government,  the  return  to  power 
of  the  more  moderate  men.  And  so  we  find  these  correspondents  of 
Nicholas  keeping  a  close  watch  on  the  parliaments  that  sat  during  this 


552  Reviews  of  Books 

critical  year,  "  Dick's  Parliament  "  (p.  173),  the  Rump,  the  restored  Long 
Parliament.  There  is  even  something  on  the  elections  to  the  Convention 
Parliament.  The  letters  are  brief,  there  is  more  of  comment  than  of  in- 
formation;  the)-  are  nevertheless  a  real  contribution  to  the  history  of 
Parliament. 

To  the  student  of  Parliament  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  letters 
is  that  of  "  Mr.  Miles",  dated  May  9,  1659.  which  tells  of  the  efforts  of 
the  leading  Presbyterians  of  the  Long  Parliament  to  regain  their  seats  in 
the  Rump.  Part  of  the  letter  bears  quoting  because  of  the  information 
it  adds  to  Prynne's  narrative  (Old  Parliamentary  History,  XXI.  384- 
386).  To  the  list  of  names  given  there,  it  adds  those  of  Sir  William 
Waller  and  Richard  Browne,  indicating  clearly  that  they  were  distinct 
from  Prynne's  group.  They  "  challenged  theire  right  for  themselves  ". 
But  there  came  also  "a  number  more  considerable  of  that  packe  [Prynne. 
etc.,  who  had  presented  themselves  on  the  7th]  that  would  usurpe  the 
howse  to  themselves,  and  indeede  they  were  the  chiefe  assertors  of  the 
old  cause  and  first  interrupted  by  Oliver's  army.  Of  this  party  was  Mr. 
William  Perpoint.  whoe  never  offered  to  sitt  in  the  howse  (  since  Prides 
forcible  exemsion)  till  this  tyme "  (p.  134).  This  not  only  adds  three 
important  names  to  the  list  but  helps  to  fill  in  a  serious  gap  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  Pierrepont.  Even  more  valuable  is  this  in  the  light  of  the  fol- 
lowing from  a  letter  of  March  9,  1660:  "  Mr.  Perpoint  met  Monke  on  his 
journey  and  had  a  whole  days  discourse  in  their  coach  together  .  .  . 
Monke  relyes  much  on  him"  (p.  194).  We  are  no  longer  surprised  to 
find  Pierrepont  heading  the  list  of  the  new  Council  of  State  (C.  /.,  VII. 
849). 

Though  the  publication  of  the  correspondence  of  Sir  Edward  Nicholas 
has  extended  over  so  long  a  period  of  time  (1S86-1920),  the  four  volumes 
are  similar  in  plan  and  treatment.  That  this  is  true  of  the  text  is  a 
matter  for  regret.  One  is  sorry  to  find  the  same  adherence  to  the  old 
form  of  letters.  The  interchanged  use  of  u  and  v,  i  and  j,  might  be 
pardoned,  but  not  ye  as  an  abbreviation  of  the.  Yet  even  ye  might  be 
forgiven,  as  a  concession  to  antiquarianism,  if  the  editor  did  not  at  the 
same  time  follow  modern  usage  by  introducing  quotation-marks,  the  inter- 
rogation-point, and  the  apostrophe  to  mark  the  possessive  case.  But  it 
is  a  satisfaction  to  find  this  last  volume  following  the  plan  of  the  others 
as  regards  their  very  helpful  notes  and  index. 

Frances  Helen  Relf. 

Matthew  Prior:  a  Study  of  his  Public  Career  and  Correspondence. 

By  L.  G.  Wickham  Legg,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  New  College, 

Oxford.     (Cambridge:    University    Press.     1921.     Pp.    x,    348. 

22s.  6d.) 

Prior  started  life  as  a  waiting  boy  in  a  London  tavern.  He  rose 
rapidly  in  the  world  and  soon  became  the  companion  of  poets,  politicians, 


Legg:  Matthew  Prior  553 

diplomats,  and  nobles  of  the  first  rank.  Nevertheless,  he  is  one  of  the 
most  pitiful  figures  of  the  early  eighteenth  century,  for  he  was  never 
quite  of  the  group  with  whom  he  associated.  He  was  for  some  time  sole 
English  representative  in  Paris,  yet  he  was  never  able  to  secure  the  rank 
to  which  his  talents  entitled  him,  largely  because  Queen  Anne  "  thought 
it  very  wrong  to  send  people  abroad  of  mean  extraction  ".  Though  he 
performed  the  essential  duties  of  an  ambassador,  his  official  position  was 
always  ambiguous.  His  salary  and  expense  money,  moreover,  were  ever 
grossly  inadequate  to  maintain  an  establishment  worthy  of  the  nation  he 
represented.  Times  without  number  he  humbly  begged  official  superiors 
and  men  of  influence  at  court  to  secure  him  an  income  for  his  legitimate 
needs,  but  all  to  so  little  avail,  that  at  the  moment  of  his  recall  he  was  in 
imminent  danger  of  being  held  in  Paris  for  failure  to  pay  the  debts  he 
had  incurred  as  a  diplomat. 

He  seems,  indeed,  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  fate.  At  least  twice  he 
was  on  the  point  of  receiving  suitable  official  recognition.  Once  he  was 
thwarted  by  Louis  XIV. 's  acceptance  of  the  will  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain, 
the  perennial  invalid  who  passed  away  at  last  only  after  three  partition 
treaties  had  been  made  in  anticipation  of  his  death;  a  second  time  Prior 
was  disappointed  by  the  death  of  Anne  and  the  overthrow  of  his  Tory 
friends — two  events  which  spelled  for  him  temporary  imprisonment  and 
permanent  political  oblivion.  Yet  he  had  proved  of  inestimable  service 
to  William  III.  in  the  trying  years  which  witnessed  the  formation  of  the 
coalition  against  France,  and  assisted  Bolingbroke  in  the  tiresome,  intri- 
cate negotiations  preliminary  to  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 

Important  as  he  was  in  diplomacy,  Prior  is  better  known  as  a  poet, 
for  he  represents  in  poetry  better  than  any  one  else,  perhaps,  the  transition 
from  the  seventeenth  to  the  eighteenth  century.  He  is  clearly  a  distant 
descendant  of  the  Elizabethans,  although  this  element  is  distinct  only  in 
his  earlier  poems,  and  then  sometimes  as  little  more  than  a  faint  flicker. 

In  spite  of  his  public  and  literary  career  no  serious  biography  of  Prior 
appeared  until  that  of  Bickley  in  1914.  This  writer  emphasized  the 
poetry  of  Prior,  but  the  work  under  review  stresses  his  political  activity. 
Mr.  Legg  does,  however,  insist  that  far  too  little  attention  has  been  paid 
to  Prior's  prose,  largely  perhaps  because  such  past  masters  of  prose  style 
as  Swift  and  Addison  flourished  in  his  day.  New  light  is  thrown  upon 
the  preliminary  negotiations  from  171 1  to  1 7 1 3 .  indicating  clearly  that  the 
Congress  of  Utrecht  did  little  more  than  ratify  the  things  already  agreed 
upon  by  the  French  and  English  diplomats.  Although  Prior  was  sus- 
pected of  Jacobitism,  Mr.  Legg  suggests  that  Prior,  far  from  being 
friendly  to  the  exiled  Stuarts,  spied  upon  them  for  the  benefit  of  the 
English  ministries.  The  book  also  indicates  that  Prior  held  his  place  on 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  for  some  time  in  spite  of  the  Duchess 
of  Marlborough,  because  the  duke  did  not  share  her  antipathy  for  Prior. 
Additional    evidence    from    unpublished   manuscripts    shows    the    strong- 


554  Reviews  of  Books 

mindedness  or  stubbornness  of  the  queen.  One  of  Prior's  letters  sets 
forth  in  a  clear  way  the  political  faith  of  the  Tory  that  the  monarch 
should  be  above  and  between  parties. 

On  the  period  before  171 1  this  book  is  too  largely  a  repetition  of  the 
work  done  by  Bickley.  Some  of  the  same  documents  are  printed  in 
cxtcnso,  and  several  quotations  are  almost  identical  in  scope  and  purpose. 
The  preface  of  Mr.  Legg's  book  intimates  that  it  was  perhaps  practically 
completed  before  Bickley's  work  appeared.  At  least  it  was  not  sufficiently 
revised  thereafter  to  rid  it  of  repetitions.  The  second  half  of  the  book, 
however,  is  a  distinct  contribution  to  the  subject,  both  in  its  literary  and 
diplomatic  aspects.  The  author  insists  too  strongly,  perhaps,  upon  the 
sincerity  of  Louis  XIV.'s  desire  for  peace  in  1709,  although  this  raises, 
of  course,  the  much-controverted  question  of  Marlborough's  attitude  in 
the  same  negotiations.  Prior's  last  letter  deserves  more  careful  annota- 
tion (pp.  271-272).  Shrewsbury  became  lord  chamberlain  in  April,  not 
in  August,  1710  (p.  133).  Fortunately  Mr.  Legg  has  given  us  of  his 
extensive  knowledge  of  diplomacy  in  the  "Biographical  Notes"  (pp. 
331-336),  which  identify  most  of  the  characters  mentioned  in  Prior's 
letters. 

William  Thomas  Morgan. 

Revolution  from  iy8g  to  1906.  Documents  selected  and  edited  with 
Notes  and  Introductions  by  R.  W.  Postgate.  (Boston  and  New 
York:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.    1921.    Pp.  xvi,  400.    $4.50.) 

The  innumerable  revolutions  and  attempts  at  revolution  which  have 
characterized  the  history  of  the  past  decade  have  begun  to  have  their 
effect  on  history  and  its  related  activities.  As  after  1789  and  1848  and 
1871  men  turned  their  attention  to  revolutionary  activities,  endeavoring 
to  explain  and  analyze  the  new  phenomena,  so  now,  looking  back  over  the 
past  century  and  a  half  in  the  light  of  the  past  ten  years,  there  has  begun 
comparative  study  of  revolutionary  movements,  of  which  the  present  vol- 
ume is  an  example.  And  as  the  first  step  in  an  intelligent  appreciation 
of  the  subject  is  the  collection  of  material,  Mr.  Postgate  has  done  well  to 
bring  together  the  documents  in  the  case. 

He  follows  the  temper  of  the  times  and  the  group  to  which  he  belongs, 
for  to  him  revolution  connotes  chiefly  social  change  or  attempted  change. 
His  documents  are  for  the  most  part  of  that  character,  and  his  comment 
and  introductions  are  primarily  of  that  nature.  There  is,  for  instance,  a 
disproportionate  amount  of  material  in  the  documents  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution relating  to  communism,  and  that  note  prevails  throughout  the  book. 
It  does,  no  doubt,  illuminate  the  career  of  communistic  thought,  but  it  is 
not  fair  to  call  a  collection  based  on  such  an  idea  representative  of  revo- 
lution as  a  whole.  For  there  have  been  political  revolutions,  too;  and  a 
series  of  documents  relating  to  Italy  which  omits  the  Risorgimento  and 
the  name  of  Cavour,  and  which  gives  to  it  less  than  four  pages  of  docu- 


O'Brien:  Economic  History  of  Ireland  555 

merits  and  to  France  in  1871  some  sixty-two,  seems  somehow  dispropor- 
tionate. Moreover  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  the  documents  relating  to  the 
Mutiny  of  the  Nore  were  included,  when,  for  instance,  the  constitution 
of  the  Confederate  States  is  omitted,  though  the  inclusion  of  a  consider- 
able amount  of  material  from  various  champions  of  the  cause  of  Ireland 
during  the  past  century  or  more  will  be,  to  some  minds,  quite  under- 
standable. 

All  "  source-books  "  are,  of  necessity,  unsatisfactory  to  all  except  their 
makers,  and  it  is  not  fair,  perhaps,  to  inject  one's  personal  opinion  regard- 
ing the  material  they  should  include  or  exclude;  and  yet  such  judgment 
is  equally  inevitable.  There  is  much  in  these  pages  for  which  we  are 
grateful.  But  there  are  two  criticisms  which  it  seems  are  sound.  The 
first  is  that  of  over-emphasis  of  the  social  element  in  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  second  is  against  the  bibli- 
ographies. These  are  often  absurdly  inadequate,  as  witness,  in  particu- 
lar, that  on  the  French  Revolution.  It  seems  to  argue  a  certain  un- 
familiarity  of  the  author  with  the  literature  of  the  subject  of  his  book, 
beyond  the  field  of  his  own  special  interest,  and  even  there  it  is  not  always 
adequate.  The  histories  of  Chartism  which  have  appeared  so  abundantly 
in  recent  years  would  certainly  have  afforded  much  material ;  and  the  now 
almost  forgotten  histories  of  the  secret  societies  which  once  illuminated 
the  darker  ways  of  nineteenth-century  politics  would  not  have  been  out 
of  place,  however  disillusionizing  they  may  be.  The  history  of  revolu- 
tion remains  to  be  written — in  another  generation  or  two — but  meanwhile 
we  should  not  confine  our  energies  wholly  to  social  movements.  Political 
movements  were  once  of  importance;  perhaps  they  still  are. 

W.    C.    ACDOTT. 

The  Economic  History  of  Ireland  from  the  Union  to  the  Famine. 

By   George   O'Briex,   Litt.D.,    M.R.I. A.      (London   and   Xew 

York:  Longmans,   Green,  and   Company.     1921.     Pp.  xii,  624. 

£1  is.) 

This  book  is  a  piece  of  historical  study  under  the  form  of  a  process 
of  reasoning.  It  proves  its  point  with  a  conclusiveness  that  at  first  in- 
vites suspicion :  the  demonstration  fits  the  dogma  with  the  exact  inevitable- 
ness  of  scholastic  forethought.  Closer  acquaintance,  however,  brings 
confidence  in  a  bit  of  scholarship  admirably  done,  though  without  quite 
dispelling  a  sense  of  strangeness  at  finding  a  chapter  of  nineteenth- 
century  history  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  a  schoolman's  disquisition. 

A  treatise  on  Ireland  going  behind  the  issue  of  race  and  of  church, 
and  devoting  attention  solely  to  the  ponderable  and  calculable  well-being 
of  the  people,  bespeaks  self-restraint  that  is  itself  an  achievement.  Dis- 
affection toward  the  Union  came,  so  it  is  here  argued,  when  increasing 
national  impoverishment  belied  the  betterment  expected  through  political 
integration.     In  England  the  theoretical  and  official  explanation  of  this 


556  Reviews  of  Books 

impoverishment  was  over-population.  On  the  correctness  of  that  assump- 
tion the  argumentative  justification  of  the  Union — i.e.,  the  English — gov- 
ernment's policy  stands  or  falls.  With  exhaustive  completeness  the  au- 
thor shows  the  assumption  to  have  been  false.  Between  1800  and  1850 
Ireland,  he  finds,  in  relation  to  its  actual  and  possible  agricultural  re- 
sources, was  not  over-populated.  The  array  of  official  and  unofficial 
evidence  brought  to  bear  upon  the  point  is  overwhelming,  and,  in  its 
effect,  final.  No  writer  need  advert  hereafter  to  Ireland's  population 
during  these  five  decades  without  taking  into  account  the  refutation  of 
the  orthodox  view  that  Dr.  O'Brien  here  sets  forth  (part  I.,  Agricultural 
Resources). 

In  part  II.  and  part  III.,  industry  and  public  finance  are  discussed, 
but  with  deductions  which  are  not  unfamiliar.  The  student  of  the  period 
will  welcome,  nevertheless,  the  skill  with  which  Dr.  O'Brien  explains  the 
interconnection  of  agricultural  resources  with  industry,  and  of  both  with 
banking  credit;  of  population  with  land  laws,  of  ejectment  acts  with  the 
franchise;  in  short,  the  interconnection  of  all  economic  phenomena.  The 
unity  of  Ireland's  economic  history  thus  obtained  makes  this  a  desirable 
book  of  reference. 

In  the  course  of  his  arguments  on  over-population  Dr.  O'Brien  prefers 
a  charge  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  reviewer,  casts  an  untoward  re- 
flection where  it  is  not  deserved,  and  which  rests  upon  no  substantiation 
beyond  the  author's  ipse  dixit.  The  sacrifice  of  souls  which  the  orthodox 
view  of  over-population  involved  was  ghastly  enough;  but  Dr.  O'Brien 
lays  the  direct  responsibility  for  the  tragedy  upon  the  English  govern- 
ment. It  is  at  least  debatable  whether  or  not  responsibility  can  be  con- 
centrated in  such  a  melodramatic  way.  Contemporary  statesmen  who 
could  do  little  more  than  follow  public  opinion,  were  expected  to  accept 
enlightenment  from  prevailing  schools  of  economic  thought.  Were  they 
therefore  accountable  for  these  schools?  Was  Liverpool  or  Melbourne  or 
Peel  or  Russell  personally  responsible  for  the  doctrine  of  laissez-faire,  or 
for  the  public  opinion  that  expected  the  classical  economy  to  prove  as 
advantageous  to  Ireland  as  to  Great  Britain?  Surely  a  more  catholic 
view  would  not  carry  the  ethics  of  official  responsibility  to  such  length  ! 

C.  E.  Fryer. 

The  Economic  Development   of  France  and   Germany,   1815—1914. 
By  J.  H.  Clapham,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  of  King's  College.     (Cam- 
bridge: University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  xi,  420.     iSs.) 
In  this  book  the  author  presents  the  substance  of  lectures  which  he  has 
for  some  years  given  at  Cambridge.     He  has,  in  the  first  part  of  the  book, 
used  some  of  the  material  in  the  chapter  contributed  by  him  to  volume  X. 
of  the  Cambridge  Modern  History,  but  has  added  a  second  and  larger 
part,  covering  the  period  1848-1914,  which  is  entirely  new.     In  each  part 
he  has  followed  the  plan  of  treating  separately  the  agrarian  and  the  in- 


Clapham:  Economic  France  and  Germany        557 

dustrial  history  of  each  of  the  two  countries,  making  eight  chapters,  and 
has  inserted  five  more  chapters  on  the  commerce,  communications,  and 
credit  institutions  of  the  two  countries,  treating  them  more  or  less  to- 
gether. 

Clapham's  book  does  not  cover  so  great  an  extent  in  time  or  in  terri- 
tory as  Ogg's  Economic  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  which  is  most 
like  it.  of  books  that  have  previously  appeared  in  English.  It  is  consider- 
ably more  rich  in  detailed  statements  of  concrete  fact  than  is  Ogg's  book. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  necessarily  more  brief  in  its  description  of  eco- 
nomic development  than  a  work  covering  an  equal  period  of  time  but 
limited  to  one  country,  like  Sartorius  von  Waltershausen's  Deutsche  U'irt- 
schaftsgeschichtc.  The  field  is  so  important,  and  has  as  yet  been  so  little 
surveyed  by  scholars  aiming  to  give  a  comprehensive  account  of  economic 
progress,  that  a  variety  of  treatment  is  highly  desirable,  and  every  contri- 
bution is  welcome. 

The  outstanding  advantage  of  the  book  is  the  opportunity  which  it 
offers  to  readers  of  English  to  study  the  economic  history  of  the  two 
states  of  the  Continent  which  have  in  the  recent  period  held  the  positions 
of  greatest  importance.  For  mature  students,  seeking  a  condensed  but 
substantial  account,  it  is  by  far  the  best  book  either  on  France  or  on 
Germany.  The  author  shows  the  scholarly  qualities  that  have  distin- 
guished his  work  in  English  economic  history  and  organization  :  a  wide 
acquaintance  with  the  literature,  critical  and  constructive  ability,  an  agree- 
able style.  The  points  which  the  reviewer  noted  for  criticism  are  mere 
details  in  a  book  close  packed  with  facts,  and  testify  in  his  opinion  to  the 
general  reliability  of  the  work.  P.  35,  Slavic  historians  do  not  accept 
Meitzen's  explanation  of  village  forms  (cf.  Hist.  Zeitschrift,  1913.  CXI. 
611);  p.  120,  Thernaux's  ready-made  clothes  shop  was  not  the  first  in 
Paris  by  at  least  fifty  years  (cf.  the  advertisement,  1770,  by  a  Parisian 
tailor  employing  a  number  of  workmen,  of  "  un  magasin  d'habits  neufs 
tout  faits,  de  toutes  especes,  de  toutes  tailles  ".  quoted  by  Sombart.  Luxus 
und  Kapitalismus,  p.  192,  from  Franklin)  ;  p.  125,  the  Bank  of  France 
was  founded  in  1800,  not  1S08;  p.  130,  the  number  of  joint-stock  com- 
panies credited  to  the  period  before  1800  appears  to  be  much  below 
Schmoller's  estimate  of  several  hundred  (cf.  Jahrbuch  f.  Gesetzgebung, 
1893,  XVII.  984)  ;  p.  136,  Jackson's  war  on  the  U.  S.  Bank  was  before, 
not  after,  1837.  To  say  of  the  German  department  stores,  p.  368,  that 
"  their  history  has  not  been  written  "  is  a  sweeping  statement,  when  so 
much  has  been  written  about  Wertheim's  and  other  stores.  It  is  easier 
to  forgive  slips  of  this  kind  than  it  is  to  excuse  the  omission,  from  a  book 
obviously  intended  for  serious  students,  of  a  bibliography  more  systematic 
than  that  provided  in  the  preface.  The  lack  of  such  a  guide  will  be  felt 
the  more  as  there  are  almost  no  references  to  authorities  to  aid  the  reader 
who  desires  to  check  a  statement  or  to  amplify  the  information  contained 
in  the  text. 


558  Reviews  of  Books 

The  author's  plan  of  treating  in  one  volume  the  economic  history  of 
two  neighboring  countries  offers  an  opportunity  to  draw  contrasts  and 
parallels,  and  is  well  adapted  to  a  philosophical  study  of  the  elements  in 
economic  progress.  The  author  is  not,  however,  inclined  to  generalize; 
he  does  so  admirably  sometimes,  but  prefers  for  the  most  part  plain  mat- 
ter of  fact.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  unfortunate  that  he  has  chosen 
to  intersperse  his  chapters  on  France  and  Germany,  so  that,  for  example. 
a  chapter  on  French  industrial  conditions  is  preceded  by  one  on  German 
rural  conditions  and  followed  by  one  on  German  industrial  conditions; 
and  the  student  who  seeks  to  study  recent  French  commercial  policy  finds 
it  treated  in  two  chapters  separated  by  a  chapter  on  rural  Germany. 
Arguments  that  can  be  advanced  for  this  arrangement  lose  their  force  if 
full  advantage  is  not  taken  of  the  opportunity  to  apply  the  comparative 
method. 

Clive  Day. 

Lc  Courtier  de  M.  Thiers.     Par  Daniel  Halevy'.     (Paris:  Payot 

et  Cie.     1921.     Pp.  512.     20  fr.) 

The  editor  of  this  book,  M.  Halevy,  explains  in  a  brief  preface  that 
when  he  began  his  work,  his  purpose  was  merely  to  select  and  edit  some 
interesting  texts,  that  however  he  soon  found  that  he  would  be  obliged  to 
explain  those  texts  and  show  their  connection  with  each  other  by  means 
of  notes,  and  that  after  he  had  finished  his  work  he  found  that  he  had 
almost  written  a  biography,  but  not  quite.  He  wishes  his  book  to  be 
judged,  not  as  a  biography  but  as  a  collection  of  Thiers's  correspondence, 
lighted  up  by  notes  on  the  facts  mentioned  and  by  the  conversation  or 
comment  of  contemporaries. 

As  an  editor  it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  M.  Halevy's  superior.  He 
has  all  the  qualities  an  editor  must  have  and  several  others  which  are  not 
obligatory  but  are  pleasing  and  advantageous.  His  notes  are  as  interest- 
ing as  the  rest  of  the  contents  of  the  book  and  this  is  saying  a  great  deal. 
Not  only  are  they  thoroughly  informed  but  they  show  a  fine  reserve,  a 
tact  and  judgment,  a  piquant  irony  never  overdone,  and  a  literary  deftness 
and  flavor  eminently  fitted  to  beguile  away  the  classic  ennui  of  the  book 
reviewer. 

The  documents  here  given  'to  the  world,  letters  to  and  from  Thiers 
and  covering  a  period  of  more  than  fifty  years,  are  from  the  manuscripts 
department  of  the  National  Library.  These  documents  had  undergone  a 
process  of  careful  selection  before  ever  they  were  confided  to  that  public 
repository.  They  were  designed  to  make  known,  as  the  editor  points  out, 
"  not  Thiers,  but  Monsieur  Thiers "  (a  very  different  personage)  as 
Thiers  himself,  and  particularly  as  Mademoiselle  Dosne,  his  diligent  and 
loyal  sister-in-law  and  heir,  wished  him  to  be  known.  Tims  many  letters 
from  or  to  the  great  man  which  might  militate  against  the  realization  of 
the  effect  desired  were  suppressed  by  these  interested  censors  and  history 


Halevy:  Lc  Courrier  dc  M.  Thiers  559 

has,  no  doubt,  lost  certain  revelations  that  would  be  highly  appreciated. 
But  despite  this  wilful  impoverishment  of  our  science,  enough  is  left  and 
more  than  enough  to  entertain  and  divert  and  instruct  posterity  about  this 
man  who  did  not  relish  being  chaffed  in  this  life  and  proposed  to  have  as 
few  liberties  as  possible  taken  with  him  after  his  departure  from  the 
earthly  scene. 

Born  in  1797  Thiers  lived  until  1877.  Not  only  was  life  thus  gen- 
erous to  him  but  he  touched  it  at  many  points.  Very  versatile,  he  was 
even  more  confident  of  his  knowledge  and  of  his  rights  to  criticize  than 
his  versatility  authorized.  Beginning  his  career  in  Paris  by  a  criticism 
of  the  salon  of  1822  he  ended  it  as  founder  of  the  Third  Republic.  There 
is  a  little  of  everything  in  his  life  and  a  great  deal  of  a  few  things.  Be- 
longing by  birth  to  the  petty  bourgeoisie  he  made  a  rich  marriage  and 
became  a  conspicuous  leader  of  the  upper  bourgeoisie.  In  office  when  he 
could  be,  most  of  his  time  was  after  all  spent  in  private  life  leading  what 
the  editor  calls  la  belle  et  paisible  existence  d'un  grand  seigneur  de  lettres. 
Publishing  his  first  volume  on  the  French  Revolution  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
six,  it  was  not  till  1S62  that  the  final  volume  of  his  Consulate  and  Empire 
appeared,  a  work  that  took  seventeen  years  of  his  life,  that  won  him  a 
great  position  in  the  literary  world  and  intoxicating  encomiums  from  such 
men  as  Sainte  Beuve,  Prosper  Merimee,  and  Lamartine,  and  that  is  no 
longer  read.  Many  of  the  interesting  letters  in  this  volume  bear  upon 
Thiers's  activities,  merits,  and  deficiencies  as  an  historian. 

Halevy,  stopping  in  the  middle  of  his  book  to  cast  a  glance  backward 
over  the  ground  already  traversed,  says : 

We  have  known  Thiers  the  journalist,  enemy  of  priests  and  nobles, 
financier,  historian  of  the  Revolution,  mathematician,  art  critic,  minister 
of  the  interior  and  chief  of  police,  minister  of  public  works:  we  have 
known  him  as  protector  and  inspirer  of  artists,  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
smitten  with  admiration  for  Italy,  would-be  historian  of  Florence,  organ- 
izer of  armies,  military  engineer,  admirer  of  Rachel,  historian  of  Na- 
poleon, parliamentary  orator,  and  politician  broken  to  all  the  tricks  of 
the  Palais  Bourbon  ;  we  have  seen  him  attacking  one  monarchy,  striking 
it  down  and  erecting  another  in  its  place;  serving  this  new  one  and  then 
disserving  it,  now  loyal  and  now  disloyal ;  we  have  known  him  as  a  petty 
bourgeois,  then  as  a  great  bourgeois;  we  have  just  seen  him  as  a  savior 
of  society,  and  we  shall  see  him  in  the  future  in  many  other  forms,  notably 
as  general  of  an  army,  as  an  astronomer  and  a  chemist.  At  the  present 
(1849)  we  see  him  as  a  clerical  (p.  256). 

Indeed  this  free-thinker,  upon  whom  Talleyrand  had  laid  non-apostolic 
hands,  became  under  the  Second  Republic  the  idol  of  the  clericals,  who 
were  enthusiastic  over  his  services  to  the  Church  and  who,  in  the  ebulli- 
ence of  their  gratitude,  even  aspired  to  convert  him,  "  since  nothing  is 
impossible  for  God  "  as  one  of  them  said.  This  particular  thing,  how- 
ever, was  either  impossible  for  God  or  did  not  come  within  the  purview 
of  His  desires. 


560  Reviews  of  Books 

One  cannot  summarize,  even  in  a  list  of  headings,  this  Protean  per- 
sonality who,  according  to  Lamartine,  had  "  enough  saltpetre  in  him  to 
blow  up  ten  governments  ",  who,  according  to  Princess  Lieven,  was  "  a 
perpetual  fireworks  "  and  who,  according  to  Metternich,  was  "  decidedly 
not  a  statesman,  but  an  acrobat  " — a  view,  be  it  said,  which  Metternich 
did  not  continue  to  hold.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Thiers,  who  made  plenty 
of  mistakes  and  had  plenty  of  faults,  grew  in  general  in  wisdom  with 
advancing  years,  a  heartening  fact  as  the  opposite  would  be  most  dis- 
heartening, that  his  last  years  were  his  most  useful  to  his  country  and 
that  he  may  confidently  be  said  to  have  achieved  his  ambition,  "a  half  a 
line  in  universal  history  ",  as  he  expressed  it,  although  the  Rhadamanthine 
Wells  does  not  allow  him  that  much  in  his.  which  is  perhaps  more  of  a 
compliment  than  not. 

All  phases  of  Thiers's  activity,  all  the  numerous  personal  contacts  of 
the  lively  Meridional,  most  of  the  great  scenes  in  French  history  for  fifty 
years,  are  illustrated  variously  and  strikingly  in  this  valuable  book,  not 
one  page  of  which  is  dull. 

Charles  Downer  Hazen. 

Histoire  dc  France  Contcmporainc.     [Lavisse.]     Tome  VIII.    L'Evo- 
lution  dc  la  Troisieme  Republiquc,  1875-1914.     Par  Ch.  Seigno- 
bos.      (Paris:    Hachette.     1921.     Pp.    512.     30    fr.) 
In  the  eighth  volume  of  the  Histoire  dc  France  Contcmporainc  Pro- 
fessor Seignobos,  writing  upon  the  Third  Republic  from  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  of  1875  to  the  eve  of  the  World  War,  has  fully  sustained 
the  high  standard  of  the  earlier  volumes  of  the  series,  as  described  in  the 
preceding  number  of  this  Review. 

The  volume  is  divided  into  four  books.  The  first  two,  amounting  to 
about  three-fifths  of  the  whole,  relate  the  history  of  the  internal  political 
life  of  the  Republic,  the  third  describes  its  foreign  and  colonial  policy, 
while  the  fourth  deals  with  the  social  transformation  through  which 
France  was  passing.  Within  each  book  the  arrangement  into  chapters 
and  sections  exhibits  in  an  exceptional  degree  the  admirable  organizing 
skill  which  almost  invariably  marks  French  historical  writing. 

While  recognizing  that  the  method  of  arrangement  employed  has  many 
advantages,  especially  for  setting  forth  in  lucid  fashion  the  vast  multitude 
of  facts  which  must  be  presented  to  the  reader,  it  seems  to  the  reviewer 
that  it  was  a  mistake  to  separate  the  account  of  foreign  and  colonial 
policy  and  the  description  of  the  social  transformation  from  the  general 
narrative  of  political  events.  Each  part  suffers  somewhat  from  its  isola- 
tion. The  most  serious  objection,  however,  is  that  the  separation  makes 
it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  the  reader  to  get  a  realizing  sense  of  the 
whole  series  of  events  and  changes  which  made  up  the  life  of  France 
during  the  period  which  the  volume  covers.  It  would,  no  doubt,  have 
been    extremely   difficult   to   put   together   all    of   the   varied   elements   of 


Lavisse:  France  Contemporaine  561 

French  life  into  a  single  narrative,  but  the  reviewer  feels  confident  that 
Professor  Seignobos  could  have  done  it.  Success  in  such  an  undertaking 
would  have  been  a  really  great  achievement. 

The  books  devoted  to  political  history  are  marked  by  an  unusual  degree 
of  good  judgment  in  the  selection  of  things  to  be  told  or  described,  by 
clear  and  concise  narration,  and  by  penetrating  and  judicious  estimates 
of  men,  measures,  policies,  and  events.  These  estimates  are  confined  to 
occasional  sentences  or  short  paragraphs,  for  in  general  Professor  Seigno- 
bos writes  in  highly  objective  fashion,  allowing  the  facts  to  tell  their 
own  story.  Particularly  noteworthy  are  the  accounts  of  the  elections, 
each  with  a  careful  analysis  of  the  distribution  of  the  vote,  the  description 
of  party  programmes,  and  the  very  clear  indications  as  to  where,  at  any 
given  time,  real  political  power  was  located.  Special  and  perhaps  some- 
what disproportionate  attention  is  given  to  the  development  of  the  socialist 
parties.  The  accounts  of  the  crisis  of  the  sixteenth  of  May  and  of  the 
Boulanger  and  Dreyfus  affairs  are  exceptionally  well  told  and  with  a 
nearly  complete  absence  of  party  bias.  Even  in  the  thorny  matter  of  the 
controversies  over  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  Professor  Seignobos 
has  succeeded  in  writing  most  dispassionately. 

The  book  upon  foreign  and  colonial  policy  relates  chiefly  to  colonial 
matters.  Only  one  chapter,  of  thirty-five  pages,  is  given  to  foreign 
affairs  and  most  of  that  scant  measure  is  used  in  sketching  in  brief  form 
the  general  course  of  European  rather  than  French  diplomacy.  This 
surprising  brevity  Professor  Seignobos  defends  (p.  290)  upon  the  ground 
that  in  a  history  of  Europe  diplomatic  activities  would  demand  a  large 
space,  but  that  in  a  history  of  France  the  treatment  may  be  limited  to  the 
things  which  have  produced  some  action  by  the  French  government,  dis- 
turbed French  opinion,  or  modified  the  conditions  of  French  policy  in 
Europe.  It  seems  to  the  reviewer  that,  even  upon  the  basis  of  that  limi- 
tation, the  subject  has  not  been  adequately  treated  and  that  the  reader  is 
left  with  a  distinctly  false  impression  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  life 
of  the  French  people  has  been  affected  by  the  foreign  policy  of  France 
and  of  other  nations. 

The  story  of  the  remarkable  achievement  of  the  Third  Republic  in 
the  building  up  of  a  new  colonial  empire,  second  in  extent  only  to  that  of 
England,  is  well  told  in  four  chapters,  one  each  for  north  Africa,  the  Far 
East,  and  black  Africa,  and  one  on  colonial  policy.  The  regional  chapters 
at  times  go  into  more  detail  than  seems  necessary. 

The  book  on  the  social  transformation  describes  in  a  remarkably  inter- 
esting and  effective  way  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  popu- 
lation, the  conditions  of  social  life,  the  agricultural  industrial,  and  direct- 
ing classes,  and  the  intellectual  life  of  the  country.  The  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  these  six  chapters  is  their  illuminating  quality.  An  occasional 
excess  of  statistics  is  a  pardonable  fault  in  view  of  the  general  good  judg- 
ment shown  in  the  handling  of  difficult  materials. 


562  Reviews  of  Books 

There  are  twenty  insert  plates  of  valuable  illustrations,  but  no  maps — 
though  some  are  much  needed  for  the  colonial  chapters — and  no  index. 

Frank  Maloy  Anderson. 

Naval  Operations.  By  Sir  Julian  S.  Corbett.  Volume  II.  [His- 
tory of  the  Great  War  based  on  Official  Documents,  by  direction 
of  the  Historical  Section  of  the  Committee  of  fmperial  Defence.] 
(  New  York  and  London  :  Longmans,  Green,  and  Company.  1921 . 
Pp.  xi,  448.     2IS.) 

The  first  volume  of  this  truly  monumental  naval  history  of  the  late 
war  was  reviewed  in  the  American  Historical  Review  of  October,  1920 
(XXVI.  94-96).  It  contained  470  pages,  and  ended  with  the  account  of 
the  battle  of  the  Falklands.  The  present  volume  is  approximately  of  the 
same  length,  though  of  much  greater  bulk,  owing  to  the  very  excellent 
strategical  and  other  maps,  of  which  no  fewer  than  fifteen  are  folding. 
The  book  covers  the  raid  on  the  Yorkshire  coast  of  December,  1914,  the 
Dogger  Bank  action,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Dresden,  but  the  greater 
portion  is  taken  up  with  the  Dardanelles  campaign.  When  the  British 
government  announced  the  preparation  and  appearance  of  an  Official 
History  of  the  Great  War,  there  was  much  curiosity  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  such  a  work,  published  so  soon  after  the  events  to  be  de- 
scribed and,  presumably,  to  be  criticized.  Without  allowing  sufficient 
lapse  of  time  for  the  necessary  "  historical  perspective  ",  was  it  not  some- 
what audacious  to  attempt  more  than  the  United  States  naval  authorities 
were  doing,  namely,  the  collection  and  collation  of  the  records  and  the 
publication  of  certain  limited  monographs? 

It  must  be  admitted  that  Sir  Julian  Corbett  has  solved  this  more  than 
difficult  problem  in  an  astonishingly  successful  manner.  While  indulging 
in  no  high-handed  apportioning  of  praise  and  blame,  he  presents  the  facts, 
be  they  favorable  or  damning,  clearly  and  fully,  so  that  the  results  stand 
out  for  themselves.  At  the  same  time  he  is  ever  jealous  of  reputations, 
and  strives  to  present  what  was  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  a  leader  who 
failed  of  his  purpose,  as,  for  example,  his  apology  for  Admiral  Cradock 
after  Coronel.  Very  significant  also  is  his  invariable  defense  of  men 
who  have  been  blamed  unjustly,  like  Mr.  W.  S.  Churchill  in  the  Coronel 
affair  and  that  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  Lord  Fisher  in  regard  to  the 
Dardanelles.  Concerning  the  latter  he  says :  "  The  loss  at  such  a  crisis 
(resignation  from  the  Admiralty)  of  a  man  who  bulked  so  large  in  popu- 
lar opinion  could  only  add  to  the  general  depression.  To  the  country  at 
large  he  was  the  embodiment  of  the  old  fighting  energy  of  the  navy — the 
man  to  whom  we  owed"  the  organization  and  strategical  disposition  which 
rendered  the  German  fleet  impotent  when  the  long-expected  struggle 
began,  and  the  all-embracing  combination  against  Admiral  von  Spee 
which  had  given  us  our  only  decisive  success  at  sea  "  (p.  410).  Fisher's 
resignation  started  the  debacle  of  the  cabinet,  and  "  within  five  days  of 


Johnson:  Battlefields  of  the  Il'ar  563 

Fisher's  departure  the  leaders  of  the  great  parties  in  the  State  were  sitting 
in  council  to  form  a  Coalition  Government  ".  That  Lord  Fisher  was  in 
no  manner  responsible  for  the  Dardanelles  disaster  is  clearly  brought  out: 
"  When  Lord  Fisher  first  supported  the  idea  of  perfecting  the  unity  of 
the  allied  line  by  opening  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Bosporus,  he  contem- 
plated making  the  attempt  with  a  strong  combined  force  which  was  to 
strike  suddenly  and  quickly.  ...  It  was  only  with  reluctance  that  he  had 
assented  to  the  Dardanelles  enterprise  as  it  was  actually  undertaken,  and 
so  soon  as  it  became  clear  that  the  political  situation  in  the  Balkans  and 
the  available  military  force  gave  no  prospect  of  success  by  a  coup  de  main 
he  became  frankly  opposed  to  it."  When  his  colleagues  refused  him  the 
necessary  forces  to  strike  a  quick  blow  he  resigned. 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  manner  in  which  Sir  Julian  has  overcome  the 
difficulty  of  writing  history  so  soon  after  the  events,  the  idea  will  not 
down  that  it  would  have  been  wiser  to  postpone  the  publication  of  the 
official  history  for  a  certain  period,  an  idea  to  which  the  author  himself 
gives  color  in  his  remarks  upon  certain  authorities:  "The  publication  of 
these  works  since  the  history  began  to  be  written  has  proved  of  great 
assistance  in  correcting  false  impressions  and  supplying  gaps  in  our  own 
information."  It  would  be  a  hardy  prophet  indeed  who  should  declare 
that  no  further  important  documents  w-ould  come  to  light,  and  that  no 
more  useful,  even  vital  and  indispensable,  books  would  appear.  Any 
claim  of  finality  must,  therefore,  be  denied  to  any  history  written  before 
all  the  actors  in  the  drama  have  spoken  and  all  the  records  have  been 
filed.  The  present  really  marvellous  work  of  Corbett.  Fayle,  and  Hurd 
must,  however,  be  admired  and  welcomed,  for  it  may  be  doubted  whether, 
at  a  future  time,  any  authors  could  command  that  enthusiasm  of  style 
that  raises  even  the  description  of  commonplace  occurrences  out  of  the 
commonplace,  and  makes  them  throb  with  interest,  that  enthusiasm  that 
flows  from  men  still  under  the  influence  of  the  stupendous  events  they 
are  narrating. 

Edward  Breck. 

Battlefields  of  the  World   War,   Western   and  Southern   Fronts:   a 
Study  in  Military  Geography.     By  Douglas  Wilsox  Johnson, 
Professor  of  Physiography  in  Columbia  University.      [American 
Geographical  Society  Research  Series,  no.  3.]      (New  York:  Ox- 
ford University  Press.    1921.    Pp.  xxvi,  648.  and  plates.    $7.90.) 
All  military  operations  culminate  on  the  battlefield ;  the  final  test  of 
a  manceuvre  is  the  battle  which  terminates  it,   its  striking   features  are 
the  skirmishes   incidental   to   it.     The   soldier   must   study   these  engage- 
ments,  for  his  is  the  responsibility   of   handling  troops   in   battle.     The 
civilian  thinks  largely  in  terms  of  battles,   for  the  actual   conflict  is  the 
visible  evidence  of  the  manceuvre  behind  it. 

But  behind  it  is  the  manceuvre,  the  strategv.  of  which  the  tactics  are 


564  Reviews  of  Books 

the  servant.  This  also  the  soldier  studies,  after  he  has  gained  a  little 
knowledge  of  the  technique  and  tactics  of  handling  men  in  action.  The 
civilian  who  goes  into  this  is  the  one  whose  training  leads  him  to  ask 
"why?"  when  he  reads  the  story  of  the  battle.  It  is  strong  meat,  dan- 
gerous to  the  immature  or  weak  mental  digestion. 

Behind  this  again  is  military  geography,  determining  the  strategy  from 
the  point  of  view  of  execution,  as  national  policy  determines  its  aims. 
But  what  is  behind  military  geography  ?  Behind  all  geography,  evidently, 
is  geology,  and  hence  there  must  be  a  military  geology. 

Returning  now  to  our  starting  point,  tactics,  we  find  the  same  geo- 
graphic influence  there.  Behind  this  still  is  geology,  affecting  every 
detail  of  a  soldier's  life,  from  the  siting  of  his  fortifications  to  the  location 
and  depth  of  his  latrines. 

This  fundamental  and  little  considered  science  is  the  subject  of  this 
book. 

The  writer,  professor  of  physiography  in  Columbia  University,  has 
long  been  interested  in  the  military  aspects  of  his  science.  Shortly  after 
the  United  States  entered  the  war,  he  published  his  first  book  on  the  sub- 
ject, Topography  and  Strategy  in  the  War,  interpreting  the  previous 
operations  in  terms  of  land-forms,  and  preparing  his  readers  to  grasp  the 
topographic  reasons  for  those  to  come,  and  their  significance.  This  book 
is  the  logical  successor  of  the  earlier  one.  It  is  not  a  history;  it  is  rather 
a  treatise  on  geology,  avoiding  technicalities,  but  tracing  the  geology 
down  through  geography,  and  deducing  the  military  conclusions;  then 
testing  and  elaborating  these  conclusions  by  a  short  narrative  of  the 
operations  of  the  recent  war,  with  frequent  excursions  into  those  of 
Napoleon  and  even  Attila  and  the  Romans. 

For  this  undertaking  the  writer  is  well  qualified.  He  was  commis- 
sioned major  in  the  National  Army  in  January,  1918,  assigned  to  military 
intelligence  duty,  and  sent  to  France  in  February.  On  this  duty  he  con- 
tinued until  March,  1919,  visiting  all  parts  of  the  theatre  of  operations, 
and  after  the  armistice  joining  General  Bliss  in  Paris. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  book,  it  was  necessary  to  make  a  territorial, 
rather  than  a  logical  or  chronological,  classification  of  the  operations. 
At  the  same  time  it  was  necessary  to  avoid  treating  them  in  territorial 
water-tight  compartments,  losing  their  connection  and  hence  their  signifi- 
cance. The  difficulties  are  obvious,  but  the  results,  while  they  would  be 
unsatisfactory  in  a  history,  are  highly  satisfactory  here.  Each  "  battle- 
field ",  or  natural  theatre  of  operations,  is  described,  and  then  the  cam- 
paigns in  that  region  explained  briefly,  but  with  judgment.  Enough  of 
the  general  military  situation  is  given  in  each  case,  not  to  satisfy  one 
looking  for  a  narrative  history,  but  to  refresh  the  memory  of  one  having 
a  little  general  knowledge  of  the  course  of  the  war. 

American  operations  are  described  in  their  proper  places,  with  no 
greater  emphasis  than  is  given  to  the  others.     Their  character  and  im- 


Salter:  Allied  Shipping  Control  565 

portance  stand  out  clearly  enough  without  that.  This  same  uniformity 
of  treatment  is  noticeable  throughout.  Perhaps  not  the  least  of  the  merits 
of  the  book  is  that  it  gives  a  picture  on  a  uniform  scale — as  it  must  of 
necessity  do  if  the  illustrations  are  to  be  of  any  use  for  their  technical 
purpose — bringing  the  less  known  operations,  as  those  in  Italy  and  the 
Balkans,  into  relation  with  the  more  familiar  Argonne  and  the  over- 
emphasized "  Flanders  fields  ". 

Oliver  L.  Spaulding,  jr. 

Allied  Shipping  Control:  an  Experiment  in  International  Adminis- 
tration. By  J.  A.  Salter,  C.B.,  Commandeur  de  la  Legion 
d'Honneur.  [Economic  and  Social  History  of  the  World  War. 
British  Series,  James  T.  Shotwell,  Ph.D.,  General  Editor. 
Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace,  Division  of  Eco- 
nomics and  History.]  (Oxford:  Clarendon  Press.  1921.  Pp. 
xxiii,  372.     10s.  6d.) 

It  is  well  to  note  that  Mr.  Salter's  purpose  in  his  interesting  and  well- 
written  book  on  Allied  Shipping  Control  was  not  to  give  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  national  methods  and  organizations  for  shipping  control 
which  prevailed  in  each  of  the  allied  countries  during  the  war,  but  to 
describe  the  system  of  control  prevailing  in  Great  Britain  in  a  preliminary 
way,  and  then  to  present  full  information  concerning  inter-allied  shipping 
control.  The  author  expressly  states  that  "  the  main  object  of  this  work 
is  to  describe  the  work  of  the  Allied  Maritime  Transport  Council  (the 
A.  M.  T.  C.)  and  its  permanent  organization,  the  Allied  Maritime  Trans- 
port Executive,  as  an  experiment  in  international  administration  ". 

Part  I.  contains  a  brief  account  of  the  importance  of  shipping  during 
the  war,  of  the  problems  that  arose,  and  of  the  plans  adopted  for  their 
solution.  Parts  II.  and  IV.  contain  a  rather  full  account  of  British  ship- 
ping control.  The  methods  described  include  the  power  of  requisition, 
the  prohibition  and  restriction  of  imports,  the  control  of  vessel  chartering, 
the  control  of  the  employment  of  unrequisitioned  vessels  by  license,  the 
acquisition  and  distribution  of  the  main  articles  of  food  and  raw  materials 
of  the  country,  the  allocation  of  shipping,  and  selection  between  imports, 
the  blockade,  the  policy  of  Great  Britain  with  respect  to  neutral  shipping, 
and  the  methods  adopted  to  combat  the  submarine  menace. 

Part  IV.  comprises  the  principal  historical  record  of  the  book,  for  it 
is  here  that  the  allied  or  international  control  of  shipping  during  the  war 
is  discussed.  The  author  not  only  draws  upon  the  valuable  official  docu- 
ments and  statistical  information  reproduced  in  the  appendix  (part  VI.), 
but  shows  the  first-hand  knowledge  of  war  events  acquired  from  his  posi- 
tions as  Director  of  Ship  Requisition,  Secretary  to  the  Allied  Maritime 
Transport  Council,  and  Chairman  of  the  Allied  Maritime  Transport  Ex- 
ecutive. After  tracing  briefly  the  unorganized  efforts  of  Great  Britain  to 
assist  her  allies  in  the  matter  of  tonnage  during  the  early  years  of  the 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 38. 


566  Reviews  of  Books 

war,  the  tonnage  agreement  of  December  3,  1916,  of  France  and  England, 
the  unsuccessful  efforts  embodied  in  the  Inter-allied  Shipping  Committee 
of  January,  1917,  the  Shipping  Agreement  of  November  3,  1917,  between 
France,  Italy,  and  England,  and  the  general  understanding  of  November, 
191 7,  between  these  countries  and  the  United  States,  he  proceeds  to  de- 
scribe the  Paris  Conference  which  was  called  later  in  that  month.  At 
this  conference  a  series  of  general  principles  of  co-operation  were  adopted 
and  a  permanent  organization  was  effected.  This  consisted  of  the  Allied 
Maritime  Transport  Council  and  its  Executive.  Chapter  IV.  contains  a 
full  account  of  the  first  meeting  of  the  council,  and  chapter  V.  of  its 
second  meeting.  Chapters  VI.  and  VII.  describe  the  internal  organiza- 
tion of  the  council  and  its  executive,  the  various  "  programme  commit- 
tees "  which  were  organized  for  the  international  control  of  essential 
commodities,  and  the  work  of  the  Executive  from  May  to  July,  1918. 
The  next  two  chapters  trace  the  activities  of  the  council  and  executive 
to  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  and  chapters  X.  and  XI.  describe  their 
activities  from  the  armistice  to  the  final  ending  of  their  shipping  control 
in  April,  1919.  The  final  chapter  of  part  IV.  contains  the  author's  im- 
pression of  the  results  achieved  in  the  effort  to  bring  about  inter-allied 
shipping  control. 

In  part  V.  Mr.  Salter  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  war-time  ex- 
perience of  the  allied  countries  in  international  shipping  control  as  the 
basis  for  permanent  international  co-operation  in  the  future.  He  states 
the  conclusions  which  he  has  drawn  "  for  the  future  of  international 
administration  ".  However  opinions  may  vary  as  to  future  international 
control,  Mr.  Salter's  historical  account  of  how  shipping  was  jointly  con- 
trolled by  the  Allies  during  the  later  years  of  the  war  constitutes  an  inter- 
esting and  authoritative  contribution. 

Grover  G.  Huebner. 

A  History  of  the  Peace  Conference.  Edited  by  H.  W.  V.  Tem- 
perley.  [Published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute  of  Inter- 
national Affairs.]  Volumes  IV.  and  V.  Economic  Reconstruc- 
tion and  Protection  of  Minorities.  (London  :  Henry  Frowde,  and 
Hodder  and  Stoughton.     1921.     Pp.  xxvi,  528  ;  xv,  483.     $9.50.) 

The  purpose  and  the  general  scheme  of  this  extensive  and  important 
work  have  been  treated  in  a  previous  review.  The  new  volumes  deal  with 
the  Austro-Hungarian  and  Bulgarian  settlements  in  much  the  same  fash- 
ion as  the  first  three  covered  the  German  settlement.  They  attempt  far 
more  than  the  mere  story  of  the  Peace  Conference  itself  and  the  making 
of  the  treaties  at  Paris:  of  the  thousand-odd  pages  included  in  these  vol- 
umes, barely  an  eighth  is  devoted  to  a  narrative  of  proceedings  in  the 
Conference;  rather  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  material  deals  with  the 
historical  background  of  the  questions  that  were  settled  and  about  the 
same  amount  with  a  description  and  analysis  of  the  decisions  taken  and 


Temperley:  The  Peace  Conference  567 

their  effects;  the  remainder  is  composed  of  the  texts  of  the  treaties  and 
less  formal  agreements,  with  ancillary  documents. 

Volume  IV.  begins  with  a  narrative  of  the  collapse,  military  and  politi- 
cal, of  Bulgaria  and  the  Hapsburg  Empire  (inaptly  described  in  the 
chapter-heading  as  the  "  Central  Powers  "),  with  an  analysis  of  the  politi- 
cal structure  of  the  old  Dual  Monarchy  and  the  factors  that  led  to  its 
disintegration.  This,  with  a  short  section  on  the  armistices,  comprises  a 
fourth  of  the  volume.  The  dramatic  character  of  events  permits  a  vivid- 
ness of  treatment  which  is  amply  appreciated  by  the  author  and  these 
pages  furnish  a  brilliant  summary  of  the  fall  of  the  Hapsburgs.  It  is. 
perhaps,  fair  to  ask  whether  the  narrative  might  not  have  been  abbrevi- 
ated in  order  to  secure  more  detailed  treatment  of  the  problems  of  the 
liberated  nationalities.  The  latter  receive  careful  attention,  after  a  brief 
chapter  on  the  disarmament  of  the  enemy  and  the  military  terms  of  the 
treaties  of  St.  Germain,  the  Trianon,  and  Neuilly.  The  hundred  pages  de- 
voted to  the  antecedents  and  the  formation  of  the  new  Czechoslovak, 
Jugoslav,  and  Rumanian  states  are  deserving  of  high  praise.  The  prob- 
lem, as  it  appeared  to  those  in  authority  at  Paris,  has  been  clearly  pre- 
sented, with  a  full  summary  of  nationalistic  aspirations  and  movements, 
and  the  reader  has  laid  before  him  the  various  considerations,  ethnic, 
economic,  and  political,  which  determined  the  frontiers.  It  is  the  simplest 
and  most  comprehensive  survey  of  these  complex  issues  that  has  yet 
appeared  in  print.  The  reviewer  has  but  two  regrets,  namely  that  in  a 
volume  devoted  to  the  attempt  to  construct  new  states  on  the  ruins  of  the 
old  empire  more  space  could  not  be  found  for  the  particular  problems  of 
the  nationalities,  and  that  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  reserve  the  Polish 
problem  for  volume  VI.  The  chapter  on  the  Treaty  of  London  and  the 
extent  of  its  application  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  new  frontiers  of 
Italy,  with  a  brief  section  on  Albania.  It  is  written  by  Mr.  Temperley 
himself  and,  after  covering  in  restrained  fashion  the  various  phases  of 
the  Fiume  dispute,  concludes  with  the  settlement  at  Rapallo.  There  fol- 
lows a  chapter  on  the  plebiscites  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  at 
Klagenfurt,  were  never  held,  and  which  resulted  in  the  division  of  Teschen 
and  Austria's  acquisition  of  German  West  Hungary.  Chapter  VII.  of 
the  volume  is  devoted  to  a  summary  narrative  (thirty-nine  pages)  on  the 
making  of  the  treaties,  with  general  considerations  of  the  principles 
underlying  them,  and  is  succeeded  by  fifty  pages  containing  admirably 
compressed  material  on  the  new  Bulgaria,  Austria,  and  Hungary,  by 
Childs,  Coolidge,  and  Temperley.  The  volume  concludes  with  appendixes 
of  armistice  texts,  Rumanian  agreements,  and  the  "  Little  Entente " 
treaty,  which  we  should  naturally  have  expected  to  find  reserved  for  in- 
clusion with  similar  material  at  the  end  of  volume  V. 

That  volume  is  not,  as  one  might  gather  from  its  subtitle,  mainly  given 
over  to  economic  reconstruction  and  minorities.  Of  the  483  pages,  only 
in  deal  with  the  reparation  and  financial  clauses  of  the  three  treaties 


568  Reviews  of  Books 

and  a  discussion  of  commercial  policy  towards  the  defeated  powers,  which 
is  followed  by  a  short  chapter  on  the  protection  of  minorities.  The  major 
portion  of  the  volume  is  composed  of  the  texts  of  the  treaties  of  St. 
Germain,  the  Trianon,  and  Neuilly,  and  of  documents  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  memoranda  and  agreements  concerning  reparation  and  the  protec- 
tion of  minorities,  the  Treaty  of  London,  the  Manifesto  of  Corfu,  the  Pact 
of  Rome,  the  different  memoranda  on  Fiume,  and  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo. 
The  volume  concludes  with  a  serviceable  topical  index  to  the  Austrian, 
Hungarian,  and  Bulgarian  treaties  which,  with  slight  effort,  might  have 
been  made  even  more  valuable.  The  topic  "  Plebiscites  ",  for  example,  is 
not  listed  except  as  a  sub-topic  under  "  Austria ",  and  while  Fiume  is 
separately  listed,  Klagenfurt  is  not,  and  the  topic  "  Minorities"  is  incom- 
pletely indexed. 

The  combined  topical  and  chronological  arrangement  which  the  char- 
acter of  the  material  has  forced  upon  the  editor  is,  however,  skillfully 
drafted  and  the  student  will  in  general  experience  little  difficulty  in  dis- 
covering the  facts  for  which  he  is  searching.  As  in  the  earlier  volumes 
those  facts  are  presented  objectively  and  in  such  abundance  that  the 
reader  may  form  his  own  judgments.  Mr.  Temperley's  hope  that  he 
might  "  steer  a  course  equally  remote  from  official  apologetics  and  un- 
official jeremiads  "  seems  to  the  reviewer  to  have  been  crowned  with  a 
large  measure  of  success.  In  view  of  the  difficulty  of  arrangement,  the 
amount  of  recapitulation  is  surprisingly  small.  The  various  authors  have 
almost  without  exception  achieved  clarity  of  presentation.  It  is,  perhaps, 
regrettable  that  more  space  could  not  be  found  for  the  details  of  the 
processes  by  which  the  decisions  were  reached  at  Paris.  But  this  would 
not  have  been  possible  without  drawing  extensively  upon  the  secret  min- 
utes of  the  Councils  of  Ten  and  Four  and  upon  the  proces-verbanx  of 
the  commissions ;  the  editor  has  been  careful  not  to  infringe  upon  diplo- 
matic convention  by  the  use  of  material  the  publication  of  which  has  not 
been  officially  authorized.  It  was,  moreover,  of  the  first  importance  to 
save  space  for  collecting  the  most  important  documents  in  their  complete 
text.  Students  will  be  especially  grateful  for  the  statistical  tables  com- 
piled by  Mr.  Wallis,  although  they  will  regret  that  the  first  table,  on  page 
150  of  volume  V.,  is  so  incomplete  as  to  mislead  the  casual  reader  and 
to  blur  the  statistical  comparison  between  the  new  Austria  and  the  new 
Hungary. 

Charles  Seymour. 

The  New   World:   Problems   in   Political   Geography.     By    Isaiah 
Bowman,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  American  Geographical  Society 
of  New  York.      ( Yonkers-on-Hudson,  N.  Y. :  World  Book  Com- 
pany.    1921.     Pp.  vii,  632.     $6.00.) 
Tins  book  is  not,  as  its  title  might  seem  to  imply,  a  description  of  the 

twin  continents  named  in  honor  of  the  Florentine  impostor,  nor  is  it  a 


Bowman:  The  New  World  569 

prospectus  of  a  new  Eden  of  which  we  stand  at  the  portals.  It  is  a 
geographer's  survey  of  political  conditions  and  problems  all  over  the 
globe,  as  they  present  themselves  on  the  morrow  of  the  Great  War:  a 
study  of  a  world  in  which  so  many  of  the  old  boundaries  and  landmarks 
have  disappeared  and  so  many  new  formations  and  situations  have  arisen 
that  we  can  fairly  speak  of  it  as  "  the  new  world  ".  To  Americans  it  is 
also  new  in  another  sense:  that  it  is  swarming  with  problems,  to  which 
most  of  us  have  hitherto  remained  happily  oblivious,  but  on  which  we  as 
individuals  are  now  forced  to  know  something,  and  we  as  a  nation  may 
conceivably  be  forced  to  take  sides.  Doubtless  there  are  few  more  press- 
ing tasks  before  the  American  democracy  than  the  development  of  an 
enlightened  public  opinion  about  the  complex  questions  of  this  new 
society  of  peoples,  to  which,  for  better  or  for  worse,  we  are  now  inex- 
tricably bound. 

Dr.  Bowman  is  unusually  well  equipped  for  the  task  he  has  under- 
taken, not  only  through  his  position  as  director  of  the  American  Geo- 
graphical Society  and  editor  of  the  Geographical  Review,  but  also  through 
his  activity  during  the  war  as  head  of  the  group  of  specialists  charged 
with  collecting  for  our  government  data  on  all  the  questions  likely  to  be 
raised  at  the  peace  conference,  and  through  his  able  and  many-sided 
services  at  Paris  as  adviser  to  the  American  Commission  to  Negotiate 
Peace.  Perhaps  no  other  American  who  has  not  held  at  least  cabinet 
rank  in  recent  years,  could  write  with  equal  knowledge  of  so  many  of 
the  diplomatic  transactions  that  have  shaped  the  new  world,  or  could 
display  so  wide  a  range  of  information  and  interest. 

Its  comprehensiveness  is,  indeed,  one  outstanding  characteristic  of 
this  volume.  After  some  preliminary  general  discussion,  the  reader  is 
introduced  to  the  chief  political  and  economic  problems  of  the  British 
Empire:  France  and  Belgium.  Italy  and  the  Iberian  Peninsula;  the  pros- 
perous north,  the  convulsed  centre,  and  the  stormy  east  of  Europe ;  and 
so  on  with  all  the  states  and  especially  the  danger-zones  of  Asia,  Africa, 
Oceania,  and  South  America.  Scarcely  any  significant  region,  however 
small,  has  been  overlooked.  If  one  wishes  to  inform  himself  about  such 
problems  as  the  Saar  or  Fiume,  Upper  Silesia  or  Danzig,  Macedonia  or 
Smyrna,  the  Sykes-Picot  agreement  or  the  late  Anglo-Persian  treaty,  the 
causes  of  unrest  in  India  or  Egypt,  the  present  status  of  Tibet  or  Man- 
churia, mandates  in  Africa,  or  the  dispute  about  Tacna-Arica,  he  will 
find  here  the  fundamental  facts  in  the  case,  presented  by  an  expert.  The 
surviving  world-empires,  with  their  staggering  war  debts,  their  problems 
of  reconstruction,  their  inevitable  rivalry  for  markets  and  for  raw  mate- 
rials, and  their  teeming  populations  of  increasingly  restless  and  refractory 
black,  brown,  or  yellow  races;  the  new  states  from  Finland  to  Azerbaijan, 
with  their  ethnographic  and  religious  diversities,  natural  resources  and 
economic  development,  constitutional  and  political  questions ;  the  older, 
unremoved   causes   of   international    friction   and   the   new   occasions   for 


57°  Reviews  of  Books 

possible  conflict  that  the  war  has  produced — all  these  things  are  discussed 
with  remarkable  clearness,  objectivity,  fairness,  and  sense  of  proportion. 

Doubtless  so  much  information  could  not  have  been  compressed  within 
one  volume  but  for  the  very  copious  and  judicious  use  of  maps.  The 
volume  contains  two  hundred  and  eighty  maps,  diagrams,  and  illustrations. 
For  each  important  area  such  essential  factors  as  the  relief,  the  density 
of  population,  the  ethnic  and  religious  distribution,  the  mineral  resources 
and  industrial  centres,  and  the  old,  new,  or  proposed  boundaries,  are 
usually  portrayed  cartographically,  and  with  admirable  technique.  Many 
of  these  maps  cannot  be  duplicated  in  any  other  published  works;  and, 
taken  as  a  whole,  they  form  the  most  remarkable  and  valuable  part  of 
the  book. 

The  student  of  contemporary  politics  should  also  be  grateful  for  the 
very  substantial  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

An  author  who  has  attempted  to  deal  in  so  limited  a  space  with  so 
immensely  wide  and  varied  a  field,  inevitably  exposes  himself  to  some 
charges  of  errors  and  omissions.  One  may,  perhaps,  regret  that  an  ac- 
count of  "the  new  world"  should  contain  virtually  nothing  about  the 
organization  and  activities  of  the  League  of  Nations;  or  so  meagre  a 
treatment  of  a  subject  like  the  new  German  constitution,  or  of  certain 
areas  so  important  to  us  as  Mexico  or  the  Caribbean.  Some  erroneous 
statements  have  crept  in.  Under  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo,  for  instance, 
Zara  is  placed  under  Italian  sovereignty,  and  not  "  made  a  free  city  "  (as 
is  stated  on  page  269).  Historians  may  discover  a  fair  number  of  in- 
accurate dates ;  and  may  be  surprised  at  some  rather  chaotic  passages — 
e.g.,  on  Russian  expansion  in  eastern  Asia,  or  the  religious  troubles  in 
Bohemia  (in  which  the  Hussite  upheaval  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War  are 
very  much  mixed  up),  or  at  such  statements  as  that  the  Seljuks  con- 
quered Anatolia  in  the  eighth  century  (page  431),  or  that  "in  1863  .  .  . 
the  Duke  of  Slesvig  and  Holstein  came  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  as 
Christian  IX.  and  attempted  to  unite  both  provinces  to  his  kingdom " 
(page  175). 

Nevertheless,  these  things  weigh  but  slightly  against  the  merits  of  a 
work  which  is  undoubtedly  the  most  useful  introduction  to  world  politics 
that  has  appeared  in  this  country  since  the  Armistice.  One  would  like 
to  see  the  volume  in  every  American  library. 

R.  H.  Lord. 

Essays  on  the  Latin  Orient.  By  William  Miller,  M.A.  (Cam- 
bridge: University  Press.  1921.  Pp.  viii,  582.  40s.) 
This  volume  contains  (1)  twenty  articles  on  the  history  of  Greece 
from  the  Roman  conquest  to  the  end  of  "  the  Venetian  revival  in  Greece  ", 
1 7 1 8 ;  (2)  six  "Miscellanea  from  the  Near  East".  All  of  these  essays 
have  appeared  in  the  last  twenty-five  years  in  the  Quarterly  Review, 
English  Historical  Review,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  Bycantinische 


Miller:  Essays  on  the  Latin   Orient  571 

Zeitschrift,  Westminster  Review,  Gentleman s  Magazine,  and  journals  of 
the  British  and  American  archaeological  societies  of  Rome. 

The  titles  of  these  periodicals  would  suggest  a  difference  in  the  quality 
of  the  essays.  Some  are  well-written  summaries,  such  as  the  first  two, 
the  Romans  in  Greece  and  Byzantine  Greece,  which  together  take  up  only 
fifty-five  pages  for  thirteen  and  a  half  centuries;  some  are  valuable  con- 
tributions in  the  field  in  which  Mr.  Miller  is  particularly  learned;  some 
are  more  or  less  "  timely  "  articles,  notably  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem, written  after  Allenby's  capture  of  the  city.  Some  essays  are  fur- 
nished with  bibliographies;  some  are  copiously  annotated,  others  not. 

Most  of  the  essays  on  Frankish  and  Venetian  Greece,  as  well  as  some 
of  the  others,  were  written  before  Mr.  Miller  published  The  Latins  in  the 
Levant  and  their  conclusions  were  incorporated  in  that  volume.  Fre- 
quently passages  were  reprinted  verbatim  from  the  essays,  as  might  be 
expected;  but  the  plan  of  the  book  necessitated  rearrangement  and  fre- 
quently condensation  or  elaboration ;  e.g.,  p.  57  of  the  present  volume  is 
made  up  of  material  which  is  printed  partly  in  the  preface  and  partly  on 
p.  1  of  The  Latins;  p.  60  contains  sentences  from  pp.  3,  4,  and  6  of  the 
earlier  book;  pp.  1 18-124  have  passages  from  pp.  221-245  of  The  Latins; 
pp.  144-147  of  this  book  from  pp.  400-406  of  the  other;  etc.  In  the 
preface  the  author  states  that  "  all  the  articles  have  been  revised  and 
brought  up  to  date  by  the  light  of  recent  research  ".  Apparently  there 
have  been  lapses.  Although  he  has  much  to  say  about  the  "  Chronicle  of 
Morea  ",  he  does  not  cite,  and  apparently  has  not  used,  Longnon's  excel- 
lent edition  published  in  191 1  or  Adamantiou's  "'definitive  study"  pub- 
lished in  1906. 

A  review  of  the  more  important  of  these  essays  would  be  a  work  of 
supererogation,  as  The  Latins  in  the  Levant  was  published  fourteen  years 
ago  and  its  worth  has  been  recognized.  This  volume  contains  some  docu- 
ments, some  lists  of  rulers,  and  considerable  material  not  found  in  the 
former  work.  It  is  a  question,  however,  whether  in  these  days  of  ex- 
pensive book-making  it  was  worth  while  to  reprint  so  much  that  was 
already  accessible.  In  the  different  essays,  also,  there  are  frequent  repeti- 
tions which  were  advisable  when  they  appeared  separately,  but  might  well 
have  been  omitted  in  the  book. 

The  "  Miscellanea  "  include  convenient  summaries  of  the  history  of 
Valona,  of  the  Medieval  Serbian  Empire,  and  of  Bosnia  before  the 
Turkish  Conquest ;  an  interesting  paper  on  Balkan  exiles  in  Rome ;  and 
articles  of  slighter  value  on  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  Anna 
Comnena.  In  the  former,  old  errors  are  repeated :  e.g.,  p.  528,  that  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  originally  took  their  names  from  St.  John  the  Merci- 
ful ;  over  thirty  years  ago  Delaville  le  Roulx  and  Herquet  proved  that 
the  name  was  taken  from  John  the  Baptist.  The  old  fable  that  the 
Assizes  of  Jerusalem  were  drawn  up  by  Godfrey  and  kept  in  a  chest  in 
the  Holy   Sepulchre   is  again   repeated.     One   other   correction   may   be 


5  7 2  Reviews  of  Books 

noted:  on  pp.  301-302  the  derivation  of  maona,  the  name  for  an  associ- 
ation of  Genoese  business  men,  is  stated  as  of  uncertain  origin  and  various 
derivations  are  noted,  but  not  the  one  now  accepted,  vis.,  from  the  Arabic 
tna'unah — mutual  assistance — (Schaube,  Handclsgeschichte  der  Roman- 
ischen  V biker,  Munich,  1906,  p.  289).  This  last  correction  suggests  the 
statement  that  Mr.  Miller  is  not  very  much  interested  in  economic  history. 
There  are  fifteen  illustrations,  eight  for  Monemvasia,  four  for  Bou- 
donitza,  and  three  for  Karditza ;  but  only  one  small  and  rather  unsatis- 
factory map.  In  other  respects  the  volume  is  an  excellent  piece  of  book- 
making.  Yet  the  question  remains,  whether  it  will  add  to  the  author's 
deserved  reputation. 

D.  C.  Munro. 

Hinduism  and  Buddhism:  an  Historical  Sketch.  By  Sir  Charles 
Eliot,  H.  M.  Ambassador  at  Tokio.  In  three  volumes.  (Lon- 
don:  Edward  Arnold  and  Company.  1921.  Pp.  civ,  345;  iii, 
322;  iv,  513.     Set  £4  4s.) 

Sir  Charles  Eliot  has  had  a  long  career  as  a  diplomat  and  has 
graced  several  posts  from  Washington  to  Tokio.  He  has  been  also,  if 
not  a  specialist,  at  least  a  writer  on  Finnish,  Turkish,  and  related  lan- 
guages, and  has  had  an  opportunity  to  study  at  first  hand  the  practical 
working  of  Buddhism  in  Tibet,  Cambodia,  China,  and  other  haunts  of 
later  and  modern  Buddhism.  With  a  foundation  of  Sanskrit  to  start  with 
he  has  thus  been  admirably  equipped  to  tell  the  long  story  of  Buddhism 
as  one  who  knows  it  both  ab  initio  and  from  the  inside.  Naturally,  how- 
ever, in  so  vast  a  field  he  is  more  competent  to  relate  what  he  has  seen 
at  one  point  than  at  another ;  he  is  more  at  home  and  more  original  when 
writing  of  Buddhism  outside  India  than  in  describing  Indian  Buddhism, 
where,  despite  his  early  linguistic  training,  he  feels  himself  dependent  on 
the  work  of  more  recent  explorers.  His  three  volumes  as  a  whole  there- 
fore are  a  peculiar  mixture  of  borrowed  and  individual  research.  In 
great  part  they  are  valuable  chiefly  to  the  general  reader  who  will  not 
know  how  much  of  what  he  reads  has  been  repeated  or  assimilated  from 
previous  books;  at  the  same  time  they  are  valuable  to  the  specialist,  who 
will  find  in  them  useful  additions  to  his  store  of  knowledge  in  fields 
rather  remote  from  his  own  narrower  investigations.  In  sum,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  discover  for  which  class  of  readers  these  volumes  were  especially 
intended,  but  both  classes  will  gain  from  a  perusal  of  the  whole. 

"  Hinduism  "  to  the  specialist  has  rather  a  restricted  meaning.  It 
does  not  include  the  early  Vedic  religion  nor  its  philosophic  expression 
in  the  Upanishads.  On  the  other  hand,  what  it  always  includes  is  the 
later  mixture  of  Aryan  and  un-Aryan  religious  ideas  and  their  expression 
in  the  Puranas,  religious  works  of  the  first  centuries  A.  D.  Ignoring 
this,  the  author  of  the  present  voluminous  work,  after  a  generous  intro- 
duction, gives  a  second  introduction  by  discussing  the  political  history 


Eliot:  Hinduism  and  Buddhism  573 

of  India  and  the  Vedic  religion,  and  its  deities  and  sacrifices.  In  the  next 
two  books  he  recounts  the  well-known  facts  of  Pali  Buddhism  and  Maha- 
yana  Buddhism,  and  so  comes  to  his  first  titular  subject,  Hinduism,  dis- 
posing of  this  in  less  than  two  hundred  pages  of  analysis  of  religious 
philosophy  of  the  Hindu  type.  Finally,  having  thus  reached  the  third 
volume,  he  devotes  nearly  all  of  it  to  modern  Buddhism  outside  India, 
but  omits  a  detailed  account  of  the  most  important  of  all  forms  of  later 
Buddhism,  that  of  Japan,  because  as  ambassador  at  Tokio  he  regards  it 
as  indelicate  to  discuss  the  religious  aspects  of  the  people  to  whom  he 
is  accredited. 

The  author  seems  to  realize  that  he  has  undertaken  too  great  a  task 
and  apologizes  in  his  opening  sentences  for  choosing  "  a  scene  unsuited 
to  any  canvass  which  can  be  prepared  at  the  present  day  " ;  his  defense 
is  that  "  wide  surveys  may  sometimes  be  useful  and  are  needed  in  the 
present  state  of  Oriental  studies  ".  The  reviewer  is  willing  to  admit  this, 
but  he  would  have  liked  to  see  the  matter  better  distributed,  in  more  even 
proportion,  with  less  inclusion  of  outlying  subjects,  with  a  fuller  account 
of  one  of  the  chief  subjects  (Hinduism),  and  with  far  less  repetition,  not 
to  speak  of  inaccuracies.  In  the  first  two  hundred-odd  pages  the  same 
note  appears  three  times,  on  p.  xix,  p.  20.  and  p.  132,  stating  that  Vincent 
Smith  has  now  put  back  the  date  of  Buddha's  death  to  554  B.  C.  or  543 
B.  C. ;  the  reader  is  left  in  doubt  which  date  is  correct  as  the  notes  do 
not  agree.  On  p.  333,  Elias  is  Helios  and  on  p.  63  he  is  a  thunder-god. 
Which  is  correct?  The  author  habitually  writes  karma  but  spells  the 
analogous  brahma  with  a  final  n,  which  is  usual  but  illogical,  as  both 
words  are  of  the  same  class.  In  Sir  Charles's  opinion  the  idea  of  a  god 
of  limitless  light  is  not  Hindu  but  Persian  and  a  god  who  saves  man 
must  have  come  from  over  the  border.  When  it  is  considered  that 
Upanishads  declare  the  godhead  to  be  the  glorious  sun  "  whose  light  all 
shines  after  "  and  that  even  Pali  Buddhism  recognized  Buddha  as  a 
savior-god  the  iteration  of  this  doubt  as  to  gods  of  light  being  Hindu  is 
unfortunate.  But  the  reviewer  has  many  good  things  to  say  about  this 
very  laudable  history  and  must  hasten  to  mention  them,  stopping  only  to 
object  to  the  author's  annoying  practice  of  saying  "  it  has  been  suggested  " 
without  any  indication  of  who  has  made  the  suggestion  or  where  it  is  to 
be  found.  Some  such  statement  on  the  other  hand  would  have  been 
welcomed  in  any  form  in  some  places,  if  only  to  show  that  the  author 
was  aware  that  a  certain  suggestion  had  been  made.  Thus  in  discussing 
Buddha's  acquaintance  with  the  Atman  or  soul-doctrine  he  makes  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  individual  soul  and  the  All-Soul,  apparently  stating 
that  Buddha  directed  a  persistent  polemic  against  the  All-Soul  doctrine 
of  pantheism.  If  so,  the  author  is  wrong;  for  the  polemic  is  always 
against  the  theory  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  an  individual  soul  in  a 
man,  and  Buddha  seems  utterly  to  ignore  or  be  ignorant  of  the  All-Soul 
doctrine.     More  important  is  the  opinion  expressed  on  p.  204  of  volume  I., 


574  Reviews  of  Books 

that  "  Buddhism  is  as  full  as  or  fuller  than  Christianity  of  love,  self- 
sacrifice,  and  thought  for  others".  But  love  of  one's  kind  to  a  Buddhist 
is  explicitly  declared  to  be  only  a  step  toward  complete  indifference. 
Nothing  is  said,  in  Buddha's  teaching,  of  faith  as  an  indispensable  be- 
ginning of  the  religious  life,  though  faith  in  Buddha  and  orthodoxy  are 
demanded  of  every  convert.  To  say  that  the  Eightfold  Path  inculcates 
simply  "  that  the  way  to  be  happy  is  to  have  a  good  heart  and  mind  "  is 
to  ignore  the  fact  that  the  "  good  mind  "  is  only  the  orthodox  mind. 

With  these  few  adverse  criticisms  the  reviewer  is  glad  to  praise  the 
excellence  of  the  present  work  in  its  lucid  arrangement  and  exposition  of 
Pali  Buddhism,  which  occupies  about  half  of  the  first  volume.  The  sec- 
ond volume  gives  an  admirable  account  of  the  rise  of  the  Great  Vehicle 
and  its  gradual  dissociation  from  the  Little  (really  the  "low")  Vehicle 
or  Church  and  except  for  its  insistence  on  Persian  influence  is  warmly  to 
be  commended.  Very  illuminating  is  the  exposure  of  how  the  lower 
Hindu  rites  gradually  overwhelmed  in  India  what  was  left  there  of 
Buddha's  real  teaching;  how  Shaktism  and  Tantrism  ousted  all  higher 
thought  and  substituted  eroticism  and  mummeries  of  charms  and  spells 
for  the  clean  and  philosophic  ethical  system  left  by  the  founder.  The 
learned  author  very  properly  distinguishes  Shaktism  (the  worship  of  the 
female  element  in  a  gross  materialistic  form)  from  Tantrism,  the  magical 
manipulation  of  spells  and  diagrams ;  but  he  does  not  sufficiently  recog- 
nize that  later  Tantrism  has  combined  with  Shaktism,  till  the  former  term 
virtually  includes  the  latter. 

In  Sir  Charles's  presentation  of  "  Hinduism "  there  is  little  that  is 
novel.  There  was  an  excellent  opportunity  here  to  describe  Hinduism 
as  it  is  revealed  in  the  Puranas  and  in  daily  practice,  but  the  opportunity 
has  been  passed  by  in  favor  of  a  presentation  of  Hindu  philosophical 
systems. 

The  whole  of  the  third  volume  of  this  work  is  devoted  to  Buddhism 
outside  India  with  the  exception  of  fifty  pages  discussing  the  vexed 
question  of  "  mutual  influence  ".  The  hiatus  caused  by  his  omission  of 
a  detailed  account  of  Japanese  Buddhism  is  much  to  be  regretted  but  the 
author's  description  of  Buddhism  in  Ceylon,  Burma,  Siam,  and  Cambodia 
is  most  comprehensive  and  enlightening,  as  is  his  penetrating  discussion 
of  the  comparative  influence  of  Indian  and  Mohammedan  invasions  of 
Java  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  Here  too  is  to  be  found  a  thoroughly 
competent  investigation  of  the  religious  influences  operative  just  after  the 
Christian  era  in  Central  Asia,  in  which  Sir  Charles  has  made  use  of  the 
recent  discoveries  on  the  part  of  Stein  and  other  explorers.  This  is  per- 
haps the  most  valuable  part  of  the  whole  work,  though  the  account  of 
Chinese  and  Tibetan  Buddhism  is  also  admirable.  In  the  author's  opinion, 
Cambodia  was  settled  from  the  vicinity  of  Bijapur  in  India.  It  accepted 
first  the  school  of  the  Mahayana  and  then,  after  the  twelfth  century,  be- 
came Hinayist.     The  influence  of  China  may  be  suspected  in  the  practice 


Cordier:  Hist  aire  de  la  Chine  575 

of  identifying  the  king  with  a  god.  It  is  only  in  these  outlying  regions 
that  Buddhism  has  countenanced  the  jus  primae  noctis  and  again  only 
outside  India  that  the  Buddhist  monks  have  become  military.  In  1730, 
these  monks  massacred  all  the  Annamites  in  Cambodia.  Sir  Charles 
confutes  the  notion  that  China  has  been  a  recluse-nation.  She  used  to 
send  out  emissaries  over  all  her  known  world  and  has  always  received 
foreign  religions  with  indifference  or  eagerness,  never  refused  them  ad- 
mission. Even  her  Buddhism  accepted  as  part  of  its  canon  a  work  of 
Sankhya  philosophy!  There  is  a  good  index  at  the  close  of  the  third 
volume. 

E.  Washburn  Hopkins. 

Histoire  Generate  de  la  Chine,  et  de  ses  Relations  avec  les  Pays 
Etrangers.  Par  Henri  Cordier.  In  four  volumes.  ( Paris : 
Paul  Geuthner.  1921.  Pp.  574;  434;  428;  427.  Set  100  fr.) 
We  have  long  been  in  need  of  a  good  history  of  China.  There  have, 
of  course,  been  almost  numberless  works  in  Chinese,  varying  in  length 
from  the  many-volumed  Twenty-four  Histories  (Erh  Skill  Ssh  Shih) 
to  much  smaller  compendiums.  and  treating  either  the  whole  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  or  that  of  particular  dynasties  or  periods.  No  other 
nation  is,  indeed,  so  rich  in  printed  historical  material  covering  so  long 
a  span  of  time.  All  of  the  important  works,  however,  were  produced 
before  China  had  come  into  intimate  contact  with  the  Occident,  and  we 
greatly  need  a  history  written  by  someone,  either  Chinese  or  foreign,  who 
will  make  use  of  the  chief  Chinese  sources  and  who  will  at  the  same  time 
have  the  benefit  of  the  point  of  view  of  modern  historical  scholarship  in 
Europe  and  America  and  of  the  perspective  that  comes  with  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  history  and  institutions  of  the  rest  of  the  world  and  will 
avail  himself  of  the  results  of  the  investigations  of  European  as  well  as 
Chinese  scholars.  Xo  work  in  Chinese  as  yet  answers  this  need,  and 
there  is  a  similar  dearth  in  European  languages.  We  have,  of  course. 
Mailla's  great  Histoire  Generate  dc  la  Chine,  but  most  of  the  volumes  of 
that  magnum  opus  followed  closely  a  well-known  Chinese  work,  the 
Tung  Chien  Kang  Mu,  and  it  has,  moreover,  long  since  been  out  of 
print.  We  have  in  English  such  works  as  those  by  Boulger,  Macgowan, 
Williams,  Li  Ung  Bing,  and  Pott,  and  in  German  such  a  book  as  that  of 
Hermann,  but  these  are  either  too  brief  or  confine  themselves  to  retelling 
the  story  as  it  has  been  narrated  by  Chinese  scholars. 

The  time  has  come,  too,  when  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  write  a  good 
history  of  China.  There  are  accessible  the  standard  Chinese  works  and 
much  other  material  in  that  language,  and  there  has  been  as  well  excellent 
writing  on  specific  periods  and  problems  by  Occidental  scholars.  While 
the  research  that  it  is  to  be  ardently  hoped  will  be  made  in  the  next  few 
decades  in  known  Chinese  sources  and  in  unexplored  archaeological  sites 
will  probably  necessitate  the  rewriting  of  any  results  that  are  published 


576  Reviews  of  Books 

now,  it  is  entirely  possible  to  prepare  a  narrative  that  would  summarize 
for  us,  in  some  detail  and  with  some  degree  of  accuracy,  the  story  of 
China. 

There  are  few  men  better  fitted  for  this  task  than  M.  Cordier.  No 
other  scholar  knows  better  the  material  available  in  European  languages, 
and  he  has  written  extensively  and  well,  both  books  and  articles.  His 
editorship  of  T'oung  Pao  has  for  a  generation  kept  him  in  touch  with 
what  is  being  done  in  a  scholarly  way  on  China.  Such  a  book  as  the  one 
before  us  might,  then,  be  the  worthy  climax  of  a  long  and  noteworthy 
career.  In  a  certain  sense  the  reader  is  not  disappointed.  The  work 
gives  us,  as  does  no  other  in  any  language,  a  history  of  China  which 
combines  the  materials  derived  from  the  older  Chinese  sources  and  from 
the  work  of  European  savants.  One  finds  frequent  references  to  the 
publications  of  such  well-known  scholars  as  Chavannes.  Pelliot,  and 
Hirth.  The  volumes,  too,  are  not  badly  proportioned,  and  do  not,  as  do 
so  many  of  the  other  histories  of  China  in  European  languages,  hurry 
over  the  centuries  before  the  coming  of  the  Westerner  as  though  these 
were  merely  introductory,  and  devote  half  their  space  to  the  events  of  the 
last  hundred  years.  Two  volumes  are  taken  to  bring  the  story  down  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Ming  dynasty  (1368)  and  one  other  to  1820.  Only 
one  volume  is  given  to  the  last  century.  There  is,  too,  some  attention 
paid  to  other  phases  of  history  than  the  strictly  political  events  that  so 
engrossed  the  attention  of  earlier  Occidental  writers. 

In  spite  of  all  these  excellent  qualities,  however,  one  lays  down  the 
work  with  a  certain  feeling  of  disappointment.  One  feels  as  though  it 
were  possible,  even  now,  to  do  a  better  piece  of  work  than  has  been  done, 
and  that  the  author  ought  to  have  done  it.  In  the  first  place,  there  is 
little,  if  any,  direct  use  of  Chinese  sources.  Mailla  is  referred  to  again 
and  again,  and  the  larger  proportion  of  the  material  for  the  first  two 
volumes  is  apparently  taken  from  him.  That  means  in  substance  that 
these  chapters  are  based  mainly  on  one  Chinese  authority,  and  that  that 
has  been  consulted  only  in  an  old  and  not  entirely  reliable  translation. 
Other  material  is,  of  course,  used,  such  as  Chavannes's  great  edition  of 
Ssu  Ma  Ch'ien,  so  unfortunately  left  incomplete  by  the  death  of  the 
author;  but  if  there  has  been  first-hand  use  of  Chinese  sources  it  does  not 
appear  in  the  foot-notes.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  to  do  an  excellent 
piece  of  work  on  the  basis  of  what  is  available  in  European  languages, 
but  one  is  not  satisfied  with  results  which  are  obtained  without  at  least 
some  examination  of  the  wealth  of  books  in  the  original  language.  In 
the  next  place,  the  work  is  unevenly  done.  Some  phases  of  the  history 
of  China,  M.  Cordier  has  previously  examined  very  carefully  and  written 
upon  authoritatively  and  fully.  These  are  almost  entirely  connected  with 
the  contacts  of  European  peoples  with  China  from  Marco  Polo  on.  The 
best  chapters  in  the  four  volumes  are  largely  a  repetition  or  condensation 
of  earlier  books  and  articles,  such  as  the  author's  edition  of  Yule's  Cathay 
and  the  Way  Thither  and  The  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo,  and  his  Histoire 


Vignaud:  Lc  Vrai  Christophe  Colomb  577 

des  Relations  dc  la  Chine  avec  les  Puissances  Occidentales.  There  can 
be  no  objection,  of  course,  to  using  material  which  the  author  has  pre- 
viously worked  over,  but  the  periods  covered  bv  the  other  portions  of  the 
work  have  so  obviously  been  treated  so  much  less  thoroughly  that  the 
contrast  is  more  striking  than  it  ought  to  be.  In  the  third  place,  the 
author  still  clings  too  closely  to  politics  as  the  exclusive  interest  of  his- 
tory. This  cannot  be  entirely  because  the  materials  for  the  other  phases 
of  Chinese  history  are  not  readily  accessible,  for  many  of  these  are  now 
to  be  found  in  European  languages.  As  an  approach  to  a  connected  nar- 
rative of  the  development  of  Chinese  civilization,  the  work  is  a  vast 
improvement  over  its  predecessors,  but  history  is  apparently  still  con- 
ceived of  as  past  politics,  and  other  phases  of  life  as  relatively  less  im- 
portant to  the  historian  and  somewhat  apart  from  his  main  task.  One 
looks  in  vain  for  even  a  reasonably  adequate  treatment  of  the  develop- 
ment of  literature,  philosophy,  religion,  economic  life,  social  structure. 
and  even  of  political  institutions.  The  ideal  history  of  China  must  ap- 
preciate the  intimate  interrelation  of  all  of  these,  something  which  it  is 
even  now,  with  our  imperfect  study  of  the  sources,  possible  to  show  more 
fully  than  M.  Cordier  has  done. 

These  criticisms  must  not  be  allowed  to  obscure  the  fact,  however, 
that  as  a  longer  history  these  four  volumes  are  superior  to  anything  that 
we  now  have,  and  are  a  real  contribution  both  to  the  student  and  the 
general  reader.  We  will  look  forward  eagerly  to  the  time  when  some 
scholar,  either  a  European,  an  American,  or  a  Japanese,  who  can  use 
both  the  Chinese  and  European  languages,  or  some  Chinese  who  has  been 
trained  in  modern  historical  methods  and  knows  what  has  been  done  in 
the  Occident  on  things  Chinese,  will  write  us  a  really  satisfactory  history. 
In  the  meantime  M.  Cordier's  book  will  largely  supersede  its  predecessors 
and  will  prove  of  substantial  value. 

K.  S.  Latourette. 

BOOKS   OF   AMERICAN    HISTORY 

Lc  Vrai  Christophe  Colomb  ct  la  Legende.  Par  Henry  Vignaud. 
(Paris:  Auguste  Picard.  1921.  Pp.  230.  6  fr.) 
Since  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  biographers  and 
historians  of  Christopher  Columbus,  in  treating  of  his  first  voyage  of 
discovery,  have  represented  him  as  impelled  by  the  desire  to  find  a  new 
way  to  India  or  the  Orient.  About  twenty  years  ago,  Henry  Vignaud, 
together  with  La  Rosa,  raised  the  question  whether  this  view  of  Columbus 
was  historically  correct.  In  1905  Vignaud  published  his  Etudes  Critiques 
stir  la  Vie  de  Colomb  avant  scs  Decouvertes  (1  vol.  octavo),  and  in  1911, 
his  Histoirc  Critique  de  la  Grande  Entreprise  dc  Christophe  Colomb: 
comment  il  aurait  concu  ct  forme  son  Projct,  sa  Presentation  a  dif- 
f creates  Cours,  son  Acceptation  finale,  sa  Mise  a  Execution,  son  Veri- 
table Caractcre  (2  vols,  octavo). 


578  Reviews  of  Books 

These  publications  were  not  widely  read,  and  left  their  readers  gen- 
erally unconvinced.  So  far  as  this  result  was  due  to  bulky  form  and 
elaborate  exposition,  it  is  counteracted  by  the  present  compendium,  which, 
if  one  may  judge  from  its  preface,  was  completed  in  1916.  It  will  doubt- 
less draw  attention  to  the  larger  volumes  and  win  new  readers  for  them, 
but  that  it  will  carry  more  conviction  is  hardly  to  be  expected.  It  con- 
tains in  condensed  form  the  defects  of  the  Etudes  and  the  Histoire,  and 
so  constantly  refers  to  these  works  that  it  can  hardly  be  read  or  reviewed 
without  their  being  included  in  the  process.  Be  it  then  recognized  that 
they  constitute,  in  spite  of  defects,  a  most  useful  compilation  of  sources 
and  references.  They  show  that  the  motive  of  Columbus  on  his  first 
voyage  was  largely  cupidity  and  ambition  and  that  leligious  zeal  or  scien- 
tific interest  made  but  a  small,  if  any,  part  of  it.  They  have  shaken  or 
shattered  some  of  the  arguments  for  the  traditional  belief  in  the  search 
for  a  new  route  to  the  East ;  and  in  a  few  minds,  have  totally  destroyed 
it.  But  this  effect,  even  supposing  it  to  be  general,  only  clears  the  stage 
for  the  author  to  prove  what  is  the  truth.  So  far  from  his  doing  this, 
he  seems  to  show  that  neither  he  nor  any  one  else  is  equal  to  the  task. 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  True  Columbus  will  justify  itself  even 
as  a  convenience.  One  may  find  it  easier  to  read  the  Histoire  or  selec- 
tions of  it,  than  the  compendium  together  with  a  good  part  of  the  His- 
toire, jumping  back  and  forth  from  one  to  the  other. 

The  reason  of  the  general  rejection  or  non-acceptance  of  the  author's 
thesis  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  proportions  or  literary  features  of  his 
earlier  publications,  nor  in  the  mental  attitude  of  their  readers,  but  in 
traits  of  the  author's  mind  which  appear  in  his  writings  as  inconsistencies, 
misinterpretations,  and  fallacies. 

In  his  True  Columbus  he  begins  by  stating  his  position  or  thesis,  the 
gist  of  which  may  be  expressed  as  follows: —  The  discovery  of  America 
was  not  made  by  trying  to  reach  the  East  Indies  by  a  westward  route, 
but  was  the  logical,  inevitable,  anticipated,  consequence  of  an  expedition 
organized  expressly  to  find  the  particular  land  which  afterwards  received 
the  name  of  America  (p.  2).  What  land  does  he  refer  to,  which  of  the 
lands  to  which  the  name  of  America  has  been  successively  applied,  from 
a  part  of  South  America  to  the  whole  Western  Hemisphere?  Here  a 
map  on  which  the  territory  in  question  should  stand  out  seems  necessary 
to  clear  and  satisfactory  apprehension,  but  there  is  none.  It  is  a  serious 
defect  of  these  works  that  none  of  them  is  provided  with  a  map.  As  one 
follows  the  author  through  the  True  Columbus  one  becomes  more  and 
more  confused  as  to  what  he  is  trying  to  prove.  Now  he  says  that  the 
object  was  to  discover  new  "lands  or  islands".  He  does  not  say  where 
any  of  them  were,  or  orient  them  with  respect  to  America,  but  insists 
that  Columbus  had  located  them  or  believed  that  he  had,  and  that  none 
of  them  was  in  Asia  or  in  Asiatic  waters. 

He  asserts  that  Columbus  agreed  with  Pinzon  to  include  among  his 
discoveries  "  Pinzon's  island  of  Cypangu  "  (p.  93).  which  for  the  present 


Vignaud:  Lc  Vrai  Christophe  Colomb  579 

he  does  not  locate  outside  of  Pinzon*s  mind.  A  few  lines  further  on  he 
recognizes  an  island  of  Cypangu  as  in  Asia,  but  not  as  Pinzon's,  and 
denies  that  Columbus  had  any  thought  of  going  to  it.  He  says  that  all 
that  Columbus  was  aiming  at  was  the  island  of  Antilia,  which  he  believed 
to  be  "  not  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  Canaries  and  the  Azores  " 
(pp.  94,  95).  Next,  he  represents  the  objective  as  the  double  one  of 
Pinzon's  Cypangu  and  Antilia  (pp.  ioo,  ior),  and  depicts  Antilia  as  the 
Antilles,  or  the  present  archipelago  of  the  West  Indies  (p.  123).  Here- 
upon he  tells  us  that  all  this  time  Columbus  was  apparently  not  thinking 
of  Pinzon's  Cypangu  (p.  132),  that  Antilia  was  Haiti,  and  that  Haiti  was 
what  Pinzon  thought  of  as  Cypangu  (p.  134). 

In  the  Historic  of  Christopher  Columbus  by  his  son  Ferdinand  is  a 
somewhat  obscure  passage  which  may  be  freely  translated  as  follows : 

/  say  that  as  one  thing  depends  on  another  and  the  one  brings  the 
other  to  mind,  being  in  Portugal,  he  began  to  consider  whether,  as  the 
Portuguese  were  making  their  way  so  far  southward,  one  might  likewise 
make  one's  way  westward,  and  reasonably  expect  to  find  land  on  that 
route. 

Here  Ferdinand  implies  that  his  father  was  reasoning  by  analogy. 
Omitting  this  (the  italics),  our  author  quotes  the  passage  as  referring 
only  to  extra-Asiatic  territories  and  so  corroborating  his  thesis,  that 
Columbus  was  looking  only  to  what  is  now  the  Atlantic  Ocean  for  his 
discoveries  (p.  54;  Histoirc,  I.  4211.).  What  is  the  analogy  between  pro- 
ceeding from  one  discovery  to  another  along  the  coast  of  Africa  and 
looking  for  new  lands  out  in  an  unexplored  ocean  ?  Considering  that 
Columbus  was  reasoning  by  analogy,  that  his  thoughts  and  words  have 
come  to  us,  not  directly  from  him,  but  through  several  persons  and  at 
least  two  languages,  is  it  not  probable  or  possible  that  he  was  thinking 
of  doing  along  another  continent  what  the  Portuguese  were  doing  along 
the  African,  and  if  so,  why  was  not  Asia,  the  Asia  of  his  Ptolemy,  that 
other  continent  ?  According  to  the  author,  Columbus  possessed  a  copy 
of  the  Ptolemy  Geography  of  1475  (Histoirc,  I.  331).  This  work  repre- 
sents eastern  Asia  as  extending  indefinitely  or  an  unknown  distance 
toward  the  south. 

Our  author  says  that  Columbus  expressly  identified  the  present  island 
of  Haiti  with  the  Cypangu  of  Pinzon,  and  for  authority  refers  to  two 
documents,  the  "Majorat"  or  Entail  of  Columbus's  estates,  February  22, 
1498,  and  a  marginal  note  in  a  copy  of  Pliny,  which  he  attributes  to 
Columbus  (pp.  133,  134).  In  the  Entail  the  only  reference  to  this  island 
is  the  following  sentence:  "And  it  pleased  our  Lord  Almighty  that  .  .  . 
I  should  discover  .  .  .  many  islands,  among  which  is  Espanola.  which 
the  natives  call  '  Feiti '  and  which  the  Monicondos  [call]  '  Zipango ' 
(Raccolta  di  Docum.,  part  I.,  vol.  I.,  p.  304).  In  other  versions  of  this 
text  the  word  Monicondo  reads  Monicongo,  which  seems  to  mean  a  little 
man  of  little  sense,  a  monkey.     Did  Columbus  consider  himself  a  Moni- 


580  Reviews  of  Books 

condo,  whatever  that  may  he?  Was  this  island  called  Zipango  by  any 
intelligent  person,  and  how  did  calling  it  Zipango  identify  it  with  any- 
thing ? 

The  marginal  note  reads  "...  the  island  of  feiti  or  ofir,  or  cipango, 
to  which  I  have  given  the  name  Spagnola  "  (Raccolta,  pt.  I.,  vol.  III.. 
tav.  CI.).  It  does  not  identify  the  Cypangu  of  Pinzon  with  the  island 
of  Haiti.  But  admitting  that  it  does,  it  remains  for  the  author  to  prove 
that  this  mental  process,  apparendy  peculiar  to  Monicondos,  took  place 
in  the  mind  of  Columbus.  The  marginal  notes  (Postilles),  said  to  be  in 
the  handwriting  of  Columbus,  do  not  receive  the  attention  which  they 
seem  to  deserve.  In  the  Alphabetical  Table  of  Contents  {Histoire,  II. 
649),  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  subject-title  Postille,  but  we  find  no 
such  title.     What  is  said  on  this  subject  is  scattered  and  hard  to  find. 

As  material  for  his  work,  there  is  nothing  that  combines  authenticity 
with  information  in  as  high  a  degree  as  the  Letters  Patent  of  April  30, 
1492,  about  three  months  before  the  sailing  of  the  first  expedition.  In 
this  paper  the  Spanish  sovereigns  jointly  assert:  "considering  that  you, 
Christopher  Columbus,  are  going  by  our  order  to  discover  and  appropriate 
[descobrir  e  ganar]  .  .  .  certain  islands  [«/a.r]  and  continental  territory 
[terra  firme]  in  the  said  Ocean-sea  [mar  Occano]  ",  etc.  Commenting  on 
this  and  other  similar  expressions,  the  author  says,  "  les  souverains 
n'entendaient  recompenser  que  les  decouvertes  relatives  a  des  iles  ou 
terres  nouvelles.  .  .  ."  He  renders  "  terra  finite"  as  "  lands  ",  and  seems 
to  regard  it  as  synonymous  with  "  islas  ".  Obviously  it  is  used  in  contra- 
distinction from  it,  with  the  meaning  already  indicated,  of  continental 
territory,  or  mainland.  It  may  refer  to  some  other  continent  than  that 
of  Asia,  but  why  should  it  not  refer  also  to  Asia?  Why  must  "  islands" 
and  "  continental  territory  "  mean  "  non-Asiatic  islands  *'  and  "  non- 
Asiatic  continental  territory  "  ? 

The  Histoire  has  no  index  and  this  deficiency  is  not  supplied  by  the 
alphabetical  table  of  contents.  It  has  a  list  of  eight  errata  to  which  about 
three  times  that  many  might  be  added.  Among  the  errata  in  the  True 
Columbus  are  the  following:  "58"  (p.  3811.)  and  "59"  (pp.  46 n-  and 
5911.)  should  read  "  sq  " ;  '"Etude"  (p.  186  n.)  should  read  Histoire; 
"1492"  (p.  U2n.)  should  read  "1492,  vol.  I.";  "p.  506"  (p.  187 n.) 
should  read  "vol.  II.,  p.  586."  On  page  no.  6th  line,  the  words  "plus 
tard  "  should  apparently  be  transposed  with  the  words  "  comme  Colomb 
l'assura".  John  Bigelow. 

The  Spanish  Borderlands:  a  Chronicle  of  Old  Florida  and  the  South- 
west.    By  Herbert  E.  Bolton.     [Chronicles  of  America  series, 
vol.    XXIII.]       (New    Haven:    Yale    University    Press.      1921. 
Pp.  xiv,  320.) 
The  real  theme  of  this  pleasantly  and  popularly  written  book  is  the 

part  played  by  Spain  in  the  opening  up,  to  the  ken  of  civilized  man,  of 


Bolton:  The  Spanish  Borderlands  581 

lands  now  a  part  of  the  United  States.  The  Spanish  borderlands  are 
defined  in  the  short  preface  as  "  the  northern  outposts  of  New  Spain, 
maintained  chiefly  to  hold  the  country  against  foreign  intruders  and 
against  the  inroads  of  savage  tribes  ".  "  Far  from  the  centres  of  Spanish 
colonial  civilization  in  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  Mexico,  and 
Peru  ".  these  lands  had,  nevertheless,  throughout  almost  all  the  era  of 
discovery  and  all  the  colonial  era,  an  importance  which  arose  from  the 
desires  of  adventurers  as  well  as  from  the  reasons  above  stated. 

Professor  Bolton  has  told  this  story  well  and  interestingly,  and  his 
narrative  is  full  of  action  as  befits  the  history  of  Spanish  exploration  and 
colonization  in  what  is  now  territory  of  our  own  country.  Throughout, 
he  makes  abundant  use  of  the  old  chronicles  and  accounts,  but  to  this  he 
has  added  his  own  vast  knowledge  of  the  territory,  gained  both  bv  in- 
tensive study  and  in  part  by  personal  visitation.  His  narrative  is  en- 
riched by  many  sidelights  taken  from  old  unpublished  manuscripts  and 
from  the  documents  published  by  himself. 

In  more  popular  vein  than  in  the  Bolton  and  Marshall  Colonisation 
of  North  America,  the  volume  shows  the  abiding  influence  of  Spain  north 
of  the  Rio  Grande.  Indeed,  the  Spanish  influence  in  these  borderlands  is 
still  found,  as  the  author  points  out,  in  the  many  geographical  names  still 
in  use,  the  persistence  of  the  Spanish  tongue,  Spanish  customs  (social, 
religious,  economic,  and  legal),  and  the  Spanish  type  of  architecture. 

The  narrative  is  divided  into  two  sections:  the  first  of  four  chapters, 
treating  of  the  explorers,  and  the  second  of  six  chapters,  treating  of  the 
colonies.  The  first  section  gives  in  rapid  survey  the  stories  of  Ponce  de 
Leon.  Ayllon,  and  Narvaez ;  Cabeza  de  Vaca ;  Hernando  de  Soto ;  and 
Coronado,  Cabrillo,  and  Vizcaino.  The  second  has  chapters  devoted  to 
Florida,  New  Mexico,  the  Jesuits  on  the  Pacific  slope,  Texas,  Louisiana, 
and  California.  In  these  chapters,  the  author  has  shown  the  working  of 
European  policy  in  the  wilderness  of  the  New  World,  and  he  furnishes, 
although  briefly,  the  transition  to  the  later  period  after  Spain's  connection 
with  these  lands  had  ceased. 

Professor  Bolton  has  kept  before  him  the  larger  relations  of  Spanish 
discovery  and  colonization.  For  instance,  he  shows  well  the  early  con- 
nection between  the  Philippines  and  America,  and  he  has  conceived  of 
Spanish  colonization  as  a  whole  instead  of  as  a  number  of  detached  and 
unrelated  bits.  The  virtues  and  the  vices  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  New 
World  are  brought  out  frequently,  as  well  as  their  elements  of  strength 
and  weakness  in  the  political  arena. 

The  text  is  followed  by  a  bibliographical  note  of  somewhat  over  six 
pages,  in  which  are  described  some  of  the  original  and  secondary  sources, 
both  narratives  and  collections  of  documents.  This  will  be  serviceable 
to  the  general  reader,  for  whom  the  series  of  which  this  volume  forms  a 
part  is  primarily  intended.  The  classified  arrangement  of  this  list  will 
be  especially  welcomed.     The  index  is  more  complete  than  is  the  case  in 


582  Reviews  of  Books 

many  works  of  this  nature.     Nine  well-executed  illustrations  add  to  the 
work. 

A  few  misprints  occur  here  and  there,  and  some  misplaced  accents, 
but  in  general  the  mechanical  appearance  of  the  volume  is  excellent. 
The  word  "savage"  is  misused  (p.  vii),  and  the  word  "monk"  is 
wrongly  used  in  several  instances  for  friar  (pp.  87,  89).  But  Pro- 
fessor Bolton  is  sure  of  his  facts,  and  the  book  will  be  classed  as  authori- 
tative. It  brings  into  a  single  volume  the  salient  features  of  Spanish 
history  north  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  because  of  that  fact  should  be  read 
widely.  If  the  plans  of  the  editors  of  the  series  of  which  it  forms  a  part 
permit,  it  should  be  issued  also  as  a  separate  volume.  It  is  of  interest  to 
note  that  as  first  submitted  to  the  general  editor,  the  work  was  considered 
too  long  and  reduction  and  revision  became  necessary.  In  this  the  author 
was  aided  by  Miss  Constance  L.  Skinner. 

James  Alexander  Robertson. 

Source  Book  and  Bibliographical  Guide  for  American  Church  His- 
tory. By  Peter  G.  Mode,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Church  History  in  the  Divinity  School  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago. (Menasha,  Wis.:  George  Banta  Publishing  Company. 
1921.     Pp.  xxiv,  735.     $4.50-) 

Dr.  Mode's  publication  is  eventful  for  all  students  of  American  re- 
ligious history.  We  have  had  good  denominational  histories  but  no 
adequate  total  survey.  The  chapter  divisions,  the  bibliographies  and  doc- 
uments of  this  new  work  must  stimulate  and  found  attempts  at  this  total 
view — and  when  at  last  all  these  disjecta  membra  are  co-ordinated  and 
interpreted  in  relation  to  political,  economic,  and  philosophical  history 
we  shall  have  a  story  of  spiritual  process  and  movement  that  will  help  to 
define  and  to  determine  American  life. 

As  a  bibliographical  guide  the  book  is  of  the  greatest  service.  To 
each  chapter  dealing  with  a  distinct  topic  (e.g.,  the  Great  Awakening, 
Methodism,  its  Rise  and  Organization,  the  Christianizing  of  the  Indians) 
is  prefixed  a  list  of  books  in  chronological  order  and  also  a  most  welcome 
array  of  references  to  periodical  articles.  Heaven  grant  that  our  libraries 
may  try  to  meet  the  test  of  such  a  bibliography  !  Doubtless  many  a 
student  will  suggest  additions  to  it,  but  the  reviewer  will  only  allow 
himself  to  regret  the  absence  of  foreign  works  like  Nippold's  Ameri- 
kanische  Kirchcngeschichte,  Wilhelm  Miiller's  Das  Religiose  Leben  in 
Amerika,  Houtin's  L'Americanisme,  and  Eduard  Meyer's  Ursprung  xind 
Geschichte  der  Mortnoncn.  What  a  foreigner  selects  as  interesting  and 
characteristic  is  helpful  to  the  native  observer. 

With  regard  to  the  illustrative  source-material  here  printed  the  first 
word  is  one  of  gratitude  for  the  variety  and  pertinency  of  documents, 
many  of  which  are  not  easily  accessible.  Naturally  the  colonial  period 
has  been  more  thoroughly  studied  hitherto  and  the  selections  here  are  in 


Lippincott:  Economic  Development  583 

general  very  satisfactory,  though  here,  as  everywhere,  certain  preferences 
must  be  disappointed.  It  is,  for  example,  a  misfortune  not  to  have  the 
popular  response  to  Whitefield's  first  tour  in  New  England  illustrated  by 
the  Nathan  Cole  manuscript  printed  in  George  Leon  Walker's  Some 
Aspects  of  the  Religious  Life  of  New  England.  In  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  topics  which  loom  large  in  the  selections  are  the  church  extension 
westward,  the  agitations  over  slavery,  the  consequent  disruption  of  de- 
nominations, and  the  federative  tendencies  following  the  Civil  War,  with 
the  recent  culmination  of  concerted  practical  effort  through  the  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ.  All  this  is  excellent  but  insufficient. 
The  name  of  Theodore  Parker  occurs  only  in  connection  with  the  topic 
of  antislavery.  That  illustrates  the  subordination  of  the  whole  matter  of 
religious  thought  to  the  interests  of  practical  activities.  We  cannot  from 
these  materials  tell  the  rest  of  the  story  :  the  effect  of  the  Great  Awaken- 
ing in  breaking  up  doctrinal  uniformity,  the  sudden  invasion  of  scepticism 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War,  the  undermining  of  old  theology  by  the 
new  views  of  human  nature  current  in  the  political  discussions  of  the 
Revolutionary  period,  the  reaction  against  the  French  Revolution  resulting 
in  a  revived  orthodoxy  with  the  exclusion  of  liberal  elements,  the  ardor 
for  religious  social  experiments  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  (Brook  Farm,  the  Hopedale  Community,  the  Rappists),  Tran- 
scendentalism, Mercersburg  Theology,  Episcopalian  Neo-Athanasianism, 
the  New  Thought  Movement.  These  are  also  conspicuous  matters  and 
belong  to  one  process,  doubtless  a  complex  one  and  operative  only  in  the 
more  alert  and  progressive  elements  in  society.  Possibly  Dr.  Mode's 
source-book  will  evolve  through  later  elaboration  and  include  more  of  this. 
Great  labor  has  gone  into  this  book  but  not  much  into  the  index,  which 
is  scant  and  curious.  Whoever  has  been  grateful  for  the  excellent  index 
in  Paetow's  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Medieval  History  will  lament  the 
brevity  and  capriciousness  of  this  one. 

Francis  A.  Christie. 

Economic  Development  of  tin-  United  States.     By  Isaac  Lippincott, 

Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Economic  Resources,  Washington  LIniversity. 

(New   York  and   London:    D.   Appleton   and   Company.     1921. 

Pp.  xvi,  691.     $3.50.) 

American  economic  history  has  been  recognized  only  recently  in  the 
United  States  as  a  school  subject,  and  teachers  and  text-book  writers  have 
been  feeling  their  way  in  this  field  of  instruction  with  some  caution. 
About  fifteen  years  ago  Professor  Bogart  and  Professor  Coman  issued 
volumes  on  the  subject  which  were  in  most  respects  excellent,  although 
they  were  pioneer  works.  The  present  season,  when  economic  problems 
are  forcing  themselves  more  insistently  upon  the  attention  of  the  people 
than  usual,  two  new  text-books  have  appeared,  by  Professor  Van  Metre 
and  by  Professor  Lippincott,  which  embody  both  later  facts  and  later 


584  Reviews  of  Books 

experience  with  economic  history  as  a  branch  of  study.  Of  these  Pro- 
fessor Lippincott's  Economic  Development  of  the  United  States  diverges 
most  from  the  older  text-book  style  and  make-up  and  represents  rather 
the  more  original  contribution  to  the  interpretative  arrangement  of  the 
known  data  of  our  economic  life.  It  is  not  only  a  class-room  book,  but  a 
work  that  should  receive  a  welcome  in  the  library  of  any  intelligent  and 
thoughtful  citizen. 

Much  skill  and  judgment  are  demanded,  even  after  others  have  blazed 
the  trail,  to  apportion  the  space  in  a  volume  of  less  than  seven  hundred 
pages  so  justly  to  each  of  the  multitudinous  topics  which  properly  fall 
within  the  purview  of  the  economic  historian  that  nothing  will  be  slighted 
and  nothing  over-emphasized.  The  author  has  accomplished  this  remark- 
ably well.  A  painstaking  reader  may  discover  the  occasional  omission 
of  episodes  that  might  have  added  to  the  completeness  of  the  narrative, 
but  these  instances  are  neither  numerous  nor  important  enough  to  detract 
materially  from  the  value  of  the  book.  They  are  probably  due  to  con- 
scious efforts  at  condensation. 

Although  Professor  Lippincott's  earlier  researches  in  American  eco- 
nomic history  related  mainly  to  its  pioneer  and  romantic  period,  he  has 
not  permitted  himself  to  be  diverted  into  antiquarian  by-ways.  He  de- 
votes nearly  four  hundred  pages  to  the  modern  era  following  the  Civil 
War,  and  the  final  chapter  deals  with  the  latest  and  possibly  most  revo- 
lutionary epoch  of  our  economic  development,  from  1914  to  1921. 

The  introductory  paragraphs  of  several  of  the  chapters,  giving  a 
summary  of  what  is  treated  in  fuller  detail  later,  are  often  models  of 
condensed  and  logical  analysis.  This  fashion  of  throwing  a  search-light 
ray  ahead  over  the  territory  to  be  traversed  is  useful  and  happily  handled. 

American  economic  history  is  a  theme  that  lends  itself  easily  to 
optimistic  treatment.  An  author  is  forced  by  the  nature  of  his  materials, 
and  by  the  spirit  that  pervades  the  literature  which  supplies  his  sources,  to 
treat  quantity-measurements  and  value-measurements  as  identical.  Fur- 
thermore an  optimistic  attitude — a  more  or  less  uncritical  acceptance  of 
our  past  as  providentially  the  best  of  pasts — is  demanded  by  public  opin- 
ion, especially  in  text-books.  Nor  is  the  school-room  the  proper  place  to 
question  the  wisdom  of  our  forefathers.  Consequently  any  book  of  this 
kind — designed  to  serve  the  purpose  this  book  serves — inevitably  impresses 
the  peruser  who  is,  let  us  say,  overread  in  this  field  of  history,  as  a  trifle 
posed.  And  the  question  rises  in  his  mind :  Will  the  time  ever  come 
when  the  public  will,  not  only  permit,  but  insist,  that  the  maturing  gen- 
eration study  our  history  as  a  record  of  failures  as  well  as  of  successes? 
Perhaps  it  should  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  to  point  out  to 
our  future  citizens  and  public  men  how  the  errors  of  the  past  throw  light 
upon  the  problems  of  the  present.  This  is  something  no  text-book  as  yet 
presumes  to  do,  nor  probably  could  do  and  be  successful  as  a  text-book. 
Still,  so  long  as  this  condition  lasts,  school  economic  history  will  have  a 
trace  of  artificiality. 


Farrand:  Fathers  of  the  Constitution  585 

The  present  volume  has  the  defects  inseparable  from  a  first  edition — 
occasional  misprints,  especially  of  figures.  Most  of  these  typographical 
errors — arid  they  are  not  numerous — any  intelligent  teacher  is  likely  to 
detect  and  can  easily  rectify.  There  is  a  good  index,  and  brief  bibliog- 
raphies, mostly  of  secondary  sources,  are  appended  to  each  chapter. 
The  book  does  not  contain  a  chart,  map,  or  illustration.  In  this  respect, 
and  in  general  mechanical  make-up,  it  suffers  somewhat  by  comparison 
with  the  volume  just  issued  on  the  same  subject  by  Professor  Van  Metre. 
Though  the  text  abounds  in  statistical  data,  tables  are  used  but  sparingly. 
The  book  is  not  padded  with  appendixes  of  undigested  matter.  The  re- 
sult of  all  this  is  that  an  unusual  amount  of  text  is  compressed  within 
convenient  limits,  and  what  the  reader  loses  in  graphic  presentations  he 
gains  in  another  direction.  If  I  were  selecting  a  single  volume  to  have 
constantly  at  hand  for  reference  and  for  an  occasional  summary  review 
of  our  economic  past,  this  is  one  I  should  choose. 

Victor  S.  Clark. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Constitution:  a  Chronicle  of  the  Establishment  of 
the  Union.     Bv  Max  Farrand.      [Chronicles  of  America  series, 
vol.  XIII.]      ( Xew  Haven:  Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp. 
xii,  246.) 
Jefferson  and  his  Colleagues:  a  Chronicle  of  the  Virginia  Dynasty. 
By  Allen  Johnsox.      [Chronicles  of  America  series,  vol.  XV.] 
(New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  ix,  343.) 
The  two  volumes  of  the  Chronicles  of  America  before  me  have  the 
characteristics  of  the  series.     They  are  pleasant  to  handle,  in  every  way 
beautiful   in  make-up,   strikingly   illustrated,   equipped   with   usable  bibli- 
ographies and  indexes.     They  are  intended  for  the  reader  who  whether 
popular  or  learned  desires  a  well-written  and  at  the  same  time  scholarly 
record  of  wide  ranges  of   fact  and  movement.     They  come   from  hands 
experienced   in   historical    investigation   and   writing.     Each    of   the   two 
authors  is  well  known  for  his  particular  interest  in  the  field  covered  by 
his  present  volume. 

Professor  Farrand  attempts  in  164  slight  pages  to  describe  the  con- 
ditions and  events  out  of  which  grew  the  Convention  of  1787,  to  outline 
and  interpret  the  discussions  of  that  body,  to  carry  the  reader  through 
the  ratification  of  the  work  of  the  Convention  by  the  states  to  the  point 
of  the  inauguration  of  the  government  of  George  Washington.  This 
writer  wishes  Professor  Farrand  had  been  given  the  fifty-two  pages  occu- 
pied by  a  reprinting  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  (with  two  pages 
of  Signers  attached),  the  Articles  of  Confederation  (  with  two  more  pages 
of  names  following),  the  Northwest  Ordinance,  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  with  names  of  the  famous  thirty-nine  from  "  George  Wash- 
ington, President  and  Deputy  from  Virginia ",  to  "  Abr  Baldwin  "  of 
Georgia,  and  "  Attest  William  Jackson  Secretary  ". 


5S6  Reviews  of  Books 

The  treatment  is  too  slight  to  give  occasion  for  elaborate  presentation 
of  novel  views  of  the  period  or  to  afford  opportunity  for  many  innocent 
errors  of  fact — the  especial  delight  of  reviewers.  The  evidences  of  the 
lack  of  respect  in  which  the  new  United  States  was  held  by  European 
countries  in  1783  are  almost  startling,  and  the  description  of  "  Trade  and 
Industry  "  will  be  found  informing. 

The  fruitage  of  the  "  compact  theory  "  in  the  revolutionary  state  con- 
stitutions is  convincingly  suggested  and  the  culmination  of  experimenta- 
tion since  1754  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation  is  made  plain.  The 
present  writer  is  not  sure  that  he  finds  in  this  volume,  however,  as  clear 
a  statement  of  the  whole  political  problem  of  the  period,  the  problem  of 
imperial  organization,  as  he  finds  in  the  volume  in  the  American  Nation 
series,  written  by  Professor  McLaughlin.  However,  the  emergence  of  a 
colonial  problem,  another  phase  of  the  problem  of  "  imperial  organiza- 
tion "  as  it  presented  itself  to  American  statesmen,  and  the  remarkably 
generous  and  far-seeing  solution  of  the  problem  are  lucidly  and  strongly 
set  forth. 

The  Convention  of  1787  itself  Professor  Farrand  does  not  regard  as 
an  "  assembly  of  demigods  "  but  as  "  a  fairly  representative  body,  which 
was  of  a  somewhat  higher  order  than  would  be  gathered  together  today  " 
(p.  117).  The  division  in  the  body  was  between  large  states  and  small 
states,  "  and  public  sentiment  on  the  slave  trade  was  not  much  more 
emphatic  and  positive  than  it  is  now  on  cruelty  to  animals"  (p.  130). 
Although  there  is  nothing  definite  in  the  Constitution  conferring  on  fed- 
eral courts  the  power  to  declare  legislative  enactments  void,  nevertheless 
"  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  more  important  men  in  the  Convention  .  .  . 
believed  that  the  judiciary  would  exercise  this  power"  (p.  132).  Re- 
gardless of  their  theories  of  government,  "  the  framers  "  "  did  not  go  out 
of  their  own  experience"  (p.  141).  They  aimed  to  correct  the  well- 
known  defects  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation  and  succeeded  in  correct- 
ing practically  every  one  of  them.  Professor  Farrand  does  not  place 
much  emphasis  on  the  "  economic  interpretation  of  the  Constitution ". 
The  propertied  classes  that  framed  and  adopted  the  Constitution  acted  in 
the  public  interest  as  well  as  in  self-protection. 

Perhaps  the  most  novel  position  taken  by  Professor  Farrand  is  that 
taken  at  the  very  end,  to  wit:  that  Americans  would  have  been  able  to  . 
make  almost  any  form  of  government  succeed,  and  that  had  the  Federal 
Convention  not  met  "  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  with  some  amendments,  would  have  been  made  to 
work  "  (p.  164). 

Professor  Farrand,  although  not  an  idolater  of  the  "  Framers  ",  never- 
theless has  something  of  the  advantage  of  Professor  Johnson — in  his 
more  nearly  complete  sympathy  with  the  Fathers  of  the  Constitution  than 
has  Johnson  with  Jefferson  and  his  Colleagues.  These  colleagues  even 
appear  in  much  better  light  in  Farrand's  book  than  they  do  in  Johnson's. 
To  Farrand  Jefferson  is  the  Virginia  reformer  and  a  farseeing  national 


Johnson:  Jefferson  and  his  Colleagues  5S7 

statesman,  and  Madison  is  "  the  leading  expert  worker  of  the  Convention 
in  the  business  of  framing  the  Constitution  ".  To  Johnson  they  are  mem- 
bers of  the  "  Virginia  Dynasty  ",  and  the  least  successful  members  of  that 
unhappy  tribe. 

Of  course  it  is  not  Professor  Johnson's  fault  that  these  two  eminent 
Virginians  were  more  brilliant  in  philosophical  speculation  and  legislative 
effort  than  in  administrative  abilities,  nor  that  they  had  to  administer 
difficult  affairs  in  a  peculiarly  trying  epoch.  Although  Jefferson  did  have 
his  scruples  about  constitutional  proprieties,  nevertheless  the  outstanding 
big  fact  is  that  his  administration  assumed  the  immense  responsibility  of 
signing  and  ratifying  a  treaty  in  which  the  United  States  purchased  the 
Louisiana  territory.  From  that  day  the  United  States  was  destined  to 
take  its  place  among  powers  of  the  first  rank.  Also  the  pursuit  of  the 
Floridas,  though  at  times  awkward,  was  under  this  same  dynasty  carried 
to  a  successful  achievement. 

So  far  as  Jefferson's  commercial  warfare  against  England  and  France 
is  concerned,  Professor  Johnson  admits  (p.  162)  that  had  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States  in  1807  "  been  as  necessary  to  England  and  France 
as  it  was  'at  the  very  peak  '  of  the  World  War,  Thomas  Jefferson  might 
have  proved  that  peaceable  coercion  is  an  effective  alternative  to  war  " 
(p.  162).  Madison,  too.  preferred  "amicable  discussion  and  reasonable 
accommodation  of  differences  to  a  decision  of  them  by  an  appeal  to 
arms  "  (p.  171 ). 

Mr.  J.ohnson,  much  better  than  most  historians,  emphasizes  the  real 
forces  behind  the  actual  declaration  of  war  in  1812.  The  "  War  Hawks  " 
who  had  fought  Indians  and  traded  in  furs ;  who  longed  for  Canada  and 
thought  they  had  a  right  to  the  Floridas ;  and  who  had  the  courage  and 
confidence  born  of  their  love  of  adventure,  rejoiced  in  the  opportunity 
for  war  and  had  no  intention  of  putting  up  with  a  President  who  would 
not  work  with  them  for  national  honor  and  territorial  ambitions. 

It  is  rather  odd  that  "  the  least  talented  "  of  the  Virginia  Dynasty 
should  appear  in  so  much  better  light  in  this  volume  than  do  his  brilliant 
predecessors.  The  times  had  changed ;  wars  had  ceased ;  Monroe,  too, 
had  matured.  "  He  had  learned  much  in  the  rude  school  of  experience, 
and  he  now  brought  to  his  new  duties  discretion,  sobriety,  and  poise.  He 
was  what  the  common  people  held  him  to  be — a  faithful  public  servant, 
deeply  and  sincerely  republican,  earnestly  desirous  to  serve  the  country 
which  he  loved"   (p.  265). 

And  yet  John  Quincy  Adams  figures  as  the  hero  of  the  administration. 
And  Monroe  in  the  new  era,  with  its  increasing  demands  for  constructive 
internal  policies,  based  on  broader  constitutional  views,  found  himself 
"out  of  touch  with  the  newer  currents  of  national  life"  (p.  311).  In- 
deed Virginia  herself  was  falling  behind.  Her  economic  condition  had 
become  distressing.  Her  statesmen's  broad  policies  of  expansion  from 
which   the  countrv  as  a  whole  benefited  had  drained  the  old   South  of 


588  Reviews  of  Books 

population  and  wealth.     These  statesmen  themselves  in  their  retirement 
shared  the  financial  afflictions  of  their  people. 

But  somewhat  more,  it  seems,  than  the  author  of  this  really  good 
volume  conveys  to  the  reader  these  Virginians  are  to  be  commended  for 
their  high  idealism  and  their  actual  accomplishment  of  lasting  benefits  to 
this  country.  The  epoch  1800-1824  was  a  fruitful  period  despite  its 
tangled  maze  of  experimental  diplomacy — fruitful  of  great  results  for 
which  in  large  measure  America  is  indebted  to  "  Jefferson  and  his  Col- 
leagues ". 

D.  R.  Anderson. 

Select  British  Documents  of  the  Canadian  War  of  1812.  Edited, 
with  an  Introduction,  by  William  Wood.  Volume  I.  [Publica- 
tions of  the  Champlain  Society,  vol.  XIII.]  (Toronto:  the  So- 
ciety.    1920.     Pp.  xv,  678,  x.) 

The  aim  of  the  three  volumes,  of  which  this  is  the  first,  is  to  give  in 
full  original  form  the  gist  of  the  collection  of  important  British  docu- 
ments relating  to  the  Canadian  part  of  the  War  of  1812.  This  collection 
the  Champlain  Society  now  believes  to  approach  completeness  for  all 
probable  practical  purposes.  Publication  of  this  volume  was  delayed  two 
years  in  order  that  the  harvesting  of  documents  into  the  Dominion 
Archives  at  Ottawa  might  attain  such  a  degree  of  finality  that  further 
discoveries  which  would  materially  change  existing  evidence  would  "  seem 
to  be  almost  beyond  reasonable  expectation  ".  The  editorial  work  in  gen- 
eral and  the  format  of  the  volume  deserve  high  praise. 

In  place  of  an  introduction  to  each  document  or  to  each  group  of 
documents,  a  judicious,  well-written  introduction  covers  the  whole  war. 
It  is  divided  into  twelve  chapters  of  from  two  to  thirty-seven  pages  in 
length,  which  occupy  the  first  fifth  of  the  volume  and  serve  to  integrate 
the  documents  which  follow.  It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  assess  and  properly 
document  events  whose  importance,  like  that  of  the  campaign  around 
Detroit  in  which  the  relations  with  the  Indians  were  deeply  involved,  was 
vastly  out  of  proportion  to  numbers  engaged  or  losses  of  men  and  war 
materials,  and  in  one  instance,  in  a  note  bordering  on  disgust,  the  editor 
aptly  describes  the  campaign  along  the  Montreal  frontier  as  "  the  most 
sprawling  and  sporadic  part  of  a  sprawling  and  sporadic  war"   (p.  50). 

The  documents  in  this  volume  relate  almost  exclusively  to  conditions 
and  events  prior  to  1813,  and,  with  the  exception  of  eight,  chiefly  to  the 
military  operations  in  the  West.  Unquestionablv  the  most  valuable  por- 
tion is  that  which  deals  with  the  correspondence  of  the  British  generals. 
Brock  and  Sheafe,  with  Sir  George  Prevost,  the  governor-general  and 
commander-in-chief  in  Canada.  Taken  as  a  whole  there  is  little  that  is 
both  new  and  important  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  part  played  by  the 
Canadian  forces  in  the  first  year  of  the  war,  but  this  fact  should  not 
obscure  the  large  and  permanent  worth  of  an  easily  accessible  publication 


Channing:  History  of  the  United  States         589 

like  this  to  students  of  history  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Among 
the  significant  papers  here  presented  are  those  devoted  to  the  suspicions 
of  the  Canadians  regarding  the  sentiments  and  movements  of  the  Ameri- 
cans along  the  frontier,  particularly  about  Niagara  ;  the  organization  of 
the  militia  in  Upper  Canada;  the  provincial  statute  of  Lower  Canada  to 
facilitate  the  circulation  of  army  bills;  and  certain  personal  observations 
by  two  Canadians  of  Hull  and  his  men  at  the  time  of  the  surrender  of 
Detroit,  as  revealed  in  letters  and  a  journal. 

An  important  group  of  papers  shows  how  insistently  the  British 
traders  and  the  Canadian  government  were  cultivating  the  Indians  in  the 
United  States,  the  chief  being  a  confidential  communication  from  Robert 
Dickson,  '"  residing  with  the  Indians  near  the  Missouri  "  (  1812),  in  which 
he  quotes  the  speeches  of  three  chiefs,  one  a  Sioux,  who  confess  that  they 
"  have  for  some  time  past  been  amused  by  the  songs  of  bad  Birds  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  River — they  were  not  the  songs  of  truth  ".  The 
inclusion  of  the  "  historical  romance  "  entitled  "  The  War  of  the  Gulls  " 
(pp.  561-579),  and  the  proclamation  of  the  United  States  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral Smyth  to  the  men  of  New  York,  which  Henry  Adams  characterized 
as  unmilitary,  surprising,  and  in  the  end  burlesque,  and  which  has  long 
been  quickly  accessible  in  Xiles's  Register,  is  not  easily  justified  in  such 
a  carefully  edited  and  definitive  collection  as  this.  Very  minor  inclusions 
in  the  midst  of  many  arid  and  petty  details  reveal  an  unexpected  touch  of 
chivalry:  the  offer  of  the  commander  at  Ft.  George  to  aid  the  badly 
wounded  American  Colonel  van  Rensselaer  at  Lewiston  with  anything 
"  either  useful  or  agreeable  to  him  "',  and  General  van  Rensselaer's  an- 
nouncement at  Lewiston  that  he  will  "  order  a  salute  for  the  funeral  of 
General  Brock  to  be  fired  here,  and  at  Ft.  Niagara,  this  afternoon  " 
[October  16.  181 2]    (pp.  625-626). 

The  chief  "  find "  of  the  collection  is  presented  at  the  close  of  the 
introduction.  It  is  a  "  private  and  confidential  "  letter  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  at  Paris,  in  November.  1S14,  to  Lord  Bathurst  after  the 
disastrous  defeat  of  Prevost  at  Plattsburg:  "I  see  that  the  Publick  are 
very  impatient  about  the  want  of  success  in  America,  and  I  expect  they 
will  never  be  quiet  until  I  shall  go  there  ...  it  is  too  late  to  think  of 
going  to  America  this  year ;  and  I  believe  I  shall  not  be  able  to  go  to 
Quebec  till  April.  If,  however,  in  March  next,  you  should  think  it  ex- 
pedient that  I  shall  go  there,  I  beg  that  you  will  understand  that  I  have 
no  objection  whatever"   (p.  131). 

Kendric  C.  Babcock. 

A  History  of  the  United  States.  By  Edward  Channing.  Volume 
V.  The  Period  of  Transition,  1815-1848.  (New  York:  Mac- 
millan  Company.     1921.     Pp.  viii,  623.     $4.50.) 

The  author  of  a  "  standard  history  "  may  call  for  sympathy  as  well 
as  admiration.     A  balanced  and  a  just  account  is  expected  by  the  general 


590  Reviews  of  Books 

reading  public,  with  every  influence  and  interest  that  has  affected  national 
development  allotted  its  exact  and  proper  space,  with  historic  characters 
all  assessed,  and  all  historical  materials  assayed.  It  must  wear  the  aspect 
of  finality  and  yet  must  have  the  air  of  freshness;  it  must  not  leave  out 
the  old  but  must  include  the  new.  Every  reader  will  find  it  useful,  except 
perhaps  those  pages  which  touch — or  neglect  to  touch — upon  his  own 
peculiar  province,  but  since  common  sense  and  general  knowledge  will 
supply  the  tests,  every  reader  will  feel  free  to  point  out  faults.  The  story 
has  become  so  complex  with  the  spread  of  scholarship  that  in  latter  years 
it  has  been  thought  appropriate  for  companies  of  specialists.  It  is  an 
awful  enterprise  for  one  sole  man,  fit  only  for  a  bold  and  seasoned  spirit 
and  drawing  the  attention  of  the  multitude.  Parkman,  Henry  Adams, 
Rhodes,  and  others  were  content  with  periods;  McMaster  and  Von  Hoist 
each  made  his  contribution  from  a  body  of  sources  not  before  extensively 
examined ;  but  Professor  Channing  essays  the  whole  account,  making  use 
of  all  the  special  studies  made  by  every  one  in  every  field. 

The  fifth  volume  of  his  History  of  the  United  States,  covering  the 
years  1815  to  1848,  is  sharply  split  in  two.  In  the  first  half  the  author 
reveals  it  as  a  "  period  of  transition  "  in  the  material  concerns  of  the 
American  people,  their  intellectual  outlook,  their  home  life,  and  their 
social  habits;  in  the  last  he  seeks  to  show  the  changes  in  the  field  of 
government.  In  devoting  so  much  space  to  Kulturgeschichtc  the  author 
diverges  from  Schouler,  Burgess,  and  others  who  have  written  the  his- 
tory of  these  years  exclusively  as  past  politics.  That  Professor  Channing 
realized  the  importance  of  economic  interests  had  been  shown  before, 
notably  in  chapter  XIII.  of  volume  III.  and  chapter  IV.  of  volume  IV., 
but  apparently  this  interest  has  grown  more  compelling. 

The  present  volume  itself  represents  a  "  period  of  transition  "  in  his- 
tory-writing. History  has  added  units  but  not  absorbed  them ;  it  has 
new  particulars  but  not  synthesis ;  so  that  we  have  chapters  on  the  west- 
ward march,  cities,  labor,  plantations  and  abolitionism,  religion,  educa- 
tion, literature,  and  many  on  politics.  Very  few  people  in  any  age  are 
personally  concerned  with  politics  either  as  a  trade  or  as  a  science;  for 
the  great  majority  it  merely  affords  the  means  by  which  certain  definite 
interests  or  ideals  are  safeguarded  or  forwarded.  Will  not  the  next 
standard  historian  of  the  period  show  more  clearly  why  the  American 
system  was  American,  and  why  each  economic  and  social  interest  reacted 
to  it  as  it  did,  and  how  the  wealth  of  nature  developed  optimism  and 
material  ambition  for  everybody  which  was  reflected  in  our  religion, 
literature,  and  education  no  less  than  in  our  zeal  for  territorial  growth 
and  our  jealous  independence?  Professor  Channing  with  great  industry 
and  sagacity  has  selected  the  materials  and  to  a  certain  extent  has  ar- 
ranged the  picture;  if  there  ever  is  a  successor,  will  he  not  find  points 
of  focus? 

Believing  that  the  long  intensity  of  war  ending  in  1815  had  stirred  the 
western  world  out  of  its  routine,  the  author  summarizes  the  achievement 


Channing:  History  of  the   United  States         59 l 

of  the  following  generation  of  Americans,  in  transportation.  This  intro- 
duces an  excellent  chapter  on  the  transfer  of  population  toward  the  West, 
or  "  Transappalachia  ",  as  he  rather  usefully  christens  it.  He  does  not 
show  the  effect  of  this  migration  on  the  growth  of  cities  or  on  rural 
life  in  the  East,  but  here  and  in  his  chapter  on  the  plantations  makes  clear 
what  it  meant  to  the  seaboard  South.  His  sympathy  and  fairness  in 
dealing  with  the  Southern  "  cavaliers  "  and  Northern  abolitionists  shows 
how  scholarship  and  time  have  softened  the  asperities  of  years  gone  by. 
On  prison  reform,  the  temperance  movement,  the  care  of  the  insane,  the 
development  of  religious  sects,  etc.,  he  shows  remarkable  familiarity  with 
the  special  literatures  of  the  subjects  and  a  restraint  never  yielding  to 
the  temptations  of  the  picturesque.  In  reviewing  education  he  shows 
"how  slight  America's  contribution  had  been  to  the  practice  and  organ- 
ization of  teaching",  and  how  deep  her  debt  to  Germany  in  the  genera- 
tions before  the  Civil  War;  but  in  his  thirty  pages  on  the  more  hackneyed 
field  of  literature  he  finds  it  difficult  to  make  a  cSntribution,  though  not 
for  lack  of  enthusiasm.  "  In  short  ",  he  concludes,  "  this  half-century  in 
the  United  States  in  poetry,  in  fiction,  and  in  history  stands  apart — it  is 
without  an  equal  since  the  days  of  Shakespeare,  Francis  Bacon,  and  John 
Milton"  (p.  305) — to  which  the  conscientious  reader  must  append  "mu- 
tatis mutandis  " . 

In  this  survey  of  American  interests,  generally  so  full  and  fair,  there 
is  nothing  about  architecture,  the  position  of  women,  the  public  land 
question,  the  fur  trade,  or,  most  surprisingly,  the  winning  of  universal 
manhood  suffrage.  Also  in  his  political  narrative,  compressed  within 
three  hundred  pages,  there  are  unexpected  emphases ;  about  ten  times  as 
much  space  is  devoted  to  the  work  of  General  Scott  as  to  that  of  Chief 
Justice  Marshall;  Eric  Janson.  who  led  a  small  band  of  Scandinavians 
to  Henry  County,  Illinois,  has  as  much  attention  as  President  John  Tyler ; 
the  psychology  of  the  frontier  bankers  is  brilliantly  presented,  but  the 
Locofocos  have  to  share  one  short  page  with  the  Antimasons.  As  in 
volume  III.  he  rescued  President  Adams  from  disgraceful  defeat  in  1S00 
and  brought  him  out  to  something  near  to  victory,  he  does  a  similar 
service  for  his  son  in  1828;  there  is  a  good  word  for  Andrew  Jackson 
as  a  spoilsman  and  for  General  Santa  Anna.  The  estimates  of  character 
and  service  are.  as  a  whole,  judicious  and  precise,  and  there  are  few  or 
no  traces  of  sectional  prejudice  in  the  distribution  of  space  or  praise. 
Yet  one  might  question  some  judgments  like  that  on  Biddle  and  his  Bank 
of  the  United  States.  The  last  days  of  that  institution  under  its  Pennsyl- 
vania charter  were,  as  Catterall  admitted  years  ago,  "  unfortunate  "  and 
"  disastrous  ",  but  there  is  no  real  evidence  to  convict  the  president  of 
chicanery  as  is  implied  in  this  account. 

The  volume  would  be  distinguished,  if  for'  no  other  reason,  by  the 
value  of  its  notes  which  make  critical  reference  to  all  sorts  and  kinds  of 
monographic  pamphlets,  articles,  and  books  as  well  as  to  many  curious 
and  comparatively  unexploited  sources.     It  will  be  a  rare  scholar  to  whom 


592  Reviews  of  Books 

a  full  third  of  these  will  not  be  unfamiliar.  Private  conversations  with 
many  specialists  are  particularly  acknowledged  in  the  sources,  and  many 
valuable  suggestions.  The  style  is  clear,  but  never  eloquent;  the  many 
individual  instances,  unimportant  in  themselves,  used  in  developing  points 
make  for  vividness  but  sometimes  destroy  perspective.  The  charts  and 
maps  are  singularly  well  chosen,  but  the  index  is  quite  inadequate  to  a 
work  of  reference,  neglecting  as  it  does  the  names  of  many  persons  men- 
tioned in  the  book. 

The  reader  carries  away  the  impression  of  a  wise  and  careful  scholar 
with  whom  no  traditional  judgment  can  pass  without  investigation  and 
to  whom  nothing  that  is  American  is  foreign.  He  has  enlarged  our  field 
of  vision,  though  he  has  not  changed  our  point  of  view.  If  in  each  gen- 
eration some  single  veteran  scholar  should  take  stock  of  what  is  going 
forward  in  the  historical  study  of  the  United  States,  Professor  Channing 
should  be  warmly  thanked  for  his  service  to  our  own. 

Dixon  Ryan  Fox. 

Captains  of  the  Civil  War:  a  Chronicle  of  the  Blue  and  the  Gray. 
By  William  Wood.     [Chronicles  of  America  series,  vol.  XXXI.] 
(New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  xiv,  424.) 
Colonel  Wood  has  written  a  very  readable  and  interesting  book.     He 
has  chosen  to  emphasize  the  picturesque  to  the  necessary  exclusion  of 
more  detailed  discussion  of  important  events.     The  emphasis  on  the  ex- 
tent and  value  of  the  work  of  the  Federal  navy  is  particularly  interesting, 
though,  in  places,  too  detailed  for  such  a  study. 

The  first  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  a  rather  extended  and,  in 
places,  detailed  discussion  of  the  opening  events  of  the  war  and  of  the 
opposing  combatants.  Of  the  make-up  of  the  armies  Colonel  Wood  says 
that  "...  when  the  froth  had  been  blown  off  the  top,  and  the  dregs 
drained  out  of  the  bottom,  the  solid  mass  between,  who  really  were  sound 
patriots,  settled  down  to  work  ".  It  was  "  the  froth  .  .  .  and  the  dregs  " — 
the  "  fustian  heroes  " — who  "  formed  the  mushroom  secret  societies  that 
played  their  vile  extravaganza  right  under  the  shadow  of  the  real  tragedy 
of  war  "  and  that  caused  the  "  patriots  "  many  an  anxious  and  uncertain 
hour.  After  this  introduction  the  opening  operations  of  the  navy  are 
discussed,  including  the  taking  of  New  Orleans.  There  are  two  inter- 
esting chapters  on  the  "  River  Wars  "  of  1862  and  1863,  in  which  Grant 
and  Farragut  are  the  heroes.  A  chapter  on  Lincoln:  War  Statesman, 
though  well  and  sympathetically  done,  seems  superfluous  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  subject  is  well  done  elsewhere  in  this  series.  The  important 
part  of  the  material  might  well  have  been  worked  into  the  different 
chapters.  The  space  could  certainly  be  filled  to  advantage  with  a  more 
extended  narrative  of  military  and  naval  events. 

Except  for  a  chapter  on  Lee  and  Jackson,  1 862-1 863,  and  one  on  Gettys- 
burg, making  together  less  than  one- fourth  of  the  book,  the  author  follows 


Wood:  Captains  of  the  Civil  War  593 

Grant  and  Farragut  from  place  to  place  and,  with  few  exceptions,  only 
events  in  which  they  are  the  principal  actors  are  given  detailed  or  ex- 
tended consideration.  This  method  makes  possible  only  cursory  mention 
of  the  operations  and  leadership  in  the  so-called  Western  theatre.  The 
battle  of  Shiloh,  though  important  as  being  the  first  pitched  battle  in  this 
area,  is,  like  the  first  Bull  Run,  given  in  too  much  detail.  Bragg's  Ken- 
tucky campaign  and  the  Chickamauga  campaign  receive  only  passing 
mention.  Johnston's  masterly  retreat  to  Atlanta  in  the  face  of  Sherman's 
superior  forces  is  sandwiched  into  the  narrative  of  Grant's  operations 
before  Richmond  in  1864  and  its  importance  from  the  political,  economic, 
and  military  standpoints  is  lost  sight  of.  Hood's  Tennessee  Campaign  of 
the  winter  of  1864  receives  none  of  the  discussion  that  this  last  desperate 
thrust  deserves,  considering  its  ultimate  possibilities  in  case  of  success. 
As  Colonel  Wood  has  said  of  Rosecrans,  Hood,  "  like  many  another  man 
who  succeeds  halfway  up,  failed  at  the  top  ". 

This  neglect  of  the  Western  area  is  characteristic  of  most  military- 
writers  of  the  Civil  War  period.  The  Western  armies,  though  com- 
parable in  quality  of  personnel,  were  not  as  well  led  as  were  the  armies 
in  Virginia  and  at  no  time,  unless  we  except  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  did  the 
Western  armies  have  a  leader  who  was  loved,  trusted,  and  respected  as 
was  Robert  E.  Lee.  In  fact  the  ascendancy  of  Lee  and  Virginia  has, 
until  recently,  obscured  these  important  operations  conducted  in  the 
granary  of  the  Confederacy.  They  took  place  in  a  much  larger  and  more 
physically  difficult  area  than  Virginia  and  one  not  as  well  served  with 
railroads.  On  the  other  hand,  the  many  navigable  rivers  were  a  source 
of  strength  to  both  combatants  and.  in  the  case  of  Chattanooga  in  the  fall 
of  1863,  the  accessibility  of  the  Tennessee  River  prevented  the  Federal 
army  from  being  starved  out  or  forced  to  retreat  northwards. 

In  this  altogether  readable  and  interesting  book  we  note  several  errors 
of  statement,  but  limitations  of  space  forbid  detailed  correction  of  all. 
For  examples:  it  is  exaggeration  to  speak  of  Twiggs's  surrender  as  "the 
greatest  of  all  surrenders"  (p.  8)  when  the  statement  is  made  without 
qualification;  Lee  was  not  "  Scott's  Chief  of  Staff  in  Mexico  ",  but  only 
an  engineer  officer  on  his  staff  (p.  9)  ;  several  exceptions  must  be  made 
to  the  statement  that  West  Point  furnished  "  every  successful  high  com- 
mander ",  as,  for  example,  John  B.  Gordon,  N.  B.  Forrest,  F.  C.  Barlow, 
David  B.  Birney  (p.  78);  McClernand  was  not  dismissed,  but  simply 
relieved  of  his  command  and  returned  to  his  home  in  Blinois  for  further 
mischief  (p.  136);  General  Stephen  D.  Lee,  not  General  Pemberton, 
commanded  at  Chickasaw  Bluffs  and  deserved  and  obtained  the  credit  for 
Sherman's  repulse  (p.  164)  ;  Johnston  was  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi, 
in  the  fall  of  1862,  ostensibly  directing  the  operations  of  Bragg  and 
Pemberton,  but.  in  fact,  exercising  no  real  command  (p.  219)  ;  Jackson's 
failures  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles  are  not  sufficiently  emphasized  (p. 
223)  ;  it  is  rather  an  exaggeration  to  characterize  Crocker  and  the  poli- 
ticians Logan  and  Blair  as  "  three  of  the  best  generals  who  ever  came 


594  Reviews  of  Books 

from  civil  life" — the  evidence  is  wanting  (p.  261);  Rosecrans  did  not 
order  "  an  immediate  general  retreat  "  at  Chickamauga,  but  sent  Thomas 
orders  of  a  more  or  less  discretionary  nature  (p.  280)  ;  Bragg  did  not 
mass  "  every  available  gun  and  man  "  to  meet  Sherman's  attack  against 
his  right  on  Missionary  Ridge,  in  fact  his  right  was  at  no  time  in  danger 
and  handled  Sherman  without  reinforcements.  Three  brigades  were  sent 
from  the  right  to  assist  the  hard-pressed  left  and  centre.  There  was  a 
rout  at  the  centre  only,  and  the  retreat  was  skillfully  covered  by  the 
"  fighting  "  right  led  by  Hardee  and  Cleburne.  It  is  not  correct  to  say 
that  "thousands  of  prisoners  were  taken;  and  most  of  the  others  were 
scattered  in  flight  ".  The  break  at  the  centre  took  with  it  the  left  of  the 
line,  but  the  right  stood  fast.  Bragg's  "  missing  "  for  Lookout  Mountain 
and  the  assault  on  Missionary  Ridge  numbered  approximately  4100,  as 
given  by  Livermore  (p.  285).  Too  much  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  effect 
of  Banks's  ill-advised  campaign  in  Louisiana  on  Sherman's  proposed 
operations  against  Mobile.  Cold  Harbor  could  hardly  be  called  "  the  last 
pitched  battle  on  Virginia  soil  ",  as  the  battle  of  the  Crater  followed  in 
July,  and  Early  and  Sheridan  in  the  Valley  of  Virginia  fought  two  size- 
able battles — at  Cedar  Creek  and  Fisher's  Hill — in  the  fall  of  1864  (p. 
355)  ;  Beauregard's  relation  to  Hood  was  one  of  supervision  and  con- 
sultation, not  of  actual  "command"  (p.  371);  there  were  not  thirteen 
assaults  at  Franklin,  but  only  one  general  assault,  with  continuous  and 
bitter  hand-to-hand  fighting  at  the  breastworks  until  long  after  dark 
(p.  377)  ;  Hood  lost  a  total  of  approximately  5000,  not  15,000,  at  Nash- 
ville (p.  378)  ;  Lee  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  on  February  6, 
not  February  9  (p.  382).  General  James  H.  Wilson's  masterly  cavalry 
campaign  into  Alabama  and  Georgia  in  the  spring  of  1865  is  not  men- 
tioned. Few  campaigns  have  been  as  well  planned  and  as  well  executed. 
The  publications  of  the  Southern  Historical  Society  and  the  twelve- 
volume  Scribner  series  of  Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War  might  well  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  Bibliographical  Note. 

The  use  of  the  English  military  terms:  battalions  for  regiments;  rails 
for  railroads ;  and  such  terms  as  ratings,  enislement,  and  special-constable 
indicate  the  English  military  training  of  the  author. 

The  book  is  thoroughly  readable  and  one  is  carried  through  it  bv  the 
easy  flowing  style.  The  volume  maintains  the  high  standard  of  appear- 
ance and  book-making  set  by  the  previously  issued  volumes  of  the  series. 

Thomas  Robson  Hay. 

Recent  History  of  the  United  States.'  By  Frederic  L.  Paxson, 
Professor  of  History  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  (Boston 
and  Chicago:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xii,  603. 
$3-75-) 

This  book  is  not  a  revision  of  the  author's  New  Nation  which  ap- 
peared some  six  years  ago  as  volume  IV.  of  the  well-known  Rivoside 


Paxson:  Recent  History  595 

series.  That  volume  commenced  with  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  and 
ended  with  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  in  1914.  This  book  begins 
with  the  administration  of  Hayes  and  brings  the  story  down  to  the  elec- 
tion of  Harding.  Here,  as  in  the  author's  earlier  work,  the  primary 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  social  and  economic  phases  of  our  history, 
although  the  political  events  are  given  all  the  space  they  deserve.  Those 
historians  who  insist  that  a  disproportionate  amount  of  space  be  devoted 
to  very  recent  events  should  be  highly  gratified  by  the  fact  that  Professor 
Paxson  has  given  156  pages,  or  one-fourth  of  the  entire  book,  to  an 
account  of  the  six  stirring  years  from  1914  to  1920.  In  this  space  he 
has  succeeded  in  giving  a  remarkably  sane  and  well-balanced  narrative 
of  this  country's  part  in  the  great  struggle  and  its  aftermath. 

Perhaps  the  outstanding  characteristic  of  this  text  is  the  author's 
catholicity  in  his  choice  of  subject-matter.  He  has  endeavored  to  en- 
visage the  manysidedness  of  American  life  and  has  presented  his  facts 
calmly  and  judiciously.  For  instance,  in  his  chapter  on  Post-Bellum 
Ideals  he  discusses  such  topics  as  new  types  of  literature,  the  develop- 
ment of  higher  education,  scientific  scholarship,  and  the  like.  No  doubt 
the  most  unusual  and  significant  chapter  is  that  in  which  amateur  and 
professional  sport,  club  life,  and  related  matters  come  in  for  their  share 
of  attention.  Most  history  teachers  now  agree  that  such  topics  are  quite 
as  appropriate  as  politics,  war,  and  economics. 

In  devoting  a  considerable  amount  of  space  to  the  development  of 
business  enterprise,  the  author  has  but  followed  the  tendency  that  char- 
acterizes nearly  all  the  more  recent  and  popular  history  texts.  It  is  as 
an  economic  historian  that  Professor  Paxson  is  most  at  home.  And  yet 
so  complicated  are  the  forces  that  are,  and  for  many  years  have  been, 
at  work  in  bringing  our  economic  society  to  its  present  state  that  even  so 
excellent  an  historian  as  Professor  Paxson  has  not  entirely  succeeded  in 
making  clear  their  interaction,  sequence,  and  significance.  Certainly  the 
average  sophomore,  even  after  a  careful  perusal  of  this  text,  and  aided  by 
a  clever  instructor,  will  still  find  difficulty  in  understanding  the  complex 
life  that  surrounds  him.  But  after  all.  it  is  no  easy  task  to  tread  the 
mazes  and  chart  the  paths  through  this  wilderness  of  complexity  into  the 
light  of  understanding.  If  Professor  Paxson  has  failed,  the  reviewer 
ventures  to  suggest  that  his  chief  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  has 
made  a  fetish  of  impartiality.  The  intelligent  reader  will  gain  the  im- 
pression that  the  author  has  been  too  fearful  of  offending  some  of  the 
numerous  groups  that  are  parties  in  the  political  and  economic  conflicts 
forever  going  on  about  us.  The  prejudices  of  school-book  commissions, 
and  college  trustees  being  what  they  are,  this  is  almost  a  perfect  text  for 
the  period  it  covers,  but  great  books  are  never  colorless. 

B.  B.  Kendrick. 


596  Reviews  of  Books 

Daniel  H.  Burnham.  Architect,  Planner  of  Cities.  By  Charles 
Moore.  In  two  volumes.  (Boston  and  New  York:  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company.     192 1.     Pp.  xvii.  260;  ix,  238.     $20.00.) 

When  in  1901  the  Senate  Park  Commission  was  created,  to  devise 
and  carry  out  the  systematic  development  and  improvement  of  the  park 
plan  of  Washington,  Mr.  Charles  Moore  was  made  its  secretary.  In  this 
service  he  became  intimately  acquainted  with  the  three  men  most  con- 
spicuous in  the  creation  and  development  of  the  new  plans — C.  F.  McKim 
the  architect,  Frederick  Law  Olmsted  the  landscape  designer,  and  Daniel 
Hopkins  Burnham,  also  an  architect,  of  Chicago.  His  intimacy  with 
Burnham  continued  until  Burnham's  death  in  Heidelberg  in  1912.  and  the 
enthusiastic  admiration  which  developed  from  this  intimacy  finds  expres- 
sion in  the  two  handsome  volumes  which  are  the  subject  of  this  notice. 
It  is  a  one-sided  account  of  the  life  of  a  man  whose  career  was  so  remark- 
able, and  so  typically  American,  as  to  deserve  a  more  symmetrical  treat- 
ment; but  it  is  fair  to  say  that  Mr.  Moore's  accounts  of  Burnham's  greater 
works — the  Chicago  Columbian  Fair,  the  Washington  Commission  work, 
and  the  great  city-planning  enterprises  which  occupied  the  later  years  of 
his  life — are  exceedingly  well  done  and  with  a  modest  relegation  to  the 
background  of  the  author's  own  connection  with  them. 

Daniel  Burnham  was  a  shining  example  of  the  possibilities  of  self- 
culture  for  an  American  of  fine  natural  mental  endowments,  strong  char- 
acter, and  an  undeviating  purpose  to  make  the  most  of  his  environment. 
There  was  nothing  in  his  antecedents  or  early  education  to  give  promise 
of  the  conspicuous  success  he  attained  in  architecture,  unless,  indeed,  it 
were  the  strength  of  character  inherited  through  a  long  line  from  his 
Puritan  New  England  ancestors.  He  failed  to  enter  both  Harvard  and 
Yale ;  he  attended  no  school  of  architecture,  and  his  only  preparation  for 
the  practice  of  architecture,  upon  which  he  launched  independently  in 
1872,  was  a  brief  apprenticeship  in  the  office  of  Mr.  P.  B.  Wight,  who 
is  still  living  in  Chicago.  Upon  this  precarious  foundation  he  built  up 
a  practice  which  at  one  time  was  the  largest  of  any  in  the  United  States, 
and  which  exercised  a  notable  influence  upon  the  development  of  the  art 
in  this  country,  especially  in  the  field  of  commercial  architecture.  His 
success  is  the  more  noteworthy  when  we  observe  that  nearly  all  the  dis- 
tinguished architects  of  his  time  had  enjoyed  a  thorough  technical  train- 
ing, most  of  them  having  spent  years  in  study  abroad,  while  his  training 
had  been  wholly  acquired  in  the  school  of  practical  experience.  He  had 
a  wonderful  gift  for  absorbing  all  that  was  best  in  his  environment  and 
for  surrounding  himself  with  the  sort  of  men  who  would  be  most  helpful 
and  inspiring.  In  his  office  practice  he  was  less  the  gifted  artist  than  the 
man  of  large  conceptions,  wise  judgment,  practical  sense,  and  rare  execu- 
tive ability.  He  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  design  and  construction 
of  tall  office  buildings. 

It   was   in  the  Chicago   Fair  that  he   first   found   full   scope   for   his 


Sharfman:  American  Railroad  Problem  597 

peculiar  talents ;  he  dominated  that  enterprise  without  designing  one  of 
its  buildings.  In  later  years  the  talents  there  revealed  found  still  larger 
fields  in  the  great  civic  plans  on  which  he  was  engaged  in  Washington 
and  Chicago,  and  for  San  Francisco,  Cleveland,  Manila,  and  Baguio 
(P.  I.).  It  is  of  this  phase  of  his  life  that  Mr.  Moore  gives  the  most 
satisfactory  and  sympathetic  account.  Except  in  one  or  two  chapters  he 
comments  sparingly  on  the  character  and  deeds  of  his  hero,  allowing  the 
events  narrated  and  the  letters  and  diary  of  the  man  to  speak  for  them- 
selves ;  sometimes,  indeed,  at  unnecessary  length.  It  would  have  been 
better  to  abridge  the  extracts  from  these  for  the  sake  of  a  fuller  account 
of  Burnham's  earlier  professional  career  and  at  least  some  effort  at  a 
critical  estimate  of  Burnham's  rank  as  an  artist  and  his  rightful  place 
among  those  who,  between  1876  and  1900,  contributed  to  raise  American 
architecture  from  its  low  estate  to  its  present  stage  of  distinguished 
achievement.  The  imposing  list  of  his  works  is  relegated  to  an  appendix 
without  note  or  comment.  Yet  in  spite  of  its  incompleteness,  one  cannot 
read  Mr.  Moore's  record  without  conceiving  a  warm  admiration  for  the 
man  they  picture,  not  more  for  his  architectural  skill  than  for  his  rare 
gift  for  friendship,  in  which  the  warmth  and  constancy  of  his  affection 
made  his  later  years  especially  rich   in  happiness. 

A.  D.  F.  Hamlin. 

The  American  Railroad  Problem:  a  Study  in  U'ar  and  Reconstruc- 
tion. By  I.  Leo  Sharfman,  Professor  of  Economics,  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.  [The  Century  New  World  Series,  edited  by 
W.  F.  Willoughby.]  (New  York:  Century  Company.  102 1. 
Pp.  xiii,  474.     $3.00.) 

Professor  Sharfman  has  succeeded  in  his  attempt  to  write  a  well- 
balanced  and  impartial  analysis  of  the  American  railroad  problem.  The 
volume  is  particularly  good  in  its  historical  summary  of  the  antecedents 
of  the  present  situation.  It  furnishes  also  an  admirable  resume  of  the 
results  of  federal  control,  and  clearly  sets  forth  the  outstanding  features 
of  the  Transportation  Act  of  1920. 

The  historic  approach  traces  railroad  development  (  1  )  from  1830 
through  the  period  of  unrestrained  railroad  freedom  to  1870;  and  (2) 
from  the  beginnings  of  state  control,  1871-1875,  to  (3)  the  emergence  of 
federal  regulation,  which  began  with  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of 
1887.  The  original  Act  to  Regulate  Commerce  accomplished  its  primary 
purpose  of  curbing  rate  discrimination  and  of  checking  high  tariffs,  but 
extensive  amendments  were  needed.  Each  is  discussed  in  turn,  and  the 
year1  1906,  when  the  Hepburn  amendment  was  enacted,  is  taken  as  the 
beginning  of  the  concluding  period  in  railway  development  prior  to  the 
war. 

The  chapter  which  deals  with  private  war-time  operation  contains  an 
excellent  review  of  railroad  accomplishment  during  the  period  of  Ameri- 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 4°- 


598  Reviews  of  Books 

can  neutrality  and  of  the  attempt  of  the  railroad  companies,  by  voluntary 
unification  through  their  Railroads'  War  Board,  to  meet  the  extraordinary 
transportation  demands  when  the  United  States  entered  the  World  War. 
The  reasons  why  the  War  Board  could  not  satisfactorily  cope  with  the 
situation,  although  its  accomplishments  were  both  substantial  and  impor- 
tant, are  clearly  set  forth,  as  are  also  the  reasons  why  federal  operation 
of  railroads  became  necessary. 

The  author  is  at  his  best  in  his  two  chapters  on  federal  control.  He 
shows  a  fairly  complete  understanding  of  the  policies  and  performance 
of  the  Railroad  Administration,  and  he  has  appraised  the  results  with 
impartiality.  His  conclusion  is  that  federal  control  creditably  accom- 
plished the  purposes  for  which,  it  was  instituted.  Essential  traffic  was 
moved  successfully  and  expeditiously.  The  cost,  while  large,  was  de- 
cidedly reasonable.  Yet  the  experience  during  a  war  emergency  throws 
little  light  upon  the  broader  question  as  to  the  expediency  of  federal  rail- 
road operation  under  normal  conditions. 

Part  II.  of  the  volume  sets  forth  the  author's  conception  of  the  essen- 
tials of  reconstructive  policy.  It  precedes  the  concluding  section  (part 
III.)  which  outlines  the  background  of  the  1920  legislation,  describes  the 
leading  plans  which  were  proposed  in  1 91 9,  and  critically  summarizes  the 
act  as  finally  passed.  This  summary  is  well  arranged:  the  perspective  is 
excellent. 

It  is  apparent  that  Professor  Sharfman  is  not  impressed  with  the 
railroad-management  viewpoint  on  the  so-called  "  National  Agreements  " 
entered  into  between  the  Director  General  and  the  several  unions  affiliated 
with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  No  direct  reference  is  made  to 
what  one  railroad  executive  termed  the  "  squandering  of  morale  "  through 
the  extreme  centralization  of  control  in  matters  of  discipline  and  other 
relations  with  labor.  It  is  apparent,  too,  that  the  author  minimizes  the 
extent  of  under-maintenance,  as  he  makes  no  allowance  for  that  factor  in 
his  summary  of  financial  results.  He  quotes  an  early  estimate  (May, 
1920)  of  the  total  deficit  of  federal  operation,  as  approximately  $900,- 
000,000.  This  estimate  allows  nothing  for  under-maintenance.  The 
preface  of  the  book  is  dated  May  16,  1921.  Apparently  Professor  Sharf- 
man failed  to  note  the  Director  General's  letter  of  May  5,  1921,  to  the 
chairman  of  the  House  Committee  on  Appropriations.  In  that  letter  the 
Director  General  estimated  the  deficit  as  at  least  $1,200,000,000.  The 
difference  is  accounted  for  mainly  by  recognized  claims  for  under- 
maintenance. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  style  and  arrangement,  two  minor  criticisms 
may  be  made.  There  is  too  much  unnecessary  repetition.  The  same 
subject  or  phase  of  a  subject  is  often  treated  in  two  or  three  chapters 
and  in  much  the  same  manner.  The  second  criticism  attaches  to  part  II., 
"  The  Essentials  of  Reconstructive  Policy  ".  This  is  admitted  to  be  a 
digression.  The  author's  own  views  as  to  what  should  be  done  are  not 
tied  into  what  was  done  by  the  Transportation  Act.     Logically  it  would 


Mitchell:  Our  Air  Force  599 

have  been  better  if  parts  II.  and  III.  had  been  transposed.     These  defects, 
however,  are  minor  and  detract  but  little  from  the  value  of  the  book. 
William  J.  Cunningham. 

Our  Air  Force:  the  Keystone  of  National  Defense.  By  William 
Mitchell,  Brigadier  General,  Air  Service.  (New  York:  E.  P. 
Dutton  and  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xxvi,  22$.  $5.00.) 
During  the  fall  of  1917  and  the  spring  of  191S  perhaps  the  most 
widely  held  belief  in  the  United  States  was  that  we  were  going  to  "  win 
the  war  through  the  air  ".  Magazine  covers  pictured  the  sky  dark  with 
American  aeroplanes  on  their  way  to  wipe  out  German  factories  and  cities 
with  bombs.  Inside  the  covers,  glowing  accounts  told  of  what  could  be 
done  and  of  the  steps  taken  or  just  about  to  be  taken  to  achieve  these  big 
results.  Many  of  these  articles  seemed  to  receive  encouragement  from 
the  authorities,  at  least  there  were  no  statements  from  responsible  people 
suggesting  that  perhaps  the  pictures  were  exaggerated.  Meanwhile  the 
reality  in  France  was  quite  different,  and  unknown.  Early  in  July,  1918, 
there  was  only  one  American  day  bombing  squadron.  (No  night  ones. 
The  second  day  bombing  squadron  began  operations  in  September  and  at 
the  armistice  there  were  only  four  that  had  ever  bombed,  not  six  as  the 
official  figures  show.)  This  was  really  less  than  half  a  squadron,  as  there 
were  only  eight  planes.  One  was  being  repaired  and  six  of  the  others 
went  on  a  raid  into  Germany.  By  reason  of  absurd  leadership  none  of 
these  came  back,  so  the  American  day  bombing  service  was  practically 
wiped  out.  This  ended  bombing  operations  for  a  month,  and  the  German 
newspapers  waxed  sarcastic  over  the  event  because  they  knew,  of  course, 
that  they  had  captured  our  only  day  bombing  squadron. 

The  American  public  does  not  yet  know  the  facts  concerning  our  air 
force,  nor  will  General  Mitchell's  book  enlighten  them.  Indeed  his  book 
is  chiefly  devoted  to  what  he  thinks  could  be  done  in  the  future,  and  gives 
a  very  poor  notion  of  what  actually  was  done  in  the  past.  His  descrip- 
tions of  the  work  of  the  various  branches  of  the  air  service  might  be 
called  the  "  literary  theory  "  of  the  air  service,  for  they  include  much  of 
what  was  supposed  to  be  done  by  each  but  little  of  what  they  actually  did. 
Two  quotations,  the  first  from  his  foreword  and  the  second  from  the 
last  chapter,  will  give  a  better  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  book  than  pages 
of  comment.     The  first  (p.  xxiii)  is, 

In  case  of  the  attack  of  a  group  of  such  airplanes  or  airships,  500 
explosions  would  occur  covering  the  whole  of  the  lower  part  of  New 
York,  which  would  practically  wreck  that  entire  part  of  the  city;  and  not 
only  paralyze  all  the  business,  but  would  cause  a  conflagration  such  as 
has  never  been  known  before.  Such  a  fire  occurring  in  New  York,  situ- 
ated on  a  narrow  peninsula  between  two  rivers,  would  make  it  impossible 
for  the  population  to  get  away  from  it  on  account  of  the  congestion  of 
the  means  of  transportation  that  would  result  when  this  great  population 
attempted  to  escape.     They  would  be  burned  like  rats  in  a  trap. 


600  Reviews  of  Books 

The  second  (p.  218)  is, 

Looking  into  the  not  very  distant  future,  we  can  see  the  organization 
of  our  aeronautical  resources  so  disposed  that  the  minute  war  starts,  our 
airships  can  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  within  thirty-six  hours,  keep  the 
whole  area  under  observation  and  report  anything  that  comes  across  it. 
They  will  be  able  to  cross  the  Pacific  in  seventy-five  hours  or  less,  and  do 
the  same  thing  in  that  area. 

Nevertheless,  because  of  General  Mitchell's  authoritative  position  his 
book  will  have  to  be  read  when  the  real  history  of  "  Our  Air  Force  "  is 
written. 

W.  S.  Holt. 

The  Maritime  History  of  Massachusetts,  I/83-1860.  By  Samuel 
Eliot  Morison.  (Boston  and  New  York:  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company.     1921.     Pp.  xviii,  401.     $5.00.) 

.  This  is  a  book  Theodore  Roosevelt  would  have  liked.  It  is  the  narra- 
tive of  a  people  who  lived  the  strenuous  life,  who  faced  hardships  with 
courage,  who  were  never  dismayed  by  adversity  nor  made  soft  by  good 
fortune.  It  is  the  story  of  the  merchants  and  seafarers  of  Massachusetts 
during  the  days  of  American  shipping  supremacy,  when  the  sailing  vessels 
of  the  Bay  State  made  the  American  flag  a  familiar  sight  in  all  the  sea- 
ports of  the  world. 

Professor  Morison  gives  a  faithful  account  of  all  the  maritime  activi- 
ties of  Massachusetts  from  1783  to  i860,  tracing  the  record  through  alter- 
nating periods  of  depression  and  prosperity — the  recovery  following  the 
Revolution,  the  rapid  expansion  of  the  early  years  of  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
the  ruin  and  devastation  of  the  Embargo  and  the  War  of  181 2,  and  the 
wonderful  golden  age  of  the  sailing  vessel,  that  reached  its  climax  in 
the  majestic  clipper.  No  phase  of  seafaring  activity  is  neglected.  He 
shows  how  cod  and  mackerel  were  caught  in  nearby  waters  and  on  the 
Grand  Banks;  he  takes  us  on  voyages  around  the  world  with  intrepid 
whale-hunters.  He  gives  the  details  of  the  many  branches  of  commerce — 
foreign  trade  with  Europe  and  the  Indies  and  the  lands  of  the  Pacific, 
coasting  trade  with  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  the  Southern  States,  and 
trade  around  the  Horn  with  California  and  Oregon.  He  follows  the 
varying  fortunes  of  each  village  and  city  that  drew  its  living  from  the 
sea.  He  takes  us  to  the  shipyards  and  shows  us  ships  in  the  making 
under  the  watchful  eyes  of  world-famous  builders.  He  tells  of  the  hardy 
seamen  and  captains  upon  whose  resourcefulness  and  skill  the  success  of 
all  maritime  venture  ultimately  depended.  We  see  the  opulent  merchant 
princes  of  Salem  and  Boston  directing  their  multifarious  enterprises  from 
wharf  and  counting-room,  and  we  go  to  their  homes  to  see  the  manner  of 
their  living,  learning  of  their  shrewdness  and  foresight,  their  politics  and 
philanthropies,  and  not  infrequently  of  sharp  dealing  and  tight-fisted 
parsimony.     And  above  all  we  learn  of  ships,  from  the  light  Chebacco 


Hazard:  Boot  and  Shoe  Industry  601 

boat  employed  in  local  commerce  and  fishing  to  the  tall  graceful  clipper 
driving  before  the  wind  under  billows  of  canvas  to  sensational  records 
of  speed. 

The  story  is  told  in  vivid  and  picturesque  language  that  brings  out 
the  romance  and  the  color  of  what  was  one  of  the  most  colorful  phases 
of  the  economic  history  of  the  United  States.  At  a  time  when  the  great 
majority  of  the  people  were  devoting  their  energies  to  exploiting  the 
resources  of  the  earth,  a  goodly  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Massa- 
chusetts still  heeded  the  call  of  the  sea,  taking  their  sustenance  from  its 
waters  or  ranging  over  its  surface  to  traffic  and  barter  in  every  corner  of 
the  world.  They  were  buyers  and  sellers  of  goods,  but  they  were  also 
dealers  in  romance  and  adventure  and  mystery.  Professor  Morison  has 
caught  the  spirit  of  the  people  and  of  their  time,  and  he  has  written  with 
a  heart  that  "  giveth  grace  unto  every  art  ".  The  achievement  for  which 
he  merits  greatest  distinction  is  the  creation  of  the  proper  atmosphere  for 
his  tale.  It  is  authentic  history  with  the  imaginative  appeal  of  Java  Head 
and  Moby  Dick. 

The  author  has  drawn  his  materials  from  a  wide  variety  of  sources, 
employing  many  documents  hitherto  unused  for  works  of  history.  He 
has  probably  been  a  little  careless  in  not  observing  the  fact  that  Federal 
statistics  of  shipping  from  1789  to  1793  are  merely  statements  of  tonnage 
entering  or  leaving  American  ports.  The  figures  for  1789  are  extremely 
low  because  Federal  collectors  did  not  begin  work  until  after  midsummer. 
In  relying  upon  these  figures  as  a  measure  of  the  increase  of  American 
tonnage  he  has  unduly  magnified  the  maritime  progress  of  Massachusetts 
for  the  first  years  of  the  national  period  (pp.  96,  106,  166).  He  is  also 
in  error  in  stating  that  a  law  of  181 7  required  that  two-thirds  of  the  crews 
of  American  ships  be  citizens  of  the  United  States  (p.  354). 

A  highly  admirable  feature  of  the  book  is  the  large  number  of  excel- 
lent illustrations,  most  of  which  are  reproductions  of  old  prints  and  paint- 
ings of  Massachusetts  ships,  captains,  and  merchants. 

T.  \Y.  Van  Metre. 

The  Organization  of  the  Boot  and  Shoe  Industry  in  Massachusetts 
before  1875.  By  Blanche  Evans  Hazard,  Professor  of  Home 
Economics  in  Cornell  University.  [Harvard  Economic  Studies.] 
(Cambridge:  Harvard  University  Press;  London:  Humphrey 
Milford.     192 1.     Pp.  x,  293.     $3.50.) 

Several  years  ago  Miss  Hazard  published  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of 
Economics  an  account  of  the  organization  of  the  boot  and  shoe  industry 
in  Massachusetts  before  1875.  which  represented  the  results  of  six  years' 
research  in  that  field.  She  now  publishes,  as  one  of  the  Harvard  Eco- 
nomic Studies,  a  maturer  and  more  comprehensive  monograph  upon  the 
same  subject,  based  in  part  upon  four  years  of  later  investigation.  She 
thereby  renders  two  important  services  to  American  economic  history  : 


602  Reviews  of  Books 

she  gives  us  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  evolution  of  a  typical  industry 
from  the  home  and  handicraft  stage  to  the  factory  system,  and  preserves 
many  interesting  records — including  oral  testimony — relating  to  that  in- 
dustry which  otherwise  would  have  been  lost.  More  than  one-half  of  the 
book  consists  of  appendixes  containing,  among  some  items  of  curious 
rather  than  scientific  interest,  many  excerpts  from  private  papers  and 
accounts  and  a  few  documents  which  will  be  of  permanent  value  to 
historians  and  economists. 

Miss  Hazard  generalizes  very  conservatively,  and  enforces  each  step 
in  her  analysis  by  an  abundance  of  illustrative  material.  All  of  the  latter, 
as  the  title  indicates,  is  taken  from  Massachusetts.  Only  an  occasional 
allusion  suggests  to  the  reader  the  contemporary  development  of  boot  and 
shoe  making  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  elsewhere.  That  is  a 
field  yet  to  be  covered  before  we  shall  have  a  complete  history  of  the 
industry  in  America.  But  as  a  study  primarily  of  organization,  this  book 
is  sufficiently  final  to  be  satisfactory.     It  fairly  covers  its  subject. 

In  the  final  chapter  of  the  text  proper,  under  the  caption  the  Human 
Element,  Miss  Hazard  deviates  somewhat  from  her  main  theme  into  an 
anecdotal  and  biographical  by-path.  Her  short  accounts  of  representative 
New  England  shoemakers  and  her  rather  summary  description  of  the 
early  attempts  to  organize  the  shoe  workers  of  Massachusetts  into  unions, 
are  apparently  by-products  of  her  major  researches.  They  contribute 
little  to  the  direct  argument  of  her  book,  in  view  of  the  date  at  which 
her  study  terminates,  except  to  add,  perhaps,  a  finishing  touch  to  the 
contrast  between  the  period  she  describes  and  that  with  which  the  present 
generation  is  familiar.  Labor  conditions  among  boot  and  shoe  operatives 
in  Massachusetts  before  1875  were  not  entirely  typical  of  conditions 
throughout  the  Union. 

The  book  has  a  model  index  and  contains  several  sketch-maps  and 
plates ;  indeed  from  the  book-maker's  point  of  view  it  is  rather  a  de  luxe 
volume  in  its  class.  Incidentally  to  her  main  theme  the  author  adds  some 
interesting  details  to  our  knowledge  of  commercial  relations  between  New 
England  and  the  ante-bellum  South,  and  of  the  Yankee  migration  to  that 
section  in  the  wake  of  trade.  Additional  light  is  also  thrown  upon  the 
causes  and  effects  of  the  crises  of  1837  and  1857  within  New  England. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  excellent  monograph  will  suggest  similar 
investigations  into  other  industries,  whose  records  are  perishing  and  many 
details  of  whose  development  may  otherwise  remain  for  all  time  obscure. 

Victor  S.  Clark. 
MINOR    NOTICES 

Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association  for  the  Year 
1918.  Volume  I.  (Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1921,  pp. 
487.)  An  epidemic  of  influenza  prevented  the  Association  from  holding 
the  annual  meeting  which  it  had  expected  to  hold  at  Cleveland  in  Decem- 
ber of  that  year.     Therefore  the  present  volume  does  not  contain  papers 


Minor  Notices  603 

read  at  that  meeting,  which  would  normally  form  a  part  of  its  contents. 
It  contains:    (i)    full  reports  of  Council  and  committees  for  that  year; 

(2)  Mr.  Thayer's  intended  presidential  address  on  Vagaries  of  Historians; 

(3)  four  papers  prepared  for  the  Agricultural  History  Society  and  here 
printed  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  agreement  between  the  two 
organizations;  and  (4)  a  directory  of  the  American  Historical  Associa- 
tion stating  the  addresses  of  members,  their  occupations  or  official  posi- 
tions, their  membership  in  kindred  societies,  and  the  special  fields  of 
history  in  which  they  are  respectively  interested.  Volume  II.,  containing 
the  Autobiography  of  Martin  Van  Buren,  was  issued  previously,  and  was 
reviewed  earlier  in  this  journal  (p.  133,  above).  The  three  contributions 
to  American  agricultural  history  are :  (  1 )  a  careful  and  interesting  his- 
tory of  the  sheep  industry  in  the  United  States  (105  pp.),  by  M.  L.  G. 
Connor,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  (2)  a  biographical  sketch  of 
Dr.  John  Mitchell  (d.  1/68),  naturalist  and  maker  of  the  Mitchell  map, 
by  Mr.  Lyman  Carrier,  of  the  same  department;  (3)  an  account  of  the 
early  days  of  the  Albemarle  Agricultural  Society,  by  Dr.  Rodney  H.  True, 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  and  (4)  the  minute  book  (88  pp.)  of 
that  society,  founded  in  Albemarle  County,  Va.,  by  Thomas  Jefferson  and 
others,  covering  its  very  interesting  transactions  from  1817  to  1828. 

The  Social  History  of  the  Western  World:  an  Outline  Syllabus.  By 
Harry  Elmer  Barnes,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  Clark  University. 
(New  York,  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  xii,  126).  Professor 
Barnes  rightly  thinks  that  we  ought  to  give  far  more  attention  to  social 
and  economic  history  than  has  hitherto  been  customary,  and  has  provided 
a  useful  aid  to  its  study,  in  the  form  of  a  syllabus  with  brief  bibliogra- 
phies, which  are  modern  and  good,  and  his  topic-entries  are  well  thought 
out.  Syllabi  are  a  genus  of  which  it  is  peculiarly  true  that  the  proof  of 
the  pudding  is  in  the  eating,  but  the  reviewer  believes  that  this  manual, 
with  its  wide  sweep  and  modern  viewpoint,  will  be-  very  helpful  in  the 
hands  of  teachers,  broadening  their  appreciation  of  social  history  and  of 
the  amount  of  it  which  it  is  desirable  to  weave  into  their  general  courses, 
and  less  helpful  in  the  hands  of  any  but  advanced  students  or  as  a  means 
of  teaching  social  history  in  an  independent  course,  for  its  own  sake  solely. 
Just  as  elders  brought  up  on  traditional  Christianity  find  it  hard  to  esti- 
mate how  virtuous  a  younger  generation  could  be  without  its  help,  so 
teachers  trained  in  history  mostly  political  (because  mankind  has  been 
chiefly  organized  in  states)  will  find  it  difficult  to  judge  what  success 
would  attend  the  experiment  of  cutting  loose  from  all  that  framework  and 
organizing  the  young  people's  historical  study  frankly  as  social  history 
alone.  In  the  history  of  the  medieval  period,  in  which  the  nation  had  not 
yet  fully  become  the  dominant  element  in  human  society,  teachers  have 
already  done  this  in  a  considerable  degree,  and  for  this  period  Professor 
Barnes's   syllabus  offers  little  that   is   new.     Half  the  book   is  given  to 


604  Reviews  of  Books 

earlier  periods  than  the  medieval,  with  preliminary  sections  on  such  gen- 
eral topics  as  the  biological  and  psychological  aspects  of  human  progress, 
or  the  place  of  law  in  social  history — matter  too  difficult  and  abstract  for 
beginning  students.  Then  follows  much  good  matter  on  pre-literary  and 
ancient  history.  The  modern  period  has  no  more  than  a  third  of  the  book, 
a  small  allowance  in  view  of  the  enormous  mass  and  importance  of  the 
data.  The  Christian  church  and  religion,  which  are  commonly  thought 
to  have  played  quite  a  part  in  the  social  history  of  the  western  world,  are 
curiously  minimized — eight  lines  in  the  medieval  period,  five  in  the  period 
preceding. 

Tylissos  a  I'Epoquc  Minoenne:  Etude  de  Prehistoire  Crctoisc.  Par 
Joseph  Hazzidakis.  (Paris,  Geuthner,  1921,  pp.  89,  ten  plates,  25  fr.) 
This  translation  into  French  of  an  article  in  the  Ephemeris  Archaiologike 
for  1912  consists  mainly  of  a  description  of  the  articles  found  by  Dr. 
Joseph  Hazzidakis  in  the  course  of  the  excavations  conducted  by  him  at 
Tylissos,  a  Minoan  site  half-way  on  the  road  from  Cnossos  to  the  grotto 
on  Alt.  Ida.  They  include  vases  of  the  usual  types,  but  not  of  very  fine 
quality;  some  fresco  fragments,  and  two  inscribed  tablets;  a  lot  of  huge 
copper  caldrons;  a  remarkable  bronze  statuette  of  a  muscular  man  in 
attitude  of  worship,  and  a  miscellany  of  objects  in  lead,  stone,  terra-cotta, 
bone,  and  ivory. 

What  gives  larger  significance  to  the  excavations  at  Tylissos  is  that, 
according  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Hazzidakis,  which  is  corroborated  by  the 
testimony  of  M.  L.  Franchet — at  whose  instigation  and  with  whose  col- 
laboration the  translation  has  been  made — the  three  periods  into  which, 
on  the  basis  of  the  stratification,  the  history  of  Tylissos  falls  do  not  coin- 
cide with  the  three  Minoan  periods  (Early,  Middle,  and  Late)  established 
by  Sir  Arthur  Evans  for  Cnossos  and  accepted  generally  as  applying  to 
all  Crete.  At  Tylissos  Early  Minoan  includes  the  first  sub-period  of 
Middle  Minoan  while  Middle  Minoan  includes  the  first  two  sub-periods  of 
Late  Minoan,  to  which  accordingly  Late  Minoan  III.,  or  Mycenaean, 
alone  is  left.  M.  Franchet's  interest  in  these  determinations  arises  from 
the  fact  that  they  accord  broadly  with  the  divisions  which,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  ceramic  technique,  he  finds  to  exist  at  Cnossos  itself  (Nou- 
velles  Archives  des  Missions  Scientifiqucs,  XXII.  1).  Translated  into 
terms  of  metal  M.  Franchet's  system  is  as  follows:  Aeneolithic  (E.  M.  I. 
and  II.),  Bronze  1  (  E.  M.  III.  +  M.  M.  I.),  Bronze  2  (M.  M.  II.  +  be- 
ginning of  M.  M.  III.),  Bronze  3  (end  of  M.  M.  III.  +  L.  M.  I.  and 
II.),  and  Bronze  4  (  L.  M.  III.).  In  a  translation  this  nomenclature  has 
merit;  but  only  in  a  translation.  As  our  records  run,  in  the  Aegean  world 
of  the  second  millennium  B.  C.  the  original  must  always  be  written  in  the 
language  of  pots  and  palaces. 

The  historian  in  quest  of  a  chronological  conspectus  of  prehistoric 
Greece  has  had  hitherto  to  guide  him  the  Minoan  system  based  on  Cnossos 
(A.   J.    Evans,   Essai   de   Classification   des  Epoqiics   de   la   Civilisation 


Minor  Notices  605 

Minoenne,  1906).  the  Cycladic  system  based  on  Phylakopi  (Dawkins  and 
Droop,  B.  S.  A.,  XVII.).  and.  since  the  epoch-making  excavations  of  the 
American  School  at  Corinth,  the  Helladic  system  of  Messrs.  Wace  and 
Blegen  (B.  S.  A.,  XXII.  175ft.).  In  his  book  Korakou  (Amer.  School 
at  Athens,  1922)  Dr.  Blegen  has  combined  in  a  single  tablet  of  syn- 
chronisms these  three  systems.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  what  hap- 
pens when  Dr.  Hazzidakis's  divisions  are  substituted  in  this  table  for 
those  of  Sir  Arthur  Evans:  Early  Helladic,  for  example,  coincides  pre- 
cisely with  Tylissos  a,  and  there  seems  to  be  something  to  be  said  from 
Hellas  for  splitting  Middle  Minoan  III.  More  and  more  clearly  as  these 
investigations  proceed  the  fact  emerges  that  the  great  period  of  pre- 
historic Greece,  whatever  be  its  Cretan,  insular,  or  mainland  subdivisions, 
runs  without  faltering  from  Middle  Minoan  II.  to  Late  Minoan  II.  in- 
clusive, or  from  2000  to  1400  B.  C. 

W.  S.  Ferguson. 

Classical  Associations  of  Places  in  Italy.  By  Frances  Ellis  Sabin, 
assistant  professor  of  Latin  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  (  Madison, 
Wis.,  the  Author,  1921,  pp.  526.  $5.00.)  The  plan  of  Miss  Sabin's  book 
has  been  to  gather  together  several  hundred  passages  in  classical  authors 
which  describe  places  in  Italy,  narrate  events  which  happened  in  them,  or 
otherwise  relate  to  them,  and  to  arrange  them  in  alphabetical  order  of 
places,  with  the  Latin  or  Greek  on  the  left-hand  page,  and  the  best  trans- 
lations opposite,  and  with  a  number  of  pleasing  illustrations.  Thus  the 
traveller  or  reader  may  refresh  his  remembrance,  or  learn  for  the  first 
time,  of  the  charms  of  Baiae  as  described  by  Propertius  or  Cassiodorus.  of 
Pliny's  villa  at  Laurentum.  of  Livy's  account  of  the  battle  of  Lake  Trasi- 
menus,  or  Strabo's  of  Tarentum.  The  sights  of  Rome  are  of  course 
treated  with  special  fullness.  Such  a  book  can  make  no  claim  to  impor- 
tance as  an  historical  source,  but  it  can  give  much  pleasure  to  many 
historical  students. 

Vitae  Paparum  Avenionensium.  Stephanus  Baluzius  edidit.  Nou- 
velle  Edition  d'apres  les  Manuscrits,  par  G  Mollat,  Professeur  a  l'Uni- 
versite  de  Strasbourg.  Tomes  I.  et  III.  (  Paris,  Letouzey  et  Ane.  1916- 
1921,  pp.  xxxi,  629;  561.)  The  original  edition  of  the  Lives  of  the 
Avignonese  Popes,  published  in  1693,  fails  to  meet  the  demands  of  mod- 
ern critical  scholarship.  Baluze,  as  is  well  known,  drew  his  material  from 
a  variety  of  chronicles.  He  extracted  the  pertinent  sections  and  pub- 
lished each  separately  under  the  name  of  the  pope  to  whom  it  referred, 
labelling  these  excerpts  as  the  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  life  of  the  pope  in 
question.  The  value  of  the  sources  thus  published  is  unequal.  Much  of 
the  material  is  of  the  highest  importance  while  some  portions  are  of 
doubtful  value.  Baluze  made  no  attempt  to  classify  the  various  lives  and 
they  have  been  generally  treated  as  of  equal  importance  by  those  who 
have  consulted  his  collection.     M.  Mollat  has  therefore  rendered  a  great 


606  Reviews  of  Books 

service  to  scholars  by  publishing  a  critical  edition  in  which  he  has  col- 
lated the  manuscripts  used  by  Baluze  with  other  copies  found  in  Belgian, 
German,  French,  and  Italian  archives.  He  has  in  some  instances  been 
able  to  determine  more  accurately  the  authorship  of  certain  pieces  and  to 
distinguish  between  the  work  of  chroniclers  and  their  continuators,  and 
has  given  a  critical  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  different  parts.  In  the 
new  edition,  the  dates  given  in  the  chronicles  have  been  reduced  to  the 
modern  style  and  their  exactness  determined.  This  has  led  to  important 
changes,  especially  in  connection  with  the  correspondence  of  Clement  V., 
Baluze  having  reckoned  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate  from  the  day  of 
his  election,  June  5,  1305,  instead  of  from  his  installation  on  November  14, 
as  he  should  have  done. 

The  original  edition  was  published  in  two  volumes,  the  first  containing 
the  "  Lives  "  together  with  the  valuable  notes  of  Baluze,  the  second  vol- 
ume being  devoted  to  the  documents  and  other  sources  on  which  these 
notes  were  based.  Mollat's  edition  is  divided  into  three  volumes.  The 
first  contains  the  Lives,  followed  by  a  critical  description  of  the  various 
manuscripts  consulted  by  the  editor;  the  second,  a  new  edition  of  Baluze's 
notes;  and  the  third  the  collection  of  proofs  found  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  old  edition.  As  a  supplement  to  the  present  work,  Mollat  has 
recently  published  more  fully  the  results  of  his  investigations  in  a  little 
book  entitled,  Etude  Critique  sur  les  Vitae  Paparum  Avcnionensium  d'Eti- 
enue  Baluze  (Paris,  1917). 

A.  C.  Howland. 

Court  Rolls  of  the  Borough  of  Colchester.  Translated  and  epitomized 
by  Isaac  Herbert  Jeayes,  sometime  Assistant  Keeper  of  the  MSS.,  British 
Museum.  (Colchester,  the  Town  Council,  1921,  pp.  xxxiii,  242,  £2  2s.) 
Colchester  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  interesting  of  English  boroughs. 
It  has  long  been  known  as  possessing  valuable  records  which  were  used 
by  Brady,  Madox,  and  other  writers  on  English  municipal  history.  In 
1865,  Henry  Harrod  published  three  reports  on  the  Colchester  muniments 
and  between  1902  and  1907  there  appeared  three  important  publications 
of  borough  records — namely  the  Red  Paper  Book  (1902),  the  Charters  of 
the  Borough  of  Colchester  (1904),  and  the  Oath  Book  or  Red  Parchment 
Book  (1907). 

The  present  volume  comprises  a  translation  of  the  nine  court  rolls  of 
the  borough  that  are  in  existence  for  the  forty-two  years  between  1310 
and  1352.  Although  thirty-three  rolls  have  been  lost,  some  of  them  repre- 
senting most  important  and  interesting  years,  those  that  remain  present  a 
valuable  picture  of  early  fourteenth-century  municipal  life  and  activity. 
They  are  a  true  record  of  the  legal  business  of  the  borough  and  this 
business  was  a  large  one.  Over  three  thousand  persons  are  mentioned 
in  various  capacities  and  the  laws  of  the  borough  and  of  the  king  seem 
to  have  been  more  honored  in  their  breach  than  in  their  observance. 
Trespass,  which  covered  a  multitude  of  sins,  is  naturally  the  most  fre- 


Minor  Xoticcs  607 

quent  plea,  but  debt,  nuisance,  land,  seizure,  assault,  and  hamsokne  (bur- 
glary) are  quite  frequent.  Interesting  light  is  thrown  on  the  plea  of 
frcshforce  as  a  process  in  municipal  law.  Many  curious  and  quaint 
entries  occur  and  there  are  references  to  common  scolds  and  the  ducking- 
stool.  No  cases  of  witchcraft  are  mentioned  and  the  burgesses  appear 
to  have  been  hard-headed  and  practical  folk. 

Although  ably  translated  and  epitomized  by  Mr.  Jeayes.  the  collection 
lacks  a  really  adequate  introduction  such  as  is  found  in  the  Publications 
of  the  Selden  Society.  Mr.  Benham,  who  is  chairman  of  the  Museum 
and  Muniments  Committee  of  the  Colchester  Town  Council,  has  con- 
tributed a  brief  general  introduction  and  a  Who's  Who  of  the  principal 
personages  mentioned  in  the  volume.  The  index  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  proper  names. 

N.  M.  Trenholme. 


The  Defensor  Pacis  of  Marsiglio  of  Padua:  a  Critical  Study.  By 
Ephraim  Emerton,  Winn  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  in  Harvard 
University,  Emeritus.  [Harvard  Theological  Studies,  vol.  VIII.] 
(Cambridge,  Harvard  University  Press;  London,  Humphrey  Milford, 
Oxford  University  Press,  1920,  pp.  81,  $1.25.)  This  monograph  by  Pro,- 
fessor  Emerton  is  an  almost  perfect  example  of  the  sort  of  study  which 
he  undertakes.  He  brings  to  the  subject  an  exceptional  equipment  for 
the  task  and  an  exceptional  interest  in  it.  The  very  inadequate  knowledge 
of  Marsiglio  and  his  work  that  prevails  in  America  gave  the  opportunity 
for  an  illuminating  treatment  of  the  subject  and  it  is  hard  to  see  how  the 
treatment  could  have  been  more  enlightening  and  more  satisfactory. 

The  scheme  of  the  work  is  to  present  first  the  general  conditions  that 
made  Marsiglio  possible,  and  then  to  analyze  the  Defensor  Pacis,  select- 
ing the  doctrines  that  are  particularly  salient  from  the  point  of  view  of 
history  and  explaining  them  with  lucidity  and  soundness.  In  accordance 
with  this  scheme  we  have  first  an  analysis  of  the  political  doctrines  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  of  Dante.  This  is  accompanied  by  an  adequate 
summary  of  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the  time.  Then 
comes  the  wholly  satisfactory  presentation  of  Marsiglio's  epoch-making 
ideas. 

In  the  exposition  of  this  remarkable  body  of  doctrine  not  only  is  the 
broad  outline  most  intelligibly  presented,  but  the  learning  of  Professor 
Emerton  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  controverted  points  in  Marsiglio's 
argument  with  most  satisfactory  results.  Of  particular  interest  is  the 
author's  judgment,  based  on  a  careful  comprehensive  study,  that  the  ex- 
pression "  pars  valentior  "  signifies  "  majority  ",  rather  than  "  the  more 
competent  part " ;  so  that  Marsiglio's  doctrine  as  to  the  seat  of  supreme 
or  sovereign  authority  in  the  state  is  a  doctrine  of  democracy  and  not  of 
aristocracy.  Students  of  Marsiglio  will  all  be  interested  in  the  judgment 
of  Professor  Emerton  on  this  point.     But  I  do  not  feel  sure  that  all  of 


608  Reviews  of  Books 

them  will  be  convinced  even  by  the  powerful  reasoning  by  which  this 
judgment  is  sustained. 

Another  point  that  will  be  regarded  with  interest  by  students  of 
Marsiglio  is  the  interpretation  of  "  Veritas  "  to  mean  "  the  Gospel  ", 
rather  than  "the  truth" — an  interpretation  which  puts  a  different  light 
on  Marsiglio's  sentence  "  according  to  the  truth  and  to  the  opinion  of 
Aristotle  .  .  .  the  essential  source  of  law  is  the  people  ". 

Besides  the  detailed  analysis  and  discussion  of  the  text  of  Marsiglio's 
great  work  Professor  Emerton  gives  us  also  the  complete  facts,  so  far 
as  known,  as  to  the  personality  of  Marsiglio,  the  details  of  his  career, 
and  the  influence  of  his  work  on  the  later  generations.  There  is  no  dis- 
guising the  fact  that  much  obscurity  still  remains  in  regard  to  these 
matters,  but  it  is  very  satisfactory  to  have  under  the  seal  of  Professor 
Emerton's  scholarship  a  full  statement  of  all  that  is  known. 

The  Conservative  Character  of  Martin  Luther.  By  George  M.  Ste- 
phenson, Ph.D.  (Philadelphia,  United  Lutheran  Publication  House,  1921, 
pp.  143,  $1.20.)  This  book  from  the  Historical  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota  offers  a  brief,  condensed,  simple,  and  sober  inter- 
pretation of  details,  with  which  the  reader  is  presupposed  to  be  familiar. 
The  author  traces  the  conservative  thread  running  through  a  life  crowded 
with  great  events  and  minor  incidents.  The  formative  years  of  Luther 
are  shown  to  lack  all  revolutionary  impulses.  His  motives  for  reform 
proceed  from  consistency  with  what  he  had  implicitly  received  as  the 
Church's  teaching.  The  analysis  made  of  the  famous  theses  results  in 
the  indication  of  nothing  more  than  a  conscious  dissent  from  an  influ- 
ential element  in  the  Church.  Luther's  claim  that  he  was  only  trying  to 
clear  up  what  was  true  Catholic  doctrine  is  substantiated  not  only  from 
what  the  theses  contain,  but  from  the  omission  of  much  that  they  might 
have  been  expected  to  express.  LTp  to  the  Leipzig  discussion,  Luther's 
arguments  are  declared  to  be  mostly  historical ;  afterwards  they  became 
also  theological.     The  date  of  the  break  with  Rome  was  1520. 

With  the  emergence  of  actual  revolutionary  movements  breaking  away 
from  his  conservative  restraint,  the  decision  of  Luther  against  the  Witten- 
berg radicals,  and  against  the  Peasants'  Revolt,  as  well  as  the  part  which 
he  took  in  the  much  discussed  Marburg  Colloquy,  furnish  further  proofs 
of  the  author's  thesis.  The  final  chapter  on  the  Augsburg  Confession 
could  be  very  materially  strengthened,  as  a  triumph  of  conservatism  after 
thirteen  years  of  hot  conflict. 

The  author  is  rarely  diverted  from  his  "  thread  ".  But  one  instance 
occurs,  when  on  p.  79  he  states  the  Lutheran  definition  of  the  Church  to 
be  that  merely  of  the  ideal  church.  To  Luther  and  his  associates.  "  the 
community  of  saints  "  is  not,  the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession 
asserts,  "a  Platonic  idea",  like  the  "Republic",  but  it  actually  exists, 
i.e.,  "  truly  believing  people,  scattered  here  and  there,  throughout  the 
whole  world  ".  Henry  Eyster  Jacobs. 


Minor  Notices  609 

The  Influence  of  Oversea  Expansion  on  England  to  ijoo.  By  James 
E.  Gillespie,  Ph.D.  [Columbia  University  Studies,  vol.  XCL.  no.  I.] 
(New  York,  Longmans.  Green,  and  Company.  1921,  pp.  367,  $3.00.)  This 
careful  and  exhaustive  study  of  Mr.  Gillespie's  is  an  excellent  example 
of  one  phase  of  historical  work  now  evident  in  the  United  States.  In  a 
thick  volume  of  367  pages,  with  an  excellent  bibliography — but  no  index — 
he  has  presented  a  great  mass  of  material  relating  to  the  influence  of 
oversea  expansion  on  England.  He  has  brought  together  a  huge  array 
of  facts  of  almost  every  kind.  It  cannot  in  fairness  be  said  that  he  has 
greatly  altered  the  general  opinion  of  the  effect  of  that  movement,  but  he 
has  provided  a  wide  basis  for  that  opinion,  he  has  given  a  multitude  of 
illustrations  to  modify  or  confirm  it;  and  if  he  has  arrived  at  no  very 
startling  conclusions,  he  has  covered  a  field  which  need  not  be  cultivated 
again  within  any  reasonable  period. 

Such  work  as  this  is  necessary  and  useful  as  providing  the  material 
for  future  histories,  of  countries  or  of  the  world.  It  is  of  value  to  many 
workers  outside  the  field  of  history  proper — to  the  literary  historian  and 
the  student  of  society  in  particular.  And  it  is  not  without  its  own  pecu- 
liar interest.  The  story  of  the  development  of  such  a  society  influenced 
by  such  a  movement  cannot  fail  to  attract  attention,  not  only  of  profes- 
sional historians  but  of  a  wider  audience,  once  brought  to  its  attention. 

It  is  unfortunate,  however  inevitable,  that  certain  studies  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  East  India  Company  have  appeared  since  the  book  was 
completed;  though  they  would,  perhaps,  only  have  confirmed,  not  modi- 
fied, the  conclusions  here  set  down.  There  is  some  question  whether  indi- 
vidual statements,  like  that  of  Child,  that  "  England  could  pay  a  greater 
tax  in  his  time  in  one  year  than  his  forefathers  could  in  twenty  ",  should 
be  taken  too  seriously,  unless  one  defines  "  forefathers  "  carefully.  And 
it  is  questionable,  as  a  mere  matter  of  arrangement,  whether  the  collection 
of  botanical  specimens  should  be  included  in  a  chapter  on  "  Thought  ". 
But  these  are  details,  which  could  be  multiplied  indefinitely,  as  personal 
opinions  would  vary.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  Mr.  Gillespie  has 
done  the  task  set  for  him  well  and  thoroughly:  and  that  his  thesis  will  be 
of  value  to  many,  and  of  interest  to  not  a  few. 

The  Evolution  of  Industrial  Freedom  in  Prussia,  1845-1849.  By 
Hugo  C.  M.  Wendel,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  New  York 
University.  (New  York.  University  Press.  1921,  pp.  viii.  114,  $3.00.) 
This  is  an  interesting  and  valuable  book,  which  outlines  the  evolution  of 
industrial  freedom  in  Prussia  during  the  period  from  1845  to  1849.  The 
author  explains  in  a  lucid  style  the  character  of  the  industrial  system 
established  by  the  law  of  1845,  examines  the  reactions  of  the  various 
working  classes  toward  the  new  economic  legislation,  and  traces  the  sub- 
sequent policies  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  which  culminated  in  the  re- 
strictive industrial  laws  of  1S49.  The  work  is  packed  with  interesting 
information  and  reveals  an  exhaustive  studv  of  the  source-literature  of 


610  Reviews  of  Books 

the  period.  A  comprehensive  bibliography  of  contemporary  and  non- 
contemporary  material,  numerous  foot-notes,  and  a  good  index  add  to  the 
value  of  the  study. 

The  author  outlines  in  his  introduction  the  industrial  reorganization 
of  Prussia  under  Stein  and  Hardenberg,  and  traces  the  history  of  Prus- 
sian craft-guild  legislation  to  1845.  One  might  wish  that  he  had  fully 
explained  the  diversified  Prussian  system,  which  varied  from  the  indus- 
trial liberalism  of  French  origin  in  the  Rhine  province  to  the  restrictive 
guild  system  in  the  provinces  east  of  the  Elbe.  The  rise  of  a  new  social 
group  and  a  new  system  of  manufacture  created  the  necessity  for  a 
uniform  organization  of  industry  in  all  the  provinces.  This  was  estab- 
lished by  the  law  of  1845.  The  terrible  agrarian  situation,  however,  espe- 
cially in  Silesia,  and  the  discontent  of  over  two  million  industrial  workers, 
hindered  the  rapid  development  of  the  factory  system.  Although  the  re- 
actionary report  of  the  governor  of  Silesia  is  mentioned,  the  author  does 
not  show  the  general  attitude  of  the  provincial  bureaucracy  toward  the 
agricultural  discontent. 

The  March  Revolution  prevented  the  orderly  transition  from  an  obso- 
lete guild  economy  to  a  modern  factory  economy.  During  this  period,  the 
master  craftsmen  as  well  as  the  proletariat  of  Prussia  were  discontented 
with  this  transitional  stage  of  industry.  The  liberal  law  of  1845  was 
violently  attacked.  In  the  final  chapter  of  his  study,  Professor  Wendel 
has  outlined  in  a  masterly  way  the  policies  of  the  Prussian  monarchy 
toward  the  industrial  problem,  and  has  related  the  liberal  legislation  of 
the  period  to  the  great  events  of  the  Revolution  of  1848. 

Ralph  H.  Lutz. 

Bctrachtungcn  sum  Weltkriege.  Zweiter  Teil :  Wdhrend  dcs  Krieges. 
Von  Th.  von  Bethmann  Hollweg.  (Berlin,  Verlag  von  Reimar  Hobbing, 
1921,  pp.  xv,  280.)  The  first  half  of  this  second  volume  of  Bethmann- 
Hollweg's  "  Observations  "  deals,  as  did  the  first  volume,  which  has  al- 
ready been  noted  in  the  Review  (XXV.  618  ff.),  with  matters  already 
well  known  and  adds  little  that  is  really  new,  except  to  give  the  Chan- 
cellor's motives  and  defense  of  his  policy.  Thus,  in  discussing  such  ques- 
tions as  the  responsibility  for  the  war,  the  manifesto  of  October,  1916, 
promising  independence  to  the  Poles  (which  Bethmann  vigorously  and 
probably  correctly  avers  did  not  thwart  any  possible  separate  peace  with 
Russia),  the  adoption  of  unrestricted  submarine  warfare,  and  President 
Wilson's  peace  note  of  December  18,  1916,  Bethmann-Hollweg  is  merely 
threshing  over  old  straw.  A  much  fuller  and  more  enlightening  insight 
into  these  matters  can  now  be  found  in  the  two  large  volumes,  with  docu- 
ments, containing  the  stenographic  reports  of  the  public  hearings  of  the 
Fifteenth  Investigating  Committee  of  the  German  National  Assembly. 

The  second  half  of  the  volume,  however,  contains  highly  interesting, 
and  often  quite  new,  light  on  the  extraordinary  political  confusion  and 
personal  enmities  in  the  German  domestic  political  situation  which  cul- 


Minor  Notices  61  j 

minated  with  the  dramatic  crisis  of  July.  1917.  and  the  fall  of  the  man 
who  had  been  chancellor  since  1909.  This  was  brought  about  partly  by 
the  increasingly  insistent  demand  for  equal  suffrage  in  Prussia;  Beth- 
mann  had  favored  this  in  principle  and  did  accept  it.  in  fact,  on  July  7, 
though  in  the  Kaiser's  "  Easter  message  ",  three  months  earlier,  he  had 
used  such  veiled  language  in  holding  out  the  prospect  of  a  reform  of  the 
three-class  system  of  voting,  that  many  persons  believed  he  intended  to 
replace  it,  after  the  war,  not  by  equal  suffrage,  but  by  some  plural  system 
of  voting.  His  own  changed  attitude  and  the  growing  demand  for  imme- 
diate equal  suffrage  in  Prussia  was  in  no  small  part  due  to  the  influence 
exerted  by  the  Russian  Revolution.  The  crisis  was  also  brought  about  by 
his  growing  conviction  of  the  opportuneness  of  efforts  for  a  negotiated 
peace,  due  in  part  to  the  supposed  willingness  of  the  Entente  to  open 
peace  negotiations  as  indicated  by  the  mission  of  the  papal  nuncio.  Pacelli, 
and  the  offer  of  Prince  Sixtus  of  Bourbon.  But  the  greatest  causes  of 
the  crisis  were  the  disappointment  over  the  apparent  failure  of  the  sub- 
marine campaign,  the  growing  war-weariness,  the  lack  of  food,  and  the 
consequent  general  irritation  of  nerves  within  Germany,  but  most  of  all 
the  desire  of  the  German  General  Staff  to  be  rid  of  Bethmann  as  chan- 
cellor. In  fact,  it  was.  according  to  Bethmann's  account,  the  threat  of 
Hindenburg  and  Ludendorff  that  they  would  resign,  as  they  could  no 
longer  co-operate  with  him  as  chancellor,  which  led  him  to  hand  in  his 
own  resignation. 

The  book  as  a  whole  confirms  the  impression  that  Bethmann  usually 
meant  well,  but  had  not  the  force  of  character  successfully  to  oppose  the 
militarists. 

Sidney  B.  Fay. 

Der  Kronprinz  itnd  sein  wahre's  Gesicht.  Yon  Carl  Lange.  (  Leipzig, 
F.  W.  Grunow,  1921,  pp.  136.)  There  is  not  much  more  to  be  said  about 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  who  might  have  been  Kaiser  if  the  market  for  Kaisers 
had  not  suddenly  weakened.  Nowadays  the  comments  of  his  enemies,  like 
the  ferocious  Swiss-French  novelist  Louis  Dumur,  and  the  comments  of 
his  admirers,  like  the  excited  Junker  Carl  Lange  here  under  discussion, 
come  to  pretty  much  the  same  thing.  Dumur.  in  his  terrible  storv  Lc 
Boucher  dc  Verdun,  represents  the  prince  as  pushing  shameless  love- 
affairs  while  his  division  was  being  battered  to  pieces  before  Verdun. 
Lange  admits,  on  page  38 :  "  Wir  wollen  offen  und  ehrlich  zugeben,  dass 
der  Kronprinz  eine  gewisse  Schwache  gegeniiber  dem  weiblichen  Ge- 
schlecht  zeigte."  Dumur  presents  him  as  a  fatuous'  figurehead,  con- 
temptuously pushed  aside,  when  crucial  decisions  were  necessary,  bv  the 
old  soldiers  his  nominal  staff  subordinates.  Lange's  ostensible  tribute  to 
his  courage  (p.  99):  "Seine  Umgebung  musste  manche  Tauschung 
vornehmen,  um  ihn  zu  verhindern,  sich  in  die  grosste  Gefahr  zu  begeben  ", 
comes  very  near  a  confession  that  someone  beside  the  prince  was  con- 
ducting the  campaign.     There  is  no  question  that  the  poor  fellow  has  been 


612  Reviews  of  Books 

complimented  by  the  imputation  to  him  of  offenses  of  which  he  was  en- 
tirely incapable — at  least  mentally  incapable.  The  world  cursed  at  heart- 
less telegrams  dealing  gaily,  in  the  days  of  the  ghastliest  suffering,  with 
"  cheese  ",  "  ladies  ",  and  "  corpses  " — till  it  transpired  that  the  telegrams 
were  really  the  most  serious  of  communications  couched  in  a  secret  code. 
An  unexpected  white  uniform  was  mistaken  for  a  tennis-outfit.  Thefts 
and  outrages  of  soldiers  and  subalterns  were  unjustly  saddled  on  the  com- 
mander. Nor  is  the  erstwhile  crown  prince  a  fool.  Lange's  citations 
from  his  books  show  a  good  deal  of  poetical  feeling  and  a  pleasant  com- 
mand of  literary  German.  Said  Maximilian  Harden  of  the  heir  apparent: 
"  Not  a  bad  sort.  A  chap  who  has  many  good  impulses,  but  knows  little 
.  .  .  has  little  to  do,  therefore  learns  things  not  particularly  good  for  him 
and  often  gets  into  mischief."  Lange  was  a  personal  friend  of  the 
prince's,  and  his  facts  are  much  as  we  have  them  from  other  sources,  but 
his  inferences  are  different,  and  unconvincing.  It  is  hard  to  find  as  seri- 
ous a  significance  in  the  prince's  public  utterances,  for  instance,  as  Lange 
finds,  when  we  remember  that  he  said  to  the  American  newspaper  corre- 
spondent Charles  H.  Wiegand,  "  What  regimental  commander  has  not 
made  such  speeches  to  his  men?  That  is  part  of  the  game  of  being  a 
soldier.  It  does  not  necessarily  mean  much  and  should  not  be  taken  too 
seriously.  Others  have  made  such  speeches  and  worse,  and  yet  you  have 
never  heard  of  them." 

On  the  whole,  it  seems  pretty  clear  from  the  data  which  Junker  Carl 
Lange  supplies  us  himself,  that  he  has  taken  his  subject  a  little  too 
seriously. 

Roy  Temple  House. 

The  Big  Four  and  Others  of  the  Peace  Conference.  By  Robert  Lan- 
sing. (Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1921,  pp.  213,  $2.50.)  Mr.  Lan- 
sing's portraits  of  the  chief  personalities  of  the  Paris  Conference  were 
well  worth  reprinting.  One  regrets  only  that  they  are  not  illustrated  by 
his  skillful  pencil  sketches.  He  had  ample  opportunity  for  observation 
during  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of  Ten,  and,  if  we  are  to  believe  his 
own  statements  in  his  previous  volume,  he  was  sufficiently  distant  from 
the  real  centre  of  negotiations  to  secure  something  like  perspective.  He 
is  judicious  by  nature  and  his  desire  that  personal  differences  of  opinion 
shall  not  affect  his  estimate  is  obvious.  He  has  an  eye  for  the  picturesque 
and  reproduces  admirably  the  atmosphere  of  Pichon's  study  where  the 
Ten  held  their  sessions.  It  is  certainlv  curious,  however,  in  view  of  the 
number  which  he  attended,  that  he  should  have  forgotten  the  order  in 
which  the  plenipotentiaries  were  placed;  the  Italians  did  not  sit  with  their 
backs  to  the  windows,  between  the  British  and  the  Japanese,  as  he  places 
them,  but  faced  Clemenceau  on  the  right  of  the  Japanese.  He  emphasizes, 
as  we  should  expect,  the  varying  harshness  and  sarcasm  of  Clemenceau 
and  the  mercurial  traits  of  Lloyd  George.  More  surprising  is  his  state- 
ment that  the  latter  possessed  no  arts  of  diplomacy  but  won  his  successes 


Minor  Notices  613 

through  the  excellent  advice  he  received.  Some,  at  least,  of  the  British 
experts  have  felt  that  however  good  that  advice,  Mr.  Lloyd  George  rarely 
followed  it.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  high  estimate  he  places  upon 
the  intellectual  capacity  and  statesmanlike  qualities  of  Orlando,  which  Mr. 
Lansing  explains  by  the  Italian  premier's  experience  as  a  jurist.  He 
appreciates  fully  the  magnetism  of  Yenizelos  which  brought  to  Greece 
more  than  her  delegates  asked,  and  he  paints  a  convincing  picture  of  the 
statecraft  of  Paderewski.  which  unquestionably  deserves  more  emphasis 
than  it  has  thus  far  received. 

The  author  is  evidently  anxious  to  be  fair  in  his  efforts  to  explain 
what  he  regards  as  President  Wilson's  failure.  He  ascribes  this  in  part 
to  his  inability  "  to  appreciate  at  the  first  that  the  aims  of  his  foreign 
colleagues  were  essentially  material  ".  Mr.  Lansing  is  apparently  un- 
aware of  irrefutable  evidence  showing  that  the  President  knew  very 
definitely  before  he  reached  France  that  Lloyd  George  and  Clemenceau 
had  not  been  entirely  converted.  His  argument  that  Mr.  Wilson  had  no 
plan  for  a  treaty  ignores  the  carefully  defined  basis  which  Colonel  House 
had  established  in  October  during  the  armistice  negotiations ;  the  Presi- 
dent's failure  lay  not  in  his  lack  of  a  plan  but  rather  in  his  inability  to 
write  that  plan  fully  into  the  treaties.  Mr.  Lansing  seems  also  to  have 
forgotten  the  "  Black  Book"  drafted  early  in  January  at  the  President's 
command,  which  contained  a  clear-cut  outline  of  the  American  pro- 
gramme, and  copies  of  which  were  sent  to  the  United  States  plenipoten- 
tiaries. It  is  unfortunate,  too,  that  he  should  perpetuate  the  story  current 
in  Paris,  according  to  which  the  Council  of  Four  was  formed  purely  to 
satisfy  Lloyd  George's  sense  of  secretiveness.  In  reality  the  Council 
resulted  naturally  from  Wilson's  absence  in  America.  Qemenceau's  ill- 
ness, and  the  consequent  renewal  of  the  guiding  committee  of  the  previous 
autumn,  composed  of  House,  Lloyd  George,  and  Clemenceau. 

Charles  Seymour. 

Towns  of  New  England  and  Old  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland.  By 
Allan  Forbes.  In  two  volumes.  (New  York  and  London,  G.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons,  1921,  pp.  225,  225,  $12.50.)  These  two  volumes,  resplendent 
in  binding  and  title-page  which  imitate  the  art  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
have  been  compiled  by  the  president  of  the  State  Street  Trust  Company 
of  Boston,  and  constitute  at  once  a  contribution  to  the  celebration  of  the 
Pilgrim  tercentenary  and  an  achievement  in  publicity  worthy  of  encour- 
agement. The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  give  an  account,  historical  and 
descriptive,  of  some  eighty- four  towns  in  New  England  (fifty-six  of  them 
being  in  Massachusetts),  and  of  the  towns  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land, somewhat  fewer  in  number,  whose  names  they  bear.  To  these  latter 
the  greater  part  of  the  text  and  most  of  the  two  hundred  and  seventy 
illustrations  are  devoted.  The  work  is  not,  however,  an  encyclopaedia  of 
New  England's  local  history,  nor  is  it  a  study  of  migration  from  the 
British   Isles   and   of   settlement   in   New   England,   although   it   contains 

AM.   HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 41. 


614  Reviews  of  Books 

material  which  might  constitute  a  modest  contribution  to  such  a  study. 
The  connection  which  is  assumed  between  "  parent "  and  "  daughter  "  is 
sometimes  conjectural  and  it  by  no  means  follows  that  because  a  town  in 
southern  Massachusetts  bears  the  same  name  as  a  town  in  Devon  it  was 
founded  by  people  coming  from  the  latter. 

The  chief  value  of  these  volumes  lies  in  the  record  which  they  contain 
of  the  relations  of  friendship  which  have  been  maintained  between  British 
towns  and  towns  of  New  England.  Those  who  vehemently  deny  the  kin- 
ship of  the  English-speaking  peoples  will  be  surprised  to  learn  in  what 
glad  and  cordial  fashion  and  with  what  pride  this  kinship  has  been 
asserted,  time  and  again,  over  many  years.  Correspondence  between 
town  officials,  exchanges  of  gifts  and  of  messages  of  congratulation  and 
good  will,  visits  of  delegations,  and  the  erection  of  monuments — all  these 
constitute  an  impressive  exhibit  of  manifestations  of  friendship. 

Waldo  G.  Leland. 

The  Evolution  of  Long  Island:  a  Story  of  Land  and  Sea.  By  Ralph 
Henry  Gabriel,  Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Yale  University.  (New 
Haven,  Yale  University  Press,  1921,  pp.  194,  $2.50.)  The  author  states 
his  problem  to  be  that  of  tracing  the  "development  of  a  people  as  it  has 
been  affected,  not  only  by  its  social  and  economic,  but  by  its  natural  sur- 
roundings ".  In  the  main  he  confines  himself  to  tracing  the  influences  of 
environment  upon  the  economic  life  of  the  population.  This  he  does 
clearly  and  convincingly.  The  comparatively  simple  influence  of  the  sea, 
and  the  complex  influences  of  the  vast  continental  hinterland  are  brought 
out  forcefully,  even  dramatically.  The  first  five  chapters — on  the  geo- 
logic upbuilding  of  the  island,  the  coming  of  the  settlers,  the  development 
of  agriculture,  and  the  expansion  of  the  economic  life  of  the  people  until 
whaling  led  many  of  them  far  out  into  the  world — yield  an  unusually  vivid 
sense  of  watching  the  drama  of  existence  unrolling.  The  remainder  of 
the  book  partially  sacrifices  chronological  order,  and  we  have  a  series  of 
essays  on  the  fisheries,  oyster  industry,  smuggling,  water-borne  trade, 
ship-building,  railroads  and  highways  (omitting  stage-coach  routes),  the 
"barrens",  and  the  recent  development  of  the  island  as  a  summer  play- 
ground. 

Little  is  said  of  the  primary  and  secondary  effects  of  environment 
upon  social  and  intellectual  life,  and  too  little  account  is  taken  of  the 
important  difference  between  the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  island.  This 
was  a  fundamental  fact,  climatically,  economically,  socially,  and,  for  a 
considerable  period,  politically,  resulting  in  two  distinct  areas  of  different 
cultural  development.  Curiously,  the  author  has  not  utilized  any  local 
town  histories  in  what  is  an  intensive  study,  largely  historical,  of  a 
limited  area.  Had  he  done  so,  he  would  have  avoided  a  number  of  minor 
errors,  e.g.,  "Sag"  is  not  Sag  Harbor  (p.  67)  but  Sagaponack,  quite 
another  place;  Sag  Harbor  was  not  founded  by  whalers  but  for  other 
economic  reasons  (p.  68)  ;  the  first  "east  end"  port  of  entry  was  estab- 


Minor  Notices  615 

lished  in  1668  not  16S7  (p.  118)  ;  the  original  settlers  of  Southampton 
and  Easthampton  did  not  arrive  by  the  ocean  but  by  the  bay  (p.  23)  ; 
agricultural  not  shipping  factors  determined  their  location  by  the  ocean 
(p.  24),  each  town  having  its  harbor  on  the  bay  shore.  Also,  we  may 
note,  the  first  Navigation  Act  was  not  that  of  1660  (p.  118)  ;  Promised 
Land  is  over  100,  not  50,  miles  from  New  York  (p.  88)  ;  and  Furman's 
name  is  twice  given  as  Furnam  (p.  187).  Owing  to  bad  drawing  the 
Peconic  section  of  the  map  is  misleading.  However,  Mr.  Gabriel  has 
treated  a  worth-while  topic  successfully,  in  a  suggestive  and  interesting 
book. 

J.  T.  Adams. 

Early  American  Portrait  Painters  in  Miniature.  By  Theodore  Bolton. 
(New  York,  Frederic  Fairchild  Sherman,  1921,  pp.  x,  180,  $7.50.)  It  is 
as  a  catalogue  raisonnc  rather  than  as  a  connected  essay  that  Bolton's 
book  on  American  miniature  painters  is  intended.  As  such,  it  will  prove 
a  valuable  reference  book  both  for  experts  in  the  subject  and  for  those 
whose  occasional  interests  lead  them  into  this  field. 

One  of  the  first  requirements  of  such  a  book  is  convenient  arrange- 
ment. The  requirement  has  been  most  satisfactorilv  met  in  this  case. 
The  artists  are  not  put  in  chronological  order  but  are  arranged  alpha- 
betically, with  a  uniform  disposition  of  the  text  concerning  each,  so  that 
not  only  the  artist  but  also  specific  facts  about  him  may  be  readily  found. 
After  the  artist's  name  the  essential  vital  statistics  are  given,  together 
with  a  concise  indication  of  the  nature  of  his  work,  such  as  "  portrait 
and  genre  painter ",  "  portrait  painter  in  oils  and  miniature ".  Then, 
following  a  brief  resume,  usually  limited  to  eight  or  ten  lines,  of  the 
training  and  artistic  career  of  the  painter,  is  a  list  of  his  known  minia- 
tures with  their  present  or  most  recently  known  location. 

In  the  foreword  to  the  book,  where  we  find  also  a  definition  of  minia- 
ture painting  and  a  very  brief  account  of  its  rise,  growth,  and  decline  in 
America,  the  author  sets  as  terminus  ad  quern  for  his  investigations  the 
date  1850,  "  when  the  photograph  had  already  numbered  the  days  of  the 
small  portrait  ".  Thus  Bolton  covers  only  about  a  century,  but  he  enu- 
merates something  over  three  hundred  miniature  painters,  native  and 
foreign,  working  in  America. 

While  recognizing  the  necessity  of  brevity  and  conciseness  in  a  com- 
pilation of  the  nature  of  this  book,  one  feels  that  additional  criticism  and, 
especially,  more  bibliographical  material  might  have  been  given.  The 
illustrations,  inserted  more  or  less  at  random,  help  to  give  the  book  the 
attractive  appearance  which  we  expect  in  Sherman's  publications. 

John  Shapley. 

Governor  Edzvard  Coles.  Edited  with  Introduction  and  Notes  by  Clar- 
ence Walworth  Alvord,  University  of  Illinois.  [Collections  of  the  Illi- 
nois   State   Historical    Library,   vol.    XV. ;    Biographical   series,   vol.    I.] 


616  Reviews  of  Books 

(Springfield,  Illinois,  Trustees  of  the  Library,  1920,  pp.  viii,  435.)  The 
editor  of  the  volume  under  consideration  hints  rather  broadly  in  the 
preface  that  the  task  which  he  has  performed  was  imposed  upon  him  by 
force  of  circumstances,  from  which  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  was  not  a 
part  of  his  original  plan  to  include  such  a  publication  in  the  Collections. 
The  document  which  fills  a  considerable  part  of  the  volume  is  a  reprint 
of  the  well-known  Sketch  of  Edward  Coles  by  Elihu  B.  Washburne,  which 
is  readily  accessible  in  the  original  edition.  The  editor  wisely  decided, 
however,  to  turn  to  account  the  opportunity  in  a  measure  thrust  upon  him, 
by  seeking  out  and  publishing  all  the  additional  documentary  material 
available  concerning  the  life  of  Governor  Coles.  The  result  is  a  distinct 
contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  an  interesting  and  in  many  respects 
remarkable  figure  in  Illinois  history.  The  life  of  Edward  Coles,  however, 
is  of  more  than  local  interest,  for  he  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
the  southern  plantation-owners  and  slave-owners  who,  holding  slavery  to 
be  wrong,  left  their  homes,  emancipated  their  negroes,  and  settled  on  free 
soil.  He  became  the  second  governor  of  Illinois,  and  was  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  struggle  which  was  waged  from  1822  to  1824  over  the 
question  whether  the  state  should  remain  free  territory  or  should  admit 
slavery.  In  addition  to  the  reprint  of  Washburne's  life  of  Coles,  the 
volume  contains  an  appendix  which  includes,  among  other  material,  a 
group  of  documents  pertaining  to  a  suit  brought  against  Governor  Coles 
for  political  reasons,  but  based  upon  his  alleged  violation  of  the  law  in 
failing  to  give  bonds  at  the  time  of  freeing  his  slaves ;  a  number  of  docu- 
ments relating  to  his  career  as  register  of  the  land  office  at  Edwardsville, 
Illinois;  and  a  series  of  letters  written  in  1854-1855  by  persons  prominent 
in  early  Illinois  history,  concerning  his  character  and  political  service. 
The  volume  measures  up  to  the  uniformly  high  editorial  standard  already 
established  by  the  Illinois  Historical  Collections.  There  is  a  good  index 
and  also  a  "  List  of  Coles  Material  Published  ",  in  the  form  of  a  calendar 
in  which  the  items  are  chronologically  arranged.  There  is,  however,  no 
table  of  contents  for  the  volume  as  a  whole,  although  one  would  have  been 
desirable,  particularly  as  a  guide  to  the  various  groups  of  documents 
contained  in  the  appendix. 

Wayne  E.  Stevens. 

Ephraim  McDowell,  "Father  of  Ovariotomy"  and  Founder  of  Ab- 
dominal Surgery.  With  an  Appendix  on  Jane  Todd  Crawford.  By  Au- 
gust Schachner.  M.D.,  F.A.C.S.  (Philadelphia  and  London,  J.  B.  Lip- 
pincott  Company,  1921,  pp.  xviii,  331,  $10.00.)  August  Schachner  has 
rendered  a  conspicuous  service  to  American  medicine  in  spending  several 
years  of  his  life  in  digging  out  the  facts  relative  to  Ephraim  McDowell 
and  Jane  Crawford,  and  then  placing  them  on  record  for  our  refreshment 
and  for  the  instruction  of  the  generations  to  come.  McDowell,  as  Shach- 
ner  well  shows,  was  not  only  the  father  of  ovariotomy,  but  he  opened  up 
the  whole  realm  of  abdominal  surgery  as  well,  declaring  from  a  ripe  ex- 


Minor  Notices  617 

perience  that  "  there  was  no  call  for  the  trepidation  with  which  men 
regarded  the  peritoneal  cavity  ".  One  might  well  say  that  McDowell 
opened  up  the  vast  new  field  of  modern  surgical  endeavor,  while  the  boon 
of  ether  anaesthesia,  coming  in  the  forties,  a  generation  later,  gave  us  the 
condition  under  which  our  work  must  be  done,  and  after  yet  another 
generation  the  Lister  idea  of  antisepsis  supplied  the  method.  Let  it  be 
noted  that  he  was  successful  in  ten  out  of  eleven  ovarian  operations;  it 
took  his  successors  several  generations  to  attain  this.  It  is  now  \\2 
years  since  Mrs.  Crawford  rode  60  miles  on  horseback,  bumping  and 
bruising  her  big  tumor  on  the  pommel,  to  undergo  in  Danville,  Kentucky, 
what  was  frankly  declared  to  be,  and  accepted  as,  an  experiment:  that 
backwoods  rivulet  of  trust  has  swollen  to  the  mighty  stream  of  all  that 
is  greatest  in  modern  surgery. 

The  details  of  McDowell's  and  of  Mrs.  Crawford's  lives  are  delight- 
fully set  fortli  in  this  most  readable  book,  even  including  the  dramatic 
attempt  of  Lawson  Tait  to  discredit  our  backwoods  surgeon  and  to  sub- 
stitute a  fake  hero,  one  Robert  Houston,  from  Glasgow.  The  photo- 
graphs of  persons,  places,  and  relics  are  a  welcome  addition  to  the  text. 

We  have  here  an  acceptable  classic  to  add  to  our  sparse  literature  of 
medical  heroes. 

Howard  A.  Kelly. 

Memoirs  of  Mary  A.  Maverick,  arranged  by  Mary  A.  Maverick  and 
her  son  George  Madison  Maverick.  Edited  by  Rena  Maverick  Green. 
(San  Antonio,  Texas,  Alamo  Printing  Company,  1921,  pp.  136,  $3.50.) 
Written  forty  years  ago  primarily  for  the  author's  family,  this  unpreten- 
tious little  volume  has  a  far  wider  appeal.  Based  for  the  most  part  upon 
notes  made  by  the  author  and  her  husband  at  the  time  of  the  events  which 
it  chronicles  and  upon  contemporary  letters,  it  has  all  the  freshness  and 
vividness  to  be  expected  in  a  personal  narrative  of  the  stirring  vears  from 
1838  to  1859,  with  which  it  is  chiefly  concerned;  especiallv  when  the  nar- 
rator is  a  pioneer  woman  of  exceptional  mental,  physical,  and  spiritual 
vigor. 

The  book  presents  graphically  the  hardships  of  pioneer  life:  Indian 
and  Mexican  warfare;  the  sufferings  of  captives;  travel  in  all  kinds  of 
weather ;  housekeeping  in  adobe,  or  log  houses,  sometimes  with  dirt  floors ; 
fights  for  the  ten  children's  life  and  health;  cholera;  fever;  death  by 
violence  and  disease;  the  agony  of  women's  waiting  while  their  men 
faced  death. 

It  would  be  against  human  nature  for  the  child — of  nineteen  years — 
that  Mrs.  Maverick  was  when  she  came  into  this  elemental  life  not  to  find 
and  record  its  brighter  side.  There  was  open-handed  hospitality  and 
human  sympathy ;  there  was  fun  a-plenty  for  the  group  of  young  Ameri- 
can women  who  soon  followed  Mrs.  Maverick  to  San  Antonio:  in  the 
afternoon  swimming  parties  for  mothers  and  babies  at  the  bathhouse  on 
the  San  Antonio  River ;  in  the  queer  types,  native  and  foreign,  in  the  little 


6i8  Reviews  of  Books 

community;  in  young  folks'  courtships;  in  balls  and  parties.  Even  when 
fleeing  before  the  enemy,  there  were  "  gay  gallops  " ;  there  was  "  great 
fun  "  in  "  decorating  our  domicile  " — a  blacksmith  shop  generously  placed 
at  the  refugees'  disposal.  And  her  description  of  her  husband's  brave, 
cheery  letters  during  his  captivity  in  Mexico  in  1842-1843  and  of  the  gay 
spirits  with  which  the  Texans  fought  the  Mexicans  at  the  battle  of  Salado 
suggests  the  A.  E.  F. 

Many  of  the  picturesque  figures  of  early  Anglo-Texas  are  interest- 
ingly, sometimes  amusingly,  portrayed:  brilliant  "Jack"  Hays,  for  in- 
stance, the  Ranger  captain ;  Captain  Karnes,  whose  red  hair,  the  Indian 
squaws  thought,  must  emit  heat;  President  Lamar,  "a  poet,  a  polite  and 
brave  gentleman  and  first-rate  conversationalist '',  but  a  poor  dancer. 

For  the  tourist  and  the  student  of  San  Antonio  history  there  is  in- 
terest and  value  in  the  descriptions  of  old  landmarks,  as  well  as  in  the 
picture  of  domestic  and  community  life  of  fourscore  years  ago. 

Of  the  illustrations,  those  of  most  general  interest  are  those  of  old 
San  Antonio,  especially  of  the  missions,  of  some  buildings  which  have 
since  disappeared,  and  of  the  siege  of  the  Alamo,  from  a  painting  by 
Theodore  Gentilz,  an  early  San  Antonio  artist.  The  typography,  with 
some  unfortunate  exceptions,  is  good.  The  appendix  reprints  several 
personal  letters,  one  group  of  these  reversing  the  popular  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  term  "  maverick ",  and  a  eulogy  on  Samuel  Augustus 
Maverick  by  Dr.  George  Cupples,  delivered  in  1870,  shortly  after  Mr. 
Maverick's  death. 

Elizabeth  Howard  West. 

Texas  and  the  Mexican  War:  a  Chronicle  of  the  Winning  of  the 
Southwest.  By  Nathaniel  W.  Stephenson.  [Chronicles  of  America 
series,  vol.  XXIV.]  (New  Haven,  Yale  University  Press,  1921,  pp.  273. "I 
This  book,  like  the  other  volumes  of  the  well-known  series  to  which  it 
belongs,  is  most  agreeable  both  to  look  at  and  to  handle.  Its  contents 
include  the  history  of  Texas  from  1819  until  that  republic  was  annexed 
by  the  United  States,  and  close,  after  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Mexico,  with  a  glance  forward.  In  view  of  the  extent  and 
importance  of  the  rest  of  the  field,  too  much  space  has  perhaps  been  given 
to  "the  early  times.  Out  of  257  pages  of  text,  eighty-six  are  used  to  bring 
us  through  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  and  fourteen  more  to  continue  the 
narrative  as  far  as  the  recognition  of  Texas  by  the  United  States,  while 
the  war  with  Mexico  has  been  allowed  only  about  seventy.  The  author 
had  the  laudable  aim  of  writing  with  spirit,  and  possessed  a  facile,  prac- 
tised pen.  But  to  combine  spirit  and  accuracv  in  handling  such  ex- 
tremely complex  and  delicate  subjects  requires,  of  course,  most  thorough 
study  and  most  carefully  revised  statements — in  short,  what  off-hand 
writers  sometimes  call  subtlety;  whereas  the  author,  to  judge  from  the 
volume  in  hand  and  his  wide  range  of  publications,  is  not  a  specialist  in 
this  field,  and  in  the  present  instance  was  not  extremely  painstaking.     The 


Minor  Notices  619 

result  is  a  pleasing  narrative,  with  some  really  good  points  and  rather 
numerous  errors.  On  the  political  side  one  observes  a  marked  tendency 
to  present  easy  views  in  preference  to  less  simple  but  sounder  ones,  and 
on  the  military  operations  of  the  war  with  Mexico  a  serious  effort  hardly 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  follow  the  account  that  is  termed  "  authori- 
tative "  (p.  261).  The  volume  includes  an  impressionistic  "bibliograph- 
ical note  ",  an  index,  a  map  and  eleven  illustrations.  The  portrait  of 
Santa  Anna  (p.  32)  is  described  as  "after  a  photograph",  which  sounds 
convincing ;  but  the  original  of  the  photograph  was  really  a  picture,  not 
the  man.  Unintentionally,  of  course,  views  of  the  present  writer  are 
incorrectly  represented. 

Justin  H.  Smith. 

History  of  the  New  York  Times,  1851-1921.  By  Elmer  Davis,  of  the 
New  York  Times  editorial  staff.  (New  York,  the  Times,  1921.  pp.  xxii. 
434,  $2.00.)  It  was  hardly  necessary  for  Mr.  Davis,  the  author  of  this 
book,  to  identify  himself  on  the  title-page  as  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Times  staff.  That  fact  is  apparent  throughout  the  428  pages  and  impairs 
the  quality  of  an  otherwise  interesting  and  valuable  history  of  a  great 
journal. 

The  book,  which  was  published  incidentally  to  the  twenty-fifth  anni- 
versary of  possession  of  the  Times  by  Mr.  Adolph  S.  Ochs.  partakes  too 
much  of  the  character  of  a  Jubilee  Number.  There  is  too  much  impli- 
cation by  the  writer  that  in  his  opinion  the  New  York  Times  has  always 
been  right  and  its  contemporaries  generally  wrong.  Occasionally,  when 
the  reader  has  reason  to  believe  that  he  is  about  to  get  something  vital 
concerning  the  policy  of  the  paper  and  its  attitude  toward  great  questions, 
the  author  leaves  him  in  the  lurch. 

Despite  these  defects  the  book  is  a  useful  contribution  to  the  history 
of  journalism  as  a  political  force  in  America,  and  it  traces  the  half- 
century  development  of  a  great  newspaper  which  has  attained  success 
without  stooping  to  sensationalism.  Relevant  to  that,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  things  related  by  Mr.  Davis  is  that  the  founder  of  the  paper. 
Henry  J.  Raymond,  and  his  successors  have  always  considered  it  essential 
to  have  a  continuity  of  policies.  After  the  Civil  War  three  of  these  poli- 
cies were  those  concerning  sound  money,  tariff  reform,  and  the  merit 
system  in  the  civil  service.  In  a  chapter  on  the  Times  and  the  Tweed 
Ring  there  is  as  clear  and  comprehensive  a  summary  of  New  York  City's 
financial  and  political  scandals  of  the  early  70's  as  anyone  interested  in 
such  matters  would  wish  to  know  fifty  years  afterward.  In  the  chapter 
on  the  Times  and  the  war  of  1914-1918  the  author  is  guilty  of  grave  omis- 
sion. He  does  not  print  the  Times  editorial  of  September  16,  1918, 
favoring  the  consideration  of  the  Austrian  proposal  for  a  discussion  of 
peace  terms.  Perhaps  no  incident  in  American  journalism  has  caused 
more  discussion  among  people  not  of  the  journalistic  profession  concern- 
ing a  newspaper  policy  than  this  editorial.     Mr.  Davis  devotes  two  and 


620  Reviews  of  Books 

one-half  pages  to  a  discussion  of  the  matter  without  even  an  extract  from 
the  editorial  itself.  He  says,  "  If  the  Editor  of  the  Times  gave  premature 
expression  to  that  feeling  ( that  the  Austrian  appeal  meant  the  beginning 
of  the  end),  it  was  because  he  saw  further  ahead  than  most  people  and 
knew  that  the  appeal  meant  that  peace  was  near." 

Historic  Houses  of  South  Carolina.  By  Harriette  Kershaw  Leiding. 
(Philadelphia  and  London,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  1921.  pp.  xx,  318, 
$10.00.)  One  who  opens  this  book  expecting  to  find  the  equal  of  its 
pendant,  the  Huger  Smiths'  Dwelling  Houses  of  Charleston,  will  be 
grievously  disappointed.  That  was  the  unique  product  of  collaboration 
between  a  diligent  and  skeptical  searcher  of  the  records,  a  sensitive  artist, 
a  trained  architect,  and  a  skilled  photographer.  This  volume  has  had  the 
benefit  of  none  of  these.  Instead  of  conservative  and  documentary  dat- 
ings  there  are  pleasant  romances ;  instead  of  competent  drawings,  sketches 
sometimes  almost  childish  in  their  technique.  Judge  H.  A.  M.  Smith's 
scholarly  articles  in  the  Soutli  Carolina  Historical  Magazine  are  drawn 
on  in  some  instances,  but  in  others  traditional  statements  are  relied  on  by 
preference. 

The  Carolina  country  outside  of  Charleston  has  been  at  once  an  un- 
known and  a  promised  land  to  architects  and  students  of  the  colonies. 
This  book  gives  at  least  a  first  view  of  its  resources.  It  must  be  confessed 
that  these  themselves  do  not  equal  expectations.  There  are  to  be  sure  a 
great  number  of  houses  more  or  less  old.  but  few  to  awaken  such  enthusi- 
asm as  those  already  known  in  Charleston  itself,  or  on  the  James  or  the 
Severn.  Drayton  Hall,  indeed,  w:as  worthy  to  be  called  a  palace  in  its 
day,  and  our  author  informs  us  of  wainscoting  from  floor  to  ceiling,  but 
illustrates  no  interiors  and  gives  exterior  photographs  much  inferior  to 
others  already  published. 

The  flamboyant  style  of  the  Foreword  tends  unfortunately  to  destroy 
our  gusto  for  the  many  admirable  morsels  of  old  Southern  life  scattered 
in  the  text. 

Fiske  Kimball. 

Since  the  Civil  War.  By  Charles  Ramsdell  Lingley.  Professor  of 
History,  Dartmouth  College.  [The  United  States,  edited  by  Professor 
Max  Farrand,  vol.  III.]  (New  York,  Century  Company,  1920,  pp.  ix, 
635,  $2.65.)  In  his  preface  Professor  Lingley  leaves  to  future  historians 
the  effort  to  "  delineate  the  spiritual  history  of  America  since  the  Civil 
War — the  compound  of  tradition,  discontent,  aspiration,  idealism,  mate- 
rialism, selfishness,  and  hope  that  mark  the  floundering  progress  of  these 
United  States  through  the  last  half  century  ".  His  book  is  thus  essentially 
a  narration,  with  interpretations  of  the  many  successive  issues  and  epi- 
sodes, and  with  occasional  surveys  of  economic  and  political  conditions 
interspersed.  The  organization  of  the  book  is  excellent,  and  the  style  of 
presentation  clear.     The  reader  is  deftly  led  from  one  theme  to  another 


Minor  Notices  621 

and  back  again  —  political  management,  legislation,  judicial  decisions, 
labor,  capital,  transportation,  money,  commerce,  foreign  relations,  etc. — 
with  a  sense  that  all  these  matters  in  a  people's  life  are  interlinked,  and 
that  while  public  exigencies  may  bring  one  or  another  phase  of  activity 
into  the  focus  of  attention,  all  of  them  are  synchronous  and  continuous. 
The  few  character-sketches  are  well  done,  and  the  fairly  numerous  maps 
and  diagrams  are  well  conceived  and  executed.  In  general,  whatever  the 
book  touches  it  treats  soundly  and  adequately  for  its  purpose  as  a  college 
text-book.  By  comparison  with  certain  of  its  rivals  it  has  an  old-fash- 
ioned flavor  in  that  it  follows  long-approved  practice  rather  than  to  seek 
innovation  whether  in  matter  or  manner.  It  is  silent,  for  example,  upon 
education,  literature,  and  sport,  and  brief  upon  immigration  and  urbaniza- 
tion. The  theme  of  general  readjustments  in  the  South  is  one  of  the  few 
which  the  book  fails  to  treat  in  systematic  manner ;  for  its  brief  allusions 
in  these  premises  are  scattered,  and  neither  the  table  of  contents  nor  the 
index  gives  aid  in  the  discovery  of  them.  The  index,  in  fact,  is  regret- 
tably amateurish. 

Ulrich  B.  Phillips. 

Roosevelt  in  the  Bad  Lands.  By  Hermann  Hagedorn.  (  Boston  and 
New  York,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1921,  pp.  xxvi,  491,  $5.00.)  Mr. 
Hagedorn  has  made  a  good  beginning  in  a  work  that  will  run  many  years 
before  it  is  completed,  and  will  in  the  end  reveal  the  true  outlines  of  a 
generation  of  American  life.  He  has  enlarged  our  knowledge  of  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt.  His  volume  is  in  valued  contrast  to  those  of  many  of  the 
Roosevelt  biographers,  who  have  taken  their  cue  from  the  Roosevelt  let- 
ters or  autobiography,  and  have  retold  a  story  that  is  already  convention- 
alized. They  have  exuded  emotion,  pro  or  con;  but  too  many  have  neither 
added  by  their  industry  to  the  known  facts,  nor  sifted  new  truths  from 
the  mass  of  myth  and  legend  by  their  criticism.  The  conflict  of  testi- 
mony about  Roosevelt  extends  beyond  his  acts  to  the  interpretation  of 
even  the  simplest  of  them.  There  is  an  untold  story  of  absorbing  critical 
interest  in  the  history  of  the  Ananias  Club,  and  hardly  an  episode  in  his 
long  career  has  been  adequately  described.  It  is  no  longer  useful  to  write 
arguments  or  to  express  opinions  upon  him  ;  what  is  needed  is  diligent 
collection  of  new  material  and  relentless  criticism  of  the  old. 

It  has  clearly  been  a  labor  of  love  for  Mr.  Hagedorn  to  trail  Colonel 
Roosevelt  through  his  Dakota  haunts  of  1883-1887.  The  testimony  of 
survivors  has  been  taken,  and  is  here  used  to  enrich  the  extracts  from 
journals  and  family  letters  which  now  first  see  the  light.  The  volume 
shows  how  Roosevelt  bore  himself  on  the  raw  frontier,  makes  him  a  real 
and  vital  character,  and  rescues  from  near  oblivion  an  era  in  western 
history.  The  cow  country  has  been  described  in  fragments  by  various 
writers,  but  no  one  has  hitherto  been  able  to  use  it  as  background  for  a 
character  that  was  both  literate  and  vocal.  Mr.  Hagedorn  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  his  research  and  judicious  in  his  interpretations.     If  the  Roose- 


622  Reviews  of  Books 

velt  Memorial  Association,  for  whom  he  has  produced  the  volume,  can 
continue  its  publications  as  here  begun,  it  will  at  once  serve  well  the  need 
of  the  historian  and  give  to  the  army  of  Americans  who  love  the  memory 
of  the  Colonel  a  reasoned  and  substantial  ground  for  their  devotion. 

Frederic  L.  Paxson. 

The  American  Spirit  in  Education:  a  Chronicle  of  Great  Teachers. 
By  Edwin  E.  Slosson.  [Chronicles  of  America  series,  vol.  XXXIII. ] 
(New  Haven,  Yale  University  Press,  1921,  pp.  x,  309.)  This  book  bears 
the  same  title  as  a  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  written  by  Dr.  C.  R. 
Mann  three  years  ago.  Here  the  similarity  ceases,  however,  except  per- 
haps for  the  admiration  of  both  authors  for  Benjamin  Franklin  as  one 
of  the  greatest  prophets  in  American  education.  To  Dr.  Mann  the  Amer- 
ican spirit  in  education  has  been  the  development  of  practical,  industrial 
education  for  the  masses.  To  the  author  of  this  book  it  has  been  the 
development  of  free,  public  education  until  now  "  in  a  large  part  of  the 
country  a  youth  of  sufficient  ability  to  profit  by  the  opportunity  can  get 
any  education  he  needs,  up  to  the  highest  professional  training,  without 
spending  any  money  other  than  what  he  can  make  by  his  own  exertions 
during  his  course  ",  a  statement  which  would  not  be  universally  agreed  to. 

With  this  background  the  author  has  really  attempted  a  short  history 
of  American  education,  with  especial  emphasis  on  higher  education,  which 
occupies  nearly  one-half  of  the  book.  This  fact  appears  from  the  chap- 
ters which  deal  successively  with  the  Schools  of  the  Colonies,  the  Colonial 
College,  Franklin  and  Practical  Education,  Jefferson  and  State  Education, 
Washington  and  National  Education,  Horace  Mann,  DeWitt  Clinton,  the 
Westward  Movement,  the  State  University,  Catholic  Education,  Technical 
Education,  the  Morrill  Act.  Colleges  for  Women,  the  New  Education  and 
the  University  of  Today. 

There  are  a  few  conspicuous  weaknesses  in  the  book.  For  example, 
with  no  introduction,  the  reader  is  left  to  discover  the  author's  purpose 
in  writing  the  book  as  the  story  unfolds.  There  is  also  an  undue  emphasis 
placed  on  college  and  university  education  as  compared  to  other  fields, 
with  consequent  neglect  or  very  inadequate  treatment  of  secondary  educa- 
tion, elementary  education  west  of  the  Alleghenies,  negro  education,  the 
training  of  teachers,  and  professional  education.  The  chapter  on  Catholic 
education  is  longer  than  the  compass  of  the  book  warrants.  Of  chief 
importance,  however,  is  the  author's  very  unsatisfactory  attempt  to  de- 
scribe modern  educational  tendencies  in  his  chapter  on  the  "  New  Educa- 
tion ",  which  he  declares  to  be  characterized  by  broadness  in  the  course 
of  study,  natural  development  of  the  pupil's  mental  powers,  and  the  post- 
ponement of  each  course  to  such  time  as  students  are  old  enough  to 
appreciate  its  usefulness.  A  few  pages  on  these  topics  by  no  means 
satisfies  the  curiosity  of  readers  who  naturally  look  for  a  keen  analysis 
of  the  present  educational  system  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  peda- 
gogical  method   and  of  educational   organization.     The   chapter   on   the 


Minor  Xoticcs  623 

University  of  Today  is  better  but  by  no  means  so  penetrating  as  the 
observations  of  E.  E.  Holme,  the  Australian  professor,  in  his  recent  book 
on  the  American  University. 

The  book  is  therefore  of  traditional  type  but  nevertheless  a  delightful 
introduction  to  the  subject,  largely  woven  about  the  heroic  efforts  of  a 
number  of  American  educational  prophets. 

George  F.  Zook. 

The  Age  of  Invention:  a  Chronicle  of  Mechanical  Conquest.  By  Hol- 
land Thompson.  [Chronicles  of  America  series,  vol.  XXXVII. ]  (New 
Haven,  Yale  University  Press,  1921,  pp.  xii,  267.)  The  author  of  The 
Age  of  Invention  frankly  limits  himself  to  outlining  the  personalities  of 
some  of  the  most  conspicuous  American  inventors  and  indicating  the  sig- 
nificance of  their  achievements.  In  the  first  intent  he  has  fairly  suc- 
ceeded, in  the  second  he  has  clearly  failed.  The  reasons  for  failure  are 
not  without  interest.  From  one  angle  there  is  the  attempt  to  combine  in 
one  volume  the  divergent  pleasures  of  biographer  and  philosopher.  Here 
the  biographer  overshadows  his  rival.  From  another  is  the  lack  of  unity 
resulting  from  incomplete  organization.  This  might  have  been  obviated 
in  part  by  grouping  inventions  according  to  types  of  power  such  as  horse, 
steam,  and  electricity,  or  again  initial  purpose  of  use,  such  as  agriculture; 
industry,  manufacture,  and  commerce:  communication.  Unity  might  also 
have  been  increased  by  adding,  to  the  surveys  of  1790  and  i860,  others 
for  1830,  1900  and  19 14.  A  general  summary  at  the  end  of  the  volume 
would  have  served  the  same  purpose.  From  still  another  angle,  and  the 
most  important,  there  is  a  lack  of  comprehension  of  the  relation  of  the 
subject  to  the  world  at  large.  Nowhere  is  there  more  than  surface  con- 
sideration of  the  meaning  of  this  Age  of  Invention.  What  fascinating 
possibilities  that  title  opens  up.  What  is  the  Age  of  Invention  doing  to 
our  own  time?  What  has  it  done  to  the  agricultural,  social,  economic, 
political,  religious,  and  other  interests  of  civilization,  the  world  that  our 
grandfathers  and  great-grandfathers  knew?  Whither  is  it  driving  us? 
Will  a  study  of  it  throw  any  light  on  the  struggle  of  the  materialistic 
forces  of  our  modern  world  with  the  more  purely  spiritual  and  cultural 
ones  ?  Is  there  any  truth  to  the  suspicion  that  the  conditions  which 
brought  on  the  recent  world  war  were  due  very  largely  to  the  effects  of 
a  too  prolonged  draught  of  the  Age  of  Invention,  with  too  little  spiritual 
and  cultural  antitoxin  to  offset  it?  Does  a  study  of  the  development  of 
invention  suggest  any  form  of  control,  other  than  the  present  rules  of  the 
Patent  Office?  Might  it  not  also  be  well  to  consider  the  possible  social 
and  economic  effects — to  take  only  two  influences  of  an  invention — before 
loosing  it  upon  an  unsuspecting  public? 

The  volume  is  not  without  errors  of  fact  and  omission.  Selecting  one 
section,  pp.  112-118.  the  reviewer  notices  the  following.  The  English 
and  the  Scotch  were  not  the  first  to  attempt  to  build  machines  to  cut  grain. 
The  Romans,  and  it  seems  probable  the  Carthaginians,  had  precedence  in 


624  Reviews  of  Books 

this  matter.  Patrick  Bell's  first  reaping  machine  was  made  and  operated 
in  1827  not  1826.  One,  rather  than  four,  of  his  machines  came  to 
America.  The  population  of  Chicago  in  1847  was  not  10.000  but  over 
16,000.  C.  H.  McCormick  manufactured  800  reapers  instead  of  500  in 
1848.  In  the  discussion  of  plows,  the  iron  plow  of  Stephen  McCormick 
of  Fauquier  County,  Virginia,  invented  in  1816,  patented  in  1819,  and 
widely  used  for  many  years  in  Virginia  and  neighboring  states,  should 
not  be  omitted. 

H.  A.  Kellar. 

Memoirs  of  the  Harvard  Dead  in  the  War  against  Germany.  By 
M.  A.  DeWolfe  Howe.  Volume  II.  (Cambridge,  Harvard  University 
Press,  1921,  pp.  376,  $4.00.)  The  first  volume  of  this  memorial,  reviewed 
in  these  pages  in  April,  1921,  contained  the  record  of  Harvard  men  who 
lost  their  lives  prior  to  the  declaration  of  war  by  the  United  States.  The 
second  volume  carries  the  record  through  the  first  year  of  American  par- 
ticipation. Fifty-one  men  are  here  commemorated;  all  but  five,  four  of 
whom  were  British  and  the  other  Cuban,  were  American  citizens,  yet 
exactly  a  third  of  them  had  found  a  way  of  entering  into  the  war,  through 
British  or  French  service,  before  the  United  States  followed  their  example 
on  April  6,  1917.  As  Philip  Comfort  Starr,  of  the  class  of  1914,  de- 
scendant in  the  eighth  generation  of  Comfort  Starr  of  the  class  of  1647, 
wrote  from  Canada  where  he  had  gone  to  enlist  in  the  early  summer  of 
1916,  "I  knew  I  had  to  go  to  make  myself  better.  .  .  .  When  your  job 
comes  up,  keeps  pounding  at  the  door  for  over  a  year,  you  might  as  well 
be  business-like  and  go  and  do  it.  .  .  .  I'll  have  the  chance  to  do  the  un- 
selfish thing  for  once." 

Twenty-three  of  the  fifty-one  met  death  before  the  enemy;  thirteen 
were  decorated  or  cited  in  orders;  thirteen  were  aviators,  of  whom  eight 
were  killed  in  accidents.  Nearly  all  branches  of  the  service  are  here 
represented,  including  the  navy,  the  merchant  marine,  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
and  many  famous  organizations  —  the  Coldstream  Guards,  the  Black 
Watch,  the  Grenadier  Guards,  the  Lafayette  Escadrille. 

The  historical  value  of  this  volume  is  not  inconsiderable.  With  his 
customary  skill  and  sureness  of  touch  the  editor  has  selected  material, 
chiefly  extracts  from  private  letters,  which  not  only  reveals,  as  in  a  por- 
trait, the  subjects  of  the  memoirs,  but  which  casts  a  spot-light  on  what 
was  going  on  about  them.  Thus  we  have  a  series  of  scenes  and  impres- 
sions, from  many  points  of  view,  of  the  war  as  it  was  waged  in  many 
places  and  at  various  times. 

W.  G.  L. 

Letters  and  Journals  of  Thomas  Wentworth  Higijinson,  1S46-1906. 
Edited  by  Mary  Thacher  Higginson.  (Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1921,  pp.  iii,  358,  $4.00.)  "  Miscellaneous  Gleanings  " — 
the  phrase  used  by  the  editor  to  characterize  one  particular  section  of  this 


Minor  Notices  625 

compilation — might  well  have  been  chosen  as  the  title  of  the  book.  Col- 
onel Higginson  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  much  given  to  reminiscence. 
His  journals  and  letters  had  already  been  drawn  on  heavily  for  Cheerful 
Yesterdays,  Old  Cambridge,  and  Contemporaries.  To  the  readers  of 
these  and  of  divers  other  books  of  narrative  and  characterization  which 
came  from  his  hand  this  slender  volume  will  bring  many  a  pleasant 
anecdote  and  observation,  but  little  of  substantial  importance.  To  the 
younger  generation  of  readers  who  have  not  known  Colonel  Higginson  in 
person  or  through  his  writings,  this  book  will  give  an  inadequate  present- 
ment of  the  man.  The  editing  is  too  casual.  A  single  prefatory  page  of 
chronology  and  a  grouping  of  these  hundreds  of  fragments  according  to 
their  bearing  upon  the  causes  in  which  he  was  interested  would  have  left 
a  far  stronger  impression  of  this  man  of  light  and  leading. 

In  Colonel  Higginsons  personality,  as  these  selections  from  his  writ- 
ings clearly  show,  there  were  combined  qualities  rarely  found  together — 
the  zeal  and  fearlessness  of  the  radical  reformer  championing  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  woman  suffrage,  and  freedom  of  religious  thought  and  teach- 
ing, combined  with  the  no  less  characteristic  gentleness  of  the  lover  of 
nature,  and  the  urbanity  of  the  cultured  man  of  letters.  He  "  knew  every- 
body "  among  the  forward-looking  leaders  of  two  generations.  He  has 
left  a  charming  account  of  the  marriage  of  Lucy  Stone,  at  which  he 
officiated.  He  spoke  words  of  intimate  appreciation  at  the  funeral  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Gridley  Howe.  At  the  age  of  thirty-four  he  was  already  making 
such  discerning  appraisals  of  his  contemporaries  as  these  (p.  93)  : 

Mr.  Emerson  is  bounteous  and  gracious,  but  thin,  dry,  angular,  in 
intercourse  as  in  person.  Garrison  is  the  only  solid  moral  reality  I  have 
ever  seen  incarnate,  the  only  man  who  would  do  to  tie  to,  as  they  say  out 
West;  and  he  is  fresher  and  firmer  every  day,  but  wanting  in  intellectual 
culture  and  variety.  Wendell  Phillips  is  always  graceful  and  gay,  but 
inwardly  sad,  under  that  bright  surface.  Whittier  is  the  simplest  and 
truest  of  men,  beautiful  at  home,  but  without  fluency  of  expression,  and 
with  rather  an  excess  of  restraint.  .  .  .  Theodore  Parker  is  wonderfully 
learned  in  books,  and  given  to  monologue,  though  very  agreeable  and 
various  it  is,  still  egotistical,  dogmatic,  bitter  often,  and  showing  marked 
intellectual  limitations. 

The  book  abounds  in  literary  reminiscences  and  anecdotes  of  his  con- 
tacts with  American  and  European  men  of  eminence  in  literature  and  art. 
His  relations  with  Atlantic  editors  are  summed  up  thus: 

Fields's  taste  is  very  good  and  far  less  crotchety  than  Lowell's,  who 
strained  at  gnats  and  swallowed  camels,  and  Fields  is  always  casting 
about  for  good  things,  while  Lowell  is  rather  disposed  to  sit  still  and  let 
them  come.  It  was  a  torment  to  deal  with  Lowell  and  it  is  a  real  pleasure 
with  Fields   (p.  111). 

In  the  chapter,  Army  Life  and  Camp  Drill,  the  most  interesting  pas- 
sages relate  to  the  first  regiment  recruited  from  the  freed  slaves,  the  First 
South  Carolina  Volunteers,  of  which  Higginson  became  the  colonel,  and 
from  which  he  secured  excellent  drill  results  and  devoted  loyalty. 


COMMUNICATION 

Calvin  and  Unbaptized  Children 

The  Managing  Editor: 

Dear  Sir:  Students  of  church  history  who  are  more  expert  in  respect 
to  Calvin  than  I  am  may  have  protested  to  you  already  against  the  unjust 
statement  by  your  reviewer  of  Dr.  Preserved  Smith's  Age  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  your  July  issue,  p.  765 :  "  It  remained  for  Calvin  to  condemn 
them  [unbaptized  children]  to  the  awful  and  unremitting  terrors  of  eternal 
fire."  Calvin  shifted  salvation,  both  for  children  and  for  adults,  from 
baptism  to  the  eternal  purpose  of  God.  As  to  the  possible  salvation  of 
those  who  died  in  infancy,  an  interesting  discussion  of  his  views,  with 
quotation  of  the  pertinent  passages,  may  be  found  in  an  article  by  Pro- 
fessor Shields  on  "The  Doctrine  of  Calvin  concerning  Infant  Salvation", 
in  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Review,  I.  634-651. 

John  Alfred  Faulkner. 
Drew   Theological    Seminary, 
Madison,   N.  J., 
Dec.   7,    1921. 


HISTORICAL   NEWS 

AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    ASSOCIATION 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  a  bequest  of  the  late  George  L.  Beer, 
of  New  York  City,  the  American  Historical  Association  announces  the 
George  Louis  Beer  Prize  in  European  International  History.  The  prize, 
$250,  will  be  awarded  annually  for  the  best  work  upon  "  any  phase  of 
European  International  History  since  1895  ".  The  competition  is  limited 
to  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  to  works  submitted  for  the  purpose. 
A  work  may  be  submitted  in  either  manuscript  or  print.  It  should  not 
exceed  in  length  50,000  words  of  text,  with  the  additional  necessary  notes, 
bibliography,  appendixes,  etc. 

A  work  submitted  in  competition  for  the  Adams  Prize  may  at  the  same 
time,  if  its  subject  meets  the  requirements,  be  submitted  for  the  George 
Louis  Beer  Prize ;  but  no  work  that  shall  have  been  so  submitted  for  both 
prizes  will  be  admitted  to  the  competition  for  the  Beer  Prize  in  any  subse- 
quent year. 

In  making  the  award  the  committee  in  charge  will  consider  not  only 
research,  accuracy,  and  originality,  but  also  clearness  of  expression,  logi- 
cal arrangement,  and  general  excellence  of  style.  The  prize  is  designed 
especially  to  encourage  those  who  have  not  published  previously  any  con- 
siderable work  or  obtained  an  established  reputation.  Only  works  in  the 
English  language  will  receive  consideration. 

Inquiries  concerning  the  prize  should  be  addressed  to  the  Chairman  of 
the  Committee  or  to  the  Secretary  of  the  American  Historical  Association, 
1 140  Woodward  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

All  proofs  of  Miss  Griffin's  annual  bibliography,  Writings  on  Ameri- 
can History,  1919,  have  now  been  passed,  and  it  is  hoped  that  it  will 
before  long  emerge  from  the  Government  Printing  Office,  as  a  supple- 
mental volume  to  the  Annual  Report  for  1919.  The  Austin  papers  (papers 
of  Moses  and  Stephen  F.  Austin),  which  will  constitute  the  secondary 
volumes  of  that  and  some  subsequent  years,  are  in  type  to  the  extent  of 
about  one-half ;  they  prove  to  be  of  greater  extent  than  was  expected  when 
their  publication  was  undertaken. 

The  Agricultural  History  Society  has  recently  elected  Dr.  Herbert  A. 
Kellar  of  the  McCormick  Agricultural  Library,  Chicago,  its  president; 
Mr.  O.  C.  Stine  and  Mr.  N.  A.  Olsen  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
vice-president  and  secretary-treasurer,  respectively.  The  executive  com- 
mittee is  to  consist,  in  addition  to  the  above,  of  the  two  ex-presidents,  Dr. 
Rodney  H.  True  and  Mr.  Lyman  Carrier,  and  of  two  elected  members, 
Messrs.  G.  K.  Holmes  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  F.  K.  Lew- 
ton  of  the  National  Museum. 

(627) 


628  Historical  News 

PERSONAL 

Viscount  Bryce,  O.  M.,  historian,  publicist,  ambassador,  died  suddenly 
on  January  22,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  after  an  old  age  of  remarkable 
vigor  and  activity;  they  continued  indeed  to  the  last  day  of  his  life.  Born 
in  Belfast  in  1838  and  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford,  he  won  distinc- 
tion at  a  very  early  age  by  the  publication  in  1864  of  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  which  for  nearly  sixty  years  has  maintained  high  regard  as  a 
standard  exposition  of  its  subject,  lucid,  suggestive,  broad  in  view,  sound 
in  scholarship.  From  1870  to  1893  he  was  regius  professor  of  the  civil 
law  at  Oxford,  from  1880  to  1907  a  conspicuous  Liberal  member  of  Par- 
liament, holding  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period  various  cabinet  offices. 
His  collected  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence  (1901),  his  Studies  in 
Contemporary  Biography  (1903),  and  his  books  on  South  Africa  and 
South  America  show  the  breadth  and  variety  of  the  intellectual  interests 
which  he  meantime  and  always  maintained.  In  1888  he  published  The 
American  Commonwealth,  the  greatest  of  his  works  and  the  most  impor- 
tant book  ever  written  about  the  United  States,  in  which,  with  remarkable 
accuracy,  sympathy,  and  insight,  he  treated  of  our  political  institutions  in 
their  relation  to  the  history,  character,  and  habits  of  the  American  people. 
His  most  recent  work,  Modern  Democracies  (1921),  was  in  a  sense  an 
expansion  of  the  same  general  theme.  From  1907  to  1913  he  was  British 
ambassador  in  Washington.  The  appointment  was  at  first  criticized  in 
England,  as  of  one  not  belonging  to  the  conventional  diplomatic  service; 
but  if  ever  any  ambassador  approached  more  closely  to  the  ideals  of  that 
office  set  forth  in  Mr.  Jusserand's  article  on  preceding  pages,  history  does 
not  record  the  instance,  and  certainly  Mr.  Bryce,  ambassador  to  the  Amer- 
ican people,  did  more,  in  those  six  years,  than  all  preceding  representatives 
of  Great  Britain  taken  together  had  done,  to  bring  that  people  to  a  state 
of  mind  toward  Great  Britain  admitting  of  willing  co-operation  in  war- 
fare at  a  vital  moment.  For  several  years  Lord  Bryce  was  president  of 
the  British  Academy,  and  from  1906  to  1922  he  was  the  sole  honorary 
member  of  the  American  Historical  Association. 

Such  a  chronicle  of  offices  and  achievements,  however,  gives  no  ade- 
quate notion  of  the  man  and  of  his  relation  to  American  historical  schol- 
ars. An  assiduous  traveller,  tireless  in  walking,  in  questioning,  and  in 
social  converse,  he  knew  hundreds  of  Americans,  and  was  the  hearty  and 
obliging  friend  of  all ;  but  to  those  of  the  historical  fraternity  his  attitude 
was  one  of  peculiar  geniality  and  helpfulness.  His  wisdom  and  public 
spirit  were  always  at  their  service.  In  conversation  with  them  he  poured 
out  the  astonishing  treasures  of  his  knowledge,  while  his  insatiable  desire 
for  information  prevented  him  from  ever  monopolizing  the  talk.  His 
fresh  and  youthful  spirit  kept  him  always  in  sympathy  with  younger 
scholars,  and  toward  all  such  he  was  unwearied  in  acts  of  thoughtful 
kindness. 

Dr.  Williston  Walker,  who  for  the  last  two  years  had  been  a  member 


Personal  629 

of  the  Board  of  Editors  of  this  journal,  died  at  New  Haven  on  March  9, 
at  the  age  of  sixty-one.  From  1889  to  1901  he  was  associate  professor 
and  professor  in  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary;  since  1901  he  had 
been  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  in  recent  years  also  provost, 
in  Yale  University ;  and  for  ten  years  he  was  president  of  the  New  Haven 
Colony  Historical  Society.  His  historical  works  included  Creeds  and 
Platforms  of  Congregationalism  (1893),  A  History  of  the  Congregational 
Churches  in  the  United  States  (1894),  a  volume  on  The  Reformation 
(1900),  one  on  John  Calvin  (  1906)  in  the  series  of  Heroes  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and  other  biographical  productions.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  administrative  capacity  but  made  no  display  of  either,  so  that 
what  was  most  obvious  in  intercourse  with  him  was  his  quiet  modesty  and 
constant  kindness.  His  official  connection  with  this  journal  was  unhappily- 
brief,  but  was  marked  by  great  helpfulness. 

Dr.  Alfred  Cauchie,  who  since  1893  had  been  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  University  of  Louvain.  died  in  Rome  .on  February  10,  at 
the  age  of  sixty-one,  as  the  result  of  a  distressing  street  accident.  The 
first  of  his  publications  consisted  of  two  volumes  on  La  Querelle  des 
Investitures  in  the  two  Belgian  dioceses  (1890-1891).  But  soon  his 
attention  was  turned  to  research  in  Roman  and  Xeapolitan  archives,  con- 
cerning the  history  of  the  Belgian  provinces  in  the  sixteenth,  and  later  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  warmly  advocated,  from  1895  on,  the  foun- 
dation of  a  Belgian  school  of  historical  studies  in  Rome,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  death  was  in  charge  of  the  Belgian  Institute  there.  He  and  another 
Louvain  professor  founded  in  1900  the  Revue  d'Histoire  Eeclesiastiquc, 
and  from  that  time  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  his  repute  rested  mainly 
upon  the  conduct  of  that  admirable  journal  and  upon  the  training  of  many 
distinguished  students  of  ecclesiastical  history,  including  an  important 
number  of  young  Americans.  On  occasion  of  the  German  outbreak 
against  Louvain  he  was  carried  away  as  a  hostage,  and  subjected  to  many- 
dangers  and  hardships.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Belgian 
Academy  and  of  the  Commission  Royale  d'Histoire,  and  was  a  man  of 
high  character  and  many  endearing  qualities. 

Professor  Ernst  Daenell  of  Minister,  formerly  of  Kiel,  made  many 
friends  in  America  during  his  periods  of  residence  as  exchange  professor 
at  Chicago,  in  1908,  and  as  Kaiser  Wilhelm  professor  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity in  1910-1911,  and  there  will  be  general  regret  at  the  news  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  shortly  before  last  Christmas,  in  his  fiftieth  year. 
His  earlier  devotion  had  been  to  Hanseatic  history,  culminating  in  his 
Die  Blutezeit  der  Deutsehen  House  (1906).  After  that,  and  down  to  the 
time  of  the  war,  his  main  interest  was  in  American  history.  His 
Geschichte  der  Vereinigten  Staaten  von  Amerika,  first  published  in  1907. 
was  brought  out  in  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  in  1913,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  intelligent  presentations  of  our  history  available  in  German.  He 
also  published  Die  Spanier  in  Xordamcrika  von  1513  bis  1824  (1911). 

AM.  HIST.  REV.  VOL.  XXVII. — 42. 


630  Historical  News 

Gerhard  Seeliger,  professor  in  the  University  of  Leipzig,  died  Novem- 
ber 24,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one.  From  1895  to  1903  he  was  professor  of 
the  sciences  auxiliary  to  history,  and  from  1903  of  medieval  history.  His 
earlier  publications  related  to  the  capitularies  of  the  Carolingian  mon- 
archs,  those  of  his  later  years  to  the  institutional  history  of  medieval  Ger- 
many. In  these  last  the  most  conspicuous  was  his  Politischc  und  Soziale 
Bedcuhtng  dcr  Grundhcrrschaft  (1903).  He  was  from  the  time  of  its 
foundation  in  1898  the  principal  editor  of  the  Historischc  Vierteljahr- 
schrift. 

Professor  Herbert  C.  Bell  of  Bowdoin  College  sails  for  Europe  in 
April,  intending  to  spend  a  year's  leave  of  absence  in  historical  researches 
in  London.  Pr.ofessor  Herbert  D.  Foster  of  Dartmouth  College,  having 
leave  of  absence  from  February  on,  spends  the  months  from  March  to 
September  similarly  in  London.  Professor  C.  H.  Haskins  of  Harvard 
has  leave  of  absence  for  the  same  semester  and  will  spend  the  time  in 
Europe. 

Professor  Charles  Cestre  of  the  University  of  Paris  delivered  the 
lectures  upon  the  George  Slocum  Bennett  Foundation  at  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity during  February.  His  subject  was  The  Conti  ibution  of  France  to 
the  Universal  Ideals  of  Mankind. 

Professor  Preserved  Smith  is  lecturing  in  modern  European  history 
at  Cornell  University  during  the  second  semester  of  the  present  college 
year. 

Mr.  Waldo  G.  Leland  of  the  Department  of  Historical  Research  in  the 
Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington  sails  for  Paris  in  April,  to  complete 
his  Guide  to  the  Materials  for  American  History  in  Paris  Archives. 

Professor  William  K.  Boyd  of  Trinity  College,  Durham,  is  spending 
this  year  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  as  Harrison  research  fellow. 

Professor  H.  W.  Cordell  has  been  made  head  of  the  department  of 
history  and  economics  in  the  State  College  of  Washington  at  Pullman. 

Dr.  William  A.  Morris  has  been  promoted  from  the  rank  of  associate 
professor  to  that  of  professor  of  English  history  in  the  University  of 
California. 

Mr.  C.  R.  Fay,  fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  has  been  ap- 
pointed professor  of  economic  history  in  the  University  of  Toronto. 

GENERAL 

In  the  January  number  of  the  Historical  Outlook  E.  McK.  Eriksson 
of  the  State  University  of  Iowa  describes  the  League  of  Nations  at  Work, 
and  Professor  K.  S.  Latourette  discusses  Chinese  History  as  a  Field  of 
Research.  In  the  February  number  Dr.  George  F.  Zook  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  discusses  Higher  Education  and  the  Training 
for  Citizenship.     The  February  number  contains  also  the  report  on  the 


General  631 

Study  of  Civics,  made  by  a  committee  of  which  Professor  William  B. 
Munro  was  chairman  to  the  Pittsburgh  meeting  of  the  American  Political 
Science  Association,  December  27,  1921,  and  discussed  but  not  adopted. 
In  the  March  number  are  a  report,  by  Dr.  D.  C.  Knowlton,  of  the  St. 
Louis  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association,  and  the  papers 
presented  in  the  conference  at  St.  Louis  upon  desirable  adjustments  be- 
tween history  and  the  other  social  studies  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools. 

Die  Struktur  dcr  Weltgeschichte:  Philosophische  Grundlegung  zu  einer 
jeden  Gcschichtsphilosophic  (Tubingen,  Mohr,  1921,  pp.  viii,  378),  by 
T.  L.  Haering,  combats  Spengler's  theories.  A  translation  of  Spengler, 
The  Decline  of  Western  Civilization,  is  announced  by  the  Princeton  Uni- 
versity Press. 

A  complete  list  of  contributors  to  the  series  of  volumes  called  Hand- 
bitch  der  IVirtschaftsgeschichtc  has  been  received  in  America.  Each  of 
the  following  scholars  is  to  contribute  one  or  more  volumes  on  the  eco- 
nomic history  of  the  country  mentioned:  Professors  Baasch  of  Freiburg, 
Holland;  Bachtold  of  Basel,  Switzerland;  Brodnitz  of  Halle,  England  and 
also  Germany;  Bull  of  Christiania,  Norway;  Doren  of  Leipzig,  Italy; 
Gras  of  Minnesota,  the  United  States;  Heckscher  of  Stockholm,  Sweden; 
Kaser  of  Graz,  Austria;  Koetzschke  of  Leipzig,  the  Middle  Ages;  Nielsen 
of  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  Oertel  of  Leipzig,  antiquity;  Preyer  of  Konigs- 
berg,  Russia;  and  Wolters  of  Marburg,  France.  The  first  volume,  on  the 
Economic  History  of  England  (in  German),  appeared  in  1918,  and  the 
volume  on  the  General  Economic  History  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  now  in 
the  press.  The  editor  of  the  series  is  Professor  Georg  Brodnitz,  who, 
like  a  true  leader,  has  been  the  first  to  bring  out  his  contribution — on 
England — using  in  its  preparation  some  original  sources,  and  the  best  and 
latest  monographs  and  articles.  If  all  the  volumes  are  as  scholarly  and 
readable  as  this  one,  the  success  of  the  series  is  assured.  A  generation 
ago  Inama-Sternegg  remarked  that  we  had  no  universal  economic  history. 
It  may  be  that  we  shall  never  have  one,  but  such  a  seiies  as  the  Handbnch, 
making  available  the  results  of  scholarly  work  in  the  various  fields,  takes 
a  good  step  in  that  direction. 

A  skilful  presentation  in  very  brief  compass  is  furnished  by  Hans 
Achelis  in  Kirchcngcschichte  (Leipzig,  Quelle  und  Meyer,  1921,  pp.  xi, 
236). 

A  suggestive  discussion  of  the  spirit  of  historical  writing  in  Germany 
is  Georg  von  Below's  Die  Parteiamtliche  Nene  Gcschichtsauffassung :  ein 
Bcitrag  zur  Frage  dcr  Historisehcn  Objektiritiit  ( Langensalza,  Beyer, 
1920,  pp.  86). 

The  eight  lectures  delivered  at  the  Institute  of  Politics  at  Williams- 
town  in  August,  1921,  by  Viscount  Bryce  have  been  brought  out  by  Mac- 
millan   in  a  volume   entitled  International  Relations.     Lord   Bryce's   in- 


632  Historical  News 

augural  lecture  of  the  Sir  George  Watson  Chair  of  American  History, 
Literature,  and  Institutions,  delivered  at  the  Mansion  House,  London,  on 
June  27,  192 1,  has  been  brought  out  in  this  country  by  the  same  publishers. 
It  bears  the  title  The  Study  of  American  History. 

The  Grotius  Society  is  publishing  in  pamphlets  of  moderate  cost  a 
series  of  texts  for  students  of  international  relations  (London,  Sweet  and 
Maxwell),  of  which  no.  1  is  the  appropriate  chapters  of  Erasmus's  Jnsti- 
tutio  Principis  Christian,  no.  2  a  portion  of  Sully's  Memoirs  setting  forth 
the  Grand  Design  of  Henry  IV.,  while  later  numbers,  yet  to  be  published, 
will  include  portions  of  Grotius  Dc  Jure  Belli  et  Pads,  selections  from 
St.  Pierre,  Bentham,  Kant,  etc.  All  are  provided  with  introductory  com- 
mentaries. 

Professor  Ephraim  Emerton's  Learning  and  Living:  Academic  Essays 
(Cambridge,  Harvard  University  Press,  pp.  325)  contains  nine  essays 
admirable  for  old-fashioned  wisdom,  often  humorously  and  often  very 
cogently  expressed,  of  which  two,  that  on  the  Academic  Study  of  History 
and  that  on  the  Place  of  History  in  Theological  Study,  may  be  especially 
commended  to  teachers  of  history  and  to  serious  and  thoughtful  students. 

Macmillan  publishes,  in  three  volumes,  a  fifth  edition,  rewritten,  of 
Westermarck's  standard  History  of  Marriage. 

In  Angcwandte  Gesehichte  (Berlin,  Gruyter,  1920,  pp.  233)  Freiherr 
von  Freytag-Loringhoven  has  collected  a  series  of  studies  on  the  great 
turning-points  of  history.  The  same  author  has  published  Feldherrn- 
grosse,  vom  Dcnken  nnd  Handeln  herrorragender  Heerfiihrer  (Berlin, 
Mittler,  1922,  pp.  209),  an  essay  on  the  great  military  leaders  of  history 
with  chief  emphasis  on  the  period  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Napoleon. 

The  January  number  of  the  Catholic  Historical  Review  contains  a 
paper  by  Rev.  Dr.  Victor  Carriere  on  La  Societe  d'Histoire  Ecclesiastique 
de  la  France,  one  by  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  P.  Phelan  on  Catholic  Patriotism 
in  Revolutionary  Days,  and  one  by  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  L.  Souvay,  C.  M.,  on 
the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  as  an  Agency  of  Reconstruction. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Whitley's  valuable  Baptist  Bibliography  (London.  Kings- 
gate  Press)  is  now  completed  by  the  issue  of  volume  II..  1777-183".  with 
the  inclusion  of  some  addenda  dating  from  1613  down.  There  are  four 
indexes. 

The  October  number  of  the  Journal  of  Xegro  History  contains  a 
monographic  study,  by  Henderson  H.  Donald,  of  the  Negro  Migration  of 
1916-1918,  a  movement  of  negro  population  to  the  industrial  centres  of 
the  North  and  West,  far  surpassing  in  volume  all  other  migrations  of  the 
race  in  America.  The  author  studies  in  particular  the  causes  and  effects 
of  the  migration,  but  he  also  investigates  the  source,  volume,  composition, 
and  destination  of  the  migrants,  and  presents  the  results  of  an  examina- 
tion of  the  statistics  of  1920.  In  the  January  number  are  found  the  fol- 
lowing articles:  Slave  Society  on  the  Southern  Plantation,  by  Frances  L. 


Ancient  History  633 

Hunter;  the  Evolution  of  the  Negro  Baptist  Church,  by  W.  H.  Brooks; 
Early  Negro  Education  in  West  Virginia,  by  C.  G.  Woodson;  and  First 
Negro  Churches  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  by  J.  W.  Cromwell.  In  the 
section  of  Documents  appears  the  Experience  of  a  Georgia  Peon:  My 
Escape  from  Bondage. 

A  History  of  European  and  American  Sculpture  from  the  Early 
Christian  Period  to  the  Present  Day,  in  two  volumes,  by  Chandler  R.  Post, 
is  from  the  Harvard  University  Press. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  E.  Troeltsch,  Der  Historischc 
EntiAcklungsbcgriff  in  der  Modcrncn  Geistes-  und  Lehcnsphilosophic, 
III.  (Historische  Zeitschrift,  CXXV.  3);  J.  Volkelt.  Die  Grundbe griff e 
in  Spcngler's  Gcschichtsphilosophie  (Historische  Vierteljahrschrift, 
XX.)  ;  H.  E.  Barnes,  The  Relation  of  Geography  to  the  Writing  and 
Interpretation  of  History  (Journal  of  Geography,  December);  C.  C. 
Tansill,  Termination  of  War  by  Mere  Cessation  of  Hostilities  (Law 
Quarterly  Review,  January). 

ANCIENT    HISTORY 

General  reviews:  O.  Gruppe.  Bericht  iiber  die  Literatur  zur  Antiken 
Mythologic  und  Religionsgeschichte  aus  den  Jahren  1006-1017  ( Jahres- 
bericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  Klassiscben  Altertumswissenschaft, 
CLXXXVI.)  ;  M.  Fluss,  Bericht  iiber  die  Literatur  zur  Gesehichte  der 
Romischcn  Kaiserseit  von  Tiberius  bis  auf  Diocletian,  aus  den  Jahren 
1S04-1013  (id.,  CLXXXIX.);  Bibliography  of  Books  and  Articles  on 
Jewish  History,  1014-1021  (Revue  des  £tudes  Juives,  April-June). 

Professor  V.  Scheil  has  published  an  important  Recueil  de  Lois  As- 
syriennes  (Paris.  Geuthner,  1921,  pp.  125).  which  includes  not  only  the 
Assyrian  text  but  also  a  French  translation  and  index.  It  throws  much 
light  upon  the  manners  and  customs  of  ancient  Mesopotamia. 

Die  Altpersisclie  Religion  und  das  Judentum  ( Giessen,  Topelmann, 
1920,  pp.  viii,  240).  by  J.  Scheftelowitz.  develops  the  many  similarities 
between  the  two  religions  but  regards  them  as  parallel  phenomena  rather 
than  borrowings.  C.  Clemen,  already  well  known  for  his  Foutes  His- 
toriae  Rcligionis  Persicae,  has  published  Die  Griechischeu  und  Latcin- 
ischen  Nachrichten   iiber  die  Persische   Religion    (Giessen,   Topelmann, 

1920,  pp.  viii,  22,2). 

Das  Gricchentum  und  seine  Weltmission  (Leipzig,  Quelle  und  Meyer, 

1921,  pp.  18"),  by  Freiherr  von  Bissing,  is  a  thoroughgoing  and  competent 
presentation  of  the  Greek  contribution  to  the  history  of  civilization. 

In  the  Skriftcr  of  the  Christiania  Society  of  Sciences  for  1919 
(Christiania.  1920,  Dybwad)  Professor  S.  Eitrem  presents  the  third 
series  (pp.  202)  of  his  remarkable  Beitrdge  zur  Griechischen  Religions- 
geschichte, dealing  with  processions  and  sacrifices,  Aeneas  and  the  Cau- 
cones,  the  mythical  founders  of  Greek  colonies,  and  other  topics. 


634  Historical  Nezvs 

Die  Kretisch-Mykenische  Kultur  (Leipzig,  Teubner,  1921,  pp.  vi,  226) 
is  a  posthumously  published  work  of  Diedrich  Fimmen,  the  first  part  being 
a  new  edition  of  the  author's  Zeit  und  Daucr  der  Kretisch-Mykenischen 
Kultur  (1909).     The  concluding  chapter  was  written  by  G.  Karo. 

Ernest  Babelon,  the  author  of  the  well  known  Traite  des  Monnaies, 
gives  in  Les  Monnaies  Grecques:  Aperqu  Historique  (Paris,  Payot,  1921, 
pp.  160)  a  condensed  but  very  illuminating  account  of  one  portion  of  his 
subject. 

Professor  P.  N.  Ure  of  University  College,  Reading,  has  put  forth  a 
volume  on  the  Origin  of  Tyranny  (Cambridge  University  Press,  pp.  xii, 
374,  and  46  illustrations),  tracing  the  rise  of  the  Greek  tyrants  of  the 
seventh  and  sixth  centuries  to  the  political  possibilities  involved  in  the 
invention  and  prevalence  of  coinage. 

Professor  A.  E.  R.  Boak  of  the  University  of  Michigan  has  brought 
out  through  the  Macmillan  Company  A  History  of  Rome  to  565  A.  D. 

Eugen  Taubler  is  the  author  of  Untersitchungcn  zur  Geschichte  des 
Deccmvirats  und  der  Zwolftafeln  (Berlin,  Ebering.  1921,  pp.  ix,  140),  a 
monograph  on  the  evolution  of  the  Decemvirate  in  the  light  of  the  Twelve 
Tables. 

A  critical  study  of  the  sources  of  Josephus  is  published  by  Wilhelm 
Weber  under  the  title  Josephus  und  Vespasian;  Untcrsuchungen  zu  dem 
Jiidischcn  Kricg  des  Flavins  Josephus  (Stuttgart,  Kohlhammer,  1921,  pp. 
viii,  287).  He  reconstructs  the  original  source  and  gives  a  minute  ac- 
count of  the  operations  of  the  Flavii  in  the  east. 

Two  studies  of  Roman  Egypt  have  appeared.  A.  B.  Schwarz  in  Die 
Oeffentlichc  und  Private  Urkunde  im  Rbmischen  Aegypten:  Studien  sum 
Hellcnistischen  Privatrecht  (1920,  pp.  310)  has  made  a  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  the  knowledge  of  the  sources  of  law  in  the  pre-Roman  as  well  as 
the  Roman  period.  T.  Reinach  in  Un  Code  Fiscal  de  1'S.gypte  Romaine: 
le  Gnomon  de  I'Idiologuc  (Paris,  Sirey,  1920-1921,  pp.  187)  gives  the  text, 
translation  into  French,  and  a  full  commentary  on  the  papyrus  manuscript. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  J.  De  Morgan,  De  I'Influence  Asi- 
atique  sur  I'Afrique  a  I'Origine  de  la  Civilisation  P.gyptienne,  I.  (L' An- 
thropologic XXXI.)  ;  A.  T.  Olmstead,  Shalmaneser  III.  and  the  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Assyrian  Power  (Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  So- 
ciety, XLI.)  ;  W.  F.  Albright,  A  Revision  of  Early  Assyrian  and  Middle 
Babylonian  Chronology  (Revue  d'Assyriologie,  XVIII.)  :  A.  T.  Olmstead, 
The  Fall  and  Rise  of  Babylon  (American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages 
and  Literatures,  January)  ;  C.  L.  Woolley.  La  Pheuicie  et  les  Peuples 
fLgeens  (Syria,  II.)  ;  J.  L.  Heiberg,  Les  Sciences  Grecques  et  leur  Trans- 
mission, I.  Splendeur  et  Decadence  de  la  Science  Grecque  (Scientia, 
January)  ;  R.  Herzog,  Nikias  und  Xcnophon  von  Kos:  Zwei  Charakter- 
kbpfe  aus  der  Griechisch-Rbmisehen  Geschichte  (  Historische  Zeitschrift, 


Medieval  History  635 

CXXV.  2)  ;  F.  Behn.  Die  Schiffe  der  Etruskcn  (Mitteilungen  des 
Deutschen  Archaeologischen  Instituts,  XXXiy.)  ;  G.  F.  Moore,  Christian 
Writers  on  Judaism   (Harvard  Theological  Review.  July). 

EARLY    CHURCH    HISTORY 

General  reviews:  Ff.  von  Soden,  Die  Erforsclntiig  der  V ornie'dnischen 
Kirchcngcschiclitc  scit  1014  (Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchengeschichte, 
XXXIX.);  H.  Leitzman.  Geschichte  der  Christlichen  Kirche  (Archiv 
fur  Religionswissenschaft,  XX.). 

The  purpose,  sources,  and  historical  value  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
comprise  the  subjects  dealt  with  in  A.  Wikenhauser's  Die  Apostel- 
gesehichte  und  ihr  Geschichtswert  (Miinster,  Aschendorff,  1921,  pp.  xviii. 
440).     An  extensive  bibliography  is  included. 

C.  Guignebert  is  the  author  of  Le  Christianisme  Antique  (  Paris,  Flam- 
marion,  1920,  pp.  270),  a  masterly  study  of  Christianity  and  its  social 
environment. 

In  Analccta  Bollandiana,  XXXIX.  3-4,  Father  Hippolyte  Delehaye 
publishes  the  Passion  of  St.  Felix  of  Thibiuca,  and  examines  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  stories  of  Cyprian  of  Antioch  and  Cyprian  of  Carthage. 
In  another  article  Father  Paul  Peeters  prints  the  Georgian  version  of  the 
Autobiography  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and  discusses  the  order  of 
the  versions — in  his  view  Greek,  Arabic,  Georgian,  Armenian. 

MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 

The  Cambridge  University  Press  announces  that  the  long-awaited 
third  volume  of  the  Cambridge  Medieval  History  is  to  appear  at  once. 

Students  of  medieval  things  will  be  grateful  for  Dr.  Reginald  Lane 
Poole's  authoritative  paper  on  The  Beginning  of  the  Year  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  published  for  the  British  Academy  by  the  Oxford  University  Press. 

The  third  edition  of  Georg  Gropp's  Kultur geschichte  des  Mittclalters 
(Paderborn,  Schoningh,  1921,  pp.  viii,  369)  is  briefer,  but  very  much 
better  in  arrangement  than  the  preceding  ones,  and  has  much  new  material. 

Father  Hippolyte  Delehaye's  excellent  little  book  on  the  history  of  the 
Bollandists,  of  their  Acta  Sanctorum,  and  of  their  other  literary  labors,  a 
model  of  commemorative  statement  concerning  their  three  centuries  of 
famous  labors  in  scholarship,  was  reviewed  from  the  French  original  in  a 
previous  volume  (XXV.  742)  ;  students  of  history,  especially  those  who 
are  interested  in  the  history  of  learning,  will  be  glad  to  possess  the  excel- 
lent English  translation  now  put  forth  by  the  Princeton  University  Press, 
The  Work  of  the  Bollandists  through  Three  Centuries,  1615-1915  (pp. 
269.  $2.50). 

A  good  additional  source-book  (  Caesar,  Tacitus,  Ammianus,  Gregory 
of  Tours,  Procopius,  Gildas,  Paulus  Diaconus.  etc.)  is  Dr.  Johannes 
Buhler's  Die  Germanen  in  der  Volkerwanderung  (Leipzig,  Insel-Verlag). 


636  Historical  News 

Histoire  Sommaire  dc  la  Litterature  Mcridiov.alc  au  Moyen  Age 
(Paris,  Boccard,  1921,  pp.  ix,  274),  by  Joseph  Anglade,  furnishes  the 
first  comprehensive  manual  to  be  published  in  France  and  brings  together 
the  results  of  previous  study  into  a  general  survey  of  this  important  period 
of  literary  history. 

In  Richard  von  Cluny,  seine  Chronik  und  sein  Kloster  in  den  Anfangen 
der  Kirchcnspaltung  von  1159:  cin  Beitrag  zur  Gcschichtc  der  Anschau- 
iingcn  von  Kardinalkollcg  und  Papsttum  im  12,  und  13.  Jahrhnndcrt 
(Berlin,  Ebering,  1921,  pp.  173),  Dr.  Ingeborg  Schnack  has  made  a 
detailed  and  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject,  presenting  an  abundance  of 
documentary  material. 

Erich  W.  Meyer,  in  Staatsthcoricu  Papst  Innocens  III.  (Bonn,  Mar- 
cus und  Weber,  1920),  attempts  a  systematic  organization  of  the  political 
theories  of  Innocent,  dealing  with  them  without  reference  to  the  immediate 
circumstances  in  which  each  theory  was  developed. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  H.  Schrors,  Das  Charakterbild  des 
Hciligcn  Bcnedikt  von  Nursia  und  seine  Quellcn  (Zeitschrift  fur  Katho- 
Iische  Theologie,  1921,  2)  ;  T.  F.  Tout,  The  Study  of  Medieval  Chronicles 
(Bulletin  of  the  John  Rylands  Library,  January)  ;  M.  Ferraud,  Origines 
de  Justices  Fcodalcs  (Le  Moyen  Age,  January-April)  ;  A.  P.  Evans,  The 
Problem  of  Control  in  Medieval  Industry  (Political  Science  Quarterly, 
December)  ;  M.  Viller,  La  Question  de  I'Union  des  Ugliscs  cntrc  Grccs 
et  Latins  depuis  le  Concilc  de  Lyon  jusqu'a  celui  de  Florence,  1274-1438, 
concl.  (Revue  d'Histoire  Ecclesiastique,  January)  ;  J.  Huyzinga,  La 
Valeur  Politique  et  Militairc  des  Idecs  de  Chevaleric  a  la  Fin  du  Moyen 
Age  (Revue  d'Histoire  Diplomatique,  XXXV.  2). 

MODERN  EUROPEAN   HISTORY 

General  review:  F.  Vigener,  Literaturbericht  zur  Gcschichtc  des  Ncu- 
crcn  Katholizismus,  II.   (  Historische  Zeitschrift,  CXXV.   1). 

La  Question  d'Occident:  les  Pays  d'Entrc-deux  dc  843  a  1021  (Brus- 
sels, Lamertin,  1921,  pp.  218),  by  Professor  L.  Leclere  of  Brussels,  is  a 
study  of  the  historical  geography,  military,  political,  and  diplomatic  his- 
tory of  the  middle  region  set  apart  by  the  Treaty  of  Verdun.  A  recently 
published  Gcschichtc  Elsass-Lothringcns  (  Munich,  Oldenbourg.  1920)  is 
by  K.  Stahlin. 

The  eighth  edition  of  fidouard  Driault's  La  Question  d'Orient  depuis 
scs  Origines  jusqu'a  la  Paix  de  Sevres,  1920  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921,  pp.  xv, 
479)  has  been  published.  It  not  only  brings  the  work  down  to  the  Treaty 
of  Sevres  but  makes  needed  changes  in  the  whole  text. 

The  chief  events  in  the  relations  between  England  and  Germany  are 
set  forth  by  G.  von  Schoch  in  Die  Politischen  Beziehungen  swischen 
Deutschland  und  England  vow  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters  bis  cum  Jahrc 


Modern  European  History  637 

1815  (Bonn,  Schroeder,  1921,  pp.  viii,  282),  with  the  conclusion  that  the 
influence  of  England  has  been  disadvantageous  to  Germany.  A  study  of 
Franco-German  relations  is  published  by  Rene  Lote  under  the  title  Les 
Relations  Franco-Allcmandes  (Paris,  Alcan.  1922,  pp.  xvi,  220);  with 
this  may  be  compared  Professor  T.  F.  Tout's  France  and  England:  their 
Relations  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  Noiv  (Manchester  University). 

The  Oxford  University  Press  is  about  to  issue  the  fourth  volume, 
1519-1521,  of  the  Letters  of  Erasmus,  ed.  P.  S.  and  H.  M.  Allen. 

Dr.  Paul  Kalkoff's  Das  Wormser  Edikt  und  die  Erlasse  des  Reichsregi- 
ments  und  einzelner  Reichsfiirstcn  (Munich,  R.  Oldenbourg,  pp.  x,  132) 
is  a  preliminary  to  his  larger  and  more  recent  Der  Wormser  Reichstag 
von  1521  (ibid.,  pp.  viii,  436),  in  which  the  whole  history  of  the  personal 
and  party  developments  is  set  forth.  Another  important  contribution  to 
Reformation  history  is  Dr.  Arnold  O.  Meyer's  Studien  zur  1'orgcschiclitc 
der  Reformation  aus  Schlesischen  Quellen  (  ibid.,  pp.  xiv,  170). 

Professor  Heinrich  Sieveking  has  published  Grundziigc  der  Xeueren 
Wirtschaftsgcschichte  vom  17.  Jahrhundert  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (Leipzig, 
Teubner,  1921,  pp.  iv.  no),  which  compresses  a  great  deal  of  economic 
history  into  very  small  compass.  Professor  Georg  von  Below's  Problemc 
der  Wirtschaftsgcschichte :  cine  Einfiihrung  in  die  Wirtschaftsgcschichte 
(Tubingen,  Mohr,  1920,  pp.  xx,  711)  is  a  collection  of  essays  in  economic 
history. 

Two  substantial  and  authoritative  volumes,  both  relating  to  the  last 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  have  within  a  year  or  so  been  added  to 
the  great  collaborated  history  of  the  Jesuits,  the  sixth  volume  of  Father 
Antonio  Astrain's  Historia  dc  la  Campania  dc  Jesus  en  la  Asistcucia  de 
Espana  (Madrid,  Adm.  de  Razon  y  Fe,  pp.  xii,  890),  and  the  third  of 
Father  Bernhard  Duhr's  Geschichte  der  Jcsuiten  in  den  Liindcm  Deutscher 
Zunge  (Regensburg,  Manz,  pp.  xii,  924). 

A  description  of  the  legal  status  of  the  peasants  in  the  countries  of 
Europe  has  been  published  by  Henry  See  under  the  title  Esquissc  d'unc 
Histoire  du  Regime' Agraire  en  Europe  aux  XVIII.  ct  XIX.  Sicclcs 
(Paris,  Giard,  1921,  pp.  276).  The  volume  is  clear  and  trustworthy,  and 
fills  a  distinct  gap. 

The  memoirs  of  Sir  Henry  Elliot  of  which  we  spoke  in  a  former 
number  are,  it  seems,  to  be  entitled  Some  Revolutions,  and  other  Diplo- 
matic Experiences  (London,  Murray)  ;  the  reminiscences  relate  to  mis- 
sions to  Naples,  1859-1862,  to  Greece,  1862,  and  to  Constantinople,  1867. 

Freiherr  von  Schoen,  formerly  secretary  of  state  and  ambassador  to 
France,  and  earlier  to  Russia,  has  contributed  some  material  of  value  to 
pre-war  history  in  Erlcbtes:  Beitriige  zur  Politischcn  Geschichte  der 
Neuesten  Zeit  (Stuttgart,  Deutsche  Verlags-Anstalt,  pp.  227). 

La  Demicrc  Ambassadc  dc  France  a  Vienne  (Paris,  Plon,  1921)  is  a 


638  Historical  News 

volume  of  memoirs  by  A.  Dumaine,  the  last  ambassador,  which  brings 
out  some  hitherto  unknown  facts. 

The  Struggle  for  Power  in  Europe,  1917-1921:  an  Outline  Economic 
and  Political  Survey  of  the  Central  States  and  Russia,  by  Leslie  H.  Guest, 
is  from  the  press  of  Doran. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  P.  Bourgeois,  L' Alliance  de  Bona- 
parte et  de  Paid  Ier  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  October)  ;  C.  Dupuis, 
Lcs  Deux  Saintes-Alliances,  1815-ipip  (Revue  d'Histoire  Diplomatique, 
XXXV.  2)  ;  G.  Lacour-Gayet,  L'Ambassade  de  Talleyrand  a  Londres, 
1830-1834  (Revue  des  Etudes  Historiques,  May)  ;  A.  Friis,  Die  Auf he- 
bung  des  Artikcls  V.  des  Prager  Friedens  ( Historische  Zeitschrift, 
CXXV.  1)  ;  Baron  Mourre,  La  Crise  de  1020-102 1  ct  ses  Causes  (Revue 
d'ficonomie  Politique,  September). 

THE    GREAT   WAR 

Further  discussion  of  the  origins  of  the  war  is  presented  by  Alfred 
Pevet  in  Les  Responsables  de  la  Guerre  (Paris,  Librairie  de  l'Humanite, 
1921,  pp.  500)  ;  the  Kautsky  documents  have  been  translated  into  French 
as  Documents  Allcmands  relatifs  a  VOrigine  de  la  Guerre  (Paris, 
Schleicher,  1921,  4  vols.). 

The  question  whether  the  revolutionary  parties  in  Germany  caused  the 
defeat  of  that  country  is  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  E.  von  Wrisberg, 
an  official  of  the  war  ministry,  in  Der  Weg  zur  Revolution,  1914-1918 
(Leipzig,  Koehler,  1921,  pp.  179). 

A  concise  strategic  review  of  the  whole  period  of  the  war  is  furnished 
by  Otto  von  Moser  in  Kurzer  Stratcgischer  Uberblick  iiber  den  Weltkricg, 
1914-1918  (Berlin,  Mittler,  1921,  pp.  123).  General  A.  von  Kluck  tells 
the  story  of  the  advance  of  the  1st  Army  at  the  battle  of  the  Aisne  under 
the  title  Der  Marsch  auf  Paris  und  die  Marnesclilaeht  1914  (Berlin, 
Mittler.  1920,  pp.  vi,  167).  It  includes  many  orders  and  military  com- 
munications. A  book  designed  for  self-justification  but  of  some  historical 
value  is  General  Lanrezac's  Le  Plan  de  Campagne  Franqais  et  le  Premier 
Mois  de  la  Guerre,  2  Aout-3  Scptembre,  1914  (Paris,  Payot,  pp.  284). 

Volume  VII.  of  La  Grande  Guerre  sur  le  Front  Occidental  (Paris. 
Chapelot),  edited  by  Pierre  Dehautcourt,  is  written  by  General  Palat  and 
entitled  La  Course  a  la  Mer.  It  deals  with  the  loss  of  St.  Mihiel,  the 
French  in  the  battle  of  the  Aisne,  and  the  race  to  the  sea. 

Die  Marzojfensivc,  1918:  Strategic  oder  Taktik  (Leipzig,  Koehler), 
by  Otto  Fehr,  gives  an  account  based  on  the  documents  of  the  German 
Supreme  Command. 

An  account  of  the  final  phase  of  the  war  is  given  by  Major  S.  Ash- 
mead-Bartlett  in  From  the  Somme  to  the  Rhine  (London,  John  Lane). 

With  the  Russian  Army,  1014-ioiy,  in  two  volumes,  by  Sir  Alfred 


The  Great  War  639 

Knox,  consists  chiefly  of  extracts  from  the  diary  of  the  author,  who  was 
military  attache.  There  are  numerous  illustrations,  chiefly  from  photo- 
graphs taken  by  the  author,  and  also  a  number  of  maps  (  New  York, 
Dutton). 

Two  books  have  recently  appeared  dealing  with  the  war  in  Rumania 
C.  J.  Baicoianu  has  published  a  study  of  La  Banque  Nationale  de  Rou- 
manic  pendant  I' Occupation,  Novembre  1016-Novembre  1018  (Paris, 
Sirey.  1921,  pp.  163),  and  A.  Berindey  has  written  La  Situation  Eco- 
nomique  et  Financiere  de  la  Roumanie  sous  I'Occupation  Allemande 
(Paris,  Duchemin,  1921.  pp.  216). 

The  breakdown  of  Austria-Hungary  in  September  1919  is  told  on  the 
basis  of  documents  by  Hugo  Kerchnawe  in  Der  Zusammenbruch  der 
Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen  Wehrmacht  im  Herbst  101S  (Munich,  Leh- 
mann,  1921,  pp.  205).  A  French  translation  by  Captain  Koelz  of  General 
A.  von  Cramon's  Quatrc  cms  au  G.  0.  C.  Austro-Hongrois  pendant  la 
Guerre  Mondialc  conime  Representant  du  G.  0.  G.  Allemand  ( Paris, 
Payot,  1921)  has  been  published. 

The  more  important  of  the  seven  articles  included  in  Zwischen  Kau- 
kasus  und  Sinai  (Berlin,  Mulzer  und  Cleeman,  1921)  deal  with  the  Ger- 
mans in  Palestine  during  the  Great  War.  This  is  the  first  of  a  projected 
series  to  be  published  by  the  Association  of  Germans  who  fought  in  Asia. 

The  naval  history  of  the  war  has  had  very  little  attention  from  Conti- 
nental writers.  Georges  Douin  has  described  the  role  played  by  the  navy 
in  the  defense  of  the  Suez  canal  and  the  protection  of  Egypt  in  L'Attaque 
du  Canal  de  Sues:  3  Fevrier  1015  (Paris.  Delagrave,  1921.  pp.  114). 
Lieutenant  de  Rivoyre  has  written  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  Navale,  1914- 
1918  (Paris,  Fournier,  1922,  pp.  3S7),  and  a  former  minister  of  marine, 
Georges  Leygues,  has  written  a  brief  account  of  Les  Marins  de  France: 
I'Oeurre  de  la  Marine  Franeaise  pendant  la  Guerre  (Paris.  Berger- 
Levrault,  1922,  pp.  112). 

Le  Pape  Benoit  et  la  Guerre  (Paris,  Tequi,  1921,  pp.  xxiii,  394)  is  a 
collection  of  articles  by  C.  Gallet  which  defends  the  papal  diplomacy  and 
holds  Benedict  XV.  to  have  been  perfectly  impartial  in  action  though  he 
felt  a  marked  preference  for  the  French  cause. 

Another  section  of  the  history  of  the  Great  War  based  on  official 
documents  is  entitled  Medical  Services,  General  History  (  London,  H.  M. 
Stationery  Office,  pp.  xvi,  464).  The  first  volume  of  this  series,  by 
Major-Gen.  Sir  W.  G.  Macpherson,  has  just  appeared. 

Losses  of  territory  by  Germany  are  described  in  Der  Kainpf  urn 
Schleswig-Holstein  (  Berlin,  Verlag  fur  Politik  und  Wirtschaft,  1921),  by 
A.  Koster,  who  was  intimately  connected  in  an  official  capacity  with  the 
events  which  he  narrates,  and  by  M.  Worgitski  in  Geseliiehte  der  Abstini- 
tnung  in  Ostpreussen:  Der  Kampf  urn  Ermland  und  Masuren  (Leipzig, 
Koehler,  1921),  written  from  a  similar  point  of  vantage. 


640  Historical  News 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  General  Douchy,  Lc  Plan  d'lnva- 
sion  de  1914  d'aprcs  lc  Grand  tLtat-Major  Allcmand  (La  Revue  Uni- 
verselle,  October  1);  Capt.  J.  S.  Sweitzer,  jr.,  The  Champagnc-Marne 
Defensive,  cont.  (Infantry  Journal,  January,  February);  Major  E.  N. 
McClellan,  U.  S.  M.  C,  The  St.  Mihiel  Offensive  (Marine  Corps  Gazette, 
December)  ;  P.  Painleve,  Comment  j'ai  nomme  Foch  ct  Petain,  I.,  II. 
(Revue  de  Paris,  December  15,  January  1)  ;  M.  Lair,  Les  Chefs  de  Guerre 
Allcmands,  I.,  II.  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  July,  October)  ;  Rapi- 
sardi-Mirabelli,  Lc  Traite  dc  Sevres,  10  Aout  1020,  ct  les  Principalcs 
Questions  Internationales  qui  s'y  Rapportent  (Revue  de  Droit  Interna- 
tional, II.  5). 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  American  Association  for  International  Conciliation  has  brought 
out,  with  the  title  Present  Problems  of  the  Commonwealth  of  British 
Nations,  the  proceedings  of  the  conference  of  prime  ministers  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  LTnited  Kingdom,  the  Dominions,  and  India,  held  in  June, 
July,  and  August,  1921,  and  has  also  issued,  with  the  title  Washington 
Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Armaments,  the  addresses  of  President 
Harding,  Secretary  Hughes.  Mr.  Balfour,  Baron  Kato,  M.  Briand,  and 
others. 

H.  M.  Stationery  Office  (Imperial  House,  King-sway,  W.  C.  2)  has 
published  for  the  Public  Record  Office  a  volume  of  Lists  of  the  Records 
of  the  Treasury,  the  Paymaster  General's  Office,  the  Exchequer  and  Audit 
Department,  and  the  Board  of  Trade  to  1837  (pp.  x,  217,  fi  8s.).  Ameri- 
can students  will  be  especially  interested  in  the  detailed  listing  of  the 
papers  of  the  Royal  African  Company  (  T.  70)  and  of  those  relating  to 
the  Loyalists  ( T.  79  and  50)  and  to  East  Florida  ( T.  jj). 

A  Catalogue  of  Western  Manuscripts  in  the  Old  Royal  and  King's 
Collections  in  the  British  Museum,  in  four  volumes,  edited  by  Sir  George 
F.  Warner  and  J.  P.  Gilson,  has  been  printed  by  order  of  the  trustees. 

Under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Hubert  Hall,  a  seminar  of  the  London 
School  of  Economics  has  compiled  a  valuable  conspectus  of  the  most 
important  sources  of  English  agrarian  history  under  the  title  Classified 
List  of  Agrarian  Surveys  in  the  Public  Record  Office  (pp.  23),  listing 
and  briefly  describing  such  documents,  from  Domesday  Book  into  the 
nineteenth  century,  with  an  introduction  of  12  pages,  a  brief  notice  of 
similar  manuscripts  outside  the  Public  Record  Office,  and  a  bibliography 
of  agrarian  surveys. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Bolland,  whose  course  of  lectures  in  the  University  of 
London  on  The  Year  Books  was  mentioned  a  year  ago,  has  followed  that 
volume  with  a  second  series  of  similar  lectures  on  The  General  Eyre 
(Cambridge  University  Press). 

James  A.  Williamson  in  A  Short  History  of  British  Expansion  (Lon- 
don, Macmillan)  carries  his  subject  from  the  Conquest  to  the  present  day. 


Great  Britain  641 

The  Royal  Historical  Society  has  in  preparation  a  volume  of  diplo- 
matic instructions  to  British  ministers  to  Sweden,  1689-1727,  ed.  J.  F. 
Chance,  intended  to  be  the  first  in  a  series  of  volumes  of  diplomatic  in- 
structions; and  a  volume  of  the  parliamentary  papers  of  John  Robinson, 
1775-1783,  edited  by  Professor  W.  T.  Laprade  of  Trinity  College,  North 
Carolina. 

Professor  J.  Holland  Rose,  professor  of  naval  history  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  has  published  a  new  book  on  Lord  Hood  and  the  Defence 
of  Toulon  (Cambridge  University  Press,  pp.  viii,  175). 

Messrs.  Longman  have  in  press  a  new  work  by  George  Macaulay 
Trevelyan,  on  British  History  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  in  which  the 
political,  economic,  and  social  history  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  a  less 
degree  of  the  Empire,  are  all  considered. 

Principal  J.  W.  Graham,  who  had  an  important  relation  to  the  conflict 
between  the  British  government  and  the  conscientious  objectors,  has  writ- 
ten a  full  account  of  the  episode,  with  a  sketch  of  the  corresponding  his- 
tory in  other  countries,  under  the  title  Conscription  and  Conscience:  a 
History,  1916-1910  (London,  Allen  and  Unwin). 

The  late  Dr.  J.  Willis  Clark  intended,  a  dozen  years  ago,  to  follow  up 
his  Architectural  History  of  Cambridge  with  a  portfolio  of  reproductions 
of  six  old  plans  of  Cambridge,  with  accompanying  description.  Delayed 
by  the  war,  the  enterprise  has  now  been  achieved  by  the  Master  of  Jesus 
College,  Mr.  Arthur  Gray.  Old  Plans  of  Cambridge  (  Cambridge,  Bowes 
and  Bowes)  reproduces  the  bird's-eye  views  by  Richard  Lyne.  1574, 
George  Braun,  1575,  and  Thomas  Fuller,  1634.  two  plans  of  1688  and 
1798,  respectively,  and,  most  important  of  all,  a  plan  by  John  Hamond, 
1592,  of  which  only  one  complete  copy  (Bodleian)  is  known.  These  are 
reproduced  in  the  portfolio,  and  there  is  an  accompanying  volume  of 
careful  explanations  (pp.  xxxvii,  154). 

In  the  Scottish  Historical  Review  for  January  we  note  an  interesting 
list  of  documents  relative  to  coal  mining  in  the  Saltcoats  district  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  N.  M.  Scott,  and  an  article  on 
Robert  Owen  and  the  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  by  an  American,  Albert 
T.  Volwiler. 

An  important  monograph  on  the  origin  of  the  Scottish  Court  of  Ses- 
sion, by  Professor  R.  K.  Hannay.  is  printed  in  vol.  XI.  of  The  Book  of 
the  Old  Edinburgh  Club. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Sir  William  Ashley.  The  Place  of 
Rye  in  the  History  of  English  Food  (Economic  Journal,  September); 
Godfrey  Davies,  Council  and  Cabinet,  16J9-16S8  (English  Historical  Re- 
view, January)  ;  E.  Halevy,  Comment  Lord  Palmerston  passa  pour  Grand 
Homme  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  October)  ;  R.  L.  Schuyler,  The 
Climax  of  Anti-Imperialism  in  England  (Political  Science  Quarterly,  De- 
cember). 


642  Historical  News 

IRELAND  AND  THE  DOMINIONS 

(For  Canada,  see  page  666) 

An  important  contribution  to  knowledge  of  the  history  of  modern 
Ulster,  and  especially  of  the  settlement  of  Derry  by  the  ten  London  com- 
panies, is  made  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Kernohan's  The  County  of  Londonderry  in 
Three  Centuries  (Belfast,  the  author,  115  Park  Road). 

On  the  occasion  of  the  recent  beatification  of  the  martyred  primate  of 
Ireland,  Mgr.  C.  Salotti  wrote  U11  Martire  Irlandese,  Oliviere  Plunket 
(Rome,  Ferrari,  1920.  pp.  274).  In  its  preparation  he  used  a  number  of 
documents  difficult  of  access,  which  make  the  book  of  particular  value. 

An  objective  exposition  of  the  opinions  and  the  facts  which  molded 
opinion  is  set  forth  by  Yann  M.  Goblet  (Louis  Treguiz)  in  L'Irlande 
dans  la  Crise  Universelle,  1014-1020  (Paris,  Alcan,  1921).  E.  Cailliet 
has  written  of  Lcs  Origincs  du  Mouvemeni  Sinn-Fein  en  Irlande  (  Metz, 
he  Messin,  1921,  pp.  64). 

In  series  III.  of  the  Historical  Records  of  Australia  [Library  Commit- 
tee of  the  Commonwealth  Parliament],  vol.  IV.  (pp.  xviii,  975)  is  con- 
cerned with  Tasmania,   1821-1825. 

Australia  also  is  to  have  her  official  war  history.  It  is  entitled  Official 
History  of  Australia  in  the  War  of  1014-iOiS,  and  is  to  consist  of  twelve 
volumes,  nine  dealing  with  military  matters,  one  with  the  navy,  one  with 
affairs  in  Australia  during  the  war,  and  one  containing  photographs.  The 
first  six  volumes — two  on  Gallipoli  and  four  on  France — are  to  be  con- 
tributed by  Mr.  C.  E.  W.  Bean.  The  first  Anzac  volume  has  appeared 
(Sydney,  Angus  and  Robertson,  pp.  xxviii,  660).  Meantime,  an  excellent 
history  of  the  achievements  of  the  New  Zealanders  has  been  published,  "  a 
popular  history  based  on  official  records  ",  The  New  Zealand  Division, 
1Q16-1QIQ  (Auckland,  Whitcomb  and  Tombs),  by  Colonel  Ff.  Stewart, 
C.  M.  G.,  who  in  times  of  peace  is  professor  of  classics  in  Canterbury 
College  at  Christchurch. 

Volume  I.  of  the  Cambridge  History  of  India  has  been  published  by 
the  Cambridge  University  Press. 

In  the  first  number  of  the  Journal  of  Indian  History,  published  by  the 
department  of  modern  Indian  history  in  the  University  of  Allahabad,  five 
of  the  eight  articles  are  by  the  editor,  Professor  Shafaat  Ahmad  Khan, 
and  the  other  three  by  his  three  assistants.  Documents  and  discussions 
concerning  the  East  India  trade  in  the  seventeenth  century,  articles  on  the 
sources  in  British  archives  for  Indian  history  in  that  century,  on  the  East 
India  Company's  war  with  Aurangzeb,  on  the  Mughal  government  under 
Jahangir,  on  Sher  Shah,  and  the  like,  compose  the  contents. 

Humphrey  Milford  is  about  to  publish  a  second  edition,  in  two  vol- 
umes, of  Erskine  and  Leyden's  translation  of  the  Memoirs  of  Babur, 
Emperor  of  Hindustan.     The  first  edition  appeared  in  1836. 


France  643 

A  further  volume,  1660-1663.  of  the  Calendar  of  the  Court  Minutes 
of  the  East  India  Company,  by  Miss  Ethel  B.  Sainsbury,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Mr.  William  Foster,  will  soon  be  published  by  the  Oxford 
University  Press. 

The  Imperial  Record  Department  of  Calcutta  has  issued  a  Press  List 
of  "Mutiny  Papers",  l8§~,  giving  a  precis  of  papers  in  Persian  and  Urdu 
taken  at  the  capture  of  Delhi  and  dealing  with  its  history  during  the  period 
of  the  mutiny.  Lack  of  classification  makes  it  somewhat  difficult  for  the 
student  to  avail  himself  of  the  valuable  material  here  presented. 

FRANCE 

General  reviews:  L.  Halphen,  Histoire  de  France:  le  Moycu  Age 
jusqu'aux  Valois  (Revue  Historique,  November)  ;  Charles  Petit-Dutaillis, 
Histoire  de  France,  1378-1498  (ibid.,  September). 

R.  Genestal's  Lc  Privilegium  Fori  en  France  du  Dccrct  de  Gratieu  a 
la  Fin  du  XIVe  Sicclc.  vol.  I.  (Paris,  Leroux,  1921,  pp.  xix,  246),  is  a 
learned  study  of  the  earliest  period,  of  especial  value  for  church  history, 
but  not  without  interest  in  a  wider  field. 

M.  Aubert.  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  cathedral  in  1909,  has  now 
published  Notre-Dame  de  Paris:  sa  Place  dans  V Architecture  du  XII.  au 
XIV.  Sicclc  (Paris,  Laurens,  1921,  pp.  242),  a  more  detailed  and  elaborate 
study  of  some  of  the  problems  of  the  construction,  and  of  its  influence 
upon  Gothic  architecture.     It  is  excellently  illustrated. 

A  new  and  useful  manual  is  D.  Blanchet  and  J.  Toutain's  Histoire  de 
France,  depuis  le  Debut  du  XVIs  Sicclc  jusqu'en  IJ74  (  Paris,  Belin,  1921, 
pp.  246). 

Messrs.  Champion  have  published  a  second  volume  (pp.  44S).  dealing 
with  the  Germans,  Dutch,  and  Scandinavians,  of  Les  Strangers  en  France 
sous  I'Ancicn  Regime,  by  J.  Mathorez,  of  which  the  first  volume  was 
reviewed  in  a  former  issue  of  this  journal   (XXVI.  82). 

An  intimate  picture  of  Paris,  still  outwardly  medieval,  is  given  by 
Alfred  Franklin  in  Paris  et  les  Parisienncs  au  Seisieme  Sicclc  (Paris, 
£mile-Paul). 

Dr.  J.  Pannier,  Protestant  pastor  in  Paris,  in  his  volume  on  L'Eglise 
Reformce  de  Paris  sous  Louis  XIII.,  1610-1621  (Paris,  Champion,  1921, 
pp.  900),  follows  the  history  he  published  in  191 1  of  the  Huguenot 
churches  under  Henry  IV.  with  a  similar  account  of  events,  of  persons, 
and  of  movements  in  the  fields  of  religion,  letters,  and  art. 

P.  Costes  has  now  published  the  second  and  third  volumes  of  the 
Correspondancc  de  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  1640-1650  (Paris,  Gabalda, 
1920-1921,  pp.  644,  649).  A  great  number  of  imprinted  and  previously 
inaccessible  letters  are  printed.  The  editor  has  shown  great  care  in  read- 
ing and  interpreting  the  text  and  separating  originals  from  copies.  There 
are  abundant  notes. 


644  Historical  Nezvs 

C.  Urbain  has  collected  Ecrits  ct  Lettres  Politiqucs  de  Fenelon  (Paris, 
Bossard,  1921,  pp.  195),  publishing  among  other  things  a  severe  letter 
addressed  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1694. 

Abbe  J.  Dedieu  has  written  a  hostile  account  of  the  political  activities 
of  the  Huguenots  under  the  title  Le  Role  Politique  des  Protestants  Fran- 
qais,  1685-1715  (Paris,  Bloud  et  Gay,  1921,  pp.  xviii,  362).  He  ab- 
solves the  Catholics  from  blame  for  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
making  Louis  entirely  responsible. 

C.  Chasse  in  Napoleon  par  les  Ecrivains  (Paris,  Hachette,  1921,  pp. 
260)  has  gathered  together  what  was  said  of  Napoleon  by  Mme.  de  Stael, 
Constant,  Fontanes,  Talleyrand,  and  others  during  his  reign,  during  his 
exile,  at  his  death,  and  at  various  periods  since.  The  selection  and  ar- 
rangement make  it  very  illuminating.  Somewhat  the  same  task  was 
undertaken  by  R.  Burnand  and  F.  Boucher  in  L'Histoire  de  Napoleon 
racontce  par  les  Grands  Ecrivains  (Paris,  Grasset,  pp.  390).  The  ar- 
rangement, however,  is  different  inasmuch  as  the  editors  gathered  together 
what  authors  said  of  different  periods  of  his  life.  J,  d'Auriac  has  pub- 
lished Napoleon  raconte  par  Lui-Meme  (Paris,  Chiron,  1921,  pp.  500), 
which  includes  a  good  many  comments  on  Napoleon  which  contemporaries 
put  in  their  memoirs. 

F.  Masson  has  gathered  three  papers  based  on  unpublished  documents 
into  a  volume  entitled  Revue  d'Ombrcs  (Paris,  Ollendorff).  The  change 
from  republic  to  empire,  the  last  days  of  Murat,  and  the  conspiracy  of 
Grenoble,  1816,  are  the  topics  dealt  with. 

The  second  and  third  volumes  of  La  Societe  du  Second  Empire  (Paris, 
Michel,  1921,  pp.  414,  168),  by  Comte  Fleury  and  L.  Sonolet,  cover  re- 
spectively the  years  1858  to  1862.  and  1863  to  1867. 

Bossard,  Paris,  has  published  Les  Origines  de  la  III''  Republique : 
Etude  et  Documents  Historiques.  The  compiler  of  this  collection,  Au- 
guste  Callet,  was  the  reporter  of  the  Commission  of  Enquiry  into  the 
Revolution  of  September  4,  1870,  and  the  volume  now  printed  is  the  first 
of  two  which  he  intended  to  make  from  the  abundant  materials  then 
collected. 

M.  Bruchet  has  published  two  volumes  on  Archives  Departoneutales  du 
Nord  (Lille,  Danel,  1921,  pp.  lxvii,  515;  xxxii,  253).  The  archives  at 
Lille  are  of  exceptional  value  for  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

J.  Regne  has  published  the  second  volume  of  his  Histoire  du  Vivarais 
under  the  title  Le  Dcvcl«ppemcnt  Politique  et  Administratif  du  Pays  de 
1030  a  1500  (  Largentiere,  Mazel,  1921,  pp.  xvi,  520).  Not  only  political 
but  religious  and  economic  questions  are  capably  studied.  The  first  vol- 
ume appeared  in  19 14. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  F.  Lot,  Conjectures  Demo- 
yraphiques  sur  la  France  an  IX'  Sicclc  (  Le  Moyen  Age,  January-April)  ; 


Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  645 

G.  Goyau,  Saint  Louis  (Revue  Universelle,  January);  R.  Vivier,  La 
Grand  Ordonnancc  dc  Fevrier  1351:  lcs  Mesures  Anticorporatives  et  la 
Liberte  du  Travail  (Revue  Historique,  November)  ;  N.  Weiss.  Lcs  Debuts 
dc  la  Reforme  en  France  d'apres  quclques  Documents  Inedits,  VI.  Lcs 
Premiers  Missionnaires  Pierre  de  Sibiville,  Michel  d'Arandc,  Aimc  Mei- 
gret,  1523-1524  (Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  l'Histoire  du  Protestantisme 
Franqais,  October)  ;  L.  Batiffol,  Richelieu  ct  la  Question  de  I'Alsace 
( Revue  Historique,  November)  ;  C.  Pfister.  Le  Second  Voyage  de  Louis 
XII'.  en  Alsace,  Octobrc,  1681,  I.,  II.  (Seances  et  Travaux  de  l'Academie 
des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  May-June,  July-August)  ;  Comte 
d'Haussonville.  Lafayette  ct  Madame  de  Sta'el :  Lettrcs  Incdites  (Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,  November  15)  ;  H.  See,  La  Role  de  la  Bourgeoisie 
Brctonne  a  la  1'eille  de  la  Revolution  (  Annales  de  Bretagne,  XXXIV.  4)  ; 
P.  Gaxotte.  Lcs  Influences  d 'Argent  dans  la  Revolution  Francaise  (Revue 
Universelle,  January)  ;  A.  Mathiez,  La  Revolution  et  lcs  Subsistances, 
VIII.  Le  Mori  de  Marat  ct  le  Vote  de  la  Loi  sur  I'Accaparement  (Annales 
Revolutionnaires,  November)  ;  P.  Meuriot,  Lcs  Districts  dc  1790:  Com- 
ment Us  sont  devenus  lcs  Arrondissements  dc  I' An  VIII.  (Seances  et 
Travaux  de  l'Academie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques.  May-June)  ; 
Varagnac.  Napoleon  et  son  Conseil  d'Ltat  (ibid.,  May-June);  H.  Puget, 
Le  Conseil  d'Ltat  au  Temps  de  Napoleon  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques. 
July)  ;  Lord  Teignmouth,  Napoleon  and  the  British  Navy  (United  Royal 
Service  Institution,  November)  ;  A.  Augustin-Tbierry,  Angustin  Thierry 
d'apres  sa  Correspondancc,  II.,  III.  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  November 
1,  December  15)  ;  H.  Salomon,  Une  Experience  Politique  en  1S70  ct  scs 
Consequences:  fitudc  Critique,  I.  Le  Ministcrc  du  2  Janvier  ct  lcs  Re- 
sponsabilitcs  dc  M.  fimile  Ollivier ;  II.  L'Incident  Hohensollern  (Revue 
de  Synthese  Historique.  XXXII.)  ;  E.  Deborde  de  Montcorin.  La  Legcndc 
du  Drapcau  Blanc,  Octobrc,  1873  (Revue  des  fitudes  Historiques,  May)  ; 
A.  Auzoux,  Une  Institution  d' Autrefois :  Lcs  Charites  Normandes  (ibid.. 
May). 

ITALY,  SPAIN,  AND  PORTUGAL 

Previous  estimates  of  population  are  overthrown  by  P.  Egidi  in 
Ricerehc  sulla  Popolazione  dell'  Italia  Meridionale  uei  Secoli  XIII.  e 
XII'.  (Lucca,  Baroni,  1920).  On  the  basis  of  returns  from  taxation  he 
estimates  the  population  for  Italy  at  about  3.400,000  and  for  Sicily  at 
1,100,000. 

Firenze  dopo  i  Medici  (Florence,  Bemporad;  London,  Truslove  and 
Hanson),  by  Giuseppi  Conti,  recounts  the  "improvements"  made  by  the 
Lorraine  grand-dukes,  1737-1792,  and  the  Florentines'  dissatisfaction  with 
them. 

A.  Luzio.  archivist  at  Turin,  who  two  years  ago  published  the  letters 
which  passed  between  Mazzini  and  his  mother,  throws  further  light  on 
his  career  in  a  volume  entitled  Giuseppe  Mazzini,  Carbonaro  (Turin, 
Bocca,  1920),  based  on  new  documents.  Mazzini  is  followed  step  by  step 
from  his  initiation  in  1827  till  the  foundation  of  the  Young  Italy. 

AM.    HIST.    RIV..VOL.    XXVII. —43. 


646  Historical  Nezvs 

G.  Bourgin  has  translated  into  French  from  the  Italian  R.  Michels's 
Le  Proletariat  ct  la  Bourgeoisie  dans  le  Mouvement  Socialiste  Italien, 
par  Haulier  ement  des  Origines  a  1006  (Paris,  Giard,  1921,  pp.  356). 

Professor  Rafael  Ballester  has  performed  for  Spanish  history  a  service 
similar  to  that  which  has  been  rendered  before  to  students  of  French  and 
of  Belgian  history  by  the  manuals  of  Monod  and  Pirenne,  by  preparing  a 
Bibliografia  dc  la  Historia  dc  Espana  (Barcelona,  1921,  pp.  297),  listing 
some  1400  books,  including  both  sources  and  later  writings. 

An  additional  volume  of  the  Catdlogo  do  Legajos  del  Archivo  General 
de  Indias,  by  the  archivist,  Don  Pedro  Torres  Lanzas,  has  been  published 
at  Seville  by  the  Centro  de  Estudios  Americanistas ;  it  covers  about  two- 
thirds  of  section  III.,  Casa  de  Contratacion.  The  printing  of  the  Libro 
dc  las  Longitudines  of  Alonso  de  Santa  Cruz  in  successive  numbers  of 
the  archival  Boletin  having  been  finished,  it  also  is  now  issued  as  a  sep- 
arate volume. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  E.  Mayer,  Das  Altspanische  Obli- 
gationenrecht  in  seinen  Grundzugen,  II.  (Zeitschrift  fur  Vergleichende 
Rechtswissenschaft,  XXXIX.  1  and  2)  ;  A.  Alcover,  Los  Mosdrabes 
Baleares,  II.  (Revista  de  Archivos,  Bibliotecas  y  Museos,  July). 

GERMANY,    AUSTRIA,    AND    SWITZERLAND 

General  review:  E.  Stahelin,  Die  Zwinglilitcratur  dcr  Jahre  1913-1920 
(Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchengeschichte,  XXXIX.). 

The  German  Historical  Commission  attached  to  the  Bavarian  Academy 
is  finding  much  difficulty  in  publishing  the  volumes  of  materials  completed, 
but  a  new  "  Gesellschaft  von  Freunden  der  Deutschen  Geschichte  "  has 
been  formed,  which  will  supplement  diminished  governmental  aid.  Vols. 
XIII.  and  XVI.  of  the  Reichstagsakten,  earlier  series,  have  been  finished, 
and  Augsburg  VIII.  and  IX.  and  volumes  for  Brunswick  and  Liineburg, 
in  the  Stddtekroniken  series.  For  the  -series  relating  to  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  papers  of  Radowitz  are  ready  for  publication,  those  of 
Droysen  well  advanced. 

F.  Philippi  has  published  his  lectures  under  the  title  Einfithrung  in 
die  Urkundcnlchre  des  Deutschen  Mittelalters  (Bonn,  Schroeder,  1920, 
pp.  viii,  256).     The  volume  will  be  especially  useful  to  graduate  students. 

The  second  part  of  volume  II.  of  G.  Dehio's  Geschichte  der  Deutschen 
Knnst  (Berlin,  Gruyter,  1921,  pp.  iv,  350)  covers  the  period  from  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century.     It  is  well  illustrated. 

Kuliurgcschichtc  dcr  Urzeit  Gernianiens,  des  Frankenreiches,  und 
Dcutschlands  im  fri'ihen  Mittelalter,  bis  910  A.  D.  (Bonn,  Schroeder, 
1920,  pp.  374),  by  Rudolf  Goette,  is  particularly  noteworthy  in  its  treat- 
ment of  the  stone  age,  of  the  bronze  age,  and  of  Roman  influence  on 
German  civilization. 


Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland  647 

A  remarkable  collection  of  544  documents  from  the  archives  of  Reval 
is  published  by  Professor  W.  Stieda  of  Leipzig  in  Hitdebrand  Vcckin- 
chusen:  Briefwechscl  cincs  Deutschen  Kaufmanns  im  15.  Jahrhundert 
(Leipzig,  S.  Hirzel,  pp.  lvii,  560),  with  an  interesting  introduction.  The 
collection  consists  in  the  main  of  letters  that  passed  between  two  brothers, 
Hanseatic  merchants  trading  with  marts  as  widespread  as  Novgorod, 
Bergen,  and  Venice,  and  ranges  through  forty  years  from  1395. 

Richard  Wolff's  Studien  su  Luthers  Weltanschauung  (Berlin,  Olden- 
bourg,  1920,  pp.  65)  is  a  small  book  but  a  solid  contribution  toward  under- 
standing Luther's  personality  and  purposes. 

Wilhelm  Schiissler  has  edited  Die  Tagcbiicher  des  Freihcrrn  Rcinhard 
von  Dalwigk  zu  Lichtenfels  aus  den  Jaliren  1860-/ 1  (Stuttgart,  Deutsche 
Verlags-Anstalt,  1920,  pp.  viii,  535).  The  diary  was  a  painstaking  piece 
of  work  and  gives  a  vivid  account  of  events.  It  is  well  edited  and  has 
numerous  notes  and  appendixes. 

A  careful  and  clear  account  of  the  elements  which  composed  and  the 
events  which  precipitated  the  crisis  in  the  first  three  months  of  1890  is  to 
be  found  in  W.  Schiissler's  Bismarcks  Sturs  (Leipzig,  Quelle  und  Meyer, 
1921,  pp.  xii,  S27)-  It  is  written  from  a  viewpoint  hostile  to  the  Kaiser. 
An  attempt  to  analyze  Bismarck's  personality  is  embodied  in  Bismarck 
im  eigencn  Urteil:  Psychologisclie  Studien  (Berlin,  Cotta,  1920,  pp.  247) 
by  Karl  Groos.  Wolfgang  Windelband  has  published  Herbert  Bismarck 
als  Mitarbeitcr  seines  1'atcrs  (Stuttgart,  Deutsche  Verlags-Anstalt,  1921). 

C.  Bornhak  has  written  a  book  covering  the  period  from  the  fall  of 
Bismarck  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  under  the  title  Deutsche  Gcschichte 
ttnter  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.  (Leipzig,  Deichert,  1921,  pp.  viii.  360).  F. 
Caburi's  Guglielnw  II.  (Milan,  tip.  ed.  Risorgimento,  1920,  pp.  103)  is 
the  work  of  an  Italian  journalist  thoroughly  familiar  with  Austria  and 
Germany.  It  is  devoted  largely  to  a  study  of  the  Kaiser's  personality. 
D.  Roget  has  translated  W.  Rathenau's  Le  Kaiser:  Meditations  (Paris, 
Agence  Generale  de  Librairie  et  de  Publications,  1921,  pp.  150)  into 
French. 

The  second  volume  of  Georg  von  Hertling's  Erinnerungcn  aus  Meinem 
Leben  (Kempten,  Kosel,  1920.  pp.  iv,  312:  see  Am.  Hist.  Rev.,  XXV. 
506)  is  edited  by  his  son,  Karl  Graf  von  Hertling.  The  volume  covers 
the  period  down  to  1902,  and  is  to  be  followed  by  a  third.  George  Michae- 
lis  has  published  Fur  Staat  und  Volk:  cine  Lcbcnsgcschichte  (Berlin, 
Furche-Verlag,  1921). 

Many  commentaries  upon  the  new  German  constitution  are  appearing 
in  that  country.  Hans  Naviasky's  Die  Grundgedanken  der  Reichsverfas- 
sung  (Munich,  Duncker  und  Humblot,  1920,  pp.  164)  is  an  interpretation 
of  the  political  content  of  the  new  constitution  which  contrasts  it  with  the 
constitution   of   1871.     Die   Verfassung  des  Deutschen  Reiches  vom   11 


648  Historical  News 

August,  1010  (Berlin,  Stilke,  1921,  pp.  290),  by  Gerhard  Anschiitz,  gives 
the  historical  background  and  explains  the  constitution  from  parliamentary 
material.  The  second  edition  of  F.  Giese's  Die  Verfassung  des  Deutschen 
Reiches  vom  n  August,  1919  (Berlin,  Heymann,  1920,  pp.  xvi,  456)  con- 
tains a  bibliography  of  important  books  and  periodical  articles  about  the 
constitution.  The  second  edition  of  Fritz  Poetzsch's  Handausgabe  der 
Reichsvcrfassung  vom  11  August,  1910  (Berlin,  Liebmann,  1921,  pp.  226) 
is  enlarged  by  the  latest  legislation,  which  in  effect  amends  constitutional 
practice.  The  first  collection  of  legislation  based  on  the  new  constitution 
is  Otto  Meissner's  Das  Neue  Staatsrecht  des  Reichs  und  seiner  Lander 
systematisch  dargestellt  (Berlin,  Hobbing,  1921,  pp.  xi,  359).  It  is  organ- 
ized in  a  very  useful  way.  Rudolf  Cohn  in  Die  Reiehsaufsicht  ilber  die 
Lander  nach  der  Reichsverfassung  vom  11  August,  1910  (Berlin,  Hey- 
mann, 1921,  pp.  vii,  64)  makes  an  attempt  to  work  out  systematically  the 
rights  of  imperial  control  under  the  new  constitution. 

L'AUcmagne :  Lendemains  de  Guerre  ct  de  Revolution  (Paris,  Colin, 
1921,  pp.  300)  is  by  Maurice  Baumont  and  Marcel  Berthelot,  who  were 
attached  to  French  missions  in  Berlin  after  the  armistice  and  whose  infor- 
mation, therefore,  was  gathered  on  the  ground.  They  made  use  of  many 
documents  not  readily  available  elsewhere. 

After  a  long  interval  the  second  half  of  the  first  volume  of  Rudolf 
Bemmann's  Bibliographic  der  Sdchsischcn  Geschichte  (Leipzig,  Teubner, 
1921,  pp.  xviii,  614)  has  appeared.  It  contains  titles  relating  to  the  con- 
stitution, law  and  government,  economic  relations,  intellectual  life,  the 
church,  and  the  army. 

Stimulated  by  the  opening  of  the  Austrian  archives  up  to  dates  quite 
recent,  and  by  other  causes,  the  archivists  of  the  Haus-,  Hof-,  und  Staats- 
archiv  have  begun  the  publication  of  a  journal,  Historische  Blactter 
(Vienna,  Rikola),  which  promises  to  be  of  much  value,  especially  to 
students  of  modern  history.  The  first  number  contains  an  article  by 
Professor  G.  von  Below,  of  Freiburg,  continued  in  the  second  number,  on 
the  modern  development  of  German  historiography,  especially  in  its  rela- 
tions to  romanticism,  Hegel,  Marx,  and  sociology ;  a  body  of  correspond- 
ence of  Archduke  John  with  the  Austrian  chancery  respecting  the  Sonder- 
bund  question  ;  an  article  by  the  late  Professor  August  Fournier,  on  Euro- 
pean politics  from  1812  to  the  first  peace  of  Paris,  intended,  together  with 
his  article  in  the  Deutsche  Rundschau  of  July,  1919,  on  the  Paris  peace 
conference  of  1814,  to  form  the  preliminary  chapters  of  a  book  on  the 
Congress  of  Vienna;  and  a  paper  by  Professor  Alexander  Cartellieri,  of 
Heidelberg,  on  Georges  Bourdon's  Figaro  articles  and  book  of  1913  on 
German  public  opinion  respecting  France  and  war.  In  the  second  number 
there  is  a  thorough  critical  discussion  of  the  character  of  the  political 
testament  of  Charles  V.,  by  Professor  J.  K.  Mayr,  of  Vienna;  a  first  in- 
stallment of  "  Neues  zur  Orientpolitik  des  Grafen  Andrassy  ",  1876-1877, 


Netherlands  and  Belgium  649 

by  Eduard  von  Wertheimer,  of  Vienna;  and  "Das  Schicksal  der 
Deutschen  und  der  Weltkrieg  ",  by  Berthold  Molden. 

Professor  Viktor  Bibl,  of  the  University  of  Vienna,  with  the  aid  of 
copious  materials  from  the  national  archives,  is  preparing  an  important 
historical  work  on  Der  Zerfall  Oesterreichs  (Vienna,  Rikola),  of  which 
the  first  volumes.  Kaiser  Franz  unci  sein  Erbc  and  Von  Revolution  su 
Revolution  [1848-1918],  will  shortly  appear.  The  same  publisher  an- 
nounces two  important  documentary  publications,  Kronprinz  Rudolf: 
Politische  Briefe  an  cincn  Freund,  1882-1880,  letters  to  Moritz  Szeps, 
editor  of  the  Wiener  Tagblatt,  and  articles  contributed  by  the  prince  to 
that  journal,  and  Der  Politische  Nachlass  des  Grafen  Eduard  Taaffe, 
prime  minister  of  Austria  from  1879  to  1893. 

The  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  and  His  Times  (London.  Hutchinson), 
by  Lieut-Gen.  Baron  von  Margutti,  is  a  memoir  of  the  later  years  of  the 
emperor's  life  by  a  member  of  his  official  family. 

Field-Marshal  Conrad-Hotzendorf  is  publishing,  at  considerable  length 
and  with  many  supporting  documents,  his  memoirs.  Aus  meiuer  Dienstzeit, 
1906-1918  (Vienna,  Rikola).  The  first  volume.  Die  Zeit  der  Anncxions- 
krise,  1906-1909,  and  the  second,  continuing  the  narrative  through  1912, 
have  already  appeared.  The  third,  extending  through  1913  and  the  first 
half  of  1914,  will  appear  in  the  autumn.  After  these  volumes  dealing  with 
Balkan  wars  and  military  preparations  will  come  the  memoirs  of  the  Great 
War,  which  the  author  is  preparing. 

The  Czechoslovak  government  is  establishing  at  Rome  an  independent 
historical  institute  in  the  place  of  the  "  Bohemian  expedition  "  formerly 
attached  to  the  Austrian  Institute,  and  will  bring  out  before  long  vol.  III. 
(pontificate  of  Urban  V.)  of  the  Monumenta  Bohemiae  Vaticana.  The 
Cracow  Academy  of  Sciences  is  contemplating  the  foundation  of  a  Polish 
institute  also,  and  there  is  prospect  of  a  Yugoslav  institute  and  of  co- 
operation between  the  three  Slavonic  establishments. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  E.  Mayer,  Der  Ursprung  der  Ger- 
manischen  Gottesurteile  (  Historische  Vierteljahrschrift,  XX.  3);  M.  von 
Hagen,  Die  Bundnispolitik  des  Deutschen  Rciches  (Preussische  Jahr- 
biicher,  November). 

NETHERLANDS   AND   BELGIUM 

The  late  Dr.  J.  G.  de  Hoop  Scheffer  of  Amsterdam,  whose  monograph 
on  the  Brownists,  in  the  Werken  of  the  Amsterdam  Academy,  is  known 
to  students  of  Pilgrim  history,  prepared  before  his  death  a  volume  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  his  son  and  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  William 
E.  Griffis.  and  is  now  about  to  be  published  under  the  title  History  of  the 
Free  Churchmen  called  the  Brownists  and  Pilgrim  Fathers  in  Holland 
(Ithaca,  N.  Y..  Andrus  and  Church).  It  is  certain  to  constitute  an  au- 
thoritative account  of  the  Amsterdam  community  from  which  the  Leyden 
Pilgrims  came,  and  of  its  relations  to  the  church  history  of  the  time. 


650  Historical  News 

The  new  organ  of  the  Belgian  historians  and  philologians,  the  Revue 
Beige  de  Philologic  et  d'Histoirc,  appeared  in  January,  as  announced  in 
our  last  number,  and  makes  a  most  creditable  beginning  of  an  enterprise 
which  has  our  best  wishes.  Among  the  historical  articles  we  note  one  of 
much  suggestive  generalization  by  Professor  Henri  Pirenne  of  Ghent, 
"  Mahomet  et  Charlemagne  ",  on  the  general  effect  of  the  spread  of  Islam 
on  the  western  world;  one  by  Professor  L.  Leclere  of  Brussels,  on  the 
chronological  limits  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  one  by  M.  Hubert  Nelis  on  the 
dating  of  the  charters  of  Philip  the  Good;  and  a  useful  article  by  M.  Vic- 
tor Tourneur,  secretary  of  the  Numismatic  Society  of  Brussels,  on  the 
proper  procedure  in  evaluating  sums  of  money  mentioned  in  medieval  and 
modern  Belgian  sources. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  Belgian  Commission  Royale  d'Histoire,  LXXXV. 
1,  contains  a  full  account  of  the  Ypres  chronicle,  1562-1595,  of  Augustijn 
van  Hernighem,  by  M.  Victor  Fris. 

NOETHEEN  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 

General  review:  K.  Volker,  Zur  Reformationsgeschichte  Polens:  ein 
Forschungsbcricht  (Archiv  fiir  Religionswissenschaft,  XXXIX.). 

An  elaborate  history  of  the  swords  of  the  vikings,  by  Dr.  Jan  Peter- 
sen, with  nearly  140  illustrations,  occupies  228  pages  of  the  Skrifter  of 
the  Christiania  Society  of  Sciences  for  1919  (Christiania,  1920,  Jacob 
Dybwad). 

The  chief  Norwegian  historical  society,  the  Norske  Historiske  Fore- 
ning,  has  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its  foundation  by  publishing 
an  impressive  volume  on  the  history  of  historical  work  in  Norway  during 
the  period  from  1869  to  1919,  Norsk  Historisk  Vidcnskap  i  Femti  Ar 
(Christiania,  Grp'ndal  and  Son,  1920,  pp.  352),  to  which  Professors  Halvdan 
Koht,  Edvard  Bull,  and  Oscar  A.  Johnsen,  and  other  scholars,  contribute 
chapters  on  various  aspects  of  Norwegian  historical  work  during  the  half- 
century,  while  Dr.  Wilhelm  Munthe  gives  a  history  of -the  society  itself. 

A  history  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Russia  with  particular 
emphasis  upon  the  period  between  1905  and  1918  is  published  under  the 
title  Wie  Russland  Bolschewistisch  Wurde:  ein  Aufriss  dcr  Russischen 
Revolution  (Berlin,  Vereinigung  Wissenschaftlicher  Verleger,  1921,  pp. 
iii,  128).  The  author,  E.  Jenny,  lived  for  many  years  in  Russia.  S. 
Zagorsky,  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  University  of  Petrograd, 
has  written  La  Republique  des  Soviets:  Bilan  Sconomique  (Paris,  Payot, 
1921),  attempting  to  show  the  way  in  which  developments  have  been  in  a 
direction  diametrically  opposite  to  communist  principles  and  to  the  objects 
sought  by  Bolshevist  leaders.  V.  Tchernov,  former  minister  of  agricul- 
ture under  the  provisional  government  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Socialist  Revolutionary  party,  has  published  Mes  Tribulations  en  Russie 
Sovietique  (Paris,  Povolozky,  1921). 


Southeaster)!  Europe  651 

The  first  of  three  volumes  on  La  Russie  des  Tsars  pendant  la  Grande 
Guerre  (Paris,  Plon,  1922,  pp.  x,  $77),  by  M.  Paleologue,  French  am- 
bassador at  St.  Petersburg,  covers  the  period  from  July,  1914,  to  June, 
1915.  This  very  important  contribution  first  appeared  in  the  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes. 

The  first  volume  of  Professor  Paul  Miliukov's  history  of  the  second 
Russian  Revolution  (Istoriia  Vtoroi  Rnsskoi  Rcvoliutsii).  meaning  the 
revolution  of  1917,  has  been  published  (Sofia,  Russian-Bulgarian  Press; 
London,  Jashke).  It  covers  the  period  from  March  to  July,  1917.  It  was 
partly  written  the  next  winter,  and  was  then  to  be  published  at  Kiev. 
There  the  Petliura  troops  endeavored  to  destroy  print  and  manuscript,  but 
an  imperfect  copy  of  the  latter  escaped  destruction,  and  was  made  the 
basis  of  the  present  important  work. 

Two  volumes  of  General  Denikin's  memoirs  have  appeared  under  the 
title  Ocherki  Rnsskoi  Smuti  [Outlines  of  the  Russian  Turmoil]  (Paris, 
Povolozky).  These  recollections,  just,  impersonal,  convincing,  are  of 
such  value  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  may  soon  be  translated.  The 
second  volume  runs  to  the  arrest  of  Komilov,  Denikin,  and  others,  after 
Kornilov's  rising. 

P.  Apostol  and  A.  Michelson,  well  known  Russian  economists,  have 
written  La  Lutte  pour  le  Petrole  et  la  Russie  (Paris,  Payot.  1922,  pp.  224) 
which  deals  with  the  subject  historically  as  well  as  devoting  space  to  the 
present  situation. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Vicomte  de  Guische,  L'Hrolution 
de  la  Politique  Russe  dit  XI Xe  au  XXe  Steele  ( Seances  et  Travaux  de 
l'Academie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques,  May-June)  ;  J.  W.  Head- 
lam-Morley,  Russian  Diplomacy  before  the  War  (  Quarterly  Review,  Jan- 
uary) ;  anon.,  L'Assassinat  d' Alexandre  II.,  I.  (Revue  de  Paris,  January 
1 )  ;  M.  Paleologue,  La  Russie  des  Tsars  pendant  la  Grande  Guerre,  second 
series,  I.  La  Reouvcrture  de  la  Douma  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Decem- 
ber 15)  ;  O.  Dzenis,  How  the  Bolsheviki  captured  the  Winter  Palace 
(Living  Age,  February  n,  from  the  Moscow  Pravda,  November  6); 
General  C.  Brummer,  Lcs  Derniers  Jours  du  Grand  Due  Nicolas  Mi- 
khail ovitch  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  November  15). 

SOUTHEASTERN    EUROPE 

To  the  S.  P.  C.  K.  series  of  Translations  of  Christian  Literature  has 
been  added  a  small  volume  of  Lhcs  of  the  Serbian  Saints  (pp.  xx.  108), 
ed.  Voyeslav  Yanich  and  C.  P.  Jankey. 

The  general  history  of  the  Orthodox  Church  to  the  year  1050  is  given 
in  Istorija  Hristianske  Erkve  (Belgrade,  Kon,  1920.  pp.  vi.  220)  by  R.  M. 
Grujic.  The  same  author,  who  is  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Bel- 
grad,  gives  an  account  of  the  church  in  Serbia  in  Praz'oslazna  Srpska 
Tzrkva   (Belgrade,  1921,  pp.  vi,  220).     The  work  includes  an  extensive 


652  Historical  News 

bibliography.     Pravoslavno    Monastvo    i   Monastiri   u    Srednjevekovnoj 

Srbiji  (Karlovicz,  1920)  is  a  posthumous  work  of  B.  Markovic  and  is  a 
learned  contribution  to  the  stud)'  of  monasticism  in  the  Serbian  church. 

In  Deux  Typica  Bysantins  de  I'Epoque  des  Paleologues  (pp.  213,  from 
the  Memoir es  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Belgium),  Father  Hippolyte 
Delehaye  presents  the  Greek  text  of  the  typica  of  two  nunneries  in  Con- 
stantinople, that  of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Hope,  founded  about  1300  by 
Theodora,  niece  of  the  Emperor  Michael  VIII.  Palaeologus,  and  that  of 
Constantine  Lips,  founded  by  him  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  refounded 
by  another  Theodora,  wife  of  Michael  VII.I.  Typica  were  monastic 
rules.  Father  Delehaye  gives  a  chronological  list  of  those  that  have  been 
printed.  Very  few  of  them  are  for  convents  of  women.  He  also  gives 
a  full  discussion  of  the  history,  organization,  and  rules  of  these  two 
convents. 

General  Liman  von  Sanders  has  published  his  memoirs  under  the  title 
Fi'tnf  Jahre  Tiirkei  (Berlin,  Scherl,  1920,  pp.  408).  When,  after  the 
armistice,  he  was  held  prisoner  of  war  for  six  months  he  began  this 
account  of  his  experiences.  It  is  a  record  of  conflict  with  Enver  and  an 
attempt  to  prove  that  the  Turks  were  not  entirely  controlled  by  their 
German  allies. 

ASIA,   MEDIEVAL   AND   MODERN 

General  review:  E.  Montet,  Histoire  de  VI slam  (Revue  Historique, 
September). 

The  Lombard  colony  of  Nicosia,  both  before  the  Norman  conquest  and 
during  the  twelfth  century,  forms  the  subject  of  a  recent  study,  /  Lom- 
bardi  di  Nicosia  nel  XII.  Sccolo:  Nuovi  Studi  c  Ricerche  (Nicosia, 
Lavoro,  1920),  by  A.  Barbato. 

La  Syric  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921,  pp.  xix,  733).  by  G.  Samne,  is  a  work 
of  almost  encyclopaedic  character  and  is  particularly  good  on  the  histori- 
cal side. 

A  specimen  of  the  difficulties  attending  government  under  mandates 
and  of  the  patient  consideration  and  competence  of  knowledge  with  which 
British  administrators  may  approach  them  is  afforded  by  the  Report  of 
the  Commission  appointed  by  the  Government  of  Palestine  to  inquire  into 
the  Affairs  of  the  Orthodox  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  (Oxford,  Univer- 
sity Press,  pp.  vii,  336),  prepared  by  the  commissioners,  Sir  Anton  Ber- 
tram, chief  justice  of  Ceylon,  and  Mr.  H.  C.  Luke,  assistant  governor  of 
Jerusalem.  The  Patriarch  and  the  majority  of  his  synod  have  come  to 
be  so  widely  at  variance  that  a  determination  of  their  constitutional  rela- 
tions, and  of  the  power  of  the  Orthodox  Eastern  Churches  to  try  and 
depose  a  Patriarch,  became  necessary.  In  pursuing  this  inquiry,  the  com- 
missioners have  brought  together  an  extraordinary  amount  of  information 
concerning  the  constitutional  history  of  those  churches. 


America  653 

Among  recent  books  dealing  with  the  trans- Caucasian  peoples  that  of 
P.  G.  La  Chesnais,  Lcs  Peuples  de  Transcaucasie  pendant  la  Guerre  et 
devant  la  Pair  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921),  is  worthy  of  note. 

An  account  of  the  origin  and  spread  of  Mohammedanism  in  China  is 
given  by  N.  Hartmann  in  his  recently  published  volume.  Zur  Gescliiehte 
des  Islam  in  China  (Leipzig,  Heims,  1921,  pp.  xxiv,  152).  M.  Anesaki 
is  the  author  of  Quelques  Pages  de  I'Histoirc  Religieuse  du  Japon  (  Paris, 
Bernard,  1921,  pp.  173). 

The  Economic  History  of  China;  with  speeial  Reference  to  Agricul- 
ture, by  Mabel  Ping-Hua  Lee,  is  among  the  Columbia  University  Studies 
in  History,  Economics,  and  Public  Laze  (New  York,  Longmans). 

A.  Dubosco,  whose  residence  at  Pekin  as  a  lecturer  in  the  university 
gave  him  opportunities  for  observation,  has  written  the  history  of  the  last 
ten  years  under  the  title  L'Evolution  de  la  Chine:  Politique  ct  Tendances 
ign-ig2i  (Paris,  Bossard,  1921.  pp.  204). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  anon.,  L 'Organisation  de  la  Syrie 
sous  le  Mandat  Francois  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  December  1);  B. 
Nikitine,  Une  Petite  Nation,  Victime  de  la  Guerre:  les  Chaldeens  (Revue 
des  Sciences  Politiques,  October)  ;  Sir  Aurel  Stein,  A  Chinese  Expedition 
across  the  Pamirs  and  Hindukush,  A.  D.  747  (Geographic  Journal,  Feb- 
ruary). 

AFRICA,    MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN 

After  an  interval  of  seven  years  Professor  Paul  Darmstaedter  has 
published  the  second  volume  of  his  Gesehichte  der  Auftcilung  mid  Koloni- 
sation  Afrikas  seit  dem  Zeitalter  der  Entdeckungen  (  Leipzig,  Vereinigung 
Wissenschaftlicher  Verleger.  1920,  pp.  vi.  176)  under  the  title  Gesehichte 
der  Auftcilung  Afrikas  1870-ipip.  The  account  is  based  upon  much 
unpublished  material  and  even  the  latest  discoveries  are  treated. 

Dr.  Merab,  the  physician  of  Menelik  II.,  has  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  Impressions  d'Ethiopie,  I'Abyssinie  sous  Menelik  II.  (  Paris.  Libert, 
1921,  pp.  xv,  390).  It  includes  an  historical  sketch  as  well  as  material  on 
geography  and  ethnography. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  P.  Kahle.  Zur  Gescliiehte  der  Mit- 
telalterliehen  Alexandria  (Der  Islam,  XII.);  C.  C.  Rossini.  Expeditions 
ct  Possessions  des  Habasat  en  Arabic  (Journal  Asiatique,  July-Sep- 
tember). 

AMERICA 
GENERAL  ITEMS 

The  Manuscripts  Division  of  the  Library  of  Congress  has  acquired, 
by  transfer  from  the  Department  of  State,  those  papers  of  the  Continental 
Congress  of  a  diplomatic  sort  hitherto  retained  in  that  department,  to- 
gether with  Jefferson's  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  the  record*;  of  the  Constitutional  Convention, 


654  Historical  Mews 

and  some  papers  of  Franklin,  Madison,  and  Jefferson.  The  Department 
of  State  has  also  transferred  to  the  Library  the  Henry  Adams  transcripts 
of  diplomatic  correspondence  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  relating 
to  the  United  States,  1787-1814  (20  volumes).  Among  the  other  recent 
accessions  of  importance  are  :  papers  of  Commodore  David  Porter  and  Ad- 
miral David  D.  Porter,  1799-1899  (about  260  pieces)  ;  accounts,  etc.,  of  the 
Charles  Bruce  plantation  at  Staunton  Hill,  Charlotte  County,  Virginia, 
1798-1879  (about  500  pieces);  Nathaniel  Niles  papers,  1802-1850  (175 
pieces):  miscellaneous  papers  of  William  Eaton,  1801-1808;  papers  of 
Maj.-Gen.  John  M.  Schofield,  1861-1895;  Russel  Jarvis  papers.  1827- 
1851  (74  pieces)  ;  additions  to  the  Andrew  Jackson  Papers,  1812-1839 
(67  pieces)  ;  additions  to  the  Nathanael  Greene  Papers  1778-1783  (16 
letters);  letters  (16)  from  John  Quincy  Adams  to  Joseph  Blunt,  1804- 
1834;  letters  from  Baring  Brothers  and  Company  to  the  United  States 
Bank,  1833  (about  100  pieces)  ;  and.  numerous  transcripts  from  the 
archives  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  Mexico. 

The  Historical  Section  of  the  War  Department,  located  at  the  Army 
War  College  in  Washington,  hopes  in  the  near  future  to  be  able  to  under- 
take the  preparation  of  a  manual  of  American  military  history,  in  such 
form  as  to  serve  for  orientation  and  elementary  bibliography  for  students. 
The  Section,  besides  being  always  ready  to  place  its  own  archives  at  the 
disposal  of  students  properly  accredited,  and  to  assist  them  in  gaining 
access  to  other  files  in  the  War  Department,  has  some  facilities  for 
obtaining  copies  of  documents  in  the  military  archives  of  foreign  coun- 
tries, for  the  benefit  of  historical  students. 

Bulletin  74  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  is  entitled  Excava- 
.  Hon  of  a  Site  at  Santiago  Ahuitzotla,  D.  F.,  Mexico,  and  is  by  Alfred  M. 
Tozzer.  The  Thirty-Fifth  Annual  Report  (1913-1914)  of  the  Bureau,  in 
two  parts,  contains,  as  the  Accompanying  Paper,  a  study,  by  Dr.  Franz 
Boas,  of  the  Ethnology  of  the  Kwakiutl,  based  on  data  collected  by  George 
Hunt.  The  paper  embodies  a  large  mass  of  material  relating  to  the  indus- 
tries of  the  tribes,  their  beliefs,  customs,  family  histories,  songs,  etc.  The 
Thirty-Sixth.  Annual  Report  (1914-1915)  ofthe  Bureau  has  for  its  prin- 
cipal content  a  study,  by  Francis  La  Flesche,  of  the  Osage  Tribe:  Rite  of 
the  Chiefs ;  Sayings  of  the  Ancient  Men. 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society  at  the  semi- 
annual meeting  of  October,  1920,  Chief  Justice  Arthur  P.  Rugg  presents, 
with  documents,  a  paper  on  the  celebrated  case  of  Sherman  vs.  Keayne, 
1642;  Dr.  Charles  L.  Nichols  describes  the  portraits  of  Isaiah  Thomas, 
founder  of  the  society,  which  are  reproduced  in  his  article ;  Mr.  Arthur 
Lord  discourses  authoritatively  upon  the  Mayflower  Compact;  and  Dr. 
Thomas  H.  Gage  contributes  an  artists'  index  to  Stauffer's  American 
Engravers. 

The  student  of  New   England  history,   especially,   will   find   much  to 


America  655 

interest  him  in  Dublin  University  and  the  New  World  (London,  S.  P. 
C.  K.,  pp.  96).  a  memorial  discourse  preached  in  the  chapel  of  Trinity 
College  by  Rev.  Robert  H.  Murray,  and  conveying  many  interesting 
details  respecting  the  Mathers  and  Winthrops  and  other  Americans  con- 
nected with  the  college. 

The  September  number  of  the  Records  of  the  American  Catholic  His- 
torical Society  contains  a  study,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Peter  Guilday,  of  the  Restora- 
tion of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  United  States,  1806-1815,  and  an 
account,  by  Sister  Mary  Eulalia,  O.  M.,  of  the  Work  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  in  the  United  States  :  Pittsburgh. 

ITEMS  ARRANGED  IN  CHRONOLOGICAL  ORDER 

Professor  Claude  H.  Van  Tyne's  long-expected  book  on  The  Causes 
of  the  War  of  Independence  is  published  this  month  by  the  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company. 

The  Encvclopedia  Press  of  New  York  has  in  the  hands  of  the  printers 
a  volume  on  The  Life  and  Times  of  Archbishpp  John  Carroll,  by  Pro- 
fessor Peter  Guilday  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Hoskins  of  Summerfield,  North  Carolina,  is  the  compiler 
and  publisher  of  President  Washington's  Diaries,  lyoi-ijao. 

No.  33  of  the  publications  of  the  Niagara  Historical  Society  is  a  body 
of  Documents  relating  to  the  Invasion  of  the  Niagara  Peninsula  by  the 
United  States  Army  commanded  by  General  Jacob  Brown,  in  July  and 
August,  1814  (pp.  99),  drawn  mostly  from  sources  in  Washington. 

Longmans,  Green,  and  Company  have  brought  out  a  new  edition  of 
Division  and  Reunion,  by  Woodrow  Wilson,  in  the  "  Epoch"  series,  with 
additional  chapters  by  Edward  S.  Corwin,  bringing  the  narrative  down  to 
the  end  of  1918. 

Lincoln  the  Greatest  Man  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by  Charles  R. 
Brown,  is  from  the  press  of  Macmillan. 

The  late  Professor  Harry  Thurston  Peck's  Twenty  Years  of  the  Re- 
public (New  York,  1906)  comes  to  us  in  a  French  translation,  Vingt 
Annies  de  Vie  Publique  aux  £tats-Unis,  1SS3-1005  (Paris,  Plon-Nourrit, 
2  vols.).  The  translator,  M.  Charles  Oster  of  La  Patrie,  who  died  in 
July,  1914,  had  in  1908  spent  some  months  in  America  in  the  study  of 
our  electoral  system,  and  appendixes  by  him  relating  to  that  subject  are 
added. 

Mr.  Hamlin  Garland's  A  Daughter  of  the  Middle  Border  (Macmillan. 
1921,  pp.  405)  is  certainly  not  now  American  social  history,  nor  is  it 
fiction.  Yet  it  occupies  a  border-land  touching  both  fields,  and  a  century 
hence  will  probably  be  used  freely  by  students  interested  in  either  subject 
for  the  period  1893-1921. 


656  Historical  Nezvs 

A  volume  by  the  late  William  F.  McCombs,  entitled  Making  Woodrow 
Wilson  President,  has  been  published,  under  the  editorial  supervision  of 
Louis  J.  Lang,  by  the  Fairview  Publishing  Co.  (342  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York). 

THE   UNITED   STATES   IN    THE  GREAT   WAR 

The  Report  on  the  Naval  Investigation  by  the  subcommittee  of  the 
Senate  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs  (67th  Cong.,  1  sess.,  reports,  no  num- 
ber), the  product  of  the  long  investigation  conducted  by  that  subcommittee 
in  consequence  of  Admiral  Sims's  charges,  is  in  itself  a  partisan  docu- 
ment, more  exactly  two  partisan  documents,  by  the  majority  and  minority 
members  (pp.  136,  80).  But  the  hearings,  now  available  through  the 
committee,  in  two  volumes,  aggregating  3445  pages,  contain,  along  with 
much  that  is  diffuse  and  worthless,  a  great  amount  of  valuable  historical 
testimony  and  document,  deserving  of  preservation  and  study. 

A  History  of  the  20th  Division:  Blue  and  Gray.  191/-1919,  by  John  A. 
Cutchins  and  George  S.  Stewart,  jr.,  prepared  at  the  request  of  the 
divisional  historical  committee,  is  understood  to  contain  a  complete  record 
of  the  division,  including  the  name  of  every  officer  and  enlisted  man 
connected  with  it  (George  S.  Stewart,  jr.,  4206  Walnut  Street,  Phila- 
delphia). 

Dodd,  Mead,  and  Company  have  brought  out  a  History  of  the  Seventy- 
Eighth  Division  in  the  World  War,  IQI--191Q,  edited  by  Thomas  F. 
Meehan. 

A  History  of  the  ooth  Division  in  the  Great  War,  by  Major  George 
Wythe,  division  historian,  is  brought  out  by  the  Harlow  Publishing  Com- 
pany of  Oklahoma  City. 

LOCAL  ITEMS  ARRANGED  IN  GEOGRAPHICAL  ORDER 

NEW    ENGLAND 

Historical  papers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Vermont  Historical  Society 
for  the  years  1919-1920  are:  biographical  sketches  of  Vermonters  in  Con- 
gress, compiled  from  the  Congressional  Record  by  Henry  W.  Taylor ;  the 
Diary  of  a  Journey  through  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  and  Eastern  New 
York  in  the  Summer  of  1800,  probably  by  John  Russell  Davis ;  the  Remi- 
niscences of  Jonathan  Elkins  (1774-1783,  including  his  experiences  as  a 
British  prisoner)  ;  an  address,  delivered  before  the  society  in  1S64,  by 
Rev.  C.  C.  Parker,  on  Ezra  Butler,  member  of  Congress  1813-1815,  and 
governor  of  Vermont  1826-1828;  and  an  address,  by  Chief  Justice  John 
H.  Watson,  on  the  Vermont  Constitution  of  1777  and  Slavery. 

A  History  of  Vermont:  the  Green  Mountain  State,  by  Walter  H. 
Crockett,  has  been  brought  out  by  the  Century  History  Company  ( 8  West 
47th  Street,  New  York),  and  is  for  sale  by  the  Tuttle  Company,  Rutland, 
Vermont. 


America  657 

The  contents  of  the  January  number  of  the  Essex  Institute  Historical 
Collections  include :  Washington  in  Essex  County,  by  Robert  S.  Rantoul ; 
the  Province  Galley  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  1694-1716,  by  Harriet  S.  Tap- 
ley;  and  a  continuation  of  the  papers  by  George  G.  Putnam  on  Salem 
Vessels  and  their  Voyages. 

Contributions  of  the  Lowell  Historical  Society,  vol.  II.,  no.  I  (Octo- 
ber, 1921),  includes  a  paper  on  the  Writing  of  Local  History,  by  Rev. 
Wilson  Waters;  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Police  Court  of  Lowell,  by 
Judge  Samuel  P.  Hadley ;  a  paper  on  the  Acadian  Exiles,  by  Mrs.  Sara  S. 
Griffin;  and  some  Reminiscences  of  the  Lowell  High  School,  by  Miss 
Mary  A.  Webster. 

Tivo  Centuries  of  Travel  in  Essex  County,  Massachusetts:  a  Collection 
of  Narratives  and  Observations  made  by  Travelers,  i6o}-i~op,  collected 
and  annotated  by  George  F.  Dow,  is  published  in  Topsfield,  Massachusetts, 
by  the  Topsfield  Historical  Society. 

Vol.  II.,  part  I.,  of  Dr.  Worthington  C.  Ford's  Catalogue  of  the  John 
Carter  Brown  Library  (pp.  250)  extends,  with  the  same  excellent  care 
and  method  as  its  predecessors,  from  the  books  printed  in  1600  into  those 
of  1634. 

MIDDLE    COLONIES    AXD    STATES 

Articles  in  the  July  (1921)  number  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the 
New  York  State  Historical  Association  are:  Revolutionary  Camps  of  the 
Hudson  Highlands,  by  W.  S.  Thomas;  the  Calvinist  Mind  in  America,  by 
Professor  Dixon  R.  Fox;  the  Town  of  Dover  on  Staten  Island,  by  George 
W.  Tuttle:  and  the  Huguenots  the  First  Settlers  in  the  Province  of  New 
York,  by  Ralph  Le  Fevre. 

The  January  number  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  Quarterly 
Bulletin  contains  an  illustrated  paper,  by  William  L.  Calver,  on  the  Amer- 
ican Army  Button  of  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  a  brief  description  of 
the  De  Peyster  family  papers  recently  acquired  by  the  society  through  the 
gift  of  Mr.  F.  Ashton  De  Peyster,  and  a  continuation  of  the  Notes  on 
American  Artists,  by  the  late  William  Kelby.  Among  these  notes  is  an 
account  of  the  portrait  of  Washington  by  Charles  Willson  Peale  which 
was  captured  by  Captain  George  Keppel.  R.  N.,  in  September.  1780. 

The  Township  System:  a  Documentary  History  of  the  Endeavor  to 
establish  a  Township  School  System  in  the  State  of  New  York  .  .  .  to 
101S,  and  Free  Schools:  a  Documentary  History  of  the  Free  School 
Movement  in  New  York  State,  both  by  Thomas  E.  Finegan,  are  published 
as  parts  of  the  14th  and  15th  annual  reports  ( 191S,  1919)  of  the  depart- 
ment of  education  of  the  L'niversity  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

The  Samuel  Colgate  Baptist  Historical  Collection,  at  Hamilton,  New 
York,  has  been  greatly  enlarged  by  acquiring  the  remainder  of  the  books 
on  Baptist  history  collected  by  Mr.  Champlin  Burrage.     The  late  Richard 


658  Historical  ATews 

Colgate  bequeathed  $10,000  as  an  additional  endowment  for  this  important 
collection  of  materials  for  religious  history  in  America. 

The  director  of  the  public  record  office  of  New  Jersey,  Air.  C.  E. 
Godfrey,  has  issued  a  special  report  on  the  Conditions  of  the  Public 
Records  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey.  The  report  deals  with  conditions  in 
counties,  cities,  towns,  townships,  boroughs,  and  villages. 

'  Among  the  contents  of  the  January  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the 
New  Jersey  Historical  Society  are  Some  Unpublished  Scots  East  Jersey 
Proprietors'  Letters,  1683-1684;  a  paper,  by  James  C.  Connolly,  on  Quit- 
Rents  in  Colonial  New  Jersey  as  a  Contributing  Cause  for  the  American 
Revolution;  and  a  part  of  the  Journal  of  William  Johnson,  describing  a 
journey  by  way  of  Pittsburgh  and  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans,  1800- 
1801.     The  journal,  which  will  be  continued,  extends  to  1813. 

Articles  in  the  July  (1921)  number  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of 
History  and  Biography  are:  A  Whitemarsh  Orderly  Book,  1777:  some 
letters  (1689,  1755)  pertaining  to  Pennsylvania  found  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts archives;  Extracts  (1819-1821)  from  a  Commonplace-Book  of 
Henry  D.  Gilpin;  a  letter  of  Christopher  Sower,  written  in  1724.  describ- 
ing the  voyage  from  Europe  and  conditions  in  Philadelphia  and  vicinity, 
contributed  by  Professor  R.  W.  Kelsey;  and  an  account  (chiefly  docu- 
mentary) of  the  services  of  the  Second  Troop  Philadelphia  City  Cavalry 
in  the  Revolution,  by  Major  W.  A.  Newman  Dorland. 

In  the  Papers  read  before  the  Lancaster  County  Historical  Society, 
January  7,  1921,  is  found  a  paper,  by  David  M.  Landis,  on  the  Awakening 
and  the  Early  Progress  of  the  Pequea,  Conestoga,  and  other  Susquehanna 
Valley  Settlements,  which  includes  numerous  letters  of  the  early  eighteenth 
century.  The  number  for  February,  1921,  contains  an  article,  by  H.  C. 
Martin,  on  the  Provincial,  Continental,  and  Federal  Revenues  of  Lan- 
caster County ;  and  that  of  March  adds  Items  of  Local  Interest  from  the 
Pennsylvania  Gazette,  1771-1775, 

The  January  number  of  the  Western  Pennsylvania  Historical  Maga- 
zine contains  the  first  four  chapters  of  a  history  of  Fort  Pitt,  by  Charles 
W.  Dahlinger,  and  a  paper  on  William  Penn,  by  Albert  S.  Bolles. 

In  a  booklet  called  The  Cradle  of  Pennsylvania  (Philadelphia,  Allen, 
Lane,  and  Scott),  Thomas  Willing  Balch  commemorates  the  action  of 
Governor  Johan  Printz  in  establishing  on  Tinicum  Island  the  first  per- 
manent seat  of  government  in  Pennsylvania,  and  urges,  very  properly, 
that  the  event  might  well  be  commemorated  by  an  historical  park  upon 
the  island. 

SOUTHERN     COLONIES    AND    STATES 

The  annual  appropriation  by  the  state  of  Maryland  for  the  publication 
of  the  Maryland  Archives  has  been  increased  from  $3,000  to  $5,000,  en- 
abling the  Maryland  Historical  Society  to  continue  the  publication  at  the 


America  659 

rate  of  a  volume  each  year.  Having  carried  the  Proceedings  and  Acts  of 
the  General  Assembly  to  1740  in  the  fortieth  volume  of  the  Archives,  the 
committee  on  publication  has  decided  to  issue  in  1922  a  volume  in  the 
long-suspended  series  of  Acts  of  the  Provincial  Court,  beginning  with  the 
records  and  papers  of  the  year  1657. 

The  December  number  of  the  Maryland  Historical  Magazine  contains 
the  first  installment  of  a  study,  by  Dr.  Bernard  C.  Steiner,  of  the  career 
of  James  A.  Pearce,  United  States  senator  from  Maryland  from  1843  to 
1863.  In  this  number  are  also  printed  some  recently  acquired  provincial 
records,  principally  letters  of  Governor  John  Seymour,  1707-1709.  The 
Life  of  Thomas  Johnson,  by  Edward  S.  Delaplaine,  is  continued,  as  is 
also  the  series  of  Notes  from  the  Early  Maryland  Records.  The  March 
number  contains  a  Civil  War  diary,  1862-1S63,  of  Gen.  Isaac  R.  Trimble. 
C.  S.  A.,  mostly  a  record  of  captivity,  and  an  account  of  Mrs.  Richard 
Caton,  by  Dr.  George  C.  Keidel. 

The  contents  of  the  October  number  of  the  Virginia  Magazine  of  His- 
tory and  Biography  include  a  Diary  of  James  Stevens  of  a  journey  from 
Halifax  County,  Virginia,  to  Scotland  in  1786;  some  historical  notes  on 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  (illustrated),  contributed  by  Charles  E.  Kemper; 
a  letter  from  Thomas  Jefferson  to  William  B.  Giles,  August  4,  1817,  rela- 
tive to  Central  College,  the  forerunner  of  the  University  of  Virginia;  and 
the  Virginia  War  History  Commission's  Supplement,  no.  4,  of  Lists  and 
Calendars  of  Source  Material.  In  the  January  number  are  found  a  paper, 
by  E.  Alfred  Jones,  on  the  American  Regiment  in  the  Carthagena  Expedi- 
tion (1740).  and  one  by  Fairfax  Harrison  on  Parson  Waugh's  Tumult 
(1689). 

Dr.  Rodney  H.  True  contributes  to  the  January  number  of  the  William 
and  Mary  College  Quarterly  Historical  Magazine  an  article  on  John 
Alexander  Binns  of  Loudoun  County,  Virginia,  author  of  a  pamphlet  on 
agriculture  published  in  1803,  which  became  a  subject  of  some  correspond- 
ence between  Jefferson  and  two  members  of  the  English  board  of  agri- 
culture, Sir  John  Sinclair  and  William  Strickland.  Portions  of  this  cor- 
respondence are  reproduced  in  the  article.  In  the  same  number  is  a  paper 
by  Robert  M.  Hughes  entitled  William  and  Mary,  the  First  American  Law 
School. 

In  the  January  number  of  Tyler's  Quarterly  Historical  and  Genealogi- 
cal Magazine  appear  two  letters  from  Dr.  M.  F.  T.  Evans  of  Virginia  to 
his  sister,  Mrs.  Frank  R.  Stockton,  in  Philadelphia,  the  one  written  April 
30,  1S61,  the  other  June  14.  1865,  of  interest  for  their  indication  of 
Southern  attitude  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  the  war,  respec- 
tively. 

Smith  College  Studies  in  History,  vol.  VI.,  no.  4  (July),  is  the  West- 
over  Journal  of  John  A.  Selden,  Esqr.,  1858-1862,  with  an  introduction 
and  notes  by  Professor  John  S.  Bassett.     The  writer  of  the  journal  was 


660  Historical  Nczvs 

the  owner,  from  1829  to  1862,  of  the  noted  Westover  estate  on  the  James 
River,  the  seat  of  the  Byrd  family  from  1668  to  1814.  The  journal  itself 
is  the  matter-of-fact  record,  by  a  busy  and  practical  man,  of  daily  events 
and  transactions  on  his  plantation,  and  presents  a  quite  definite  picture  of 
life  on  a  Virginia  estate  before  and  during  the  Civil  War. 

Historic  Periods  of  Fredericksburg,  1608-1861,  by  Mrs.  Vivian  M. 
Fleming,  is  published  in  Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  by  the  author. 

The  South  Carolina  Historical  and  Genealogical  Magazine  continues 
in  the  July  (1921)  number  the  Izard-Laurens  correspondence.  The  let- 
ters are  principally  those  of  Ralph  Izard,  written  from  Paris  between 
July,  1778,  and  June,  1779,  with  one  from  Izard  to  John  Laurens,  dated 
at  Philadelphia,  March  27,  1781. 

The  Journal  of  Alexander  Chesney,  a  South  Carolina  Loyalist  in  the 
Revolution  and  After  (pp.  166),  edited  by  E.  Alfred  Jones,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Professor  Wilbur  H.  Siebert,  is  issued  as  vol.  XXVI.,  no.  4, 
of  the  Ohio  State  University  Bulletin.  Alexander  Chesney,  whose  father 
migrated  with  his  family  from  Ireland  to  South  Carolina  in  1772,  first 
served  with  the  Whigs,  from  1776  to  1779,  but  joined  the  Loyalists  in 
1780,  and  remained  in  their  service  until  1782,  when  he  returned  to  Ire- 
land. He  was  taken  prisoner  at  King's  Mountain,  but  afterward  escaped. 
Somewhat  more  than  half  the  journal  is  devoted  to  his  life  in  Ireland 
from  1782  to  1821.  Besides  copious  informing  annotations,  there  are 
some  ninety  pages  of  "  Additional  Notes  "  concerning  individual  Loyalists 
and  others,  together  with  documents  pertaining  to  Chesney's  career. 

The  September  number  of  the  Georgia  Historical  Quarterly  contains 
a  paper  by  Professor  William  H.  Kilpatrick  on  the  Beginnings  of  the 
Public  School  System  in  Georgia,  and  one  by  Mary  Lane  entitled  Macon : 
an  Historical  Retrospect.  The  December  number  contains  a  paper  by 
Judge  Beverly  D.  Evans  on  the  Evolution  of  Jurisprudence;  one  by  Dr. 
E.  Merton  Coulter,  of  the  University  of  Georgia,  on  the  Ante-Bellum 
Academy  Movement  in  Georgia;  and  a  continuation  of  the  Howell  Cobb 
Papers,  edited  by  Dr.  R.  P.  Brooks. 

The  Florida  State  Historical  Society  was  founded  December  1,  1921, 
by  a  group  of  citizens  of  the  state  and  Northerners  interested  in  its  history, 
with  Mr.  John  B.  Stetson,  jr.,  as  its  president.  The  object  is  study  and 
research  in  Florida  history  and  the  making  accessible  in  print  of  impor- 
tant original  manuscript  materials  for  that  history.  It  is  intended  that 
the  volumes,  carefully  prepared,  and  limited  in  each  case  to  300  copies, 
shall  be  supplied  to  the  members  at  about  the  cost  of  production,  and  that 
they  shall  illustrate  all  the  varied  periods  of  Florida  history.  Among  the 
first  volumes  will  be  a  treatise  on  the  Aborigines  in  Florida  by  Dr.  Ales 
Hrdlicka  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  a  bibliography  and  biography  of 
Bernard  Romans,  with  a  reproduction  of  his  map  of  Florida,  prepared  by 
Mr.  P.  Lee  Phillips  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  a  treatise  on  the  Loyal- 


America  66 1 

ists  of  Florida  by  Professor  W.  H.  Siebert  of  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity, and  several  volumes  of  documents  from  Seville  relating  to  Florida 
history  in  the  Spanish  period,  translated  and  edited  by  Mrs.  Washington 
E.  Connor.  The  secretary  of  the  society,  to  whom  subscriptions  to  mem- 
bership should  be  sent,  is  C.  B.  Rosa,  De  Land,  Florida. 

Frank  M.  Hawes  contributes  to  the  January  number  of  the  New  Eng- 
land Historical  and  Genealogical  Register  lists  of  New  Englanders  in  the 
Florida  census  of  1850. 

A  work  entitled  History  of  Alabama,  and  Dictionary  of  Alabama 
Biography,  left  partly  finished  by  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Owen,  state 
archivist,  has  been  completed  by  Mrs.  Owen,  his  successor  in  that  office, 
and  printed  in  four  volumes  (pp.  3289),  which  can  be  obtained  from  Mrs. 
Owen,  at  Montgomery.  Volumes  III.  and  IV.  comprise  six  or  eight 
thousand  biographies,  in  alphabetical  order.  The  arrangement  of  the  first 
two  or  historical  volumes  is  not  chronological  or  that  of  narration,  but  is 
also  alphabetical,  composing  an  encyclopedia  of  historical  and  other  infor- 
mation respecting  the  state. 

Vol.  III.,  no.  4,  of  the  University  of  Chicago's  Supplementary  Edu- 
cational Monographs  is  A  History  of  Educational  Legislation  in  Missis- 
sippi from  1798  to  i860,  by  William  H.  Weathersby.  with  an  introduction 
by  Professor  Marcus  W.  Jernegan.  Although  Mississippi  presented  many 
of  the  same  educational  problems  that  arose  in  the  older  South,  its  educa- 
tional legislation  was  influenced  by  factors  not  found  there;  for  the  origi- 
nal settlers  came  largely  from  the  back-country  regions,  and  the  environ- 
ment which  they  entered  was  comparable  to  that  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Alleghanies.  These  factors  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  decentralized 
school  system,  with  the  township,  for  the  most  part,  as  the  unit  of  control. 
An  effort  in  1846  to  establish  a  unified  system  went  on  the  shoals,  and  the 
final  outcome  was  a  "  bewildering  maze  of  school  systems  ".  The  author's 
examination  into  the  methods  of  handling  the  sixteenth  section  of  public 
lands  in  Mississippi  (the  principal  source  of  public  funds  for  the  support 
of  elementary  education  until  those  funds  were  presently  lost)  is,  Pro- 
fessor Jernegan  states.  "  a  previously  unwritten  chapter  "  in  the  history 
of  the  subject.  A  large  proportion  of  the  children  did  not,  however,  at- 
tend the  public  schools,  but  received  their  instruction  at  home  or  in  private 
institutions.  The  state's  participation  in  secondary  education  consisted 
chiefly  in  the  incorporation  of  private  academies  and  similar  institutions, 
as  many  as  179  charters  of  the  sort  having  been  granted  prior  to  i860. 
There  is  also  a  chapter  on  the  history  of  higher  education  in  the  state, 
and  a  special  examination  into  federal  and  state  aid  to  education. 

The  Louisiana  Historical  Quarterly  for  October,  1920,  just  received, 
is  chiefly  marked  by  a  series  of  interesting  documents  of  the  French 
period  from  the  Cabildo  archives,  illustrating  varied  aspects  of  Louisiana 
life  from   1727  to  1753,  translated  by  Mrs.  H.  H.   Cruzat  and  edited  by 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 44- 


662  Historical  News 

Mr.  Henry  P.  Dart.  There  are  also  papers  on  the  constitutions  of  Louisi- 
ana, by  W.  O.  Hart,  on  the  New  Orleans  custom-house,  on  the  bonded 
debt  of  the  city,  and  on  the  dramatic  events  of  1874. 

The  Year  Book  of  the  Louisiana  Society  Sons  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution for  1921,  besides  including  some  correspondence  relative  to  the 
services  to  the  cause  of  the  Revolution  rendered  by  the  Louisiana  militia 
under  Governor  Bernardo  de  Galvez,  in  1779-1781,  and  an  address  on  the 
subject  by  the  president  of  the  society,  C.  Robert  Churchill,  contains  a 
roster  of  the  militia  officers,  numerous  letters  of  Governor  Galvez,  and 
other  related  documentary  materials. 

In  the  preparation  of  La  Question  de  la  Louisiane,  1796-1806  (Paris, 
Champion,  1920,  pp.  242),  F.  P.  Renaut  used  a  wide  range  of  source- 
material  and  writes  with  great  precision  and  clarity  showing  the  relation 
of  the  Louisiana  question  to  the  general  political  situation. 

WESTERN   STATES 

The  Development  of  High-School  Curricula  in  the  North  Central 
States  from  1S60  to  1018  (pp.  322),  by  John  E.  Stout,  is  vol.  III.,  no.  3, 
of  the  Supplementary  Educational  Monographs  issued  by  the  University 
of  Chicago.  The  book  is  an  elaborate  study  of  the  subject,  based  pri- 
marily on  original  sources.  Besides  discussing  at  length  the  development 
in  the  organization  of  subjects  and  curricula  (part  I.),  conditions  and 
changes  in  subject-matter  (part  II.),  and  recent  developments  (part  III.), 
it  presents  many  comparative  tables  of  curricula.  What  will  most  inter- 
est students  of  history  is  of  course  the  examination  of  the  place  given  to 
history  in  the  high  schools  and  the  conditions  of  history  teaching. 

Indian  Policy  and  Westward  Expansion,  by  James  C.  Malin,  Ph.D., 
constitutes  vol.  II.,  no.  3,  of  the  series  of  Humanistic  Studies  emanating 
from  the  University  of  Kansas.  In  the  author's  view  "  the  early  history 
of  the  trans-Mississippi  Valley  is  essentially  the  history  of  the  relation 
between  the  Indian  and  the  advancing  frontier  placed  in  proper  perspective 
with  all  the  other  related  problems".  The  present  study  is  limited  to  a 
history  of  the  Indian  policy  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
Act.  The  history  of  the  period  since  1854,  which  "  presents  a  markedly 
different  aspect",  he  hopes  to  relate  in  a  future  study.  The  Indian  policy 
in  the  period  1830-1854  presents  three  phases:  first,  the  removal  of  the 
Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi ;  second,  their  consolidation  in  the  south- 
west; and  third,  the  working  out  of  a  new  policy,  designed  to  group  the 
Indians  to  the  north  and  to  the  south  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  ex- 
pansion westward  between  the  groups. 

Messrs.  Harcourt,  Brace,  and  Howe  have  recently  published  a  short 
History  of  Indiana  by  Professor  Logan  Esarey  of  the  University  of 
Indiana.  While  intended  primarily  as  a  text-book,  there  is  still  much  in 
the  volume,  particularly  in  those  portions  treating  of  the  pioneer  period, 
which  will  be  of  interest  to  the  general  reader. 


America  663 

Among  the  articles  in  the  July  (1920)  number  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Illinois  State  Historical  Society  are:  Side  Lights  on  Illinois  Suffrage 
History,  by  Grace  W.  Trout;  Lewis  and  Clark  at  the  Mouth  of  Wood 
River,  by  Charles  G.  Gray  ;  the  Visit  of  Colonel  Richard  M.  Johnson  to 
Springfield,  May  18-20,  1843,  principally  from  the  Illinois  State  Register, 
May  26,  1843;  ancl  Greene  County,  Born  100  Years  ago,  by  Charles 
Bradshaw. 

In  the  October  number  of  the  Illinois  Catholic  Historical  Review 
Joseph  J.  Thompson  continues  his  studies  of  Pierre  Gibault  (also  in  the 
January  number)  ;  Rev.  John  Rothensteiner,  in  his  series  of  papers  on  the 
Northeastern  Part  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  under  Bishop  Rosati,  re- 
lates the  history  of  the  La  Salle  Mission;  Alphonsus  Lesousky  tells  the 
story  of  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Mary's.  Kentucky,  which  celebrated  its 
centenary  in  June,  1921  ;  and  Stephen  J.  Palickar  writes  concerning  the 
Slovaks  of  Chicago.  In  the  January  number  there  are  articles  on  the 
historical  antecedents  of  the  diocese  of  St.  Louis  by  Rev.  John  Rothen- 
steiner, and  on  the  Illinois  part  of  the  diocese  of  Vincennes  by  the  editor, 
Mr.  Thompson. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  January  number  of  the  Register  of  the 
Kentucky  State  Historical  Society  are:  A  History  of  the  Coal  Industry 
in  Kentucky,  by  Willard  R.  Jillson;  and  Clark  County.  Kentucky,  in  the 
Census  of  1810,  copied  and  edited  by  A.  C.  Quisenberry. 

The  principal  paper  in  the  January  (  1921  )  number  of  the  Tennessee 
Historical  Magazine  is  an  extended  account  of  the  battle  of  Franklin,  by 
Rev.  Dr.  W.  W.  Gist,  a  participant  on  the  Federal  side.  There  are  also 
a  history,  principally  documentary,  of  the  Tennessee  Department  of 
Library,  Archives,  and  History,  by  A.  P.  Foster,  assistant  secretary  ;  and 
a  reprint,  from  the  St.  Louis  Republic  of  February  28,  1913,  of  a  Yankee 
Schoolmaster's  Reminiscences  of  Tennessee  (1866-1869),  by  Marshall  S. 
Snow. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  Michigan  History  Magazine,  vol.  VI.,  no.  1 
(1922),  are:  the  Trial  and  Execution  of  the  Lincoln  Conspirators,  by 
Judge  R.  A.  Watts;  Some  Marriages  in  Old  Detroit,  by  Hon.  William  R. 
Riddell;  and  an  account  of  the  career  of  William  Austin  Burt,  Inventor, 
by  Horace  E.  Burt.  In  the  section  of  Notes  and  Comment  is  found  a 
report  upon  the  condition  of  the  national  records  of  the  World  War,  with 
emphasis  upon  the  need  of  an  archive  building  in  Washington. 

The  Detroit  Public  Library  inaugurated  in  January  the  publication  of 
the  Burton  Historical  Collection  Leaflet,  which  makes  its  appearance 
monthly.  The  first  number  is  devoted  to  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft,  and  con- 
sists of  selections  from  his  Personal  Memoirs  and  from  his  correspond- 
ence. The  February  number  pertains  to  Colonel  John  F.  Hamtramck, 
and  includes  an  address  by  Richard  S.  Willis,  delivered  in  October,  1897, 
and  some  letters  (1802-1803)  to  Hamtramck  from  Henry  Dearborn,  sec- 


664  Historical  Nezvs 

retary  of  war.  The  third  number  contains  brief  documents  on  Fort 
Lernoult,  extracts  from  a  commissary's  cash-book,  1802-1807,  illustrating 
local  tastes  and  activities,  and  a  general  order  of  Hull,  April  29,  1812. 

The  contents  of  the  December  number  of  the  Wisconsin  Magazine  of 
History  include  Memories  of  Early  Wisconsin  and  the  Gold  Mines,  by 
John  B.  Parkinson;  a  discussion  of  the  subject  of  Documenting  Local 
History,  by  Dr.  Joseph  Schafer;  an  account  of  St.  Nazianz,  a  Unique 
Religious  Colony,  by  W.  A.  Titus;  and  a  series  of  thirteen  letters  of 
Eldon  J.  Canright,  a  soldier  in  the  "  Rainbow  "  Division  of  the  American 
Expeditionary  Force,  written  from  France  between  November,  1917,  and 
August,  19 18. 

The  papers  of  the  late  James  A.  Tawney,  member  of  Congress  from 
Minnesota  from  1893  to  191 1,  and  member  of  the  International  Joint 
Commission  from  that  date  to  his  death  in  1919,  have  been  placed  in  the 
custody  of  the  Minnesota  Historical  Society. 

The  pages  of  the  October  number  of  the  Iowa  Journal  of  History  and 
Politics  are  largely  occupied  with  an  analysis,  by  John  E.  Briggs,  of  the 
Legislation  of  the  Thirty-Ninth  General  Assembly  of  Iowa  (January  10- 
April  8,  1921).  In  the  January  number  are  found  some  letters  of  Stephen 
H.  Hayes,  a  young  minister  from  Maine,  relating  his  experiences  and 
observations  on  a  journey  through  the  West  (Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Michigan)  in  May  and  June,  1845,  and  the  third  of  Mr. 
Louis  B.  Schmidt's  papers  on  the  Internal  Grain  Trade  of  the  United 
States,  1860-1890. 

In  the  July  (1921)  number  of  the  Annals  of  Iowa  are  two  contribu- 
tions by  William  H.  Fleming,  one  entitled  How  Twenty-one  and  Twenty- 
nine  have  been  made  Halves  of  Fifty  in  Iowa,  a  history  of  that  provision 
of  the  state  constitution  which  provides  for  the  election  of  one-half  the 
senate  every  two  years,  the  other  a  sketch  of  Tilghman  A.  Howard  ( 1797- 
1844),  member  of  the  Twenty-sixth  Congress  from  Indiana,  and  charge 
d'affaires  to  the  Republic  of  Texas  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Among  the 
other  articles  are  an  account,  by  Mary  D.  Taylor,  of  a  Farmers'  Wives' 
Society  in  Pioneer  Days,  and  a  brief  paper,  by  E.  R.  Harlan,  concerning 
Transportation  in  Iowa  before  the  Railroads. 

The  January  number  of  the  Palimpsest  contains  an  account,  by  Mildred 
J.  Sharp,  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  Railroad,  and  some  Letters  of 
a  Railroad  Builder,  Isaac  L.  Usher,  1853— 1S55.  In  the  February  number 
is  an  account,  by  Bruce  E.  Mahan,  of  Moving  the  Winnebago  (1848). 

The  contents  of  the  October  number  of  the  Missouri  Historical  Review 
include,  besides  continuations,  an  account,  by  Walter  B.  Stevens,  of  How 
Missouri  Commemorated;  the  first  installment  of  a  study,  by  Wiley  Brit- 
ton,  of  Pioneer  Life  in  Southwest  Missouri  (illustrated)  ;  and  the  con- 
cluding paper  in  E.  M.  Violette's  study  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi 
Railroad  Debt.     The  January  number  includes  a  study  of  Constitutions 


America  665 

and  Constitutional  Conventions  in  Missouri,  by  Isidor  Loeb;  a  brief  paper 
on  the  Constitution  of  1820,  by  F.  W.  Lehmann;  and  one  on  Traditions 
concerning  the  Missouri  Question,  by  Floyd  C.  Shoemaker. 

The  January  number  of  the  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly  con- 
tains a  paper  by  W.  P.  Webb  on  the  Last  Treaty  of  the  Republic  of 
Texas ;  one  by  William  E.  Dunn  on  the  Founding  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Refugio,  the  Last  Spanish  Mission  in  Texas;  the  second  installment  of 
the  correspondence  (1850-1857)  between  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  and  Guy 
M.  Bryan,  edited  by  E.  W.  Winkler;  and  the  third  and  concluding  install- 
ment of  the  Journal  of  Lewis  B.  Harris,  1836-1S42. 

In  Dr.  Hodge's  Indian  Notes  and  Monographs,  published  by  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  American  Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  the  latest  issue  is  A 
Report  from  Natchitoches  in  180?,  by  Dr.  John  Sibley,  found  in  the 
Indian  Office  at  Washington,  supplementing  those  descriptive  notes  by 
Sibley  which  were  printed  in  1806.  at  the  end  of  President  Jefferson's 
message  on  the  explorations  of  Lewis  and  Clark;  the  Report  is  edited  by 
Miss  Annie  H.  Abel. 

Governors  who  have  been,  and  other  Public  Men  of  Texas,  is  the  title 
of  a  volume  by  Norman  G.  Kittrell,  brought  out  in  Houston  by  the 
Dealey-Adey-Elgin  Company. 

In  the  April-June  (  1921  )  number  of  Nebraska  History  and  Record 
of  Pioneer  Days  is  found  a  brief  description  of  some  papers  of  Major 
Hannibal  Day,  U.  S.  A.,  recently  acquired  by  the  Nebraska  State  Histori- 
cal Society.  They  include  a  military  map  of  the  road  between  Fort 
Laramie  and  Fort  Randall,  and  a  journal  of  the  march  between  these 
places  in  1S60. 

The  principal  new  article  in  the  January  number  of  the  Washington 
Historical  Quarterly  is  the  Cowlitz  Convention:  Inception  of  Washington 
Territory,  by  Professor  Edmond  S.  Meany. 

The  Quarterly  of  the  Oregon  Historical  Society  reprints  in  the  De- 
cember number  (from  the  Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,  vol.  LIII.)  John  Boit's  Log  of  the  Columbia,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Professor  F.  G.  Young  and  annotations  by  Judge  F.  W.  Howay 
and  T.  C.  Elliott;  also  (from  Greenhow,  History  of  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, edition  of  1848)  the  brief  remnant  of  the  Official  Log  of  the 
Columbia,  with  annotations  by  T.  C.  Elliott.  Mr.  Elliott  further  con- 
tributes a  memorandum  of  "  Information  given  personally  by  Dr.  Whit- 
man in  Boston,  1843",  taken  from  the  archives  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  in  Boston. 

The  Century  Company  has  brought  out  The  Corner-Stone  of  Philip- 
pine Independence:  a  Narrative  of  Seven  Years,  by  Francis  Burton  Har- 
rison, former  governor-general  of  the  Philippines. 


666  Historical  News 

CANADA 

The  Canadian  Historical  Review  for  March  has  a  substantial  article, 
partly  historical,  by  Sir  Clifford  Sifton,  on  Some  Canadian  Constitutional 
Problems;  a  review  of  Lady  Gwendolyn  Cecil's  Life  of  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury,  by  Professor  J.  L.  Morison;  a  paper  by  Mr.  A.  R.  M.  Lower 
of  the  Board  of  Historical  Publications,  Ottawa,  on  Immigration  and 
Settlement  in  Canada,  1812-1820;  and  one  by  Mr.  Fred  Landon  on  the 
Trent  Affair.  In  connection  with  Sir  Clifford  Sifton's  article  one  may 
mention  Sir  Robert  Borden's  Marfleet  Lectures  at  the  University  of 
Toronto  on  Canadian  Constitutional  Studies  (Toronto,  University  Press, 
pp.  163).  The  December  number  of  the  Review  had  an  article  on  the 
Gold  Colony  of  British  Columbia,  by  Walter  N.  Sage. 

Mr.  P.  G.  Roy,  the  new  archivist  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  has  pub- 
lished an  important  and  voluminous  Rapport  for  1920-1921  (pp.  vii,  437). 

McGill  and  its  Story,  1821-1021  (London,  John  Lane),  by  Cyrus  Mac- 
millan,  recounts  fitly  a  century  of  scholastic  achievement. 

Bulletin  No.  41  (November)  of  the  Departments  of  History  and 
Political  Science  in  Queen's  University,  Kingston,  Ontario,  Canada,  is  a 
paper,  by  M.  Eleanor  Herrington,  on  Captain  John  Deserontyou  and  the 
Mohawk  Settlement  at  Deseronto. 

AMERICA,  SOUTH   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Articles  in  the  November  Hispanic  American  Historical  Review  are: 
the  Dutch  and  Cuba,  by  Miss  Irene  A.  Wright;  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
and  Hispanic  America,  by  Samuel  G.  Inman;  French  Views  of  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  and  the  Mexican  Expedition,  by  Hal  ford  L.  Hoskins;  the 
Liberation  and  the  Liberators  of  Spanish  America,  by  Webster  E.  Brown- 
ing; and  the  Boundary  of  Mexico  and  the  Gadsden  Treaty,  by  J.  Fred 
Rippy.  In  the  section  of  Documents  appear  some  Royal  Ordinances  con- 
cerning the  Laying  Out  of  New  Towns,  contributed,  with  an  introduction, 
by  Mrs.  Zelia  Nuttall. 

Problems  in  Pan  Americanism,  by  Samuel  G.  Inman,  includes  an 
account  of  early  efforts  toward  Pan  Americanism,  a  discussion  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  and  Latin  America,  etc.  (New  York,  Doran). 

Messrs.  Appleton  and  Company  will  shortly  publish  a  History  of 
Latin  America  from  the  Age  of  Tiahuanaco  to  the  Present  Day,  in  one 
volume,  by  Professor  W.  S.  Robertson,  of  the  University  of  Illinois.  The 
book  is  intended  for  the  general  reader  and  for  use  as  a  text  in  college 
and  university  courses  in  Latin-American  history. 

The  contents  of  the  January-June  (triple  number)  of  the  Boletin  del 
Archivo  Nacional  include  a  discourse,  by  Don  Silvestre  de  Abarca,  engi- 
neer director,  upon  the  defense  of  Havana  (1763);  a  memoir,  by  Juan 
Pio  de  la  Cruz,  concerning  Guantanamo  (1819)  ;  two  documents  pertain- 


America  667 

ing  to  the  Lopez  affair  at  Cardenas  (  1850),  one  of  them  a  vivid  account 
of  the  fight,  by  an  eye-witness;  an  expediente  of  documents  relative  to  the 
filibustering  projects  of  the  brothers  Julio  and  Manuel  Sanguily  (1877)  ; 
another  expediente  concerning  the  American  schooner  Venus  (1877- 
1878)  ;  and  a  third,  pertaining  to  the  case  of  General  Antonio  Maceo 
(1880). 

The  life  of  the  Cuban  abolitionist  and  historian  of  slavery,  Saco,  and 
his  exile  in  Europe  is  made  available  through  the  publication  of  documents 
by  D.  Figarola-Caneda  under  the  title,  Jose  Antonio  Saco:  Doeumentos 
para  su  Vida  (pp.  420).  The  material  is  of  great  interest  for  the  study 
of  the  history  of  Cuba  during  the  colonial  period. 

The  long  history  of  canal  diplomacy  is  reviewed  afresh  by  K.  E.  Im- 
berg  in  Der  Nikaragua-Kanal :  eine  Historisch-Diplomatische  Studie 
(Berlin,  Lissner,  1920). 

The  Instituto  Historico  y  Geografico  of  Uruguay,  founded  in  1843  and 
reorganized  in  191 5,  has  lately  begun  the  issue  of  an  annual  Revista  which 
is  evidently  destined  to  give  worthy  expression  to  the  best  of  historical 
scholarship  in  that  republic.  The  volume  for  1920  has  a  long  article  of 
much  value  on  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  1812  in  Montevideo,  based  on 
solid  archival  research,  by  Dr.  Gustavo  Gallinal,  and  a  careful  history,  by 
Don  Horacio  Arredondo,  of  Fort  Santa  Teresa,  on  the  coast  near  the 
Brazilian  frontier.  Continuations  of  these  monographs  are  presented  in 
the  volume  for  1921  ;  also  an  interesting  architectural  report  on  Colonia, 
a  city  founded  by  the  Portuguese  in  1680,  and  later  destroyed  by  the 
Spaniards. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  L.  S.  Rowe.  The  Development  of 
Democracy  on  the  American  Continent  (American  Political  Science  Re- 
view. February)  ;  Rev.  Dr.  D.  Plooij.  Earliest  Relations  between  Leyden 
and  Harvard  (Harvard  Graduates"  Magazine,  December);  J.  C.  Fitz- 
patrick.  The  Story  of  the  Purple  Heart:  the  Medal  of  Honor  of  the  Revo- 
lution (Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution  Magazine.  February); 
W.  S.  Carpenter,  The  United  States  and  the  League  of  Neutrals  of  17S0 
(American  Journal  of  International  Law.  October)  ;  O.  P.  Field.  Ex  Post 
Facto  in  the  Constitution  (  Michigan  Law  Review,  January)  ;  J.  R.  Tandy, 
Pro-Slavery  Propaganda  in  American  Fiction  of  the  Fifties  (South  At- 
lantic Quarterly,  January)  ;  Allen  Johnson,  The  Constitutionality  of  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Acts  (Yale  Law  Journal.  December);  F.  D.  Graham, 
Internationa'.  Trade  under  Depreciated  Paper:  the  United  States,  1S62- 
I8?Q  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics,  February)  ;  F.  H.  Ffankins.  De 
Quelques  Transformations  Politiqucs  Recents  aux  Etats-Unis  (  Revue  des 
Sciences  Politiques.  July)  ;  Letters  of  a  High-Minded  Man:  Franklin  K. 
Lane  (World's  Work,  March)  ;  B.  J.  Hendrick.  Chapters  from  the  Life 
and  Letters  of  Walter  H.  Page,  cont.  (ibid.,  January,  February,  March)  ; 
Mark   Sullivan,  A    Year  of  the  Government    (North   American   Review, 


668  Historical  News 

March)  ;  F.  L.  Schoell,  Colonics  Alsacienncs  dans  la  Prairie  Amcricaine 
(Revue  de  Paris,  January  i)  ;  McCune  Gill,  The  Beginnings  of  Title  in 
St.  Louis  (St.  Louis  Law  Review,  February)  ;  W.  H.  Ellison,  The  Cali- 
fornia Indian  Frontier  (Grizzly  Bear,  February,  March)  ;  Alexander 
Fraser,  Nova  Scotia's  Charter  (Dalhousie  Review,  January)  ;  Chanoine 
Gosselin,  La  Paroissc  du  Canada  (Bulletin  des  Recherches  Historiques, 
XXVII.  12)  ;  L.  A.  Prud'homme,  L'Abbc  loscph-Sevcre-Nicolas  Du- 
moulin,  Missionnaire  a  la  Riviere-Rouge  (1818-1823),  concl.  (Revue  Ca- 
nadienne,  January)  ;  P.  Jacinto  Martinez,  Paginas  Notables  sobre  la  Revo- 
lution Hispano-Amcricana  (Espaiia  y  America.  January  1,  15)  ;  J.  Co- 
nangla  Fontanilles,  Pi  y  Margall  y  la  Independcncia  Cubana,  IV.  (Cuba 
Contemporanea,  December)  ;  J.  P.  Renaut,  U Organisation  Constitu- 
tionelle  du  Bresil,  III.  La  Guerre  Civile  du  Sud  contre  le  Nord,  1824 
(Revue  d'Histoire  Diplomatique,  XXXV.  2)  ;  Ricardo  Rojas,  Bartolomc 
Mitre:  his  Intellectual  Personality,  concl.  ( Inter- America,  English,  Feb- 
ruary). 


Volume   XXVIi]         July,  ig22  [Number  4 

%mmau  pKisitatical  %tvuw 


SCIENCE  AT  THE  COURT  OF  THE  EMPEROR 
FREDERICK  II. 

THE  Emperor  Frederick  II.  is  a  subject  of  perennial  interest  to  the 
historian.  The  riddle  of  his  many-sided  personality,  his  place 
at  the  centre  of  one  of  the  great  struggles  of  European  politics,  the 
striking  anticipation  of  more  modern  ideas  and  practices  in  his  admin- 
istration, the  brilliant  and  precocious  culture  of  his  Sicilian  kingdom, 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  two  generations  of  scholars  without 
definitive  results.  We  still  lack  a  satisfactory  biography  and  a  survey 
of  the  governmental  system,  as  well  as  annals  for  the  later  years  of 
the  reign,1  while  for  its  intellectual  history  nothing  has  superseded 
what  was  written  by  Amari2  and  Huillard-Breholles3  more  than  half 
a  century  ago.  As  regards  vernacular  literature,  the  limited  body  of 
extant  material  has  so  circumscribed  the  problem  that  we  now  under- 
stand fairly  well  the  importance  of  the  magna  curia  as  the  cradle  of 
Italian  poetry  and  the  origin  of  particular  forms  like  the  sonnet.* 
The  Latin  literature  of  the  South  has  been  partially  explored  by 
Hampe  and  others,  though  its  relations  to  intellectual  movements  in 

1  The  best  sketch  is  that  of  Karl  Hampe,  "Kaiser  Friedrich  II.",  in  His- 
torische  Zeitschrift,  LXXXIII.  1-42  (1899).  The  newer  materials  for  the  study 
of  the  reign  are  noted  in  his  Deutsche  Kaisergeschichte  (Leipzig,  1919),  pp.  219  ff. 
E.  Winkelmann's  fundamental  annals,  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.  (Leipzig,  1889-1897), 
stop  with  1233. 

iStoria  dei  Musulmani  di  Sicilia   (.Florence,   1854-1872),  III.  655  ff. 

sHistoria  Diplomatica  Friderici  Secundi  (Paris.  1859-1861),  introduction, 
especially    pp.    dxix-dlv. 

*  See  particularly  E.  F.  Langley,  "  The  Extant  Repertory  of  the  Sicilian 
Poets ",  in  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America, 
XXVIII.  454-520  (1913)  ;  and  the  important  studies  of  Ernest  H.  Wilkins  on  the 
origin  of  the  canzone  and  the  sonnet,  Modem  Philology,  XII.  135-166,  XIII.  79- 
110  (1915).  For  Frederick's  relations  with  Provencal  poets,  see  the  studies  of 
De  Bartholomaeis,  in  Memorie  of  the  Bologna  Academy,  I.  69-124  (1911-1912); 
and  Bertoni,  /  Trovatori  d'ltalia   (Modena,   1915).  pp.   25-27. 

AM.    HIST.   REV.,  VOL.   XXVII.  — 45.  (669) 


670  C.  H.  Hasklns 

northern  Italy  and  elsewhere  require  further  investigation.5  On  the 
scientific  side,  while  much  remains  to  be  done  with  the  fragmentary 
materials,  investigation  has  advanced  to  a  point  where  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  supplement  and  correct  the  older  writers  by  a  general  survey 
of  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge.  If  the  results  do  not  greatly 
enlarge  our  acquaintance  with  the  content  of  thirteenth-century  sci- 
ence, they  at  least  illustrate  more  fully  its  methods  and  the  workings 
of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  minds  of  the  later  Middle  Ages. 

The  intellectual  life  of  Frederick's  court  cannot  be  regarded  as  an 
isolated  or  merely  personal  phenomenon.  Lying  between  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Renaissance,  it  must  be  seen  against  the  cosmopolitan 
background  of  Norman  Sicily,  the  meeting-point  of  Greek,  Arabic, 
and  Latin  culture,  central  in  the  history  as  in  the  geography  of  the 
Mediterranean  lands.  Frederick  was  not  the  first  but  the  second  of 
the  "  two  baptized  sultans  "  on  the  Sicilian  throne,0  and  in  intellectual 
matters  as  in  legislation  he  followed  in  the  direction  of  his  grand- 
father Roger.  King  Roger's  chief  scientific  interest  was  geography, 
pursued  assiduously  throughout  the  fifteen  years  of  his  reign.  Find- 
ing the  Arabian  geographies  and  translations  insufficient  for  his  pur- 
pose, he  called  to  his  court  famous  travellers  from  many  lands  and 
subjected  them  to  a  close  examination,  accepting  only  the  facts  on 
which  they  were  agreed,  and  recording  the  results  upon  a  great  silver 
map  and  in  a  volume  of  descriptive  text  in  Arabic  which  Edrisi  com- 
pleted in  1 154.7  This  method  is  not  unlike  that  followed  by  Frederick 
in  consulting  experts  on  falconry,  among  whom  he  cites  King  Roger's 
falconer,  William,  who  passed  as  one  of  the  earliest  writers  on  this 
subject.8  Under  Roger's  immediate  successors,  William  I.  and  Wil- 
liam II.,  scientific  activity  took  the  form  particularly  of  the  translation 
of  Greek  works  on  mathematics  and  astronomy :  the  Data,  Optica, 
and  Catoptrica  of  Euclid,  the  Pneumatica  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  the 
De  Motu  of  Proclus,  even  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy.  Scientific  obser- 
vation, fed  by  the  Meteorology  of  Aristotle,  concerned  itself  with  the 
phenomena  of  Etna.9     At  the  same  time  Ptolemy's  Optics  was  trans- 

5  This  is  the  freshest  part  of  the  notable  article  of  the  late  H.  Niese.  "  Zur 
Geschichte  des  Geistigen  Lebens  am  Hofe  Kaiser  Friedrichs  II.",  in  Historische 
Zeitschrift,  CVIII.  473-540  (1912).  There  are  noteworthy  essays  by  F.  Novati 
in  his  Freschi  e  Minii  del  Dugento  (Milan,  1908),  especially  pp.   103-142. 

'•The  phrase  is  Amari's,  Musulmani,  III.   365. 

i  L'ltalia  descritta  net  "  Libro  de!  Re  Ruggero  " ,  translated  by  Amari  and 
Schiaparelli  (Rome.  1883),  pp.  4-8;  Edrisi,  translated  by  Reinaud  (Paris.  1836), 
I.  xviii-xxii.  Pardi  has  recently  argued  that  the  final  form  of  the  work  must  be 
subsequent  to   1154;   Rivista  Geografica  Italiana,  XXIV.  380   (1917). 

8  English  Historical  Review,  XXXVI.  341.   347. 

9  See  my  article  on  "  The  Greek  Element   in  the  Renaissance  of  the  Twelfth 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   671. 

lated  from  the  Arabic,  and  the  household  of  William  II.,  as  portrayed 
in  the  scenes  of  his  death,  comprised  an  Arab  physician  and  an  Arab 
astrologer.10 

At  the  court  of  Frederick  II.  the  Greek  element  is  of  little  signifi- 
cance. Greek  versions  of  his  laws  were  issued,  and  Calabrian  poets 
sang  his  praises  in  Greek  verse,  but  the  influence  of  Byzantium  had 
declined  with  the  fall  of  the  Greek  empire,  and  we  hear  little  of  Greek 
scholars  or  Greek  translations  in  this  period  in  the  South.11  On  the 
other  hand,  Arabic  influence  was,  if  anything,  stronger  under  Fred- 
erick, especially  after  his  visit  to  the  East,  and  was  maintained  by  the 
political  and  commercial  relations  with  Mohammedan  countries,  while 
his  imperial  interests  fostered  intercourse  with  northern  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  Provence.  The  chronicler  who  passes  by  the  name  of 
Nicholas  of  Iamsilla  tells  us  that  at  Frederick's  accession  there  were 
few  or  no  scholars  in  the  Sicilian  kingdom,  and  that  it  was  one  of  his 
principal  tasks  by  means  of  liberal  rewards  to  attract  masters  from 
various  parts  of  the  earth.12  What  scholars  were  thus  drawn  to  the 
Sicilian  court  we  know  but  imperfectly.  The  loss  of  the  imperial 
registers,  save  for  a  fragment  of  1239-1240,13  makes  it  impossible  to 
reconstruct  in  detail  the  organization  and  personnel  of  the  household, 
and  the  scattered  documents  of  the  reign  tell  us  almost  nothing  of  the 
men  who  aided  the  emperor  in  his  scientific  inquiries.  That  they 
were  chiefly  officials  of  the  curia  seems  altogether  likely.  Several  of 
the  Sicilian  school  of  poets  held  official  positions  as  notaries,  judges, 
or  falconers,14  and  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  Frederick's  astrologer, 
Theodore,  engaged  in  the  same  year  in  casting  horoscopes,  going  on 
missions,  making  confectionery,  drafting  letters,  and  translating  an 
Arabic  work  on  falconry.  In  this  busy  court  science,  like  literature, 
would  seem  to  have  been  a  matter  for  leisure  hours,  and  its  votaries 
could  be  no  narrow  specialists ! 

Two  of  Frederick's  courtiers  seem  to  have  borne  the  official  title 
of  "  philosopher  ",  and  in  an  age  when  philosophy  and  science  were 

Century",  in  American  Historical  Review,  XXV  603-615  (1920),  and  the  earlier 
articles  there  cited. 

10  Petrus  de  Ebulo,  Liber  ad  Honorcm  Augusti,  plate  3. 

uNiese.  in  Historische  Zeitschrift,  CVIII.  490  ff. ;  cf.  Bresslau.  Urkunden- 
Ichre,  edition  of  1915,  II.  380  ff.  Further  investigation  is  needed  respecting 
Greek  in  the  South  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

12  Muratori,  VIII.  496. 

"  On  which  see  the  recent  studies  of  Niese,  in  Archiv  fur  Urkundenfor- 
schung,  V.  1-20  (1913);  and  Sthamer,  in  Berlin  Sitcungsberichte,  1920,  pp.  584  ff. 

14  See  Langley's  list  in  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association, 
XXVIII.  468  ff..  and  the  references  there  cited,  especially  the  researches  of 
Scandone  in  Studl  di  Letteratura  Italiana,  V.,  VI. 


672  C.  H.  Haskins 

inseparable  these  two  were  naturally  the  chief  advisers  of  the  emperor 
in  scientific  matters.  The  more  famous  of  them,  Michael  Scot,15  who 
hailed  originally  from  Scotland,  came  to  Sicily  with  a  reputation 
gained  chiefly  in  the  schools  of  Spain.  Appearing  at  Toledo  as  early 
as  1217,  Michael  there  distinguished  himself  by  translating  al-Bitrogi 
On  the  Sphere  and  Aristotle  On  Animals,  as  well  as  the  De  Caelo 
and  the  De  Anima  with  the  commentaries  of  Averroes  thereon.  By 
1220  he  is  in  Italy,  and  from  1224  to  1227  he  enjoys  the  favor  of  the 
pope  and  the  grant  of  benefices  in  England  and  Scotland;  but  soon 
thereafter  he  is  found  in  the  emperor's  service,  in  which,  though  not 
mentioned  in  any  surviving  official  documents,  he  remained  until  his 
death,  which  occurred  before  1236.  His  official  position  was  that  of 
court  astrologer,  but  he  made  for  the  emperor  a  Latin  summary  of 
Avicenna's  De  Animalibus  and  busied  himself  with  a  series  of  writ- 
ings on  astrology,  meteorology,  and  physiognomy,  all  dedicated  to 
Frederick.  These  show  acquaintance  with  medicine,  music,  and 
alchemy,  as  well  as  with  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  in  general.  We 
are  told  that  he  knew  Hebrew  as  well  as  Arabic,  but  his  linguistic 
attainments  are  the  occasion  of  unfavorable  comment  on  the  part  of 
Roger  Bacon.  Scot  had  a  respectable  knowledge  of  the  Arabian 
astronomy  and  its  applications,  and  prided  himself  on  the  accuracy  of 
his  observations  and  calculations.  His  faith  in  astrology  does  not,  in 
his  age,  militate  against  his  standing  as  a  scientist,  but  his  own  writ- 
ings show  him  to  have  been  pretentious  and  boastful,  with  no  clear 
sense  of  the  limits  of  his  knowledge,  as  well  as  tending  to  overstep 
the  line,  if  line  there  be,  between  astrology  and  necromancy.  At  the 
same  time  he  had  an  experimental  habit  of  mind,  and  a  final  judgment 
as  to  his  scientific  attainments  must  await  the  more  careful  sifting  of 
his  extensive  treatises  on  astrology,  the  Liber  Introdnctorius  and  the 
Liber  Particularis. 

If  Michael  Scot  represented  the  learning  of  Moorish  Spain  and 
Western  Christendom,  Master  Theodore  "  the  philosopher  "  seems  to 
have  maintained  relations  particularly  with  the  East.16  Greek,  or 
perhaps  Jewish,17  by  name,  he  is  said  to  have  been  sent  to  Frederick 
by  the  Great  Calif,  probably  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  some  time  before 

is  Current  statements  concerning  him  are  derived  from  the  highly  conjec- 
tural book  of  J.  Wood  Brown,  An  Enquiry  into  the  Life  and  Legend  of  Michael 
Scot  (Edinburgh,  1897).  I  have  tried  to  fix  the  few  facts  we  really  know  in  an 
article  on  "Michael  Scot  and  Frederick  II.",  to  appear  in  Isis,  IV.,  in   1922. 

is  See,  in  general,  Amari,  Musulmani,  III.  692-695  ;  Steinschneider,  in  Vienna 
Sitzungsberichte,  CXLIX.  4,  p.  79;  Sudhoff,  in  Archiv  fur  die  Geschichte  der 
Mcdizin,  IX.    1-9   (1915). 

I?  Renan,  in  Histoire  Littcraire  de  la  France,  XXXI.  290. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   673 

1236. 18  If  we  may  believe  the  prologue  to  the  French  romance  of 
Sidrach,  Theodore,  here  called  "  Todre  li  phylosophes  ",  came  from 
Antioch  and  remained  in  relations  with  its  Latin  patriarch.10  In  the 
autumn  of  1238,  at  the  siege  of  Brescia,  he  appears  in  the  Dominican 
annals  as  silencing  the  friars  in  philosophical  disputes  until,  challenged 
to  public  debate  on  any  subject  of  philosophy  with  the  doughty  Roland 
of  Cremona,  he  is  triumphantly  confuted,  to  the  great  glory  of  the 
order.20  Probably  succeeding  Scot  as  court  astrologer,  Theodore 
casts  the  imperial  horoscope  at  Padua  in  1239,  where  he  is  ridiculed 
by  the  local  chronicler  for  seeking  a  favorable  conjunction  impossible 
at  the  time  and  failing  to  search  in  Scorpio  for  the  impending  failure 
of  the  expedition.21  In  the  register  of  1239-1240  he  is  found  draft- 
ing the  emperor's  Arabic  letters  to  the  King  of  Tunis  and  acting  as 
his  trusty  messenger.  In  this  same  year  he  is  busy  compounding 
syrups  and  sugar  of  violet  for  the  emperor  and  his  household,  with 
free  credit  in  money  and  costly  sugar  for  this  purpose,  and  a  box  of 
the  violet  sugar  is  sent  to  Piero  della  Vigna  during  his  recovery  from 
an  illness.22  In  1240-1241  the  emperor  corrects  his  translation  from 
the  Arabic.23  No  further  dates  are  known  in  Theodore's  career,  but 
he  continued  to  enjoy  imperial  favor  until  his  death  not  long  before 
November,  1250,  when  Frederick  regranted  the  extensive  domains 
which  "  the  late  Theodore  our  philosopher  held  so  long  as  he  lived  ".24 

is  "  Explicit  liber  novem  iudicum  quem  missit  soldanus  Babilonie  imperatori 
Federico  tempore  quo  et  magnus  chalif  tnisit  magistrum  Theodorum  eidem  impera- 
tori Federico."  British  Museum,  Royal  MS.  12  G.  VIII;  cf.  French  version  in 
Langlois,  La  Connaissance  de  la  Nature  au  Moyen  Age  (1911),  p.  191;  Amari. 
III.  694.  The  Liber  Novem  Iudicum  is  cited  by  Michael  Scot  in  his  Liber  Intro- 
ductorius  ( Munich,  cod.  lat.  10268,  f.  128),  and  must  thus  have  reached  Sicily  be- 
fore 1236.  The  phrase  "magnus  chalif"  does  not  strengthen  our  faith  in  this 
colophon. 

The  references  to  Theodore  in  the  writings  of  Leonard  of  Pisa  may  well  be 
earlier,  but  the  answers  to  Theodore's  questions  look  like  later  additions  to  the 
original  text  of  Leonard's  Flos  and  Liber  Qtiadratorum,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
dated   with   certainty. 

is  H.  L.  D.  Ward.  Catalogue  of  Romances  in  the  British  Museum.  I.  904  ff . ; 
Histoire  Litteraire,  XXXI.   288-290;   Langlois,  p.  204. 

=0  Quetif  and  Echard,  Scriptores  Ordinis  Praedicatorum,  I.   126,  col.  2. 

21  Rolandini,  in  Muratori,  VIII.  228  (new  edition,  VIII.  66)  ;  and  in  Monu- 
menta,  Scriptores,  XIX.  73. 

--  Huillard-Breholles.  Historia  Diplomatica,  V.  556,  630,  727,  745,  750  ff. ;  id., 
Pierre  de  la  Vigne,  p.  347. 

23  English  Historical  Review.  XXXVI.  348. 

-*  Original  charter  published  by  Schneider  in  Quellen  nnd  V.  ischungen  aus 
Italienischen  Archiven.  XVI.  51  (1913);  cf.  the  inquest  of  th<-  Angevin  period 
published  by  Scandone  in  Studi  di  Letteratura  Italiana.  V.  308  (19^3).  Theodore 
may  well  have  been  one  of  the  astrologers  lost  in  the  defeat  bi  fore  Parma  in 
1248.     Hartwig.  in  Centralblatt  fitr  Bibliothekswesen.  III.   183. 


674  C-  H-  Haskins 

While  the  biographical  data  are  somewhat  fuller  in  the  case  of 
Theodore  than  in  that  of  Michael  Scot,  the  evidence  of  his  literary 
activity  is  much  less.  Apart  from  a  doubtful  connection  with  the 
transmission  of  the  philosophical  romance  of  Sidrach,  Theodore  is 
known  only  as  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  hygiene  extracted  for  the 
emperor's  benefit  from  the  Secretum  Secretorum  of  the  Pseudo- 
Aristotle,25  and  a  Latin  version  of  the  work  of  Moamyn  on  the  care 
of  falcons  and  dogs.26  His  preface  to  this  shows  acquaintance  with 
Aristotle,  including  the  Ethics  and  the  Rhetoric,  such  as  a  court 
philosopher  should  have,  while  he  also  exhibits  medical  knowledge. 
Mathematician  as  well  as  astrologer,  he  puts  problems  to  Leonard  of 
Pisa,  and  is  addressed  by  him  as  "the  supreme  philosopher  of  the 
imperial  court ",  whose  cosmopolitan  culture  he  well  represents.27 

Another  court  philosopher,  John  of  Palermo,  mentioned  by  Leonard 
of  Pisa  in  1225,  is  probably  identical  with  the  Master  John  the  notary 
who  acts  as  confidential  agent  of  the  emperor  in  1240,  but  we  know 
nothing  of  his  scientific  tastes  beyond  his  interest  in  mathematics.28 
A  Master  Dominicus,  perhaps  a  Spaniard,  appears  in  the  same  con- 
nection.20 The  Sicilian  Moslem  who  tutored  Frederick  in  logic  dur- 
ing his  crusade  remains  anonymous,30  with  many  other  scholars  who 
must  have  attended  the  court.  One  of  these,  for  example,  appears 
in  correspondence  on  mathematical  subjects  with  a  learned  Jew  of 
Spain.31 

The  more  literary  members  of  the  magna  curia,  such  as  Piero  della 
Vigna,  are  silent  respecting  their  scientific  associates,  save  for  such 
an  exchange  of  compliments  and  sugar  plums  as  has  been  cited.  The 
interests  of  Piero,  as  of  the  other  members  of  the  Capuan  school, 
were  primarily  literary,  and  his  letters  would  not  have  become  models 
of  Latin  style  for  the  thirteenth  century32  had  he  not  been  first  and 
foremost  a  phrasemaker  who  spoke  "  obscurely  and  in  the  grand 
manner  ".33     The  extant  collections  of   correspondence   which  pass 

25  Ed.  Sudhoff.  in  Archiv  fiir  die  Geschichte  der  Medisin,  IX.  4  (1915). 

2« English  Historical  Review,  XXXVI.  348  ff. 

-1  Scritti  di  Leonardo  Pisano,  ed.  Boncompagni  (Rome,  1S57-1862),  II.  247, 
279. 

=s/6.,  II.  227,  253;   Huillard-Breholles,   II.    185,  V.   726  ff..  745.  928. 

=9  Leonardo,  Scritti,  II.  1,  253;  Cantor,  Vorlesutigen  iiber  die  Geschichte  der 
Mathematik    (Leipzig,    1900),   II.   35   ff.,   41. 

30  Amari,  Biblioteca  Arabo-Sicula,   II.   254. 

31  Steinschneider,  Hebraische  Uebersetzungen,  p.  3. 

32  Critical  edition  lacking.  See  Huillard-Breholles,  Pierre  dc  la  Vignc,  pp. 
249  ff. ;  Hanauer,  in  Mitteilungen  des  Instituts  fiir  Oesterreichische  Geschichtsfor- 
schung,  XXI.  527-536   (1900). 

33  So  Odofredus  characterizes  him,  Mitteilungen  des  Instituts.  XXX.  653,  n.  1. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   675 

under  his  name  were  preserved  for  rhetorical  rather  than  historical 
purposes,  and  there  was  no  occasion  for  retaining  in  them  whatever 
of  the  scientific  life  of  the  court  the  originals  might  have  reflected. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  his  phrases  suggest  the  other  intellectual  inter- 
ests of  the  court,  as  when  he  borrows  the  language  of  the  current 
cosmogony  in  the  preface  to  the  emperor's  Constitutions,34  or  refers 
to  the  preoccupation  of  the  friars  with  the  form  of  the  globe,  the 
course  of  the  sun  in  the  zodiac,  the  squaring  of  the  circle,  or  the  con- 
version of  triangles  into  quadrangles. 35  Piero's  correspondence  with 
the  masters  of  Bologna  and  Naples  and  the  dictatores  of  his  native 
Campania  runs  parallel  to  the  scientific  correspondence  of  Frederick 
and  his  philosophers  with  scholars  in  Italy  and  Mohammedan  lands. 
So  far  as  Italy  is  concerned,  the  outstanding  scientific  genius  of 
the  thirteenth  century  is  undoubtedly  the  mathematician  Leonard  of 
Pisa.36  Beyond  the  fact  of  his  African  education,  and  his  "  sovereign 
possession  of  the  whole  mathematical  knowledge  of  his  own  and  every 
preceding  generation  ",37  his  personal  history  is  unknown ;  but  though 
he  resided  at  Pisa,  he  was  well  known  to  Frederick  and  the  philoso- 
phers of  his  court,  to  whom  his  extant  works  are  in  large  measure 
dedicated.  It  is  Michael  Scot  who  in  1228  receives  from  Leonard's 
hands  the  revised  edition  of  his  epoch-making  treatise  on  the  Abacus, 
first  issued  in  1202. 3S  Already  Master  John  of  Palermo  had  accom- 
panied Leonard  into  the  emperor's  presence  and  proposed  questions 
involving  quadratic  and  cubic  equations,  the  answers  to  which  are 
found  in  the  Flos  and  Liber  Quadrat orum.™  Like  the  solutions  of 
various  problems  submitted  to  Leonard  by  Master  Theodore,  these 
are  designed  to  illustrate  method  rather  than  to  form  a  systematic 
treatise.  The  Liber  Quadratorum  is  directed  to  the  emperor,  who  has 
himself  deigned  to  read  the  treatise  on  the  Abacus  and  to  hear  the 
discussion  of  subtle  problems  of  arithmetic  and  geometry,  such  as 
those  once  propounded  in  his  presence  by  Master  John.40     Relations 

3*Niese,  in  Historische  Zeitschrift,  CVIII.  501,  523.  Those  who  doubt 
Piero's  authorship  of  the  original  constitutions  admit  his  influence  on  their  style 
as  we  have  them:  e.g.,  Garufi.  in  Studi  Medioevali,  II.   105,  note. 

35  Poem  printed  by  Huillard-Breholles,  Pierre  de  la  Vigne,  p.  414. 

38  M.  Cantor,  Vorlesungen,  II.  cc.  41,  42;  S.  Giinther,  Geschichte  der  Mathe- 
matik  (Leipzig,   1908),  I.  c.   15. 

37  Giinther,  p.  258. 
3S  Scritti,  I.   1. 

38  Scritti,  II.  227-283.  The  date  1225  which  heads  the  Liber  Quadratorum 
has  perplexed  historians,  since  Frederick  first  visited  Pisa  in  the  following  year. 
Enestrom  has  tried  to  reconcile  the  difficulties  by  placing  the  first  meeting  else- 
where.    Bibliotheca  Mathematica,  IX.  72   (1908). 

40  Scritti,  II.  253. 


676  C.  H.  Haskins 

with  other  scholars  of  northern  Italy  seem  to  have  concerned  chiefly 
matters  of  law  or  literature,  as  Niese  has  well  brought  out,41  but  we 
should  not  overlook  the  treatise  on  the  hygiene  of  a  crusading  army 
dedicated  to  Frederick  by  Adam,  chanter  of  Cremona,  in  1227  and 
recently  brought  to  light  by  Sudhoff.42 

It  is  characteristic  of  Frederick's  strongly  personal  policy  that  the 
intellectual  life  of  his  kingdom  centres  in  his  court  rather  than  in 
universities,  and  that  the  southern  universities  in  his  reign  show  little 
vigor  of  life  and  leadership.  His  absolute  and  paternal  ideas  of 
government  left  no  place  for  independent  corporations  of  masters  and 
students  living  the  free  and  turbulent  life  of  the  northern  stadia.  So 
Salerno,  which  had  grown  to  eminence  as  a  school  of  medicine  without 
the  aid  of  prince  or  pope,  found  itself  tied  down  by  royal  statute  in 
1231  as  part  of  a  comprehensive  regulation  of  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine, surgery,  and  pharmacy  throughout  the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  issued 
in  the  interests  of  bureaucratic  administration  rather  than  of  univer- 
sity development.  The  course  of  study  is  laid  down  by  law,  and  royal 
officers  are  to  be  present  at  the  examinations.43  A  similar  bureaucratic 
purpose  runs  through  the  statutes  establishing  the  University  of 
Naples  in  1224  and  refprming  it  in  1234  and  1239.  Frederick  needed 
trained  public  servants,  and  he  preferred  to  have  them  brought  up  in 
his  own  kingdom  rather  than  in  Bologna  and  other  Guelfic  cities  of 
the  North.  Although  the  new  university  was  to  comprise  all  the  fields 
of  study  then  current,  its  strength  lay  in  law  and  rhetorical  composi- 
tion, and  it  is  no  accident  that  the  masters  whose  names  have  reached 
us  are  chiefly  jurists  and  grammarians,  closely  connected  with  the 
judges  and  clerks  of  the  royal  curia.**     Nevertheless  we  read  of  a 

*i  Historische  Zeitschrift.  CVIII.  513  ff. 

42  F.  Honger,  Aertzliche  Vcrhaltungsmassregeln  auf  dem  Heerzug  ins  Heilige 
Land  fur  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.  geschrieben  von  Adam  von  Cremona  (Leipzig  diss., 
I9I3)- 

<3  Constitutions  in  Huillard-Breholles,  IV.  150  ff..  235;  Greek  text.  ed.  Sud- 
hoff, in  Mitteilungen  zur  Geschichte  der  Medizin,  XIII.  180  (1914)-  See  Rash- 
dall,  Universities,  I,  83  ff. ;  and  the  commentary  of  A.  Baumer,  Die  Aertztege- 
setzgebung  Kaiser  Friedrichs  II.   (Leipzig,   191 1). 

44  See  the  principal  documents  concerning  the  beginnings  of  the  university 
in  Huillard-Breholles,  II.  450,  IV.  497,  V.  493-496;  and  the  discussion  in  Denifie, 
Die  Universitaten,  I.  452-456.  A  much-needed  study  of  its  early  history  is 
promised  by  E.  Sthamer.  Two  masters  connected  with  the  university  in  this 
period  are  the  subjects  of  recent  monographs:  G.  Ferretti,  "  Roffredo  Epifanio 
da  Benevento  ",  in  Studi  Medioevali,  III.  230-275  (1909I  ;  and  F.  Torraca,  "  Maes- 
tro Terrisio  di  Atina  ",  in  Archivio  Storico  Napoletano,  XXXVI.  231-253 
(1911).  Another  professor  of  grammar,  Walter  of  Ascoli,  has  left  an  etymolog- 
ical cyclopaedia  entitled  Dedignomion,  or  Summa  Derivalionum,  or  Speculum 
Artis  Grammatice,  based  on  Isidore  and  Hugutio.     I  have  used  MS.  449  at  Laon 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   677 

professor  of  natural  philosophy.  Master  Arnold  the  Catalan,  who 
taught  the  courses  of  the  stars  and  the  nature  of  the  elements  but  was 
unable  to  predict  his  own  sudden  death,  which  occurred  "  as  he  was 
lecturing  on  the  soul ",  very  likely  in  the  midst  of  a  commentary  on 
the  De  Anima  of  Aristotle.45  No  less  a  person  than  Thomas  Aquinas 
began  his  study  of  natural  philosophy  at  Naples,  under  an  Irish  mas- 
ter, one  Petrus  de  Hibernia,  who  is  later  found  holding  a  disputation 
at  King  Manfred's  court.40 

Frederick's  patronage  of  learning  was  not  limited  to  Christian 
scholars.  The  Jewish  translator  of  the  logical  commentary  of  Aver- 
roes  and  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  Jacob  Anatoli,  praises  this  "  friend  of 
wisdom  and  its  votaries  "  for  pecuniary  support,  and  even  hopes  the 
Messiah  may  come  in  this  reign ;  his  versions  into  Hebrew,  begun  in 
Provence,  were  continued  at  Naples  in  1232  and  brought  him  into 
relations  with  Michael  Scot  as  well  as  the  emperor.47  A  Spanish 
Jew,  the  encyclopedist  Jehuda  ben  Solomon  Cohen,  was  in  corre- 
spondence with  one  of  the  court  philosophers  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 
coming  later  to  Italy,  where  he  met  the  emperor  and  is  found  in 
Tuscany  in  I247.4S  Through  these  or  others  Frederick  had  some 
knowledge  of  Maimonides.49 

Whether  eminent  Mohammedan  scholars  actually  resided  at  Fred- 

and  MS.  Vat.  lat.  1500  of  the  Vatican,  both  ca.  1300;  there  is  a  later  copy  at  the 
University  of  Bologna,  MS.  151 5  (2832).  The  Laon  manuscript  was  ascribed  to 
Walter,  archbishop  of  Palermo  in  the  twelfth  century  (Catalogue,  p.  238),  but 
"  Gualterius  Hesculanus  "  appears  clearly  in  the  preface,  and  a  further  sentence 
printed  by  Morelli,  Codices  MSS.  Latini  Bibliothecae  Nanianae  (Venice,  1726), 
p.  160,  states  that  the  book  was  begun  at  Bologna  in  1229  and  afterward  com- 
pleted at  Naples.  Walter  is  probably  the  "  Magister  Gtualterius]  grammaticus  ", 
professor  at  Naples,  whose  death  is  lamented  in  a  letter  of  Piero  della  Vigna 
(Epp.,  IV,  no.  8;  Huillard-Breholles,  Pierre  de  la  Vigne,  p.  394).  In  the  Laon 
MS.  the  Dedignomion  is  followed  by  the  notes  of  another  southern  grammarian, 
Anellus  de  Gaieta. 

«  See  the  letter  of  condolence  of  Master  Terrisio,  published  by  Paolucci  in 
the  Atti  of  the  Palermo  Academy,  IV.  44  (1896);  and  by  Torraca  in  the  article 
just  cited,  p.  247. 

40  Denifle,  Universitdten.  I.  456  ff.  ;  Baeumker,  "  Petrus  de  Hibernia  ",  in 
Munich  Sitzungsberichte,   1920;   infra,  n.   138. 

4'Renan,  in  Histoire  Littcraire,  XXVII.  580-589;  Steinschneider,  Hebraische 
Uebersetzungen,  pp.  58-61,  523;  Huillard-Breholles,  IV.  382,  n. 

48  Steinschneider,  op.  cit.,  pp.  1-3,  164,  507;  id.,  Verzeichniss  der  Hebraischen 
Handschriften  der  Koniglichen  Bibliothek  zu  Berlin,  II.  121-126;  and  in  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Mathematik  und  Physik,  XXXI.,  part  2,  pp.  106  ff.  On  Jewish  culture 
under  Frederick,  see  M.  Gudemann,  Geschichte  des  Erziehungsu-esens  der  Judcn 
in  Italien  (Vienna,  1884),  pp.  101-107,  268  ff . ;  R.  Straus,  Die  Juden  im  Konig- 
reich  Sizilien  (Heidelberg,   1910),  pp.   79-91. 

*9Amari,  III.  705  ff. ;  Steinschneider.  in  Hebraische  Bibliographie,  VII.  62-66 
(1864);  id.,  Hebraische  Uebersetzungen.  p.  433. 


678  C.  H.  Haskins 

erick's  court,  is  a  question  which  cannot  be  answered  from  the  infor- 
mation at  our  disposal.  His  colony  of  Saracens  at  Lucera50  and  his 
well-known  tolerance  of  the  infidel  combined  with  the  environment  of 
his  youth  and  his  semi-oriental  habits  of  life  to  spread  stories  that  he 
preferred  to  surround  himself  with  Moslem  rather  than  Christian  in- 
fluences, in  learning  as  in  everything  else/'1  That  he  was  friendly  to 
the  learning  of  Islam  appears  from  the  various  questionnaires  which, 
as  we  shall  see,  he  sent  out  to  Mohammedan  rulers,  partly  as  puzzles, 
partly  in  a  real  search  for  knowledge.  His  crusade  led  to  political 
and  commercial  relations  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  which  lasted 
throughout  his  reign,  while  the  commercial  treaty  of  1231  with  the 
ruler  of  Tunis  was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  Sicilian  consu- 
late at  Tunis  and  a  series  of  diplomatic  missions  of  various  sorts.52 
Such  missions  were  regularly  the  occasion  of  an  exchange  of  presents, 
and  it  was  well  understood  that  the  emperor  valued  a  book,  a  rare 
bird,  or  a  cunning  piece  of  workmanship  more  highly  than  mere  ob- 
jects of  luxury.  Thus  in  1232  al-Ashraf,  sultan  of  Damascus,  sent 
him  a  wonderful  planetarium,  with  figures  of  the  sun  and  moon  mark- 
ing the  hours  on  their  appointed  rounds ;  valued  at  20,000  marks,  this 
was  kept  with  the  royal  treasure  at  Venosa.53  Frederick  gave  in 
return  a  white  bear  and  a  white  peacock  which  astonished  the  Oriental 
chroniclers,  as  their  western  contemporaries  were  impressed  by  "  the 
marvellous  beasts,  such  as  the  West  had  not  seen  or  known  ",  which 
Frederick  had  earlier  received  from  Egypt.04 

At  the  end  of  a  series  of  such  costly  exchanges,  Frederick,  his 
treasury  exhausted,  propounded  to  the  sultan  problems  of  mathematics 
and  philosophy,  the  solutions  of  which,  due  to  a  famous  scholar  of 
Egypt,5"'  came  back  in  the  sultan's  own  hand.  While  in  the  East 
Frederick  asked  an  interview  with  some  one  learned  in  astronomy, 

50  On  which  see  now  Egidi,  in  Archivio  Storico  Napoletano,  XXXVI.-XXXIX. 

51  Current  views  of  Frederick's  relations  with  the  Saracen  world  are  illus- 
trated by  Matthew  Paris,  Chronica  Majora,  III.  520;  IV.  268,  526,  567  ff.,  635; 
V.  60  ff.,  217. 

52  See,  in  general,  Amari.  Musulmani,  III.  621-655;  A.  Schaube.  Handelsge- 
schichte  der  Romanischen  Volker,  pp.  185,  302-304;  Huillard-Breholles,  introduc- 
tion, ch,  5  ;  Mas  Latrie,  Traites  de  Paix  avec  les  Arabes  de  I'Afrique  Septentri- 
onale,  introduction,  pp.  82  ff.,  122-124;  Blochet.  "Les  Relations  Diplomatiques 
des  Hohenstaufen  avec  les  Sultans  d'figypte  ".  in  Revue  Historique,  LXXX.  51- 
64  (1902);  and,  under  the  several  Mohammedan  rulers,  the  indexes  to  the 
Regesta  Imperii  and  Winkelmann,  Kaiser  Friedrick  II. 

53  Chronica  Regia  Coloniensis  (ed.  Waitz,  1880),  p.  263;  Huillard-Breholles, 
IV.  369;  cf.  Winkelmann,  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.,  II.  399  ff. ;  Wiedemann,  in  Archiv 
fiir  Kulturgeschichte,  XI.  485   (1914)- 

MScriptores,  XXVIII.  61. 

55  Revue  Historique,  LXXX.  60. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   679 

and  in  response  Sultan  Malek-Kamil  sent  him  a  most  learned  astron- 
omer and  mathematician  surnamed  al-Hanifi.s6  It  will  be  recalled 
that  Theodore  the  philosopher  is  said  to  have  been  first  sent  to  the 
emperor  by  the  "  caliph  ",  and  it  is  he  who  drafts  the  Arabic  letters 
to  the  ruler  of  Tunis.'7  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  impression 
which  Frederick  made  on  the  scholars  of  the  East  as  one  well  versed 
in  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  the  natural  sciences  in  general;53  but 
such  reports,  transmitted  through  later  Arabic  compilers,  are  too 
vague  to  throw  much  light  on  his  relation  to  specific  fields  of  science. 
The  list  of  scholars  with  whom  Frederick  was  in  contact  fades  into 
a  penumbra  of  mythical  attributions  and  romantic  tales,  interesting  at 
least  as  showing  the  reputation  which  the  emperor  and  his  court  ac- 
quired in  the  field  of  learning  and  literature.59  Thus  he  Regime  du 
Corps  of  Aldebrandino  of  Siena,  written  in  1256  for  Countess  Bea- 
trice of  Provence,  appears  in  certain  later  manuscripts  as  translated 
in  1234  "  from  Greek  into  Latin  and  from  Latin  into  French  "  at  the 
request  of  "  Frederick  formerly  emperor  of  Rome  ",60  The  famous 
letter  of  Prester  John  concerning  the  marvels  of  the  East,  which  in 
the  Latin  original  is  sent  to  the  Greek  emperor  Manuel,  is  in  its 
French  form  addressed  to  "  Fedri  l'empereour  de  Rome  ",61  as  the 
mythical  account  of  Alexander's  conquests  in  Central  Asia  is  directed 
to  his  philosopher  Theodore.62  The  French  prophecies  of  Merlin 
profess  to  have  been  compiled  at  the  desire  of  Frederick  and  then 
turned  into  Arabic  as  a  present  to  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,63  while  the 
romance  of  Sidrach  purports  to  have  been  brought  from  Tunis  for 
Frederick  and  turned  into  Latin  by  Friar  Roger  of  Palermo.64  A 
medical  treatise  is  said  to  have  been  translated  for  the  emperor  in 
1212  with  the  aid  of  Gerard  of  Cremona,  who  died  twenty-five  years 
earlier.65 

56  Tarih  Mansuri,  in  Archivio  Storico  Siciliano,  IX.   119. 
"  See  note  22,  above. 

58  See  the  passages  cited  by  Rohricht,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Kreuzziige 
(Berlin,  1874),  I.  73  ff. ;  Winkelmann,  Kaiser  Friedrich  II.,  II.  137,  n.  3. 

59  Cf.  Langlois.  La  Connaissance  de  la  Nature  au  Moyen  Age,  p.   191. 

co  Le  Regime  du  Corps  de  Maitre  Aldebrandin  de  Sienne.  ed.  L.  Landouzy 
and  R.  Pepin  (Paris,   1911),  pp.  xxxii,  lv. 

m  See,  for  the  Latin  text,  the  various  studies  of  E.  Zamcke ;  and,  for  the 
French  version,  Ruteboeuf.  ed.  Jubinal  (1875),  III.  355  1  P.  Meyer,  in  Romania. 
XV.  177.  The  reference  may  be  to  Frederick  Barbarossa  (R.  Kohler,  Romania, 
V.  76). 

62  Sudhoff,  in  Archiv  fur  die  Geschichte  der  Medizin.  IX.  9;  Steinschneider. 
in  Hebraische  Bibliographic,  VIII.  41. 

63  H.  L.  D.  Ward,  Catalogue  of  Romances  in  the  British  Museum.  I.  371  ff.. 
905. 

6*  lb.,  I.  904;  Histoire  Litteraire,  XXXI.  288;   Langlois,  p.  204. 
65  Steinschneider,  Hebraische  Uebersetzungen,  p.  793. 


680  C.  H.  Haskins 

The  nature  of  the  scientific  interests  of  Frederick's  court  has  by 
this  time  become  in  some  measure  apparent.  For  one  thing,  he  was 
deeply  interested  in  all  kinds  of  animals,  collecting  a  menagerie  which 
followed  him  about  Italy  and  even  into  Germany.  In  November, 
1231,  he  came  to  Ravenna  "with  many  animals  unknown  to  Italy: 
elephants,  dromedaries,  camels,  panthers,  gerfalcons,  lions,  leopards, 
white  falcons,  and  bearded  owls  ".66  Five  years  later  a  similar  pro- 
cession passed  through  Parma,  to  the  delight  of  a  boy  of  fifteen  later 
known  as  Salimbene.67  The  elephant,  a  present  from  the  sultan, 
stayed  in  Ghibelline  Cremona,  where  he  was  put  through  his  paces  for 
the  Earl  of  Cornwall68  and  died  thirteen  years  later  "  full  of  humors  ", 
amid  the  popular  expectation  that  his  bones  would  ultimately  turn  into 
ivory.69  In  1245  the  monks  of  Santo  Zeno  at  Verona,  in  extending 
their  hospitality  to  the  emperor,  had  to  entertain  with  him  an  elephant, 
five  leopards,  and  twenty-four  camels.70  The  camels  were  used  for 
transport  and  were  even  taken  over  the  Alps,  with  monkeys  and 
leopards,  to  the  wonder  of  the  untravelled  Germans.71  Another 
marvel  of  the  collection  was  a  giraffe  from  the  sultan,  the  first  to 
appear  in  medieval  Europe.72  Throughout  runs  the  motif  of  ivory, 
apes,  and  peacocks  from  the  East,  as  old  as  Nineveh  and  Tyre  and  as 
new  as  the  modern  "  Zoo  ",  with  the  touch  of  the  thirteenth  century 
seen  in  the  elephant  which  Matthew  Paris  thought  rare  enough  to 
preserve  in  a  special  drawing  in  his  history,73  and  the  lion  which  Vil- 
lard  de  Honnecourt  saw  on  his  travels  and  carefully  labelled  in  his 
sketchbook,  "  drawn  from  life  "  ! 74 

Frederick's  menagerie  illustrates  various  sides  of  his  nature — his 
delight  in  magnificence  and  display,  his  fondness  for  the  unusual  and 
the  exotic,  his  joy  in  hunting,  for  which  he  used  coursing  leopards75 
and  panthers  as  well  as  hawks  and  falcons  and  the  humbler  compan- 

8«  Scheffer-Boichorst,  Zur  Geschichte  des  XII.  und  XIII.  Jahrhunderts  (Ber- 
lin, 1897),  PP-  282,  286. 

67  Cronica,  ed.  Holder-Egger.  pp.  92  ff. 

«8  Matthew  Paris,  Chronica  Majora,  IV.  166  ff. 

&*Chronicon  Placentinum,  ed.  Huillard-Breholles  (Paris,   1856).  p.  215. 

"o  Nuovo  Archivio  Veneto,  VI.  129. 

'i  Annals  of  Colmar,  Scriptores,  XVII.  189;  Bohmer-Ficker,  nos.  2098a.  2973, 
3475a. 

T2Albertus  Magnus,  De  Auimalibus,  ed.  Stadler,  p.  1417;  Michaud.  Biblio- 
t he  que  des  Croisades,  IV.  436. 

'3  Chronica  Majora,  IV.  166,  V.  489. 

'*  "  Et  bien  sacies  que  cis  lions  fu  contrefais  al  vif."  Album  de  Villard  dc 
Honnecourt,  plates  47,  48;  cf.  52,  53  (facsimile  edition  published  by  the  Biblio- 
thtque  Nationale). 

"s  Bohmer-Ficker,  nos.  2661,  2783,  2883,  3029.  Cf.  the  three  leopards  sent  to 
Henry  III.,  Matthew  Paris.  Scriptores.  XXVIII.  131,  407,  409. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   68 1 

ions  of  the  chase — but  it  also  fed  a  genuine  scientific  interest  in  ani- 
mals and  their  habits.  His  De  Arte  Venandi  cum  Avibus,  of  which 
more  will  be  said  below,  not  only  deals  comprehensively  with  all  the 
practical  phases  of  the  art,  but  begins  with  a  systematic  and  careful 
discussion  of  the  species,  structure,  and  habits  of  birds,  for  which  the 
author  utilizes  the  De  Animalibus  of  Aristotle,  such  previous  treatises 
as  he  could  find  on  the  subject,  and  the  results  of  his  own  observation 
and  inquiry.76  A  similar  interest  appears  in  the  case  of  horses,  to 
whose  breeding  the  emperor  gave  special  attention  and  concerning 
whose  diseases  he  ordered  one  of  his  marshals,  the  Calabrian  knight, 
Giordano  Ruffo,  to  prepare  under  imperial  supervision  a  treatise, 
which  was  not  completed  until  after  Frederick's  death.  The  first 
western  manual  of  the  veterinary  art,  this  was  widely  popular,  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  being  translated  into  many  languages  and  imitated  by 
the  writers  of  the  next  generation.77  Frederick's  reputation  as  a 
hunter,  if  not  his  personal  inspiration  to  authorship,  may  also  be  seen 
in  the  little  treatise  on  hunting  of  a  certain  Guicennas.  "  master  in 
every  kind  of  hunting  by  the  testimony  of  the  hunters  of  Lord  Fred- 
erick, emperor  of  the  Romans  ".7S 

"6  Frederick's  collections  of  works  on  falconry  are  known  from  the  manu- 
scripts of  those  which  he  had  translated  from  the  Arabic  (English  Historical  Re- 
view, XXXVI.  347-350),  and  from  the  mention  of  two  large  illustrated  volumes 
on  falcons  and  dogs  and  the  art  of  hunting,  adorned  with  gold  and  silver  and 
"  imperatorie  maiestatis  effigie  decoratus  ",  which  Guillelmus  Bottatus  of  Milan 
offered  to  Charles  of  Anjou  before  1265  (Papon,  Histoire  de  Provence,  Paris, 
177S.  II.,  preuves,  no.  74;  on  the  date  cf.  R.  Sternfeld,  Karl  von  Anjou,  p.  218). 
From  the  description  it  is  plain  that  this  edition  de  luxe  included  more  than 
Frederick's  De  Arte  in  the  form  which  has  reached  us,  but  the  marginal  illustra- 
tions must  have  resembled  those  in  the  Vatican  codex  of  the  emperor's  work. 
Possibly  the  two  volumes  were  acquired  in  the  loot  of  the  emperor's  treasury  in 
1248,  and  their  disappearance  might  explain  the  incompleteness  of  the  De  Arte 
as  worked  over  in  the  South.  This  copy  may  thus  be  the  source  of  the  citations 
which  cannot  be  found  in  the  known  manuscripts  of  the  De  Arte. 

""Edited  by  Molin  (Padua,  1818).  For  manuscripts  and  translations,  see  L. 
Moule,  Histoire  de  la  Medecine  Veterinaire  (Paris.  1898),  II.  25-30,  where  some 
account  will  be  found  of  the  later  Italian  treatises.  See  further  Huillard-Bre- 
holles,  introduction,  p.  dxxxvi  ;  Romania,  XXIII.  350.  XL.  353  ;  Steinschneider, 
Hebrdische  Uebersetztingen,  p.  985.  This  author  is  probably  the  Jordanus  de 
Calabria  who  was  made  castellan  of  Ceseno  in   1239   (Richard  of  San   Germano, 

"8 "  Incipit  liber  Guicennatis  de  arte  bersandi.  Si  quis  scire  desideret  de 
arte  bersandi,  in  hoc  tractatu  cognoscere  poterit  magistratum.  Huius  autem  artis 
liber  vocatur  Guicennas  et  rationabiliter  vocatur  Guicennas  nomine  cuiusdam 
militis  Teotonici  qui  appellabatur  Guicennas  qui  huius  artis  et  libri  prebuit  mate- 
riam.  Iste  vero  dominus  Guicennas  Teotonicus  fuit  magister  in  omni  venatione 
et  insuper  summus  omnium  venatorum  et  specialiter  in  arte  bersandi,  sicut  testi- 
ficabantur  magni  barones  et  principes  de  Allemannia  et  maxime  venatores  excel- 


682  C.  H.  Haskins 

The  medical  interests  of  the  court  are  well  attested,  though  they 
are  not  known  to  have  produced  notahle  additions  to  medical  knowl- 
edge. Thus  Pietro  da  Eboli,  early  in  the  reign,  dedicated  to  Fred- 
erick his  poem  on  the  baths  of  Pozzuoli,'9  whose  healing  qualities  the 
emperor  was  to  put  to  proof  after  his  illness  in  I22/.S0  The  treatise 
of  Adam  of  Cremona  on  the  hygiene  of  the  crusading  army  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  as  has  also  the  series  of  hygienic  precepts 
formulated  for  the  emperor  by  Master  Theodore.81  Frederick  seems 
to  have  shown  some  anxiety  concerning  paralysis,  and  a  marvellous 
powder  was  current  in  his  name,  efficacious  against  many  "  chronic 
ailments  of  the  head  and  the  stomach".82  An  incantation  for  the 
healing  of  wounds  was  also  ascribed  to  him.83  Frederick  gave  care- 
ful attention  to  personal  hygiene  in  such  matters  as  blood-letting,84 
diet,  and  bathing ;  indeed  his  Sunday  bath  was  a  cause  of  much  scan- 
dal to  good  Christians.85  One  is  reminded  of  the  slander  on  the 
Middle  Ages  as  a  thousand  years  without  a  bath! 

Without  astrologers  Frederick's  court  would  not  have  been  an 
Italian  court  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  even  the  universities  had 
their  professors  of  astrology.86  Guido  of  Montefeltro  kept  in  his 
employ  one  of  the  most  distinguished  and  successful  of  medieval 
astrologers,  Guido  Bonatti,  who  is  said  to  have  directed  his  master's 
military  expeditions  from  a  campanile  with  the  precision  of  a  fire 
alarm:  first  bell,  to  arms;  second,  to  horse;  third,  off  to  battle.87 

lentis  viri  domini  Frederici  Romanorum  imperatoris.  .  .  ."  Vatican,  MS.  Vat.  lat. 
5366,  ff.  75V-78V  (ca.  1300);  MS.  Reg.  lat.  1227,  ff.  66V-70  (fifteenth  century). 
Guicennas,  who  is  cited  by  writers  on  falconry,  is  identified  with  Avicenna  by 
Werth  but  without  any  reasons  given  (Zeitschrift  fiir  Romanische  Philologie, 
XIII.   10). 

?9  For  a  discussion  of  the  questions  concerning  this  poem,  see  Ries,  in  Mit- 
teilungen  des  Instituts  fiir  Oesterreichische  Geschichtsforschung,  XXXII.  576- 
593   (1911),  and  the  works  there  cited. 

so  Winkelmann,  I.  333. 

si  See  notes  25  and  42,  above.  In  the  Rossi  MSS.  recently  acquired  by  the 
Vatican  there  are  (MS.  XI.  7)  a  series  of  953  prescriptions  in  the  name  of 
"  Maestro  Bene  medico  dellomperadore  Federigo  " ;  and  a  Libro  de  Consegli  de 
Poveri  Infermi  ascribed  to  Michael  Scot   (MS.  XI.   144). 

"  Ed.  Sudhoff,  in  Archiv  fiir  die  Geschichte  der  Medizin,  IX.  6,  note. 

83  Huillard-Breholles,  introduction,  p.  dxxxviii. 

8*  Michael  Scot,  Munich,  cod.  lat.    10268,  f.   114V  (Isis,  IV.). 

85  John  of  Winterthur,  ed.  Wyss  (Zurich,  1856),  p.  8. 

86  Cf.  T.  O.  Wedel,  "  The  Mediaeval  Attitude  toward  Astrology  ",  Yale  Studies 
in  English,  LX.,  ch.  5;  Novati,  Freschi  e  Minii,  pp.  129-134.  Gerard  of  Sabio- 
netta  has  left  a  register  of  his  consultations,  1256-1260;  B.  Boncompagni,  in  Atti 
dell'  Accademia  Poniificia,  IV.  458  ff.   (1851). 

8~  Boncompagni.   Delia   Vila  e  delle   Opere  di  Guido  Bonatti    (Rome.    1S51). 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   683 

Ezzelino  da  Romano  also  had  Bonatti  among  his  many  astrologers, 
along  with  Master  Salio,  canon  of  Padua,  Riprandino  of  Verona,  and 
"  a  long-bearded  Saracen  named  Paul,  who  came  from  Baldach  on 
the  confines  of  the  far  East,  and  by  his  origin,  appearance,  and  actions 
deserved  the  name  of  a  second  Balaam  "."*  There  is  no  certain  evi- 
dence that  Guido  Bonatti  resided  at  Frederick's  court,  but  he  tells  us 
that  he  discovered  the  conspiracy  of  1247  by  the  stars  at  Forli  and 
sent  timely  word  to  the  emperor  at  Grosseto.g,J  Of  the  emperor's 
astrologers  we  know  by  name  only  Michael  Scot  and  Theodore,  but 
his  enemies  exulted  over  the  troop  of  astrologers  and  magicians  which 
this  devotee  of  Beelzebub,  Ashtaroth,  and  other  demons  lost  in  the 
great  defeat  before  Parma.90  It  is  plain  that  much  reliance  was 
placed  on  such  advice,  even  in  quite  personal  matters.91  Scot  prided 
himself  on  his  successful  predictions  of  campaigns  and  the  avoidance 
of  unfavorable  seasons;92  another  astrologer  guided  the  emperor 
through  a  breach  in  the  wall  at  Vicenza  in  1236; 93  and  Theodore 
stood  on  the  tower  of  Padua  in  1239  seeking  a  fortunate  conjunction 
for  an  expedition  which  was  ultimately  turned  back  by  an  eclipse.94 
Indeed  the  story  ran  that  Frederick  avoided  Florence  because  of  an 
astrologer's  prediction,  and  recognized  when  it  was  too  late  that  the 
obscure  Fiorentino  would  be  the  scene  of  his  death.95  The  literary 
output  of  the  magna  curia  in  this  field  is  represented  by  Scot's  three 
treatises,  the  Physiognomy,  Liber  Introductorius,  and  Liber  Particit- 
laris,  all  dedicated  to  the  emperor,  the  Physiognomy  being  designed 
to  aid  him  directly  in  his  judgment  of  men.  Indeed  Scot  speaks  of 
"  the  new  astrology  "  as  proudly  as  writers  now  speak  of  the  new 
chemistry  or  the  new  history.96 

With  astrology  there  naturally  went  a  considerable  amount  of 

8s/6.,  pp.  29-32;  Muratori,  VIII.  344,  705,  XIV.  930. 

S9  Boncompagni,  Guido,  p.  24;  Guido  Bonatti,  Decent  Libri  de  Astronomia. 
tractatus  IV.,  cons.  58.  I  have  used  the  Venice  edition  of  1506  in  the  Boston 
Public  Library.  The  Augsburg  edition  of  1491  (.Hain,  3461*).  listed  as  at  Brown 
University  in  the  Census  of  Fifteenth  Century  Books  o~j.'ned  in  America,  seems 
to  be  an  error.     On  the  conspiracy  of  1246,  see  Bohmer-Ficker,  no.  354~a- 

so  Albert  of  Behaim.  ed.  Hofler,  pp.  126,  128.  On  Frederick's  devotion  to 
astrology,  see  also  Saba  Malaspina.  in  Muratori.  VIII.  78S. 

si  Matthew  Paris,  in  Scriptores,  XXVIII.   131;  cf.  Scot's  Physiognomy. 

92  Munich,  cod.  lat.  10648.  ff.  114V,  118;  MS.  n.  a.  lat.  1401,  f.  99V  (in  lsis. 
1922).  Cf.  Salimbene.  ed.  Holder-Egger,  pp.  353,  360,  512.  530;  Forschungen 
cur  Deutschen  Geschichte.  XVIII.  486. 

93  Antonio  Godi,  in  Muratori.  VIII.  S3. 

94  lb..  VIII.  228  ff. 
»'-Ib.,  VIII.   788. 

96 "  Qui  vero  hos  duos  libros  plene  noverit  ac  sciverit  operari  nomen  novi 
astrologi   optinebit."     Liber  Particularis,   Bodleian,   MS.   Canon.   Misc.   555.   f.    iv. 


684  C.  H.  Haskins 

astronomy,  for  astrology  is  only  applied  astronomy,  wrongly  applied 
as  we  now  believe,  but  a  thoroughly  practical  subject  in  the  eyes  of 
the  later  Middle  Ages.  The  works  of  Michael  Scot  show  familiarity 
with  Ptolemy  and  the  principal  Arabic  writers  on  astronomy,  already 
translated  in  the  twelfth  century ;  and  the  Hebrew  versions  of  Ptolemy 
and  his  abbreviators  by  Jacob  Anatoli  are  further  evidence  of  atten- 
tion to  this  science.  The  mathematical  interests  of  the  court  reach 
their  highest  expression  in  the  relations  with  Leonard  of  Pisa,  in 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  emperor  himself  took  an  active  part. 
Frederick's  own  work  shows  an  acquaintance  with  the  fundamentals 
of  geometry,97  and  while  in  the  East  he  sought  out  the  company  of 
mathematicians  and  astronomers.98  His  castles  show  much  interest 
in  architecture,  the  towers  at  Capua  being  designed  with  his  own 
hand ; "  indeed  we  are  told  that  he  was  "  skilled  in  all  mechanical  arts 
to  which  he  gave  himself  ".10°  No  direct  contributions  to  mathemati- 
cal literature  have,  however,  been  connected  with  the  Sicilian  court. 

The  philosophical  interests  of  the  court  were  strongly  marked. 
Frederick  was  well  trained  in  logic,  even  taking  a  master  of  dialectic 
with  him  on  the  crusade,  and  his  De  Arte  shows  familiarity  with 
scholastic  terminology  and  classification.  His  mind,  however,  was  in 
no  sense  formal  but  actively  questioning,  and  the  range  of  his  inquiries 
touched  far-reaching  problems  of  the  universe  and  the  human  soul,  as 
we  shall  see  from  his  questionnaires.  The  doctrines  of  Averroes 
wer,e  well  known  and  often  discussed  at  his  court,  so  that  Moham- 
medan writers  considered  him  no  Christian  at  heart ; 101  and  many 
European  contemporaries  shook  their  heads  over  the  current  stories 
of  his  scepticism  and  unbelief.102 

How  far  the  scientific  life  of  Frederick's  court  was  fed  by  new 
versions  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  his  commentators,  it  is  not 
easy  to  say.  By  1215  western  Europe  knew  not  only  the  logical 
treatises,  but  the  Metaphysics,  the  Ethics,  and  the  principal  writings 
on  natural  philosophy.  New  versions,  often  with  the  commentaries 
of  Averroes  and  Avicenna,  continued  to  appear  in  the  course  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  but  few  of  these  can  be  specifically  connected  with 

v  English  Historical  Review,  XXXVI.  346. 
^Archivio  Storico  Siciliano,  IX.  119. 
os  Richard  of  San  Germano,  Scriftores,  XIX.  372. 
iooMuratori,  IX.  132,  66:. 

101  Amari,  Biblioteca  Arabo-Sicula,  II.  254;  Michaud,  Histoire  des  Croisades, 
VII.  810;  Rohricht,  Beitrage,  I.  73  ff. 

W-E.g.,    Matthew   Paris,   Scriptores,    XXVIII.    147,    230,   416;    Salimbene,    p. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   685 

Sicily.103  Roger  Bacon,  it  is  true,  speaks  of  the  appearance  of 
Michael  Scot  ca.  1230,  hearing  "certain  parts  of  the  natural  philos- 
ophy and  metaphysics  with  the  authentic  commentaries  ",  as  consti- 
tuting a  turning-point  in  Aristotelian  studies;104  but  this  seems  to  be 
one  of  the  occasions  when  the  friar  is  speaking  loosely.  The  only 
work  of  Aristotle  first  translated  by  Scot  was  the  De  Animalibus,  in 
a  version  made  before  he  joined  the  Sicilian  court,  and  the  only  new 
versions  of  texts  already  known  which  are  certainly  by  him  are  the 
De  Caclo  and  De  Anima,  with  the  commentary  of  Averroes.105  To 
these  should  be  added  Scot's  Latin  abbreviation  of  Avicenna's  com- 
mentary on  the  De  Animalibus,  which  is  dedicated  to  the  emperor 
before  1232,106  and  the  Hebrew  versions  of  Averroes's  commentary 
on  the  Logic  made  by  Jacob  Anatoli  for  Frederick  in  or  about  that 
year.107  At  the  same  time  other  works  of  the  Stagyrite  were  freely 
used  at  the  court.  Thus  Scot  quotes  the  Ethics  and  draws  largely  on 
the  Meteorology,108  while  Theodore  the  philosopher  cites  the  Rhetoric 
and  Ethics,  as  well  as  the  Secretion  Secretorum.100  The  emperor 
himself,  in  the  De  Arte  I'enandi,  draws  on  the  pseudo-Aristotelian 
Mechanics  as  well  as  on  the  De  Animalibus.110  Nevertheless  what 
was  new  in  all  this  was  Averroes  rather  than  Aristotle,  nor  can  we 
be  certain,  as  investigation  now  stands,  that  the  Sicilian  school  did 
more  than  give  wider  currency  to  treatises  and  doctrines  of  Averroes 
which  had  already  begun  to  spread  from  Spain. 

Frederick  has  been  called  "  an  unrestrained  admirer  of  Aris- 
totle ",1U  but  his  own  writings  are  far  from  bearing  this  out.     We 

103  See,  in  general,  A.  Jourdain,  Recherches  Critiques  sur  I' Age  et  I'Origine 
des  Traductions  Latities  d'Aristote  (Paris.  1843)  :  and  M.  Grabmann.  Forschungen 
iiber  die  Lateinischen  Aristotelesi<berset:ungeii  des  XIII.  lahrhunderts 
(Miinster,  1916).  For  the  Logic,  see  Haskins,  "  Mediaeval  Versions  of  the  Pos- 
terior Analytics ",  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology.  XXV.  87-105 
(1914);  and  for  the  Ethics.  A.  Pelzer,  "  Les  Versions  Latines  des  Ouvrages  de 
Morale  conserves  sous  le  Norn  d'Aristote  ",  in  Revue  Neo-scolastique,  XXIII.  316- 
341,  378-400  (1921). 

i-otopus  Majus,  ed.  Bridges,  I.  55,  III.  66;  Monument  a,  Scriptores,  XXVIII. 
571- 

105  Besides  Grabmann.  see  my  article  on  "  Michael  Scot  ",  in  Isis,  IV.  (1922). 

106  J.  Wood  Brown,  Michael  Scot,  pp.  53  ff„  corrected  in  Isis,  1922.  The 
University  of  Michigan  has  a  copy  of  the  printed  text  of  this  version. 

1"7  See  note  47,  above. 

i°s  Isis.  1922;  Revue  Neo-scolastique,  XXIII.  326,  n.  2. 

109  English  Historical  Review.  XXXVI.  349;  Archiv  fur  die  Geschichte  der 
Medizin,  IX.  4-8.  On  the  new  version  of  the  Secretum  Secretorum  attributed  to 
Philip  of  Tripoli,  see  now  Steele,  Opera  hactenus  inedita  Rogeri  Baconi,  V, 
xviii-xxii. 

110  English  Historical  Re-view,  XXXVI.  345-347. 

111  Biehringer,  Kaiser  Fried-rich  II.  (Berlin,  1912),  p.  244.     Frederick's  devo- 
AM.  HIST.  REV.,   VOL.  XXVII. — 46- 


686  C.  H.  Haskins 

have,  he  says  in  the  preface  to  the  De  Arte,  followed  the  prince  ot 
philosophers  where  required,  but  not  in  all  things,  for  we  have  learned 
by  experience  that  at  several  points  he  deviates  from  the  truth. 
Aristotle  relies  too  much  on  hearsay,  and  has  evidently  "  rarely  or 
never  had  experience  of  falconry,  which  we  have  loved  and  practised 
all  our  life  ".  More  than  once  he  must  be  directly  corrected  from  the 
emperor's  observation — non  sic  se  habet. 

It  is  this  experimental  habit  of  mind,  the  emperor's  restless  desire 
to  see  and  know  for  himself,  which  lies  behind  those  superstitiones  et 
curiositates  at  which  the  good  Salimbene  holds  up  his  hands.112  There 
is  the  story  of  the  man  whom  Frederick  shut  up  in  a  wine-cask  to 
prove  that  the  soul  died  with  the  body,  and  the  two  men  whom  he 
disembowelled  in  order  to  show  the  respective  effects  of  sleep  and 
exercise  on  digestion.  There  were  the  children  whom  he  caused  to  be 
brought  up  in  silence  in  order  to  settle  the  question  "  whether  they 
would  speak  Hebrew,  which  was  the  first  language,  or  Greek  or  Latin 
or  Arabic  or  at  least  the  language  of  their  parents ;  but  he  labored  in 
vain,  for  the  children  all  died  ".  There  was  the  diver,  Nicholas,  sur- 
named  the  Fish,  hero  of  Schiller's  Der  Toucher,  whom  he  sent  re- 
peatedly to  explore  the  watery  fastnesses  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis, 
and  the  memory  of  whose  exploits  was  handed  on  by  the  Friars  Minor 
of  Messina,113  not  to  mention  the  "  other  superstitions  and  curiosities 
and  maledictions  and  incredulities  and  perversities  and  abuses  "  which 
the  friar  of  Parma  had  set  down  in  another  chronicle  now  lost.114 
Such  again  was  the  story  of  the  great  pike  brought  to  the  Elector 
Palatine  in  1497,  in  its  gills  a  copper  ring  placed  there  by  Frederick 
to  test  the  longevity  of  fish,  and  still  bearing  the  inscription  in  Greek, 
"  I  am  that  fish  which  Emperor  Frederick  II.  placed  in  this  lake  with 

tion  to  Aristotle  has  been  argued  from  a  letter  ascribed  to  him  which  transmits 
new  versions  of  Aristotle's  work  to  some  university,  but  I  agree  with  most  recent 
scholars  in  assigning  this  letter  to  Manfred  and  connecting  it  with  the  translations 
of  the  Magna  Moralia  and  various  pseudo-Aristotelian  treatises  made  by  his  direc- 
tion. See  Jourdain,  Recherches,  p.  156,  with  French  translation;  Huillard-Bre- 
holles.  Historia  Diplomatica,  IV.  383;  Denifle  and  Chatelain,  Chartularium  Uni- 
versitatis  Parisiensis,  I.,  no.  394;  Bohmer-Ficker,  Regesta,  no.  4750;  Schirrmacher, 
Die  Letzten  Hohenstaufen  (Gottingen,  1871),  p.  624;  Grabmann,  Aristotelesiiber- 
setzungen,  pp.  200-204,  237  ff- ;  Helene  M.  Arndt,  Studien  zur  Inneren  Regier- 
ungsgeschichte  Manfreds  (Heidelberg.  1911),  p.  149;  Pelzer,  in  Revue  Neo- 
scolastique,  XXIII.   319   ff. 

112  Ed.  Holder-Egger,  pp.  350-353. 

us  The  story  appears  also  in  Francesco  Pippini  (Muratori,  IX.  669),  Ricco- 
baldo  of  Ferrara   (16.,  IX.  248),  and  Jacopo  d'Acqui   (Neues  Archiv,  XVII.  500). 

in  Salimbene,  ed.  Holder-Egger,  p.  35  ■•  On  Frederick's  insatiable  curiosity, 
see  also  Malaspina,  in  Muratori,  VIII.  788. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.    687 

his  own  hand  the  fifth  day  of  October,  1230  ".110  On  another  occa- 
sion Frederick  is  said  to  have  sent  messengers  to  Norway  in  order  to 
verify  the  existence  of  a  spring  which  turned  to  stone  garments  and 
other  objects  immersed  therein.116 

Whatever  value  these  tales  may  have,  the  emperor's  scientific  habit 
of  mind  is  seen  best  of  all  in  his  own  writings.  His  treatise  on  fal- 
conry, De  Arte  Venandi  cum  Ambus,1"  is  compact  of  personal  obser- 
vation of  the  habits  of  birds,  especially  falcons,  carried  on  throughout 
a  busy  life  of  sport  and  study,  and  verified  by  birds  and  falconers 
brought  from  distant  lands.  Indeed,  his  systematic  use  for  such  in- 
quiries of  the  resources  of  his  royal  administration  constitutes  an 
interesting  example  of  the  pursuit  of  research  by  governmental  agen- 
cies. "  Not  without  great  expense  ",  he  tells  us,  "  did  we  call  to  our- 
selves from  afar  those  who  were  expert  in  this  art,  extracting  from 
them  whatever  they  knew  best  and  committing  to  memory  their  say- 
ings and  practices."  "  When  we  crossed  the  sea  we  saw  the  Arabs 
using  a  hood  in  falconry,  and  their  kings  sent  us  those  most  skilled  in 
this  art,  with  many  species  of  falcons."  The  emperor  not  only  tested 
the  artificial  incubation  of  hens'  eggs,118  but,  on  hearing  that  ostrich 
eggs  were  hatched  by  the  sun  in  Egypt,  he  had  eggs  and  experts 
brought  to  Apulia  that  he  might  test  the  matter  for  himself.  The 
fable  that  barnacle  geese  were  hatched  from  barnacles  he  exploded  by 
sending  north  for  such  barnacles,  concluding  that  the  story  arose  from 
ignorance  of  the  actual  nesting-places  of  the  geese.  Whether  vultures 
find  their  food  by  sight  or  by  smell  he  ascertained  by  seeling  their  eyes 
while  their  nostrils  remained  open.  Nests,  eggs,  and  birds  were  re- 
peatedly brought  to  him  for  observation  and  note,  and  the  minute 
accuracy  of  his  descriptions  attests  the  fidelity  with  which  his  observa- 
tions were  made.  The  whole  of  the  practical  portion  of  his  De  Arte 
is  a  setting  down  in  systematic  form  of  the  results  of  actual  practice 
of  the  art.  The  author's  statements  are  supported  by  facts  rather 
than  by  authority  or  mere  personal  opinion,  and  if  information  is 
lacking  no  conclusion  is  drawn.  One  who  reads  the  De  Arte  through 
gets  inevitably  the  impression  of  the  work  of  a  first-rate  mind,  open, 

115  A.  Hauber,  "  Kaiser  Friedrich  der  Staufer  tind  der  Langlebige  Fisch  ",  in 
Archiv  fiir  Geschichte  der  Naturwissenschajten.  III.  315-3-9  (191 1),  brings  to- 
gether the  various  reports  but  shows  that  the  date   1230  is  impossible. 

116  The  original  has  "  in  regione  Armenie  Norwegie  ".  Extract  from  medi- 
eval encyclopaedia  published  by  Delisle.  in  Notices  et  Extraits  des  Manuscrits, 
XXXII.,  part  I.,  p.  48;  Monuments,  Serif  tores.  XXVIII.  571. 

u-  See  my  article  in  the  English  Historical  Review,  XXXVI.  334-355  (July. 
1021).  I  have  used  the  copy  of  Schneider's  edition  in  the  library  of  Columbia 
University. 

ii«  Michael  Scot,  Munich,  cod.  lat.   10268,  f.   117    (Isis,  IV.). 


688  C.  H.  Haskins 

inquiring,  realistic,  trying  to  see  things  as  they  are  without  parti  pris, 
and  working  throughout  on  the  basis  of  systematized  experience.  To 
follow  this  up  by  a  course  of  reading  in  the  confused  and  pretentious 
astrology  of  Michael  Scot  is  to  realize  how  far  the  emperor  was  intel- 
lectually superior  to  those  about  him. 

Observation  and  experiment  on  a  large  scale  Frederick  supple- 
mented by  the  questionnaire,  applied  not  only  to  the  scholars  of  his 
court  and  the  experts  who  came  at  his  summons,  but  to  savants  of 
other  lands  whom  he  could  not  interrogate  personally.  The  method 
seems  to  have  been  to  draw  up  a  list  of  questions  upon  which  the 
emperor  could  get  no  final  or  satisfactory  response  at  home,  and  to 
send  them  to  other  rulers,  most  naturally  the  Mohammedan  princes, 
requesting  that  they  be  submitted  to  the  leading  local  scholars  for 
answer,  a  procedure  which  assumes  autocratic  governments  like  that 
which  Frederick  himself  utilized  to  satisfy  intellectual  curiosity. 
Such  was  the  practice  followed  in  the  most  famous  instance,  the  so- 
called  Sicilian  questions  published  by  Amari  many  years  ago.119  Ac- 
cording to  the  response  which  has  reached  us,  Frederick,  not  long 
before  1242,  sent  a  series  of  questions  to  be  answered  by  Moham- 
medan philosophers  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Irak,  Asia  Minor,  and  Yemen, 
and  later  to  the  Almohad  caliph  of  Morocco,  ar-Rashid,  by  whom  they 
were  forwarded,  with  a  sum  of  money  as  the  emperor's  reward,  to 
Ibn  Sabin,  a  Spanish  philosopher  then  living  at  Ceuta.  Refusing  the 
money,  Ibn  Sabin  answers  at  some  length  in  terms  of  Mohammedan 
orthodoxy,  expressing  some  contempt  for  Frederick's  attainments  as 
seen  in  his  untechnical  phraseology,  and  offering  to  set  him  right  in  a 
personal  interview.  The  emperor's  questions,  as  they  are  here  cited 
in  refutation,  cover  the  eternity  of  matter  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  the  end  and  foundations  of  theology,  and  the  number  and  nature 
of  the  categories — demanding  always  the  proofs  of  the  opinions  ad- 
vanced in  reply.  Thus :  "  Aristotle  the  sage  in  all  his  writings  de- 
clares clearly  the  existence  of  the  world  from  all  eternity.  If  he 
demonstrates  this,  what  are  his  arguments,  and  if  not,  what  is  the 
nature  of  his  reasoning  on  this  matter?"  Plainly  Frederick  was 
familiar  with  the  Aristotelian  doctrines  which  agitated  the  Christian 
and  Mohammedan  worlds  in  the  thirteenth  century,  indeed  there  was 
a  legend  that  Averroes  had  lived  at  his  court.120     The  very  suggestion 

us  M.  Amari,  "  Questions  Philosophises  adressees  aux  Savants  Musulmans 
par  l'Empcreur  Frederic  II.",  in  Journal  Asiatique,  fifth  ser.,  I.  240-274  (1853)  ; 
id..  Biblioteca  Arabo-Sicula,  II.  414-419;  more  fully  by  A.  F.  Mehren.  in  Journal 
Asiatique,  seventh  ser.,  XIV.  341-454  (1879).  Cf.  the  problems  proposed  by 
Chosroes,  published  by  Quicherat,  in  Bibliothcque  de  V£cole  des  Chartes.  XIV. 
248-263   (1853). 

120  Renan,  Averroes  (1869),  pp.  254,  291. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   689 

of  doubt  respecting  immortality  was  enough  to  justify  the  current 
belief  that  Frederick  was  one  of  those  Epicurean  heretics  "  who  make 
the  soul  die  with  the  body  ". 

We  hear  also  of  geometrical  and  astronomical  problems  sent  by 
the  emperor  as  far  as  Mosul,  and  we  have  another  series  of  geometri- 
cal questions  sent  by  one  of  Frederick's  philosophers,  in  Arabic,  to 
the  young  Jehuda  ben  Solomon  Cohen  in  Toledo,  together  with  the 
replies,  at  which  the  emperor  expressed  much  satisfaction.121  Again 
we  learn  that  in  the  time  of  al-Malik  al-Kamil,  sultan  of  Egypt  (1218- 
1238),  the  emperor  set  seven  hard  problems  in  order  to  test  Moslem 
scholars.  Three  of  these,  which  concern  optics,  have  been  preserved 
with  their  answers:  Why  do  objects  partly  covered  by  water  appear 
bent?  Why  does  Canopus  appear  bigger  when  near  the  horizon, 
whereas  the  absence  of  moisture  in  the  southern  deserts  precludes  that 
as  an  explanation?  What  is  the  cause  of  the  illusion  of  spots  before 
the  eyes?122 

Another  and  a  less  technical  questionnaire  has  been  handed  down 
to  us  by  Michael  Scot ;  and  as  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  hitherto 
published  or  even  cited  by  others,  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to 
translate  it  as  it  stands  in  the  manuscripts : 123 

When  Frederick,  emperor  of  Rome  and  always  enlarger  of  the  empire, 
had  long  meditated  according  to  the  order  which  he  had  established  con- 
cerning the  various  things  which  are  and  appear  to  be  on  the  earth,  above, 
within,  and  beneath  it,  on  a  certain  occasion  he  privately  summoned  me. 
Michael  Scot,  faithful  to  him  among  all  astrologers,  and  secretly  put  to 
me  at  his  pleasure  a  series  of  questions  concerning  the  foundations  of  the 
earth  and  the  marvels  within  it,  as  follows : 

"  My  dearest  master,  we  have  often  and  in  divers  ways  listened  to 
questions  and  solutions  from  one  and  another  concerning  the  heavenly 
bodies,  that  is  the  sun,  moon,  and  fixed  stars,  the  elements,  the  soul  of  the 
world,  peoples  pagan  and  Christian,  and  other  creatures  above  and  on  the 
earth,  such  as  plants  and  metals;  yet  we  have  heard  nothing  respecting 
those  secrets  which  pertain  to  the  delight  of  the  spirit  and  the  wisdom 
thereof,  such  as  paradise,  purgatory,  hell,  and  the  foundations  and  marvels 
of  the  earth.  Wherefore  we  pray  you,  by  your  love  of  knowledge  and 
the  reverence  you  bear  our  crown,  explain  to  us  the  foundations  of  the 
earth,  that  is  to  say  how  it  is  established  over  the  abyss  and  how  the  abyss 

121  Steinschneider.  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Mathematik  und  Physik,  XXXI..  part 
II..  106  ff.  (1886);  id.,  Hebrdische  Uebersetzungen,  p.  3;  id.,  Verseichniss  der 
Hebrdischen  Handschriften  der  Koniglichen  Bibliothek  zu  Berlin,  II.    126    (1897). 

122  E.  Wiedemann,  "  Fragen  aus  dem  Gebiet  der  Naturwissenschaften.  gestellt 
von   Friedrich   II.",   in  Archiv  ji\r  Kullurgeschichte.  XI.  483-485    (1914). 

123  Liber  Particularis.  in  the  Bodleian,  MS.  Canon.  Misc.  555,  f.  44V;  the 
Ambrosian,  MS.  L.  sup.  92,  f.  69;  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  MS.  Lat.  n.  a.  1401,  f. 
1 56V,   the   only   manuscript   to   give   the    portions   in    brackets.      I    have    edited    the 

Latin  text  from  these  manuscripts  in  the  forthcoming  number  of  Isis  (1922). 
See  also  MS.  Rossi  IX.   m  in  the  Vatican,  f.  37  (of  the  year  1308). 


690  C.  H.  Haskins 

stands  beneath  the  earth,  and  whether  there  is  anything  else  than  air  and 
water  which  supports  the  earth,  and  whether  it  stands  of  itself  or  rests  on 
the  heavens  beneath  it.  Also  how  many  heavens  there  are  and  who  are 
their  rulers  and  principal  inhabitants,  and  exactly  how  far  one  heaven  is 
from  another,  and  by  how  much  one  is  greater  than  another,  and  what  is 
beyond  the  last  heaven  if  there  are  several ;  and  in  which  heaven  God  is  in 
the  person  of  His  divine  majesty  and  how  He  sits  on  His  throne,  and  how 
He  is  accompanied  by  angels  and  saints,  and  what  these  continually  do 
before  God.  Tell  us  also  how  many  abysses  there  are  and  the  names  of 
the  spirits  that  dwell  therein,  and  just  where  are  hell,  purgatory,  and  the 
heavenly  paradise,  whether  under  or  on  or  above  the  earth  [or  above  or 
in  the  abysses,  and  what  is  the  difference  between  the  souls  who  are  daily 
borne  thither  and  the  spirits  which  fell  from  heaven;  and  whether  one 
soul  in  the  next  world  knows  another  and  whether  one  can  return  to  this 
life  to  speak  and  show  one's  self;  and  how  many  are  the  pains  of  hell.] 
Tell  us  also  the  measure  of  this  earth  by  thickness  and  length,  and  the 
distance  from  the  earth  to  the  highest  heaven  and  to  the  abyss,  and 
whether  there  is  one  abyss  or  several;  and  if  several  how  far  one  is  from 
another;  and  whether  the  earth  has  empty  spaces  or  is  a  solid  body  like 
a  living  stone;  and  how  far  it  is  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  down  to 
the  lower  heaven. 

"  Likewise  tell  us  how  it  happens  that  the  waters  of  the  sea  are  so 
bitter  and  the  waters  are  salt  in  many  places  and  some  waters  away  from 
the  sea  are  sweet  although  they  all  come  from  the  living  sea.  Tell  us  too 
concerning  the  sweet  waters  how  they  continually  gush  forth  from  the 
earth  and  sometimes  from  stones  and  trees,  as  from  vines  when  they  are 
pruned  in  the  springtime,  where  they  have  their  source  and  how  it  is  that 
certain  waters  come  forth  sweet  and  fresh,  some  clear,  others  turbid, 
others  thick  and  gummy ;  for  we  greatly  wonder  at  these  things,  knowing 
already  that  all  waters  come  from  the  sea  and  passing  through  divers 
lands  and  cavities  return  to  the  sea,  which  is  the  bed  and  receptacle  of  all 
running  waters.  Hence  we  should  like  to  know  whether  there  is  one 
place  by  itself  which  has  sweet  water  only  and  one  with  salt  water  only, 
or  if  there  is  one  place  for  both  kinds,  and  in  this  case  how  the  two  kinds 
of  water  are  so  unlike,  since  by  reason  of  difference  of  color,  taste,  and 
movement  there  would  seem  to  be  two  places.  So,  if  there  are  two  places 
for  these  waters,  we  wish  to  be  informed  which  is  the  greater  and  which 
the  smaller,  and  how  the  running  waters  in  all  parts  of  the  world  seem 
to  pour  forth  of  their  superabundance  continually  from  their  source,  and 
although  their  flow  is  copious  yet  they  do  not  increase  as  if  more  were 
added  beyond  the  common  measure  but  remain  constant  at  a  flow  which  is 
uniform  or  nearly  so.  We  should  like  to  know  further  whence  come  the 
salt  and  bitter  waters  which  gush  forth  in  some  places,  and  the  fetid 
waters  in  many  baths  and  pools,  whether  they  come  of  themselves  or  from 
elsewhere;  likewise  concerning  those  waters  which  come  forth  warm  or 
hot  or  boiling  as  if  in  a  caldron  on  a  blazing  fire,  whence  they  come  and 
how  it  is  that  some  of  them  are  always  muddy  and  some  always  clear. 
Also  we  should  like  to  know  concerning  the  wind  which  issues  from  many 
parts  of  the  earth,  and  the  fire  which  bursts  from  plains  as  well  as  from 
mountains,  and  likewise  what  produces  the  smoke  which  appears  now  in 
one  place  and  now  in  another,  and  what  causes  its  blasts,  as  is  seen  in 
parts  of  Sicily  and  Messina,  as  Etna,  Vulcano,  Lipari,  and  Stromboli. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  691 

How  comes  it  that  a  flaming  fire  appears  not  only  from  the  earth  but  also 
in  certain  parts  of  the  sea  of  India  ? 

["  And  how  is  it  that  the  soul  of  a  living  man  which  has  passed  away 
to  another  life  than  ours  cannot  be  induced  to  return  by  first  love  or  even 
by  hate,  just  as  if  it  had  been  nothing,  nor  does  it  seem  to  care  at  all  for 
what  it  has  left  behind  whether  it  be  saved  or  lost?"] 

A  notable  series  of  questions  this,  in  spite  of  a  certain  amount  of 
confusion  and  repetition  which  may  be  due  to  the  less  clear  medium 
of  Michael  Scot  through  which  they  have  been  transmitted.  Besides 
the  previous  discussions  which  they  assume  respecting  astronomy, 
geography,  and  natural  history,  they  cut  to  the  heart  of  the  current 
cosmology,  which  readers  of  Dante  will  recognize,  with  an  insistent 
demand  for  exact  and  definite  information.  Just  where  are  heaven 
and  hell  and  purgatory ;  exactly  how  far  is  one  heaven  or  one  abyss 
from  another;  what  is  the  structure  of  the  earth  and  the  explanation 
of  its  fires  and  waters — questions  that  might  easily  have  cost  Michael 
Scot  his  reputation,  in  spite  of  his  boastful  promise  to  answer  them 
all,  and  may  well  have  led  him  to  seek  to  measure  the  distance  to 
heaven  by  means  of  a  church  tower  with  an  apparent  exactness  which 
seems  to  have  imposed  on  the  emperor.124  Astronomy  and  cosmology 
cannot  avoid  theology :  In  which  heaven  is  God  to  be  found,  and 
where  are  the  souls  of  the  departed,  and  why  do  they  not  communi- 
cate with  us  for  love  or  even  hate  ?  "  Or  even  hate  " — a  very  human 
touch  which  shows  us  Frederick's  own  passion  in  the  midst  of  the 
eternal  riddles  and  reminds  us  of  that  hatred  for  Viterbo  which  he 
would  come  back  from  Paradise  to  assuage.125  And  here  as  in  the 
stories  of  Moslem  writers  we  recognize  the  note  of  scepticism,  the 
trace  of  that  Epicurean  heretic  whose  lurid  figure  haunts  one  of  the 
thousand  fiery  tombs  of  the  tenth  canto  of  the  Inferno. 

The  nature  of  Frederick's  ultimate  religious  opinions  lies  beyond 
the  ken  of  the  historian,  for  we  have  no  direct  statements  of  his  own 
beyond  his  general  assertions  of  orthodoxy,  against  many  highly  col- 
ored stories  from  his  enemies.  When,  however,  Gregory  IX.  accuses 
him  of  declaring  that  one  should  believe  only  in  what  is  proved  by 
the  force  and  reason  of  nature,126  the  assertion  falls  in  entirely  with 
what  we  know  of  Frederick's  habit  of  mind.  Profoundly  rational- 
istic, he  applied  the  test  of  reason  and  experience  to  affairs  of  state 

124  See  the  passage  printed  in  Isis,  IV. 

li&Historische  Zeitschrift,  LXXXIII.  30. 

126  Encyclical  of  July  1.  1239.  in  Huillard-Breholles,  V.  340;  Bohmer-Ficker, 
no.  7245;  Potthast.  no.  10766.  Frederick's  reply  is  in  Huillard-Breholles,  V.  348 
(Bohmer-Ficker,  nos.  2454,  2455)  ;  see  also  the  examination  of  his  orthodoxy  in 
1246,  ib.,  VI.  426,  615  (Bohmer-Ficker,  no.  3543). 


692  C.  H.  Ho  ski  ns 

as  well  as  to  matters  of  science,  as  the  body  of  his  Sicilian  legislation 
abundantly  testifies.  When  he  abolishes  the  ordeal,  his  reason  is  that 
it  is  not  in  accord  with  nature  and  does  not  lead  to  truth.127  In  mat- 
ters of  commercial  policy,  "he  was  the  first  medieval  ruler  to  use 
consistent  economic  principles  as  his  standards  ".12S  Immntator  mira- 
bilis,  he  has  none  of  the  medieval  horror  of  change.  Yet  it  is  scarcely 
historical  to  call  him  a  modern,  for  he  looks  in  both  directions.  He 
harks  back  to  King  Roger  and  the  Mohammedan  East,  while  in  his 
many-sided  patronage  of  learning  and  his  free  and  critical  spirit  of 
inquiry  he  belongs  rather  to  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Only  in  part 
does  he  belong  to  the  thirteenth  century,  and  he  was  in  no  sense  its 
type.  He  was  above  all  an  individual,  stupor  mundi  to  his  own  age, 
and  a  marvel  still  to  ours. 

Frederick's  favorite  son,  Manfred,  appears  linked  with  his  father 
in  Dante's  mention  of  the  two  illustrious  heroes  who.  while  fortune 
lasted,  despised  the  merely  brutal  and  followed  humane  pursuits.129 
Certainly  Manfred  inherited  many  of  his  father's  tastes  and  some- 
thing of  the  same  habit  of  mind,  and  his  court  continued  much  of  the 
scientific  activity  of  the  earlier  reign.130  He  tells  us  that  the  masters 
of  his  father's  court131  taught  him  the  nature  of  the  world  and  the 
properties  of  both  the  transient  and  the  eternal.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-five  he  fortified  himself  during  a  severe  illness  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  treatise  De  Porno,132  then  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  and  on 
his  recovery  had  it  translated  from  Hebrew  into  Latin.  Latin  ver- 
sions of  the  Magna  Moralia  and  pseudo-Aristotelian  works,  appar- 
ently those  sent  by  the  king  to  the  students  of  Paris,  were  made 
directly  from  the  Greek  by  an  official  translator,  Bartholomew  of 
Messina,133  who  also  translated  at  Manfred's  command  the  veterinary 

127  Hampe,  in  HistoHsche  Zeitschrift,  LXXXIII.    14. 

1=8  Jastrow-Winter,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  Zeitalter  der  Hohenstaufcn,  II. 
549- 

)?v  De  Vulgari  Eloqnentia,  I.  c.   12. 

130  See,  in  general,  Schirrmacher,  Die  Letzten  Hohenstaufen,  pp.  209-216; 
Capasso,  Historia  Diplomatica  Regni  Siciliae,  p.  324  ff. ;  Helene  M.  Arndt,  Studien 
-ur  Innercn  Regierungsgeschichtc  Manfrcds,  c.  4  ;  O.  Cartellieri,  "  Konig  Man- 
fred", in  Centenario  Michele  Amari  (Palermo,   1910),  I.   116-13S. 

"i  The  arguments  of  Hampe,  Neues  Archiv.  XXXVI.  231  ft".,  and  Arndt.  pp. 
146  ft.,  that  Manfred  was  a  student  at  Bologna  and  Paris,  are  to  me  unconvincing. 

13-  Preface  in  Huillard-Breholles,  Monuments  de  la  Maison  de  Souabe,  p.  169; 
Schirrmacher,  p.  622;  Capasso,  p.  112,  note;  Bohmer-Ficker,  no.  4653.  Cf.  Stein- 
schneider,  Hebraische  Uebersetaungen,  p.  268,  who  thinks  it  unlikely  that  the  king 
himself  was  the  translator. 

138  Sutra,  note  1 1 1.  Another  translator,  Nicholas  of  Sicily,  may  belong  to  this 
same  group.     Grabmann,  p.  203. 


Science  at  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.   693 

treatise  of  Hierocles.134  Translation  from  the  Arabic  is  represented 
by  an  astrological  treatise  turned  into  Latin  by  Stephen  of  Messina 
and  also  dedicated  to  the  king,13"  and  by  a  set  of  astronomical  and 
astrological  tables  translated  by  John  "  de  Dumpno  "  and  preserved 
in  a  fine  codex  at  Madrid.130  Manfred's  knowledge  of  philosophy 
and  mathematics,  especially  Euclid,  as  well  as  of  languages,  is  praised 
by  an  Egyptian  visitor,  who  dedicated  to  him  a  work  on  logic,137  and 
a  further  illustration  of  his  philosophical  tastes  is  found  in  a  disputa- 
tion in  which  he  asks  whether  members  exist  because  of  their  func- 
tions or  functions  because  of  their  members,  the  final  "determina- 
tion "  of  this  scholastic  dispute  being  made  by  that  gemma  magis- 
trorum  et  laurca  morum,  Master  Petrus  de  Hibernia.133 

Like  his  father,  Manfred  had  his  menagerie,  including  a  giraffe 
from  the  East,139  and  he  also  shared  his  father's  devotion  to  astrol- 
ogy140 and  to  sportsmanship.  The  De  Arte  Venandi,  originally  dedi- 
cated to  Manfred,  has  come  down  to  us  as  he  revised  it,  with  certain 
additions  from  his  own  observations  but  primarily  with  the  aim  of 
filling  blanks  in  the  original  by  the  aid  of  his  father's  notes,  reading 
and  rereading  the  book  with  filial  piety  that  he  might  obtain  the  full 
fruits  of  its  science  and  that  no  scribal  errors  might  be  left  to  frus- 
trate the  author's  purpose.141  This  was  only  one  of  the  numerous 
books  by  many  hands  which  filled  the  presses  of  the  royal  library.142 
including  philosophical  and  mathematical  works  in  Greek  and  Arabic, 
certain  of  which  are  believed  to  have  gone  as  a  present  to  the  pope 
from  the  victorious  Charles  of  Anjou,143  and  thus  served  to  hand  on 

134MSS.  at  Pisa  and  Eologna  :  Studi  Italiani  di  Filologia  Classica,  VIII.  395. 
XVII.  76;  Rheinisches  Museum,  n.s..  XLVI.  377   (1891). 

"5  Steinschneider,  in  Vienna  Sitzungsberichte,  CXLIX.  4,  p.  78  ;  also  in  MS. 
Madrid   10009,  f.  225. 

136  Biblioteca  Nacional,  MS.  10023,  ff-  1-23:  "  Perfectus  est  interpretatio  et 
translatio  istarum  portarum  de  arabico  in  latinum  per  lohannem  de  Dumpno 
filium  Philippi  de  Dumpno  in  civitate  Panormi  anno  a  nativitate  domini  nostri 
Ieso  Christi    1262,  sub  laude  et  gloria  omnipotentis  Dei   feliciter  amen  ". 

W7  Djemal-Edin.  in  Michaud,  Bibliothcque  des  Croisades,  VII.  367;  Revue 
Historique,  LXXX.  64. 

"a  Text  published  by  Baeumker,  "  Petrus  de  Hibernia  ",  in  Munich  Sitzungs- 
berichte,  1920. 

130  R6hricht,  Beitrage,  I.  74. 

140  Huillard-Breholles,  introduction,  p.  dxxxii  ;   Arndt,  p.    151. 

hi  English  Historical  Review,  XXXVI.  33S. 

1*2  "  Librorum  ergo  volumina,  quorum  multifarie  multisque  modis  distincta 
cyrographa  diviciarum  nostrarum  armaria  locupletant."  Chartularium  Univer- 
sitatis  Parisiensis,  I.,  no.  394- 

143  Heiberg,  in  Oversigt  of  the  Danish  Academy,  1S91.  pp.  305-318:  Ehrle, 
in  Festgabe  Anton   de  Waal   (Rome,   1913I,  pp.  34S-351. 


694  C.  H.  Haskins 

something  of  the  scientific  interests  of  Manfred  and  of  Frederick  to 
a  later  age.  At  best,  however,  Manfred's  court  is  but  an  echo  of  that 
of  Frederick,  and  under  the  Angevins  the  intellectual  history  of 
Sicilian  royalty  enters  upon  a  new  and  different  period.144 

Charles  H.  Haskins. 

1*4  On  translations  under  Charles  of  Anjou,  see  Amari,  La  Guerra  del  I'espro 
SicUiano.  edition  of  1886,  III.  483-489;  Hartwig,  in  Centralblatt  fiir  Bibliotheks- 
wesen,  III.  1S5— 1 88. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT    OF    METROPOLITAN    ECONOMY 
IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA1 

There  are  three  questions  raised  by  this  paper :  firstly,  whether 
national  economy  has  any  real  validity  as  a  unit  or  organization  in 
production ;  secondly,  whether  metropolitan  economy,  or  the  domi- 
nance of  the  large  commercial  city,  should  be  put  in  its  place;  and 
thirdly,  what  evidence  concerning  metropolitan  development  is  to  be 
found  in  European  and  American  history.  From  the  framing  of 
these  questions,  it  is,  of  course,  to  be  inferred  that  the  thesis  of  this 
paper  is  that  metropolitan  economy  should  be  substituted  for  national 
economy  as  the  latest  stage  in  general  economic  development. 

The  reality  of  the  nation  as  a  political  unit  has  been  so  great  for 
so  long  a  time  that  no  one,  liking  or  disliking  nationalism,  could  have 
any  doubts  about  it.  With  the  political  side  of  the  nation  we  have, 
however,  little  or  nothing  to  do.  It  is  rather  the  economic  aspects  of 
the  national  unit  with  which  we  are  immediately  concerned. 

One  of  the  various  meanings  of  national  economy  is  an  organiza- 
tion for  administering  the  economic  affairs  of  the  nation.  The  state 
administers  in  at  least  two  important  ways.  First,  it  passes  laws  aid- 
ing business  (inter  alia),  some  of  which  set  up  standards  such  as 
weights  and  measures  and  quality  of  goods,  while  others  establish 
limitations,  for  example,  on  prices  and  wages.  Secondly,  the  state 
also  administers  directly  by  setting  up  a  system  of  coinage,  a  judicial 
service,  a  post-office,  and  so  on.  An  examination  of  such  helps  to 
business  shows  that  they  are  not  unlike  the  services  performed  by  the 
state  at  various  times  for  other  human  activities.  The  nation  has 
enacted  laws  concerning  the  family,  the  health  of  cattle  that  can  be 
marketed,  and  the  practice  of  medicine.  But  who  is  there  to  say  that 
for  this  reason  we  have  a  national  family,  national  cattle,  and  a 
national  medicine  ?  And  likewise  who  will  maintain  that,  because  the 
state  performs  important  services  for  economic  life,  we  have  national 
economy  in  the  sense  of  national  production  ? 

In  time  of  war  the  nation's  control  of  production  may  become 
complete.  In  a  socialistic  state,  as  in  Russia  to-day,  state  ownership 
may  prevail.  In  Germany  Hugo  Stinnes  may  become  more  powerful 
than  the  Kaiser  ever  was,  may  conceivably  own  the  whole  nation  or 

i  A  paper  read  at  the  St.  Louis  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation, Dec.  29.  1921. 

( 695  I 


696  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

hold  it  in  pawn.  And  yet  none  of  these  things  would  of  necessity 
materially  change  the  organization  of  production.  The  same  prin- 
ciples of  economy  and  efficiency  would  ultimately  prevail. 

National  economy  as  an  organization  in  economic  administration 
has  existed  in  peace  and  in  war,  for  centuries  in  Western  Europe  and 
for  generations  in  Eastern  Europe.  It  prevailed  while  village  econ- 
omy was  the  unit  of  production  and  when  town  economy  took  its 
place.  And  if  we  should  suddenly  create  a  world  state  with  powers 
of  economic  administration,  we  should  not  see  much,  if  any,  change  in 
the  public  unit  or  organization  of  production. 

The  national  economic  administration  has  been  carried  on  in  ac- 
cordance with  certain  policies,  good  or  bad,  but  of  course  acceptable 
to  the  day  and  generation.  During  the  stages  of  village  and  town 
economy,  the  state  policy  was  generally  fiscal.  In  some  advanced 
countries  of  Europe,  this  gave  way  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  mer- 
cantilism, which,  as  we  all  know,  was  as  restrictive  as  the  fiscal  policy 
had  been  liberal.  In  time,  mercantilism  was  weakened  by,  and  in 
some  countries  gave  way  to,  laissez-faire,  which  in  a  sense  was  a 
return  to  the  old-time  fiscal  policy.  And  within  the  last  generation 
or  two  we  see  a  tendency  to  return  to  a  policy  somewhat  akin  to 
mercantilism  in  its  directive  influence  and  its  concentration  of  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  government;  but  while  mercantilism  aimed  at 
national  material  strength,  the  new  policy  aims  at  social  well-being. 

It  is  an  interesting  and  important  fact  that  the  study  of  economics, 
significantly  called  "  political  economy  ",  which  has  influenced  us  most 
began  with  mercantilism,  usually  dated  from  the  sixteenth  century. 
And  this  mercantilism  was  but  little  more  than  the  old  town  policy 
"  writ  large  "  in  the  affairs  of  the  state.  In  all  probability  this  led  to 
the  practice  of  making  the  nation  follow  the  town  as  the  town  had 
followed  the  village  in  the  history  of  production. 

I  accept  national  economy  as  a  unit  or  organization  in  economic 
control  and  administration.  I  accept  it  as  having  a  secondary  mean- 
ing, national  policy,  found  frequently  in  America  not  long  ago.  But 
I  cannot  find  any  excuse  for  regarding  it  as  a  unit  in  production  on  a 
par  with  village  and  town  economy.  By  a  unit  of  production  is,  of 
course,  meant  an  organization  of  producers  based  on  a  division  of 
labor,  wherein,  for  example,  the  villagers  performed  special  services 
chiefly  in  agriculture  and  the  townsmen  chiefly  in  the  retail  trade. 
Thus  it  is  quite  different  from  ownership,  policy,  or  administration, 
though  in  the  village  stage,  it  is  true,  the  administrative  and  the  pro 
ductive  units  coincided,  but  not  in  the  town  or  subsequent  stages. 

Over  a  generation  ago  Schmoller  rightly,  as  I  think,  emphasized 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  697 

the  element  of  politics  and  administration  when  beginning  his  articles 
on  mercantilism  and  national  economy.  But  as  he  sped  along,  he 
extended  the  idea  of  national  economy  from  a  unit  in  administration 
to  a  unit  in  actual  production.  He  thought  he  saw  a  national  agri- 
culture, a  national  industry,  national  shipping  and  fisheries,  a  national 
division  of  labor,  and  a  national  trade,  first  conceived  and  then  devel- 
oped like  the  national  currency  and  the  national  banking  system.2 

Shortly  afterwards,  Biicher,  reacting  from  Schmoller's  declared 
intention  of  emphasizing  political  forces,  arrived  at  a  similar  conclu- 
sion. He,  too,  spoke  of  a  national  industry,  a  national  market,  and 
national  commercial  institutions.3  His  main  idea  is  that  just  as  the 
household  of  yore  and  the  later  town  had  been  self-sufficing,  so  was 
the  nation  "  an  exceedingly  complex  and  ingenious  system  "  for  meet- 
ing its  own  needs.4  And  accordingly,  to  him  economic  liberalism, 
free  trade,  and  world-wide  exchange  of  goods  are  ephemeral  phe- 
nomena. Biicher  began  by  emphasizing  production  and  ended  by 
proclaiming  a  national  market.  He  set  out  to  emphasize  the  exchange 
relationships  of  producer  and  consumer  and  finished  by  discovering 
that  the  nation  was  the  present  and  ultimate  unit  in  production.  Bril- 
liant as  Biicher's  essays  are  and  great  as  has  been  their  influence  on 
teaching  and  research,  they  are  nevertheless,  as  I  think,  untenable. 
Biicher  himself  has  recanted  in  respect  to  his  first  stage  of  household 
economy,  at  any  rate  as  applied  to  Greece,  Carthaginia,  and  Rome. 
German  critics  have  proved  his  concept  of  an  exclusive  town  economy 
incorrect.  It  seems  that  his  theory  of  national  economy  as  a  unit  or 
organization  of  production  is  also  unacceptable.  Biicher  maintained 
that  "  Each  portion  of  the  country,  each  section  of  the  population, 
must  in  the  service  of  the  whole  take  over  those  duties  that  its  natural 
endowments  best  fitted  it  to  perform."  5  This  was  supposed  to  begin 
in  the  sixteenth  century  when  town  economy  was  declining,  but  I  find 
such  geographical  specialization  at  a  much  earlier  date,  in  fact  in  part 
inevitable  from  the  beginning.  Long  before  the  sixteenth  century, 
Englishmen  obtained  their  tin  from  one  section,  their  coal  and  iron 
each  from  two  sections,  certain  fine  cloths  from  another,  and  their 
novelties  largely  from  a  very  few  towns. 

More  serious  is  the  idea  that  the  nation  exists  unto  itself.  The 
national  boundaries  may  deflect  but  they  do  not  bind.  And  indeed 
the  whole  tendency  of  progressive  countries  is  to  increase  their  for- 

-  Mercantile  System,  p.  59. 
••Industrial  Evolution,  p.   138. 

4  P.     126. 

»  P.    135. 


698  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

eign  trade.  Just  now  we  in  the  United  States  are  suffering  from  a 
set-back  to  this  development.  Moreover,  some  parts  of  a  state  may 
be  economically  more  closely  connected  with  parts  of  nearby  states 
than  with  other  parts  of  the  same  state.  This  is  notably  true  of  Nova 
Scotia,  which  trades  so  largely  with  New  England.  And  it  promises 
to  be  true  of  Strasbourg,  which  can  hardly  find  as  ready  an  outlet 
through  Paris  as  it  has  in  the  past  down  the  Rhine.  A  national  trade 
is  as  much  a  fiction  as  a  national  industry  or  a  national  agriculture. 
The  nation  as  such  does  not  trade,  nor  is  it  economically  a  unit.  Of 
course,  I  am  considering  organization  in  production,  not  in  adminis- 
tration, fact  not  policy,  accomplishment  not  ambition. 

Although  Biicher's  quest  for  an  organisation  in  production  was 
laudable,  his  choice  of  a  national  organization  was  unfortunate.  This 
leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  second  of  the  three  questions  an- 
nounced at  the  beginning:  shall  we  substitute  metropolitan  economy 
for  national  economy,  as  the  latest  stage  in  the  development  of  pro- 
duction ? 

By  metropolitan  economy  is  meant  the  concentration  of  the  trade 
of  a  wide  area  in  one  great  city.  While  the  radius  of  the  area  domi- 
nated commercially  by  the  medieval  town  had  rarely  been  more  than 
a  score  of  miles,  the  radius  of  the  area  dominated  by  a  metropolis  is 
roughly  a  hundred  miles  or  more  in  length.  The  metropolis  itself  is 
the  centre  not  only  for  the  area  of  the  local  trade  but  also  for  the 
trade  between  metropolitan  units.  Or,  concretely  stated,  trade  from 
the  provinces  centred  in  London  and  in  Paris,  and  the  provinces 
around  both  capitals  ordinarily  traded  and  still  trade  with  one  another 
largely  through  their  metropolitan  centres.  It  is  unfortunate  for 
purposes  of  illustration  that  each  of  these  cities  is  a  political  as  well 
as  an  economic  metropolis,  and  yet  these  very  instances  point  to  the 
fact  that  often  political  and  economic  forces  work  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. In  both  cities  were  centralized  not  only  the  political  but  also 
the  economic  life  of  wide  areas. 

The  structure  of  the  metropolitan  economic  unit  is  made  up,  firstly, 
of  the  metropolis  itself  with  its  merchants,  bankers,  warehousemen, 
transport  officials,  and  other  specialized  men  of  business;  and  sec- 
ondly, of  the  district  or  hinterland  with  its  towns  and  villages,  its 
countryside  of  farms,  forests,  streams,  and  mines.  The  metropolis 
and  its  hinterland  are  integral  parts  of  the  metropolitan  unit,  but  they 
are  not  constant  in  the  areas  which  they  occupy.  While  the  metrop- 
olis itself  widens  its  confines  with  general  economic  development,  the 
hinterland  decreases  in  size.  The  area  occupied  by  greater  London 
increases  year  by  year,  while  the  hinterland  diminishes  as  Manchester- 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  699 

Liverpool  grows  in  strength  and  influence.  Greater  Chicago  grows 
while  its  hinterland  is  being  nibbled  away  by  Cleveland,  St.  Louis, 
Kansas  City,  and  the  Twin  Cities. 

The  essential  part  of  metropolitan  economy  is  not  size  or  structure 
but  function.  The  metropolis  concentrates  the  trade  of  a  wide  dis- 
trict. It  is  the  gathering-place  for  the  products  of  that  district.  It 
is  also  the  place  from  which  wares  already  concentrated  from  many 
lands  and  sections  radiate  to  the  whole  hinterland.  Moreover,  it  is, 
as  has  been  said,  the  point  through  which  the  hinterland  normally 
trades  with  other  metropolitan  units.  It  is  more  economical  for  a 
few  dealers  in  a  metropolis  to  specialize  in  the  inter-metropolitan 
trade,  which  is  usually  wholesale,  than  for  traders  located  in  small 
towns  in  the  hinterland  to  maintain  connections  and  credits  with  dis- 
tant parts.  If  we  wish  to  visualize  the  whole  metropolitan  mechanism 
we  have  only  to  think  of  a  web  with  the  master  spider  in  the  centre. 
The  concentration  and  radiation  of  such  a  pattern  are  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  duplication  and  parallelism  of  the  alternative  checker- 
board. The  saving  in  materials,  labor,  and  management  is  enormous; 
otherwise  the  spider  would  not  have  so  constructed  its  net.  Metro- 
politan economy  likewise  exists  because  of  its  efficiency  as  a  unit  in 
production.  Public  policy,  national  administration,  even  socialism 
would  hardly  long  continue  an  attempt  to  alter  so  economical  an  or- 
ganization. 

It  is  the  metropolitan  unit  that  supplants  the  town  unit  of  former 
times.  If  we  cast  our  thought  no  farther  back  than  the  permanent 
settlement  of  clans  and  tribes,  we  see  that  there  are  three  general 
stages  which  sum  up  much  of  the  economic  life  of  the  times :  village 
economy,  town  economy,  and  metropolitan  economy.  Each  is  a  unit 
of  production.  Each  has  a  centre  of  trade,  though  the  importance  of 
trade  is,  of  course,  not  so  great  at  first  as  later.  It  should  be  pointed 
out  that  recent  studies  show  that  village  or  manorial  self-sufficiency 
is  a  very  questionable  matter.  I  go  farther  still  in  regarding  the  vil- 
lage, like  the  town,  as  a  centre  for  trade,  though  the  trade  of  the  town 
was  specialized  while  that  of  the  village  was  not.  In  the  progression 
from  one  stage  to  another  we  see  not  only  a  greater  specialization,  but 
a  greater  general  division  of  labor,  a  larger  surplus  and  store  of  goods, 
and  more  immunity  from  distress  and  famine. 

The  second  question  has  now  been  answered.  Metropolitan  econ- 
omy, it  seems,  should  be  put  in  the  place  of  national  economy.  The 
reason  for  this  is  partly  that  there  is  no  national  organization  of  pro- 
duction, while  there  is  a  metropolitan  organization,  and  partly  that 
metropolitan  economy  is  on  a  par  with  the  other  and  older  economic 


joo  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

units.  Structurally  the  village  (generally)  and  the  town  and  the 
metropolitan  units  always  had  each  a  nucleus  with  an  area  round 
about.  Functionally  town  and  metropolitan  economy  had  a  division 
of  labor  between  the  centre  and  the  area  that  constituted  the  basis  of 
economic  efficiency  and  progress.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  national 
economic  unit,  assuming  for  the  moment  that  such  exists,  there  is  no 
one  centre  holding  all  the  rest  of  the  state  in  economic  subordination. 
At  one  time,  to  be  sure,  London  was  the  only  great  commercial  centre 
in  England,  but  its  dominance  over  the  farthermost  parts  of  England 
was  doubtful  and,  as  has  been  implied,  its  relative  importance  has 
been  diminishing.  In  England  there  are  London  and  Liverpool- 
Manchester  that  are  nuclei  of  important  hinterlands.  In  France  there 
are  Paris,  and  perhaps  Lyons-Marseilles,  and  Bordeaux ;  and  in 
America  at  least  eleven  such  nuclei  of  commerce.  Of  course  it  is  true 
that  there  is  one  centre  in  each  nation  that  is  more  prominent  than  the 
rest,  for  example,  London,  Paris,  and  New  York.  The  position  of 
such  centres,  however,  is  due  in  part  to  the  advantage  of  a  head-start. 
And  already  we  find  economic  life  developing  more  rapidly  in  rival 
cities  than  in  the  older  centres.  In  other  words,  while  once  there 
may  have  been  some  excuse  for  thinking  that  there  might  be  a  national 
marketing  centre,  there  is  none  now. 

Although  it  may  be  true,  and  I  believe  it  is  true,  that  we  should 
substitute  metropolitan  economy  for  national  economy  as  a  unit  in 
production,  nevertheless  it  would  be  a  grave  error  to  divorce  metro- 
politan economy  as  a  unit  in  production  from  national  economy  as  a 
unit  in  administration.  Just  as  the  tribal  and  later  the  feudal  state 
reflected  the  village,  as  the  early  national  state  reflected  the  town,  so 
does  the  state  to-day  reflect  the  metropolis.  The  village  mobilized 
labor,  the  town  mobilized  skill  in  trade  and  manufacture,  and  now 
the  metropolis  mobilizes  capital  and  management  in  support  of  the 
state.  And  the  state  in  its  turn  reacts  on  the  smaller  unit.  The 
tribal  and  feudal  state  concerned  itself  with  the  business  of  the  village 
in  order  to  provide  justice  and  protection ;  the  early  national  state  con- 
cerned itself  with  the  economic  affairs  of  the  town  in  order  to  prevent 
excess  of  localism  and  to  provide  a  system  of  coinage,  standard 
weights  and  measures,  and  reforms  in  trading  practices ;  and  the  pres- 
ent national  state  turns  to  the  metropolis  not  only  in  order  to  correct 
the  abuses  of  its  large  firms  but  also  to  help  metropolitan  business  at 
home  and  abroad.  And  indeed  nowhere  could  this  be  more  clearly 
illustrated  than  in  America  during  the  last  seven  years.  In  short,  the 
relationship  between  village,  town,  and  metropolitan  organization  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  national  organization  on  the  other  is  close  and 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  701 

reciprocal.  For  national  economy  as  an  organization  in  production 
we  should  substitute  metropolitan  economy,  but  there  is  as  yet  no  sub- 
stitute for  national  economy  as  an  administrative  organization. 

The  evidence  for  metropolitan  development,  the  third  topic  of  this 
paper,  is  found  in  the  history  of  modern  Europe  and  America,  but 
the  earlier  period  deserves  at  least  brief  consideration.  In  ancient 
days  there  were  flourishing  towns  with  a  brisk  local  and  extended 
trade.  Most  of  these,  such  as  Tyre,  Sidon,  Athens,  Corinth,  and 
Delos,  had  but  limited  areas  near  at  hand.  They  were  indeed  re- 
markable plants  to  be  growing  in  such  shallow  soil.  They  sent  their 
branches  far  and  wide,  but  there  was  no  metropolitan  subsoil.  None 
of  those  mentioned  had  the  wide  hinterland  necessary  for  metropoli- 
tan growth.  Nearest  to  it,  came  Alexandria  with  its  extended  trade 
by  land  route  to  the  east  and  by  water  east  and  west,  and  its  hinter- 
land trade  up  and  down  the  rich  Nile  valley. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  Genoa,  Florence,  and  Venice  showed  metro- 
politan promise,  as  did  Bruges  and  Antwerp  for  a  short  time.  Cir- 
cumstances largely  political  prevented  these  cities  from  completely 
developing  out  of  the  stage  of  town  economy  into  that  of  metropolitan 
economy. 

London  is  the  best  illustration,  because  it  developed  early  and 
because  it  has  slowly  gone  through  all  the  phases  of  metropolitan 
growth  anywhere  to  be  observed.  The  first  of  these  phases,  covering 
the  period  from  about  1550  to  about  1750,  was  occupied  with  the 
general  organization  of  the  metropolitan  market.  Although  there 
had  been  wholesalers  in  the  medieval  town,  they  traded  chiefly  in  com- 
modities that  entered  into  extended  trade  and  were  not  normally 
allowed  by  the  urban  magistrates  to  dominate  their  own  fields.  But 
in  the  first  phase  of  metropolitan  economy  wholesalers  came  to  or- 
ganize not  only  extended  but  also  local  trade,  or,  as  we  had  better  now 
call  it,  "  hinterland  "  rather  than  "  local  "  trade. 

Exchanges  or  bourses,  which  had  been  both  for  retail  and  whole- 
sale trade  in  the  Middle  Ages,  became  exclusively  identified  with 
wholesale  trade  in  the  metropolitan  stage,  though  retail  shops  con- 
tinued to  nestle  close  to  the  exchange  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  their 
owners  were  actually  excluded  from  the  "floor".  In  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  the  chief  articles  traded  on  the  exchange 
were  such  commodities  as  gold,  silver,  spices,  dyes,  and  other  goods 
which  were  standardized  and  could  be  sold  by  grade  or  sample.  By 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  buying  and  selling  of  securi- 
ties as  distinct  from  commodities  attained  considerable  importance. 
Speculation  in  these  securities  became  so  noisy  in  London  and  stock- 

AM.  HIST.  RBV..VOL.  XXVII. — 47. 


702  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

jobbers  so  bold  that  a  separation  had  to  be  made.  The  old  Royal 
Exchange  remained  the  seat  of  the  wholesale  trade  in  commodities, 
while  the  stock-brokers  and  jobbers  departed  for  the  streets  and 
coffee-houses,  where  they  operated  until  the  London  Stock  Exchange 
was  established  in  1773. 

The  great  trading  companies,  concerned  almost  wholly  with  ex- 
tended trade,  were  essentially  metropolitan  enterprises.  The  stock- 
owners  were  found  chiefly  though  by  no  means  exclusively  in  the 
metropolis,  the  directors  were  there  and  also  their  offices  and  ware- 
houses. Paris  was  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  one  respect,  that,  al- 
though much  of  the  management  might  be  centred  there  and  although 
the  owners  might  live  there,  the  actual  unloading  and  storing  had  to 
take  place  almost  wholly  in  ports  nearer  to  the  coast  than  was  the 
metropolis. 

Warehousing  had  been  connected  with  manufacture  and  commerce 
in  town  economy.  In  the  first  phase  of  metropolitan  economy  there 
came  into  existence  specialized  warehouses  and  warehousemen  who 
stored  for  anyone  having  goods  to  store.  This  was,  of  course,  very 
economical,  for  available  storage  space  would  be  more  occupied  when 
it  could  be  made  to  serve  all.  Merchants  and  manufacturers  hence- 
forth put  relatively  less  capital  into  storage  plants  of  their  own. 

With  specialized  wholesalers  and  warehousemen,  and  with  trading 
companies  venturing  far  afield,  the  metropolis  came  to  contain  an  un- 
precedentedly  large  variety  of  wares,  much  beyond  the  possibilities  of 
a  medieval  town.  They  could  be  economically  stored  in  one  metro- 
politan centre  and  shipped  to  the  hinterland  or  to  another  metropolitan 
unit  when  needed.  Staples  and  luxuries,  goods  from  east  and  west, 
textiles  and  hardware,  articles  of  personal  adornment  and  building 
wares,  were  all  found  in  the  metropolis.  The  nearest  approach  to 
this  in  the  Middle  Ages  had  been  the  great  annual  fairs. 

The  second  phase  of  metropolitan  development,  in  the  case  of 
London  from  about  1750  to  about  1830,  saw  considerable  changes  in 
manufacture.  Industries  such  as  the  manufactures  of  silk  and  ho- 
siery, introduced  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  moved  out 
into  the  hinterland,  where  rent  and  food  were  lower  and  where  there 
was  little  or  no  interference  by  municipal  or  gild  authorities.  Some 
of  the  very  old  industries  of  the  metropolis,  such  as  the  manufacture 
of  cutlery,  were  threatened  and  finally  undermined  by  new  establish- 
ments set  up  in  the  hinterland,  notably  in  and  about  Sheffield.  Fac- 
tories using  power  machinery  were  started  in  the  hinterland  near 
waterpower,  near  coal  and  iron,  or  in  a  district  with  a  favorable 
climate  and  good  shipping  facilities.     Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  were 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  703 

the  seats  of  the  industrial  revolution.  London  had  few  large  fac- 
tories. It  held  its  own  in  the  manufacture  of  luxuries  and  especially 
of  articles  of  clothing  and  adornment,  but  saw  itself  by  decentraliza- 
tion of  industry  threatened  with  the  possibility  of  being  reduced  to 
purely  commercial  functions. 

Following  hard  upon  the  phase  of  the  industrial  revolution  came 
that  of  the  revolution  in  transportation,  which  we  may  place  roughly 
at  about  the  period  from  1830  to  1890.  Although  much  earlier  than 
this  there  had  been  efforts  at  highway  regeneration,  and  although  the 
post-office  had  been  established,  first  for  government  service  and  later 
for  public  use,  in  both  cases  centring  in  London,  although  stage- 
coaches ran  from  London  to  all  the  important  towns,  and  although 
there  had  been  real  improvement  in  transportation  by  means  of  canals 
and  better  constructed  highways,  nevertheless  the  real  beginning  of 
the  third  phase  came  with  the  railroad  era.  At  first  built  in  the  north, 
the  railroads  really  supplemented  the  trade  with  the  metropolis  in  so 
far  as  they  connected  inland  points  with  the  coast  trade  centring  in 
London.  Soon  practically  all  the  important  railroad  lines  focussed  on 
the  metropolis.  This  meant  that  the  hinterland  was  truly  bound  to 
the  metropolis  by  bands  of  steel,  the  rails  of  the  new  roads. 

Contemporaneous  with  railroad  construction  came  the  building  up 
of  oversea  traffic  on  a  new  and  regular  basis  by  means  of  the  steamer. 
What  was  done  for  London's  hinterland  trade  by  the  railroad  was 
done  for  its  extended  trade  by  the  steamship.  The  two,  of  course, 
are  but  parts  of  the  same  mechanism.  With  Sheffield  cutlery,  Lan- 
cashire cottons,  and  Yorkshire  woolens,  London  could  buy  American 
tobacco,  Canadian  furs.  East  Indian  spices,  and  China  tea. 

The  fourth  and  latest  phase  of  metropolitan  development  sees  a 
remarkable  concentration  of  financial  power  in  the  metropolis.  To 
some  extent  it  synchronizes  with  the  other  developments,  but  it  comes 
to  a  head  as  the  dominant  tendency  after  the  revolution  in  transpor- 
tation. As  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century,  provincials,  especially 
the  nobles,  had  invested  in  the  joint-stock  trading  companies  of  the 
metropolis.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  people  of  the  hinterland 
were  depositing  their  hard  cash  with  the  London  goldsmiths  and  pri- 
vate bankers.  In  the  eighteenth  century  London  private  banks  were 
establishing  branches  in  the  country,  and  country  banks  were  forming 
connections  with  the  metropolis.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
Bank  of  England  came  to  be  concerned  directly  with  the  hinterland 
trade  when  it  opened  branch  banks  in  the  provinces.  Following  this 
apace,  came  the  formation  of  joint-stock  banks  in  the  metropolis  and 
elsewhere.     In  recent  years  they  have  consolidated  so  that  there  are 


704  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

only  a  few  large  banks  left.  Generally  with  their  headquarters  in 
London,  these  great  banks  have  branches  widely  scattered  in  England 
and  Wales,  and  since  1918  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  as  well.  One 
bank  has  1500  and  another  1600  such  branches.  All  this  means  that 
London  manages  the  banking  business  of  a  wide  area.  Capital  is 
concentrated  in  it  and  radiates  out  from  it.  The  surplus  of  an  agri- 
cultural district  at  one  season  goes  to  a  manufacturing  district  where 
it  is  sorely  needed.  At  another  season  the  process  is  reversed.  It 
would  seem  at  first  thought  as  if  it  were  in  banking  that  London  is 
growing  functionally,  and  that  in  due  time,  neglecting  its  warehous- 
ing, transportation,  and  manufacture,  it  will  become  distinctively  a 
financial  centre.  The  situation  in  this  case  is  complicated  by  the  fact 
that  London  is  not  only  the  economic  centre  of  a  vast  extended  and 
hinterland  trade  but  the  political  centre  of  an  empire  and  as  such  has 
a  financial  role  to  play.  A  very  plausible  view  of  the  situation,  how- 
ever, is  that  this  movement  of  financial  concentration  may  really  not 
continue  when  other  English  centres  reach  the  financial  stage  of  their 
development;  that  national  financial  concentration  will  give  way  to 
local  concentration  in  England,  just  as  it  has  in  America,  first  in  the 
reserve  and  central  reserve  cities  and  now  in  the  Federal  Reserve 
centres.  Indeed  one  of  the  best  sources  for  studying  metropolitan 
economy  is  the  collection  of  briefs  prepared  by  numerous  cities  in  the 
United  States,  seeking  the  location  of  a  Federal  Reserve  bank  in  their 
midst.  Some  of  the  claims  for  a  bank  were  based  on  real  metropoli- 
tan organization  and  were  accordingly  acted  upon,  while  others  were 
disallowed.  In  the  case  of  the  undeveloped  South,  somewhat  arbi- 
trary measures  were  required,  or  rather  it  was  necessary  to  choose 
towns  that  showed  metropolitan  promise  instead  of  achievement.  The 
meaning  of  this  new  American  banking  system  is  the  concentration 
of  banking  reserves  not  simply  in  New  York  but  in  metropolitan  cities 
throughout  the  United  States. 

The  growth  of  metropolitan  organization  has  now  been  sketched 
in  outline.  It  is  not  to  be  implied  that  all  peoples  have  entered  or 
gone  far  into  the  metropolitan  stage.  Some  are  still  in  village  econ- 
omy, some  in  town  economy,  and  some  have  just  begun  to  enter  metro'r 
politan  economy.  Although  the  different  phases  of  growth  as  here 
presented  hold  true  for  the  older  metropolitan  centres,  nevertheless  in 
the  newer  countries  and  parts  of  the  world,  where  the  revolution  in 
manufacture  and  in  transportation  is  inherited  rather  than  experi- 
enced, the  order  of  development  is  somewhat  different. 

If  we  wish  to  visualize  metropolitan  growth  we  have  only  to  ex- 
amine the  metropolis  itself.     The  retail  section  may  represent  the  old 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  705 

town  economy.  The  wholesale  district  is  the  prosaic  memorial  of  the 
first  phase  of  metropolitan  economy.  The  industrial  suburb  contains 
most  of  what  is  left  of  metropolitan  manufacture  after  the  period  of 
decentralization.  The  wharves  and  the  railroad  terminals  show 
where  extended  and  hinterland  trade  meet  within  the  metropolis. 
And  the  financial  district  with  its  mint,  stock  exchange,  banks,  insur- 
ance offices,  and  brokers,  constitutes  the  most  sensitive  spot  in  the 
metropolitan  nerve-centre. 

Such  is  the  fully  developed  metropolitan  organization.  It  is  not 
an  organization  in  the  sense  that  it  has  a  constitution,  or  that  there  is 
an  agreement  whereby  transactions  are  made.  It  is  just  a  unit  of 
public  economy  that  has  grown  up  gradually  to  perform  cheaply  and 
efficiently  the  business  of  managing  production.  Goods  enter  the 
metropolis  and  leave  it.  The  metropolis  performs  one  set  of  tasks, 
the  hinterland  another.  Both  are  industrial,  financial,  and  commer- 
cial, but  the  metropolis  is  pre-eminently  commercial  and  financial. 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  hinterland  can  not  be  adequately 
dealt  with  here.  It  is  not  an  unleavened  mass  of  struggling  economic 
workers,  but  a  set  of  highly  specialized  communities  producing  in 
close  relation  to  the  metropolis.  A  detailed  study  of  the  metropolitan 
district  of  the  Twin  Cities  has  been  made  at  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota. It  shows  a  hierarchy  of  towns,  some  commercial  and  some  in- 
dustrial, and,  of  course,  a  great  many  small  country  towns  collecting 
raw  material  for  shipment  to  the  metropolis  and  receiving  for  distri- 
bution manufactures  and  other  wares  from  the  metropolis. 

The  growth  of  metropolitan  centres,  like  the  growth  of  states,  has 
been  the  occasion  of  competition  and  rivalry.  At  times  this  rivalry 
has  been  between  metropolitan  centres  in  different  political  units. 
London's  rivalry  with  Amsterdam  is  a  part  of  history.  Her  rivalry 
with  Paris  on  a  much  smaller  scale  is  generally  overclouded  by  the 
political  struggle  between  England  and  France.  Often  metropolitan 
rivalry  is  between  centres  in  the  same  state.  A  city  ambitious  of 
becoming  a  metropolis  has  to  struggle  against  one  already  established. 
Manchester-Liverpool  is  perhaps  the  only  reasonably  successful  Eng- 
lish rival  of  London,  and  it  has  not  gone  much  beyond  the  third  phase 
of  development.  Leeds  and  Glasgow  seem  to  show  little  more  than 
promise. 

Nowhere  can  metropolitan  rivalry  be  more  profitably  studied  than 
in  America  with  its  vast  expanse  of  territory  and  its  wide  areas  of 
free  trade.  There  have  been  four  main  lines  along  which  metropoli- 
tan cities  have  developed  in  competition  with  one  another.  Three 
run  east  and  west  and  one  north  and  south.     The  least  important  up 


706  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

to  date  passes  through  Montreal,  Toronto,  Winnipeg,  and  Vancouver. 
The  most  important  at  the  present  time  runs  through  New  York, 
Cleveland,  Chicago,  the  Twin  Cities,  and  Seattle.  The  third  starts 
from  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  and  passing  through  Cincinnati  ex- 
tends to  St.  Louis,  whence,  joining  a  line  from  New  Orleans,  it  goes 
on  through  Kansas  City  to  San  Francisco.  The  fourth  is  the  coast 
line  of  cities,  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  The 
outstanding  illustration  of  metropolitan  rivalry  sufficiently  old  to  be 
well  known  is  to  be  found  in  the  competition  of  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  for  the  products  of  western  New  York 
state,  especially  for  the  flour  of  the  Genesee  Valley.  Largely  by 
means  of  the  Erie  Canal,  New  York  City  won,  but,  though  its  victory 
was  marked,  it  was  not  complete  nor  is  it  to-day,  for  a  struggle  still 
continues.  Interesting  as  are  the  details  of  such  struggles,  the  main 
lines  are  clear  and  tolerably  well  known. 

A  detailed  analysis  of  the  metropolitan  organization  in  America 
obviously  goes  beyond  the  limits  of  this  paper.  It  may  be  noted  that 
while  some  centres  show  considerable  promise,  others  seem  to  be 
declining  relatively,  notably  Baltimore  and  Cincinnati.  Two  great 
agglomerations  of  population,  Pittsburgh  and  Detroit,  each  with  about 
a  million  inhabitants  if  we  include  the  contiguous  urban  territory,  are 
not  metropolitan  at  all,  but  industrial  satellites.  Each  is  based  largely 
on  a  single  industry,  Pittsburgh  on  iron  and  steel  and  Detroit  on  the 
automobile.  While  Pittsburgh  is  subordinate  to  New  York  and 
Philadelphia,  and  more  and  more  to  Cleveland,  Detroit  is  subordinate 
to  Chicago,  although  each  has  a  measure  of  (temporary)  independ- 
ence due  to  the  unusual  extent  of  the  localization  of  industries  in  its 
midst. 

Washington  is  another  large  city  which  is  not  metropolitan  in  an 
economic  sense,  though  it  has  some  financial  importance  due  to  its 
being  the  seat  of  government.  In  this  same  category  are  several  Ger- 
man capitals  which  are  essentially  political  centres.  Indeed  Germany 
as  a  whole  shows  the  indelible  impression  of  its  former  political 
localism.  Berlin  is  the  only  well-developed  German  metropolis  that 
has  passed  through  all  four  phases  of  growth,  though  there  are,  of 
course,  other  notable  commercial  centres  of  promise  and  attainment, 
such  as  Hamburg,  Mannheim,  Leipzig,  and  Diisseldorf.  Germany's 
greatest  metropolis  would  be  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  or  the 
Scheldt,  if  economic  considerations  alone  prevailed.  It  is  not  entirely 
firing  a  rocket  into  the  air  to  say  that  Germany  fought  the  late  war 
partly  to  obtain  a  basis  for  a  metropolitan  unit  in  the  west. 

The  significance  of  metropolitan  economy  has  been  in  part  set 


Development  of  Metropolitan  Economy  707 

forth  above.  Its  economic  bearing  is  clear.  It  has  other  aspects, 
however,  of  a  far-reaching  nature.  Our  cultural  institutions  spring 
from  four  principal  sources,  the  church,  the  old  town  of  town  econ- 
omy, the  nation  or  some  integral  part  of  it,  and  the  metropolis.  The 
wealth  piled  up  in  the  great  centre  is  used  to  found  institutions  to 
relieve  pain,  to  discover  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  to  instruct  in  the 
ways  of  art  and  science.  The  great  metropolitan  builders  like  Rocke- 
feller and  Morgan  are  but  the  best  known  of  many  such  public  bene- 
factors. 

In  our  day,  as  in  the  Middle  Ages,  there  is  a  large  group  of  think- 
ing men  who  are  reacting  from  the  national  emphasis  that  leads  to 
artificial  industries  and  disastrous  wars.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
the  churchmen  who  were  un-national ;  to-day  it  is  socialists  and  syn- 
dicalists. Both  emphasize  society  organized  on  a  non-national  basis. 
And  at  the  present  time  also  there  is  a  body  of  liberals  who  are  more 
than  ever  convinced  that  a  world  organization  is  better  than  a  national 
state.  Metropolitan  economy  has  some  points  of  contact  with  both 
socialism  and  liberalism.  It  has  been  generally  held  that  the  state  is 
not  simply  a  political  but  an  economic  unit  as  well;  and  that  it  is 
something  more  than  a  national  sentiment  and  an  administrative  con- 
venience. The  theory  of  metropolitan  economy  cuts  up  the  state  eco- 
nomically and  emphasizes  intra-metropolitan  and  inter-metropolitan 
trade  instead  of  national  policies  and  international  commerce.  If 
the  state  comes  to  be  recognized  as  something  far  short  of  economic 
unity,  and  if  it  ceases  to  be  an  administrative  convenience,  then  its 
foundation  is  not  so  strong  as  we  sometimes  believe. 

When  the  empire  of  the  Church  was  a  reality,  the  metropolitan 
ecclesiastical  unit  of  the  archbishopric,  generally  speaking,  was  the 
unit  of  organization.  In  the  new  order  of  human  affairs,  about  which 
unpractical  people  now  dream,  an  order  in  which  society  and  not  the 
state  is  emphasized,  the  unit  may  be  economic.  If  so,  it  would  prob- 
ably be  the  metropolitan  economic  organization.  But  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  such  an  administrative  unit  would  create 
difficulties.  The  boundaries,  being  "  natural  "  or  economic,  are  shift- 
ing from  day  to  day  and  on  the  outskirts  of  the  area  there  is  at  all 
times  a  zone  of  debatable  territory  that  belongs  to  two  metropolitan 
organizations,  to  both  London  and  Manchester-Liverpool,  to  both 
Boston  and  New  York,  to  both  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  Everything 
points  to  great  difficulty  not  only  in  reorganizing  society  but  in  main- 
taining the  status  quo.  The  boundaries  of  the  future  would  be  as 
unsatisfactory  as  those  of  to-day,  unless  changed  so  often  as  to  be  a 
nuisance.     At  the  present  time  a  large  part  of  our  trouble  arises  out 


708  N.  S.  B.  Gras 

of  the  extension  of  frontiers.     Where  to  stop  is  the  great  difficulty  in 
both  political  and  economic  alignment. 

Though  metropolitan  economy  may  offer  no  panacea  for  human 
troubles,  it  is  nevertheless  an  economic  institution  of  far-reaching 
importance.  It  has  not  been  discovered,  or  isolated  as  a  phenomenon, 
partly  because  of  the  lack  of  definiteness  and  fixity  of  the  unit  and 
partly  because  of  our  political  obsession.  Born  at  about  the  same 
time  as  our  strong  modern  states,  it  has  quite  naturally  grown  up  un- 
noticed, but  it  has  not  been  entirely  missed,  for  nearly  a  century  ago 
Thiinen  wrote  about  the  central  city.  A  few  years  back  Dr.  E.  F. 
Gay  of  Harvard,  emphasizing  the  marketing  of  goods  in  economic 
history,  came  to  appreciate  the  function  of  the  large  commercial  city. 
Dr.  A.  P.  Usher  has  made  a  study  of  the  influence  of  the  metropolitan 
market  on  the  French  grain  trade.  In  another  place  I  have  traced  the 
growth  of  the  metropolitan  corn  market  of  London,  and  here  add  the 
concept  of  an  "  economy  ",  or  general  organization  of  economic  life, 
centring  in  the  great  commercial  city.  I  have  now  sketched  in  a  very 
inadequate  way  the  phases  through  which  metropolitan  growth  has 
progressed,  indicating  some  of  the  consequences  of  that  development. 

N.  S.  B.  Gras. 


SLIDELL  AND  BUCHANAN1 

One  of  the  most  significant  friendships  in  American  history  grew 
out  of  the  official  relations  between  John  Slidell,  the  commissioner  to 
Mexico  on  the  eve  of  the  Mexican  War,  and  James  Buchanan,  the 
secretary  of  state  to  whom  his  reports  were  made.  The  mission  itself 
was  a  failure.  But  the  conviction  on  Slidell's  part  that  he  had  earned 
the  approval  and  friendship  of  Buchanan  did  much  from  that  time  to 
influence  the  careers  of  both.  For  from  the  summer  of  1846  Slidell 
seems  to  have  regarded  Buchanan  as  presidential  timber,  and  in  advis- 
ing Buchanan  to  refuse  the  ermine  of  the  Supreme  Bench,  he  hints 
at  greater  things  to  come,  striking  for  the  first  time  a  note  of  leader- 
ship and  guidance,  almost  of  dominance,  and  constituting  himself  a 
political  manager  for  Buchanan.  His  own  less  exalted  ambition  re- 
ceives a  more  open  statement.  "  Were  I  so  disposed,  I  think  that  I 
might  play  the  Senator  for  a  few  weeks  to  fill  Barrow's  vacancy,  but 
the  position  would  be  a  false  one  and  would  not  advance  my  prospects 
for  the  only  object  of  my  ambition,  a  seat  in  that  body  of  a  more 
permanent  tenure."  The  question  arises  whether  to  accept  a  practi- 
cally certain  election  to  the  Lower  House  or  to  play  for  the  more 
alluring  but  more  problematical  opening  in  the  Senate.  On  this  point, 
Buchanan's  own  advice  is  solicited.2 

Buchanan  apparently  dwelt  on  the  hostility  felt  toward  Slidell  by 
certain  senators.  For  the  latter  replied  in  dismay  at  the  thought  of 
there  being  several  such.  Upon  reflection,  he  could  think  of  "  that 
miserable  imbecile  Henry  Johnson  "  and  Thomas  Hart  Benton  as  his 
only  imaginable  enemies,  the  latter  because  of  some  remarks  made  at 
the  time  when  Slidell  withdrew  his  support  from  Van  Buren.  He 
entreated  Buchanan  to  name  these  enemies,3  and  then  went  on  to 
assure  him  that  neither  he  nor  his  friends  would  feel  resentment  if 
the  appointment  to  Mexico  should  be  given  to  another. 

Reminiscent  of  Mexico,  Slidell  passed  on  a  choice  morsel  con- 
cerning Calhoun,  to  the  effect  that  the  great  Nullifier,  who  had  de- 
nounced the  Slidell  mission  when  it  was  first  projected  as  "  ill  advised 
and  premature  ",  was  himself  so  eager  to  undertake  the  mission  that 
he  delegated  a  friend  to  make  overtures  for  it  to  Polk,  only  to  learn 
that  Slidell  had  been  previously  appointed. 

1  With  one  exception  the  letters  upon  which  this  article  is  based  are  among 
the  Buchanan  Papers  in  the  Library  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania. 

2  New  Orleans,   Jan.   6,    1847. 

3  New  Orleans,  Jan.  29.  1847. 

'709) 


710  L.  M.  Sears 

The  letter  containing  this  Calhoun  anecdote  further  expresses  a 
hope  that  Buchanan  himself  will  hold  the  next  mission  to  Mexico, 
mentions  General  Cass  respectfully,  and  intimates  that  if  Pennsyl- 
vania could  only  be  brought  to  relinquish  her  tariff  heresies,  Buchanan 
would  be  the  logical  choice  of  the  party  in  1848.4 

In  November,  Slidell  is  even  more  specific.  He  declares  that 
Louisiana  Democrats  favor  a  Northern  man  who  opposes  the  Wilmot 
Proviso,  and  that  "  a  vast  majority  of  our  leading  politicians  look  to 
you  as  the  man  of  their  choice".  If  Buchanan  is  to  be  available  in 
the  fullest  sense,  however,  opposition  in  Pennsylvania  must  be  over- 
come, and  the  friendship  of  Robert  J.  Walker  must  be  conciliated,  the 
more  so  as  Walker  is  by  no  means  friendly  to  the  aspirations  of 
Dallas.' 

But  1848  was  not  to  realize  the  hope  of  either  manager  or  candi- 
date. It  was  for  Slidell  a  troubled  year,  as  his  grip  on  Louisiana 
itself  seemed  to  be  weakening.  He  failed  by  a  rather  narrow  margin 
of  obtaining  the  coveted  seat  in  the  Senate,  his  refusal  to  support 
Taylor  being  assigned  as  the  cause.  He  felt,  nevertheless,  that  even 
at  the  cost  of  defeat  the  effort  to  avert  a  Democratic  fusion  with 
Whigs  was  well  worth  while.  He  and  his  friends  voted  for  Soule, 
for  Slidell  was  not  the  man  to  split  his  party,  whatever  might  be  his 
eventual  attitude  toward  splitting  the  Union.  But  henceforth  he  was 
the  determined  and  implacable  foeman  of  Soule  for  control  in 
Louisiana. 

Baltimore  was  no  more  encouraging  than  Baton  Rouge,  for  the 
Louisiana  vote  was  divided  between  Buchanan  and  Cass,  and  Slidell, 
though  invited  to  do  so,  refused  to  cast  the  ballot  for  the  state.  He 
sorrowfully  wrote  Buchanan,  "  I  need  not  tell  you  how  much  I  feel 
this,  but  must  bear  it  with  the  best  grace  I  may  ".6 

The  Buchanan  papers  contain  no  further  communication  from 
Slidell  for  over  a  year,  though  there  seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  correspondence  lapsed  for  any  such  length  of  time.  It  reopens 
with  a  social  rather  than  political  letter  from  Tarrytown  on  the  Hud- 
son, mentioning  that  Slidell  and  his  family  are  guests  of  the  former's 
brother-in-law,  Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry,  previous  to  their  de- 
parture for  Saratoga,  and  urging  Buchanan  to  pay  a  promised  visit 
to  New  Orleans  in  the  coming  winter.7 

One  of  the  qualities  which  distinguished  Slidell  as  a  shrewd  and 
able  politician  was  his  keen  perception  that  under  the  increasing  strain 

4  New  Orleans.  Mar.  21,   1847. 

5  New  Orleans.  Nov.  13,  1847. 
8  Baltimore,  May  22,  1S48. 
''Tarrytown,   N.  Y.,  June  23,    1849. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  711 

between  the  North  and  the  South  that  candidate  stood  the  best  chance 
of  victory  who,  beyond  making  it  plain  that  he  was  "  safe ",  least 
committed  himself  on  debatable  subjects.  For  that  reason  Slidell's 
attempt  to  dissuade  Buchanan  from  all  thought  of  the  governorship 
in  Pennsylvania  deserves  quotation  at  length.  It  is  a  searching  criti- 
cism of  American  politics  at  the  period,  and  a  revelation  of  the  clear 
mind  of  the  writer. 

I  think  there  are  many  reasons  why  for  the  present  you  should  not 
voluntarily  place  yourself  in  a  position  where  you  will  be  called  upon  to 
express  your  opinions  on  the  subject  of  slavery  in  the  territories.  They 
are  sufficiently  well  known  in  the  South  to  make  your  name  acceptable 
there,  and  if  you  abstain  from  any  active  participation  in  the  question 
now,  the  Free  Soilers,  who,  I  am  sorry  to  see,  comprise  the  immense 
majority  of  the  non-slaveholding  states,  will  when  the  matter  is  disposed 
of  entertain  no  hostility  towards  anyone,  who  has  not  come  immediately 
into  conflict  with  them  in  the  final  struggle.  You  see  I  have  not  lost  my 
hopes  of  yet  seeing  you  in  the  White  House.  There  is  not  a  man  of  our 
party  whose  chances  are  as  good  as  yours  and  I  cannot  believe  that  the 
Whig  party  will  hold  together  after  the  first  session  of  Congress.8 

Slidell's  attitude  toward  Calhoun  has  already  been  indicated.  To- 
ward Clay,  Whig  though  he  was,  he  felt  a  kindlier  sentiment,  and  in 
August,  1849,  ne  confided  to  Buchanan  that,  popular  impressions  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding,  Clay  no  longer  held  any  presidential 
aspirations,  but  that  if  opportunity  arose  he  would  come  out  against 
Taylor,  whom  he  unquestionably  had  in  mind  in  his  "  constantly 
speaking  of  the  incompatibility  of  statesmanship  and  soldiership  ".9 
In  Slidell's  opinion,  the  day  of  Webster,  Clay,  and  Calhoun  was  near- 
ing  its  end.  The  future  belonged  not  with  the  "  Elder  Statesmen  " 
but  with  rising  stars  who  could  see  the  manifest  destiny  of  slavery 
and  the  necessity  of  its  fulfilment.  Thus,  almost  three  years  before 
such  a  prediction  could  be  put  to  the  test,  Slidell  informs  Buchanan 
that  "The  next  democratic  candidate  cannot  be  Cass  neither  can  he 
be  a  free  soiler.  I  do  not  find  with  either  section  any  objection  to 
you  and  I  now  consider  it  as  certain  as  any  event  can  be  that  you  are 
to  be  our  standard  bearer."  10  The  opportunity  to  promote  the  inter- 
ests of  Buchanan  is  welcomed  by  Slidell  as  a  selfish  gain  for  himself. 
By  so  doing,  he  may  be  able  to  slough  off  an  apathy  felt  for  two  years 
past,  and  through  the  excitements  of  the  contest  return  to  "  a  tone  of 
mind  which  I  thought  I  had  lost  forever  "." 

To  elect  Buchanan  would  mean  to  render  doubly  certain  the  attain- 

8  Saratoga  Springs,  July  25,  1849. 
0  Saratoga  Springs.  Aug.   11,    1849. 
10  New  York,  Oct.  14.   1849. 
n  Ibid. 


712  L.  M.  Sears 

ment  of  Cuba.  Late  in  1849,  Slidell  accordingly  visited  the  island  in 
order  to  gain  impressions  at  first  hand.  To  this  he  made  at  the  time, 
however,  only  a  passing  allusion,  the  immediate  occasion  of  a  letter 
being  Buchanan's  forthcoming  visit  to  New  Orleans.  And  with  the 
most  cautious  forethought,  he  raises  the  question  whether  Buchanan 
will  desire  a  public  reception :  "  you  must  decide  how  far  it  will  be 
advisable  to  accept  or  decline  any  public  invitations  which  might  per- 
haps render  it  embarrassing  to  avoid  touching  upon  slave[ry] ." 12 

The  slavery  question  was  pushing  on  to  its  temporary  solution  in 
the  Compromise  of  1850.  In  view  of  his  present  influence  in  Louisi- 
ana and  growing  weight  in  national  affairs,  the  attitude  of  Slidell 
toward  the  crisis  has  a  distinct  importance.  In  February,  1850,  he 
informs  Buchanan  that  when  they  meet  he  will  have  much  to  say  on 
the  subject  of  Cuba.  For  the  present,  however,  and  "  until  the  pres- 
ent excitement  respecting  slavery  shall  have  subsided  " — he  has  no 
hope  that  it  will  ever  be  entirely  abated — Cuba  had  better  remain  in 
the  background.  He  then  turns  to  a  denunciation  of  third  parties 
and  their  dupes,  Taylor  Democrats  in  particular,  and,  while  hoping  to 
reclaim  the  misguided  followers,  contends  that  their  leaders  should 
be  inexorably  read  out  of  the  party.  "  They  will  be  much  more 
harmless  acting  openly  with  our  adversaries  than  in  pretended  affili- 
ation with  the  democracy."  13  He  requests  of  Buchanan  information 
as  to  political  currents  at  Washington,  and  declares  his  own  hostility 
to  a  Southern  convention.  An  attack  on  slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  would  warrant  a  firm  stand,  but : 

I  have  not  considered  the  passage  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso  as  sufficient 
provocation  for  the  extreme  and  disastrous  remedy  of  separation  and  it 
has  never  been  my  habit  to  make  declarations  which  I  have  not  fully  in- 
tended to  carry  out  to  the  letter.  Pray  let  me  have  your  advice  on  the 
subject.  Perhaps  the  time  has  already  arrived  when  it  becomes  necessary 
for  Southern  men  to  pass  the  true  line  of  resistance  to  secure  themselves 
from  further  aggression.14 

In  the  afterlight  of  history,  an  inquiry  from  Slidell  to  Buchanan 
as  to  the  timeliness  of  secession  in  1850  has  a  peculiar  interest. 
Buchanan  apparently  confirmed  Slidell's  own  views  that  the  ultima 
ratio  was  uncalled  for,  and  the  death  of  Taylor  further  encouraged 
Slidell  to  hope  that  "  the  chances  of  the  settlement  of  our  sectional 
differences  will  be  improved  by  Filmores  accession  " }'"  Accordingly 
in   the  autumn   Slidell   continued   his   labors   in    Buchanan's  behalf. 

12  Havana,  Dec.  7,   1849. 

13  New  Orleans,  Feb.  5,   1850. 
H  Ibid. 

^Saratoga  Springs,  July  13.   1850. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  713 

After  visiting  Buchanan  at  Lancaster,  Slidell  urges  him  to  spend 
some  time  in  New  York,  where  he  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  more 
available  candidate  than  General  Cass.16  He  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  establishing  a  New  York  paper  pledged  to  the  Buchanan 
candidacy,  for  "  taking  it  for  granted  that  you  are  sure  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, with  New  York  every  thing  is  safe  "  —  this  notwithstanding 
the  party  dissension  in  Louisiana  created  by  Mr.  S'oule  and  likely  to 
drive  that  state  into  the  hands  of  the  Whigs.17 

With  1851,  the  national  campaign  was  assuming  more  definite 
outlines,  and  Slidell  adopted  a  distinctly  managerial  tone.  He  assures 
Buchanan  of  almost  unanimous  support  from  the  South,  but  empha- 
sizes the  New  York  vote  as  pivotal.  He  entreats  him  to  overcome 
the  "  dread  of  locomotion "  and  visit  Saratoga,  the  rendezvous  of 
politicians.  An  understanding  with  Marcy  is  of  prime  importance. 
The  electoral  vote  of  New  York  will  probably  go  to  the  Whigs,  but 
they  must  be  kept  so  busy  at  home  that  their  power  for  mischief  else- 
where will  be  shorn.  Louisiana  is  now  safe;  so,  too,  the  rest  of  the 
Southwest.  "  You  are  the  only  man  who  can  unite  the  conflicting 
divisions  of  the  Southern  democracy.  The  Whigs  will,  I  think,  carry 
the  State  elections  this  year,  but  we  will  be  all  right  in  November  '52." 
The  communication  closes  with  a  renewed  entreaty  to  Buchanan  to 
be  up  and  stirring.  With  a  guile  not  easy  to  resist,  he  reminds 
Buchanan  that  "  Some  men  under  similar  circumstances  would  do 
better  to  remain  at  home,  but  you  (you  will  not  suspect  me  of  flatter- 
ing) can  only  gain  by  being  seen  and  known  ".18 

Illness  in  his  family  almost  prevented  Slidell's  trip  North  in  the 
summer  of  185 1,  but  he  did  come  to  Saratoga,  and  from  there  out- 
lined the  state  of  politics  as  he  estimated  it.  New  York,  he  felt, 
would  cast  a  Whig  ballot,  "  but  thank  God  we  can  do  without  it  ".ls> 
Marcy  could  be  counted  as  a  friend,  though  the  precise  extent  of 
assistance  to  be  expected  from  him  might  be  subject  to  doubt.  Rob- 
ert J.  Walker  professed  the  friendliest  sentiments,  "and  yet  in  spite 
of  myself  and  with  a  feeling  that  I  am  doing  him  injustice,  I  cannot 
divest  myself  of  a  certain  degree  of  distrust ".  Walker's  help  is 
really  as  important  as  Marcy's,  and  Slidell  strongly  recommends  that 
Buchanan  exchange  views  with  him.  "  I  consider  his  advocacy  of 
your  nomination  all  important."  Buchanan,  it  seems,  had  felt  that 
any  attempt  by  himself  as  an  outsider  to  influence  New  York  politics 

is  New  York,  Oct.  9,   1850. 

17  New    Orleans.    Dec.    16.    1850. 

is  New  Orleans,  May  9,  1851. 

is  Saratoga  Springs.  Aug.  8,  1851. 


714  L.  M.  Scars 

might  do  more  harm  than  good.  To  Slidell,  however,  this  hands-off 
policy  seemed  just  about  to  have  outlived  its  usefulness.  New  York 
being  the  keystone  of  the  situation,  he  almost  wishes  himself  once 
more  a  New  Yorker,  not  that  he  is  so  vain  as  to  think  his  influence 
so  far-reaching,  "  but  as  things  are  and  possibly  will  be  for  several 
months,  a  strong  will  with  some  tact  and  discretion  could  effect  a 
great  deal ".  In  this  wholly  justified  and  even  modest  statement, 
Slidell  has  left  us  one  of  the  few  self-estimates  which  we  have.  His 
was,  indeed,  a  strong  will.  And  if  the  clearness  of  his  vision  and 
the  definiteness  of  his  aims  and  goals  create  the  impression  of  a  per- 
sonality controlled  more  by  head  than  by  heart,  it  can  not  be  denied 
that  he  possessed  both  tact  and  discretion.20 

The  project  of  establishing  a  Buchanan  newspaper  in  New  York 
took  shape  more  definitely  on  Slidell's  arrival  in  the  city.  He  in- 
quires if  Buchanan  will  approve  General  Cushing  as  editor,  admits 
that  his  integrity  is  dubious,  but  asserts  that  his  talents  are  beyond 
dispute  and  that  self-interest  will  hold  him  in  line.  As  to  financing 
the  paper,  Slidell's  nephew,  August  Belmont,  is  warmly  interested, 
and  "  he  has  already  received  assurances  from  a  number  of  the 
wealthiest  merchants  of  cooperation  ".21  ■  Thus  "  international  bank- 
ers "  and  the  money  power  were  early  espousing  the  candidacy  of  the 
conservative  Buchanan.  But  Slidell  draws  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  wealth  which  he  is  able  to  control,  and  the  predatory  wealth 
enlisted  in  the  Douglas  interest.  "  It  is  confined  to  one  clique  not 
very  numerous,  but  active  and  unscrupulous,  the  Ocean  mail  con- 
tractors ",  at  whose  head  stood  the  sinister  figure  of  George  Law.22 

Slidell  concluded  this  summary  of  the  situation  in  New  York  by 
hoping  that  Buchanan  had  on  no  account  failed  to  write  to  Marcy.23 
Buchanan  for  once  did  arouse  himself  to  the  "  dreaded  locomotion  " 
and  interviewed  Marcy  in  person.  Slidell,  who  had  meanwhile  re- 
turned to  New  Orleans,  first  learned  of  this  through  the  newspapers, 
and  wrote  Buchanan  in  some  alarm  at  his  failure  to  learn  the  details 
of  the  interview  from  their  friend  Belmont.  It  was  greatly  to  be 
feared  that  Marcy  might  decide  to  enter  the  race  himself.  As  for 
Louisiana,  the  Whigs,  as  anticipated,  were  in  control  of  the  legis- 
lature, but  all  would  be  well  when  it  came  to  the  choosing  of  delegates 
for  the  Baltimore  Convention.24 

20  Saratoga   Springs,   Aug.   8,   1851. 

21  New  York,  Sept.  29,   1851. 

22  Ibid. 

23  Ibid. 

"*  New  Orleans,  Nov.    17,   1851. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  715 

But  the  highwater  mark  of  hope  for  the  1852  nomination  had  been 
already  reached.  New  York  was  pivotal  and  New  York  depended 
upon  Marcy.  Marcy,  it  seemed  more  and  more  clear,  would  be  his 
own  candidate,  and  Slidell  indulged  in  one  of  the  few  complaints  he 
ever  addressed  to  Buchanan : 

I  fear  that  the  favorable  moment  for  action  in  New  York  has  been 
irretrievably  lost.  Marcy  was  in  such  a  mood  last  summer  that  if  you 
had  met  you  would  in  all  probability  have  secured  his  active  co-operation. 
He  may  yet  have  it  in  his  power  by  a  strong  effort  to  turn  the  scale  in 
your  favor.  But  the  chances  are  that  he  will  not  be  convinced  of  the 
impossibility  of  his  own  nomination  until  too  late.  If  you  have,  how- 
ever, a  strong  willed  and  unanimous  delegation  from  Pennsylvania,  you 
can  do  without  New  York.-5 

Among  the  rivals  for  the  honors,  Slidell  made  much  the  same  dis- 
tinction between  Cass  and  Douglas  that  Sumner  later  drew  between 
them.26  He  found  an  unexpected  strength  lined  up  for  Cass,  and 
drawn  from  "  sound,  reliable  men  who  have  only  at  heart  the  triumph 
of  their  principles  ",  whereas  the  advocates  of  Douglas  were  for  the 
most  part  "  trading  politicians  and  adventurers,  with  a  very  slight 
sprinkling  of  well  meaning  men  who  think  it  for  the  interest  of  the 
party  to  cast  off  old  leaders  and  select  a  chief  from  the  young  de- 
mocracy ".  To  Slidell  it  was  no  recommendation  for  Douglas  that 
Soule  should  have  enlisted  under  his  banner.27  The  purchase  by 
Douglas  partizans  of  the  New  Orleans  Delta  and  four  country  papers 
in  Louisiana  alone  indicated  to  Slidell  a  strong  campaign  chest  in  the 
North.  "If  such  men  as  have  originated  the  Douglas  movement 
could  succeed  in  imposing  him  upon  us  as  the  nominee  of  the  great 
democratic  party,  I  should  despair  of  the  republic  and  although  I  shall 
be  cautious  in  expressing  such  an  opinion,  no  consideration  could 
induce  me  to  support  him."  Toward  Cass,  on  the  contrary,  in  spite 
of  serious  doubts  whether  he  could  be  elected,  Slidell  would  extend 
an  "  honest  support ".  He  would  do  as  much  for  Butler,  Marcy,  or 
others,  "  but  I  still  entertain  the  hope,  which  indeed  all  my  letters 
from  Washington  warrant,  that  you  will  obtain  the  nomination,  when 
I  can  go  into  the  camp  con  amore  ".  In  Virginia,  Douglas  seemed  to 
be  the  only  serious  competitor ;  and  in  Georgia,  by  Cobb's  account, 
Buchanan  was  the  strongest  candidate,  though  Cobb's  own  good-will 
was  subject  to  doubt.28 

The  next  mention  of  Douglas  is  more  friendly,  because  of  a  grow- 

25  New  Orleans,  Dec.  27,   185 1. 

:e  A.  C.  McLaughlin,  Lewis  Cass,  pp.  31 9-320. 

"New  Orleans,  Feb.  26.  1S52. 

ssXew  Orleans,  Mar.  10.   1852. 


716  L.  M.  Sears 

ing  conviction  on  Slidell's  part  that  his  following  in  Louisiana  was 
less  menacing  than  had  been  at  first  supposed,  the  Douglas  men  pre- 
ferring Buchanan  to  Cass,  and  being  likely  after  the  first  ballot  to 
vote  accordingly  unless  overruled  by  Douglas  himself.  Meanwhile 
Buchanan  occupied  a  similar  position  with  the  followers  of  Cass,  who 
were  grateful  for  his  moral  support  against  Douglas.  But  predic- 
tions were  idle  until  it  should  be  known  who  were  to  be  the  delegates 
at  Baltimore.  If  Buchanan  approved,  Slidell  would  himself  go  to 
Baltimore,  as  Belmont  wished  it  decidedly,  and  he  really  might  be 
able  to  bring  some  final  pressure  on  the  wavering  Marcy.29 

He  reminds  Buchanan  that  the  Whigs  are  attacking  his  slavery 
record  by  accusing  him  of  opposing,  previous  to  the  Compromise  of 
1820,  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state.  Slidell  considers 
this  a  venial  sin,  even  if  committed,  and  one  long  since  atoned  for  by 
Buchanan's  priority  over  all  other  Northern  men,  Democrats  or 
Whigs,  in  the  defense  of  Southern  rights.  But  he  is  under  an  im- 
pression that  somewhere  he  has  seen  the  Missouri  story  denied,  and 
if  the  facts  warrant  it,  he  thinks  it  would  be  advisable  for  Buchanan 
to  refute  it  officially.  He  repeats  his  alarm  for  Louisiana  if  Fillmore 
should  be  the  Whig  nominee.30 

A  month  later  and  the  high  hopes  built  on  years  of  planning  were 
dashed.  Their  obituary  may  be  quoted  in  full,  for  the  intimate  pic- 
ture it  gives  of  the  aims,  motives,  and  scruples  of  Slidell  as  a  poli- 
tician.31 

New  Orleans,  23  June,  1852. 
'My  dear  Mr.  Buchanan, 

I  will  not  attempt  to  express  to  you  all  the  annoyances  and  mortifica- 
tion I  have  felt  at  your  not  having  obtained  the  nomination  at  Baltimore. 
It  is  the  only  political  question  in  which  for  several  years  I  have  felt  any 
warm  interest.  My  faith  in  our  political  principles  has  never  for  a 
moment  been  shaken,  but  various  reasons  had  combined  to  make  any  ac- 
tive interposition  in  party  struggles  irksome  and  distasteful  to  me.  I  be- 
lieve that  had  it  not  been  for  the  hope  that  I  might  in  some  feeble  degree 
contribute  to  your  nomination  my  retirement  from  the  political  arena 
would  have  been  permanent  and  complete.  I  should  have  confined  my- 
self to  depositing  an  unmixed  democratic  vote  at  every  important  election. 
If  Cass  had  been  nominated  he  could  have  had  my  vote  and  pecuniary 
contribution,  with  little  anxiety  and  still  less  hope  for  his  success.  As  to 
Douglas,  Houston,  Lane,  or  any  man  of  that  stamp,  as  I  should  have  con- 
sidered success  with  such  men  as  more  disastrous  to  the  permanent  inter- 
ests of  the  party  than  their  defeat,  I  should  not  have  voted  at  all.  At 
one  time,  I  could  have  cordially  supported  Marcy,  as  my  second  choice, 

29  New  Orleans,   Apr.    15,    1852. 

30  New  Orleans,  May  22,   1852. 

31  New  Orleans,  June  23,   1852. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  717 

but  his  weakness  in  yielding  to  the  spurious  and  artificial  excitement  got- 
ten up  in  favor  of  Kossuth  and  intervention  shook  my  faith  entirely  in 
his  judgement,  but  his  political  integrity  and  the  course  of  his  friends  at 
Baltimore,  who  by  well  timed  interposition  could  have  secured  your 
nomination,  has  entirely  changed  my  feelings  towards  him.  As  it  is,  I 
am  as  well  satisfied  with  the  choice  of  the  convention  as  I  could  possibly  be 
with  any  result  short  of  your  nomination  and  I  shall  heartily  support 
Pierce  and  King  without  feeling  any  particular  enthusiasm.  I  shall  do 
everything  in  my  power  to  aid  in  carrying  the  vote  of  Louisiana  which  I 
think  we  have  more  than  equal  chance  of  doing.  With  Filmore  opposed 
to  us,  I  should  have  hoped  for  success,  without  counting  on  it  very  con- 
fidently. 

Mrs.  Slidell  has  written  you  a  note  which  I  enclose.  I  trust  that  we 
shall  meet  at  Saratoga  or  some  where  this  summer.  We  leave  here  for 
New  York  by  the  river  about  3  or  4  July.  Our  journey  will  probably  not 
be  longer  than  10  days.  Pray  let  us  hear  from  you  care  of  Belmont,  who, 
I  believe,  is  almost  as  much  annoyed  at  your  defeat  as  any  of  us. 
Believe  me  ever  faithfully  and  respy 

Your  friend  etc. 
John  Slidell. 
Honl.  James  Buchanan, 
Wheatland. 

Events  were  to  demonstrate  that  the  optimistic  calculations  thus 
temporarily  set  back  were  based  on  a  sound  analysis  of  political 
trends,  and  with  an  energy  no  whit  abated,  Slidell  laid  his  plans  for 
the  next  convention  and  the  next  election.  His  correspondence  for 
the  next  year  or  two  reveals  the  same  keen  and  incisive  estimate  of 
men  and  events,  and  as  the  Cincinnati  Convention  drew  near,  it  be- 
comes a  definite  source  for  the  history  of  the  times. 

The  summer  following  his  disappointment  at  Baltimore,  Slidell 
spent  at  Saratoga,  carefully  avoiding  Newport  with  its  temperance 
legislation  because  of  his  "  horror  of  despotism  in  every  shape  "  and 
reluctance,  in  spite  of  his  belief  that  the  law  was  a  dead  letter,  to  place 
himself  "  within  the  jurisdiction  of  a  state  where  so  tyrannical  a  sys- 
tem exists  ".32  Contact  with  Northern  politics  confirmed  his  impres- 
sion that  the  Whig  party  was  moribund.  "  It  may  be  galvanised  for 
the  moment  into  a  show  of  activity,  but  after  a  few  short  convulsive 
struggles  it  will  be  definitely  numbered  among  the  things  that  were." 
But  with  a  blindness  to  the  implications  of  his  own  prophecy,  rare  in 
this  astute  observer,  he  declares  that  "  It  will  of  course  be  revived 
under  some  other  organization  and  probably  with  a  new  name,  when 
we  shall  I  hope  slough  off  some  of  our  own  rottenness  to  be  absorbed 
by  the  force  of  natural  affinities  into  the  Seward  and  Hale  faction  ".33 

3-  Saratoga   Springs,  July   28,   1852. 
33  New  York,  Sept.  15,  1852. 

AM.   HIST.   REV.,   VOL.  XXVII. 48. 


718  L.  M.  Scars 

While  in  New  York,  Slidell  learned  that  many  Democrats,  includ- 
ing General  Cass,  considered  him  as  strong  timber  for  Pierce's  cabi- 
net. He  expressed  as  much  surprise  as  pleasure  at  this,  and  attrib- 
uted it  to  anxiety  "to  prevent  the  secessionists  with  Soule  at  their 
head  from  acquiring  supremacy  ",  and  to  a  conviction  that  Slidell  was 
the  most  available  Union  man  in  the  states  south  of  Virginia.34 

If  this  Cabinet  appointment  did  awaken  any  hopes  and  subsequent 
disappointments,  these  were  nothing  to  the  surprise  which  Slidell  felt 
at  Pierce's  failure  to  offer  the  State  Department  to  Buchanan.  While 
the  Cabinet  decisions  were  pending,  Buchanan  apparently  suggested 
the  advisability  of  Slidell's  going  to  Washington.  To  this  he  de- 
murred, on  the  ground  that  a  Cabinet  post,  now  very  unlikely  to  be 
offered,  would  be  undesirable  if  it  meant  close  social  and  political 
relations  with  such  men  as  Hunter  and  Nicholson,  who,  it  was  under- 
stood, would  be  members,  and  on  whom  Slidell  placed  a  very  low 
estimate.  "If  the  rest  of  the  cabinet  be  proportionately  weak,  I 
should  have  little  hope  of  its  duration  or  of  its  being  long  enabled  to 
command  majorities  in  Congress."  Under  such  circumstances,  a  for- 
eign mission  would  be  more  desirable  than  a  Cabinet  appointment. 
But  if  men  like  Buchanan  were  being  ignored  in  the  framing  of  the 
new  government,  there  was  scant  likelihood  that  those  in  control  of 
events  would  view  Slidell's  pretensions  with  favor.  On  the  whole, 
Slidell's  chief  causes  for  satisfaction  lay  close  at  home,  where  his 
wing  of  the  Democracy  was  strongly  in  the  ascendant  over  Soule.35 

Discussion  of  Cabinet  possibilities  continued  until  the  results  were 
finally  known.  But  by  January  21,  1853,  Slidell  had  pretty  well  made 
up  his  mind  not  to  accept  what  would  probably  not  be  offered,  on  the 
basis  that  "  If  the  Department  of  State  is  to  be  offered  to  and  refused 
by  men  of  Mr.  Hunter's  calibre  and  questionable  political  orthodoxy, 
I  do  not  feel  very  ambitious  for  a  post  in  the  cabinet " ; 36  and  in  Feb- 
ruary he  professed  the  utmost  chagrin  that  Buchanan  should  have 
exposed  himself  to  discourtesy  and  rebuff  on  his  behalf.  "  But  I 
look  upon  this  incident  in  a  still  more  serious  light.  It  is  to  my  mind 
a  very  pregnant  indication  that  sudden  and  unexpected  elevation  to 
so  dizzy  a  height  has  had  its  usual  bewildering  effect."  37 

It  was  in  truth  no  more  than  natural  that  Pierce  should  hold  at 
arm's  length  his  most  formidable  rival  and  that  rival's  lieutenant,  but 
to  ignore  them  entirely  was  not  feasible,  and  even  as  Buchanan  was 


34 

New 

York,  Sept.  27, 

852. 

as 

New 

Orleans, 

Dec.  3 

,  1852. 

New 

Orleans 

Jan.  21 

.   1853. 

37 

New 

Orleans, 

Feb.   13,    1853. 

Slidell  and  Buchanan  719 

eventually  offered  the  mission  to  the  Court  of  St.  James,  so  Slidell 
was  nominated  for  that  to  Central  America,  a  compliment  which  he 
professed  to  appreciate,  but  which  he  did  not  accept,  preferring  an 
economic  mission  to  London  for  the  sale  of  railroad  bonds  to  a  diplo- 
matic mission  in  Central  America.38  On  the  eve  of  sailing,  Slidell 
drafted  a  short  letter  to  Buchanan  which  reveals  a  rather  curious  in- 
sensibility to  the  proper  relations  between  public  and  private  business. 
Buchanan  could  not  be  in  London  at  the  same  time  with  Slidell,  who 
laments :  "  I  had  anticipated  great  satisfaction  from  meeting  you  in 
London  not  altogether  unmixed  with  a  selfish  feeling  that  your  pres- 
ence might  aid  Mr.  Robb  and  me  in  conducting  our  negotiation  for 
the  sale  of  Rail  Road  bonds."  30 

A  hard-won  victory  over  Soule  assured  the  realization  of  the  aim 
long  ago  announced  by  Slidell  as  his  goal,  and  when  he  returned  from 
Europe,  it  was  to  take  the  coveted  place  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
No  better  vantage-point  could  have  been  selected  for  securing  infor- 
mation, and  Slidell's  letters  from  this  time  gain  in  interest  from  the 
authority  with  which  they  were  penned. 

The  happiness  felt  by  Slidell  at  this  fruition  of  his  hopes  found 
expression  in  a  number  of  witticisms,  rare  for  him,  at  Buchanan's 
adventures  in  going  to  Buckingham  Palace  in  the  costume  of  a  plain 
American  citizen.  Secretary  Marcy's  attempt  to  advertise  American 
simplicity  complicated  the  situation  of  American  diplomatic  agents. 
Slidell  took  the  occasion  to  congratulate  Buchanan  on  his  single 
blessedness. 

To  what  unheard  of  contumelies  and  injuries  might  you  not  have 
been  exposed  had  the  additional  responsibility  of  Mrs.  Buchanan's  cos- 
tume been  thrown  upon  you,  and  then  although  we  Louisianians  may  fight 
strangers  with  impunity  what  would  have  become  of  you  from  the  Quaker 
State  if  you  had  attempted  to  avenge  in  the  blood  of  the  critic  any  com- 
mentary upon  the  taste  in  dress  of  your  better  half.40 

Turning  to  more  serious  aspects  of  the  political  scene,  Slidell 
finds  much  dissatisfaction  at  the  course  pursued  by  the  Administra- 
tion toward  the  rival  factions,  Hunkers  and  Barnburners,  in  New 
York.  An  intervention  regrettable  under  any  circumstances  was  par- 
ticularly inept  when  directed  on  behalf  of  the  wrong  side,  and  be- 
trayed a  gross  ignorance  of  the  state  of  public  opinion.  More  serious 
even  than  this  was  Pierce's  failure  to  win  dignity  and  strength  for 
his  administration  through  the  selection  of  a  strong  cabinet.     "  This 

38  New  Orleans.  Mar.  30  and  May  27,   1853. 

39  New  York,  June  28,  1853. 

40  Washington,  Jan.   14,   1854. 


720  L.  M.  Sears 

is  a  much  more  important  element  of  success  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed and  Pierce  will  yet  in  all  probability  feel  the  want  of  it."  In 
fact,  lacking  the  personal  support  of  the  leaders  of  his  party,  Pierce 
could  count  upon  merely  a  formal  allegiance  to  a  titular  head,  for 
"  there  is  probably  not  a  member  of  the  Senate,  who  does  not  consider 
his  own  individual  opinion  in  every  other  respect  entitled  to  quite  as 
much  consideration  as  that  of  the  President.  In  other  words  he  is 
the  '  de  jure  '  not  the  '  de  facto  '  head  of  the  party  ".  On  top  of  it  all, 
Pierce  is  a  weak  man  ruled  by  two  members  of  his  Cabinet,  or  rather 
one,  now,  for  Slidell  thinks  that  Jefferson  Davis  has  fallen  into  some 
disfavor  because  of  his  announced  desire  to  abandon  the  President 
and  return  to  the  Senate.  With  such  a  heavy  budget  on  his  part, 
Slidell  begs  in  return  that  Buchanan  will  inform  him  how  the  diplo- 
matic corps  at  London  regards  Soule  and  his  duels.41 

In  view  of  the  political  intimacy  which  this  correspondence  re- 
veals, it  would  be  surprising  if  Slidell  had  taken  no  part  in  the  move- 
ment leading  to  the  Ostend  Manifesto.  His  interest  in  Cuba  has 
already  been  noted,  and  soon  after  Buchanan  entered  upon  his  duties 
at  London  the  Cuban  situation  entered  upon  a  phase  peculiarly  alarm- 
ing to  Southerners  and  annexationists.  Slidell,  with  many  others, 
was  convinced  that  Great  Britain  and  France  were  in  a  plot  to 
"Africanize"  Cuba,  even  converting  it  into  a  black  republic  rather 
than  see  it  fall  into  American  hands;  this,  of  course,  presupposing 
Spain's  own  inability  to  retain  possession.  He  suggests  that  Belmont, 
then  minister  at  the  Hague,  through  his  powerful  connections  at 
Madrid,  might  be  in  a  position  to  secure  for  Buchanan  authentic  in- 
formation as  to  the  existence  and  nature  of  these  engagements;  and 
when  he  hints  that  the  $15,000,000  designed  for  Santa  Anna  in  Mexico 
may  be  required  "  in  expenditures  of  more  urgent  necessity  ",  he  has 
in  mind  possible  contingencies  in  Cuba.42 

Before  writing  again,  Slidell  delivered  one  of  his  few  formal  ad- 
dresses in  the  Senate,  taking  as  his  text  the  necessity  of  action  re- 
specting Cuba.  In  transmitting  to  Buchanan  a  corrected  copy  of  his 
speech,  he  asks,  subject  to  "  all  proper  reservations  ",  for  additional 
information  on  the  subject,  as  well  as  for  a  more  precise  statement 
of  what  Buchanan  meant  in  his  Elgin  dinner  speech  by  saying  that 
"if  we  were  engaged  in  war  we  should  abstain  from  commissioning 
private  armed  vessels  unless  national  vessels  of  the  enemy  were  in- 
hibited from  capturing  our  merchant  vessels  ".43 

*i  Washington,  Jan.  14,  1854. 
42  Washington,  Mar.  25,  1854. 
*3  Washington,   May  4,   1854. 


Slidcll  and  Buchanan  721 

So  long  as  Cuba  remained  the  focus  of  diplomatic  interest,  Slidell 
kept  in  close  touch  with  the  State  Department,  urging  upon  Marcy 
the  need  of  frequent  reports  from  and  to  the  ministers  at  London  and 
Paris.  When  Marcy  admitted  the  wisdom  of  such  a  course,  Slidell 
remarked  that  this  change  of  policy  might  be  due  to  the  secretary's 
own  reflections,  or  again  that  it  might  have  been  suggested  by  the 
President,  "  on  whom  I  have  more  than  once  urged  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  bringing  your  [Buchanan's]  influence  and  that  of  Mason  and 
Belmont  to  bear  upon  our  negotiations  at  Madrid.  Things  may  yet 
take  such  a  turn  as  to  render  the  Russian  legation  at  Madrid  a  very 
useful  auxiliary  ",44 

Eager  as  Slidell  was  to  advance  the  cause,  he  felt  no  inclination 
to  be  a  catspaw  for  the  Pierce  administration.  He  participated  with 
Mason,  Douglas,  Davis,  and  two  others  in  a  White  House  conference 
held  early  in  June  at  which  he  urged  upon  Pierce  a  message  to  Con- 
gress so  worded  "  as  to  satisfy  our  people  in  New  Orleans  that  he 
was  prepared  to  pursue  an  energetic  policy  and  thus  induce  them  to 
abstain  from  any  hostile  expedition ".  When  Pierce  attempted  to 
evade  personal  responsibility  for  such  a  course  by  suggesting  that 
Slidell  himself  telegraph  the  district  attorney  at  New  Orleans  that 
"  immediate  and  decisive  measures  would  be  taken  in  relation  to 
Cuba  ",  he  peremptorily  refused,  on  the  very  proper  ground  that  such 
a  notice  must  be  on  all  accounts  an  official  act  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment. Marcy  was  accordingly  instructed.  But  a  recess  afforded 
excuse  for  delay,  and  Slidell  was  increasingly  convinced  that  the 
President  would  never  take  the  promised  action,  the  more  so  as  his 
habitual  vacillation  was  a  subject  of  general  comment  in  both  houses 
of  Congress.45 

However  shifting  or  shifty  the  administration,  Slidell  was  not  the 
man  to  cease  pressing  a  point  so  near  to  his  heart.  A  passage  in  his 
next  letter  to  Buchanan  strongly  suggests  that  he  was  a  moving  force 
behind  the  Manifesto.  "  The  idea  now  is  to  have  you,  Soule,  and 
Mason  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of  consultation.  I  have  suggested 
that  on  account  of  the  Rothschild  influence  at  Madrid  and  Paris  it 
would  be  well  that  Belmont  be  brought  either  personally  or  by  corre- 
spondence into  your  counsels."  Such  activity  on  the  part  of  a  senator 
who  was  scarcely  of  the  President's  immediate  household  of  faith 
may  well  have  seemed  officious,  and  relations  between  Slidell  and 
Marcy  became  somewhat  tense.46 

**  Washington,  June   17.   1854. 

«  Ibid. 

4«  Aug.  6,   1854. 


722  L.  M.  Sears 

Familiarity  with  the  Pierce  administration  bred  no  respect  in  the 
mind  of  Slidell.  He  unburdened  himself  to  Buchanan  in  numerous 
complaints  at  the  government's  failure  to  command  the  respect  of  its 
own  partizans.  For  the  failure  of  negotiations  for  Cuba  and  the 
futility  of  the  Ostend  Manifesto,  he  blamed  neither  Spain  nor  Bu- 
chanan but  Pierce.  He  asks  for  "  such  details  about  your  conference 
with  Mason  and  Soule  as  you  may  choose  to  communicate  confiden- 
tially, although  I  have  not  now  the  least  hope  of  acquiring  Cuba  under 
this  administration  ".4T  This  being  the  case,  all  that  remained  was  to 
plan  so  carefully  for  the  next  administration  that  the  Baltimore  disap- 
pointment should  not  be  repeated.  He  warned  Buchanan,  who  had 
grown  weary  of  his  mission,  not  to  resign  prematurely  and  by  a  return 
to  America  surrender  the  advantage  of  silence  on  critical  issues. 
"The  political  atmosphere  is  malarious  (if  there  be  no  such  word 
there  should  be)  and  those  who  are  not  compelled  to  inhale  it  had 
better  keep  away."  4S  Credit  is  due  to  the  sagacity  which  could  thus 
condense  all  the  essentials  for  success. 

Meanwhile  Slidell  looked  to  his  own  fences,  returning  to  the 
Senate  with  little  difficulty,49  where  he  remained  loyal  to  Buchanan,50 
to  whom  he  directed  in  June,  1855,  a  most  entertaining  survey  of 
events.  To  begin  with,  he  was  "  for  the  present  at  least  and  possibly 
forever  "  at  outs  with  Pierce  and  Marcy.  Pierce  would  probably  be 
quite  willing  to  accept  Buchanan's  resignation ;  Marcy  might  like  the 
post ;  but  to  take  it  would  seem  like  retiring  under  fire.  Soule,  back 
from  a  ridiculous  failure  in  Spain,  was  out  for  Marcy's  scalp,  and  the 
secretary  must  stand  his  ground.  Rumor  had  it  that  Soule  meant  to 
challenge  Marcy.  "  Will  not  this  be  a  capital  farce?  I  look  forward 
to  the  denouement  as  a  rich  treat."  Marcy  was  probably  leading  him 
on  and  at  the  proper  moment  would  pounce  on  him  "  a  la  Scott ",  for, 
given  time  and  preparation,  Marcy  with  pen  in  hand  was  a  dangerous 
customer.  Slidell  has  not  time  to  explain  in  detail  his  own  break 
with  Pierce,  but  in  substance  it  was  due  to  "  repeated  violations  of 
his  word  which  can  only  be  explained  by  the  most  reckless  indifference 
to  truth  or  deliberate  treachery  ".51 

In  the  more  general  field  of  politics,  Slidell  thought  it  surprising 
that  the  people  at  Newport,  where  he  was  sojourning,  felt  far  more 
interest  in  Sebastopol  and  the  Crimea  than  in  Kansas  and  Know- 
nothingism.     But  in  so  far  as  the  parties  were  lining  up  for  the  con- 

n  New  York,  Oct.   18,   1854. 

48  Ibid. 

■tii  Washington,   Mar.   5,    1855. 

so  New  Orleans,  Apr.  3,  1S55.  quoted  in  Moore's  Works  of  Buchanan,  IX.  332. 

51  Washington,  June  17,   1855. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  723 

test,  the  Democracy  could  count  on  the  more  intelligent  and  wealthy 
Whigs,  whom  disgust  at  "  the  results  of  their  truckling  to  negrophi- 
lism  and  the  other  cants  of  the  day  "  was  driving  into  "the  true  con- 
servative party  of  the  country  ",  Even  so,  it  may  be  too  late  to 
remedy  the  situation,  and  Slidell,  intent  upon  nominating  his  friend 
to  the  presidency  of  a  united  country,  already  sounds  the  note  of 
dissolution.  Almost  the  key-note  of  Buchanan's  term  of  office  is 
Slidell's  prophetic  declaration  that  "trustful  as  I  have  hitherto  been 
of  the  perpetuity  of  the  Union  I  begin  to  look  forward  to  a  dissolution 
as  a  not  very  remote  possibility.  The  question  will  be  solved  one 
way  or  the  other  during  the  next  Presidential  term.  How  different 
would  have  been  our  position  had  you  received  the  nomination  at 
Baltimore !  "  '"- 

A  Democratic  triumph  in  Pennsylvania  with  "  every  issue  fairly 
met  and  the  glove  thrown  down  to  all  the  isms  combined  "  served 
notice  that  victory  would  be  certain  in  1856.53  And  Buchanan  might 
rest  assured  that  absence  was  not  injuring  his  cause.  "  The  old  adage 
that  '  les  absents  ont  toujours  tort '  will  not  be  verified  in  your  case. 
The  people  are  taking  care  of  you  and  the  almost  universal  admission 
by  politicians  here  from  every  part  of  the  country  that  you  are  the 
only  man  for  the  crisis,  is  an  unmistakeable  indication  of  the  force  and 
depth  of  the  popular  current."  The  time  was  come,  however,  when 
Buchanan  must  express  his  obedience  to  the  will  of  the  sovereign 
people.  Too  rigid  insistence  that  he  was  not  a  candidate  would  work 
to  his  detriment ;  he  had  better  convey  his  willingness  to  accept  by  a 
letter  "  to  some  discreet  friend  or  friends  ".  As  for  Slidell  himself, 
nothing  was  to  be  gained  by  a  reconciliation  with  Pierce.  He  was  in 
good  company  as  it  was,  "  for  the  feeling  of  contempt  for  Pierce  in 
the  Senate  is  general.  Indeed,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  General 
Dodge,  not  a  man  there  is  in  favor  of  his  renomination  ".  Pierce's 
own  expectation  of  a  second  term  was,  therefore,  utterly  absurd. 
"  But  I  am  writing  treason  and  my  letter  is  to  go  through  the  State 
Department.     I  must  not  further  expose  my  head."  54 

Buchanan  wrote  the  desired  letter,  and  with  1856  the  preconven- 
tion  campaign  was  under  way.  The  support  of  General  Cass,  an- 
nounced in  February,  was  particularly  welcome.  Slidell  attributed 
it  in  part  to  Cass's  antipathy  toward  Douglas,  who  was  believed  to  be 
an  intending  candidate,  and  whose  competition  would  be  more  for- 
midable than   that  of    Pierce.55     Douglas,   however,   might   himself 

5- Newport,  R.  I.,  Sept.  2,   1855. 
53  Washington.  Oct.  11.  1855. 
5*  Washington,  Dec.  0,   1855. 
"Washington,  Feb.  7.   1856. 


724  L.  M.  Sears 

come  into  the  Buchanan  camp.  Even  without  Douglas,  the  North- 
west, save  Illinois,  was  safe.  And  on  closer  examination,  Douglas 
himself  was  seen  to  possess  some  virtues.  "  I  thought  at  first ", 
wrote  Slidell,  "  that  he  would  give  us  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  But 
his  tone  is  now  entirely  changed  and  with  his  present  feeling  I  would 
prefer  that  he  should  not  formally  retire."  The  real  enemy  was 
Pierce.  Slidell  would  watch  his  every  move.  But  Buchanan  need 
not  fear.  His  ground  was  impregnable.  It  might  be  debatable  at 
this  time  whether  Buchanan  should  return.  Firm  friends  held  dif- 
ferent views  regarding  this.     But  Slidell  would  still  counsel  absence.56 

In  May,  Slidell  thought  it  advisable  that  Buchanan,  who  had 
meanwhile  returned  to  America,  and  was  at  his  estate  of  Wheatland, 
should  take  a  positive  stand  on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  question.  "  This 
you  can  do  in  perfect  harmony  with  your  whole  record.  I  believe 
that  it  will  reconcile  Douglas  and  if  it  do  not  it  will  at  least  spike 
his  guns."  It  would  be  opportune,  also,  if  Buchanan  should  seize 
upon  the  forthcoming  visit  of  the  Pennsylvania  state  delegation  an- 
nouncing his  nomination  at  Harrisburg,  to  deny  categorically  the 
possibility  of  his  ever  accepting  a  second  term  in  the  presidency;  it 
would  appear  much  better  in  that  form  than  by  letter  to  individuals.''7 
Both  of  these  points  Slidell  deemed  sufficiently  important  to  empha- 
size soon  afterward  in  a  second  letter  to  the  rather  slow-moving 
Buchanan.  Particularly  must  he  indicate  the  vote  he  would  have  cast 
on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  had  he  been  in  Congress  at  the  time.''8 

A  rumor  that  Douglas  and  Hunter  were  combining  to  support 
Pierce  determined  Slidell  to  go  at  once  to  Cincinnati  to  marshal  his 
forces  in  person.50  Douglas  was  definitely  won  over  at  the  price  of 
naming  John  C.  Breckinridge  of  Kentucky  as  the  vice-presidential 
candidate,  to  whom  Slidell  himself  wrote,  "  I  was  induced  to  urge 
your  nomination  on  the  Louisiana  delegation  by  the  earnest  appeal  of 
Richardson  of  Illinois  [a  Douglas  leader]  whose  bearing  and  conduct 
during  the  convention  had  been  most  manly  and  straightforward.  I 
considered  your  selection  for  the  Vice  Presidency  as  a  graceful  and 
merited  compliment  to  the  friends  of  Douglas."60 

Success  had  finally  crowned  the  efforts  of  Slidell.  marking,  indeed, 
the  apex  of  his  career.  Too  often,  as  in  Mexico  and  France,  his 
great  abilities  were  pitted  against  hopeless  odds.     Here  in  a  fair  field 

56  Washington,  Mar.   n,   1856. 

57  Washington,  May,   1856. 

68  Washington,  May  24,   1856, 
59  Washington,  May  26,  1856. 

co  From  a  letter  kindly  called  to  my  attention  by  Mr.  Roy  F.  Nichols  of  Colum- 
bia University. 


Slidcll  and  Buchanan  725 

they  attained  a  most  difficult  objective,  pursued  for  the  past  eight 
years  with  intelligence  and  faith. 

In  communicating  the  result  to  Buchanan,  Slidell  pointed  out  that 
the  first  opportunity  should  be  utilized  to  pay  a  deserved  compliment 
to  the  Old  Line  Whigs,  many  of  whom,  as  Slidell  had  foreseen,  were 
coming  into  the  Democratic  fold.61 

In  furthering  Buchanan's  prospects,  Slidell  left  little  to  the  chance 
that  Buchanan  himself  might  think  of  the  right  thing  to  say  and  do. 
He  reminds  him  to  thank  Pierce  for  his  endorsement.  He  warns  him 
that  Pierce,  who  at  heart  desires  his  defeat,  can  accomplish  this  only 
by  prolonging  the  troubles  in  Kansas.  He  recites  the  sinister  plan  of 
Davis  to  withdraw  United  States  troops,  leaving  the  territory  to  an- 
archy, and  concludes  that  if  Pierce  accepts  this  advice  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  denounce  him,  even  at  the  cost  of  some  Southern  votes,  for 
the  sake  of  holding  the  North  in  line.  If  the  worst  comes  to  the 
worst,  he  hopes  that  Douglas  can  be  persuaded  to  take  the  initiative 
in  such  a  move.  Meanwhile,  has  Buchanan  remembered  to  write  to 
Cass  and  Douglas?  Cass  has  gone  to  Pierce  to  remonstrate  against 
the  proposed  removal  of  troops.  Douglas  has  refrained  from  doing 
so  on  the  ground  of  a  breach  with  the  President,  with  whom  he  had 
no  influence.62 

A  few  days  later,  Slidell  is  warning  Buchanan  to  keep  close  watch 
of  the  Lancaster  papers,  any  indiscretion  on  the  part  of  whose  editors 
would  be  attributed  to  him.  Already  Phelps  of  Missouri  is  com- 
plaining of  one  such  editorial,  very  friendly  to  Benton.  And  Benton, 
Slidell  reminds  the  candidate,  has  not  the  confidence  of  any  of  Bu- 
chanan's friends.  For  himself,  he  says,  "  I  confess  that  I  have  strong 
prejudices  against  Benton  which  may  biass  my  judgment  and  I  hope 
but  do  not  expect  that  my  apprehensions  of  his  treachery  may  not  be 
realised ".  Another  uncertain  quantity  is  Soule.  Nothing  will  be 
gained  by  his  support,  yet  his  open  hostility  should  not  be  courted/"' 

Ranging  the  entire  political  horizon,  Slidell  could  not  ignore  the 
German  element  in  the  Northwest,  and  he  counselled  Buchanan  to 
conciliate  their  spokesman,  Grund.64  A  far  greater  force  than  Grund, 
however,  is  Robert  J.  Walker,  and  despite  a  natural  predilection  for 
Buchanan,  he  too  must  be  won  over.  For  Walker  is  governed  by  his 
antagonisms  rather  than  by  his  friendships.  "  Walker  is  ardently 
your  friend,  but  he  is  more  ardently  the  enemy  of  Benton."     That 

ei  Washington,  June  14.  1856. 
«-' Washington,  June  17,  1856. 
63  Washington.  July  4.   1856. 
e*  Washington.  July   17,   1S56. 


726  L.  M.  Scars 

unlucky  article  in  the  Lancaster  Intelligencer  favoring  Benton  had 
cost  Buchanan  the  establishment  by  Walker,  whose  resources  for 
such  a  venture  were  more  than  ample,  of  a  newspaper  in  New  York 
devoted  to  the  Buchanan  interest.  But  even  now  it  may  not  be  too 
late.  He  will  soon  be  in  New  York.  "  Now  pray  write  him  at  once 
and  invite  him  to  visit  Wheatland  and  when  he  shall  have  talked  with 
you  an  hour  everything  will  be  right.  He  is  proud  and  sensitive  and 
should  be  conciliated."  Slidell  himself  is  taking  care  of  Grand, 
whose  objections  are  to  Buchanan's  friends,  not  to  the  candidate  him- 
self. He  is  gifted  and  a  power  among  the  Germans.  But  the  real 
issue  is  Walker.     On  no  account  must  Buchanan  fail  to  write  him.65 

Two  days  later,  Grund  is  Slidell's  chief  theme.  Buchanan  has 
only  to  give  the  word  and  he  will  enter  the  lists  with  enthusiasm  as  a 
correspondent  for  the  Philadelphia  Ledger  and  other  papers.  In 
reaching  such  a  decision,  Buchanan  must  remember  that  the  matter 
is  near  to  the  hearts  of  both  Senators  Bright  and  Douglas.66 

In  the  midsummer  of  1856,  Slidell  was  far  from  well,  but  his 
reports  lose  nothing  in  vigor  from  their  writer's  infirmities.  Ken- 
tucky will  be  the  cynosure  of  the  doubtful  states  to  the  south.  Mary- 
land is  already  safe,  Cass  and  Toombs  never  having  seen  greater 
enthusiasm  than  at  Frederick.  Congress  will  soon  adjourn.  The 
Black  Republicans  will  not  dare  to  defeat  the  appropriation  bills.  "If 
they  do,  the  Senate  will  not  yield  an  inch.  For  myself  I  should  not 
regret  to  see  them  taking  that  course.  We  should  have  a  foretaste 
of  the  consequences  of  disunion.  I  believe  that  it  would  produce  a 
general  panic  and  bankruptcy  in  the  Northern  States.  We  at  the 
South  have  so  little  for  the  money  expended  among  us  that  we  should 
comparatively  suffer  but  little  embarrassment." 6T  But  even  Black 
Republicans  are  evidently  forgotten  when  "  Everything  looks  bright 
and  even  the  croakers  are  silent  ".6S 

At  the  end  of  September,  with  the  national  election  but  a  few 
weeks  away,  Slidell  emphasizes  the  importance  of  carrying  the  state 
election  in  Pennsylvania  for  its  sentimental  effect  elsewhere.  "  In 
this  view  we  have  said  that  every  dollar  contributed  for  Pennsylvania 
would  economise  ten  in  New  York."  He  encloses  a  letter  from 
Stuart  of  Michigan  putting  the  case  with  even  less  reserve.  "  In  my 
opinion  it  [Pennsylvania]  is  the  great  battle  of  the  campaign.  And 
if  any  amount  of  labor  and  money  will  secure  it,  they  should  be  ex- 
es Washington,  July  18,  1856. 

6«  Washington,  July  20,   1856. 

G7  Senate  Chamber,  Aug.  9,   1856. 

68  Washington,  Aug.  12,  1856. 


Slidcll  and  Buchanan  727 

pended." 69  On  Pennsylvania  hung  the  decision  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  whereas  success  in  Pennsylvania  would  insure  large  ma- 
jorities in  the  fifteen  Southern  states  and  in  all  the  doubtful  free 
states.  With  so  much  at  stake,  Slidell  was  none  too  sure  of  Pennsyl- 
vania prospects;  "for  the  first  time  since  your  nomination,  I  have 
felt  alarmed  ".70 

This  was  on  the  fourth  of  October.  By  the  seventeenth  he  had 
seen  the  shadows  flee  away.  With  Pennsylvania  and  Indiana  secure, 
"  The  Union  is  now  safe,  but  we  must  endeavor  to  make  your  majority 
overwhelming  ".  To  that  end.  everything  possible  must  be  done  to 
heal  the  party  dissensions  in  New  York.  Slidell  will  go  there  in  per- 
son. Has  Buchanan  any  instructions?71  Once  arrived,  he  found 
that  prospects  exceeded  anticipations.  In  only  one  congressional  dis- 
trict was  friction  still  serious,  and  with  the  tide  so  favorable,  victory 
was  beyond  doubt,  "but  I  shall  be  only  half  satisfied  if  your  triumph 
be  not  overwhelming".  In  a  postscript,  courteously,  as  an  after- 
thought, is  the  added  cheer  that  "  The  financial  question  has  been 
attended  to  ".72  It  only  remains  to  congratulate  the  victor,  and  this 
Slidell  does  in  a  note  both  of  encouragement  and  of  warning. 

You  are  not  to  lie  in  a  bed  of  roses  for  the  next  four  years,  but  I  feel 
the  most  entire  confidence  that  you  will  be  able  to  build  up  and  consolidate 
a  sound  homogeneous  national  democracy  that  can  defy  the  attacks  of 
fanatics  north  and  south.  I  have  almost  as  little  sympathy  with  the 
Rhett  school  of  politicians  as  with  the  Know  Nothing  ruffians  of  Balti- 
more and  New  Orleans.73 

Success  in  the  campaign  raised  new  problems,  upon  which  Slidell 
expressed  decided  opinions.  In  foreign  relations,  he  opposed  "  any 
extension  to  the  novel  and  false  principle  introduced  into  our  foreign 
policy  by  the  Clayton  and  Bulwer  treaty  and  I  could  only  be  induced 
with  extreme  reluctance  to  give  my  vote  for  its  ratification  by  the 
desire  to  relieve  your  administration  from  embarrassment  ",74  In 
domestic  concerns,  he  asserted  that  any  rumors  to  the  effect  that  he 
was  busying  himself  as  to  Cabinet  appointments  were  utterly  without 
foundation.75  But  he  entreated  Buchanan  to  come  to  Washington  no 
later  than  early  February.     "You  will  of  course  be  immensely  an- 

es'Stuart  to  Slidell.  Kalamazoo,  Sept.  18.  1856,  forwarded  in  Slidell  to  Bu- 
chanan. New  York.  Sept.  29,   1856. 

to  Slidell  to  Buchanan,  Oct.  4,  1856.  enclosing  a  letter  from  Ward  to  Slidell, 
Louisville,  Sept.  30,  1856. 

71  Washington.  Oct.   17,   1856. 

7=  New  York,  Oct.  31.  1856. 

73  Washington,  Nov.   13,   1S56. 

7*  Washington,  Dec.  27,   1856. 

75  Senate  Chamber,  Jan.  5,   1857. 


728  L.  M.  Sears 

noyed,  but  I  feel  that  you  cannot  correctly  feel  the  public  pulse  any 
where  else."  76 

Despite  assurances  to  the  contrary,  Slidell  cannot  really  ignore 
Cabinet  appointments.  It  is  fortunate  that  Bright  of  Indiana,  by  re- 
turning to  the  Senate,  relieves  Buchanan  of  the  embarrassment  of 
breaking  with  Douglas  on  that  issue.  But  on  the  other  hand,  there 
must  be  no  appointment  of  a  Douglas  partizan,  for  Douglas  is  alto- 
gether too  high  and  mighty,  setting  up  to  control  not  merely  Illinois, 
but  the  whole  Northwest.  The  old  animosity,  laid  aside  for  the  cam- 
paign only,  was  developing  into  a  bitter  feud.  As  Slidell  interpreted 
it,  Douglas  behaved  "like  a  Malay  maddened",  who,  in  his  frenzy 
against  Bright,  included  Slidell  for  defending  him  in  his  absence.  "  I 
have  had  to  be  very  cool  to  prevent  an  open  rupture  with  him  and  was 
obliged  at  last  to  tell  him  that  when  I  ceased  to  be  his  friend  and 
became  his  enemy  it  would  not  be  necessary  for  him  to  have  recourse 
to  third  parties,  but  would  discover  it  by  my  altered  bearing."  Never- 
theless the  Northwest  cannot  be  ignored  in  Buchanan's  Cabinet,  and  in 
view  of  Douglas  and  his  rivals,  General  Cass  is  its  only  available 
statesman.  Any  objections  to  Cass  can  be  overcome  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  capable  assistant,  and  he  is  the  undoubted  man  for  the  State 
Department.  His  appointment,  moreover,  to  that  post,  will  relieve 
Buchanan  of  an  embarrassing  alternative  between  Cobb  and  Walker. 
Walker  has  great  talents,  but  his  friends  control  him.  They  are  dan- 
gerous men.  Of  the  two,  Cobb  is  the  safer,  but  Buchanan  knows 
them  as  well  as  Slidell.  One  place  should  go  to  an  Old  Line  Whig. 
Here  Benjamin  of  Louisiana  would  be  Slidell's  nominee.  One  more 
appointment,  and  Slidell  is  done.  The  navy,  if  it  is  to  escape  utter 
ruin,  requires,  during  the  next  four  years,  a  "  firm,  prompt,  severe 
man  ".  In  conclusion,  Slidell  apologizes  for  intruding  on  the  Cabinet 
question,  but  pleads  that  his  suggestions  have  the  rare  merit  of  un- 
selfishness.77 

Buchanan  having  decided  to  visit  Washington,  the  question  arose 
where  to  lodge  the  President-elect.  The  National  Hotel  was  unsafe 
because  of  an  epidemic;  Brown's,  in  the  neighborhood,  might  have 
been  contaminated ;  and  Willard's  savored  too  much  of  abolitionism.78 
Buchanan  decided  for  himself  on  the  National,  and  Slidell  couTd  only 
warn  him  not  to  eat  or  sleep  there.79  More  thrilling,  even  if  not  more 
important,  was  the  still  vexed  question  of  the  Cabinet.     Cass  had 

7«  A  second  letter  of  Jan.  5,  1857. 
"i  Washington,  Feb.  14,   1857. 
"8  Washington,  Feb.   18,   1857. 
"9  Washington,  Feb.  23,  1857. 


Slidell  and  Buchanan  729 

consented  to  serve,  agreeing  very  handsomely  to  leave  the  naming  of 
his  assistant  to  Buchanan.  The  candidate  under  discussion  for  the 
attorney-generalship  was,  by  very  reliable  accounts,  unfit.80  Some 
appointment,  Slidell  positively  insisted,  must  go  to  Toucey.81  "  Allow 
me  to  say  that  the  regret  and  disappointment  at  the  omission  of  Mr. 
Toucey 's  name  would  be  greater  than  you  can  well  imagine  and  that 
it  will  be  most  sensibly  felt  by  Your  faithful  friend  etc,  John 
Slidell."82 

Notwithstanding  his  many  claims  to  Buchanan's  favor,  Slidell  was 
modest  in  his  requests.  The  patronage  of  Louisiana  was  his  for  the 
asking,  but  outside  the  state  he  made  few  recommendations.  Gov- 
ernor Pratt  of  Maryland,  an  Old  Line  Whig,  seemed  to  him  the  logi- 
cal appointee  as  naval  officer  at  Baltimore.83  In  fact,  recognition  of 
Maryland  Whigs  constituted  a  conscious  policy  with  Slidell  as  the 
best  hope  of  winning  their  state  to  the  true  faith.84  Those  who 
already  walked  in  the  light  were  mainly  gathered  at  White  Sulphur 
Springs,  Virginia,  and  the  President  was  urged  to  mingle  with  these 
Southern  admirers.  On  his  failure  to  do  so,  however,  Slidell  put  in 
writing  what  Buchanan  would  have  gathered  for  himself,  had  he 
come,  namely,  the  unanimity  of  Southern  disapproval  of  Walker's 
course  in  Kansas  during  the  summer  of  1857,  and  of  Southern  con- 
fidence that  Buchanan  would  at  the  first  opportunity  signify  his  own 
dissatisfaction  with  his  emissary.85 

Buchanan  and  Slidell  now  being  together  in  Washington,  the 
necessity  for  written  communication  became  slight,  and  their  letters 
were  few.  But  in  August,  1858,  on  his  arrival  at  Saratoga  after  a 
trip  through  the  Northwest,  Slidell  addressed  to  the  President  a 
memorandum  on  conditions  in  the  Douglas  camp,  the  more  interesting 
because  of  the  widespread  rumor  that  Slidell  had  circulated  false 
stories  in  Chicago  on  purpose  to  discredit  Douglas  among  his  own 
constituents.  Slidell  makes  no  specific  allusion  to  this  charge,  but 
recommends  the  removal  at  once  of  Douglas  partizans  from  Federal 
office,  and  by  requesting  an  appointment  for  Dr.  Daniel  Brainard  as 
surgeon  of  the  Marine  Hospital,  he  strengthens  a  conviction,  which 
denial  will  not  silence,  that  it  really  was  he  who  gave  Brainard  the 
mendacious  account,  promptly  communicated  by  him  to  the  press,  of 

so  Senate  Chamber,  Feb.  19.   1857. 

81  Telegram   of   Feb.   25,    1857. 

82  Senate  Chamber,  Feb.  25,   1857. 

83  Mar.  11,  1857. 

8*  White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  July  26,   1857. 
85  White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  Aug.   12,   1857. 


730  L.  M.  Sears 

the  barbarous  treatment  of  slaves  on  the  Mississippi  plantation  admin- 
istered by  Douglas  in  the  interest  of  his  children.80 

Slidell  himself,  according  to  all  the  canons  of  precedent,  was  en- 
titled to  a  great  place  in  the  Buchanan  administration,  and  he  was 
repeatedly  offered  the  mission  to  Paris.  He  refused  it  on  the  ground 
of  political  necessity  in  Louisiana,  and  of  his  indisposition,  with  world 
affairs  running  smoothly,  to  accept  "  a  mere  mission  of  parade ". 
But,  unless  Belmont  would  accept,  he  did  feel  impelled  to  recommend 
for  the  mission  at  Madrid  his  colleague  Benjamin,  whose  appointment 
"will  not  only  be  satisfactory  but  gratifying  to  me  in  every  way".87 

Slidell  received  no  credit  from  Belmont  for  a  solicitude  which 
brought  no  results.  Uncle  and  nephew  soon  parted  company,  with 
no  small  loss  to  the  Buchanan  organization.  As  for  Slidell  himself, 
a  final  and  complete  triumph  over  Soule,  by  freeing  him  from  anxiety 
in  Louisiana,  caused  him  to  waver  for  a  moment  with  regard  to  the 
French  mission.  But  the  Senate  had  a  stronger  claim,  and  there  he 
remained,  a  loyal  adherent  of  Buchanan,  until  the  advent  of  secession 
terminated  their  ancient  friendship.  To  the  last  it  was  a  genuine 
personal  affection,  far  deeper  than  a  mere  political  alliance,  and  it  is 
pleasant  to  know  that  it  ended  without  bitterness  or  recrimination. 
The  career  of  Buchanan  had  nearly  run  its  course.  For  Slidell,  Fate 
held  in  store  strange  experiences,  at  the  very  post  which  he  refused 
from  Buchanan  only  to  accept  from  Jefferson  Davis. 

Louis  Martin  Sears. 

86  Saratoga  Springs.  Aug.  8,  1858;  see  also  James  W.  Sheahan,  Douglas,  pp. 
439-441. 

8' Atlantic  City,  Aug.  22,  1858. 


NOTES  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

Did  the  Emperor  Alexius  I.  ask  for  Aid  at  the  Council  of 
Piacenza,  1095? 

According  to  Bernold  of  St.  Blasien,  Pope  Urban  II.  summoned 
bishops  from  Italy,  Burgundy,  France,  Alemannia,  Bavaria,  and 
other  provinces  to  the  Council  of  Piacenza  held  in  March,  1095. 
"  Item  legatio  Constantinopolitani  imperatoris  ad  hanc  sinodum  per- 
venit,  qui  domnum  papam  omnesque  Christi  fideles  suppliciter  im- 
ploravit,  ut  aliquod  auxilium  sibi  contra  paganos  pro  defensione 
sanctae  aeclesiae  conferrent,  quam  pagani  iam  pene  in  illis  partibus 
deleverant,  qui  partes  illas  usque  ad  muros  Constantinopolitanae  civi- 
tatis  obtinuerant.  Ad  hoc  ergo  auxilium  domnus  papa  multos  in- 
citavit,  ut  etiam  jurejurando  promitterent,  se  illuc  Deo  annuente 
ituros,  et  eidem  imperatori  contra  paganos  pro  posse  suo  fidelissimum 
adiutorium  collaturos.  ...  In  hac  sinodo  quatuor  fere  milia  cleri- 
corum  et  plus  quam  triginta  milia  laicorum  fuisse  perhibentur." ' 

Bernold  began  his  chronicle  in  1074;  he  died  in  1100.  He  prob- 
ably was  present  at  the  council,  as  he  says  in  telling  about  it,  "  Missas 
quoque  nonnunquam  extra  aeclesiam  satis  probabiliter,  necessitate 
quidem  cogente,  celebramus."  '  At  all  events  his  bishop  was  present,2 
and  Bernold  had  a  good  opportunity  to  learn  what  was  done  at  the 
council. 

Bernold's  statement  has  been  accepted  by  Gibbon,  Rohricht, 
Hagenmeyer,  Hertzog,  Giesebrecht,  and  many  others.  Sybel  asserts 
that  the  appeal  of  Alexius  was  "  the  final  impulse  " 3  which  caused 
the  First  Crusade.  Riant,  Chalandon,  Luchaire,  and  others.4  on  the 
contrary,  have  been  unwilling  to  admit  that  the  Emperor  Alexius 
made  an  appeal  for  aid  at  Piacenza.  Their  most  important  argument 
for  not  accepting  Bernold's  statement  has  been  that  he  was  the  only 
contemporary  author  who  mentioned  the  preaching  of  the  crusade  at 
Piacenza.  Those  who  have  accepted  Bernold's  statement  have  known 
of  no  other  contemporary  source.5 

1  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica,  Scriptores,  V.  462. 

2  Hagenmeyer,  Chron.  de  Zimmern,  p.  51  ;  also  in  Archives  de  I'Orient  Lathi, 
II.  66  and  note. 

8  Gesch.  d.  Erst.  Kreuzsugs,  first  ed.,  p.  223;  second  and  third  ed..  p.   182. 

*Cf.  Tuthill,  "The  Appeal  of  Alexis  for  Aid  in  1095",  in  University  of 
Colorado  Studies,  vol.  IV.,  no.  3. 

s  The  Annals  of  Jumicges  (M.G.SS..  XXVI.  508)  have  however  sometimes 
been  cited  as  confirmatory  evidence.  The  passage  reads,  "Eodem  anno  Urbanus 
(  731  ) 


732  Notes  and  Suggestions 

But  there  is  another.  In  the  Historia  Monasterii  Novi  Pictavi- 
ensis,6  written  by  the  monk  Martin,  we  find :  "  Divino  instinctu  ad- 
monitus ,  [Urbanus]  gentes  Christianorumque  populos  coepit  com- 
monere  atque  ad  sepulchrum  Domini  locaque  sancta  de  manu  iniquo- 
rum  auferenda  piorum  animas  coepit  invitare :  contigit  eundem 
Papam  ejusmodi  gratia  ad  Galliarum  regna  transitum  facere.  Nam 
celebrato  quadragesimali  tempore  concilio  apud  Placentiam  Italiae 
urbem  in  quo  huius  sancti  praecinctus  prima  verba  prolata  sunt  idem 
praedictus  venerabilis  Papa  Alpes  transcendit  Julias;  perveniens 
autem  Arveniam  Urbem,  quae  alio  nomine  Clarus-Mons  dicitur.  .  .  . 
Et  sic  ilia  verba  quae  quasi  praeoccupando  in  Placentino  concilio  pro- 
lata sunt,  in  evidentiam  et  ostentationem  sanctae  militiae."  .  .  . 

This  statement  is  very  important,  as  it  confirms  Bernold's  state- 
ment that  Urban  preached  the  crusade  at  Piacenza,  although  the 
council  had  been  called  "contra  schismaticos ".  Baldric  of  Dol's 
statement  may  also  be  cited :  "  Publicae  praedicationis  causa,  papa 
Romanus,  Urbanus  nomine,  venit  in  Gallias.  .  .  .  Sane  Placentiae 
concilio  generali  celebrato,  praelibatus  pontifex  paulo  post  Arvernis 
advenit." " 

The  probable  explanation  of  the  introduction  of  this  new  subject 
into  the  agenda  of  the  Council  of  Piacenza  is  the  appeal  of  the  Em- 
peror as  recorded  by  Bernold.  Confirmations  of  his  statement  are 
to  be  found  in  the  references  to  Constantinople  and  the  Greek  Empire 
in  Urban's  speech  at  Clermont  as  reported  by  Robert  the  Monk  and 
Fulk  of  Chartres;  and  in  Guibert's  statement  as  to  the  causes  of 
Urban's  action. 

Robert  reports  the  pope  as  saying:  "  Ab  Iherosolimorum  finibus 
et  urbe  Constantinopolitana  relatio  gravis  emersit  et  saepissime  jam 

papa,  qui  prius  in  Italia  concilium  tenuerat  pro  exortatione  Yerosolimitani  itineris, 
iterum  apud  Clarum-montem  concilium  tenuit  et  constituit,  ut  christiani  fixis  cruci- 
bus  in  vestibus  Ierusalem  pergerent."  The  author  of  this  part  of  the  Annals  and 
the  date  when  it  was  written  are  not  known.  Consequently  this  notice  has  little, 
if  any,  value. 

The  so-called  Epistola  Spuria  has  also  been  much  discussed  in  this  connec- 
tion. It  is  certainly  not  genuine  in  its  present  form,  and  its  date  is  uncertain, 
so  that  it  can  have  no  value  as  evidence  for  Piacenza.  Cf.  Hagenmeyer,  Byzant. 
Zeitschrift,  VI.  i  ff. ;  Chalandon,  Alexis  I. ;  Pirenne,  in  Revue  de  I'Instruction  Pub- 
lique  en  Belgique,  L.  (1907)  217-227;  see  also  Kohler,  in  Revue  de  I'Orient  Latin, 
VIII.  564. 

«  Watterich,  Pontificum  Romanorum  .  .  .  Vitae,  I.  598;  previously  printed  in 
Martene,  Thesaurus  Anecd.,  II.  The  author  was  a  contemporary  (see  Bouquet, 
XI.  118,  note  a).  The  fragment  of  this  work  stops  at  Jan.,  1096.  Cf.  Molinier, 
Sources,  no.  1435. 

~>  Recueil  des  Historiens  des  Croisades,  Hist.  Occid.,  IV.   12. 


Allison:  First  Endozved  Professorship  of  History   733 

ad  aures  nostras  pervenit.  .  .  .  Regnum  Graecorum  jam  ab  eis  ita 
emutilatum  est."  8 

Fulk,  in  his  brief  summary  of  Urban's  speech,  also  records  refer- 
ence to  the  Greek  Empire  and  the  need  of  aid  for  it.  "  Necesse  est 
enim,  quatinus  confratribus  vestris  in  Orientali  plaga  conversantibus, 
auxilio  vestro  jam  saepe  acclamato  indigis,  accelerato  itinere  succur- 
ratis.  Invaserunt  enim  eos,  sicuti  plerisque  vestrum  jam  dictum  est, 
usque  mare  Mediterraneum,  ad  illud  scilicet  quod  dicunt  Brachium 
Sancti  Georgii,  Turci,  gens  Persica,  qui,  apud  Romaniae  fines,  terras 
Christianorum  magis  magisque  occupando,  lite  bellica  jam  septupli- 
cata  victos  superaverunt,  multos  occidendo  vel  captivando,  ecclesias 
subvertendo,  regnum  Dti  vastando." 9 

Guibert  says:  "Is  itaque  vir  eximius  [Urbanus],  quum  ab  Alexi 
Graecorum  principe  magnis  honoraretur  exeniis  [exequiis] ,  et  preci- 
bus  quidem,  sed  multo  propensius  generali  Christianitatis  periculo 
pulsaretur ".  .  .  .10 

Further  corroboration  for  the  connection  of  the  Greek  emperor 
with  the  inception  of  the  crusade  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  Con- 
stantinople was  made  the  official  rendezvous  for  all  the  bands,  and  in 
the  relations  between  the  emperor  and  the  Western  leaders,  especially 
Bohemond.  But  the  account  of  these  cannot  be  compressed  into  a 
brief  note,  intended  merely  to  call  attention  to  a  new  item  of  evidence 
and  to  indicate  how  this  supplements,  and  is  supplemented  by,  other 
information.11 

D.  C.  Munro. 

The  First  Endowed  Professorship  of  History  and  its  First 
Incumbent 

On  the  17th  of  May,  1622,  at  the  Convocation  of  the  University 
of  Oxford,  formal  announcement  was  made  of  a  gift  by  William 
Camden,  Clarenceux  King  at  Arms,  establishing  what  has  been  known 
as  the  Camden  (Ancient)  History  Professorship.  It  is  probable  that 
some  fitting  commemoration  of  this  foundation  will  be  held  at  Oxford 
next  October. 

zRecueil  des  Historians  des  Croisades,  III.  727-728. 
0  Ibid.,  III.  323-324- 

10  Ibid.,  IV.   135. 

11  The  fact  that  Alexius  had  frequently  asked  for  aid  before  the  Council 
of  Piacenza  is  universally  admitted.  Consequently  I  have  not  cited  any  of  the 
sources  which  prove  this  fact,  e.g.,  Ekkehard's  statement,  "per  legationes  tamen 
frequentissimas  et  epistolas "  (Hagenmeyer,  Hierosolymita,  p.  80),  which  has 
often  been  used  in  connection  with  the  emperor's  appeal  at  Piacenza,  but  may 
refer  to  the  earlier  appeals. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.— 49- 


734  Notes  and  Suggestions 

Camden's  benefaction  finds  its  historical  place  in  a  series  of  liberal 
gifts  in  the  interest  of  advanced  scholarship,  of  which  the  one  most 
intimately  connected  with  his  is  Sir  Henry  Savile's  establishment  of  a 
chair  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  1619.  In  the  closing  para- 
graph of  Camden's  Britannia,  antedating  the  Savile  donation  by  over 
a  score  of  years,  we  read : 

Nothing  now  remains  but  that  after  a  safe  passage  among  so  many 
blind  shallows  of  the  ocean  and  rough  rocks  of  antiquity,  as  the  ancient 
seamen  used  to  consecrate  to  Neptune  their  tattered  sails,  or  a  votive  tab- 
let, I  should  in  like  manner  dedicate  to  the  Almighty  some  deposit  of 
venerable  antiquity,  which  I  now  vow  with  the  greatest  chearfulness  and 
gratitude,  and  will  perform,  God  willing,  in  due  time. 

This  early  general  purpose  to  make  a  thank-offering  has  been  inter- 
preted as  his  intention  to  found  the  history  lectureship.  The  earliest 
documentary  evidence  of  this  specific  purpose,  however,  is  found  in 
the  following  letter  from  Sir  Henry  Savile  to  Camden. 

Sir, 

I  have  half  a  quarrel  to  you,  that  being  lately  so  long  together,  and  in 
so  good  leisure,  you  did  not  impart  to  me  that,  which  it  seems  you  have 
declared  at  large  to  my  good  Lord  Paget,  concerning  your  worthy  purpose 
of  founding  an  Humanity-Lecture  in  Oxford.  Surely  if  you  had.  as  he 
said,  aut  re  aut  consilio  aut  opera  juvero:  I  have  trod  the  path  before 
you,  and  know  the  rubbs  in  such  a  business  to  my  great  pains  and  charge, 
I  mean,  in  the  means  of  setling  it  upon  the  University  in  a  perpetuity. 
I  know  it  well  to  my  cost,  and  can  give  you  good  direction  how  to  dis- 
patch it  with  small  ado,  if  you  need  my  counsel.  If  not,  I  can  do  no 
more  but  wish  a  happy  end  to  your  honourable  endeavour,  and  rest  al- 
ways, as  I  have,  and  for  ever  will  be, 

Your  assured  Friend  to  dispose  of,  and  admirer  of 
your  rare  virtues, 
Eton  25  Octob.  Henry  Savile. 

1621 

The  allusion  to  the  legal  difficulties  which  he  had  encountered  in 
establishing  the  Mathematical  Professorship  is  amplified  in  a  letter 
bearing  date  nine  days  later  ;  its  human  quality  of  sympathetic  interest 
is  as  entrancing  as  the  information  is  important. 

Sir, 

I  send  you  by  this  Bearer,  my  servant,  the  Original  of  the  Covenants 
between  the  University  and  me  under  both  our  Seals.  I  think  I  showed 
you  a  first  draught  of  them  before,  and  even  in  these  there  is  nothing 
worthy  of  your  imitation;  of  something  perchance  it  may  put  you  in  re- 
membrance, further  not. 

I  think  not  amiss  to  advertise  you,  that  by  plain  Will  without  a  Deed 
executed  in  life-time,  no  land  will  pass  to  a  College  or  Corporation,  as  I 
have  heard  by  my  Counsel.  I  am  sure  Merton  College  hath  felt  it :  for 
Doctor  Huicke,  Queen  Elizabeth's  Physician,  whom  you  may  have  heard 


Allison:  First  Endowed  Professorship  of  History    735 

on.  or  peradventure  known,  by  Will  left  all  his  land  of  good  value  to  his 
two  daughters  and  their  heirs;  and  for  lack  of  heirs  (as  we  understood 
they  died  without  any  children  both)  all  his  said  lands  to  Merton  College, 
whereof  he  was  Fellow :  but  Doctor  Bickley  laboured,  as  I  have  heard, 
much  in  it,  and  could  recover  nothing.  So  that  you  must  fly  to  some  such 
course,  as  I  advertised  you  in  my  last,  or  leave  it  upon  Feoffees,  men  of 
sincerity  and  judgment,  that  your  death  do  not  frustrate  your  good  in- 
tention. .  .  . 

The  deed  of  gift  was  duly  signed  on  March  5,  1621/2,  and  for- 
mally registered  by  the  master  in  chancery  on  April  14.  The  finan- 
cial basis  of  the  endowment  was  revenues  from  the  manor  of  Bexley 
in  Kent,  which  after  ninety-nine  years  were  to  revert  to  the  univer- 
sity. The  estimated  income  was  upwards  of  £400  per  annum.  In 
the  meantime,  the  manor  was  to  be  held  by  William  Heather  and  his 
heirs,  who  were  to  pay  the  incumbent  of  the  professorship  £20  the 
first  year,  £40  the  next  year,  and  £140  thereafter.  Heather,  who  was 
organist  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  made  a  home  for  Camden  during  his 
latter  years  and  this  prolongation  of  the  reward  is  characteristic  of 
Camden's  liberality  and  humanity.  Heather  himself  in  1626  founded 
the  lectureship  which  became  the  music  professorship  at  Oxford. 

No  sooner  did  the  rumor  of  the  plan  to  establish  a  praelectorship 
of  history  at  the  university  reach  Oxford  than  a  "  laudable  ambition  " 
to  receive  the  appointment  sprang  up  in  many  breasts.  As  early  as 
December  19,  1621,  the  warden  and  scholars  of  New  College  recom- 
mended their  colleague  Daniel  Gardiner.  Already,  however,  just  one 
month  earlier,  Thomas  Allen,  the  eminent  mathematician  and  anti- 
quarian of  Gloucester  Hall,  had  written  to  Camden  recommending 

an  acquaintance  of  mine,  one  Mr.  Whear.  sometimes  Fellow  of  Exeter 
College,  and  now  resident  in  Glocester-hall,  a  Master  of  Arts  of  twenty 
years  standing,  and  a  man  who,  besides  his  abilities  of  learning  sufficient 
for  such  a  place,  is  known  to  be  of  good  experience,  (having  sometimes 
travelled)  and  of  very  honest  and  discreet  conversation. 

In  his  own  letters  to  Camden,  Whear  reveals  almost  to  the  extent 
of  obtrusiveness  his  own  desire  to  receive  the  appointment.  Camden 
did  not  know  Whear  personally  up  to  the  time  when  he  had  virtually 
decided  to  name  him  for  the  lectureship  he  was  founding.  W'hear's 
chief  eminence  came  later,  from  his  headship  of  Gloucester  Hall, 
where  he  became  principal  in  1626.  There  he  showed  a  vigor  of 
administration  which  brought  that  house  perhaps  its  highest  degree 
of  prosperity.  He  seems  ever  to  have  kept  well  within  the  academic 
proprieties  in  his  attitude  toward  the  ruling  powers.  When  the  loy- 
alty of  the  university  sought  expression  on  special  occasions  through 
poetical  effusions,  Degory  Whear  was  usually  among  the  contributors, 


736  Notes  and  Suggestions 

with  a  manifest  tendency  toward  anagram.  In  1603,  he  was  one  of 
320  writers  in  the  Academiae  Oxoniensis  Pietas  upon  the  accession 
of  James  I.  In  1623,  he  contributed  as  "prim.  Hist.  Prael.  Cam- 
denianus  "  to  the  Carolus  Redux,  celebrating  that  prince's  journey  to 
Spain  and  return  thence.  Upon  the  death  of  James  I.,  he  contributed 
to  the  Oxoniensis  Academiae  Parentalia,  and  in  1633,  when  Charles  I. 
was  attacked  by  sickness,  he  provided  one  of  the  108  poems  in  the 
Musarum  Oxoniensium  pro  Rege  suo  Soteria.  The  birth  of  a  prince 
(the  later  James  II.)  that  same  year,  and,  in  1641,  the  return  of  the 
King  from  Scotland  stir  up  the  muse  in  Oxford  and  one  does  not  look 
in  vain  for  the  initials  W.  D.,  lifted  out  of  ambiguity  by  the  added 
designation,  "  Princ.  of  Gloucester  (or  St.  Alb.)  hall". 

Whear  had  been  publicly  named  for  the  praelectorship  when  the 
foundation  itself  was  announced,  but  fearing  lest  some  one  might 
attack  the  legal  status  of  the  incumbent,  which  rested  upon  mere  nom- 
ination ("ex  nuda  et  simplici  nominatione  minus  firmo"),  Camden 
sent  to  the  university  a  formal  document,  duly  attested,  which  may  be 
translated  as  follows : 

Octobr.  16,  1622. 
I,  William  Camden,  have  constituted  and  do  constitute  as  first  Reader  of 
History,  Degory  Whear,  who  has  been  recommended  by  letters  of  the 
most  honorable  Chancellor,  Vice-Chancellor  and  many  most  learned  men 
and  afterwards  by  experience  and  by  dissertations  on  History,  now  more 
completely  observed  by  myself:  and  it  is  my  will  that  he  shall  lecture 
first  to  the  youth  on  L.  Annaeus  Florus,  so  long  as  he  pleases. 

Wm.  Camden. 

This  is  looked  upon  as  the  authentication  of  Whear's  formal  entrance 
upon  the  lectureship  and  it  is  the  October  date  rather  than  that  of 
May  which  will  probably  be  observed  as  the  tercentenary. 

Very  soon  the  question  arose  concerning  the  obligations  of  the 
praelector  as  regards  the  field  of  history  to  be  covered  by  him.  Cam- 
den thereupon  drew  up  his  "  Explication  ",  which  is  so  worded  as  to 
place  the  chief  responsibility  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  chair  on 
the  incumbent  himself. 

Whereas  I  understand  there  hath  been  some  doubt  and  question  made 
touching  the  subject  of  my  lecture,  and  what  kind  of  History  I  intended 
my  reader  should  insist  upon,  I  do  hereby  signify,  that  it  ever  was  and  is 
my  intention,  that  (according  to  the  practice  of  such  professors  in  all  the 
Universities  beyond  the  seas)  hee  should  read  a  civil  history,  and  therein 
make  such  observations,  as  might  bee  most  usefull  and  profitable  for  the 
younger  students  of  the  University,  to  direct  and  instruct  them  in  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  history,  antiquity,  and  times  past.  Whose  advance- 
ment in  that  way  my  desires  especially  aimed  at,  and  I  trust  both  my 
present  reader  (according  to  those  laudable  beginnings,  which  I  have 
seen,  and  do  hear  are  well  approved)  wil  carefully  labour  to  effect,  and 


Allison:  First  Eiidou'cd  Professorship  of  History   737 

such  as  shal  hereafter  succeed  him  also  diligently  endeavour  the  fulfilling 
of  my  desires,  not  intermedling  with  the  history  of  the  church  or  con- 
troversies farther  than  shal  give  light  into  those  times,  which  hee  shal 
then  unfold,  or  that  author,  which  hee  then  shal  read,  and  that  very 
briefly;  in  the  choice  thereof  I  thinke  the  readers  discretion  should  alwais 
bee  sufficient,  and  therefore  hold  it  not  requisite  to  prescribe  any  farther, 
then  I  have  done  in  the  instrument  of  my  first  choice. 
January  6,  1622,  in  prae-  William  Camden, 

sentia  mei  Thomae  Clayton  Clarenceux. 

Regii  Professoris  in  Medicina. 

The  University  authorities  apparently  did  not  hasten  in  prescrib- 
ing regulations  for  the  Camden  Professorship.  The  text  of  the 
statute  is  given  in  the  Camdcni  Vita,  with  the  marginal  information 
that  the  rules  were  "  longo  post  tempore  factas  ". 

In  the  early  summer  of  1623,  Degory  Whear  delivered  the  first 
formal  lecture  on  the  Camden  foundation,  on  Florus.  In  the  Expli- 
cation just  quoted,  Camden  specified  both  the  knowledge  and  use  of 
history  as  objects  also  to  be  served.  Whear  went  immediately  at 
these  by  preparing  the  lecture  first  given  on  July  12,  1623,  which  he 
later  repeated  in  enlarged  form  and  which  represents  his  permanent 
contribution  to  the  literature  of  historical  studies,  viz.,  his  De  Rationc 
ct  Mcthodo  Lcgcndi  Historias,  or  as  it  appears  in  the  English  trans- 
lation of  the  enlarged  work,  The  Method  and  Order  of  Reading  both 
Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Histories  in  which  the  most  Excellent  His- 
torians arc  Reduced  into  the  Order  in  which  they  are  Successively  to 
be  Read;  and  the  Judgment  of  Learned  Men,  concerning  each  of 
them,  subjoined.  This  work  itself  can  scarcely  be  called  fascinating 
and  we  wonder  that  it  lived  in  active  use  as  long  as  it  did.  Yet  im- 
mediately after  the  first  lectures,  which  some  at  once  wished  him  to 
publish,  his  hearers  followed  him  up  for  further  help  and  counsel,  at 
the  expense  of  his  anticipated  leisure.  Editions  were  brought  out  in 
London  in  1623  and  in  Oxford  in  1625  and  at  least  four  seventeenth- 
century  editions  (1637,  1660,  1662,  1684)  of  the  enlarged  work  (Re- 
lectioncs)  were  published.  Although  there  is  not  much  vitality  in 
the  lectures,  which  abound  in  long  quotations  from  other  writers,  they 
were  much  used  in  Oxford,  and  as  late  as  1700  they  were  still  in  use 
in  Cambridge.  Apart  from  the  evidence  of  the  editions,  among  which 
Edmund  Bohun's  English  translation  and  especially  the  Nuremberg 
edition  of  1660  are  significant,  there  is  little  to  show  that  Degory 
Whear  made  any  very  important  contribution  to  any  phase  of  erudi- 
tion, except  as  we  may  recognize  his  whole  career  as  a  positive  in- 
fluence in  that  direction. 

William  H.  Allison. 


DOCUMENTS 

Lord  Sackznlle's  Papers  respecting  Virginia,  1613-1631,  II. 

C.  Concerning  the  Tobacco  Contract. 

In  this  division  of  Lord  Sackville's  papers  relating  to  the  early 
history  of  Virginia,  the  first  place  belongs  to  a  group  of  documents 
exhibiting  the  successive  stages  by  which  the  contract  for  the  exclu- 
sive importation  of  tobacco  by  the  Virginia  and  Somers  Islands  com- 
panies came  into  its  final  form. 

On  July  3,  1622,  in  a  "  Great  and  General  Quarter  Court "  of  the 
Virginia  Company,  a  series  of  propositions  concerning  the  proposed 
contract  was  agreed  upon.  These  propositions,  seventeen  in  number, 
were  entered  in  the  company's  records,  and  their  text  is  to  be  found 
there  (Records  of  the  Virginia  Company,  II.  85-88).  Of  this  draft 
there  is  a  copy  among  Lord  Sackville's  papers,  no.  6158.  It  is  marked 
in  red  ink  as  "  No.  3  ",  that  number  referring  to  the  series,  numbered 
from  1  to  21,  spoken  of  (and  perhaps  so  numbered)  by  Dr.  Peter 
Peckard,  Memoirs  of  Nicholas  Fcrrar,1  as  has  been  mentioned  in  the 
introduction  to  the  first  installment  of  these  papers  (pp.  493-495, 
supra).  Since  this  document  agrees  entirely  with  that  which  is 
printed  in  the  Records  of  the  Virginia  Company  under  date  of  July  3, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  print  it  here. 

On  July  17,  in  an  ordinary  court  of  the  Virginia  Company,  Sir 
Edwin  Sandys  reported  that  the  Somers  Islands  Company,  in  their 
Great  Quarter  Court  held  on  July  10,  had  given  their  consent  to  the 
proposals  which  the  Virginia  Company  had  accepted  the  week  before, 
with  the  exception  of  article  5,  relating  to  customs  dues.  That  article 
had  provided  that,  instead  of  the  levy  of  sixpence  a  pound  on  roll 
tobacco  and  fourpence  a  pound  on  leaf,  the  companies  should  pay  in 
each  of  the  three  years  of  the  contract  a  sum  equal  to  the  average  of 
what  had  been  due.  under  the  rates  named,  in  the  seven  years  preced- 
ing. To  this  the  Somers  Islands  Company  demurred,  preferring  to 
pay  the  existing  duty  on  the  quantities  actually  brought  in,  and  argu- 
ing also  that  such  an  arrangement  would  make  the  customs  officials 
more  vigilant  to  prevent  the  bringing  in  of  Spanish  tobacco  by  inter- 
lopers than  if  they  were  sure  in  advance  of  all  that  they  could  anywise 
get.     "Whereupon",  say  the  Records  of  the  Virginia  Company,2 


Pp.  156-165. 

Records,  II. 


(7.tf) 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia      739 

it  beinge  taken  into  consideracion  whither  an  Inferior  Court  had  any 
power  to  alter  that  w'ch  was  so  solemnely  ratified  by  a  Quarter  Court  it 
was  resolved  it  could  not,  but  withall  they  held  it  fitt  to  signifie  to  my  Lo : 
Treasurer  and  certifie  by  waye  of  Declaration  of  their  perticular  opinions 
that  they  conceaved  the  Summer  Hands  Companie  for  many  substantiall 
reasons  had  taken  the  better  course,  and  therefore  the  Companie  of  Vir- 
ginia would  not  oppose  the  drawinge  up  of  the  Patent  accordinge  to  the 
desire  and  resolucion  of  the  Summer  Hands  Companie,  not  doubting  but  if 
the  next  Quarter  Court  for  Virginia  should  not  aprove  thereof  they  shall 
entreat  his  l[ordshi]p  their  first  order  may  Stand. 

No.  6159  of  Lord  Sackville's  papers,  marked  "  No.  4"  in  red  ink, 
is  a  version  of  the  proposals  for  the  contract  in  the  form  in  which 
they  were  agreed  upon  by  the  Somers  Islands  Company  on  the  occa- 
sion above  described.  It  differs  only  in  article  5  from  that  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Virginia  Company  and  which  is  printed  in  its  Records. 
Therefore  it  is  not  thought  necessary  to  do  more  here  than  to  print  its 
heading  and  fifth  article,  under  no.  XLL,  below. 

In  an  ordinary  court  held  on  November  6,3  Sir  Arthur  Ingram 
reported  that  the  Lord  Treasurer  wished  to  stipulate  that  all  the 
Spanish  tobacco  brought  in  by  the  companies  should  be  of  the  best 
Varinas.  To  this  amendment  the  two  companies  somewhat  reluc- 
tantly consented.  In  a  general  quarter  court  held  on  November  20, 4 
it  is  reported  that  the  Lord  Treasurer  wishes  also  to  omit  article  9, 
which  related  to  the  fixing  of  prices,  to  provide  in  article  8  that  in 
case  the  companies  could  not  bring  in  80,000  pounds  of  Varinas  in 
the  first  two  years,  they  might  have  the  third  year  for  it,  and  to  make 
provision  for  the  case  that  the  Spanish  government  should  alter  its 
rates  and  regulations  respecting  the  export  of  Spanish  tobacco.  To 
the  first  two  of  these  modifications  the  companies  agreed ;  the  last  was 
referred  to  an  ordinary  court  held  on  November  22,  at  which  Lord 
Southampton  presented  a  new  article  (a  new  article  9,  we  may  call  it) 
as  a  substitute  for  the  latter  part  of  the  original  article  8,  and  dealing 
with  the  effects  of  possible  changes  of  system  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment. Its  text  is  printed  in  the  Records  of  that  day,  which  then  goes 
on  to  state  as  follows  the  action  of  the  court  respecting  it : 5 

Wherefore  esteeminge  of  this  bargaine  (as  they  were  advised  by  a  noble 
and  Hono'ble  person)  not  as  good  meat  well  sawced  but  of  a  porcion 
necessarie  for  their  health,  beinge  willing  (as  his  lp :  said)  devorare  rao- 
lestiam  of  this  bitter  pill,  they  desired  the  Ea :  of  Southampton  to  put  it 
to  the  question:  Whereupon  the  Article  by  ereccion  of  handes  was  con- 
firmed and  approved  accordingly  as  it  was  read. 
Nevertheless  the  contract  was  held  in  suspense  for  a  time,  signed 

3  Ibid..  II.  121. 

MI.  138-140. 

5  II.   14^-143.  144- 


74°  Documents 

again  by  Middlesex  on  February  12,  discussed  further  by  the  com- 
pany in  March  and  April,  and  finally  abandoned  by  the  Privy  Council 
by  vote  of  April  28." 

Light  is  cast  on  all  these  transactions  by  the  third  copy  of  the  con- 
tract found  among  Lord  Sackville's  papers,  no.  6162  ("No.  8"  of 
Peckard's  enumeration).  It  is  a  copy  of  the  propositions  printed  in 
the  Virginia  Company's  Records,  endorsed  in  the  hand  of  Richard 
Willis  "  Examined  and  noted  by  my  Lorde  ",  and  bears  in  the  margins 
a  number  of  comments  indicating  the  amendments  which  the  Lord 
Treasurer  meant  sooner  or  later  to  secure.  These  comments  are  given, 
under  no.  XLIL,  below,  in  a  form  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  intelligible 
to  anyone  having  before  him  a  text  of  the  original  propositions  as 
printed  in  the  company's  Records. 

No.  XLIIL,  below,  the  fourth  of  these  versions,  doc.  no.  6166 
(marked  "  No.  12  "  in  red  ink),  presents  the  text  of  the  propositions 
as  finally  agreed  upon  and  as  signed  by  Middlesex.  A  fifth  version, 
no.  6194,  differs  from  this  only  by  the  omission  of  a  few  words  which 
Middlesex  had  at  the  last  indicated  to  be  omitted,  and  in  the  addition 
of  a  record  of  the  company's  action,  which  we  have  included  at  the 
end  of  no.  XLIIL 

The  other  papers  are  for  the  most  part  incidental  to  these,  or 
mark  various  stages  in  the  conflict  respecting  the  tobacco  contract  and 
the  alternatives  proposed  for  it,  though  the  absence  of  dates  from 
most  of  them  makes  it  difficult  to  give  them  a  satisfactory  order  of 
arrangement,  and  the  provenance  of  several  remains  obscure.  In 
general  terms,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the  next  two  pieces,  nos. 
XLIV.  and  XLV.,  are  documents  made  in  explanation  or  pursuance 
of  the  contract;  that  the  five  which  ensue,  nos.  XLVI.-L.,  are  docu- 
ments proposing  alternative  arrangements,  advanced  during  discus- 
sions on  the  terms  of  the  contract  or  during  its  suspension  by  the 
Lord  Treasurer  and  Privy  Council;  that  nos.  LI.  and  LII.  are  pro- 
nouncements hostile  to  the  contract  and  no.  LI  1 1,  a  reply  to  the  second 
of  them;  and  that  nos.  LIV.-LVI.  are  papers  consequent  on  the  dis- 
solution or  impending  dissolution  of  the  contract.7 

6  Records,  II.  264,  335-340,  353-357,  365-372.  39^;  Acts  P.  C.  Col..  I.  61. 
But  see  nos.  LIV.  and  LV.  and  notes,  below. 

'  The  documents  which  Peckard  noted  as  among  the  papers  of  the  Duke  of 
Dorset  may  be  identified  as  follows : 

His  no.   1   is  in  Peckard,  p.   162; 

No.  3  (the  present  no.  6158)  is  in  Records,  II.  85-88; 

No.  4  is  in  part  given  in  our  no.  XLI. ; 

No.  6  is  our  XLVII.; 

No.  7  is  our  XXIX.,   in   the  previous  installment; 


Lord  SackviUe's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       741 

Much  the  best  account  of  all  this  matter  of  the  contract  for  the 
sole  importation  of  tobacco  is  that  of  Professor  William  R.  Scott  in 
his  History  of  Joint-Stock  Companies.8 

XLI.    PROPOSITIONS  OF  THE  SOMERS  ISLANDS  COMPANY,  JULY   10,   l622.9 

Propositions  agreed  on  by  the  Governor  and  Company  for  the  Sum- 
mer Hands  in  a  generall  Quarter  Court  held  on  Wedensday  the  ioth  of 
July  touchinge  a  Contract  to  be  made  with  his  Majestie  for  the  sole  im- 
portation of  Tobacco  between  them  and  the  Virginia  Company.  .  .  . 

5.  The  companie  for  the  Summer  Hands  are  contented  to  pay  the 
usuall  custome  of  vi  d.  the  pound  waight  for  roll  Tobacco  and  4  d.  for 
leafe  for  their  two  third  partes  duringe  the  time  of  this  contract  and  his 
Majestie  in  like  sorte  to  pave  for  his  third  parte:  But  they  desire  his 
Lordship  to  be  pleased  that  they  may  have  the  allowance  of  5  li.  per  cen- 
tum as  is  usuall  in  other  marchandizes  with  reasonable  care  Tobacco  be- 
inge  a  perishinge  commoditie,  and  besides  to  graunt  unto  them  vi  moneth's 
time  for  payment  of  the  said  custome. 

XLII.    NOTES  OF  THE  LORD  TREASURER  ON   THE   PROPOSITIONS. 
JULY-OCTOBER,    I022.10 

[Against  article  4,  concerning  customs  duties.]  It  is  not  intended 
the  garbling  of  tobacco  should  be  exempted  but  the  companies  and  Pat- 
entees11 to  make  agreement  if  they  cann,  otherwise  the  Lord  Treasuror  to 
order  it.  [The  proviso  with  which  this  article  ends,  that  the  companies 
shall  not  be  constrained  to  import  any  more  tobacco  from  the  two  plan- 
tations than  they  think  fit,  is  struck  out,  and  this  note  follows.]  This 
which  is  strooke  out  shall  not  need  to  be  mentioned  one  way  nor  other  in 
the  Letters  Patents;  but  it  is  expected  there  shalbe  reall  and  honest  deal- 
ing as  hath  bin  promised. 

No.  8,  its  marginal  notes  rather,  is  our  XLII.; 

No.  9  is  our  LI. ; 

No.  10    (the  present  no.  6164)    is  in  Records.  II.   325-327.  and  in   Peekard, 

pp.    164-165; 

No.  1 1   is  our  LIV. ; 

No.  12  is  our  XLIII.; 

No.  13  is  our  LIII.; 

No.  15   is  our  VI.,   in  the  first   installment; 

No.  16  is  our  XXXVIII.; 

No.  17  is  our  XLIX. ; 

No.  18  is  our  XXIXa.,   in   the   first   installment; 

No.  19  (the  present  no.  6172)  is  a  court  record  in  Records.  II.  121  ; 

No.  20  is  our  XLV. ; 

No.  21   (the  present  no.  6174)   is  in  Peekard.  pp.   157-159. 

sll.  272-283. 

»  From  no.  6159,  marked  "  No.  4  "  in  red  ink. 

io  From  no.  6162,  marked  "No.  8"  in  red  ink.  Cf.  the  propositions  in 
Records,  II.  85-88.  These  notes  must  be  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  statement 
of  Middlesex's  position  made  ibid.,  II.   121.  Nov.  6,   1622. 

u  Those  who  had  the  patent  for  garbling;  see  p.  526,  note   10S. 


742  Documents 

[Against  article  5,  relating  to  the  commutation  of  customs,  there  is  an 
index-hand,  no  doubt  to  call  attention  to  the  alternative  proposed  by  the 
Somers  Islands  Company,  with  the  additional  remark:]  It  must  be  pro- 
vided that  it  be  transported  within  the  compasse  of  one  yeare,  as  other 
goodes  of  the  like  nature. 

[Against  article  7,  providing  for  the  appointment  of  a  consignee  by 
the  companies,  they  to  have  the  sole  management  of  sales  and  to  account 
to  the  king:]  The  company  to  name  one  officer,  and  it  is  just  the  Lord 
Treasuror  for  the  King  name  another  about  the  tobacco  only.  The  Ac- 
compt  to  be  made  up  halfe  yearely  and  within  40  dayes  after  the  mony  to 
be  payd  in  to  the  Exchequor. 

[Against  article  8,  respecting  the  bringing  in  of  40,000  lbs.  of  Spanish 
tobacco  in  each  of  the  first  two  years:]  Although  it  be  expressed  in  this 
kinde  in  the  grant,  yet  it  must  be  provided  collaterally  that  this  clawse 
shall  not  worke  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Kinge,  but  that  there  shalbe  40000 
weight  of  the  best  Verinus  Tobacco12  brought  in  for  the  first  two  yeares, 
Except  the  companies  shall  make  it  appeare  that  by  some  act  of  State  in 
Spaine,  there  is  course  taken  so  to  inhaunce  the  price  that  it  is  not  fitt  to 
be  brought  in. 

[Against  article  0,  respecting  the  fixing  of  prices,  is  an  index-hand, 
the  Lord  Treasurer,  as  mentioned  in  the  introduction  above,  objecting  to 
this  article.] 

[Against  article  /?,  respecting  the  sharing  of  confiscations  and  penal- 
ties.] This  to  be  confirmed  according  to  Mr.  Porters  Patent13  that  his 
Majestie  may  make  noe  defalkacion. 

[In  article  14  the  Lord  Treasurer  has  underlined,  as  deserving  to  be 
omitted,  the  provision  for  a  similar  division  of  tobacco  confiscated  be- 
tween this  July  3  and  Michaelmas  next,  but  has  added  the  note:]  The 
last  part  of  this  article  to  stand  [i.  e.,  the  provision  that  such  confiscated 
tobacco  should  be  sent  out  of  the  realm  to  be  sold  elsewhere]. 

[Endorsed :]  Proposicions  for  the  sole  importacion  of  tobacco  agreed 
on  in  a  quarter  courte  held  for  Virginia  the  3  of  July  1622. 

[And,  in  the  hand  of  Richard  JViliis:]  Examined  and  noted  by  my 
Lorde. 

XLIII.    THE    COMPLETED    CONTRACT,    NOVEMBER    2J,     l622.14 

Propositions  agreed  on  by  the  Lord  Highe  Treasuror  of  England 
and  the  Companie  for  Virginia  and  the  Summer  Hands  touching 
the  sole  importation  of  Tobacco. 
1.  That  the  sole  importation  of  Tobacco  into  the  Realms  of  England 


12  Tobacco  of  Varinas   (Barinas)   in  western  Venezuela. 

13  Grant  to  Endymion  Porter  and  Richard  Peate,  Dec.  30,  1618,  for  seven 
years,  of  all  fines  for  non-payment  of  subsidy  and  for  importation  and  exportation 
of  prohibited  goods.     Cat.  St.  P.  Dom.,  s.  d. 

14  No.  6166,  marked  "No.  12"  in  red  ink;  summarized  in  Peckard,  Memoirs 
of  Nicholas  Ferrar,  pp.  160-161.  In  a  meeting  of  the  two  companies  on  Nov. 
27,  1622,  it  was  announced  that  the  Lord  Treasurer  had  signed  the  contract  (in 
the  form  here  presented)  after  striking  out  certain  words  in  the  seventh  article, 
whereupon  the  contract  was  agreed  to  by  the  companies,  with  no  dissenting 
voice.  Records,  II.  147,  148,  157.  In  a  meeting  held  on  Feb.  12,  1623,  it  was 
announced  "  that  the  Contract  which  had  so  longe  hunge  in  suspence  was  nowe 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       743 

and  Ireland  be  granted  by  his  Majestie's  Letters  Patents  under  his  great 
Seale  to  the  Companys  for  Virginia  and  the  Summer  Hands. 

2.  That  his  Majesty  by  proclamation  inhibit  all  others  under  payne  of 
confiscation  of  their  Tobacco  and  his  Majestie's  highe  displeasure.15 

3.  That  likewise  the  planting  of  tobacco  in  England  and  Ireland  be 
forbidden  by  the  said  proclamation  under  a  grevous  penalty. 

4.  In  consideration  whereof  as  also  for  that  the  Companyes  shall  be 
discharged  from  all  other  payments  for  Tobacco  during  their  term  to  his 
Majesty  excepting  only  the  ancient  Custom  sett  down  in  the  printed  Booke 
of  Rates18  of  Sixpence  per  pound  for  Roll  Tobacco  and  fowre  pence  for 
leaf,  The  Companyes  shall  pay  to  his  Majesty  whatsoever  shall  arise  out 
of  the  Sale  of  a  full  third  part  of  all  the  Tobacco  that  shall  be  yearly 
imported  into  either  of  these  two  Realms  whether  the  same  be  afterwards 
vented  within  the  said  Realmes  or  in  any  other  place  whatsoever. 

5.  The  Companyes  are  content  that  his  Majestie  bee  disburdened  from 
all  payments  for  the  freight  of  Tobacco  imported  from  the  Two  Planta- 
tions or  from  any  other  forraigne  parts  into  either  of  these  his  Realmes. 
But  his  Majesty  to  covenant  that  after  the  first  arrivall  of  the  said 
Tobacco  from  either  of  the  said  Plantations  or  other  forraigne  Dominions, 
to  bear  one  third  part  of  all  charges  whatsoever  incident  to  the  said 
Tobacco  aswell  for  the  custom  and  subsidy  landing  carving  and  howsing 
thereof,  as  also  for  the  keeping  tending  curing  and  sorting  of  the  same: 
and  likewise  for  the  transporting  it,  whether  by  Sea,  freshwater  or  land 
into  divers  parts  of  either  of  these  his  Realmes  or  any  other  place  there 
to  be  sould  and  distributed.  Also  that  his  Majesty  beare  a  full  third  part 
of  all  Salaries  due  to  Officers  Factors  and  Agents,  and  to  all  other  Min- 
isters and  Servants  to  be  employed  in  any  sort  within  either  of  these 
Realms  about  the  said  Tobacco  or  other  busines  whatsoever  incident  to 
this  Contract  only,  which  Salaries  to  be  appoynted  and  sett  downe  by  the 
said  Companies  in  their  generall  Coorts  where  and  by  whom  likewise  the 
said  Officers  Agents  Factors  Ministers  and  Servants  shall  be  chosen. 
And  likewise  that  his  Majesty  beare  one  third  part  of  all  costs  and  charges 
in  Suits  of  Lawe  for  any  matter  of  buisines  concerning  the  said  Tobacco 
or  for  recovery  of  any  Debts  from  thence  arising.  And  finally  for  all 
other  charges  whatsoever  after  the  arrivall  of  it  in  either  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  England  or  Ireland  necessary  or  convenient  for  the  well  ordering  of 
the  said  Tobacco  and  for  making  the  best  profit  to  the  use  of  his  Majestie 
and  the  Companyes  aforesaid,  Fraight  excepted  as  aforesaid. 

againe  sent  signed  by  the  Lord  Treasuror  without  any  alteracion  at  all  from  that 
which  was  formerly  agreed  on  by  the  Quarter  Courtes  ",  but  that  he  desired  to 
delay  for  three  or  four  months  the  issue  of  the  proclamation  provided  for  in 
article  2.  Records,  II.  264-265.  This  document,  it  will  be  seen,  bears  the  signa- 
ture of  Middlesex  and  both  dates.  The  words  which  Middlesex  in  November 
desired  to  eliminate  from  article  7  are  underlined,  and  are  here  printed  in  italics. 
Another  copy,  no.  6194,  omits  these  words  but  is  dated  Nov.  27.  1622,  and  ends 
with  the  record,  given  below,  of  the  action  of  the  companies  on  that  day. 

is  This  proclamation  was  never  issued.  Middlesex,  Feb.  12.  1623.  "for  some 
waightie  reasons,  no  waye  prejudicial!  for  the  Companies  ".  desired  it  might  be 
respited  for  three  or  four  months,  promising  however  that  he  would  write  at 
once  to  all  ports  such  letters  as  would  have  the  same  effect  (see  XLV.,  below)  ; 
to  this  the  companies  reluctantly  agreed,  provided  the  issue  of  the  proclamation 
were  not  deferred  beyond  June  20.     Records.  II.  265-266. 

i«The  Book  of  Rates  of   1611. 


744  Documents 

6.  That  the  Tobacco  to  be  brought  in  be  consigned  all  into  one  hand 
viz:  of  such  Officers  as  the  said  Companyes  shall  appoynt :  And  that  the 
said  Companyes  have  the  sole  menaging  of  the  said  Sale  of  Tobacco, 
Yielding  unto  his  Majestie  a  true  and  perfect  account  thereof  every  half 
yeare  viz:  our  Ladie  day  and  Michaelmas  or  within  Ten  dayes  after, 
The  first  account  to  be  made  at  our  Ladie  day  next,  and  paying  the  cleer 
profit  received17  which  shall  growe  due  unto  his  Majesty  unto  such  as 
the  Lord  Treasuror  and  the  Chancelor  of  the  Exchequer  shall  appoynt  to 
receive  the  same  within  Ten  dayes  after  the  said  account,  In  which  ac- 
count all  the  said  charges  to  be  allowed  and  defalked  as  aforesaid. 

7.  The  Companyes  will  be  contented  to  be  restrayned  from  the  bring- 
ing in  of  any  Spanish  tobacco  above  the  quantety  of  Sixtie  Thousand 
weight  a  yeare,  and  to  be  tied  likewise  by  covenant18  for  the  bringing  in 
of  fortie  thousand  weight  of  the  best  Varinaes  Spanish  Tobacco  in  each 
of  the  first  two  yeares  of  this  contract  And  if  the  best  sort  of  Varinaes 
Tobacco  can  not  be  convenyntly  provided  in  the  said  two  first  yeares, 
that  then  so  much  as  shall  want  of  40000  weight  in  each  yeare  shall  be 
supplyed  in  the  third  yeare,  So  that  the  full  quantety  of  fowre  score 
Thousand  weight  in  the  whole  be  made  up  in  the  sayd  three  yeares.  And 
this  Covenant  for  the  bringing  in  of  Spanish  Tobacco  to  be  of  force 
untill  the  said  80000  weight  be  brought  in  and  no  longer. 

8.  And  it  is  desired  that  an  indifferent  covenant  be  drawne  up  by  his 
Majesties  Learned  Counseil  and  the  Counseil  for  Virginia  and  the  Sum- 
mer Hands,  that  in  case  an  extraordinary,  charge  shall  have  been  layd 
upon  the  said  Varinaes  Tobacco  by  the  State  of  Spaine  since  the  feast  of 
St.  Michaell  the  Archangell  last  past,  beeing  the  time  whence  this  Con- 
tract is  to  have  beginning,  or  hereafter  shall  be  layd  during  the  time  of 
three  yeares  from  thence  next  ensueing  more  then  was  at  the  said  Feast 
of  St.  Michaell  last  past:  In  such  case,  the  company  shall  be  cleerly  dis- 
charged of  their  said  covenant  of  bringing  in  of  Spanish  Tobacco  from 
the  time  the  said  extraordinary  charge  shall  be  layd  untill  it  be  reversed. 
And  after  the  reversing  thereof,  the  quantity  of  the  best  Varinaes  To- 
bacco, which  shall  then  remayne  unbrought  in  of  the  said  fowre  score 
Thousand  weight,  shall  be  brought  in  within  the  compas  of  the  first  three 
yeares  which  shall  be  or  have  been  cleer  from  the  said  extraordinary 
charge,  to  be  computed  from  the  beginning  of  this  Contract.  And  in 
case  there  appeare  any  practise  by  the  marchants  of  Spaine  or  others  by 
meanes  whereof  the  said  Companyes  can  not  make  their  provisions  of  the 
said  quantity  of  the  best  Varinaes  Tobacco  as  they  have  agreed  unto  but 
to  their  excessive  charge,  In  such  case  the  Company  not  to  be  pressed 
upon  the  said  covenant  in  extremity;  but  to  make  his  Majesty  such  satis- 
faction as  shall  be  just  and  conscionable.  But  if  by  the  practise  fraud 
or  negligence  of  the  said  companyes  their  Factors  or  Deputies,  the  said 
quantity,  of  80000  weight  of  the  best  Varinaes  Tobacco  shall  not  be  im- 
ported within  the  compas  of  the  said  first  three  yeares.  Then  the  said 
Companyes  shall  be  answearable  to  his  Majesty  for  every  pound  weight 
so  wanting  of  the  said  Varinaes  Tobacco  belonging  to  his  Majesty's 
Third,  after  the  rate  of  Ten  shillings  the  pound  weight. 

J' The  Virginia  Company  had  inserted  this  word  "received",  and  Middlesex 
had  acquiesced.     Records,  II.   148. 

18 The  words  italicized  are  those  to  which  Middlesex  objected  and  which  the 
companies  consented  to  omit.  Ibid.  No.  6914  reads,  "  7.  The  Companyes  will 
be  contented  to  be  tied  by  covenant  ".  etc. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       745 

9.  It  is  likewise  desired  that  for  recovery  of  all  such  Debts  as  shall 
from  time  to  time  growe  due  to  the  Companyes  by  occasion  of  this  Con- 
tract, The  said  Debts  may  be  assigned  over  unto  the  King  when  and  so 
often  as  need  shall  require. 

10.  They  likewise  desire  that  there  may  be  incerted  in  the  Contract 
a  Grant  and  Covenant  from  his  Majesty  against  the  granting  of  Licenses 
to  Retailors  of  Tobacco:  So  that  the  sale  thereof  may  remayne  free,  as 
hetherto  it  hath  doon. 

11.  That  his  Lordship  be  pleased  to  take  a  strict  coorse  for  the  pre- 
venting of  all  undue  bringing  in  of  Tobacco  by  other  meanes. 

12.  That  all  confiscations  and  other  penalties  upon  this  Contract  be 
divided  into  three  parts:  The  one  part  to  his  Majestie's  use,  the  other 
to  the  Companye's,  the  third  to  the  Informers,  not  prejudicing  any  former 
Grants  already  made  by  his  Majesty. 

13.  That  this  Contract  beginne  at  Michaelmas  1622  last  past,  and  con- 
tinue for  the  space  of  Seven  yeares. 

14.  That  his  Majesty's  Grant  may  be  drawne  and  construed  in  most 
benificiall  manner  for  the  Companye's  behoof,  and  for  the  advancement 
of  the  said  Plantations,  his  Majesty's  proffitt  as  aforesaid  reserved: 
wherein  the  Companies  are  to  covenant  to  carrie  themselves  fairlie  ac- 
cording to  the  true  intent  of  the  bargaine. 

November  27th,  1622.  Middelsex. 

[Endorsed:]   The  contract  for  the  sole  importation 

of  tobacco  Signed  by  my  lord  the  12.  February  1622. 

In  another  copy  of  the  same  document  (no.  6194)  article  14  is 
followed  immediately  by  this  continuation : 

These  propositions  having  been  often  tymes  deliberately  treated  on  by 
the  companies  for  Virginia  and  the  Sumer  Hands  in  their  generall 
Courtes:  were  lastly  with  generall  consent  approved  and  concluded  in  a 
great  and  generall  Quarter  Courte  held  by  the  company  for  the  Sumer 
Ilandes  on  Wedensday  the  27th  of  November,  1622.  As  likewise  in  a 
great  and  generall  court  held  extraordinarily  by  the  Company  for  Vir- 
ginia at  the  same  tyme  and  appointed  by  the  last  Quarter  Court  for  the 
said  Companie  for  Virginia  to  joyne  with  the  said  Quarter  courte  of  the 
said  company  for  the  Sumer  Hands  in  a  finall  conclusion  concerning  the 
said  Propositions.  There  being  present  at  the  said  Courtes  the  Right 
Honorable  Henry  Earle  of  Southampton,  Treasuror  of  the  company  for 
Virginia,19  William  Lord  Cavendish,  Governor  of  the  Company  for  the 
Sumer  Hands,20  with  sundrie  other  Lordes,  Knightes,  Gentlemen,  Mar- 
chantes  and  other  good  cittizens,  who  with  unanimous  consent  did  allowe 
of  and  ratifie  the  said  Propositions  no  one  dissentinge. 

Ed.  Collingwood,  Secre.21 
[Endorsed:]  The  Contract  for  the  sole  Importation 

of  Tobacco,  27  November  1622. 
[And  by  Willis:]  The  Articles  for  Tobacco. 

is  Henry  Wriothesley  (1573-1624),  third  earl  of  Southampton,  Shakespeare's 
patron,  treasurer  of  the  Virginia  Company  from  June  28,  1620,  to  its  dissolution 
in   1624. 

-0  Afterward  (1626-162S)  second  earl  of  Devonshire;  governor  of  the 
Somers  Islands  Company  from  April.  1622,  to  April,  1623.  Lefroy,  Memorials  of 
the  Bermudas,  I.  286,  298. 

21  Secretary  of  the  Virginia  Company  from  June  2S,  1620  (Records,  I.  386). 
till   its  dissolution. 


746  Documents 


XLIV.    LORD  CWENDISII   S    ESTI.M  VI  KS   <  >I      I  UK    \\  c  iRKI  N<;s   (IF   THE   CONTRACT." 


[a]   The  Contract  not  standinge 
The  Planter  computes  thus 


/.    .9.    d. 


Having  by  my  labour  attayned  3  pound  of  Tobacco  to  have 
the  benefit  thereof  returned  me  I  must  first  pay   for  fraught 

into  England  0 — 1 — o 

Then  I  must  pay  for  Custome  at  6  d.  per  pound  0 — 1 — 6 

Then  I  must  pay  for  Impost  at  6  d.  per  pound  0 — 1 — 6 


Total 
Then  I  shall  sell  my  Tobacco  at  the  rate  found  hitherto  by 

experience  oi  2  s.  6  d.  per  pound  one  with  another  which  for 

3  pounds  is 

Out  of  this  deductinge  my  charges  above  reckoned  of  4  s. 

there  will  remayne  to  be  retarned  me  for  my  labour,  and  to- 

wardes  my  mayntenance  for  3  pounds 

[b]  The  Contract  standinge 
The  Planter  computes  thus 

Havinge  by  my  labour  attayned  3  pound  of  Tobacco;  to  have 
the  benefit  thereof  returned  me  I  must  First  pay  for  fraught 
into  England 

Then  for  2/3  of  Custome 

Then  for  the  raysing  of  that  somme  of  2500  /.  towardes 
house  and  rent  charges,  salaryes  and  extraordinary  occasions 
for  my  2/3 


Total     0—2—6 

Then  by  vertue  of  the  sole  sale  I  hope  to  sell  my  3  pound 
of  tobacco  for  4  s.  a  pound  at  the  least  which  will  be  0-12 — 0 

Out  of  this  12  s.  deductinge  his  Majestie's  third,  being  4 
s.,  and  the  2  s.  6  d.  charges  above  reckoned,  there  will  remayne 
to  be  returned  me  for  my  labour  towardes  my  mayntenance  0 — 5 — 6 

So  that  comparatively  the  contract  will  be  better  to  me  then  if  there 
were  no  such  contract  by  2  s.  in  every  three  pound  of  Tobacco. 

Also  to  say  absolutely  this  will  be  sufficient  for  me  to  live  on  being 
22  d.  a  pound  for  my  Tobacco  which  to  prove  I  urge  this  that  if  Tobacco 
in  Spayne  may  be  sold  for  a  Ryall'23  a  pound,  the  Planter  of  it  in  the 
Spanish  Plantations  would  be  fowre  fold  in  worse  case. 

[c]  Touching  his  Majesties  profit,  I  compute  thus 
The  ordinary  quantity  of  Tobacco  imported  into  England  of 
all  sortes  (according  to  a  medium  computed  out  of  the  Cus- 
tomer's bookes)  hath  bene  about  200,000  weight  which  at 
6  d.  per  pound  Custome,  and  6  d.  per  pound  Impost  comes  to 
200,000  shillinges  which  is  10000  /. 

2=  No.   6181.     The  calculations  here  designated  in  brackets  as  A   and   C  are 
written  on  the  left-hand  side  of  large  sheets,  those  designated  B  and  D  on   the 
right-hand  side,  opposite  them,  for  comparison. 
23  Real,   one-eighth   of   a   dollar. 


Lord  Sackvillc's  Papers  respecting  Virginia 


:M 


Admittinge  that  by  vertue  of  the  order  to  be  taken  for  im- 
porting of  all  the  Colonye's  Tobacco,  there  shall  come  in 
400,000  weight  of  Tobacco  from  all  partes  which  is  the  greatest 
quantity  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Worstenholme,-4  yet  this 
comes  but  to 

And  even  thus  it  is  short  by  above  3000  /.  of  the  profit  his 
Majestie  shall  have  by  the  contract  and  liberty  of  importation. 

[d]   Touching  his  Majestie's  profit  I  compute  thus 
For  the  2  first  y cares: 


If  200,000  weight  of  Tobacco  be  brought  in,  there 
must  be  for  the  first  2  yeres  be  brought  in  40000  weight 
of  it  in  the  best  Spanish  Tobacco,  the  rest  being  Colony 
Tobacco  will  be  160,000  weight. 

His  Majestie's  3  d.  of  the  best  Spanish  tobacco  at 
16  s.  a  pound  will  be 

His  Majestie's  3  d.  of  the  160,000  weight  of  Colony 
Tobacco  at  4  s.  a  pound  will  likewise  amount  to 

His  Majesties  custome  for  our  1  still  reserved  on 
the  whole  quantity  brought  in  at  200,000  weyght  comes 


1 0666 . 
[0666, 


Total     24666.     13.     4 

If  Iesse  come  in  the  price  will  be  greater  and  so 
the  Kinge's  profit  will  be  held  up  in  the  price  equiva- 
lent. 
For  the  rest  of  the  time: 

For  the  rest  of  the  time  after,  if  no  Spanish  To- 
bacco at  all  be  brought  in,  then  the  Colony  Tobacco 
will  beare  the  price  of  6  d.  a  pound  whereby  his  Majes- 
tie's 3  d.  of  the  200,000  weight  will  be  20000/. 

which  with  the  foresaid  §  of  custome  still  re- 
served being  ^33,3  I.  6  s.  8  d.  make  23333.       6.     8 

[Endorsed :]  Computation  of  the  planter  which  serves  also  for  the  Ad- 
venturer or  freeholder.  [Also,  in  Cranfield's  hand:]  Concerninge  Plant- 
ing Tobacko :  Received  of  my  Lord  Candish. 


XLV.    DRAFT   OF   LORD    TREASURERS    WARRANT.-0 

After  my  hartie  Comendacions.  Whereas  his  Majestie  hath  beene 
gratiously  pleased  in  favour  of  the  Plantaciones  of  Virginia  and  Summer 
Hands  to  enter  into  Contract  with  the  Companies  for  the  saide  Planta- 
ciones for  the  sole  importacion  of  Tobacco  from  Michaelmas  last  paste 
for  and  duringe  the  tearme  of   seaven  years  thence   next   ensuinge,  by 

2*See  p.  538.  note  144.  The  allusion  is  to  remarks  of  Wolstenholme  quoted 
in  Records,  II.  32. 

-5  No.  6173,  marked  "No.  20"  in  red  ink.  The  draft  seems  to  have  been 
prepared,  probably  by  a  committee  of  the  company  (Records,  II.  162),  in  pursu- 
ance of  the  Lord  Treasurer's  promise  mentioned  in  note  15  above;  it  has  been 
corrected  and  there  are  six   fair  copies  annexed. 


748  Documents 

which  contract  itt  is  ordered  that  all  Tobacco  that  shalbe  brought  into 
this  Realme  duringe  that  tearme  shalbe  first  consigned  into  the  hands  of 
the  saide  Companies:  Theis  are  therfore  to  will  and  require  you  on  his 
Majestie's  behalfe  that  imeadiatlie  from  and  after  the  receipte  of  these 
presentes  you  forbeare  in  that  Porte  and  all  other  places  within  your 
chardge  search  and  veiw  to  take  any  entry  of  Custome  for  Tobacco  there 
to  be  landed  butt  that  if  such  Tobacco  be  brought  from  either  of  the 
saide  Plantaciones  you  take  a  coorse  for  the  safe  and  speedie  sending  up 
of  the  same  to  the  Porte  of  the  Citty  of  London  ther  to  paie  the  Custome 
due  for  it  and  to  be  consigned  into  the  Companies  accordinge  to  their 
saide  Contract, 

Which  Companies  shalbe  accomptable  to  the  owners  of  the  saide  To- 
bacco for  the  full  profitt  therof  accordinge  to  the  Articles  of  the  saide 
Contract  And  in  case  any  Tobacco  of  the  growth  of  either  of  the  saide 
Plantacions  have  beene  allredie  brought  in  since  Michaelmas  last  that  you 
forthwith  send  notice  therof  to  the  Governors  or  their  Deputies  of  the 
saide  Plantacions  resydinge  in  London,  wherin  you  are  to  expresse  the 
quantitie  of  the  same,  what  sorts  itt  was  of  and  by  whome  itt  was 
brought  in.  And  if  any  Tobacco  not  of  the  growth  of  one  of  the  saide 
Plantacions  since  Michallmas  laste  paste  have  bine  or  shalbe  brought  in 
during  the  time  of  the  saide  Contract  that  you  seaze  the  same  to  the  use 
of  his  Majestie  and  such  others  unto  whome  the  forfeiture  thereof  shall 
appertaine.  And  in  case  the  saide  seazure  shall  have  formerjie  beene  neg- 
lected that  yett  you  make  due  certificate  to  the  saide  Governors  and 
Deputies  as  well  of  the  severall  owners  and  quantities  of  the  said  To- 
bacco as  of  all  other  particularities  therto  belonginge.  And  generally 
you  and  everie  of  you  are  straightlie  charged  and  commaunded  on  his 
Majestie's  behalfe  as  you  will  answere  all  neglects  therin  at  your  perill 
to  have  a  vigilant  care  over  this  matter  of  Tobacco  that  nothinge  be 
done  committed  or  suffered  prejudiciall  to  the  saide  Contract  (of  the  gen- 
erall  clauses  wherof  you  shall  hereafter  have  more  particular  notice) 
beinge  a  matter  soe  greatlie  concerninge  his  Majestie's  profitt  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  saide  Plantacions  which  are  no  lesse  deare  unto  him. 
And  soe  I  bid  you  farewell. 
[Endorsed:]   Draught  of  a  letter  to  the  Ports  concerning  Tobacco. 

XLVI.    ARGUMENT  FOR   A   MONOPOLY.26 

Reasons  to  induce  his  Majestie  to  assume  to  himselfe 
and  grant  the  sole  importation  of  tobacco. 

It  is  out  of  question  within  the  true  limitts  of  his  Majestie's  preroga- 
tive utterlie  to  prohibite  the  importation  of  any  newe  uselesse  or  forraigne 
comoditie,  that  any  way  either  is  hurtfull  to  the  comon  wealth  in  generall 
or  wastfull  to  his  subjects  in  particuler. 

Secondly  of  any  such  as  is  neither  fitt  for  the  necessities  of  man's 
life  in  meate  or  cloathing,  nor  for  the  good  or  strength  of  the  kingdome 
and  in  the  strictest  judgmentes  of  Parliamentes  matters  of  great  neces- 
sitie  have  bin  deposited  unto  the  wisedome  of  the  King  untill  an  other 
Parliament27  bycause  many  thinges  may  happen  betweene  which  could 

=6  No.  6186. 

-"  Alluding  no  doubt  to  the  manner  in  which  King  James's  sudden  dissolution 
of  the  Parliament  of  1621   interrupted  action  on  monopolies. 


Lord  Sackvillc's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       749 

not  absolutely  bee  provided  for,  and  if  his  Majestie  may  utterlie  pro- 
hibite  consequentlie  hee  may  bound  the  same  either  in  quantitie  or  to 
particuler  persons. 

It  is  evident  in  this  case  of  Tobacco  that  by  the  excessive  abuse  thereof 
the  quantitie  imported  is  so  great  that  it  equaleth  or  exceedeth  most 
sorts,  of  Spices  and  it  must  bee  bought  either  for  our  English  comodi- 
ties  or  for  money,  the  value  of  both  which  are  utterlie  consumed  and  the 
kingdome  so  much  yearlie  by  it  impoverished,  and  this  abundance  hath 
so  raised  the. price  that  for  the  same  quantitie  trebble  the  price  is  wasted 
to  buy  it  in,  that  was  usuall  in  former  yeares. 

To  prevent  which,  seeing  his  Majestie  in  his  wisedome  hath  not 
thought  it  fitt,  utterlie  to  banish  this  stranger,  the  next  consideration  is, 
how  to  abate  the  price  beyond  the  seas,  that  lesse  in  substance  may  furnish 
the  kingdome,  and  so  necessarilie  the  price  will  fall  lower  within  the 
kingdome,  and  much  of  the  generall  wast  and  of  the  particuler  wilbee 
prevented. 

There  are  two  causes  that  in  theise  later  yeares  have  raysed  the 
forraigne  price  of  Tobacco ;  one  by  a  combination  of  the  stranger  to 
ingrosse  all  into  the  handes  of  a  Companie  whereof  the  chiefe  is  called 
Ferdinand  Lopez  d'Acosta  which  hath  bin  two  yeares  practised  and  is 
well  knowne  to  all  the  Tobacco  buyers  to  their  cost  and  damage,  who 
have,  and  as  yet  determine  to  hold  upp  or  advance  the  price  of  that 
comoditie  to  the  losse  of  this  Kingdome. 

The  seaconde  cause  is  the  eager  forwardnes  of  theise  buyers  of  To- 
bacco that  upon  the  first  noise  of  a  parcell  runne  beyond  the  seas,  and  if 
they  can  not  carrie  money  do  fitt  themselves,  with  English  comodities 
proper  for  Spaine  and  such  as  the  Spanish  marchant  chieflie  dealeth  in, 
and  there  to  prevent  any  other  selleth  his  goodes  at  15  or  20  per  cent 
losse  to  the  abasement  of  our  owne  English  staple  comodities  and  to  the 
ruine  of  the  Spanish  marchant,  as  is  evident  by  the  complaint  and  peti- 
tion of  the  said  Spanish  marchants,  and  this  straggling  buyer  can  make 
himself  whole  by  selling  his  weede  at  home  at  his  owne  pleasure.  The 
Spanish  marchant  cannot  reforme  this  abuse  unlesse  they  were  made  a 
companie,  which  as  wee  are  informed  his  Majestie  is  tender  to  doe,  hav- 
ing bin  dissolved  by  Parliament,-8  and  at  the  best  hand,  if  the  Spanish 
marchant  have  mony  in  specie  which  he  would  sende  over,  this  To- 
baconist  will  give  him  so  much  profitt  upon  exchange,  as  he  will  never 
adventure  it  in  kind. 

By  the  sole  importation  of  Tobacco  it  is  projected  to  meete  with  "both 
those  abuses,  and  to  hold  the  stranger  to  the  first  moderate  price  of  6, 
7  or  8  Rialls  the  pound,  or  as  neere  as  they  can,  and  by  a  joint  stocke 
made  heere  at  home  and  factors  kept  abroad  either  by  exchange  from 
Antwerpe  or  by  sale  of  our  owne  comodities  to  their  true  value  to 
furnish  the  said  Tobacco  at  a  third  part  of  the  price  it  hath  lately 
cost  into  the  kingdome  whereby  the  greatest  wast  wilbee  prevented,  the 
Bullion  of  the  marchant  not  intercepted,  no  silver  exported,  the  Spanish 
marchant  disburthened  of  those  stragglers  and  their  abuses,  and  in  all 
probabilitie  the  comoditie  sould  in  grosse  cheaper,  and  the  particuler 
spender  thereby  eased  and  his  Majesties  revenewe  increased  to  a  good 
value  and  to  a  certaintie. 

28  For  the  action  of  the  Parliament  of  1621  against  monopolies  see  Gardiner, 
History  of  England,  IV.  12$,   140. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 50- 


75°  Documents 

XLVII.    ARGUMENT  FOR  A   FREE  TRADE.20 

Reasons  why  a  free  trade  for  Tobacco  wilbee  more  benifitiall 
unto  his  Majestie  then  the  sole  Importacion  to  bee  graunted  unto 
any  particuler  Company. 

First,  it  appeareth  that  the  tobacco  vented  in  this  Kingdome  is  yearely 
at  leaste  300,000  lb.  weighte  which  beeinge  devided  the  one  halfe  to  bee 
Spanish  Tobacco  and  the  other  halfe  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco,  the 
Custome  and  Impost  therof  is  for  Spanish  Tobacco  ii  5.  per  pound  and 
for  Virginia  xii  d.  per  lb.  at  which  rates  it  doth  arise  unto  22,500  li. 
per  annum. 

Secondly,  it  is  apparant  that  the  Plantacion  in  the  West  Indies  is  soe 
greatly  increased  and  the  Plantacion  of  Virginia  and  Bermudos  doth  so 
much  augement  that  the  Tobacco  wilbee  soe  aboundantly  brought  in  and 
the  prices  soe  base  that  the  third  parte  his  Majestie  is  to  have  will  never 
yeilde  so  much  yearely  as  the  Impost  and  Custome  will  come  to. 

Thirdly,  for  that  it  is  very  honorable  for  this  nation  to  advaunce  the 
Sale  of  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco,  I  doe  verely  thincke  that  if  his 
Majestie  would  bee  pleased  to  restraine  the  West  India  or  Spanish  To- 
bacco and  to  cause  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Company  to  importe  all 
the  Tobacco  that  shalbee  laden  from  thence  into  the  porte  of  London 
beinge  the  cheife  porte  of  this  Kingdome  the  like  president  beeinge 
usuall  in  all  foraigne  plantacions  whereas  Spanish  Tobacco  doth  pay  ii  .$. 
per  pound  unto  his  Majestie  for  Custome  and  Imposte,  to  take  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Bermudos  tobacco  but  xviii  d.  per  pound  it  would  bee  much 
better  for  the  planter  and  more  proffit  unto  his  Majestie  for  within  one 
yeare  it  cannot  yeild  lesse  then  20000  li.  per  annum  but  is  likely  to  bee 
much  more  and  the  planter  will  yearly  make  his  Tobacco  the  better  to 
increase  the  price. 

Lastly,  if  for  some  reasons  of  State30  the  Spanish  Tobacco  maye  not 
bee  prohibited  then  a  freedome  of  Trade  wilbee  best  and  most  proffitt 
unto  his  Majestie  for  the  meanest  sortes  of  Spanish  Tobacco  doth  paye 
unto  his  Majestie  ii  5.  per  pound  and  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  but 
xii  d.  per  pound  soe  that  they  are  able  to  undersell  the  meaner  sortes  of 
Spanish  Tobacco  xii  d.  in  a  pound  and  in  truth  it  is  found  by  experience 
that  the  Tobacco  of  Virginia  and  Bermudos  doth  vente  much  better  then 
the  meaner  sortes  of  Spanish  tobacco,  soe  that  I  verely  thinck  fewe  will 
attempt  to  bringe  meane  Tobaccoes  out  of  Spaine  for  that  they  knowe 
beforehand  that  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  is  both  better  and  will  sell 
deerer. 

[Endorsed  by  the  Lord  Treasurer :]   Reasons  wherfore  the  Sole  Importa- 
tion and  imposition  upon  Tobacko  should  not  be  graunted  in  Farme. 

XLVIII.    PROPOSALS  RESPECTING  A    MONOPOLY   OF   SPANISH   TOBACCO.31 

Artycles  of  agrement  betwixt  his  Majestie  and  the  undertakeres 
tuchinge  the  solle  Importation  of  40  m.32  waight  of  Spanyshe  To- 
bacco in  to  his  Majestie's  dominions  of  England  and  Wailes. 

29  No.  6160,  marked  "No.  6"  in  red  ink. 

30  I.e.,  because  of  King  James's  penchant  toward  a  Spanish  alliance. 

31  No.  6185.  If  the  contract  for  the  sole  importation  of  Spanish  tobacco 
were  not  accepted  by,  or  entrusted  to,  the  Virginia  Company,  it  might  be  under- 
taken by  others.  "  If  there  was  a  necessity,  that  a  certayne  quantity  of  forraigne 
Tobacco  must  be  brought,  it  was  all  one  to  the  Plantacions,  whether  it  were  in 
the  Companies  or  others  handes."     Records,  II.  343  (Apr.  2,  1623). 

32  Forty  thousand. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       751 

1.  Fyrst  thatt  a  proclamation  bee  graunted  from  his  Majestie  thatt 
in  regard  of  the  benefytt  and  welfare  of  the  plantation  of  Virgine  and 
Barmodos  his  Majestie  hathe  assumed  unto  hym  selfe  the  sole  importa- 
tion of  40  m.  waight  of  Spanyshe  tobacco,  apointinge  2  parsons33  for  his 
agentes  for  the  managinge  of  the  said  buysnes  forbodinge  al  others  to 
importte  with  powre  and  atorety34  to  serche  accordinge  to  the  last  pat- 
tentes  which  was  graunted  to  Sir  Thomas  Rooe  and  Company.35 

2.  Thatt  Virgine  and  Barmodos  Tobacco  be  fyrst  sealed  with  suche 
a  seale  as  his  Majesty  shall  apointe. 

3.  Thatt  the  Spanishe  Tobacco  continewe  sealed  with  the  seale 
graunted  by  his  Majesty  to  Sir  Thomas  Rooe. 

4.  Thatt  all  Tobacco  which  is  found  unsealed  within  his  Majesties 
dominions  of  England  and  Wailes  after  suche  a  tyme  be  confiscated  or 
loste,  thone36  moyety  to  his  Majesty  and  the  other  parte  to  the  Seasor 
or  informer. 

5.  Thatt  the  Virgine  and  Barmodos  company  with  his  Majestie's 
agentes  of  the  Sole  Importation  of  Spanyshe  Tobacco  agre  and  accorde 
togethere  towardes  the  charge  of  kepinge  forthe,  and  serchinge  of  all 
forraine  tobacco  which  may  be  browght  in  be  stelthe.  theone  moyty  of 
the  forfetures  of  the  kinge's  partte  to  be  for  his  Majestie's  agentes  and  the 
other  partte  for  the  Vergine  and  Barmodos  company. 

6.  Thatt  the  seales  be  keapt  in  the  custody  of  the  kinge's  agentes  of 
the  sole  importation  of  Spanyshe  Tobacco.  Tuchinge  the  rest  of  artycles 
of  agrement  the  undertakeres  refere  them  selffs  to  the  consideration  of 
Majesties  larned  Counsell  in  Lawe. 

The  undertakers  will  give  and  pay  unto  his  Majesty  for  the  sole  im- 
portation of  40  m.  waight  of  Spanishe  Tobacco  the  some  of  5000  /.  per 
annum  for  a  Patente  to  continewe  for  3  yeares  under  the  great  seall  of 
England.  And  also  pay  unto  the  graund  Farmers37  6  d.  per  pound  for 
40  m.  waight  of  Tobacco. 

[Endorsed :]   Articles  touching  the  sole  importacion  of  40000  weight  of 
Spanish  Tobacco  etc. 

XLIX.    OFFERS   FOR  THE  FARM   OF  SPANISH   TOBACCO.38 

Farm  of  Spanish  Tobacco. 

J.S.  doth  humbly  offer  unto  his  Majestie  for  the  farme  of  the  Sole 
Importacion  of  Spanish  Tobacco,  and  to  bee  bound  to  bringe  in  yearely 
40,000  lb.  waighte  and  not  in  any  yeare  to  exceede  60,000  lb.  waighte  As 
also  for  the  Impost  or  increase  of  Subsidy  of  vi  d.  per  pound  paid  for  the 
Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  Imported  As  alsoe  that  all  the  Virginia 
and  Bermudos  Tobacco  bee  broughte  into  this  kingdome  And  to  take 
the  same  for  seaven  yeares  uppon  such  Condicions  and  as  by  Councell  on 
each  parte  shalbee  reasonable. 


red    ink;    partially    quoted 


33  Persons. 

34  Authority. 

3=  See  p.  525, 

note   106, 

and 

P-  I 

3fi  The  one. 

37  Of  the  customs. 

38  No.    6170, 

marked   " 

No. 

17 

iwirs  of  Nicholas  Ferrar,  p. 

166. 

752  Documents 

In  Consideracion  vvherof  the  said  J.S.  will  give  unto  his  Majestie 
10,000  li.  per  annum  vizt.  the  vi  d.  per  pound  uppon  Virginia  and  Ber- 
mudos  Tobacco  to  bee  collected  unto  his  Majestie's  use  yearely  And  at 
the  yeare's  ende  whatsoever  the  said  vi  d.  per  pound  fauleth  shorte  of 
10,000  li.  the  same  to  bee  made  up  by  the  Contractors  and  to  bee  paid 
into  his  Majestie's  receipte  within  40  dayes  after  every  yeare's  ende, 
Dureinge  the  tearme  of  seaven  yeares. 

J.S.  doth  further  in  all  humblenes  offer  unto  his  Majestie  that  if  it 
shall  please  his  Majestie  to  sett  open  the  Trade  of  Spanish  Tobacco  and 
to  injoyne  all  the  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  to  bee  broughte  into 
this  Kingdome  and  to  paye  the  Impost  or  increase  of  subsidy  of  vi  d. 
per  pound  for  Virginia  and  Bermudos  tobacco  And  the  Impost  of  xviii  d. 
per  pound  for  all  other  sortes  of  tobacco,  And  for  all  such  Virginia  and 
Bermudos  Tobacco  as  shalbee  shipped  out  againe  and  not  vented  in  this 
Kingdome,  to  Allowe  unto  them  that  imported  the  said  tobacco  iii  d.  per 
pound  for  all  they  shall  exporte,  And  to  take  the  same  for  seaven  yeares 
uppon  such  condicions  as  by  Councell  shalbee  agreed  one, 

In   consideracion  wherof  the   said  J.S.  will   give  unto  his  Majestie 
10,000  li.  per  annum  to  bee  paid  halfe  yearely  or  within  40  dayes  after 
each  rente  daye. 
[Endorsed:']  Tobacco:  2  severall  propositions. 

L.    PROPOSALS    OF    SIR    NATHANIEL    RICH.39 

A  proposition  for  advancement  of  his  Majestie's  profit  and  good 
of  the  Plantacions  of  Virginia  and  the  Summer  Islandes  by  set- 
ling  the  trade  of  Tobacco  which  is  the  comoditie  by  which  they 
nowe  cheifelie  subsist. 
First  the  plantations  subsisting  as  yet  by  this  comoditie  of  Tobacco  it 
is  necessarie  that  some  provision  bee  made  that  the  sale  and  vent  thereof 
may  bee  continewed  and  that  the  price  may  be  kept  up  at  some  such  pro- 
portionable Rate  as  may  yeald  the  adventurers  and  planters  reasonable 
profit. 

And  as  it  is  necessarie  for  the  good  of  the  plantacions  soe  likewise 
his  Majesties  profit  is  carefullie  to  bee  regarded  whose  casuall  Revenewe 
by  this  comoditie  hath  binne  increased  at  least  eight  or  ten  thousand 
poundes  per  Annum  and  may  hereafter  bee  much  more.  But  if  some 
tymelie  provision  bee  not  made  both  his  Majesties  Revenewe  wilbee  lost 
and  the  plantacions  (especiallie  that  of  the  Summer  Islands)  in  daunger 
to  be  utterlie  ruyned.     For 

1.  The  quantitie  of  Tobacco  (by  reason  of  the  late  excessive  planting 
thereof  in  the  West  Indyes  and  in  the  new  plantacions  of  Guyana  and 
Brazill)  is  like  to  bee  so  greate  that  all  theis  partes  of  Christendome 
wilbee  glutted  with  it,  and  the  price  of  Tobacco  brought  soe  lowe  that  in 
probabilitie  it  will  not  bee  worth  so  much  a  pound  as  his  Majestie  hath 
now  for  Custome. 

so  No.  6178.  Sir  Nathaniel  Rich  (1585  '-1636),  a  relative  and  supporter  of 
Lord  Warwick  and  opponent  of  Sandys  and  the  Ferrars,  was  a  member  of  the 
Virginia,  Somers  Islands,  Providence  Island,  and  East  India  companies  and  of 
the  Council  for  New  England,  and  a  patentee  of  Saybrook.  The  document  is  not 
the  same  as  Miss  Kingsbury's  no.  411  (Records,  I.  165),  Manchester  Papers  nos. 
312,  313;  Hist.  MSS.  Coram.,  Eighth  Report,  part  II..  p.  38. 


Lord  Sacki'iUc's  Papers  respecting  J'irginia       753 

2.  The  Tobacco  of  those  countries  though  not  in  wholesomenes  yet  in 
strength,  tast  and  estimacion,  doth  so  farre  excell  oures  vi  the  English 
plantacions  that  if  in  his  Majestie's  dominions  wee  cannot  find  sale  for 
it  other  tobacco  will  yeald  nothing  at  all. 

Therefore  for  the  setling  and  advancement  both  of  his  Majestie's 
yearelie  Revenewe  and  the  good  of  the  plantations  in  Virginia  and  the 
Summer  Islands  (which  are  amongst  others  most  memorable  workes  of 
his  Majestie's  happie  government), 

It  is  propounded  etc. 

That  as  the  French  kinge  hath  the  Gabell  of  salt  in  Fraunce  and  the 
king  of  Spaine  the  sole  marchandize  both  of  peppar  and  even  of  this  par- 
ticular comoditie  of  Tobacco  in  Spaine,  soe  it  would  please  his  most 
excellent  Majestie  our  soveraigne  to  take  the  sole  preemption  of  all  the 
Tobacco  of  the  English  plantacions  in  Virginia  and  the  Summer  Islandes 
alloweing  the  Adventurers  and  Planters  within  some  convenient  tyme 
after  they  shall  deliver  it  at  the  Port  of  London  21a  pound  for  the  worser 
sorte  (so  that  it  be  marchantable)  2  s.  6  d.  for  the  midle  sorte  and  3  .?.  a 
pound  for  the  best,  cleare  of  charge,  of  fraight  Custome  and  Impost;  This 
will  give  full  and  universall  content  to  the  Planters  and  Adventurers 
who  must  needes  acknowledge  it  a  worke  of  great  grace  and  princelie 
wisedome  in  his  Majestie  so  to  provide  for  them  that  they  shalbee  in 
better  case  then  ever  they  were. 

And  for  secureing  his  Majestie's  yearelie  profit  it  may  bee  managed 
thus. 

Some  able  men  may  bee  conferred  withall  who  will  become  the  king's 
marchants  for  this  comoditie  and  allowe  his  Majestie  double  the  propor- 
cion  which  his  Majestie  payes  for  this  Tobacco,40  so  that  the  quantitie 
exceede  not  400  Thousand  wight  which  is  as  much  as  the  plantacions 
wilbee  able  to  afforde,  and  theis  kingdomes  of  England  and  Ireland  doe 
usuallie  vent.  Thus  will  his  Majesties  Revenewe  by  the  comoditie  bee 
raised  to  40  if  not  to  50  Thousand  poundes  per  Annum  certaine,  and  his 
Majestie  not  one  penny  out  of  purse. 

And  for  Incouragement  of  theis  marchauntes  it  is  propounded  that 
they  may  have  the  sole  power  to  lycence  the  retaileing  of  this  comoditie, 
And  so  for  their  owne  securitie  may  agree  with  a  convenient  number  in 
everie  Cittie  Towne  and  great  parish  to  buy  a  yearelie  proporcion  of  this 
Tobacco  at  such  rates  as  the  said  marchauntes  may  bee  reasonable  Gay- 
ners  and  such  quantities  as  the  king's  marchants  shalbe  sure  to  have  the 
whole  comoditie  taken  from  them  and  dispersed  into  many  handes  which 
is  verie  feasible  for  if  none  may  sell  or  retaile  tobacco  but  such  as  shalbe 
lycenced  by  the  kinges  marchauntes  they  will  find  rather  too  many  then 
too  few  that  will  in  this  kind  deale  with  them. 

And  by  this  proposicion 

1.  The  king's  profit  wilbee  exceedinglie  increased. 

2.  His  Majestie  even  in  that  respect  besides  his  owne  gracious  dis- 
posicion  deeplie  ingaged  in  the  welfare  and  prosperitie  of  those  planta- 
cions that  alreadie  even  by  one  comoditie  afford  him  such  a  large 
revenewe. 

*o  "  Or,"  says  a  note  in  the  margin,  "  if  merchantes  will  not  undertake  so 
great  a  bargaine  then  may  it  be  managed  by  some  Commissioners  wholy  for  his 
Majestie's  benefitt  which  will  much  more  increase  the  King's  proffitt." 


754  Documents 

3.  The  excessive  stealeing  in  of  forreine  tobacco  into  this  kingdome 
wilbee  hereby  avoided  and  the  charge  of  strict  search  for  it  in  the  portes 
saved.  For  everie  retailor  will  in  this  case  bee  an  informer  because  it 
will  hinder  both  his  owne  and  his  fellowes  profit.  And  for  their  better 
Incouragement  they  may  have  the  moyitie  of  all  such  tobacco  as  they 
shall  discover  so  to  be  stollen  in. 

4.  It  will  tend  to  the  generall  good  of  this  kingdome  by  restrayneing 
thexcessive  Expence  of  Bullion  which  was  wont  to  be  layd  out  in  for- 
reine partes  for  this  comoditie  to  the  great  diminucion  of  the  Threasure 
of  this  kingdome.  As  also  by  mantayneing  a  trade  and  commerce  be- 
tweene  theis  kingdomes  and  those  new  acquired  countries  of  Virginia 
and  the  Summer  Islandes  and  that  without  money  which  is  worthie  of 
observacion  for  wee  returne  not  money  but  our  owne  Native  Comodities 
of  Cloth,  wollen  stuffes,  Tynne,  Leade,  Leather  etc.  for  the  goodes  which 
wee  receive  from  thence,  and  if  it  bee  ordered  so  that  the  last  price  of  the 
best  Tobacco  exceede  not  ten  or  eleven  shillinges  as  it  very  well  may 
then  doth  the  subject  also  buy  it  at  a  better  rate  then  ever  he  hath  done 
heretofore. 

5.  Lastlie  the  Propounder  of  this  Course  prayes  it  may  be  considered 
that  hee  onelie  aymes  herein  at  publique  good  as  may  appeare  by  all  the 
reasons  alledged  professing  that  he  sees  no  wrong  or  inconvenience  that 
can  happen  to  anie  man  hereby  but  conceives  that  this  being  a  superfluous 
weede  and  fit  to  be  regulated,  all  discreete  and  indifferent  men  wilbe  so 
farre  from  excepting  against  it  as  they  will  rather  thinke  it  a  matter  of 
great  grace  and  prudence  in  his  Majestie  to  prevent  the  former  mischeife 
and  thus  to  order  a  superfluitie  to  so  good,  just,  honorable  and  publique 
endes. 

[Endorsed  in  the  hand  of  the  Lord  Treasurer:]   Sir  Nathaniell  Rich,  Vir- 
ginia and  Burmoothes. 

LI.    ARGUMENT  AGAINST  THE  CONTRACT,    [MARCH     20,    1623].41 

Sundry  reasons  against  the   Contract  and  Joynt   stocke  of  the 
Virginia  and  Summer  Islandes  Tobacco. 

1.  The  Contract  besides  Custome  and  Charges  is  to  yeald  his  Majestie 
one  third  part  of  the  goodes  in  kind,  which  third  part  (by  reason  the 
condition  of  this  yeares  Tobacco  falles  out  to  bee  meane  and  litle  worth) 
will  disappoint  his  Majestie  in  point  of  profit  And  the  other  two  thirdes 
being  of  like  bad  condition  (all  Charges  deducted)  there  wilbee  litle  or 
nothing  remayneing  for  the  Adventurers  and  Planters. 

2.  The  great  quantitie  and  meane  condicion  of  the  Virginia  and  Sum- 
mer Hands  Tobacco  is  such  as  for  the  most  part  it  must  bee  exported  at 
easie  rates  into  Turkie  Barbarie  and  other  forreine  partes  which  by  the 
charge  of  this  Contract  is  impossible  without  great  damage  and  losse  to 
the  owners. 

*i  No.  6163,  marked  "  No.  9  "  in  red  ink.  It  is  an  additional  copy  of  the 
document  in  the  Public  Record  Office  (C.  O.  1:3.  no.  10)  which  figures  as  no. 
424  in  Miss  Kingsbury's  list  (Records,  I.  165)  and  bears  date  of  Mar.  20,  1623. 
Mr.  Sainsbury,  Cat.  St.  P.  Col.,  I.  59,  wrongly  gave  this  P.  R.  O.  document  the 
date  Mar.  20,  1624.  There  is  a  transcript  of  it  in  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
Bancroft   Papers.   II.  413-^20, 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       755 

3.  The  heavie  charge  laid  upon  Tobacco  by  this  contract  will  occasion 
the  transportacion  thereof  from  the  Plantacions  into  forreine  partes  and 
not  into  England  whereby  his  Majestie  wilbe  a  great  looser  and  the  Com- 
panie  much  damnified,  nay  it  is  to  bee  feared  that  the  people  in  the  Sum- 
mer Islands  will  grow  altogeather  idle  haveing  nothing  else  to  raise  profit 
by,  and  then  povertie  and  want  may  drive  them  to  revoke  and  so  his 
Majestie  loose  the  strongest  knowne  forte  in  the  Christian  world  tending 
both  to  the  safetie  of  this  kingdome,  and  acquisition  of  that  other  of  Vir- 
ginia to  the  which  it  serves  in  stead    of  an  impregnable  fort. 

4.  No  such  contract  as  this  can  bee  made  but  by  the  joynt  consent 
of  all  the  Adventurers  and  Planters  whereof  not  one  of  ten  have  given  their 
consent  and  manie  of  those  that  consented  conceived  themselves  inforct 
unto  it,  but  being  since  better  acquainted  with  his  Majesties  most  free 
and  gracious  intencion  do  now  humblie  declare  their  disassent  thereunto 
conceiveing  that  this  Contract  cannot  be  proceeded  in  without  extreame 
Injustice  and  forfeiture  of  our  Charters  by  which  wee  are  to  governe  our 
affaires  according  to  the  lawes  of  England  that  doe  not  allowe  the  good 
subject  to  bee  dispossessed  of  his  goodes  without  his  consent,  And  wee 
doe  humblie  pray  that  the  act  of  a  few  and  such  as  are  least  interested 
in  point  of  charge,  and  therefore  doe  not  feele  the  waight  of  the  burthen 
which  they  lay  upon  other  men  may  not  prejudice  the  whole  companie. 

5.  The  rate  for  exporteing  of  people  to  the  plantacion  was  wont  to  bee 
five  or  sixe  pound  a  head  to  bee  paid  in  Tobacco  but  by  this  contract  the 
rate  will  growe  to  be  10  or  12  Z.  at  least,  The  Owners  forecasting  that  the 
Tobacco  which  they  shall  take  for  freight  of  the  passengers  wilbee  more 
then  twice  dearer  unto  them  then  in  former  times,  and  so  by  that  meanes 
will  extreamelie  hinder  the  peopling  of  the  Plantacions  when  passengers 
cannot  but  at  such  extreame  rates  bee  transported  thither. 

6.  The  sole  importacion  of  Spanish  Tobacco  is  a  part  and  cheife  con- 
sideracion  of  this  contract  by  which  importacion  not  the  Companies  but 
private  men  that  make  the  stocke42  shall  receive  the  benifit,  and  therefore 
noe  cause  why  in  that  respect  the  goodes  of  the  Adventurers  and  planters 
should  be  charged  by  this  contract. 

7.  It  is  a  thing  of  great  daunger  and  hazard  for  particuler  men's  estates 
to  bee  ingaged  to  his  Majestie  by  the  seales  of  the  companie  for  the  per- 
formance of  so  great  a  contract  which  may  breed  question  and  lie  as  a 
perpetuall  charge  and  Incumbrance  upon  the  persons  goodes  and  landes 
of  them  and  their  heires  that  are  free  of  these  companies,  yea  although 
they  never  received  one  penny  benifit  by  their  freedome. 

8.  A  single  planter  doth  raise  at  the  most  but  30  pound  wight  of  to- 
bacco in  the  Summer  Islandes  in  one  yeare  for  his  owne  part,  whereof 
one  third  by  the  contract  is  to  goe  to  his  Majestie,  another  third  in 
ordinary  charges  besides  sallary,  and  so  restes  scarce  ten  pound  wight  to 
the  poore  labourer,  not  worth  in  all  above  1  /.  5  s.  for  his  whole  yeares 
paynes,  and  even  out  of  this  25  ^.  being  the  labour  of  a  whole  yeare  hee 
is  by  the  contract  to  allow  double  salarie43  which  may  take  away  all  the 

*-  I.e.,  subscribe  to  the  joint  stock  for  the  purpose.  If  the  company  had  re- 
ceived the  contract,  it  would  have  created  a  subordinate  organization  or  joint 
stock  to  manage  the  importations  of  Spanish  tobacco,  and  another  for  the 
Virginian   and    Bermudan. 

*3  The  salaries  voted  by  the  companies,  for  management  under  the  contract 
(Records.  II.  150-152,  Nov.  27,  1622),  were  thereafter  a  constant  subject  of 
complaint  on  the  part  of  the  dissatisfied  minority. 


756  Documents 

rest,  and  leave  him  nothing  at  all ;  And  the  Adventurers  are  in  the  same 
case,  soe  as  appareantlie  the  plantacion  wilbee  overthrowne  if  this  Con- 
tract doe  proceed. 

Neither  will  the  monopolizeing  of  Tobacco  into  one  hand  anie  waies 
better  this  bargaine  but  rather  make  it  worse  for 

1.  If  by  that  meanes  they  suppose  to  raise  the  price  and  to  sell  it 
dearer  that  wilbe  the  next  way  to  cause  such  an  ymportation  by  stealth 
(as  was  seene  in  pepper  when  the  like  course  was  taken)44  as  that  our 
Tobacco  will  lie  unvented  till  it  rott  and  perish,  and  the  charge  of  keepe- 
ing  the  portes  to  prevent  it  wilbee  in  likelihood  more  then  the  goodes  are 
worth. 

2.  It  were  a  dangerous  president  and  never  heard  of  that  plurality  of 
voyces  should  conclude  the  goodes  of  other  men  without  their  consent  to 
bee  put  into  a  Joynt  stocke  at  the  comeing  home  of  the  shipp  whereas 
the  Adventure  outward  was  by  particuler  men  not  in  Joynt  stocke,  which 
if  it  shalbe  admitted  to  take  place  wilbe  the  utter  ruine  and  destruction  of 
all  trade  and  commerce. 

3.  It  occasions  a  strange  charge  of  a  yearelie  stipend  or  salarie  to 
Officers  to  mannage  this  Joynt  stocke  which  the  Companies  are  not  able 
to  beare  and  yet  by  votes  of  such  as  are  least  interessed  and  of  those  men 
themselves  who  are  to  receive  it  was  caried  by  pluralitie  of  voyces. 

4.  By  this  meanes  his  Majestie  wilbee  charged  with  8  or  900  li.  per 
annum  certaine  for  his  third  part  of  this  salarie45  and  how  much  more 
we  know  not  so  that  perhaps  his  Majestie's  charge  wilbee  more  then  his 
whole  third  part  of  this  meane  Tobacco  will  come  unto. 

5.  It  hinders  the  poore  people  from  trucking  away  their  Tobacco  for 
comodities  by  which  heretofore  they  have  releived  themselves  and  made 
a  greater  benifit  then  ever  they  could  doe  by  selling  for  in  readie  money. 

6.  It  bereaves  both  Planters  and  Owners  of  present  meanes  to  supplie 
their  shares  seeing  they  must  attend  the  sale  and  accompt  of  the  Joynt 
stocke. 

7.  It  subjectes  them  to  great  hazard  by  ill  debtes. 

8.  It  involves  them  in  intricate  accomptes  and  is  like  to  occasion  infinite 
suites  and  contencions  and  will  breede  much  confusion  in  the  sale  of  their 
goodes,  for  in  this  comoditie  one  man's  parcell  of  Tobacco  is  much  better 
then  another  and  either  it  must  be  sold  with  theires  of  lesse  value  and 
soe  a  losse  to  the  owner  and  generall  discouragement  to  make  their  to- 
bacco good  or  erse  if  everie  man's  bee  kept  apart  wee  must  rest  upon  the 
goodwill  of  the  Agentes  when  this  or  that  man's  parcell  shalbee  sold, 

9.  The  experience  of  the  losses  and  inconveniences  which  have  growne 
by  all  other  joynt  stockes  is  sufficient  to  deterre  men  from  this  course, 
and  we  hope  his  Majestie  will  not  permitt  that  anie  man  shall  be  forced 
to  it  whether  he  will  or  noe. 

Wee  conceive  this  busines  wilbee  better  mannaged  if  it  will  please 
his  Majestie  to  limit  the  importacion  of  Spanish  Tobacco  to  a  reasonable 
proporcion  as  alreadie  he  hath  done  and  to  graunt  the  farme  thereof  to 
whom  his  Majestie  shall  please  for  his  owne  best  benifit,  and  then  (re- 
serveing  onelie  that  proportion  of  Spanish  Tobacco)  to  inhibite  the  im- 

«  In  1609  a  monopoly  of  the  importation  of  pepper  was  granted  to  the  East 
India  Company.  W.  R.  Scott,  Joint-Stock  Companies,  I.  140,  quoting  the  court 
records  of  the  company. 

45  The  proposed  salaries  amounted  in  the  aggregate  to    £2500. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       757 

portacion  of  all  other  save  that  which  shalbee  brought  in  from  theis 
plantations  and  that  everie  Adventurer  and  Planter  may  receive  and 
dispose  of  his  owne  goodes  for  his  best  advantage.  And  wee  shall 
humblie  submit  ourselves  to  his  Majestie's  gratious  pleasure  for  such  a 
custome  to  bee  layd  upon  other  goodes  as  may  incourage  all  the  Planters 
and  Owners  to  import  all  the  Tobacco  that  shalbee  made  both  in  Vir- 
ginia and  the  Summer  Islandes  into  this  Realme  of  England  and  not 
otherwhere;  which  as  it  would  increase  and  advance  the  plantacions, 
so  the  quantities  that  wilbee  brought  in  wilbee  soe  greate  that  wee  con- 
ceive his  Majesties  yearelie  profit  wilbee  much  greater  this  way  then  the 
other  how  specious  so  ever,  and  it  is  hoped  it  will  prosper  much  better 
because  it  wilbee  accompanied  with  the  willing  and  heartie  affections  of 
those  that  pay  it. 

And  wee  humblie  pray  that  in  the  layeing  on  of  this  custome  his  Maj- 
estie  will  have  a  speciall  regard  to  ease  the  Tobacco  of  the  Summer 
Islands. 

1.  Because  it  is  a  place  of  great  importance  and  therefore  very  be- 
hoovefull  to  give  that  colony  content  and  to  provide  for  their  supplies. 

2.  This  poore  plantacion  hath  had  no  helpes  of  Lotteries,  Collec- 
tions and  other  assistances  as  that  of  Virginia  hath  had. 

3.  Because  the  tobacco  of  the  Summer  Islandes  generallie  is  of  a 
meaner  sorte  then  that  of  Virginia  and  this  yeare  so  bad  that  it  is  litle- 
worth. 

4.  By  his  Majesties  letters  patentes  they  are  to  pay  but  5  I.  per  C.  for 
all  charges  whatsoever.46 

5.  Because  it  is  rather  a  forte  then  a  country  able  to  produce  staple 
comodities  as  that  of  Virginia  and  so  hath  no  other  meanes  but  by  this 
poore  weede  to  subsist. 

6.  Because  those  of  the  Summer  Islandes  company  that  are  to  beare 
the  burthen  of  this  charge  are  very  few  and  noe  meanes  to  mantaine 
their  publique  charge  of  those  Islandes  but  out  of  their  purses  which 
everie  yeare  costes  them  manie  Thousand  poundes ;  and  yet  they  are 
comforted  with  the  assureance  of  his  Majestie's  gracious  respect  for 
their  good  service  in  acquireing  and  mantayneing  a  place  of  soe  great 
consequence  without  anie  charge  to  his  Majestie  though  to  the  great 
prejudice  and  undooeing  of  some  of  their  owne  particuler  fortunes  un- 
lesse  his  Majestie  take  a  speciall  regard  of  them  there  being  twentie 
of  them  that  at  least  are  out  of  their  purses  Twentie  thousand  poundes 
in  this  plantacion. 

[Endorsed:]  Reasons  against  the  contract. 

LII.    ARGUMENT     AGAINST     THE     COMPANY'S     ARRANGEMENTS.47 

Propositions  considerable45  for  the  equall  managinge  of  the 
Contract  with  his  Majestie  concerninge  the  sole  importacion  of 
Tobacco  graunted  to  the  twoe  Companies  of  Virginia  and  the 
Sumer  Islands. 

in  The  patent  of  1615  for  the  Somers  Islands  Company  (text  in  Lefroy. 
Memorials  of  the  Bermudas,  I.  93)  exempted  the  patentees  from  all  payment  of 
customs  except,  after  seven  years,  five  per  cent,  on  goods  imported  into  or  ex- 
ported out  of  England,  and.  after  21  years,  on  other  goods. 

it  No.  6190. 

48  I.e.,  deserving  to  be  considered. 


75§  Documents 

i.  First  that  the  agentes  whoe  undertake  the  mannageinge  of  this 
busines  and  are  to  be  payd  for  their  labour,  doe  give  good  securitye  to 
free  the  companyes  and  the  goodes  of  every  particuler  adventurer  from 
that  Covenant  with  his  Maj'estie  for  bringinge  in  of  80,000  weight  of 
Varinus  tobaccoe  in  three  yeares  inasmuch  as  not  the  companyes  but 
themselves  that  underwright  the  Spanish  stocke  shall  have  the  benefit 
thereof. 

2.  What  satisfaction  they  will  give  to  the  Virginia  Planters  or  to 
our  Sumer  Islandes  Tenantes  for  their  Tobaccoe,  which  they  shall  send 
or  bringe  hither  for  price  and  payment. 

3.  What  ordinary  rate  they  will  impose  upon  the  Sumer  Islandes 
Tobaccoe  for  defrayinge  the  25  C.  //.49  salery  and  what  rate  in  such 
accidentall  cases  as  may  fall  out  namely  if  noe  Spanish  tobacco  (or  but 
little)  shall  be  brought  in,  or  that  the  greatest  part  of  Virginia  shall  be 
directed  to  other  partes,  or  in  case  the  Sumer  Islandes  tobacco  when  it 
cometh  shall  be  all  sould  together,  or  the  kinge's  parte  only,  by  the 
candle50  without  anie  charge  or  labour  of  theirs. 

4.  What  order  they  will  take  to  free  the  Adventurers  of  disburs- 
ments  for  custome  fraight  and  publique  charges  before  they  take  our 
goodes  unto  their  possession. 

5.  What  securitie  they  will  give  to  performe  the  promisses  and  to 
give  a  just  accompt  of  the  sales  and  of  the  proceed  thereof  to  his  Maj- 
estie  and  to  thadventurers,  and  when  to  make  payment. 

6.  'For  that  the  contracte  is  but  conditionally  agreed  upon  in  Courte 
to  contynue  if  the  proclamacion  shall  be  published  by  Midsomer  next,81 
whoe  shall  (when  the  contracte  fayleth)  defray  the  great  Rent  of  160  I. 
per  annum  for  the  directors  great  house  intended  to  be  taken52  and  the 
greate  saleryes,  howe  and  in  what  proporcion  and  howe  shall  his  Maj- 
estie  then  have  his  due  and  every  man  his  owne  proper  goodes  delivered 
backe  againe. 

7.  To  explayne  themselves  whether  out  of  25  C.  I.  salery  (whereof 
they  say  his  Majestie  is  to  pay  a  third  parte)  they  meane  to  defray  all 
charges  or  whether  they  intend  to  put  to  accompt  over  and  above  the 
Charges  of  Porters,  Carrmen,  Coopers,  Wharfage  Waiters,  Searchers, 
suites  of  lawe,  shrinckinge  in  weight,  desperate  debtes  and  such  like. 

8.  As  the  greate  quantitie  and  meane  condicion  of  the  Virginia  and 
Sumer  Islandes  tobacco  is  not  fittinge  for  the  vent  and  expence  of  this 
kingdome,  but  for  the  most  at  easy  rates  must  be  exported,  soe  the 
greate  enhancement  of  price  by  thirds  taken  out  and  excessive  charges 
put  upon  will  make  it  altogether  unpossible  to  be  exported  and  there- 
fore to  be  considred  howe  to  cleare  this  difficulty  soe  that  profitt  may 
come  to  thadventurers  and  Planters. 

9.  The  sallery  men53  for  the  most  parte  to  be  excepted  against  some 
of  them  for  want  of  skill,  some  want  of  estate,  some  of  them  noe  way  in- 

«  £2500. 

so  By  "  auction  by  inch  of  candle  ",  wherein  a  bit  of  candle  was  lighted,  and 
the  goods  went  to  him  who  made  the  highest  bid  before  the  wick  fell. 

si  Rather,  June  20;  see  notes  14  and  is,  above.     Midsummer  was  June  24. 

5=  Nov.  27,  1622,  £180  was  voted  for  a  house  and  warehouses.  Records,  II. 
151.   153. 

53  The   officers   and   committeemen    chosen   on    the   same   occasion.     Ibid.,    II. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       759 

teressed,  and  other  contynually  maynteyninge  and  raysinge  quarrells  and 
bitter  contencions  against  sundry  good  Adventurers  whose  goodes  must 
come  to  their  handes  and  possession  to  be  disposed,  Against  which  sundry 
of  the  Adventurers  doe  protest  asto  men  unfitt  to  mannage  theis  affayres. 
[Endorsed:]  The  busines  of  Tobacco  with  the  Virginia  and  Somer 
Ilandes  companie. 

LIII.    REPLY    TO    THE    PRECEDING.5* 

An  Aunsweare  to  the  Propositions  exhibited  to  the  Right  Hon'ble 
the  Lord  High  Treasuror  of  England  for  the  equall  menaginge 
of  the  Contract  with  his  Majestie  concerninge  the  sole  Importa- 
tion of  Tobacco  etc. 

It  is  first  to  be  observed,  that  the  Contract  hath  beene  ratified  by 
Six  Quarter  Courts;  vizt.  three  of  each  Companie:55  noe  one  man  at 
the  question  declaring  his  dissent,  save  onely  the  Deputy,  and  that  in 
the  first  Court  onely. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  Raysers  of  troubles  in  the  Courts 
namely  Mr.  Wrote56  and  his  abettors,  though  their  pretences  have  beene 
agaynst  the  Sallaries  and  the  mannor  of  Importacion  of  Spanish  Tobacco: 
yet  in  the  heate  of  their  opposicions,  their  speeches  and  reasons  have  all- 
wayes  reflected  upon  the  body  of  the  Contract  itselfe,  which  being  con- 
trarie  to  all  order  hath  much  distasted  the  Companies. 

And  it  is  nowe  to  be  observed  that  these  Propounders  though  their 
pretence  in  their  wrighting  be  for  the  equall  menaginge  of  the  Contract, 
And  although  they  have  often  in  the  courts  very  solemnly  protested  and 
vowed,  that  they  were  not  against  the  Contract  itselfe,  yet  when  they 
came  before  the  Lord  Treasuror,  they  dismasked  themselves,  and  unan- 
imously professed  that  they  were  against  the  very  body  of  the  contract : 
which  sheweth,  that  these  Articles  can  be  noe  other  then  Cavills,  seeing 
their  pretence  is  one  way,  and  their  intent  another  way. 

And  before  wee  come  to  the  answering  of  the  perticuler  Articles,  wee 
are  inforced  to  take  excepcions  unto  the  manner  of  propounding  them. 
For  it  is  necessarie  to  be  knowne,  that  the  Counsell,  Comittees  and 
Companies  having  first  concluded  on  the  Offices  necessarie  for  the  men- 
aging  of  this  Contract,  as  also  of  their  rewardes  by  way  of  Sallarie 
(according  to  the  fifte  Article  of  the  Contract)  :  The  Officers  themselves 
were  lastly  chosen  in  both  the  Courts : 57  and  the  burthen  was  imposed 
upon  the  chiefe  of  them,  in  a  free  and  unanimous  eleccion,  contrary  to 
their  most  earnest  and  often  iterated  desires. 

It  is  also  further  to  be  knowne,  that  by  reason  of  these  troubles, 
both  the  chiefe  Officers  and  divers  of  the  Comittees  having  voluntarily 
surrendred  their  places,  and  greatly  importuned  the  Courts,  to  accept  of 
their  Surrenders;  yet  the  same  have  beene  refused,  and  they  continued 
in  their  offices,  much  contrary  to  their  wills,  and  most  earnest  suits,68 
s*  No.  6167.  marked  "No.  13"  in  red  ink.  A  reply  to  no.  LII.,  of  date 
previous  to  April,   1622. 

55  The  Virginia  Company's  meetings  of  July  3  and  Nov.  27,  1622,  and  Feb. 
12.  1623  (Records,  II.  85,  148,  266)  ;  the  Somers  Islands  Company's  meetings 
of  July  10,  Nov.  27.  and  Feb.  12  (ibid.,  II.  97.  157,  273). 

56  Samuel  Wrote,  cousin  german  to   Middlesex  ;   see  the  Records,  II.,  passim. 

57  Ibid.,  II.   155. 

is  Ibid.,  II.  223,  273. 


760  Documents 

whereas  contrariwise  these  Articles  are  propounded  in  that  manner,  as 
though  the  Officers  had  bin  ambitious  of  this  imployment,  and  conse- 
quently were  to  undertake  it  with  all  indignities.  Then  which  noething 
can  be  more  untrue  and  unjust. 

1.  To  the  first  Article  it  is  answered,  that  the  matter  therein  con- 
teyned  is  allready  regulated  in  the  Quarter  Courts  of  bothe  the  Com- 
panies. And  that  the  Officers  or  Agents  of  the  companies  have  noe 
more  to  doe  in  the  bringing  in  of  the  Varinaes  Tobacco,  then  any  other 
perticuler  member  that  liste  to  adventure  his  stock  therein :  By  which 
order  of  the  said  Quarter  Courts,  it  is  declared  that  the  perticuler  Ad- 
venturers for  the  said  Varinaes  Tobacco  are  to  bring  in  the  proporcion 
expressed  by  the  Contract :  the  Bodies  of  the  Companies  bearing  a  tenth 
part  with  them.59  But  in  case  of  any  misfortune  by  losse  of  their  To- 
bacco without  the  default  of  the  said  Adventurers,  they  are  not  to  be 
farther  charged  also  with  restitucion  or  recompence:  but  the  same  is  to 
rest  upon  the  whole  body  of  the  Companies,  and  consequently  to  be  an- 
swered out  of  the  Companies  publique  Stocks:  and  if  these  should  not 
suffice,  then  out  of  the  Stocks  of  the  Generall  Adventurers  returned 
from  the  Plantations,  as  heretofore  in  like  cases  had  beene  usually  done. 

2.  In  the  second  Article,  the  Question  is  likewise  resolved  by  bothe 
the  Quarter  Courts;  vizt.  that  generally  the  Adventurers  and  Planters, 
both  for  price  and  payment,  are  to  goe  in  equall  lines :  Neither  of  which 
are  to  be  ordered  or  concluded  by  the  officers,  but  by  the  Generall  Courts 
themselves;  the  matter  being  first  seriously  debated  and  prepared  by  the 
Comittees.  And  in  favour  of  the  poorer  sorte  of  Planters,  there  have 
beene  divers  other  wayes  devised  and  resolved  upon,  by  the  generall 
consent  of  bothe  the  Courts ;  both  for  the  advancing  of  their  prices,  and 
expediting  of  their  payments. 

3.  To  the  third  Article  it  is  answered,  that  it  is  grounded  wholy  upon 
errors.  An  error  it  is,  to  conceave  that  the  rating  of  charges,  is  in  the 
power  of  the  Officers:  being  reserved  (as  all  other  important  matters) 
to  the  Generall  Courts.  An  error  it  is,  to  thinke,  that  the  labour  of  the 
Officers,  consisteth  wholy  or  chiefly  in  the  matter  of  Sale:  the  well 
menaging  of  the  Contract  extending  itselfe  in  the  difficulties  thereof 
to  a  much  larger  Compasse.  And  lastly  it  is  an  error  and  misinforma- 
cion,  to  say  that  the  Salaries  amount  unto  five  and  twenty  hundred 
poundes :  whereas  they  come  but  to  Seaventeene  hundred  poundes.60  But 
to  the  matter  itselfe  of  this  article,  the  answere  is  not  difficult.  For  the 
charges  to  be  imposed  wilbe  lighter  or  heavier  according  to  the  propor- 
cion greater  or  lesser  of  Tobacco  to  be  brought  in,  and  that  with  this 
comfort  both  to  Adventurers  and  Planters  that  the  greatnes  of  the  quan- 
tity will  diminishe  the  perticuler  charge;  and  the  smallnes  of  the  quan- 
tity will  enhance  the  generall  price. 

But  whereas  there  is  mencion  made  of  the  selling  the  Tobacco  to- 
gether, it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  course  thereof  lately  propounded,  by 
these  Objectors,  is  subject  to  Fraude  and  much  wrong  both  to  the  Kinge 
and  Companies:  vizt.  that  certaine  Undertakers,  being  members  of  the 
Companies,  should  rayse  a  greate  Stock  in  money,  to  buy  of  all  the 
Tobacco  by  way  of  whole  Sale.  For  considering  the  courts  in  the  vaca- 
cions  are  often  times  very  thinne,  and  the  Somer  Ilandes  Court  by  the 

so  Records,  II.  156,   163. 

80  After  deduction  of  the  kind's  third. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       761 

Letters  Pattents  may  consiste  of  Eighte  persons  onely :  S1  these  Under- 
takers may  easily  attayne  to  be  the  greater  parte  of  the  Courts,  and  con- 
sequently may  be  both  Buyers  and  Sellers  at  the  same  time.  A  feare 
not  causeles,  but  grounded  on  former  experience ;  whereby  some  of 
these  Objectors  have  made  themselves  rich,  by  the  great  losse  and  detri- 
ment of  the  Adventurers  and  Companies. 

To  the  4th  Article  the  answere  is,  that  the  Court  have  allready  or- 
dered that  the  Custome  and  freight  shalbe  discharged  by  the  Officers, 
who  are  to  be  secured  from  damage  by  the  goodes  in  their  custody. 

5.  To  the  5  article  it  is  likewise  answered  that  the  Courts  with  Gen- 
erall  consent  (onely  one  dissenting)  have  taken  full  order  for  security 
both  of  goodes  and  money:  which  orders  have  beene  read  before  the 
Lord  Treasuror,  and  wee  suppose  they  are  more  exquisite  for  caution 
on  all  sides,  then  are  used  in  anie  other  Company  whatsoever,  as  at  the 
making  of  them  was  openly  acknowledged.62  The  perticularities  whereof 
are  to  long  to  be  here  sett  downe:  but  are  ready  to  be  shewen  to  any 
that  shall  desire  to  see  them.  Whereunto  wee  may  add  a  strict  oath, 
which  is  to  be  administred  to  all  the  Officers  of  what  degree  soever,  for 
just  and  equall  dealing,  both  in  keeping,  preserving,  selling  and  ac- 
compting  for  the  goodes;  as  also  in  making  the  paymnts  at  such  time 
as  they  shall  growe  due  wherein  the  Officers  also  from  time  to  time  are 
to  be  directed  by  the  Courts. 

6.  To  the  Sixte  Article,  it  Is  answered,  that  by  vertue  of  the  Contract, 
the  Proclamation  mencioned  was  presently  to  come  forth.  But  upon 
mocion  from  the  Lord  Treasuror,  the  Companies  have  consented,  that 
it  may  be  forborne  till  the  Twentith  of  June:  at  which  time  the  Lord 
Treasurer  hath  promised  that  it  shalbe  published.  Of  the  performance 
of  whose  promise,  though  the  Propounder  here  seeme  to  make  soe  great 
doubt;  yet  the  Companies  will  make  none  at  all:  and  therefore  hold  it 
unfitt  to  follow  the  Propounders  stepps  any  further;  in  which  it  seemeth 
that  jealousy  hath  outrun  their  duety. 

7.  To  the  Seaventh  it  is  answered  that  the  Officers  are  to  be  ac- 
comptable  for  all  charges,  if  five  and  twenty  hundreth  poundes  will 
serve,  the  remayne  is  to  be  restored.  If  more  be  necessary,  that  which 
wants  must  agayne  be  leavied.  That  the  Officers  out  of  their  owne 
estates,  should  beare  those  uncertaine  burthens,  of  desperate  debts,  suits 
in  lawe,  shrinkage  and  the  like,  is  soe  farr  not  onely  from  Equitie,  but 
from  all  ordinarie  reason,  that  they  hope  the  Propounders  themselves 
upon  better  consideracion  will  retract  the  Question. 

8.  To  the  Eighte  Article  it  is  answered,  that  the  case  of  meane  To- 
bacco is  much  more  difficult  without  this  Contract,  then  with  or  under 
it.  For  the  Twelve  pence  on  the  pound  amounted  to  much  more  then 
the  vallue  of  one  entire  halfe,  not  onely  of  the  meaner,  but  also  of  the 
middle  sort  thereof  as  experience  hath  shewed. 

9.  To  the  Ninth  Article,  which  layeth  aspersions  on  the  Officers' 
persons,  the  Answere  is  plaine.  The  two  chiefe  Officers  were  chosen 
by  the  Ballating  box  with  65  votes  for  them,  and  not  above  five  against 

«i  Seven ;    patent,   Lefroy,   I.   S9.     But   this   was   true   of   the   ordinary   courts 
only,  not  of  the  quarterly  courts. 
62  See  Records,  II.  284-288. 


762  Documents 

them.63  The  Eighte  Comittees64  were  chosen  by  ereccion  of  handes  out 
of  the  nomber  of  Sixteene,  named"  by  the  Courts  to  stand  for  the  places : 
In  which  nomber  of  Sixteene,  were  divers  of  these  objectors.  The 
Companies  made  choise  of  them  whome  by  experience  they  knewe  to 
love  the  Plantations,  and  were  fitt  for  the  diversity  of  imployments  in- 
cident to  this  busines:  some  of  them  being  Merchantes,  some  Retaylors, 
some  skilfull  in  the  Portes,  and  others  such  as  by  long  continuance  and 
attendance  in  the  Courtes,  were  skilfull  in  the  affaires  of  the  Companies 
and  Plantacions  and  withall  large  Adventurers.  Of  which  Eighte,  six 
have  beene  yearely  chosen  Comittees  and  Assistants  for  these  Three 
yeares  last  past ;  neither  any  just  excepcion  can  be  taken  to  any  of  them 
by  mindes  unpossessed  with  partiallity  or  mallice,  neither  are  the  com- 
panies to  be  blamed  in  this  or  other  their  eleccions,  if  they  have  rather 
made  choise  to  entrust  their  Goodes  in  the  hands  of  men  untainted  for 
integritie  and  honesty,  then  in  theires,  whose  wisdome  hath  beene  for 
their  owne  perticular  benefitt,  who  in  their  former  menagements  of  To- 
bacco have  reduced  Seaven  thowsand  poundes  sterling  to  Fower  thowsand 
poundes,65  and  who  never  yet  gave  up  any  faire  account  of  the  Com- 
panie's  goodes. 

[Endorsed:]  Aunsweare  to  certen  Propositions  exhibited  to  the  Lord 
Treasuror  concerning  the  Contract. 

LIV.    DRAFT  OF  LORD  TREASURER'S  WARRANT  FOR  THE  COLLECTION    OF  DUTIES, 
MARCH   25,   1623. 66 

After  my  harty  comendacions,  Wheras  I  understand  there  is  a  ship 
lately  aryved  within  the  porte  of  London  from  the  Bermudos  or  Somer- 
Ilands  wherof  for  the  most  parte  hir  ladeinge  is  Tobacco,  and  for  that 
I  have  binn  informed  that  you  have  made  stay  of  passinge  the  Tobacco 
in  regard  of  the  pretence  of  a  contracte  with  the  Company  of  Bermudos 
and  Virginia  for  the  Importacion  of  Tobacco,  beinge  intended  upon  his 
Majestie's  parte  for  the  benefitt  and  good  of  the  said  companyes,  which 
uppon  debate  of  the  Councell  Boarde  beinge  ther  amply  argued  and 
heard  before  the  Lordes  of  his  Majesties  Privie  Counsell  is  conceived  to 
bee  rather  prejuditiall  unto  the  Companyes  if  the  said  contracte  should 
goe  forward,  in  consideracion  wherof  his  Majestie  is  graciously  pleased 
that  you  suffer  the  said  tobacco  to  bee  delivered  unto  the  severall  proprie- 
tors therof  they  payinge  unto  his  Majestie's   farmers  of  the  customes 

63  On  Nov.  27.  1622,  Sandys  was  chosen  director  of  operations  under  the 
contract,  by  65  ballots  against  5,  John  Ferrar  treasurer  and  deputy  director,  by 
68  votes  against  2.     Records,  II.  154. 

64  In  modern  language,  committeemen. 

65  See  Records,  II.  315. 

66  No.  6165,  marked  "No.  11"  in  red  ink.  The  portions  printed  in  italics 
are  interlineations  in  the  handwriting  of  the  Lord  Treasurer.  Another  copy  or 
draft  is  no.  426  in  Miss  Kingsbury's  list  (Records,  I.  166),  dated  Mar.  27;  Man- 
chester Papers,  no.  293.  Hist.  MSS.  Comm,  Eighth  Report,  pt.  II.,  p.  37-  'n 
either  case  the  document  gives  an  early  date  to  the  determination  of  the  Privy 
Council  to  abandon  the  contract,  their  first  positive  decree  to  that  effect  being 
apparently  of  Apr.  28;  Acts  P.  C.  Col,  I.  61.  For  the  company's  view  of  the 
final  proceedings  about  the  contract,  see  "  The  Discourse  of  the  Old  Company  ". 
in  L.  G.  Tyler,  Narratives  of  Early  Virginia,  pp.  448-450. 


Lord  Sackvillc's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       763 

three  pence  per  pound  for  the  subsidy  which  the  said  farmers  are  con- 
tented to  accepte  of  without  dematidinge  any  defalcation  from  the  King, 
And  it  is  resolved  by  the  hordes  of  the  Councell  and  so  promised  by 
many  of  the  Company  both  of  Virginia  and  Bcrmuihos  that  they  will 
hence  forward  [bring]  all  the  Tobacco  exported  from  Virginia  and  Ber- 
mudos  into  his  Majesties  dominions,  And  for  the  impost  or  increase  of 
subsidy  you  receive  unto  his  Majestie's  use  for  all  the  said  Virginia  and 
Bermudos  Tobacco  belonginge  unto  any  Planter  or  free  brother  of  the 
said  companyes  sixe  pence  per  pound  rcdy  monye  beeinge  the  rate  for- 
merly agreed  on,  And  for  all  such  Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  which 
shall  not  belonge  unto  any  Planter  or  free  brother  of  the  said  Companyes 
the  usuall  impost  of  eighteen  pence  per  pound  redy  [money]  due  uppon 
Tobacco  as  hath  bine  formerly  used.  And  this  shalbe  a  sufficient  War- 
rante  unto  you  for  the  present  untill  further  order  shalbe  given  for  the 
same.     Chelsey   this  25th.   of   March   1623. 

Your  very  loving  freind 
To  my   very  loving   friendes  the   officers  and    farmers 
of  his  Majesties  customes  and  to  Abraham  Jacob  and 
Jo.  Jacob67  Collectors  of  the  impost  and  increase  of 
subsidye  uppon  tobacco. 

[Endorsed:]  Warrant  for  to  receive  iii  d.  per  pound  for  the  subsidy  of 
Virginia  and  Bermudos  Tobacco  and  vi  d.  per  pound  for  the  impost  or 
increase  of  subsidy  of  the  same  Tobaccoe. 

LV.    SUGGESTIONS    FOR    LETTERS    TO    THE    COLON  ISTS,  [APRIL    21,    l623].6s 

A  memoriall  of  some  thinges  which  it  may  please  the  lords  to 
insert  in  their  lordships'  letters  to  Virginia  and  the  Summer  Is- 
landes. 

1.  That  the  late  contract  is  upon  full  heareing  before  their  lordships 
dissolved  as  that  which  was  verie  prejudiciall  to  the  plantations,  a  coppie 
of  which  contract  togeather  with  the  reasons  that  were  in  writeinge  de- 
livered against  it,  it  may  please  their  lordships  to  send  them. 

2.  That  his  Majestie  out  of  his  princelie  care  of  their  good  is  content 
that  no  tobacco  shalbee  brought  into  England  or  Ireland  but  such  as 
shalbee  imported  from  the  plantacions  in  Virginia  and  the  Summer 
Islandes  except  onelie  fourtie  Thousand  weight  yearelie  of  Spanish  To- 
bacco (and  that  but  for  a  time)  if  they  will  give  for  it  as  others  will. 

3.  That  to  this  greate  and  extraordinarie  favour  his  Majestie  requires 
«  For  Abraham  and  John  Jacob,  see  pp.  522-524,  52S,  and  notes  99.  i°^>  "5. 

"  Here  Sir  Edward  [Coke]  observed,  that  [Abraham]  Jacob  was  my  Lord's 
necessary  Creature  and  petty  chapman,  and  had  a  Son  that  was  his  Secretary  ; 
and  because  he  was  a  Jacob,  that  is,  a  Supplanter,  he  desired  their  Lordships  to 
take  good  care  of  him."     Old  Pari  Hist.,  VI.    144. 

«s  No.  6177.  Another  copy  is  no.  471  in  Miss  Kingsbury's  list  (Records,  I. 
171),  bearing  the  date  Apr.  21,  1623.  and  the  endorsement,  in  the  handwriting  of 
Sir  Nathaniel  Rich,  "  deliv.  by  me  to  the  L.  Treas."  Manchester  Papers,  no.  335, 
Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  Eighth  Report,  part  II..  p.  41.  In  a  meeting  of  the  company  on 
Apr.  17,  Lord  Cavendish  reports  orders  of  the  Privy  Council  to  prepare  such 
letters;  both  companies  prepared  them.  Apr.  18.  but  the  lords  did  not  approve  of 
their  drafts.  Records.  II.  365,  368;  Acts  P.  C.  Col.,  I.  61.  A  letter  sent  May  2 
is  in  Neill,  J'irginia  Company  of  London,  pp.   391-394- 


764  Documents 

that  all  the  tobacco  which  shalbee  exported  from  the  said  plantations 
shalbee  brought  into  England,  a  thing  which  they  themselves  have  seemed 
heretofore  to  desire,  and  will  now  bee  most  benificiall  unto  them  in  re- 
gard that  all  forreyne  marketes  wilbee  glutted  with  excessive  quantities 
of  Tobacco  liklie  to  bee  brought  from  the  new  plantacions  in  Brazille, 
Guyana  and  other  places  which  is  of  a  farre  better  sort  then  that  which 
comes  from  the  English  colonies  and  yet  wilbee  afforded  at  lesse  then 
halfe  the  price  that  the  English  Tobacco  hath  heretofore  binne  usuallie 
sold  for,  so  that  unles  his  Majestie  in  his  greate  grace  and  wisedome 
should  provide  for  the  venting  of  this  their  comoditie  within  his  owne 
dominions  they  should  not  bee  able  to  make  anie  thing  at  all  of  it  in  anie 
other  place,  and  therefore  to  advise  them  to  call  a  generall  Assemblie  and 
by  comon  consent  to  cause  an  Act  to  be  made  to  that  purpose.69 

4.  That  his  Majesties  great  grace  did  not  stay  here  but  that  even 
beyond  hope  and  expectacion  his  Majestie  is  pleased  to  be  so  farre  from 
laying  a  greater  burthen  upon  them  in  regard  of  this  his  princelie  graunt 
unto  theis  companies,  that  hee  hath  voluntarilie  condiscended  to  abate 
3  d.  of  the  12  d.  for  Custome  and  Impost  which  they  payd  heretofore: 
So  that  in  Summ,  his  Majestie  grauntes  the  sole  importacion,  and  in- 
stead of  a  retribution  for  it,  is  content  to  suffer  a  diminucion  of  what  was 
formerlie  payed. 

5.  That  this  his  Majestie's  singuler  favour  is  yet  inlarged  for  that, 
whereas  hee  hath  heard  of  manie  greevances  and  Inconveniences  which 
have  hindred  the  growth  of  theis  Plantacions  hee  hath  appointed  choise 
and  able  Commissioners  to  examyne  and  inquire  particulerlie  into  them,70 
to  thend  that  all  hindrances  of  this  worthie  worke  being  removed  it  might 
hereafter  thrive  and  prosper. 

6.  To  which  the  Collonies  are  to  bee  admonished  to  afford  their  ut- 
most indevours  by  leaveing  the  immoderate  plantinge  of  Tobacco  and 
applying  themselves  to  more  staple  commodities  and  in  particuler  to 
recomend  unto  them  the  care  of  nourishinge  and  increasing  their  silke- 
wormes. 

7.  That  they  bee  carefull  to  choose  the  most  comodious  places  of  abode 
for  health  and  safetie  and  that  they  plant  themselves  soe  as  they  may 
afford  mutuall  helpe  and  strength  each  to  other  both  against  intestine  and 
forraigne  enimies. 

8.  And  that  his  Majestie  may  bee  the  more  throughlie  informed  what 
is  the  true  estate  of  the  plantacions  at  this  present  therefore  to  require 
them  upon  their  dutie  and  allegiance  by  the  first  shipp  to  retourne  (to- 
geather  with  their  answeare  to  this  letter)  a  perfect  Catalogue  of  the 
names  of  all  the  Englishmen  women  and  children  resideinge  in  the 
country  the  age,  condition,  imployment  and  places  of  abode  of  everie  of 
them,  as  also  what  houses  or  townes  are  at  this  tyme  remayneinge,  what 
Ordnance  are  mounted  at  the  tyme  of  this  shipp's  arrivall,  what  publique 
workes,  (as  Churches.  Guest-houses,  Bridges,  forks,  or  the  like)  are  now 
remayneing  or  have  binne  heretofore  erected,  and  now  demolished,  Also 
what  number  of  English  cattle  there  are  which  at  their  pleasure  they  may 
have  use  of,  and  what  otherwise:  Also  what  store  of  corne  and  other 

69  The  act,  if  passed,  seems  not  to  be  extant. 

70  The  commission  resolved  upon  by  the  Privy  Council  on  Apr.  17,  1623,  and 
issued  that  day.  Acts  P.  C.  Col.,  I.  58-60;  Lefroy,  Memorials  of  the  Bermudas. 
I.  289-290;  Cat.  S.  P.  Col.,  I.  44. 


Lord  Sackville's  Papers  respecting  Virginia       765 

victuall  the  Collonies  in  Virginia  are  furnished  with,  and  what  is  the 
price  for  which  the  said  catle,  corne  and  other  provisions  are  usuallie 
sold  for  and  especiallie  of  late  since  the  last  massacre.  What  number  of 
persons  may  (this  or  the  next  yeare)  be  convenientlie  sent  from  hence  to 
supplie  the  colonies  and  entertaigned  there  with  convenient  lodgeing 
[and]  dyet  upon  their  arrivall  for  some  reasonable  time,  till  they  may 
build  and  plant  for  themselves ;  and  generallie  as  they  will  answeare  to 
God  and  the  Kinges  most  excellent  majestie  both  of  theis  and  all  other 
particulers  tending  to  a  true  description  of  the  state  and  condition  of  the 
said  plantacions  faithfullie  to  informe  their  lordships  that  accordinglie 
they  may  advise  them  for  their  future  safetie  and  prosperitie  which  is 
the  onelie  thing  intended  by  his  Majestie  and  their  Lordships  to  whom 
if  upon  this  Intimation  they  shall  not  declare  the  whole  truth  fullie  and 
reallie  all  partialitie  and  affection  whatsoever  set  aside  they  must  expect 
a  just  punnishment  of  so  high  an  offence  and  themselves  shalbe  judged 
as  causes  of  all  ensueing  mischeifes. 

9.  Lastlie  to  admonish  them  to  persist  and  increase  in  the  true  and 
frequent  worshipp  of  Almightie  God,  in  love  and  unitie  amongst  them- 
selves and  in  couragious  and  industrious  performance  of  their  particular 
Imploymentes. 

LVI.    ATTORNEY  GENERAL  COVENTRY  TO    MIDDLESEX,   JULY  31,    1623.71 

May  it  please  your  lordshipp 

Mr.  Sollicitor72  and  myself  having  agreed  on  a  certificate  concern- 
ing the  busines  of  Verginia  I  have  as  you  appoynted  me  sent  it  to  your 
lordshipp  that  your  lordshipp  may  att  such  conveniency  as  may  best  sewt 
with  his  Majestie's  service  cause  it  to  be  presented  to  his  Majestie,  And 
so  I  humblie  rest 

Att  your  lordshipp's  comandement 

Thomas  Coventrye. 
Inner  Temple 

31  July,  1623. 
[Endorsed  by  Willis:]   Mr.  Attorney  to  my  lord  touching  the  Certificate 
for  the  Virginia  Governement. 

[Addressed:]  To  the  Right  Honble.  my  very  good  lord  the  lord  highe 
Treasurer  of  England. 

■  1  No.  6198,  holograph.  Sir  Thomas  Coventry  (1578-1640),  attorney  gen- 
eral 1621-1625,  lord  keeper  1625-1640.  The  letter  which  this  covers,  no.  551 
in  Miss  Kingsbury's  list  (Records,  I.  180),  is  printed  in  Brown,  First  Republic, 
PP-  547-549,  with  a  new-style  date. 

"-  Sir  Robert   Heath,  solicitor  general    1621-1625. 


Addendum.  An  addition  should  have  been  made  to  note  70,  under 
document  XV.,  on  p.  511,  pointing  out,  on  the  evidence  of  that  docu- 
ment, that  its  author,  Capt.  John  Bargrave,  must  also  have  been  the 
author  of  the  plan  for  the  government  of  Virginia,  1623,  which  we 
printed  in  April,  1914,  Am.  Hist.  Rev.,  XIX.  559-578. 

AM.    HIS.  REV.,   VOL.   XXVII. — 51. 


REVIEWS  OF  BOOKS 
GENERAL   BOOKS  AND   BOOKS   OF  ANCIENT   HISTORY 

International  Relations.     By  James  Bryce,  Viscount  Bryce.     (New 

York:  Macmillan  Company.     1922.     Pp.  xii,  275.     $2.50.) 

To  the  many,  who,  last  summer,  had  the  opportunity  to  hear  at  Wil- 
liamstown  the  presentation  of  Lord  Bryce's  matured  thoughts  on  inter- 
national relations,  this  book  will  be  most  welcome.  To  those  who  did 
not  have  this  opportunity,  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Institute  of  Politics, 
the  book  will  show  the  serious  character  of  one  of  the  marked  contribu- 
tions to  the  success  of  the  first  session  of  this  American  experiment  in 
bringing  to  the  public  a  larger  view  of  international  affairs. 

The  dedication  of  the  work  bears  date  of  December  22,  1921,  and  is 
to  Secretary  Hughes.  He  joined  with  the  other  delegates  to  the  Con- 
ference on  the  Limitation  of  Armament,  January  23,  1922,  when  they 
paused  in  their  labors  to  pay  unusual  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Lord 
Bryce,  who  died  in  England  on  January  22. 

Lord  Bryce  aims  to  supply  in  this  book  material  to  answer  in  the 
light  of  history  two  important  questions:  "Why  is  it  that  before  the 
clouds  of  the  Great  War  have  vanished  from  the  sky  new  clouds  are 
rising  over  the  horizon?  What  can  be  done  to  avert  the  dangers  that 
are  threatening  the  peace  of  mankind?" 

The  first  lecture  gives  a  sweeping  view  of  relations  between  ethnic 
and  other  unities  from  early  times  to  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War. 
dividing  these  relations  into  five  periods:  (1)  general  war,  (2)  peace  of 
Rome,  (3)  monotheistic  religions,  (4)  Rome  and  Emperor,  (5)  balance 
and  competition  of  power.  In  this  lecture  he  does  not  accept  the  theory 
that  the  "  great  man  is  the  product  of  the  age ",  but  rather  that  "  the 
man  who  gives  effect  to  the  tendencies  may  make  all  the  difference,  and 
the  coming  of  the  man  is  unpredictable  ".  "  Had  there  been  Bismarcks 
and  Cavours  and  Mazzinis  since  A.D.  1900,  we  should  have  seen  a  very 
different  Europe  today." 

In  other  chapters  Lord  Bryce  traces  the  causes  of  the  Great  War 
of  1914  to  conditions  in  Germany  of  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  and  calls 
particular  attention  to  the  enduring  influence  of  Martin  Luther.  He 
states  that  the  problems  left  after  the  War  "  will  tax  all  the  wisdom  and 
self-control  of  the  Old  World  Powers  ",  and  adds  "  I  doubt  whether  it 
can  be  done  without  the  help  of  the  New  World  ". 

While  Lord  Bryce  sees  in  commerce  and  industry  factors  making  for 
world  peace  as  well  as  for  conflict,  he  hopes  that  the  peace  influence  will 
dominate  as  the  dynastic  motive  loses  weight  in  international  negotia- 
(766) 


Robinson:  The  Mind  in  the  Making  767 

tions.  He  shows  how  the  modern  press,  a  relatively  new  factor  in  inter- 
national relations,  has  tended  generally  to  be  chauvinistic,  but  maintains 
that  in  diplomacy  thought  must  be  had  for  the  remote  day,  hidden  from 
the  journalist  and  party  politician,  if  statesmanship  is  to  prevail  and  the 
reign  of  law  is  to  be  maintained  in  the  world.  He  enumerates  as  the 
chief  causes  of  war:  (1)  lust  for  territory,  (2)  religion,  (3)  protection 
of  rights  of  nationals,  (4)  commerce  and  trade,  (5)  protection  of  the 
weak,  (6)  fear. 

With  the  increasing  participation  of  the  people  in  affairs,  Lord  Bryce 
is  of  the  opinion  that  there  must  be  a  greater  degree  of  publicity  of  the 
facts  in  regard  to  international  relations,  and  that  these  facts  should  be 
furnished  from  official  sources  in  order  that  partizan  and  sensational 
misrepresentation  may  not  mislead.  He  is,  nevertheless,  convinced  that 
certain  negotiations  may  still  best  be  carried  on  in  private  conference. 

Arbitration  and  conciliation  are  given  a  high  place  by  Lord  Bryce 
among  the  methods  of  possible  settlement  of  disputes  among  states.  Of 
the  League  of  Nations  plan  he  says,  "  Imperfect  it  may  be,  but  it  is 
the  only  plan  which  has  yet  been  launched  with  any  prospect  of  success  ". 

Out  of  his  ripe  experience,  and  with  the  warmest  regard  for  Amer- 
icans and  American  institutions,  Lord  Bryce  declares  in  his  closing 
address, 

Such  as  the  citizens  are,  such  will  the  leaders  be,  because  they  desire 
to  please  the  citizens.  If  the  citizens  are  swayed  by  impulses  of  vanity 
and  ambition,  their  leaders  will  try  to  win  support  by  playing  up  or 
playing  down  to  such  passions.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  citizens  de- 
mand from  those  who  guide  the  State  uprightness  and  fair  dealing  and 
a  considerate  respect  for  the  rights  of  others,  and  if  they  reprobate  and 
dismiss  any  statesman  who  falls  below  the  moral  standard  they  set  up, 
their  leaders  will  try  to  conform  to  that  standard.  .  .  .  What  all  the 
nations  now  need  is  a  public  opinion  which  shall  in  every  nation  give 
more  constant  thought  and  keener  attention  to  international  policy,  and 
lift  it  to  a  higher  plane. 

George  Grafton  Wilson. 

The  Mind  in  the  Making:  the  Relation  of  Intelligence  to  Social  Re- 
form. By  James  Harvey  Robinson.  (New  York :  Harper  and 
Brothers.     1921.     Pp.  235.     $2.50.) 

Deeply  impressed  by  the  evils  of  the  present  social  order,  impatient 
with  all  who  blindly  accept  it,  and  disappointed  in  the  efforts  at  reform 
by  changing  the  administration,  spiritual  exhortation,  and  education  as 
commonly  pursued,  the  author  of  this  book  finds  hope  and  remedy  in 
the  freedom  of  intelligence.  By  this  he  means  not  reverie,  nor  the  ra- 
tionalizing of  motives  derived  from  habit  and  tradition,  but  creative 
thinking  like  that  which  produced  our  modern  science  and  invention. 
But  this  required  its  founders  to  "discard  practically  all  the  consecrated 
notions  of  the  world  and  its  workings  which  had  been  held  by  the  best 


768  Reviews  of  Books 

and  wisest  and  purest  of  mankind  down  to  three  hundred  years  ago". 
What  is  now  needed  is  similar  intelligence  applied  to  the  study  of  man  in 
his  social  relations.  For  while  our  knowledge  and  control  of  the  phys- 
ical world  has  achieved  such  notable  triumphs,  "  our  scientific  knowledge 
and  regulation  of  human  affairs  has  remained  almost  stationary  for  over 
two  thousand  years  ". 

Violent  prejudices  in  current  beliefs  and  habits  of  thinking  oppose  this 
application.  The  author  aims  to  trace  these  obstacles  historically  to 
their  source,  to  perform,  so  to  say,  a  kind  of  Freudian  analysis  on  the 
human  mind  at  large.  At  the  same  time  he  points  out  the  way  advances 
have  hitherto  been  made.  Accordingly  the  major  part  of  the  book  is 
taken  up  with  discussions  of  our  animal  and  savage  ancestry;  the  be- 
ginning of  critical  thinking  in  Greece,  whose  supreme  contribution  to 
human  thought  was  scepticism;  the  influence  of  Plato  and  Aristotle;  the 
origin  of  medieval  civilization  and  our  intellectual  inheritance  from 
that;  finally,  the  scientific  revolution  and  its  effects.  The  main  lessons 
to  be  learned  from  this  survey  are  apparently,  first,  that  our  current 
social  beliefs  and  attitudes  are  rooted  in  our  past  and  maintained  solely 
on  this  account,  and,  secondly,  that  progress  in  any  direction  has  always 
been  conditioned  on  breaking  with  the  past  and  boldly  pushing  out  into 
new  paths.  The  book  concludes  with  two  chapters  of  which  the  one 
treats  of  the  sickness  of  an  acquisitive  society  with  some  recent  instances, 
as  the  author  holds  them  to  be,  of  reaction  (the  Lusk  Committee,  etc.), 
while  the  other  contains  reflections  on  the  philosophy  of  repression. 
The  author  proposes  no  specific  reforms;  his  object  is  the  more  funda- 
mental one  of  breaking  our  "  shackles  ",  changing  our  attitude  to  the 
problems. 

But  it  is  only  in  part  that  he  essays  the  role  of  a  Francis  Bacon  of 
the  social  sciences,  for  he  suggests  no  new  organon,  no  method  of  at- 
tacking the  problems  which  is  not  being  already  applied,  but  contents 
himself  in  this  regard  with  attacking  the  idola  of  established  social  and 
ethical  tradition.  No  one  surely  will  dispute  the  need  of  free,  critical, 
and  constructive  thinking  on  social  problems.  But  this  is  too  vaguely 
general,  and  it  is  at  least  doubtful  whether  the  mere  appeal  to  intel- 
ligence is  likely  to  be  more  effective  in  creating  a  new  world  order  than 
the  preaching  of  brotherly  love  which  the  author  finds  so  disappointing. 
Moreover  a  bias  strongly  radical  is  as  unfavorable  to  an  impartial  survey 
of  the  facts  as  one  strongly  conservative.  A  frequent  comment  suggested 
to  the  reviewer  has  been,  adapting  the  words  of  Job,  No  doubt  but  ye  are 
the  people  and  wisdom  was  born  with  you.  The  book  is  full,  as  it  seems  to 
him,  of  crudities  and  exaggerations.  When,  for  example,  it  is  asserted 
(p.  n)  that  no  publisher  would  accept  a  historical  text-book  based  on 
an  explicit  statement  of  our  present  knowledge  of  man's  animal  an- 
cestry, it  is  hard  to  believe  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  statement  of  fact 
and   not  rather  with   an  opinion  expressing  a   prejudiced   animus — the 


Hyde:  International  Law  769 

same  which  declares  that  the  American  publishers  adopted  the  short 
title,  The  Acquisitive  Society,  for  Tawney's  well-known  book  instead  of 
the  longer  title  of  the  article  in  the  Hibbert  Journal  because  they  "  evi- 
dently [sic!]  thought  it  inexpedient  to  stress  the  contention  of  the  author 
that  modern  society  has  anything  fundamentally  the  matter  with  it " 
(p.  178  n.). 

A  similar  bias  shows  itself  in  the  treatment  of  the  historical  material. 
It  is  impressive,  indeed,  to  contrast  the  comparatively  short  period  of 
civilization  with  the  long,  long  ages  preceding  it,  and  doubtless  im- 
portant inferences  are  to  be  drawn  from  it  regarding  the  depth  and  per- 
sistence of  our  savage  and  animal  inheritance.  But  there  is  room  for 
some  differences  of  opinion  as  to  what  these  inferences  should  be;  in 
any  case  the  construction  is  from  the  nature  of  the  case  largely  hypo- 
thetical. Here  it  is  put  forward  with  dogmatic  assurance.  We  do  not 
expect  a  sympathetic  appreciation  of  the  great  systems  of  philosophy 
from  one  who,  like  our  author,  regards  metaphysics  as  an  indulgence  like 
smoking,  and  we  are  not  here  disappointed.  Much  he  understands  about 
Plato!  But  he  might  at  least  have  spared  us  the  inaccuracies  of  such 
statements  as  that  Aristotle  was  banished  from  Athens  (p.  100)  and  that 
the  Epicureans  believed  in  the  gods  because,  like  Descartes,  they  thought 
we  had  an  innate  idea  of  them  (p.  105).  In  the  medieval  mind  he  sees 
only  its  superstition,  intolerance,  mysticism  (as  though  that  were  neces- 
sarily bad),  and  blind  following  of  tradition,  quite  overlooking  its  his- 
torical values  in  the  shaping  of  medieval  society  and  in  the  discipline 
which  prepared  the  way  for  modern  culture.  Equally  unhistorical  is 
the  view  which  sees  in  the  great  epochs  only  radical  revolt  from  the  old 
and  a  beginning  de  novo;  this  is  to  ignore  the  historical  factors  of  con- 
tinuity and  to  make  all  progress  catastrophic.  Much  that  the  author 
writes  is  stimulating  and  some  of  it  is  true;  but  he  writes  not  as  a  his- 
torian who  seeks  to  interpret  and  understand  tradition,  but  as  a  reformer 
who  sees  in  tradition  only  an  enemy  to  "  combat  ". 

H.  N.  Gardiner. 

International  Law,  chiefly  as  interpreted  and  applied  by  the  United 
States.    By  Charles  Cheney  Hyde,  Professor  of  Law  in  North- 
western University.     In  two  volumes.      (Boston:  Little,  Brown, 
and  Company.      1922.     Pp.  lix,  832  ;  xxvii,  925.     $25.00.) 
Every  work  on  international  law  must  necessarily  bear  the  impress 
of  the  nationalistic  prejudices  of  its  origin,  but  in  this  case  the  author 
frankly  aims  to  adopt  the  viewpoint  of  the  American  judges  and  offi- 
cials who  have  been  called  upon  to  apply  and  therefore  to  interpret  the 
rules  of  international  law.     Nevertheless  Professor  Hyde  makes  it  clear 
that  he  understands  the  nature  and  limits  of  such  state  action;  for  after 
he  has  explained  in  a  remarkable  passage  (I.  12)  the  real  nature  of  local 
applications  and  interpretations  of  international  law  and  the  method  of 


77°  Reviews  of  Books 

settling  the  consequent  controversies  with  other  states  through  nego- 
tiation and  arbitration  he  concludes :  "  Observance  of  the  award  by  the 
delinquent  State  (possibly  entailing  amendatory  legislation)  will  ter- 
minate the  conflict  and  establish  the  supremacy  of  the  international 
obligation." 

Notwithstanding  express  avowal  that  these  volumes  are  based  upon 
the  practice  and  official  opinions  of  American  authorities,  they  appear 
rather  to  formulate  the  law  of  nations  as  such  after  it  has  been  freed 
from  the  dross  of  national  bias.  It  may  be  that  the  author  is  happily  so 
permeated  by  an  international  concept  of  the  law  he  expounds  as  un- 
consciously to  lean  upon  those  instances  which  are  free  of  prejudice 
peculiar  to  this  nation.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  seems  reasonable  to  expect 
that  the  work  will  find  acceptance  by  the  jurists  of  other  nations  as  an 
adequate  presentation  of  international  law  in  its  strictest  sense. 

Professor  Hyde,  who  evidently  belongs  to  the  positive  school,  sur- 
prises us  by  rejecting  the  idea  of  compulsion  as  a  sanction  of  interna- 
tional law  and  prefers  to  rely  upon  each  state's  innate  respect  for  law 
and  its  regard  for  the  good  opinion  of  mankind  (I.  io-n).  "Although 
without  what  may  fairly  be  described  as  a  legal  sanction  ",  Mr.  Hyde 
considers  that  "  the  principles  and  rules  governing  the  conduct  of  States 
do  not  lack  the  quality  of  law  "  (I.  10),  and  in  his  definition  he  declares: 
"  The  term  international  law  may  be  fairly  employed  to  designate  the 
principles  and  rules  of  conduct  declaratory  thereof  which  States  fee! 
themselves  bound  to  observe,  and,  therefore,  do  commonly  observe  in 
their  relations  with  each  other"  (I.  i).  Hall,  who  is  generally  held 
to  be  second  in  authority  to  no  English  writer,  considered  it  necessary 
to  add  to  his  definition  that  the  states  "  also  regard  [the  rules  of  interna- 
tional law]  as  being  enforceable  by  appropriate  means  in  the  case  of  in- 
fringement" (W.  E.  Hall,  International  Law,  fourth  ed.,  p.  i). 

Until  the  nations  shall  form  a  more  perfect  union  than  the  existing 
society  of  states,  the  appropriate  action  to  enforce  its  law  is  self-help 
or  self-enforcement.  Once,  long  ago,  our  national  law  had  to  depend 
upon  the  same  procedure.  Unless  there  were  an  actual  fear  of  this 
appropriate  sanction,  many  a  state  would  disregard  the  rules  of  inter- 
national law  until  they  were  trampled  down  to  a  basis  of  pure  comity  or 
reciprocal  convenience. 

Whatever  criticism  may  be  justified  on  the  ground  of  this  disregard 
of  enforceability  as  an  essential  characteristic  of  international  law, 
when  Professor  Hyde  comes  to  the  formulation  of  the  law  he  appears 
to  have  set  forth  only  those  rules  which  we  believe  the  nations  do  ac- 
tually and  rightly  regard  as  entitled  to  be  enforced.  Perhaps  the  author 
deserts  his  definition  and  relies  on  restraint  when  he  so  aptly  says: 
"  Above  all,  it  must  be  apparent  that  whenever  the  interests  of  that  [in- 
ternational] society  are  acknowledged  to  be  at  variance  with  the  conduct 
of  the  individual  State,  there  is  established  the  ground  for  a   fresh  rule 


Hyde:  International  Law  J~ji 

of  restraint  against  which  old  and  familiar  precedents  may  cease  to  be 
availing"   (I,  3). 

The  preceding  quotation  may  be  taken  as  indicative  of  the  broad- 
minded  and  truly  international  spirit  in  which  this  work  is  conceived. 
Here  is  no  defense  of  the  selfish  and  sterile  doctrine  of  absolute  sover- 
eignty. The  prevailing  conditions  of  disorder  in  Haiti  and  certain  other 
states  in  our  vicinage  give  a  peculiar  significance  to  what  Professor 
Hyde  writes  of  the  "  chronic  disregard  of  international  obligations ". 
"  Impotence  to  perform  the  common  duties  of  a  member  of  the  family 
of  nations"  gives  rise  to  a  right  of  "intervention"  and  the  "delinquent 
State" — so  the  author  concludes — may  in  extreme  cases  of  internal  dis- 
order "  be  placed  for  the  time  being  under  the  protection  of  that  [state] 
which  it  has  wronged  or  of  some  other  foreign  power,  thereby  losing 
during  the  period  of  protection  the  condition  and  privileges  of  inde- 
pendence "  (I.  123-124).  In  the  matter  of  intervention  Mr.  Hyde  has 
furthermore  dispelled  a  current  illusion  to  the  effect  that  whereas  col- 
lective action  may  be  legal  and  justifiable  the  intervention  of  a  single 
power  is  unjustifiable.  "On  principle",  he  writes,  "a  group  of  States 
acting  in  concert  has  no  broader  right  of  intervention  than  that  pos- 
sessed by  a  single  State"  (I.  122). 

Throughout  the  discussion  of  the  principles  we  find  recognition  of 
the  superiority  of  the  needs  of  international  society  over  the  narrow 
pretensions  of  an  absolute  sovereignty  or  independence.  As  evidence  we 
may  refer  to  sections  in  which  the  various  rights  of  transit  are  dis- 
cussed (I.  311-317;  cf.  284,  327,  331-332,  335). 

Without  entering  upon  any  analysis  of  the  contents  or  the  carefully 
thought-out  plan  of  arrangement  we  must  feel  especially  grateful  to 
Professor  Hyde  in  that  he  has  so  fully  considered  the  important  but 
often  neglected  subject  of  consular  rights  and  duties   (I.  785-832). 

We  can  hardly  fail  to  agree  with  the  author  that  as  long  as  states 
contemplate  war  it  will  be  necessary  to  regard  "  the  principles  which  are 
deemed  to  regulate  their  conduct  as  belligerents  "  as  "  constituting  a  vital 
part  of  international  law"  (II.  187),  and  he  therefore  devotes  the 
major  portion  of  his  second  volume  to  a  consideration  of  the  laws  of 
war  and  neutrality.  To  this  discussion  of  questions  which  have  divided 
the  world  in  impassioned  camps  the  author  fairly  makes  application  of 
juristic  principles,  as,  for  example,  when  he  concedes  the  right  of  a  sub- 
marine transport  vessel  properly  distinguished  as  such  to  enjoy  the 
same  treatment  in  regard  to  visit  and  search  as  that  to  which  a  surface 
merchantman  is  entitled  (II.  463-464). 

It  is  probably  too  much  to  expect  that  any  present  discussion  of 
blockade  and  contraband  can  be  regarded  as  final  or  that  the  conclu- 
sions reached  are  destined  to  be  adopted  by  governments  when  they 
shall  again  be  engaged  in  hostilities,  but  we  may  safely  affirm  that 
Professor  Hyde's  careful  statement  of  the  controverted  points  and  the 


772  Reviews  of  Books 

conclusions  which  he  sets  forth  will  be  entitled  always  to  an  unusual 
consideration. 

Some  ground  for  criticism  and  a  few  defects  do  not  destroy  the  value 
of  a  comprehensive  treatise.  These  two  volumes  stand  the  fundamental 
test  of  general  reliability,  and  they  will  without  doubt  take  high  rank 
as  constituting  a  trustworthy  and  scholarly  exposition  of  those  rules  of 
law  which  bind  the  member  states  of  international  society  in  their 
intercourse  one  with  another. 

Ellery  C.  Stowell. 

Le  Langage:  Introduction  Linguistique  a  I'Histoire.  Par  J.  Ven- 
dryes, Professeur  a  l'Universite  de  Paris.  [L'Evolution  de  l'Hu- 
manite,  Synthese  Collective,  dirigee  par  Henri  Berr.]  (Paris: 
La  Renaissance  du  Livre.  1921.  Pp.  xxviii,  439.  15  fr.) 
Why  include  a  book  on  language  in  a  series  on  "  The  Evolution  of 
Humanity"?  Because,  says  M.  Vendryes  (p.  1):  'Language  is  both 
an  instrument  and  an  aid  of  thought.  It  is  language  that  has  enabled 
man  to  become  conscious  of  himself  and  to  communicate  with  his  fel- 
lows— that  has  made  possible  the  establishment  of  societies."  Human 
society  and  human  thought,  in  their  higher  forms  at  least,  would  have 
been  impossible  without  language,  which  is  not  only  an  "  instrument  of 
thought"  but,  according  to  M.  Henri  Berr  ("  Avant-propos  ",  p.  xvii), 
"  a  factor  of  society  ".  Not,  he  adds,  "  a  product  of  society  "  as  main- 
tained by  the  school  of  Durkheim.  But  M.  Berr  recognizes,  too,  that 
society  "  exercises  a  pressure  (une  pression)"  upon  language.  He  would 
apparently  agree  that,  whether  originally  a  "  factor "  or  a  "  product  " 
of  society,  language  has  been  at  all  historic  periods  both.  Similarly  as 
to  language  and  thought — perhaps  men  can  think  in  non-linguistic  terms; 
but  they  seldom  do  so.  And  their  thoughts  are  unconsciously  but  pro- 
foundly affected  by  the  forms  of  language  in  which  they  can  hardly 
avoid  clothing  them — both  their  thoughts,  and  (consequently)  their 
actions.1  That  language,  on  the  other  hand,  is  also  influenced  by  thought, 
is  equally  clear.  These  reciprocal  relations  between  language  and  man's 
intellectual  and  social  life  seem  enough  to  justify,  for  a  historian,  an 
examination  of  the  nature  of  language,  as  a  tool  of  man. 

M.  Vendryes  divides  his  book  into  five  main  parts:  I.  Sounds,  II. 
Grammar,  III.  Vocabulary,  IV.  Constitution  of  Languages,  V.  Writing. 
The  last  three  seem  to  me  the  best ;  they  are  also  the  parts  of  most  gen- 
eral interest.  Part  III.  treats  of  why  and  how  words  change  their 
meanings,  and  concepts  change  their  names.  The  historic  and  social  im- 
portance of  language-study  appears  most  clearly  here  and  in  part  IV., 
1  Think  of  the  power  of  "  catch-words  "  and  of  "  calling  names  "  (without 
regard  to  facts)  in  determining  men's  actions,  to  mention  but  one  instance — a 
very  simple  one,  but  of  far-reaching  social  importance.  "  The  word  is  not  only 
a  key;  it  may  also  be  a  fetter."     E.  Sapir,  Language  (New  York,   1921),  p.   17. 


Vendryes:  Le  Langage  773 

which  treats  of  what  constitutes  "languages"  (les  langues)  as  dis- 
tinguished from  "language"  (le  langage),  of  dialects,  "special  lan- 
guages" (those  peculiar  to  one  trade,  caste,  sex,  religious  group,  etc.), 
argots,  contact  and  mixture  of  languages,  and  finally  the  comparative 
method  of  language-study,  which,  despite  its  drawbacks,  is  a  necessary 
substitute  for  the  historic  method  when  historic  data  are  wanting.  Part 
V.  contains  inter  alia  a  brief  but  good  history  of  writing,  a  conservative 
discussion  of  the  simplified-spelling  question,  and  a  treatment  of  the 
influence  of  writing  on  spoken  language,  the  importance  of  which  is  often 
underestimated. 

The  more  technical  parts  I.  and  II.  are  disappointing.  They  contain 
little  that  tends  to  clarify  our  ideas  or  advance  our  knowledge  on  these 
subjects,  which  are,  indeed,  as  difficult  as  they  are  important  for  the 
linguist.  For  instance,  there  is  an  element  of  truth  in  the  fundamental 
distinction  made  (p.  86),  among  grammatical  concepts,  between  "seman- 
temes ",  elements  of  [concrete]  meaning,  and  "  morphemes ",  formal 
elements.  (The  distinction  is  handled  better  by  Sapir — see  note  I — in 
his  fifth  chapter.)  But  the  author  fails  to  apply  his  terms  in  accordance 
with  his  own  definitions.  He  includes  among  "  morphemes  "  all  endings 
and  affixes,  articles  and  (at  least  the  French)  pronouns,  and  numerous 
other  words  and  grammatical  devices,  many  of  which  express  concrete 
ideas,  and  not  merely  "  relations  between  ideas  ",  which  is  what  he  says 
"  morphemes  "  express.  Despite  this  definition,  he  evidently  thinks  of  a 
"  morpheme "  at  times  as  any  element  that  is  inseparable  from  another 
element  in  speech.  Of  course  these  two  definitions  are  utterly  irrecon- 
cilable; and  the  (seemingly  unconscious)  blending  of  them  leads  to  sad 
confusion. 

The  concluding  section  on  Progress  in  Language  is  also  confused  and 
confusing.  We  get  no  clear  idea  of  the  grounds  on  which  Jespersen 
argued  that  languages  do  "progress".  If,  as  Jespersen  maintained,  (i) 
the  synthetic  and  inflecting  principles  of,  e.g.,  Greek  and  Latin,  are 
logically  inferior  to  the  analytic  and  isolating  principles  of  Chinese  and 
English;  and  (2)  all  languages  tend  to  develop  from  the  former  stage 
toward  the  latter,  and  to  discard  logically  useless  formal  elements — then 
the  historical  development  of  language  is  a  process  of  logical  improve- 
ment. Both  points  are,  no  doubt,  discutable;  but  at  least  it  seems  to  me 
that  Jespersen  has  made  clear  the  sole  grounds  on  which  the  question  of 
"  progress  "  in  language  can  be  argued.  Vendryes  is  too  much  pre- 
occupied with  various  aesthetic  and  other  considerations,  which  have  no 
real  bearing  on  the  subject — even  if  we  could  accept  as  scientific  fact  such 
curious  romanticism  as  the  paean  in  praise  of  the  Greek  language  on  pp. 
405  ff.,  which  I  can  hardly  reconcile  with  the  following  paragraph  in 
which  the  author  very  sanely  says  that  it  would  be  "  ridiculous  to  try 
to  prove  [on  aesthetic  grounds]  that  the  language  used  by  Homer  .  .  . 
is  inferior  or  superior  to  that  of  Shakespeare". 


774  Reviews  of  Books 

Much  better  is  the  introduction,  on  the  Origin  of  Language.  It  is 
profoundly  true,  though  it  may  seem  paradoxical,  that  "  the  origin  of 
language  is  not  a  linguistic  problem  "  (p.  6).  The  data  accessible  to  the 
linguist  fail  utterly  to  throw  light  upon  it,  as  our  author  makes  clear. 
It  must  be  left  to  the  speculative  psychologists.  Psychological  and  not 
linguistic  in  basis  are  the  suggestions  adopted  (tentatively  and  hesi- 
tantly) by  M.  Vendryes. 

Franklin  Edgerton. 


BOOKS  OF  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Christianity,  A.  D.  590-1314.  By 
F.  J.  Foakes  Jackson,  Professor  of  Christian  Institutions  in 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  (New  York:  Macmil- 
lan  Company.     1921.     Pp.  xi,  390.     $4.00.) 

Dr.  Foakes  Jackson,  feeling  that  the  Middle  Ages  have  not  received 
of  late  the  attention  they  deserve,  has  written  an  introduction  to  the  his- 
tory of  Latin  Christendom  from  the  accession  of  Gregory  the  Great  to 
the  death  of  Clement  V.  in  the  hope  of  stimulating  further  interest.  The 
volume  opens  with  a  chapter  on  the  Pillars  of  the  Medieval  Church,  a 
cross-section  of  Western  Christendom  in  the  sixth  century,  when  the 
characteristics  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  already  apparent.  "  Monasticism 
and  the  papacy,"  we  are  told,  "  were  the  corner-stones  of  the  medieval 
system."  There  are  disadvantages  attached  to  the  application  of  archi- 
tectural terminology  to  a  living,  growing  organism;  but,  if  pillars  and 
corner-stones  we  must  have,  better  than  these  can  be  found.  A  sounder 
judgment  is  that  of  Dr.  Kirsopp  Lake:  "From  the  end  of  the  second 
century  to  the  sixteenth  the  Christian  Church  was  supported  by  three  pil- 
lars, belief  in  the  Logos-Son,  Baptism,  and  the  Mass  "  (Harvard  Theo- 
logical Review,  XV.  106). 

Of  the  other  thirteen  chapters,  seven,  not  consecutive,  are  devoted  to 
the  history  of  the  papacy.  Chapter  IV.  gives  a  useful  description  of  the 
organization  of  the  church  by  provinces  and  dioceses.  There  is  a  chap- 
ter on  Learning  and  Heresy;  another  on  the  Church  as  a  Disciplinary 
Institution ;  and  a  third  on  the  Friars,  the  Schoolmen,  and  the  Universi- 
ties. A  number  of  interesting  and  important  matters  are  touched  upon 
in  the  chapter  called  a  Survey  of  Society.  The  last  chapter,  Dante  and 
the  Decay  of  Medievalism,  is  in  the  main  a  resume  of  the  Divine  Comedy. 
Dr.  Foakes  Jackson  finds  much  that  is  good  to  say  of  the  medieval 
Church.  It  was  "  the  only  institution  from  which  any  hope  of  a  regen- 
erated world  could  be  expected"  (p.  65)  and  its  corruption  has  been 
exaggerated  (p.  84).  It  was  for  the  good  of  the  world  that  in  his  own 
day,  at  any  rate,  Gregory  VII. 's  cause  should  prevail  (p.  143).  The  cru- 
sades, so  far  from  being  a  monstrous  example  of  folly,  were  an  attempt 
to  solve  one  of  to-day's  problems,  the  question  of  the  settlement  of  the 


Jackson:  Introduction  to  History  of  Christianity   775 

nearer  East  (p.  165).  A  high  opinion  is  expressed  of  the  popes  in  the 
Middle  Ages ;  they  "  numbered  the  greatest  men  in  the  world "  and 
"were  the  dominating  forces  in  Europe"  (p.  269).  Not  that  the  author 
indulges  in  undiluted  panegyric.  If  the  judgment  which  he  passes  on  the 
papacy  in  the  earlier  Middle  Ages  is  in  the  familiar  tone  of  Catholic 
apologetic  and  may  be  reminiscent  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopaedia  which 
he  so  often  cites  among  his  "Authorities",  the  same  is  not  true  of  the 
later  period.  "  It  is  instructive  to  notice  how  completely  the  sympathy 
of  the  reader  must  change  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  the  interval  be- 
tween Hadrian  IV.  and  Alexander  III.  and  the  two  French  popes,  Urban 
IV.  and  Clement  IV."  (pp.  265-266;  cf.  p.  269).  So  far  from  regarding 
the  thirteenth  as  the  greatest  of  centuries,  he  feels  that  "  judged  by  its 
fruits  it  is  one  of  the  most  disastrous  in  history  "  (p.  161). 

The  desire,  while  remaining  impartial,  to  find  and  to  emphasize  what 
is  praiseworthy  in  the  Middle  Ages,  which  marks  the  account  given  of 
papal  history,  is  manifested  in  the  chapters  on  Learning  and  Heresy,  and 
the  Friars,  the  Schoolmen,  and  the  Universities.  There  was  much  mental 
activity  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  much  unorthodox  opinion  persisted 
through  the  ages  of  faith ;  we  are  introduced  to  a  few  of  the  "  powerful, 
original,  and  courageous  thinkers"  of  the  period;  and,  here  and  there, 
we  are  given  some  inkling  as  regards  the  author's  own  theological 
opinions.  The  account  of  the  Medieval  Church  as  a  Disciplinary  Insti- 
tution is  avowedly  a  precis  of  O.  D.  Watkins's  History  of  Penance  with 
additions  culled  from  H.  C.  Lea.     It  is  a  masterpiece  of  condensation. 

A  volume  which  sympathetically  and  on  the  whole  accurately  traces  in 
broad  outline  the  development  of  Western  Christendom  through  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  deserves  a  welcome  from  students  of  the  period  even  though  it 
cannot  be  considered  a  noteworthy  addition  to  historical  literature.  This 
book  was  not  written  for  specialists,  nor  was  it  written  by  a  specialist, 
in  medieval  history.  Indeed,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  for  whom  the 
book  was  written.  There  are  chapters  which  presuppose  no  information 
on  the  part  of  the  reader,  and  there  are  passages  for  an  understanding 
of  which  a  considerable  amount  of  information  is  necessary.  Doubtless 
the  volume  will  find  its  way  to  the  "  reserve  shelves "  where  some  of 
its  chapters  will  serve  a  useful  purpose  as  "outside  readings".  But  if 
Dr.  Foakes  Jackson  does  not  give  us  an  adequate  treatment  of  the  history 
of  Christianity  in  a  period  that  he  has  not  made  his  own,  it  is  encourag- 
ing to  have  a  theologian  who  belongs  to  the  extreme  left  of  the  modernist 
school  urge  the  importance  of  the  study  of  the  medieval  Church. 

Alfred  H.  Sweet. 

A  History  of  Pisa,  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries.  By  William 
Heywood.  (Cambridge:  University  Press.  1921.  Pp.  x,  292. 
$8.00.) 

Delayed  by  illness  and  war  and  finally  broken  off  by  death,  the  His- 
tory of  Pisa  must  always  remain  a  torso.    To  the  readers  of  William  Hey- 


776  Reviews  of  Books 

wood's  many  studies  of  medieval  Italy  this  will  be  a  cause  of  keen  regret. 
Twenty  and  more  years  of  concentrated  and  sympathetic  labor  directed  to 
the  youthful  Tuscan  and  Umbrian  communes  qualified  him  to  compose 
a  picture  of  Pisa  of  which  he  might  reasonably  hope  that  it  would  take 
rank  with  his  able  and  lively  History  of  Perugia.  Fate  ruled  otherwise, 
but,  though  incomplete,  this  work  on  Pisa,  which  takes  the  story  of  the 
city  through  infancy  and  youth,  is  a  solid  achievement  showing  no 
falling-off  of  mental  powers.  At  the  turning-point  from  consular  gov- 
ernment to  the  rule  of  the  podesta  the  pen  fell  from  the  author's  hand. 

It  is  a  hopeless  undertaking  to  develop  the  story  of  a  medieval  com- 
mune merely  at  the  hand  of  the  scattered  notices  of  biassed  chroniclers 
and  of  the  rare  official  documents  which  have  reached  our  time.  The 
effort,  no  matter  how  conscientiously  directed,  will  be  wasted  unless  it 
be  enlivened  by  a  plentiful  draught  from  the  well-springs  of  the  imagina- 
tion. It  was  this  very  ingredient  which  has  favorably  distinguished 
Heywood's  work  in  the  past  and  it  is  not  absent  in  this  last  contribution. 
However,  a  certain  brilliance  is  missing  and  the  impression  is  conveyed 
that  the  author,  held  to  earth  by  an  excess  of  scholarly  caution,  has  some- 
how failed  to  free  his  wings.  A  too  uninterrupted  prosaic  patter  is  par- 
ticularly evident  in  the  central  section  of  the  books  which  deals  with 
Pisa's  heroic  period  when,  in  close  association  with  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
she  won  the  ascendancy  of  Tuscany.  Though  the  minute  moves  of  the 
complicated  game  of  imperial  and  communal  politics  are  necessary  to  a 
full  comprehension  of  the  situation,  we  regret  that  their  over-conscientious 
rehearsal  could  not  have  been  more  completely  subdued  to  the  broad 
and  majestic  themes  which  Time  was  hammering  out  upon  its  anvil.  The 
author's  closely  documented  method  is  better  suited  to  the  constitutional 
development  of  Pisa  and  this  leaps  from  his  pages  with  convincing  clear- 
ness. It  is  not  likely  that  the  general  forces  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  communal  type  or  that  the  specific  agencies,  such  as  the  vicecomes, 
the  archbishop,  the  conjuratio,  which  particularly  shaped  the  young  for- 
tunes of  Pisa,  have  been  more  lucidly  exhibited  in  their  interaction  than 
in  Heywood's  last  three  chapters.  An  excellent  achievement,  too,  are  the 
chapters  dealing  with  the  relatively  unexplored  situation  in  Sardinia  and 
Corsica  and  the  malignant  struggle  for  their  control  with  the  rival  com- 
mune of  Genoa.  Although  in  this  as  well  as  in  all  the  other  sections  the 
author  used  only  printed  sources,  his  poised  judgment  has  greatly  helped 
to  clarify  the  clouded  picture  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  century  struggle 
among  the  powers  of  the  Tyrhennian  sea.  The  peculiar  bias  against 
Florence  which  is  a  feature  of  all  of  Mr.  Heywood's  Tuscan  studies  re- 
appears in  this  his  swan  song.  Florence  is  the  indubitable  villain  of  the 
Tuscan  piece.  The  Great  War,  the  end  of  which  he  lived  to  see,  intrudes 
into  this  story  of  passionate  medieval  conflict  just  enough  to  make  it 
clear  that  the  author  clings  to  his  satanic  formula  also  for  the  modern 
world,  with  Germany  cast  for  the  role  in  which  Florence  won  such  sinister 
distinction  in  an  earlier  age.  Ferdinand  Schevill. 


Grob:  Dcnombrements  des  Feux  777 

Dcnombremcnts  des  Feux  des  Duche  de  Luxembourg  ct  Comte  de 
Chiny:  Documents  Fiscaux  de  1306  a  1537.  Reunis  par  Jacques 
Grob,  publies  avec  des  Additions  et  Corrections  de  Jules  Van- 
nerus.  Volume  I.  (Brussels:  P.  Imbreghts.  1921.  Pp.  xi, 
796.) 

The  Royal  Commission  of  Belgian  History  has  not  been  discour- 
aged by  the  war.  It  continues  to  harvest  original  documents  relating  to 
the  lands  that  were,  as  well  as  those  which  are,  Belgic.  This  volume  has 
to  do  with  the  whole  of  Luxemburg — present  Belgian  department  and 
grand  duchy  alike — in  its  former  status  as  countship  or  duchy,  although 
the  grand  duchy  has  been  entirely  out  of  the  Belgic  circle  for  83  years. 
It  happens,  however,  that  within  the  last  few  months  there  has  been  a 
fresh  adjustment  of  relations  between  the  two.  The  customs  barrier  has 
been  removed  by  the  final  ratification  on  March  6,  1922,  of  the  Belgian- 
Luxemburg  treaty  signed  by  the  negotiators  on  July  25,  1921.  It  is  a 
mere  customs  alliance,  to  be  sure.  The  political  independence  of  the 
grand  duchy  is  preserved.  But  the  commercial  interests  of  the  greater 
and  the  lesser  state  are  welded  together  just  as  those  of  the  latter  were 
with  Germany  in  the  Zollverein,  summarily  abolished  in  1918.  Other 
changes  will  follow  inevitably  in  addition  to  certain  items  already  accepted. 
Belgian  money  is  to  replace  Luxemburg  bank  notes  of  more  than  ten 
francs  which  are  now  in  circulation,  Belgian  consuls  will  probably  as- 
sume charge  of  Luxemburg  interests  (as  a  survival  of  the  personal 
union  with  Holland,  these  have  been  in  charge  of  Dutch  officials  abroad), 
a  Commission  Paritaire  composed  of  three  Luxemburg  and  three  Belgian 
delegates  is  to  study  the  metallurgic  problems,  while  the  administration  of 
the  railroads,  in  German  control  from  1872  to  1918,  is  to  be  arranged  later 
after  discussion  by  the  two  governments.  No  one  can  deny  that  the  doors 
have  been  opened  to  a  resumption  of  a  relationship  even  closer  than  that 
existing  of  old  when  the  sovereign  at  Brussels  was  also  count  or  duke  of 
Luxemburg  in  his  own  person.  Grand-ducals  have  been  by  no  means  unan- 
imous in  desiring  this  after-war  affiliation,  even  though  they  did  not  cling 
to  Germany  in  prosperity  or  in  defeat.  Their  reluctance  is,  perhaps,  a  direct 
inheritance  from  past  ages  when  there  was  a  tenacious  desire  to  preserve 
control  of  their  money  affairs  and  to  resent  the  slightest  attempt  to  sweep 
them  into  any  general  system  of  taxation  emanating  from  the  seat  of  the 
general  government.  But  this  is  all  by  the  way.  The  new  union  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  the  volume  as  part  of  the  Belgian 
series.  The  Luxemburg  matter  was  a  part  of  the  scheme  of  the  Commis- 
sion Royale  long  before  1914.  The  enumeration  of  the  "fires"  was  a 
careful  census  of  the  inhabitants  for  the  purpose  of  allotting  the  con- 
tribution to  be  expected  from  each  unit  of  taxation — which  was  what 
each  "  fire "  denoted.  The  freedom  of  the  duchy  from  the  imposition 
of  any  collective  tax  voted  by  the  States  General  was  recognized.  In 
1473  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  at  later  dates  Charles  V.,  asked  a  volun- 


778  Reviews  of  Books 

tary  aid  from  Luxemburg,  the  Estates  assented  and  then  proceeded  to 
distribute  the  burden.  But  their  assessments  were  by  no  means  meekly 
accepted.  Individualism  persisted  in  the  property  units  that  composed 
the  duchy  just  as  it  did  in  the  states  that  made  up  the  Seventeen  Provinces. 
The  census  is  interesting,  not  only  as  showing  the  population  and  its 
distribution  at  the  epochs  indicated,  but  also  as  evidence  of  the  tenacious 
memory  of  the  precise  conditions  under  which  each  unit  had  entered  into 
the  state  and  what  exemptions  it  was  entitled  to.  Every  precedent  for 
shirking  responsibility  was  cited.  In  1473  the  sum  voted  by  the  optimistic 
Estates  was  12,000  crowns,  but  the  tax-gatherers  found  their  task  of  col- 
lecting infinitely  difficult  in  the  face  of  the  exemptions  claimed  by  those 
who  were  rated  as  giving  voluntarily  to  aid  their  sovereign  in  his  enter- 
prises beyond  their  frontiers. 

This  volume  has  been  long  on  the  way.  In  1914  the  editor,  Abbe 
Grob,  a  Luxemburger,  was  interrupted  in  his  effort  to  gather  scattered 
data.  His  death  in  1915  threw  his  material  into  the  hands  of  Jules  Van- 
nerus,  who  found  many  errors,  not  unnatural  in  documents  of  a  bilingual 
land.  It  has  taken  him  a  long  time  to  disentangle  the  confusion.  The 
volume  will  be  useful  to  any  student  of  feudal  land  tenure  and  its  obliga- 
tions. 

Nova  Alamanniae :  Urkunden,  Brief  c,  und  andcrc  Quellen  bcsonders 
zur  Deutsche  Geschichte  des  14.  Jahrhundcrts.  Von  Edmund 
Stengel.  I.  Halfte.  (Berlin:  Weidmannsche  Buchhandlung. 
1921.     Pp.  ii,  416.     M.  54.) 

Some  medievalist  ought  to  write  a  book  on  the  office  of  the  notary  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  for  what  is  written  is  scattered  and  insufficient.  This 
much,  I  think,  may  truthfully  be  said  without  doing  injustice  to  the 
labors  of  Harry  Bresslau  and  Arthur  Giry,  to  whose  noble  works  every 
student  of  medieval  history  is  a  debtor.  The  proof  of  this  observation 
lies  in  this  collection,  which  contains  some  very  valuable  documents  upon 
the  nature  and  practice  of  the  medieval  notary's  profession  (nos.  369, 
397,  483,  496).  Everywhere  in  Europe  the  important  trusts  committed 
to  notaries  required  them  to  be  men  of  character,  intelligence,  education, 
and  practical  ability.  The  gem  of  these  documents  is  no.  483,  which 
gives  the  text  of  the  oath  a  medieval  notary  was  required  to  take.  The 
dignity  and  honor  of  the  profession  contrasts  sharply  with  the  degraded 
condition  of  the  modern  notary's  office.  The  instruction  reads  (but  the 
whole  document  ought  to  be  read  for  its  minute  instructions)  : 

Tu  jurabis  ad  sancta  Dei  ewangelia  de  cetero  fidelis  esse  sacrosancte 
Romane  ecclesie  ac  sacro  imperio  Romano  suisque  imperatoribus,  scrip- 
turas  vero  per  te  in  formam  publicam  redigendas  in  carta  papirea  vel  unde 
abrasa  fuerit  scriptura  non  conscribas  tabellionatusque  officium  sine 
fraude  exercebis  nil  addens  vel  minuens  maliciose  vel  fraudulenter,  quod 
contrarium  alteri  prodesse  poterit  vel  obesse. 


Stengel:  Nova  Alamanniae  779 

Almost  all  the  documents  in  this  volume  pertain  to  a  collection  formed 
by  an  eminent  German  notary  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century 
named  Rudolf  Losse,  who  was  an  attache  of  the  cathedral  church  of 
Trier,  and  later  a  deacon  of  Mainz.  Years  ago  two  German  scholars 
happened  upon  a  small  collection  of  documents  which  had  once  belonged 
to  Losse,  and  were  found  in  the  archives  at  Darmstadt.  But  Herr  Stengel 
has  discovered  the  original  nest  of  Losse's  manuscripts  in  the  Landes- 
bibliothek  at  Cassel,  and  this  substantial  volume  (the  first  of  two)  is  the 
fruit  of  his  good  fortune.  As  the  volume  has  no  index  it  may  be  con- 
venient to  specify  particular  documents  of  special  value. 

The  importance  of  the  collection  may  be  appreciated  when  it  is  said 
that  here  are  found  many  new  documents  (though  some  are  copies)  per- 
taining to  the  history  of  the  Emperor  Ludwig  IV.  of  Bavaria,  his  conflict 
with  the  Avignonese  popes  (nos.  71,  78,  90,  91,  92,  95,  96,  103.  104,  188. 
274,  295,  277,  379.  380,  387,  585),  the  attitude  and  policy  of  both  the  Ger- 
man clergy  and  the  German  feudality  toward  emperor  and  pope  (nos. 
491,  494,  521,  545-547),  the  imperial  relations  with  England  and  France 
during  the  first  throes  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  (nos.  175,  408,  413, 
477.  497.  548,  563,  581),  besides  more  detached  documents  not  forming 
parts  of  a  series,  which  touch  upon  the  history  of  the  Spiritual  Fran- 
ciscans (no.  218),  the  early  history  of  the  Visconti  of  Milan  (nos. 
134-136),  the  effort  of  Clement  V.  to  arouse  Europe  to  a  new  crusade, 
much  to  the  anxiety  of  Venice,  which  angered  the  pope  by  counter- 
intrigue  (no.  70).  Three  documents  cast  light  on  the  development  of  town 
life  in  Germany,  especially  upon  Oppenheim  (nos.  252,  266,  520),  and 
upon  the  condition  of  the  Jews,  notably  in  Strasbourg  (nos.  299,  309,  335, 
403,  520).  Great  interest  attaches  to  nos.  90,  91,  92,  95,  123,  553.  which 
deal  with  the  Kaiseridcc  and  the  political  theory  of  the  fourteenth  century 
with  reference  to  the  relations  of  papacy  and  empire.  The  influence  of 
Marsiglio  of  Padua  and  William  of  Ockham  is  apparent  in  these  sources. 
In  nos.  455,  458,  486,  we  have  new  light  on  Cardinal  Talleyrand,  the 
French  statesman  of  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Valois  (the  name  is  spelled 
Talayrand),  and  it  comes  as  a  shock  of  surprise  to  find  a  cardinal  Neapo- 
leon  (Orsini)  in  the  papal  entourage  (nos.  457.  559-560)  ;  I  leave  to  en- 
thusiastic Bonapartists  the  joy  of  discovering  his  attachment  to  the 
Napoleonic  genealogical  tree. 

In  addition  to  the  light  thrown  upon  the  nature  of  the  notary's  office 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  these  documents  are  of  great  interest  to  the  student 
of  palaeography  and  diplomatic.  The  astonishingly  slovenly  Latin  will 
soon  strike  the  reader.  The  earliest  example  written  in  German  is  no. 
273,  about  1329;  others  in  German  are  nos.  274,  295,  377,  379,  380,  387. 
These  possibly  may  also  interest  the  philologist  as  examples  of  medieval 
German  dialect  in  the  middle  Rhinelands  in  the  fourteenth  century.  No. 
295,  written  at  Trier,  is  curious  for  French  locutions  and  spellings.  No. 
413  is  in  French.  The  first  document  written  on  paper  is  of  the  year 
1336.     In  no.  231  is  a  tantalizing  reference  to  one  "  Robertus  Anglicus". 


780  Reviews  of  Books 

a  resident  of  Avignon  and  evidently  an  accomplished  penman,  who  sells 
to  Rudolf  Losse  a  valuable  manuscript  "  scriptum  in  pergamenis  vitulinis 
et  edulinis  "  for  the  sum  of  8  pounds  and  8  shillings — "  good  money  of 
Tours".  Later  on  (no.  369)  we  find  Losse  buying  an  example  of  the 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.  from  a  clerk  in  Mainz  for  thirty-one  florins. 
James  Westfall  Thompson. 

The  Witch-Cult  in  Western  Europe:  a  Study  in  Anthropology.     By 

Margaret  Alice  Murray.     (Oxford:  University  Press.     1921. 

Pp.  303.     16s.) 

In  her  use  of  the  word  "  witch  "  Miss  Murray  does  not  discriminate 
those  who  in  many  lands  and  many  ages  have  used  enchantments  from 
the  victims  of  that  panic  of  terror  and  pious  hate  which  in  Christendom 
alone,  and  mainly  from  the  fifteenth  century  to  the  seventeenth,  put 
women  and  men  to  death  by  thousands  on  the  charge  of  selling  themselves 
to  Satan;  but  the  witch-confessions  on  which  she  bases  her  theory  of  a 
"  witch-cult "  belong  to  the  latter.  In  the  English-speaking  lands  to 
which  her  study  is  chiefly  devoted  they  do  not  antedate  the  later  six- 
teenth century  and  to  most  students  of  the  witch-panic  have  seemed  but 
a  belated  echo  of  those  of  the  Continent.  It  is  now  some  three  hundred 
years  since  the  Jesuit  Spee  published  the  book  which  did  most  to  con- 
vince the  world  that  these  confessions  of  those  accused  of  witchcraft 
were  but  fabrications  wrung  from  them  by  the  torture.  Earlier  doubters 
had  lacked  evidence  or  had  been  silenced  by  authority.  Spee's  book  went 
out  without  his  name,  but  he  had  clearly  been  a  confessor  to  the  accused. 
He  knew  that  these  believed  themselves  innocent  and  he  had  learned  in 
all  its  details  the  merciless  procedure  that  extorted  what  their  prosecutors 
wished.  "  If  all  of  us,"  he  wrote,  "  have  not  confessed  ourselves  witches, 
it  is  only  because  we  have  not  been  tortured."  The  eloquent  plea  found 
hearing  in  high  quarters.  One  after  another  of  those  connected  with  the 
courts  verified  for  himself  the  assertions  of  Spee  and  added  a  volume  to 
the  literature  of  protest.  Documentary  evidence  began  to  come  in  from 
the  accused  themselves.  The  rational  eighteenth  century  invited  to  yet 
more  thoroughgoing  revelations ;  and  now  for  more  than  a  hundred  years 
Protestant  scholars  and  Catholic,  once  rivals  in  credulity,  have  been  dis- 
puting instead  as  to  the  credit  for  priority  in  unmasking  the  cruel  delu- 
sion. 

But,  while  historians  have  thus  been  reaching  agreement,  it  has  been 
less  easy  to  wipe  from  the  general  mind  the  impressions  left  by  the  old 
official  teaching  or  made  on  those  who  stumble  in  the  libraries  on  what 
was  once  accepted  as  judicial  evidence.  Every  new  revelation  in  science, 
every  fresh  point  of  view  in  philosophy,  has  furnished  to  somebody  an- 
other explanation  of  what  are  called  "the  phenomena  of  witchcraft". 
Especially  prone  to  such  speculation  have  been  those  concerned  for  the 
repute  of  the  men  or  the  orthodoxies  responsible  for  that  old  witch-hunt- 


Murray:  The  Witch-Cult  in  Western  Europe      781 

ing,  and  no  small  part  of  what  is  now  written  on  the  witches  is  the  prod- 
uct of  these  hostile  pens. 

If  to  this  literature  of  indictment  Miss  Murray's  book  must  be  reck- 
oned, let  it  at  once  be  added  that  there  is  in  it  no  shadow  of  such  partizan- 
ship.  Alas,  to  the  historian  there  is  little  else  to  commend  it.  How 
narrow  as  yet  are  her  studies  she  tells  us  herself.  Of  the  protests  above 
described  she  knows  not  a  word.  The  careful  general  histories  by  mod- 
ern scholars  are  as  unknown  to  her.  A  few  of  the  earlier  skeptics  she 
names,  but  in  phrases  that  suggest  a  scant  acquaintance ;  and  she  cer- 
tainly can  not  have  read  those  whom  against  them  she  lumps  off  together 
as  "  believers  ".  Perhaps  it  is  from  Mr.  Lecky's  chapter  that  she  has  the 
notion  that  the  believers  were  abler  than  the  doubters;  but,  had  she 
studied  the  admirable  sifting  of  this  witch-evidence — and  of  Mr.  Lecky's 
verdict — some  thirty-odd  years  ago  by  a  trio  of  the  English  Society  for 
Psychical  Research,  she  would  have  learned  that  the  superiority  does  not 
lie  in  critical  insight  or  in  knowledge  of  the  evidence. 

Even  in  the  works  which  she  has  used  she  has  "  omitted  the  opinions 
of  the  authors"  and  has  "examined  only  the  recorded  evidence".  If 
this  were  to  insure  an  unbiassed  impression  and  to  test  by  her  own 
criticism  before  listening  to  others',  it  might  well  be  commended;  but  in 
her  book  criticism  is  as  absent  as  the  knowledge  of  any.  To  her  every 
confession  is  true,  all  the  accused  guilty,  and  whether  convicted  or  acquit- 
ted. She  does  not  trouble  her  judgment  by  hearing  even  what  they  say 
for  themselves.  Mary  Osgood,  for  example,  whose  confession  she  re- 
peatedly quotes,  not  only  retracted  it  all  and  was  eventually  discharged, 
but  handed  in  (she  and  her  Andover  neighbors)  a  vivid  description  of 
the  pressure  and  persuasion  by  which  the  confession  was  extorted.  Nor 
may  it  be  forgotten  that  in  these  Massachusetts  trials  only  those  who 
would  not  confess  were  put  to  death.  But  of  all  this  Miss  Murray  says 
nothing.  Even  Joan  of  Arc,  whose  two  trials  have  shown  us  so  minutely 
her  brave  and  devout  soul,  is  as  guilty  as  the  rest. 

Not  that  Miss  Murray  has  not  somewhere  learned  that  the  confessions 
have  been  ascribed  to  torture.  In  a  few  lines  of  her  introduction  she 
once  for  all  brushes  away  that  suggestion.  "  In  most  of  the  English  and 
many  of  the  Scotch  trials,"  she  tells  us,  "  legal  torture  was  not  applied." 
How. has  she  assured  herself?  And  may  illegal  torture  be  ignored  by  a 
student  of  evidence?  Almost  as  briefly  she  disposes  of  the  notion  that 
the  uniformity  of  the  confessions  may  be  explained  by  the  leading  ques- 
tions and  by  the  explicit  questionaries  which  left  the  accused  little  need 
for  aught  but  yes  or  no.  Where,  she  asks,  did  the  questions  come  from  ? 
But  she  gives  herself  no  pains  to  find  out. 

She  has  really  studied,  and  with  diligence,  the  contemporary  accounts. 
As  yet,  however,  it  is  only  to  those  of  Great  Britain  that  she  has  given 
"  an  intensive  study  " ;  though  with  glances  at  those  of  Ireland  and  New 
England,   of    France  and    Scandinavia,    where   she   thinks   she   finds   the 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 52. 


782  Reviews  of  Books 

"  cult "  the  same.  Intensive  her  study  is :  by  hook  or  by  crook  these 
sources  are  made  to  confess  what  their  questioner  suspects.  If  her  re- 
sults, like  her  method,  are  not  those  of  the  old  demonologists,  it  is  due  to 
a  difference  in  the  questioner.  Miss  Murray  is  a  rationalist.  Of  the 
supernatural  she  will  have  nothing.  All  that  is  needed  is  to  omit  the 
miracle  or  explain  it  away.  The  witches  actually  went  to  a  witch- 
sabbath  ;  but  on  foot  and  to  an  accessible  spot.  There  they  actually  wor- 
shiped the  Devil ;  but  it  was  a  Devil  impersonated  by  a  man.  They  really 
had  familiars  and  used  them  in  sorcery  or  divination;  but  these  were 
actual  cats  or  dogs  or  toads,  not  imps.  Much  she  can  tell  us  of  their 
rites  and  of  their  organization;  and  all  this  she  counts  the  survival  of 
a  pre-Christian  cult,  which  for  centuries  had  lingered  on  in  secret  till 
the  witch-trials  brought  it  to  light.  This  cult,  she  thinks,  was  hereditary, 
the  children  of  the  witches  being  baptized  into  it;  and  perhaps  her  skill 
in  extorting  evidence  may  best  be  illustrated  from  her  appendix  on  the 
names  of  witches.  Among  the  women,  eight  names,  she  finds,  predom- 
inate. It  does  not  occur  to  her  to  ask  if  these  names  did  not  also  pre- 
dominate among  other  women  at  the  time  and  place.  Two  of  them  are 
Anne  and  Marion  (i.e.,  Marian,  Marianne,  Mary  Anne).  To  another 
these  might  seem  commonplace  enough,  since  Christian  names  had  long 
been  saints'  names,  and  the  Virgin  Mary  and  her  mother  St.  Anne  could 
hardly  be  strange  patrons,  even  for  witches'  children ;  but  Miss  Murray 
explains  to  us  that  "there  was  a  British  goddess  called  Anna".  That 
Joan,  or  Jane,  the  feminine  of  John,  was  used  so  often,  must  have  some 
deep  significance;  but  she  cannot  guess  it.  As  for  Christian  (Christine), 
"  the  name  clearly  indicates  the  presence  of  another  religion ". 

Surely,  discussion  of  what  confessedly  is  so  unripe  is  premature. 
When  Miss  Murray  has  broadened  her  study  to  all  the  lands  where  she 
can  find  the  "  cult " ;  when  she  has  dealt  with  documents  worthier  the 
name  of  records  than  the  chap-books  and  the  formless  reports  that  have 
to  serve  us  for  the  British  trials ;  when  she  has  traced  back  witch-sabbath 
and  questionary  through  the  centuries  of  witch  and  heretic  hunting  that 
precede  the  British;  when  she  has  trusted  herself  to  study  the  work  of 
other  students  and  fairly  to  weigh  their  conclusions  against  her  own  in 
the  light  of  the  further  evidence  they  may  adduce:  then  perhaps  she  may 
have  modified  her  views.  Whether  she  changes  or  confirms  them,  she 
will  then  have  earned  the  right  to  a  hearing.  And  meanwhile  she  will 
have  discovered  how  many  times  the  theory  she  now  thinks  her  own,  or 
something  very  like  it,  has  been  advanced  before.  In  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury a  brilliant  but  imaginative  French  historian  set  it  forth  in  the  most 
fascinating  book  of  all  witch  literature.  Not  even  Jules  Michelet's  se- 
ductive pen  could  make  it  convincing,  though  his  wide  learning  qualified 
it  by  large  concession  to  the  views  of  other  scholars ;  but  it  was  perhaps 
its  influence  on  French  thought  that  made  it  possible  a  generation  ago 
for  a  rascally  free-thinker  to  hoax  multitudes  of  honest  Catholics  into  be- 


Haydcn  and  Moonan:  History  of  Irish  People      783 

lieving  that  in  our  day  Freemasonry  is  just  such  an  actual  Devil-worship 
as  Michelet  and  Miss  Murray  conceive  that  of  the  witches  to  have  been. 
After  all,  is  it  much  more  absurd  to  ascribe  such  a  secret  cult  to  the  nine- 
teenth century  than  to  the  seventeenth? 

That  her  volume  has  seemed  to  need  such  fullness  of  review  is  due  less 
to  its  contents  than  to  the  press  from  which  it  comes  and  to  the  praise 
it  has  received  from  even  historian  reviewers.  That  so  lightly  she  or 
they  could  reach  a  verdict  is  doubtless  largely  for  the  lack  in  English  of 
any  thorough  history  of  witchcraft.  Alas  that  Mr.  Lea  did  not  live  to 
complete  his  work !  Perhaps  even  the  materials  which  he  had  gathered, 
and  which  ere  long  will  now  be  given  to  the  press,  may  help  to  insure  a 
longer  suspense  of  judgment. 

George  L.  Burr. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Irish  People  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  1920. 
By  Mary  Hayden,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Modern  Irish  History  in 
the  National  University  of  Ireland,  and  George  A.  Moonan, 
Barrister-at-Law,  Special  Lecturer  on  History,  Leinster  College 
of  Irish.  (London  and  New  York:  Longmans,  Green,  and  Com- 
pany.    1 92 1.     20s.) 

An  eminent  Irish  scholar,  in  the  preface  to  a  history  of  Ireland  pub- 
lished a  few  years  ago,  observed  that,  while  some  people  may  be  dis- 
posed to  ask  if  there  were  a  real  need  of  a  new  history  of  Ireland,  since 
there  are  so  many  already  in  the  hands  of  the  public,  yet  it  is  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  find  a  really  good  work,  "  full,  accurate,  well-written, 
and  impartial  ". 

The  scope  of  the  present  volume  precludes  it  from  pretending  to  the 
first  of  the  foregoing  qualifications;  but  it  deserves  the  other  three— it 
is  accurate,  well  written,  and,  while  staunchly  national,  it  is  impartial. 
Furthermore,  this  volume  differs  from  its  predecessors  chiefly  because 
these  predominantly  belong  to  the  "  painted  landscape  "  type,  presenting 
the  story  strongly  to  the  imagination,  recording  events  in  their  sequence 
but  not  adequately  setting  forth  the  causal  nexus  persisting  from  age  to 
age,  while  this  is  a  scientific  history.  It  is  not  merely  a  relation  of  the 
scenes  and  roles  which  make  up  the  drama  played  on  the  stage  of  Ire- 
land; it  is  a  history  of  the  Irish  people. 

The  first  book  covers  the  period  down  to  the  coming  of  the  Normans. 
The  early  semi-mythical  and  legendary  stories  of  races  and  personages 
are  not  accepted  as  serious  history.  Working  back  from  subsequent  his- 
toric data,  a  conjectural  attempt  is  made  to  determine  what  core  of  fact 
lies  at  the  centre  of  the  legendary  haze.  And  here  it  may  be  remarked 
once  for  all  that,  throughout  the  work,  there  is  evident  a  judicial  caution 
in  handling  topics  on  which  testimony  is  conflicting.  Repeatedly,  charges 
against  men  or  measures  that  elsewhere  have  been  accepted  as  proven. 
are  here  qualified  with  a  discreet  "  it  is  said  ". 


784  Reviews  of  Books 

The  basic  thesis  of  the  work  is  expressed  in  the  following  passage 
(p.  56)  :  "  The  nation  was  a  living  organism,  with  periods  of  progress  or 
decay,  and  in  political,  social,  economic,  and  intellectual  functions,  many 
changes  took  place.  But  there  were  certain  principles  of  law  and  gov- 
ernment and  social  life  which  were  distinctly  characteristic  of  the  entire 
Gaelic  people.  Upon  these  principles  they  remained  organised  until  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  even  to  the  present  day  the  Irish  people  are 
affected  by  their  influences." 

Through  the  events  of  the  Norman  invasion  and  subsequent  settle- 
ment, the  armed  struggles  between  Norman  and  Gael,  the  frequent  com- 
binations of  some  of  each  party  against  similar  combinations,  are  briefly 
but  clearly  described.  The  result  of  the  feudal  system  of  the  Normans 
and  the  native  clan  system,  with  their  conflicting  principles  of  land-owner- 
ship, mutually  modifying  each  other  without  becoming  completely  har- 
monized, is  carefully  analyzed.  This  conflict  of  land-tenure  systems  is 
immeasurably  embroiled  in  the  following  centuries  by  successive 
"grants",  plantations,  and  settlements.  Rightly  judging  the  tenure  of 
land  to  be  one  of  the  great  functions  of  national  life,  and  one  especially 
active  in  the  efforts  of  the  organism  to  assimilate  the  successive  foreign 
elements  introduced  by  the  various  plantations,  the  writer  has  traced  its 
manifestations  through  each  period. 

Here  one  may  be' permitted  to  place  a  note  of  interrogation  after  one 
view  in  this  exposition.  The  Ulster  "tenant  right"  custom,  which  Glad- 
stone employed  as  the  corner-stone  of  his  land-tenure  reform  legislation, 
was  not,  as  the  text  would  have  it,  a  survival  of  the  clan  system,  though 
there  was  some  resemblance  between  them.-  The  "  Ulster  custom  "  sprang 
from  the  first  Plantation  of  Ulster.  It  attained  to  full  vigor  as  an  un- 
written law  in  the  lands  of  County  Coleraine  (now  Derry)  and  adjoining 
territories  granted  to  the  London  companies,  Drapers,  Salters,  Skinners, 
etc.  It  extended  to  other  estates  created  by  the  plantation  "  grants ". 
The  rank  and  file  of  the  people  brought  over  to  colonize  the  forfeited 
estates  of  the  Irish  chiefs  were  indispensable  partners  with  their  leaders, 
who  obtained  the  grants,  in  the  scheme  of  colonization  to  supplant  the 
native  population.  Hence,  in  the  "  settlements "  they  were  not  on  the 
footing  of  mere  tenants  at  will ;  they  obtained  a  real  though  subordinate 
interest  in  their  farms,  fixity  of  tenure  as  long  as  they  paid  their  rents. 

Another  fact  that  is  emphasized  through  the  course  of  the  history  is 
the  feeble,  sometimes  almost  negligible,  authority  of  the  English  crown 
over  the  Norman  and  Gaelic  "  old  strangers  "  and  "  new  strangers  "  until 
the  end  of  the  Elizabethan  wars,  when,  the  text  states  (p.  266),  "after 
nearly  four  and  a  half  centuries,  the  English  Conquest  of  Ireland  was  real 
and  complete  ".  This  verdict  will  provoke  strong  dissent  from  some  quar- 
ters. Again,  from  the  time  of  Poynings's  Parliament  forward  to  1782,  the 
opposition  of  individuals  and  bodies  who  controlled  or  represented  the  na- 
tional forces  and  conditions  to  interference  in  Irish  affairs  by  the  English 


Acts  of  the  Privy  Council  of  England  785 

Parliament  and  Privy  Council  is  shown  to  have  been  perpetually  active — 
another  manifestation  of  organic  unity,  however  imperfect  it  may  have 
been.  Even  when  the  leaders  and  representatives  of  the  nation  were  in  an 
overwhelming  majority  descendants  of  planters,  Cromwellians,  William- 
ites,  they  resented  measures  that  overrode  the  nation.  After  reading 
that  the  Parliament  of  the  eighteenth  century  exhibited  every  fault  that  a 
parliament  could  have,  one  may  smile  at  the  apologetic  reflection  (p.  377). 
"  Still,  with  all  its  faults,  it  was  an  Irish  Parliament  of  a  kind  ".  A  poor 
thing,  sir,  but  mine  own  ! 

The  claim  advanced  in  the  preface  that  the  authors  have  striven  to  be 
impartial  is  amply  sustained.  They  have  shunned  the  rhetorical.  A 
leader  who  failed  is  not,  therefore,  denounced  as  a  traitor  or  incompetent. 
When  foreign  influences  have  contributed  any  benefit,  or  English  states- 
men have  made  any  honest  endeavor  to  contribute  to  Irish  welfare,  the 
good  is  liberally  acknowledged.  The  long  story  of  misgovernment  is  told 
so  temperately  that,  compared  for  instance  to  the  denunciations  of  Glad- 
stone or  Macaulay,  this  presentation  of  the  case  frequently  reads  like  a 
plea  in  mitigation  of  sentence.  The  evidence  is  submitted,  and  facts  left 
to  speak  for  themselves. 

One  important  element  of  the  work  remains  to  be  noticed.  This  is 
the  synopsis,  in  chronological  order,  of  the  history  of  Irish  literature.  In 
each  period  the  state  of  literary  culture  and  education,  the  writings  which 
are  still  extant  or  which  are  known  to  us  only  through  later  writers,  their 
value,  whether  historical  or  purely  literary,  receive  attention,  in  order  to 
show  that  this  living  current,  beginning  in  the  remote  past  and  at  times 
dwindling  to  feeble  dimensions,  has  nevertheless  run  continuously  down 
to  its  vigorous  expansion  in  the  present  day. 

The  work  may  be  said  to  close  with  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
although  there  is  a  final  chapter  in  which  the  events  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, up  to  1920,  are  chronicled  without  comment.  In  the  preface,  the 
parts  for  which  the  joint  authors  are  respectively  responsible  are  indi- 
cated. While  the  title  sets  forth  correctly  the  nature  of  the  book,  as  a 
history  of  the  Irish  people,  many  will  regret  that  the  other  word  is  also 
apt:  it  is  short.  Enlarged  to  a  scale  that  would  give  fuller  scope  for 
detail  in  the  treatment,  the  work  would  become  a  lasting  treasure  for  the 
historical  student. 

James  J.  Fox. 

Acts  of  tlic  Privy  Council  of  England,  1613-1614.  [Master  of  the 
Rolls.]  (London  :  H.  M.  Stationery  Office.  1921.  Pp.  ix,  741. 
£1.  is.) 

The  decision  of  the  Record  Commissioners  to  continue  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council  for  the  reigns  of  James  and  Charles 
is  of  greater  importance  to  students  of  constitutional  and  administrative 
history  than  many  will  realize  who  have  not  already  read  some  consider- 


786  Reviezvs  of  Books 

able  portion  of  the  unpublished  part.  Somewhat  extensive  researches  in 
the  administrative  and  legal  records  and  in  the  correspondence  of  the 
period  from  1580  to  1620,  in  private  as  in  the  usual  manuscript  reper- 
tories, have  established  to  my  thinking  that  the  important  formative  dec- 
ade, the  truly  significant  shift  in  emphasis  from  the  administrative  system 
of  Elizabeth  to  that  of  the  Stuarts,  was  the  years  from  1601  to  161 1  or 
possibly  1612 — the  very  period  for  which  the  Privy  Council  Register  was 
burned  in  the  fire  at  "the  Banquetting  howse  "  in  1618.  To  the  least  in- 
formed and  to  the  most  casual  inspection,  the  contents  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil Register  published  in  this  volume  differ  in  character  from  the  last 
years  of  Elizabeth.  The  change  is  too  great  to  be  fortuitous,  too  sweep- 
ing to  be  the  result  of  anything  but  design,  had  we  no  other  materials 
from  which  to  establish  the  extent  and  character  of  the  administrative 
reforms  of  those  eventful  years.  But  the  change  in  1613-1614  has  taken 
place;  the  reforms  are  over;  the  new  regime  is  already  established  and 
is  not  yet  in  the  making  or  further  to  be  transformed.  This  the  corre- 
spondence and  State  Papers  establish  and  the  letters  of  the  Privy  Council 
and  the  fragment  of  a  transcript  (if  such  it  be)  in  the  Additional  MS. 
1 1402  confirm.  The  records  of  the  administrative  courts,  the  High  Com- 
mission, the  Council  of  Wales  (as  it  is  invariably  written  at  this  time), 
the  Council  of  the  North,  the  Court  of  Requests  further  demonstrate  this 
fact.  A  great  and  sweeping  change  in  the  working  of  the  entire  adminis- 
trative system  took  place  between  1601  and  1613  of  which  from  the 
records  of  the  Privy  Council  there  is  now  no  account  to  be  had. 

The  volume  now  published  gives  an  accurate  idea  of  the  general  type  of 
material  to  be  found  in  the  Register  for  about  a  decade,  after  which 
(1624)  the  Register  becomes  still  more  formal.  On  the  whole,  the  eco- 
nomic policy  of  the  Privy  Council  came  more  and  more  to  be  executed 
(as  was  already  true  in  1608  during  the  great  famine)  by  formal  action 
recorded  by  correspondence  in  the  Register,  and  the  bulk  of  such  material 
is  much  larger  than  under  Elizabeth  and  grows  to  a  still  greater  volume 
under  Charles.  The  quasi-legal  functions  of  the  Privy  Council  were  in 
1605  otherwise  provided  for,  in  a  fashion  too  complicated  to  be  here  de- 
scribed, and  a  considerable  body  of  actions  and  correspondence  disappear 
therefore  from  the  Register  and  do  not  later  reappear.  On  the  whole,  the 
methods  intended  for  dealing  with  such  crises  as  Essex's  Rebellion  are 
no  longer  entered  in  the  Register,  other  provision  than  direct  Council 
action  having  already  been  made.  While  it  is  demonstrable  from  a  vast 
bulk  of  material  that  the  Privy  Council  was  not  a  factor  less  important 
in  administration  than  under  Elizabeth,  the  nature  and  character  of  its 
functions  no  longer  appear  in  the  Register  itself  to  any  such  extent  as 
under  Elizabeth,  and  under  Charles  seem  to  be  still  less  elaborately  re- 
ported. 

The  Register  itself,  no  less  than  the  correspondence,  shows  that  under 
Elizabeth,  and  certainly  under  James,  the  "  Minute  in  the  Council  Chest" 
was  itself  an  essential  part  of  the  Council  records,  which  were  also  held 


Daniell:  Calendar  of  State  Papers  787 

to  include  correspondence  of  various  kinds.  This  is  also  clear  from  the 
correspondence  at  Hatfield  House.  All  these  papers  seem  to  have  been 
burned  for  the  entire  Elizabethan  and  Stuart  period  in  1618.  What  we 
have  therefore  in  the  Council  Register  is  only  a  portion  of  the  records 
which  the  Council  kept;  for  historians  the  earlier  part  is  more  closely 
allied  to  the  development  of  the  administrative  system  than  the  part  now 
to  be  published,  though  not  as  entirely  trustworthy  a  guide  as  some  have 
thought  it  nor  as  complete  as  it  seems  even  after  careful  perusal.  For 
all  that,  the  Register  is  an  invaluable  and  indispensable  record  for  all 
students. 

Roland  G.  Usher. 

Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic  Series,  September  1st,  1680-De- 
cember  31st,  1681,  preserved  in  the  Public  Record  Office.  Edited 
by  F.  H.  Blackburne  Daniell,  M.A.,  Late  Fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  (London:  H.  M.  Stationery  Office.  1921. 
Pp.  lx,  805.     25s.) 

Documents  calendared  in  the  Domestic  Series  of  the  Calendar  of 
State  Papers  are  bound  to  be  of  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  character, 
more  so  than  is  the  case  with  the  documents  in  the  Colonial  Series,  but 
there  is  usually  a  sufficient  number  relating  to  some  outstanding  event  of 
the  period  to  give  a  certain  unity  to  the  collection.  In  the  volume  now 
issued  for  the  years  1680-1681,  though  it  contains  echoes  of  the  Popish 
Plot  of  1679  and  warnings  of  another  popish  plot  in  Ireland  to  come, 
the  chief  interest  centres  in  the  Presbyterian  Plot,  the  "  sham  plot "  as 
many  contemporaries  called  it,  for  which  Stephen  College  suffered  death 
and  in  which  every  effort  was  made  to  implicate  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury 
and  others.  The  whole  story  is  very  involved  and  difficult  to  disentangle, 
and  I  am  not  sure  that  the  present  volume  does  very  much  in  clearing 
up  the  situation,  but  it  does  throw  light  on  the  hysteria  of  the  time  and 
the  ease  with  which  men  of  either  party  accepted  at  its  face  value  the 
evidence  of  witnesses.  One  is  amazed  at  the  prodigious  number  of  this 
particular  brand  of  gentry,  who  made  it  a  profession  to  bear  false  wit- 
ness against  their  neighbors  and  who  were  willing,  apparently  on  any 
provocation,  to  turn  about  and  charge  with  subornation  those  in  whose 
interest  they  had  thus  perjured  themselves.  One  of  these  was  Bryan 
Haines,  whom  Pepys  in  1668  called  "  the  incomparable  dancer  of  the 
King's  house",  who  testified  against  both  College  and  Shaftesbury  and 
would  have  testified  against  anybody  rather  than  starve  (p.  418),  and 
who  became  so  notorious  that  his  ill-repute  spread  to  the  colonies  from 
Massachusetts  Bay  to  Maryland.  He  certainly  swore  like  a  stout  sinner, 
as  Christopher  Rousby  wrote  of  him.  One  understands  better  the  con- 
temporary situation  in  the  colonies,  after  breathing  for  a  while  the  at- 
mosphere of  England  during  the  years   from   1679  to   1689.     For  that 


788  Reviews  of  Books 

reason,  if  for  no  other,  these  volumes  have  an  importance  for  the  student 
of  colonial  history. 

But  there  are  other  interesting  items  also.  We  learn  a  great  deal 
about  the  Dissenters,  the  attacks  on  conventicles,  and  the  growing  feel- 
ing of  antagonism  to  the  whole  body  of  nonconformists,  "  Quakers,  Pres- 
byterians, Baptists,  and  other  such  vermin,  which  swarm  in  the  land  ", 
marking  the  decline  in  popularity  of  the  Whig  party  and  the  increase  of 
the  king's  influence.  We  watch  the  arrival  of  the  first  of  the  French 
Protestants,  four  years  before  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
and  the  favorable  treatment  that  they  received  at  the  hands  of  king  and 
people,  so  favorable,  indeed,  as  to  call  out  the  wondering  remark  that  to 
succor  the  persecuted  French  Protestants  and  to  persecute  the  English 
Protestants  was  "  a  work  of  seeming  contradiction ".  We  add  to  our 
knowledge  of  Seth  Sothell's  captivity  in  Algiers  (p.  458),  of  Shaftes- 
bury's plan  of  going  to  Carolina  (pp.  596-597),  and  of  Captain  Henry 
Wilkinson,  reputed  governor  of  North  Carolina,  whose  detention  in  the 
King's  Bench  prison  can  here  be  traced  to  December,  1681,  thus  making 
it  doubly  sure  that  he  never  went  to  the  colony.  There  is  mention  of 
Thomas  Dongan  and  Lionel  Copley;  there  are  references  to  the  trans- 
portation of  prisoners  to  the  colonies;  and  there  is  a  very  valuable  set 
of  instructions  for  those  having  letters  of  marque  against  Algiers'  (p. 
617).  ''To  make  him  wise",  "to  pass  over  the  Rubicon",  "to  put  in  a 
plunge  about  my  correspondence",  and  to  "  refluct  from  my  testimony" 
are  interesting  specimens  of  the  English  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

C.  M.  A. 

Histoire  dc  Prusse.     Par  Albert  Waddington,  Professetir  a  l'Uni- 
versite  de  Lyon.     Volume  II.     Les  Deux  Premiers  Rois.  1688- 
1740.     (Paris:   Plon-Nourrit  et  Cie.     1922.     Pp.  598.     30  fr.) 
Those  who  have  read  Waddington's  solid  studies  on  the  Great  Elector 
or  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  Prussia  will  welcome  the  second  in- 
stallment of  this  admirable  work.     In  its  impartiality  and  objectivity,  its 
clarity  and  discrimination,  and  in  the  Gallic  charm  of  its  expression,  it 
even  surpasses  his  earlier  writings. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  Frederick  I.  to  be  placed  between  two  princes 
who  have  eclipsed  him  in  history.  In  comparison  with  the  Great  Elector, 
who  created  the  Brandenburg-Prussian  state,  and  the  Drill-Sergeant 
King,  who  made  it  relatively  rich,  prosperous,  and  powerful,  Frederick  I. 
has  been  thought  to  cut  rather  a  sorry  figure  with  his  vanity  and  his  tre- 
mendously solemn  insistence  on  decorative  trifles.  "  Small  in  great  things 
and  great  in  small  things  ",  his  grandson  said  of  him.  Frederick  I.  ac- 
cepted in  all  seriousness  and  gratitude  the  flatteries  of  the  two-penny 
poets  of  his  court,  who  compared  Berlin  with  London  and  Paris;  who 
celebrated  "  Athens  on  the  Spree  "  as  the  "  Light  of  the  World  ",  by  in- 


Waddington:  Histoire  de  Prusse  789 

geniouslv  transposing  the  letters  Bcrolinum  into  lumen  orbi;  or  who  com- 
pared Frederick  himself  to  Solomon  in  all  his  glory.  In  spite  of  such 
grotesque  exaggerations,  at  which  later  generations  have  smiled,  M. 
Waddington  has  a  higher  opinion  of  Frederick  than  have  most  historians. 
"  Frederick  wished  to  be  magnificent  and  he  often  succeeded."  Compared 
with  the  rudeness  of  Berlin  and  its  society  in  the  preceding  age,  the 
splendor  and  impressiveness  which  he  achieved  were  astonishing.  In  this 
he  was  greatly  aided  by  his  spirited  second  wife,  Sophie  Charlotte,  the 
friend  of  Leibnitz.  King  and  queen  had  little  in  common  intellectually. 
The  story  of  her  indecorous  taking  of  snuff  during  the  coronation  so- 
lemnities and  the  consequent  reproof  from  her  spouse  is  typical  of  their 
relations.  She  liked  gayety,  dances,  theatricals,  and  retired  to  bed  about 
the  hour  the  king  was  accustomed  to  rise.  She  loved  to  withdraw  from 
the  heavy  dignity  of  Berlin  to  the  less  decorous  pleasures  of  Liitzelburg, 
which  she  nicknamed  Lustenburg  and  which  her  husband,  after  her 
death,  changed  into  Charlottenburg.  The  key  to  Frederick's  life,  to  both 
his  foreign  and  domestic  policy,  M.  Waddington  thinks,  was  his  pursuit 
of  the  royal  crown;  considering  the  importance  attributed  in  those  days 
to  matters  of  rank,  its  acquisition  was  worth  the  efforts  Frederick  made 
to  secure  it. 

If  Berlin  was  Athens  under  Frederick  I.  it  became  Sparta  under  his 
successor;  but  toward  Frederick  William  I.  also  Waddington  has  a  sym- 
pathetic attitude.  He  attributes  the  king's  choleric  outbursts  in  good 
part  to  the  tortures  of  gout  and  severe  headaches.  Yet  Frederick  Wil- 
liam was  not  always  violent  toward  his  children.  A  pastor,  visiting  the 
royal  family  at  dinner  in  a  garden,  some  of  them  with  their  feet  dan- 
gling in  the  water,  notes  how  the  king's  five-year-old  boy  cajoled  his 
father  with  kisses  into  pardoning  a  deserter  from  the  army.  If  Frederick 
William  had  an  aversion  to  French,  music,  literature,  and  all  that  his 
father  had  prized  so  dearly,  Waddington  points  out.  on  the  other  hand, 
that  his  personal  life  was  absolutely  pure  in  an  age  when  royalty  was  not 
noted  for  morality;  moreover,  he  created  one  of  the  best  armies  in  Eu- 
rope but  did  not  send  the  men  to  be  slaughtered  in  battle;  and  his  devo- 
tion to  the  welfare  of  his  country  and  his  subjects  was  untiring.  During 
his  reign,  the  population  increased  from  a  million  and  a  half  to  two  mil- 
lion and  a  quarter.  Every  year  he  aimed  to  set  aside  half  a  million 
thalers  and,  at  his  death,  he  left  a  war  reserve  fund  of  some  eight  million 
thalers,  a  sum  equal  to  the  total  revenue  for  a  year.  Waddington  con- 
cludes that  of  all  the  Hoheiizollern  sovereigns,  he  was  the  greatest  as 
concerns  domestic  administration. 

Besides  using  the  abundant  printed  sources  and  monographs,  from 
which  he  has  extracted  many  an  amusing  anecdote  and  piquant  detail, 
as  well  as  more  serious  facts  and  statistics,  M.  Waddington  has  drawn 
upon  the  archives  of  Berlin  and  of  the  French  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 
for  a  more  accurate  account  of  the  foreign  policy  of  these  two  remark- 


790  Reviews  of  Books 

able  Hohenzollern  rulers.  In  the  case  of  each  king  he  gives  attention 
about  equally  to  three  subjects:  the  personality  of  the  king  and  his 
court,  the  organic  growth  of  state  machine  and  economic  prosperity  at 
home,  and  the  unravelling  of  diplomatic  relations  abroad.  No  work 
could  be  better  adapted  to  make  Frenchmen  understand  the  origins  of 
the  country  from  which  they  have  suffered  so  much. 

Sidney  B.  Fay. 

Marlborough  and  the  Rise  of  the  British  Army.  By  C.  T.  Atkin- 
son. (New  York  and  London:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  1921. 
Pp.  xviii,  546.     $4-50.) 

For  the  first  time  historical  research  has  handled  Marlborough's  life 
completely  and  correctly.  Coxe,  Lediard,  and  more  recently  the  frag- 
mentary Taylor,  were  enthusiasts.  Macaulay  was  partizan,  too  con- 
cerned with  Marlborough's  delinquencies  to  credit  properly  his  military 
greatness.  Fortescue's  and  Walton's  histories  of  the  British  army  are 
military  histories  rather  than  biographies  and  give  scant  attention  to 
political  and  social  events.  It  has  been  much  regretted  that  Viscount 
Wolseley,  "  the  best  read  soldier  of  his  time",  never  completed  his  work; 
but  the  deficiency  has  now  been  made  good.  A  thorough  historical 
scholar  and  a  practical  soldier,  Mr.  Atkinson  has  produced  a  volume 
which  should  be  an  authority. 

The  book  is  well  written,  in  a  measured  tone.  Its  arrangement  and 
emphasis  are  excellent.  It  has  not  the  flare  of  eulogistic  writing,  nor 
the  errors.  It  does  not  excuse  Marlborough's  sins,  nor  apologize.  It 
merely  holds  that  Marlborough  "  did  at  the  same  time  render  great 
services  to  his  country"  (p.  511). 

The  book  is  biography.  As  Marlborough's  life  was  inextricably  con- 
cerned with  the  politics  of  the  period  and  with  new  developments  in  the 
army,  it  is  likewise  a  noteworthy  contribution  to  contemporaneous  his- 
tory. The  modern  British  army  dates  from  Marlborough's  time.  Pres- 
ent regiments  were  formed  in  his  day.  The  legends  of  Blenheim,  Ouden- 
arde,  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet  were  created  by  him.  While  Louis  of 
Baden  was  content  with  a  siege  (p.  240),  Marlborough  was  making  rapid 
marches  (pp.  256,  335,  346,  385,  420,  446),  taking  advantage  of  terrain 
(p.  291),  moving  quickly  into  battle  (p.  343),  attacking  simultaneously 
at  more  than  one  point  (p.  291),  fitting  all  detachments  into  combat 
so  as  best  to  advance  the  common  plan  (pp.  225,  290),  aiming  to  anni- 
hilate his  enemy's  field  army  rather  than  capture  forts  (p.  396) — creat- 
ing a  new  form  of  strategy  and  tactics  (p.  177).  No  more  would  wars 
be  formal  affairs  with  precise  plans.  Henceforth  a  battle  was  to  be  a 
conflict  of  wills  and  matching  of  wits.  Marlborough  indeed  "taught 
the  doubtful  battle  how  to  rage".  Men  found  that  lines  and  forma- 
tions alone  could  not  win  a  battle.  Vauban's  treatises  on  fortifications 
ceased  to  comprise  the  whole  of  war.     Marlborough  takes  place  in  a 


La  Gorce:  Revolution  Francaise  791 

rational  history  of  military  thought.  The  line  runs  straight  through 
Conde,  Turenne,  Napoleon,  and  Wellington  down  to  Foch.  All  of  this 
Mr.  Atkinson  makes  plain. 

This  biographer  has  had  an  advantage  over  his  predecessors,  in  mat- 
ters other  than  military,  too.  He  has  had  access  to  authorities  which  in 
1899  Fortescue  (Hist.  Brit.  Army,  I.  553)  did  not  know  existed,  notably 
the  Orkney  letters  published  in  the  English  Historical  Review  in  1904, 
and  the  material  uncovered  by  the  Historical  Manuscripts  Commission. 
By  using  these  as  well  as  the  usual  sources,  Mr.  Atkinson  has  corrected 
many  misconceptions,  among  others,  misconceptions  concerning  Blen- 
heim (p.  232),  Ramillies  (p.  289),  and  Malplaquet  (p.  401).  He  has 
still  kept  his  head  and  not  spoken  with  exaggeration.  His  work  is  well 
documented  and  provided  with  an  adequate  array  of  foot-notes.  He  has 
shown  excellent  judgment  in  his  use  of  foot-notes,  too.  When  a  man's 
career  has  been  the  subject  of  several  biographical  studies,  there  are 
many  common  facts  concerning  him  well  known  and  universally  ac- 
cepted. Mr.  Atkinson  has  recognized  this  fact  and  wisely  refrained 
from  setting  forth  a  superfluity  of  notes,  and  has  given  only  references 
to  statements  and  interpretations  which  are  new,  important,  or  original. 
Thus  he  has  saved  the  appearance  of  his  pages  and  brought  into  clearer 
contrast  the  number  of  real  contributions  to  the  subject  for  which  he 
himself  is  responsible. 

A  bibliographical  note  and  an  index  are  serviceable.  A  simple  tabu- 
lated list  of  authorities  checked  with  the  abbreviations  later  to  be  used 
therefor,  might  have  been  added  to  simplify  the  work  of  following  refer- 
ences.    The  maps,  of  which  there  are  several,  are  adequate. 

A  few  mechanical  errors  appear.  On  one  page  (p.  253)  is  a  foot- 
note and  no  corresponding  mark  in  the  text;  on  another  (p.  267)  two 
passages  similarly  marked  and  only  one  foot-note  for  the  two.  Burnet 
is  referred  to  without  designation  as  to  which  edition  (p.  162).  Most 
of  the  references  to  the  preliminary  pages,  numbered  with  Roman  numer- 
als, are  incorrect  (e.g.,  on  pp.  viii  and  249,  and  in  the  index  under  Lloyd, 
Portland,  Blackader,  and  Brodrick)— a  trivial  thing,  perhaps,  but  es- 
pecially confusing  because  these  are  cross-references  to  bibliographical 
data. 

Elbridge  Colby. 

Histoire  Rcligieusc  de  la  Revolution  Francaise.     Par  Pierre  de  La 
Gorce,  de  l'Academie  Francaise.     Tomes  III.  and  IV.     (Paris: 
Plon-Nourrit  et  Cie.     1921.     Pp.  598:379.     12  fr.  each.) 
The  third  volume  of  this  history  is  for  the  specialist  rather  more  im- 
portant than  any  other  and  has  been  widely  read  by  those  interested  in  the 
present  transitional  epoch  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  France,  being  already 
in  the  seventh  edition.     Throughout  the  period  which  it  covers,  from  1792 
to  the  upheaval  of  Thermidor,  the  constitutional  clergy  seem  to  meet  with 


79-2  Reviews  of  Books 

no  greater  favor  at  the  hands  of  the  Convention  than  the  rebellious  ortho- 
dox, and  toward  the  end  suffer  an  almost  equal  measure  of  persecution, 
because  not  ecclesiasticism  but  Christianity  itself  is  now  to  be  abolished 
and  the  goddess  of  Reason  to  be  the  divinity  of  the  French  state.  All  this 
is  fairly  told,  but  the  outstanding  character  of  the  volume  is  its  elaborate 
account  of  the  Catholic  army,  its  few  victories  and  its  ultimate  extinction, 
amid  bloody  massacres. 

The  Terror  with  its  short-lived  institutions  is  graphically  but  briefly 
described;  What  is  new  to  most  readers  is  the  true  account  of  the  Con- 
vention as  a  body  of  indifferent  slackers  regarding  all  constructive  states- 
manship, keen 'and  determined  only  in  the  tricks  of  the  politician  and 
destroyer.  That  they  saved  France  by  fervor  is  the  only  claim  now  made 
for  them,  a  claim  by  no  means  established,  and  with  less  validity  or 
semblance  of  it  since  the  united  effort  of  all  the  national  elements  in  the 
World  War,  and  the  failure  it  would  have  been  without  Foch,  a  devout 
and  practising  churchman.  The  festival  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the 
enumeration  of  apostates  and  of  martyrs,  and  the  analysis  of  Robespierre's 
character,  all  exhibit  fine  historical  capacity. 

The  author  had  intended  this  fourth  volume  of  his  monumental  work 
to  be  the  last.  It  covers  with  his  meticulous  care  and  painstaking  re- 
search, qualities  already  noted  in  these  pages  where  former  volumes 
were  under  review,  the  period  from  Thermidor  to  Brumaire,  July  27, 
1794,  to  November  9,  1799.  Unconsciously  at  first,  later  with  full  pur- 
pose, he  makes  his  pages  a  narrative  of  how  orthodox  Catholicism  se- 
cured, under  persecution,  painfully  and  slowly,  the  right  to  use  certain 
churches  in  Paris  and  elsewhere  throughout  France  for  public  worship. 
Himself  a  devout  priest  of  that  confession,  it  is  noteworthy  that  he  is 
in  the  main  dispassionate  and  considerate  in  his  treatment  of  the  radical 
democrats,  the  Theophilanthropists,  and  decadarians.  For  the  consti- 
tutional clergy  and  the  Protestants  there  is  possibly  a  little  less  charity. 
In  the  struggle  for  what  he  considers  to  be  and  calls  religious  liberty, 
their  influence  for  securing  parity  of  treatment  was  powerful;  very  dif- 
ferent, very  different  indeed  from  the  lukewarmness  of  even  Theophilan- 
thropy,  which  did  have  a  ritual  and  a  dogma  with  public  exercises  in 
churches.  To  the  famous  Gregoire  he  renders  a  grudging  and  unenthusi- 
astic  tribute,  being  careful  to  delineate  all  the  incidents  of  his  decline. 
Yet  he  says  in  speaking  of  the  contemptible  Merlin,  an  unprincipled  trim- 
mer who  reached  the  pinnacle  of  his  profession,  the  law,  "  History  does 
not  always  see  crime  punished;  the  epilogue  is  not  always  punishment,  but 
ofttimes  reward,  recompense  the  most  unexpected  ". 

Throughout  these  five  years  the  story  of  religious  history  is  virtually 
identical  with  that  of  politics.  Our  author's  handling  of  events  and 
characterization  of  public  men  is  magisterial.  His  picture  of  the  men 
in  the  Directory  and  his  narrative  of  its  grotesque  career  are  the  best 
known  to  the  reviewer.     Intensely  interesting  is  his  account  cf  Carnot, 


La  Gorce:  Revolution  Francaise  793 

who,  having  secured  the  soubriquet  Organizer  of  Victor}',  was  a  hero 
throughout  all  the  sinuosities  of  his  subsequent  career.  Noting  the  con- 
tempt of  Bonaparte  for  human  nature  in  general,  he  gives  an  instance 
or  two  and  traces  the  preliminaries  of  Brumaire  in  a  comprehensive  and 
able  manner.  The  humiliation  of  the  papacy  and  the  sorrowful  odyssey 
of  Pius  VI.  are  so  delineated  as  to  soften  the  heart  of  every  reader.  In 
a  foot-note  at  the  end  of  this  volume  our  author  pleads  guilty  to  having 
previously  considered  the  beginning  of  the  Consulate  as  the  close  of  his 
epoch,  the  end  of  the  religious  history  of  the  Revolution.  But,  weighing 
carefully  the  subject  as  a  whole,  and  in  consultation  with  expert  friends, 
he  has  changed  his  mind.  Most  of  the  anti-Christian  laws  remained  on 
the  statute  books,  however  lax  their  enforcement.  It  was  not  until  after 
the  negotiation  and  publication  of  the  Concordat  in  1802  that  the  struggle 
for  religious  liberty  won  its  final  success;  to  wit,  the  recognition  of 
Roman  Catholicism  as  being  the  confession  of  all  but  a  small  minority 
of  Frenchmen,  which  it  was.  The  establishment  of  its  worship  at  the 
public  expense  completed  the  process  of  restoration,  and  marked  the 
pacification   of   Church  and   State,   for  the  time. 

Father  de  La  Gorce  is  now  a  man  well  on  in  years.  He  has  had  a 
laborious  but  successful  career  as  a  historian.  His  work  has  been 
crowned  by  membership  in  the  French  Academy  and  a  seat  under  the 
cupola  of  the  Institute.  But  his  force  is  not  in  the  least  abated.  His 
accuracy  is  unimpeachable,  the  field  of  his  researches  as  wide  as  ever, 
and  his  style  grows  more  and  more  finished.  We  read  his  pages  with 
eagerness.  The  World  War  has  greatly  changed  the  texture  of  French 
life.  Napoleon  has  come  to  his  own,  alike  as  the  creator  of  permanent 
institutions  and  the  founder  of  the  strategic  system  which  the  genius  of 
Foch,  the  most  profound  student  of  his  military  career,  modified  for 
contemporary  conditions  in  order  to  secure  victory  at  the  close.  Radi- 
cals are  not  so  bitter,  ecclesiastics  are  more  resigned  to  the  total  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State,  conservatives,  whether  monarchical  or  imper- 
ialist, are  less  vociferous  and  combative,  moderate  republicans  steer  the 
ship  of  state  on  a  course  which  enables  the  people  to  exhibit  its  finest 
qualities.  Each  generation  demands  the  re-writing  of  history  for  it- 
self and  whatever  his  effort  every  historian  reveals  his  own  thought, 
philosophic  and  religious,  to  the  critical  reader.  These  volumes  are 
reverent,  considerate,  even  sympathetic ;  considered  as  the  work  of  a 
churchman,  they  are  wonderfully  free  from  rancor  or  bias.  This  is  the 
tribute  which  one  veteran  may  pay  to  another  of  quite  opposite  tradition 
and  training.  And  for  this  among  many  reasons  the  concluding  volume 
will  be  as  welcome  as  the  others  in  lands  where  the  majority  of  his 
readers  are  ecclesiastically  minded  in  no  slightest  degree. 


794  Reviews  of  Books 

Stein  and  the  Era  of  Reform  in  Prussia,  180J-1815.  By  Guy  Stan- 
ton Ford,  Professor  of  History  in  the  University  of  Minnesota. 
(Princeton:  University  Press.  1922.  Pp.  vii,  336.  $3.00.) 
Freiherr  vom  Stein  was  the  greatest  German  statesman  of  the 
Napoleonic  age;  by  his  economic  and  administrative  reforms  he  regen- 
erated Prussia  for  her  leadership  in  German  unity.  He  therefore  de- 
served and  has  received  full  biographical  treatment  at  the  hands  of 
eminent  scholars — the  six-volume  documentary  biography  of  his  friend 
Pertz,  the  interesting  interpretative  analysis  of  Seeley,  and  the  more  re- 
cent and  critical  study  of  Lehmann.  Where  such  masters  have  reaped 
it  might  seem  that  there  would  be  little  left  for  an  American  to  garner. 
Yet  Ford  comes  to  some  different  conclusions  from  Lehmann,  which  we 
regret  we  cannot  discuss  here,  and  he  has  incorporated  into  his  admi- 
rable brief  biography  of  Stein  some  valuable  statistical  material  from 
recent  monographs  not  known  to  the  earlier  biographers. 

As  the  title  indicates,  it  is  of  Stein  the  Prussian  reformer,  as  well  as 
of  the  stern  and  unflinchingly  upright  Reichsrittcr  and  mentor  of  Tsar 
Alexander,  that  Ford  writes.  Nowhere  in  English,  perhaps,  can  one  find 
such  a  clear  and  discriminating  description  of  pre-reform  agrarian  con- 
ditions and  complexities  in  the  old  Prussian  Kingdom  as  in  the  chapter 
The  Prussian  Peasantry  before  1807.  The  sharp  distinction  between 
East  and  West  Elbian  conditions  and  between  divergent  districts  within 
the  larger  areas  is  correctly  insisted  on.  In  general,  east  of  the  Elbe,  there 
was  "  an  advancing,  increasingly  profitable,  large-scale  capitalistic  agri- 
culture, with  an  economically  and  socially  declining  agricultural  laboring 
class.  The  landowning  lord  was  more  exacting,  more  ready  to  expel  a 
peasant  upon  charges  of  negligence,  more  ready  to  transfer  an  efficient 
and  prosperous  peasant  to  a  poorer  holding,  which  absorbed  the  peasant's 
savings  and  employed  his  energies  in  raising  it  to  a  higher  level  of  pro- 
duction for  the  lord's  profit  ".  These  and  other  handicaps  on  the  peas- 
antry Stein  sought  to  remedy  by  his  wide-reaching  measures  for  trans- 
forming the  depressed  serfs  into  independent  and  self-respecting  citizens 
of  the  state  ready  to  serve  as  Prussian  patriots  under  the  new  system 
of  universal  military  service. 

There  is  also  an  excellent  brief  account  of  Stein's  activity  in  Russia, 
in  Germany,  and  in  the  field  of  historical  scholarship  after  his  indis- 
cretion in  the  matter  of  the  intercepted  letter  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  remain  in  the  Prussian  ministry.  Though  he  was  unable  to  persuade 
German  particularists  to  adopt  his  broad  statesmanlike  patriotism  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  German  constitution  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
and  though  he  failed  to  keep  the  King  of  Prussia  to  his  promise  of  giving 
his  kingdom  a  parliament,  he  did  furnish  the  inspiration  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Monumenta,  two  volumes  of  which  came  from  the  press  be- 
fore his  death  in  1831.  His  own  spirit  is  reflected  in  the  motto  which 
he  gave  to  the  historical  society  which  thus  began  the  publication  of 


Andrdssy:  Diplomacy  and  War  795 

the  greatest  collection  of  sources  for  European  History:  "  Sanctus  amor 
patriae  dat  animum  ". 

Sidney  B.  Fay. 

Diplomacy  and  War.  By  Count  Julius  Andrassy.  Translated  by 
J.  H.  Reece.  (London:  John  Bale,  Sons,  and  Danielsson,  Ltd. 
1 92 1.     Pp.  323.     17s.  6d.) 

Among  the  numerous  recently  published  memoirs  of  men  who  par- 
ticipated in  one  way  or  another  in  the  events  preceding  and  during  the 
European  War,  the  volume  of  Count  Andrassy  will  certainly  take  a 
foremost  place.  It  has  a  decided  historical  value  not  only  on  account  of 
the  many  new  facts  the  author  brings  to  light,  but  also  because  of  its 
eminently  impartial  spirit ;  in  this  book  there  is  none  of  the  desire  to 
exculpate  the  writer,  a  desire  so  conspicuous  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Ger- 
man statesmen  and  generals,  like  Bethmann-Hollweg  or  Ludendorff, 
Hindenburg  or  Helfferich.  In  a  clear  and  concise  way  does  the  author 
tell  his  story,  making  every  effort  to  give  a  fair  picture  of  Hungary's  and 
Austria's  role,  as  he  saw  and  understood  them;  just  for  that  reason 
Andrassy's  book  will  always  be  an  indispensable  source  of  historical  in- 
formation. 

The  author  has  two  distinct  subjects  in  view:  he  describes  first  the 
Origins  of  the  War  (part  I.,  Pre-war  History)  and  then  tells  about  the 
collapse  of  the  Dual  Monarchy,  trying  to  explain  the  advent  of  the 
Revolution  (parts  III.— IV.,  Internal  Crisis,  Collapse,  and  End).  In  the 
first  three  chapters  (Our  War  Motives,  Who  Perpetrated  the  War,  the 
Diplomatic  Superiority  of  the  Entente)  Andrassy  endeavors  to  sum  up 
the  policies  and  forces  that  led  to  the  outbreak  of  the  storm  in  1914.  He 
describes  very  well  the  Austro-Russian  antagonism  in  the  Balkan  ques- 
tion and  explains  the  policies  of  the  different  Great  Powers  in  the  stead- 
ily growing  trouble.  We  have  here  an  excellent  picture  of  the  diplomacy 
of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  during  the  fifty  years  preceding  the 
Great  War,  and  some  unsparing  criticism  of  the  author's  own  country- 
men, as  well  as  of  the  statesmen  of  the  Vienna  Ballplatz.  He  duly  em- 
phasizes the  clever  methods  of  co-operation  employed  by  the  govern- 
ments of  the  three  entente  countries  in  their  game  against  the  Teutonic 
Alliance.  There  are,  however,  two  weak  points  in  his  narrative,  evi- 
dently due  to  the  author's  nationality:  first,  he  does  not  take  into  ac- 
count the  oppressive  policy  of  Hungary  against  the  Slav  people,  that 
created  among  them  such  an  intense  hatred  toward  the  Dual  Monarchy, 
a  force  that  led  to  war  not  less  clearly  than  did  the  intrigues  of  Russia 
among  the  Serbs.  Secondly,  Andrassy  does  not  consider  in  its  proper 
light  the  imperialistic  policy  of  the  German  government,  its  interference 
in  the  Balkan  question,  its  intrigues  in  Constantinople,  and  aggression  in 
Asia  Minor;  this  leaves  out  the  most  important  factor  among  the  causes 
that  brought  on  the  war. 


79^  Rei'iezvs  of  Books 

In  the  following  two  chapters  (Austrian  Political  and  Military  Mis- 
takes) Andrassy  gives  a  very  complete  and  interesting  picture  of  the 
developments  in  Vienna  during  the  war.  The  greatest  mistake  was  cer- 
tainly the  complete  alienation  of  Italy,  though  I  doubt  very  much  that 
the  Austrian  government  could  have  avoided  it  then;  the  roots  of  its 
mistaken  policy  were  deeply  buried  in  the  past,  in  the  diplomatic 
transactions  of  the  eighties  and  nineties  of  the  nineteenth  century;  this 
is  brilliantly  corroborated  at  present  by  the  second  volume  of  Pribram's 
Secret  Treaties.  But  the  author  is  quite  right  in  saying  that  in  1917  the 
only  way  to  avoid  the  ultimate  collapse  of  Austria-Hungary  was  to 
conclude  an  immediate  peace;  he  is  also  right  in  censuring  the  incom- 
prehensible policy  of  Czernin,  who  saw  the  rapidly  approaching  end  and 
yet  did  not  protest  in  Berlin,  nor  make  it  clear  there  that  Austria  was 
absolutely  exhausted; 

The  Russian  Revolution  deferred  this  unavoidable  end  only  for  a 
few  months  longer ;  the  blame  for  that  falls  almost  exclusively  on  Luden- 
dorff  and  the  German  army  headquarters,  who  could  not  realize  that 
the  peoples  of  the  two  allied  empires  no  longer  had  their  hearts  in  the 
war  and  who  still  believed  that  the  issue  was  a  purely  strategic  one. 
During  the  months  that  followed,  Andrassy  was  untiring  in  his  coun- 
sels for  peace  and  concessions,  but  as  so  often  happens  in  such  cases, 
the  concessions  were  made  invariably  too  late.  Under  the  circum- 
stances, as  described  by  the  author,  it  is  very  questionable  if  any  meas- 
ures could  have  prevented  the  revolution  in  Austria-Hungary,  though 
probably  some  of  the  extremes  of  Bela  Kun's  regime  might  have  been 
avoided.  The  last  three  chapters  of  the  book,  in  which  Andrassy  tells 
the  story  of  the  overthrow  of  his  ministry  and  of  the  advent  of  the 
bolsheviki  in  Hungary,  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  volume,  because 
of  the  quantity  of  details,  some  of  which  were  not  yet  known  to  the 
outside  public.  The  only  criticism  that  can  be  made  in  this  respect,  is 
to  point  out  the  persistent  desire  of  the  author  to  exaggerate  the  radi- 
calism of  his  opponent,  Karolyi,  to  whom  he  imputes  decided  bolshevik 
sympathies.  In  other  respects  the  volume  will  remain  as  a  worthy  con- 
tribution to  modern  history. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  some  of  the  names  cited  in  the  volume  are 
badly  misspelled. 

S.  A.  Korff. 

Un  Livre  Noir:  Diplomatic  d'Avant-Gucrre  d'apres  les  Documents 
des  Archives  Russcs,  Novcmbrc  igio-Juillct  1914.  Preface  par 
Rene  Marchand.  Tome  I.,  1910-1912.  (Paris:  Librairie  du 
Travail.     1922.     Pp.  xxiv,  374.) 

This  volume  is  part  of  a  series  of  books,  most  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive, on  the  origins  of  the  Great  War  now  being  published  in  France.  It 
is  the  result  of  the  work  of  M.  Rene  Marchand,  a  French  newspaper  cor- 
respondent, very  well  known  and  of  great  experience,  who  spent  many 


Marchand:  Livre  Noir  797 

years  in  Russia,  knows  the  Russian  language,  and  is  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  Russian  life  and  usages.  He  recently  visited  Russia  again  and 
with  the  authorization  and  assistance  of  the  Bolshevik  government  ran- 
sacked the  archives  of  the  former  Foreign  Office  of  St.  Petersburg,  find- 
ing there  some  very  important  documents  of  pre-war  days,  namely,  the 
secret  and  confidential  correspondence  of  the  tsar's  diplomatic  agents  in 
France  with  their  chief,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  Needless  to 
say,  this  volume  will  have  an  enormous  value  for  the  modern  historian. 

There  are  no  startling  new  disclosures  in  the  book  of  Marchand;  the 
main  lines  of  pre-war  history  remain  untouched  and  the  role  of  the  dif- 
ferent nations  in  respect  to  the  origins  of  the  war  is  not  much  altered. 
But  there  come  to  light  an  immense  quantity  of  new  details  concerning  the 
working  of  Secret  Diplomacy;  one  really  may  well  be  amazed  at  the 
dangers  of  these  former  methods  of  conducting  diplomatic  transactions. 
Then,  too,  the  reports  of  the  Russian  agents  give  a  vivid  picture  of  French 
politics  in  those  days;  they  are  invaluable  for  the  right  interpretation  of 
the  French  psychology  and  policy  that  was  backing  the  alliance  with 
Russia.  How  little  sincerity  there  was  in  it,  how  much  selfishness,  and 
how  seldom  did  the  respective  governments  pay  attention  to  the  interests 
and  the  will  of  the  nations !  Finally,  the  third  point  of  interest,  brought 
out  in  this  Black  Book,  concerns  the  methods  used  toward  the  press, 
especially  in  France;  take,  for  instance,  the  complaints  of  the  Russian  am- 
bassador, A.  Isvolsky,  of  the  lack  of  funds  and  his  explanation  of  the 
success  of  the  Italian  embassy,  because  they  had  so  much  money  to  spend 
for  purposes  of  publicity.  The  reader  must  remember  that  these  details 
come  from  the  pen  of  an  impartial  author;  Marchand  confesses  his  dis- 
may and  horror,  when  in  reading  this  diplomatic  correspondence  he  be- 
gan to  realize  the  dangers  that  constantly  were  threatening  the  nations. 
This  policy  of  Imperialism  was  really  one  uninterrupted  and  steady  de- 
velopment ;  France  was  playing  exactly  the  same  game  as  Germany,  Eng- 
land, or  Russia.  From  Morocco  it  went  on  to  Tripolitania,  from  the 
latter  to  Constantinople  and  the  two  Balkan  wars,  and  from  these  wars  to 
the  general  conflagration  of  1914. 

Among  the  names  mentioned  we  find  very  many  familiar  ones  of  the 
present  day ;  in  fact,  as  far  as  France  is  concerned,  the  great  majority  of 
them  are  now  actively  in  public  life:  Poincare,  Millerand,  Barthou,  Jon- 
nart,  and  many,  many  others;  only  their  respective  titles  have  changed. 
The  historians  of  the  war  might  incidentally  note  such  striking  details  as 
Sazonov's  report  of  his  talk  with  the  King  of  England,  when  the  latter 
told  him  in  1912  (two  years  before  the  war)  that  "  We  [the  English]  shall 
sink  every  single  German  merchant  ship  we  shall  get  hold  of".  And  one 
can  be  quite  sure  that  the  Germans  knew  about  it.  Further  details  con- 
cern the  mutual  espionage  of  the  different  agents ;  the  French  reading  the 

AM.  HIST.  REV..  VOL.  XXVII. 53- 


798  Reviews  of  Books 

Italian   cipher,  the   Russians  handling   French   and   English   despatches, 
and  so  forth. 

We  find  in  this  volume  the  discussion  of  two  very  important  events, 
described  in  such  detail  as  never  before:  first,  the  mission  of  Delcasse 
to  Russia,  which  was  the  crowning  point  of  that  statesman's  career,  and 
did  more  than  anything  else  to  bring  about  the  conflict  with  Germany. 
After  it  came  the  consummation  of  the  naval  agreement  between  France 
and  Russia,  so  little  known  to  the  outside  world.  Secondly,  the  incidents 
connected  with  the  tsar's  visit  to  Potsdam  in  1910  and  the  great  alarm 
created  by  it  in  French  government  circles;  the  Russian  explanations  were 
really  very  ingenious. 

We  repeat  it,  no  modern  historian  will  be  able  to  avoid  the  careful 
study  of  this  book.  The  second  volume  will  probably  contain  even  more 
important  material. 

S.  A.  Korff. 

China  at  the  Conference:  a  Report.  By  Westel  W.  Willoughby, 
Professor  of  Political  Science  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
(  Baltimore  :  Johns  Hopkins  Press.  1922.  Pp.  xvi,  419.  $3.00.) 
Professor  Willoughby's  book  is  offered  merely  as  a  "  report "  of  af- 
fairs Chinese  at  the  recent  Washington  Conference.  It  deals  exclusively 
with  the  matters  in  which  China  was  directly  concerned.  The  Siberian 
question  is  referred  to  only  once.  The  method  is  to  bring  together  from 
the  records,  chiefly  from  the  published  documents  and  communiques,  the 
salient  points  in  the  proposals,  discussions,  and  decisions  on  every  topic 
from  tariff  autonomy  to  the  Twenty-one  Demands.  The  volume  is  a 
digest  and  a  handbook  in  which  the  reader  will  find  topically  classified 
a  large  amount  of  information  which  otherwise  can  be  obtained  only  by 
much  search  and  study.  It  is  well  to  note  that  Senate  Document  no.  126, 
67  Cong.,  2  sess.,  the  first  official  report  of  the  Conference  and  the  docu- 
ment upon  which  most  of  Dr.  Willoughby's  quotations  and  citations  are 
based,  is  now  being  re-edited  with  a  view  to  republication  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  State.  The  new  document  will  offer  interesting  comparisons  with 
no.  126,  which  contained  some  material  inadvertently  published  and  also 
had  inaccuracies  and  omissions.  Not  the  least  important  of  Professor 
Willoughby's  documentary  material  is  a  digest  of  the  preliminary  cor- 
respondence in  which  the  author  hints  at  the  evidence  that  the  origin  of 
the  Conference  was  in  London  rather  than  in  Washington. 

China  at  the  Conference  is,  however,  more  than  a  report.  It  is  an 
interpretation.  Without  passing  over  into  the  field  of  propaganda  where 
the  Japanese  and  British  advocates  in  the  public  press  during  the  Con- 
ference won  such  ephemeral  triumphs,  Professor  Willoughby  has  given  a 
dispassionate,  severely  restrained,  and  documented  interpretation  of  the 
exact  status  of  China  at  the  beginning  of  the  Conference,  its  contentions, 
its  defeats,  and  its  achievements.     The  author  does  not  share  the  pes- 


Pope:  Correspondence  of  Sir  John  Macdonald   799 

simism  of  many  popular  advocates  of  China's  case.  "  It  is  certain  that 
China  obtained  all,  and  possibly  more  than,  it  was  reasonable  to  expect 
that  under  the  existing  circumstances  she  would  be  able  to  obtain  ",  states 
Professor  Willoughby  (p.  333). 

While  the  book  makes  no  pretense  to  literary  art  it  is  by  no  means  dull. 
The  brilliant  repartee  of  the  Chinese  delegates,  particularly  of  Minister 
Sze,  with  which  are  contrasted  the  artful  evasions  of  the  British  and 
French  delegates  and  the  stark  trickery  of  the  Japanese  who  rarely  made 
a  concession  without  what  might  later  be  used  as  a  nullifying  qualifica- 
tion, enlivens  the  pages  and  supports  a  dramatic  interest.  The  frank, 
open,  and  ever  courteous  diplomatic  technique  of  Sze  and  Koo  is  not  of 
the  sort  which  leads  to  war.  One  cannot  say  as  much  for  the  methods  of 
most  of  their  elder  colleagues.  The  recent  diplomacy  of  China  belongs  to 
the  future ;  that  of  the  "  Powers  ",  we  may  hope,  belongs  to  the  past.  At 
any  rate,  the  Chinese  could  not  have  adopted  a  policy  which  in  the  long  run 
would  be  more  likely  to  win  the  confidence  of  peoples,  as  distinguished 
from  diplomatic  representatives,  and  Professor  Willoughby,  abandoning 
as  he  does  all  efforts  to  gloss  over  unpleasant  facts  or  to  distort  the  case 
for  his  client,  could  not  have  adopted  a  plan  for  his  book  which  would 
be  more  likely  to  assure  among  American  students  a  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  China's  present  prostration.  China  at  the  Conference  is  not 
propaganda.  It  does  not  therefore  belong  in  the  class  with  almost  every- 
thing which  in  the  last  few  years  has  been  written  on  the  East,  but  the 
book  does  contain  all  that  is  legitimate  in  propaganda — a  cold,  judicial, 
even  critical,  setting-forth  of  the  facts. 

Tyler  Dennett. 


BOOKS  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

Correspondence  of  Sir  John  Macdonald,  First  Prime  Minister  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Edited  by  his  Literary  Executor,  Sir 
Joseph  Pope.  (Toronto:  Oxford  University  Press;  Garden 
City,  N.  Y. :  Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company.  1921.  Pp.  xxv, 
502.     $5.00.) 

Sir  John  Macdonald  was  born  in  1815  and  died  Prime  Minister  of 
Canada  in  1891.  He  was  in  active  political  life  for  half  a  century. 
During  his  lifetime  a  number  of  transient  biographies  were  written. 
The  authoritative  Life  by  his  secretary,  Sir  Joseph  Pope,  published  in 
1894,  was  followed  by  a  shorter  sketch,  The  Day  of  Sir  John  Macdon- 
ald, by  the  same  author  in  the  series  of  the  Chronicles  of  Canada.  The 
vast  collection  of  papers  of  Sir  John  Macdonald  has  been  deposited  in 
the  Canadian  Archives  at  Ottawa.  Sir  Joseph  Pope  now  supplements 
his  biography  by  this  volume  of  extracts  from  his  chief's  correspondence. 
It  cannot  be  said  to  throw  much  further  light  on  the  history  of  Canada. 
Some   of   the   letters   are   merely   formal   official   communications.     But 


800  Reviews  of  Books 

even  from  such  trifles  we  get  traits  of  character  in  both  Macdonald  and 
his  correspondents.  Thus  the  little  casual  things  help  us  to  see  a  real 
man  of  genius.  In  the  United  States  a  leader  exercising  executive  power 
can  be  in  office  at  most  for  the  eight  years  constituting  the  two  Presi- 
dential terms.  Macdonald  was  a  real  ruler  of  Canada  for  about  a 
quarter  of  a  century  and  the  head  of  a  federal  cabinet  for  nearly  twenty 
years.  He  thus  had  a  long  training  in  the  art  of  government  and  he 
acquired  an  almost  uncanny  knowledge  of  the  strength  and  the  weakness 
of  politicians. 

Macdonald  was  largely  self-educated.  But  he  was  a  wide  reader,  and 
he  developed  a  lucid  and  correct  literary  style.  He  had  many  of  the 
graces  of  those  who  move  in  high  society  and  was  always  persona  grata 
with  noblemen  such  as  Lord  Dufferin  and  Lord  Lansdowne  who  filled 
the  rather  barren  role  of  Governor  General.  Dufferin's  Hibernian  ex- 
uberance of  compliment  did  not  please  Macdonald.  "  I  can  stand  a  good 
deal  of  flattery  but  he  lays  it  on  rather  too  thick"  (p.  177).  It  is 
singular  to  find  Goldwin  Smith  coveting  and  unable  to  get  a  seat  in  the 
legislature  of  the  Province  of  Ontario.  Macdonald  was  always  apt  with 
a  literary  reference.  He  told  Sir  George  Stephen,  the  real  builder  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  who  was  voicing  a  grievance,  to  read 
Charles  Reade's  "  Put  Yourself  in  his  Place  "  and  to  try  to  imagine  the 
point  of  view  of  the  other  fellow.  Macdonald  was  alert,  far-sighted, 
cautious,  a  genuine  leader  and  master  of  men.  No  doubt  he  was  care- 
less about  the  means  he  used.  Corrupt  men  served  him.  But,  from 
end  to  end,  these  letters  breathe  the  spirit  of  a  high-minded  patriotism 
and  their  writer  toiled  on  into  extreme  old  age  because  he  felt  that  duty 
called.  He  was  not  vindictive  nor  bitter.  His  estimates  of  men,  if  pun- 
gent, are  cool  and  reasoned.  As  time  passes  his  faults  will  seem  slight 
and  he  will  rank  with  the  great  statesmen  of  the  age. 

Macdonald  had  three  types  of  problems  to  solve.  The  most  im- 
portant was  the  creating  and  the  working  of  federal  institutions  in 
Canada.  It  is  often  said  that  he  was  a  reluctant  convert  to  federalism. 
No  doubt  a  unitary  state  was  his  ideal  but  he  was  quick  to  see  that  in 
a  country  where  Roman  Catholics  are  nearly  half  of  the  population,  the 
path  of  safety  lay  in  giving  local  control  to  such  matters  as  education, 
to  which  religious  issues  are  related.  Sir  Joseph  Pope  claims  that  Mac- 
donald was  an  early  convert  to  federalism.  Even  so,  he  always  regarded 
the  Provincial  governments  as  exercising  an  authority  subordinate  to 
the  federal  authority.  The  American  conception  of  the  federal  author- 
ity as  delegated  from  the  state  authority  was  hateful  to  him.  Admirers 
of  the  American  constitution  would  be  equally  puzzled  at  a  constitution 
under  which  the  federal  authority  could  appoint  the  senators  represent- 
ing the  states,  disallow  the  acts  of  the  state  legislatures,  and  appoint  the 
official  heads  of  the  state  governments.  In  Canada  all  this  is  done.  The 
governor  of  a  province  cannot  even  pardon  a  person  convicted  of  the 


Andrews:  Journal  of  a  Lady  of  Quality  801 

most  trifling  offense.  Yet,  in  spite  of  seeming  inferiority  of  status  in 
the  provinces,  Canada  has  a  real  federal  system  and  time  has  vindicated 
the  independence  of  the  provincial  governments  from  federal  domination. 

Though  an  ardent  Imperialist,  who  wished  Canada  to  take  the  name 
of  Kingdom,  Macdonald  never  believed  that  a  central  legislature  could 
be  created  to  which  Englishmen,  Canadians,  and  Australians  could  be 
sent  by  the  electors  of  their  own  country.  He  ridiculed  the  "  over- 
washed  Englishman  "  "  full  of  crotchets  as  all  Englishmen  are  ".  He 
refused  sternly  to  take  any  share  in  the  war  in  Egypt  in  which  Gordon 
perished.  He  thought  that  in  disputes  with  the  United  States  England 
was  too  ready  to  sacrifice  the  interests  of  Canada.  None  the  less  was 
he  an  ardent  Briton.  His  last  political  campaign  was  fought  on  the 
issue  of  Canada's  resisting  the  magnet  which  freer  trade  with  the  United 
States  would  involve  to  draw  her  away  from  Great  Britain. 

Macdonald  believed  that  the  United  States  desired  and  sometimes 
actively  planned  to  annex  Canada.  When  in  1869  there  was  rebellion 
in  what  is  now  Manitoba  he  thought  that  powerful  influences  were  at 
work  in  Washington  to  secure  the  West  on  which  Canada  had  as  yet 
so  slender  a  hold.  He  was  at  Washington  in  1871,  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  negotiate  what  came  to  be  known  as  the  Washington 
Treaty,  and  his  position  was  uncomfortable  because  he  was  strenuous 
in  Canada's  interests  against  his  colleagues  from  England.  His  friend 
Sir  Charles  Tupper  once  urged  that  Macdonald  should  take  a  British 
peerage  and  go  to  Washington  as  British  minister.  Then  he  said  Can- 
ada's interests  would  be  really  looked  after.  We  still  have  unsolved  the 
problem  of  Canada's  foreign  relations.  This  correspondence  gives  peeps, 
but  only  peeps,  into  the  mind  of  a  great  man,  one  of  whose  passionate 
convictions  was  that  Canada  must  always  remain  separate  from  the 
United  States.  Now.  probably,  there  are  few  in  either  country  who  de- 
sire anything  else. 

George  M.  Wrong. 

Journal  of  a  Lady  of  Quality;  Being  the  Narrative  of  a  Journey  from 
Scotland  to  the  West  Indies,  North  Carolina,  and  Portugal,  in  the 
Years  1774  to  1776.     Edited  by  Evangeline  Walker  Andrews, 
in  collaboration  with  Charles  McLean  Andrews,  Farnam  Pro- 
fessor of  American  History  in  Yale  University.      (New  Haven: 
Yale  University  Press.     1921.     Pp.  341.     $3.50.) 
The  "  Lady  of  Quality  "  whose  journal  is  the  subject-matter  of  this 
volume   was   Miss   Janet   Schaw,   a   cultivated   Scotchwoman.     She  be- 
longed to  the  British  official  class.     Her  father,  Gideon  Schaw,  was  in 
the  customs  service  in  Scotland  and  a  brother,  Robert,  was  a  planter 
and  man  of  standing  in  the  lower  Cape  Fear  region  of  North  Carolina. 
Both  were  connected  by  marriage  with  John  Rutherford,   collector  of 
quit-rents  in  North  Carolina,  and  Robert's  second  wife  was  connected 


802  Reviews  of  Books 

with  the  Howe  family,  a  family  very  prominent  in  the  politics  of  the 
colony.  Another  brother,  Alexander  Schaw,  was  appointed  searcher 
of  the  customs  at  St.  Christopher  in  the  West  Indies,  early  in  1774; 
thither  he  went  the  following  October  and  with  him  sailed  Janet  Schaw, 
whose  ultimate  destination  was  Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  However, 
Alexander  Schaw  also  went  to  Wilmington,  on  leave;  there  he  became 
a  messenger  from  Governor  Martin  to  Lord  Dartmouth,  and  apparently 
he  never  returned  to  St.  Christopher. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts  it  is  natural  to  find  that  Miss  Schaw's 
views  of  colonial  affairs  reflected  those  of  the  official  class.  She  had 
no  sympathy  with  the  political  aspirations  or  the  methods  of  the  revolu- 
tionary faction.  But  she  was  a  keen  observer,  interested  in  people,  ap- 
preciative of  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  gifted  with  the  power  of  writ- 
ing entertainingly.  Her  American  experiences  gave  ample  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  these  talents.  On  the  voyage  to  the  West  Indies  the 
knavery  of  the  ship-captain,  a  dreadful  storm,  the  sight  of  an  Algerian 
corsair,  and  the  hazing  of  emigrants  while  crossing  the  tropic  gave  a 
spice  of  high  adventure  such  as  is  to  be  found  usually  only  in  works  of 
fiction.  In  Antigua  and  St.  Christopher  she  witnessed  the  brutal  and  also 
the  milder  phases  of  slavery,  noted  the  prosperity  and  refinement  of  life 
among  the  planters,  and  also  realized  the  insecure  basis  of  economic 
organization.  It  is,  however,  her  impressions  of  North  Carolina  which 
make  the  book  most  valuable.  On  her  arrival  at  Wilmington  early  in 
1775  the  controversy  which  was  soon  to  result  in  war  was  reaching  its 
crisis.  Men  and  measures  were  therefore  the  subject  of  much  comment 
by  Miss  Schaw.  Contrary  to  existing  local  tradition,  she  found  the  lot 
of  the  plain  people  on  the  Cape  Fear  very  similar  to  that  of  the  same 
class  in  the  Albemarle  region  as  described  by  William  Byrd  a  genera- 
tion before.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  the  manners  and 
character  of  the  women  were  better  than  those  of  the  men.  Nor  were 
her  impressions  of  the  upper  class  much  more  favorable.  Men  whom 
tradition  has  canonized  as  political  saints  were  to  this  refined  woman 
loose  in  morals,  violent  in  methods,  and  not  to  be  trusted.  An  excep- 
tion was  James  Moore.  On  the  other  hand,  among  the  merchants.  Eng- 
lishmen and  Scotsmen  who  had  recently  come  to  the  colony,  she  found 
standards  of  life  much  higher.  These,  of  course,  became  Loyalists  while 
the  natives  and  men  of  longer  residence  formed  the  basis  of  the  revolu- 
tionary party.  Unfortunately  Miss  Schaw  seems  to  have  known  nothing 
of  the  deeper  issues  of  British  imperialism  and  this  ignorance  of  course 
led  to  prejudice.  Yet  the  customs  of  the  country  and  the  acts  of  violence 
she  witnessed  or  knew  of  give  a  certain  support  to  her  conclusions. 
Illustrative  are  her  descriptions  of  the  crude  methods  of  agriculture,  a 
funeral  feast,  the  aversion  to  ideas  or  methods,  the  compelling  men  to 
sign  the  non-importation  agreement,  and  the  use  of  force  against  the 
royal    governor.     Finally,    in    the   autumn   of    1775,    Miss    Schaw   took 


Hamilton:   The  Papers  of  Thomas  Rtiffin        803 

refuge  on  a  British  man-of-war  with  Governor  Martin  and  soon  after 
sailed  for  Scotland  via  Lisbon.  The  Journal  closes  with  an  account 
of  experiences  as  a  tourist  in  Portugal. 

Valuable  as  are  these  sketches  of  colonial  life,  they  are  matched  in 
quality  by  the  work  of  the  editors.  The  introduction  is  all  that  such 
an  essay  should  be,  an  appreciation  of  the  fine  traits  of  the  main  char- 
acter by  a  sympathetic  and  kindred  soul.  The  foot-notes  and  the  ap- 
pendixes, the  latter  consisting  of  fourteen  short  essays,  contain  such 
wide  information  regarding  colonial  affairs  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution  in  North  .Carolina,  much  of  it  hitherto  undisclosed,  as  to 
make  the  book  a  kind  of  vadc  mecum,  an  indispensable  work  of  refer- 
ence for  all  who  would  read  deeply  in  West  Indian  and  North  Carolina 
affairs  in  the  years  1774  and  1775. 

The  maps,  the  illustrations,  and  the  press  work  are  excellent.  The 
North  Carolina  Society  of  Colonial  Dames  has  shared  in  the  cost  of 
publication. 

William  K.  Boyd. 

The  Papers  of  Thomas  Ruffin.  Collected  and  edited  by  J.  G.  de 
Roulhac  Hamilton,  Alumni  Professor  of  History  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina.  Volume  IV.  [Publications  of  the 
North  Carolina  Historical  Commission.!  (Raleigh:  the  Commis- 
sion.    1920.     Pp.  403.) 

This  closing  volume  of  the  Ruffin  Papers,  like  all  its  predecessors, 
offers  much  that  is  valuable  to  the  historian  and  the  political  scientist. 
In  many  of  the  letters  one  finds  earnest  expression  of  the  deep-seated 
fear  of  popular  government.  For  example,  the  able  Irishman,  Edward 
Conigland.  of  Halifax,  says  (1866),  "immigration  would  doubtless  be 
a  blessing  to  us,  provided  we  could  always  control  it,  and  make  it  en- 
tirely subservient  to  our  wants"  (p.  45).  On  a  later  page  he  writes 
that  he  is  sure  the  great  judge,  Ruffin,  has  no  patience  with  the  idea  of 
popular  sovereignty,  "  namely,  the  indefeasible  right  of  a  mere  numer- 
ical majority  to  have  all  power  vested  in  their  hands"  (p.  62).  And 
Judge  Ruffin  himself  says  (p.  69)  that  all  constitutional  conventions  in 
North  Carolina  since  1776  have  made  matters  worse,  that  is,  each  of  the 
great  struggles  in  that  state  to  give  the  majority  more  control  over  pub- 
lic affairs  had  only  resulted  in  making  things  worse.  Some  day  some 
historian  will  make  an  international  reputation  by  tracing  the  history 
of  the  struggle  for  democracy  in  the  United  States.  It  was  not  merely 
in  the  Southern  states  that  men  feared  the  majority  with  an  inerad- 
icable fear.  In  every  state  of  the  North  there  was  the  same  fear  and 
the  same  anxious  contrivance  to  thwart  democracy  in  the  home  of 
democracy. 

There  is  an  exceptionally  suggestive  letter  (p.  233)  from  Frank  G. 
Ruffin  of  Virginia.     It  is  a  sort  of  family  history  of  the  Ruffins  and 


804  Reviews  of  Books 

Roanes  of  Virginia.  It  relates  the  story  that  Colonel  William  Roane, 
of  Virginia,  undertook  to  punish  a  Tory  for  some  offence.  He  stripped 
the  Tory,  tied  him  fast  to  a  tree  in  a  swamp  swarming  with  mosquitoes, 
and  left  him  over  night  thus  exposed.  The  next  morning  he  found  his 
victim  dead  (p.  238).  On  a  later  page  the  writer  says  that  the  Roane 
family  was  connected  by  marriage  with  Washington,  "whom  senti- 
mentalists love  to  compare  in  attributes  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  .  .  . 
though  the  family  never  claimed  the  relationship"  (p.  244).  To  be  a 
cousin  of  George  Washington  and  never  claim  it,  in  Virginia !  In  the 
Roane  circles  political  convictions  must  certainly  have  been  deeply  set. 
This  is  one  of  several  bits  of  evidence  I  have  seen  in  Southern  docu- 
ments that  Washington's  nationalist  leadership  in  1 787-1 789  was  more 
deeply  resented  than  historians  have  suspected.  If  only  the  papers  of 
Willy  Jones  and  Rawlins  Lowndes  might  be  discovered  and  brought  to 
light  by  some  argus-eyed  scholar ! 

In  addition  to  the  revelations  of  political  sentiment,  there  is  abundant 
evidence  of  the  extent  of  the  economic  devastation  wrought  by  the  Civil 
War  in  North  Carolina,  evidence  of  the  hopelessness  of  great  numbers 
of  people  as  well  as  of  the  resolute  will  of  others  to  make  the  best  of 
their  calamities  and  quickly  make  their  way  back  into  proper  federal 
relations.  President  Johnson's  problem  in  the  South  is  made  clearer  by 
these  letters.  It  was  not  an  easy  one.  Besides  the  letters,  which  make 
up  the  bulk  of  the  volume,  there  are  excerpts  from  the  more  important 
judicial  decisions  of  Chief  Justice  Ruffin  showing  a  good  deal  of  the 
social  and  economic  life  of  one  of  the  older  Southern  commonwealths. 

A   History   of   California:    the   Spanish   Period.     By    Charles   E. 

Chapman,   Ph.D.      (New  York:   Macmillan   Company.      1921. 

Pp.  527.     $4.00.) 

This  work,  although  intended  for  the  general  public,  is  in  most  senses 
a  definitive  scholarly  treatment  of  the  subject.  The  author,  who  for 
two  years  held  the  Native  Sons  Travelling  Fellowship  and  under  it  con- 
ducted researches  in  Spain,  is  a  recognized  authority  on  the  Spanish 
sources  for  California  history.  The  volume  before  us  proves  that  he 
has  mastered  the  difficult  art  of  historical  synthesis,  and  his  literary 
style,  while  not  distinguished,  is  sound,  perspicuous,  and  reasonably 
engaging. 

The  volume  contains  thirty-five  short  chapters,  an  admirable  bib- 
liographical appendix,  and  a  good  index.  There  are  three  maps  and  also 
three  portraits.  One  might  be  disposed  to  cavil  at  the  paucity  of  the 
illustrative  material,  in  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  book,  and  a  more 
liberal  use  of  both  maps  and  pictures  no  doubt  would  have  added  to  its 
usefulness.  But  illustrations  are  a  publisher's  problem  quite  as  much 
as  an  author's  problem. 

In  his  introductory  chapter  on  the  Effects  of  Geography  upon  Cal- 


Chapman:  A   History  of  California  805 

ifornia  History  the  author  confines  himself  practically  to  a  discussion 
of  California's  situation  with  reference  to  the  outside  world  which 
affected  the  problem  of  discovery,  exploration,  and  exploitation.  There 
is  no  attempt  either  to  interpret  geologically  or  to  describe  physiograph- 
ically.  Chapter  II.  contains  a  discriminating  account  of  the  California 
Indians.  The  third  chapter  deals  with  early  Chinese  contacts  with  Cal- 
ifornia, and  in  Chapter  IV.  is  a  discussion  of  the  "  Japanese  Oppor- 
tunity",  circa  1600  A.D.,  to  gain  control  of  California.  This  is  one  of 
the  freshest  and  most  interesting  features  of  the  book. 

Much  if  not  most  of  the  material  in  Chapters  V.  to  XIX..  inclusive, 
was  already  well  known  through  other  publications.  Yet  Mr.  Chap- 
man's detailed  knowledge  of  the  sources,  his  absorbed  interest,  and  his 
insight  enable  him  to  make  definite  contributions  at  numerous  points. 
Under  his  sure  hand  the  old  story  takes  on  new  meaning  and  interest. 

The  last  observation  is  even  more  applicable  to  the  latter  portions 
of  the  book,  which  often  in  substance,  and  generally  in  spirit,  are  es- 
sentially  new.  At  every  turn  the  author  reveals  his  firm  grasp  upon 
sources,  whether  documentary,  monographic,  or  otherwise.  He  sur- 
prises the  reader  especially  by  the  breadth  and  completeness  of  the 
treatment  he  accords  to  the  international  phases  of  his  story. 

Among  the  best  of  his  chapters  are  the  biographical.  Bucareli, 
Anza,  Serra,  and  Lasuen  are  presented  each  with  appropriate  coloring, 
yet  with  a  discriminating  judgment  upon  both  their  characters  and  their 
work,  which  testifies  to  a  thorough  documentary  study  of  their  careers. 
The  analysis  and  description  of  the  Spanish  institutions  of  California 
in  Chapter  XXX.  is  adequate,  as  are  the  chapters  following  which  bring 
the  story  down  to  the  eve  of  the  American  conquest  of  California. 

The  reviewing  of  a  book  such  as  this  one  is  a  pleasing  task,  because 
there  is  really  nothing  to  criticize.  To  be  sure,  no  two  writers  would 
exactly  agree  on  the  treatment  of  any  large  subject,  and  I  doubtless 
should  have  distributed  the  space  somewhat  differently  had  the  problem 
been  my  own.  To  devote  one  thirty-second  of  his  space  to  the  "  Origin 
and  Application  of  the  Name  California-'  might  seem  a  trifle  excessive. 
Yet  this,  and  other  matters  of  emphasis,  are  purely  questions  of  opin- 
ion upon  which  unanimity  is  impossible.  The  book  should  be  welcomed 
as  a  conspicuous  example  of  the  new  academic  historiography  which 
aims  at  a  combination  of  sound  methodology,  broad,  liberal,  and  exact 
scholarship,  and  at  least  respectable  literary  proficiency.  It  is  not  a 
prose  epic,  for  the  Spanish  period  of  California,  while  variously  tinged 
and  streaked  with  both  romance  and  heroism,  on  the  whole  does  not 
lend  itself  to  that  type  of  treatment.  But  it  is-  a  highly  satisfying  book 
to  read,  and  standing  as  it  does  at  the  beginning  of  a  series  will  in- 
evitably arouse  among  historians  a  keen  desire  to  see  completed  the 
history  of  California  on  the  plan  Mr.  Chapman  has  conceived.  It  prom- 
ises to  be  one  of  the  notable  enterprises  in  the  writing  of  state  his- 


806  Reviews  of  Books 

tories  now  in   full  swing  in  so  many  of  the  western  and  mid-western 
states. 

Joseph  Schafer. 

The  Modern  Commonwealth,  1893-1918.  By  Ernest  Ludlow  Bo 
gart  and  John  Mabry  Mathews.  [Centennial  History  of  Illi- 
nois, volume  V.]  (Springfield:  Illinois  Centennial  Commission. 
1920.     Pp.  vi,  544.) 

The  Modern  Commonwealth  is  the  final  volume  in  the  series  pub- 
lished by  the  Illinois  Centennial  Commission.  The  series,  as  a  whole, 
is  an  enduring  memorial  of  one  hundred  years  of  progress  not  only  in 
Illinois,  but,  in  a  sense,  in  the  nation  at  large. 

This  volume  also  completes  the  work  begun  by  Professors  Bogart  and 
Thompson  in  the  preceding  volume,  The  Industrial  State,  and  is  of  the 
same  general  character.  The  transition  from  an  agricultural  to  an  in- 
dustrial state  makes  rapid  progress  in  the  quarter-century  following 
1893,  but  a  healthy  balance  is  maintained  by  an  increasing  interest  in 
culture  and  learning,  and  in  a  slow  but  steady  upward  political  movement. 
Growth  in  education,  art,  and  letters  is  treated  in  a  chapter  by  Mr. 
Henry  B.  Fuller.  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  serves 
as  a  point  of  departure  for  a  new  era  in  the  development  of  Illinois 
and  particularly  of  Chicago.  The  marvellous  growth  of  the  three  great 
universities  of  the  state  furnishes  a  concrete  illustration  of  similar 
progress  in  other  educational  lines,  in  art,  music,  the  drama,  literary 
activity,  and  municipal  recreation  centres. 

The  political  and  constitutional  portion  of  the  volume,  by  Professor 
Mathews,  opens  with  a  chapter  on  constitutional  amendment  and  revi- 
sion from  1870  to  1917,  when  the  legislature  submitted  to  the  voters  the 
question  of  calling  a  constitutional  convention.  Other  chapters  deal 
with  the  governor,  state  officers,  administrative  services,  and  civil  serv- 
ice reform,  and  show  "  the  reorganization  of  the  principal  adminis- 
trative services  on  a  more  integrated  and  systematic  basis  ".  The  state 
legislature,  the  judiciary,  suffrage,  parties  and  elections,  and  the  en- 
forcement of  state  law  are  well  presented.  Although  much  of  the 
material  in  these  chapters  can  be  found  in  such  texts  as  Greene's  Gov- 
ernment of  Illinois,  the  author  has  done  a  real  service  by  his  clear  anal- 
ysis of  recent  changes  and  by  fitting  them  into  the  familiar  framework 
of  the  past. 

As  intimated  above,  Professor  Bogart's  treatment  of  the  economic 
aspect  of  the  period  is  a  continuation  of  his  study  of  the  period  from 
1870  to  1893.  In  his  discussion  of  population,  he  notes  the  phenomena 
connected  with  the  drift  to  the  cities,  the  shift  from  county  to  county, 
the  influx  and  distribution  of  the  alien  population,  and  the  effect  of  inter- 
state migration — all  of  special  interest  in  Illinois.  Education  is  sug- 
gested as  a  chief  means  of  solving  the  problems  connected  with  agri- 


Folwell:  A  History  of  Minnesota  807 

culture.  In  manufactures,  the  trend  toward  consolidation  and  com- 
bination is  emphasized,  particularly  in  the  Illinois  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustry. Two  chapters  are  devoted  to  trade  and  transportation,  includ- 
ing water  and  good  roads.  The  growth  of  labor  organization  and  of 
legislation  to  meet  labor  problems  includes  the  Workmen's  Compensation 
Act  of  191 1,  and  the  new  law  of  1913  as  amended  in  1917.  There  are 
excellent  chapters  also  on  the  panic  of  1893  and  the  banks,  and  on  state 
finances  and  taxation.  Reform  measures  such  as  the  tax  amendment  of 
1915  are  suggested. 

There  are  numerous  statistical  tables  relating  to  Illinois,  and  a  good 
index,  also  an  excellent  bibliography  classified  under  four  heads:  News- 
papers and  Magazines;  Federal  Documents  and  Reports;  State  Docu- 
ments and  Reports  of  Cities  and  Commissions;  and  Monographs,  Trans- 
actions, and  Other  Works. 

A  special  chapter  by  Professor  Arthur  C.  Cole  on  Illinois  and  the 
Great  War  fitly  closes  the  volume. 

Charles  T.  Wyckoff. 

A  History  of  Minnesota.     By  William  Watts  Folwell.     In  four 

volumes.    Volume  I.     (Saint  Paul:  Minnesota  Historical  Society. 

1921.     Pp.  xix,  533.     $5.00.) 

This  volume  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  newer  type  of  real 
state  and  local  history  which  is  fortunately  taking  the  place  of  the 
so-called  histories  of  states  and  localities  that  have  been  written  by 
ancient  pioneers  or  shelved  politicians  without  training  either  in  history 
or  in  literature.  Not  one  of  its  illustrations  is  a  portrait.  It  may  be 
classed  definitely  in  the  small  but  growing  group  of  state  histories  in 
which  the  recent  Centennial  History  of  Illinois  occupies  a  distinguished 
place,  and  not  at  all  in  the  group  with  the  recent  three-volume  History 
of  Arizona  by  T.  E.  Farish.  It  is  the  work  of  a  man  who  is  by  train- 
ing, inclination,  and  devotion  a  scholar  in  political  science  and  history, 
who  has  been  an  active  and  determinative  factor  in  Minnesota  life  for 
more  than  a  half-century,  knowing  all  the  state's  governors  but  two, 
and  who  combines  fine  discrimination  in  the  use  of  historical  materials, 
accuracy,  and  vividness  in  their  interpretation,  and  rare  clarity  and 
vivacity  of  literary  style. 

The  four  volumes,  of  which  this  is  the  first,  will  be  far  more  than  an 
expansion  of  the  author's  volume  on  Minnesota  in  the  American  Com- 
monwealths series,  out  of  which,  in  a  fashion,  they  have  grown;  "an 
agreeable  recreation  "  becomes  a  high  and  successful  adventure  in  his- 
torical authorship.  The  present  volume  covers  in  its  sixteen  chapters 
the  history  of  what  is  now  Minnesota  and  the  immediately  adjacent 
eastern  areas,  from  the  beginning  of  French  exploration  of  the  interior 
of  the  continent  to  the  eve  of  statehood  (1857).  It  is  an  admirably 
proportioned  and  critical  account  of  the  far-flung  efforts  of  the  French 


808  Reviews  of  Books 

— explorers,  missionaries,  and  traders ;  of  the  rivalries  of  the  French  and 
English  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  basin ;  and  of  the  period  of  British 
domination  in  the  Old  Northwest,  from  which  they  withdrew  so  re- 
luctantly and  tardily.  The  later  enterprises  of  American  explorers  like 
Pike,  Long,  and  Schoolcraft  (ch.  V.),  of  traders  like  Taliaferro  and 
Sibley,  and  of  missionaries  like  the  Pond  brothers,  and  the  incidents 
of  Indian  warfare,  are  set  forth  with  skill.  In  a  few  pages  (85-87, 
170-173)  is  an  unexcelled  brief  account  of  the  influence  of  the  white 
man  upon  the  Indian,  while  two  chapters  (X.,  XL)  give  an  admirable 
perspective  of  the  acquirement  of  the  "  Suland  "  and  the  extinction  of 
Indian  titles  by  treaties — and  otherwise — in  which  the  greed  and  chi- 
canery of  the  eager,  intolerant,  aggressive  frontiersman,  half  settler 
and  half  speculator,  outwitted  and  cheated  the  Indians  at  every  turn, 
in  spite  of  the  generally  benevolent  intentions  of  the  far-away  federal 
government.  "  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  a  tribe  of  savages  num- 
bering not  more  than  ten  thousand  souls  would  hold  indefinitely  fifty 
thousand  square  miles  of  land  against  the  pressure  of  advancing  civil- 
ization and  the  lumber  interest"  (p.  305),  not  to  mention  the  suspected 
copper  deposits  nor  the  unsuspected  wealth  of  iron  ore,  and  the  lively, 
unprejudiced  story  of  the  negotiation  of  the  treaties  with  the  Sioux  and 
the  Chippewa  in  1851-1854  brings  out  the  unlovely  features  of  a  many- 
times  told  tale  in  Western  history. 

In  the  latter  half  of  this  volume  the  author's  intimate  and  personal 
knowledge  of  such  "  builders  of  the  Commonwealth "  as  Alexander 
Ramsay,  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Riggs,  and  Henry  Hastings  Sibley,  who  was  for 
fifty-seven  years  after  his  arrival  in  Minnesota  in  1834  "  easily  the 
most  prominent  figure  in  Minnesota  history"  (p.  162),  gives  warmth 
and  color  to  his  descriptions  of  events  and  persons.  Especially  val- 
uable are  the  chapters  on  Territorial  Railroad  Miscarriage  (XII.) 
and  on  Peopling  the  Territory  (XIII.) ,  in  which  he  writes  with  fine 
penetration  and  sympathy  a  condensed  narrative  of  the  energetic,  and 
sometimes  scandalous,  political  and  economic  orderings  of  the  beginnings 
of  a  new  white  commonwealth  in  a  fertile,  well-watered,  well-timbered 
Indian  hunting  ground,  and  of  the  uncertain  sowing  and  the  quick  reap- 
ing on  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  all  sorts  of  men  and  women  which 
the  swift  stream  of  migration  left  in  the  Middle  Northwest.  These 
processes  were  in  full  operation  during  the  author's  presidency  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota  from  1869  to  1884,  and  continued  in  some  part 
of  the  state,  especially  in  the  north,  almost  to  the  present  day.  Students 
of  the  history  of  the  advancing  frontier,  of  the  rapid  transit  of  Amer- 
ican civilization  from  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Pacific,  will 
be  grateful  for  these  sixty  pages  of  vivid  description  of  a  wilderness  in 
transformation,  done  by  the  hand  of  a  ripe  scholar  who  was  within 
speaking  distance  of  the  stirring  events  of  which  he  writes. 

The   main   narrative   is   buttressed    by    thirteen   appendixes   and    six 


Minor  Xoticcs  809 

excellent  maps,  and  is  enlivened  by  eleven  full-page  illustrations  which 
are  given,  significantly,  to  such  subjects  as  the  steamboats  at  the  St. 
Paul  levee  about  1858,  a  fur-trade  inventory  of  1836,  and  Minneapolis 
in  1857.  Mention  should  certainly  be  made  in  this  connection  of  the 
part  played  by  the  Minnesota  Historical  Society  in  the  preparation  of 
this  work,  through  its  treasures  of  books,  maps,  and  manuscripts,  and 
in  the  generous  support  of  the  publication  of  this  volume  in  the  highly 
satisfactory  form  which  it  takes. 

Kendric  C.  Babcock. 

MINOR   NOTICES 

Esquisse  d'une  Histoire  de  la  Technique.  Par  A.  Vierendeel,  Pro- 
fesseur  a  l'Universite  de  Louvain.  In  two  volumes.  [Collection  Lo- 
vanium  IV.]  (Brussels  and  Paris,  Vromant  et  Co.,  1921,  pp.  188;  190, 
12  fr.)  The  first  chapter  opens  with  a  definition  of  ''La  Technique" 
or  technology,  by  virtue  of  which  technology  is  to-day  the  dominating 
force  of  the  world.  The  author  divides  the  history  of  technology  into 
five  periods,  as  follows :  the  prehistoric  period,  ending  with  Menes,  king 
of  Egypt,  4000  B.C.;  antiquity,  from  Menes  to  the  fall  of  Alexandria, 
in  A.D.  641 ;  the  Middle  Ages,  from  the  fall  of  Alexandria  to  the  fall 
of  Constantinople,  in  1453;  the  Renaissance,  from  1453  to  1800;  modern 
times,  since  1800.  It  is  pointed  out  that  in  the  prehistoric  period,  man 
created  the  flint  industry,  discovered  the  use  of  fire,  invented  the  prin- 
cipal modern  industries  and  the  tools  essential  to  the  same.  During  an- 
tiquity, the  sciences  and  arts  of  technology  developed  to  a  notable  degree, 
thereby  leading  to  a  material  civilization  differing  relatively  from  our 
own.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  except  for  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
technology  remained  nearly  stationary;  whereas  during  the  Renaissance 
and  modern  times  technology  has  made  rapid  strides. 

In  successive  chapters  are  traced  the  historical  influences  exercised 
upon  technology  by  mathematics,  mechanics,  thermodynamics,  elec- 
tricity, steam,  the  locomotive,  turbines,  internal-combustion  engines, 
aviation,  illumination,  and  large-scale  construction. 

The  author,  who  is  a  distinguished  engineer  and  authority  upon  many 
technical  subjects,  develops  his  subject  historically  in  a  very  interesting 
way.  Although  written  from  the  standpoint  of  an  engineer,  and  with 
special  reference  to  the  service  of  technical  readers,  the  book  is  also 
addressed  to  the  general  reader.  The  chapters  on  mathematics  and  me- 
chanics are  of  special  interest  and  thoroughness. 

KoJonwlgeschichtc.  Von  Dietrich  Schafer.  In  two  volumes.  (Ber- 
lin and  Leipzig,  Walter  de  Gruyter  und  Co.,  1921,  pp.  in,  148,  $.72.) 
Dr.  Schafer's  brief  sketch  of  colonization  is  a  survey  of  the  whole  field 
almost  solely  from  the  political  viewpoint.  It  is  attractively  written,  and 
evidently  intended  for  the  general  reader  rather  than  as  an  attempt  to 
add  new  knowledge. 


810  Reviews  of  Books 

Starting  with  the  thesis  that  colonization  forms  one  of  the  weightiest 
factors  in  historical  evolution  and  that  those  nations  which  are  most 
skilled  in  this  work  have  become  the  leading  world  powers,  the  author 
briefly  reviews  ancient  colonization.  Attention  is  then  paid  to  German 
expansion  in  the  Middle  Ages.  To  this  he  devotes  a  larger  space  than 
is  often  given  it,  asserting  that  the  Germans  more  than  any  other  me- 
dieval people  increased  their  importance  through  colonization,  and  that 
contrary  to  the  assertions  of  the  Slavs,  German  expansion  to  the  east 
was  a  peaceful  rather  than  a  warlike  process.  While  this  phase  is  im- 
portant, one  notes  that  thirteen  pages  are  devoted  to  it,  that  only  a  para- 
graph is  given  to  the  commercial  colonies  of  the  Italian  city  states,  and 
that  a  rather  abrupt  account  of  the  discoveries  and  their  background  is 
presented.  It  would  seem  likewise  that  in  a  well-balanced  account  French 
colonization  in  Canada  and  the  Mississippi  Valley  deserves  more  space 
than  the  single  page  allotted  to  it. 

In  concluding  his  second  volume  Dr.  Schafer  points  to  the  fact  that 
although  Germany  is  now  deprived  of  colonies,  yet,  contrary  to  enemy 
opinion,  no  people  is  better  suited  to  colonization  than  the  Germans.  Al- 
though the  world  is  completely  partitioned,  the  future  may  still  offer 
hope  of  change.  The  possibility  of  discontent  among  the  subjects  of  ex- 
isting colonial  empires,  Islamic  unrest,  further  Russo-British  or  Franco- 
British  or  even  American-British  friction,  the  ambitions  of  Far  Eastern 
peoples,  all  point  to  the  possibility  of  change.  Such  circumstances  can 
only  lead  to  advantage  for  Germany,  if  she  is  prepared  again  to  pursue  an 
independent  policy. 

James  E.  Gillespie. 

Korakou:  a  Prehistoric  Settlement  near  Corinth.  By  Carl  W.  Blegen, 
Ph.D.  [American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens.]  (Boston  and 
New  York,  the  School,  1921,  pp.  xv,  139,  and  8  pi.,  $5.00.)  This  book 
refutes  finally  the  theory  advanced  by  Leaf  in  his  Homer  and  History, 
pp.  209  ff.,  and  Classical  Review,  XXXII.  (1918)  87,  that  no  Mycenaean 
settlement  would  ever  be  found  near  Corinth  and  that  the  Homeric 
Ephyra  was  in  Sicyonian  territory.  Dr.  Blegen  with  keen  scent  of  pre- 
historic sites  has  discovered  a  dozen  or  more  that  might  claim  the  title. 
Korakou  (wrongly  spelled  Korahou  on  p.  135)  is  east  of  the  harbor 
Lechaeum,  and  certainly  is  not  in  the  direction  of  Sicyon,  as  Leaf  says. 
In  the  successive  prehistoric  settlements  found,  a  ceramic  sequence  has 
been  established,  which  is  the  basis  for  Blegen's  new  division  of  the  pre- 
historic period  of  southeastern  Greece  into  Early,  Middle,  and  Late  Hel- 
ladic.  The  Early  (2500-2000  B.C.)  is  distinguished  for  the  "urfirnis" 
wares,  the  Middle  I  (2000-1750  B.C.)  and  II  (1750-1600  B.C.)  for  Min- 
yan  and  matt-painted  vases;  Late  Helladic  I  (1600-1500),  II  (1500-1400), 
III  (1400-1100  B.C.)  corresponds  to  Late  Minoan  or  Mycenaean.  Kora- 
kou shows  that  the  Mycenaean  ware  of  the  mainland  is  a  development 


Minor  Xoticcs  811 

of  the  Minyan  under  increasing  Minoan  influence.  Supplying  evidence 
which  was  lacking  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae,  Korakou  now  for  the  first 
time  definitely  establishes  the  relationship  of  the  mainland  fabrics,  and 
has  first  distinguished  a  new  kind  of  Mycenaean  pottery  which  is  chris- 
tened "  Ephyraean  ". 

Pages  74-99  are  devoted  to  the  private  homes,  some  of  which  may 
have  had  sloping  and  not  flat  roofs,  as  Blegen  says.  Especially  im- 
portant is  the  fact  that  we  have  now  a  clearer  picture  of  a  Mycenaean's 
private  life.  We  can  picture  his  worship  about  the  "  baetylic  "  pillar  in 
the  megaron  type  of  house,  with  a  simple  bed  raised  slightly  above  the 
earthen  floor,  with  its  storage  jars,  its  querns,  its  hearth,  and  its  vases. 
We  can  even  see  the  effects  of  the  invasion  from  the  north,  perhaps  from 
Phocis.  We  can  trace  the  change  from  the  apse-end  house  to  the  square 
end,  though  in  this  discussion  a  serious  omission  is  any  reference  to 
Tsountas's  important  modern  Greek  book  on  The  Prehistoric  Acropolises 
of  Dimini  and  Scsklo,  where  similar  houses  are  discussed.  A  reference 
to  Miss  Rider's  The  Greek  House,  pp.  56  ff.,  is  also  needed. 

After  chapters  on  tombs  and  miscellaneous  finds  and  an  excellent 
historical  conclusion,  where  it  is  said  that  Early  Helladic  civilization 
began  in  the  south,  in  the  Cyclades,  and  spread  northward,  a  startling 
new  hypothesis  is  put  forward,  that  the  so-called  temple  of  Hera  at 
Tiryns  is  a  late  Mycenaean  house  and  that  the  Doric  capital  found  there 
has  nothing  to  do  with  it.  But  the  building  has  no  rear  room  or  double 
portico  as  house  L  has  and  it  is  difficult  to  prove  that  Mycenaean  sherds 
were  found  above  it. 

The  book  is  beautifully  printed  with  135  figures  (only  one  or  two 
indistinct),  7  colored  plates,  and  a  plan  of  the  entire  site;  a  scholarly 
and  ideal  publication  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  one  of  the  most  original 
works  on  the  prehistory  of  Greece  of  recent  years. 

David  M.  Robinson. 

A  Short  History  of  Christian  Thcophagy.  By  Preserved  Smith,  Ph.D. 
(Chicago  and  London,  the  Open  Court  Publishing  Company,  1922.  pp. 
223,  $2.00.)  The  history  of  this  book  is  told  by  the  author  in  the  preface. 
Starting  with  an  investigation  of  the  evolution  of  Luther's  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist  and  proceeding  to  examine  the  teachings  of  the  other  Re- 
formers, penetration  into  the  sacramentarian  controversies  of  the  six- 
teenth century  brought  him  to  see  that  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  and  the 
real  presence  in  the  sacrament  were  not  figments  of  medieval  scholasti- 
cism but  doctrines  of  the  primitive  church,  and  that  in  form  and  mean- 
ing the  Christian  sacrament  closely  corresponds  to  the  rites  of  contem- 
porary Greek  and  Oriental  mysteries,  from  which  it  is  in  fact  derived ; 
while  these  in  turn  can  be  traced  back  to  a  remote  antiquity  in  totemistic 
beliefs  and  practices.  To  the  establishment  of  these  propositions  the 
first  half  of  the  volume  is  devoted. 


812  Reviews  of  Books 

The  consequence  of  this  evolution  is  a  striking  disproportion:  Luther 
and  his  successors  get  a  hundred  and  twenty  pages;  all  that  precedes, 
from  the  time  when  "  the  grandsons  of  the  ape  were  accumulating  their 
theological  ideas  ",  is  dispatched  in  seventy-five. 

The  contrast  between  the  two  parts  is  no  less  salient  in  matter  than 
in  measure.  With  the  Reformers  the  author  is  on  a  subject  in  which 
he  is  eminently  competent  and  writes  with  the  authority  to  which  first- 
hand knowledge  entitles  him.  In  the  preceding  chapters,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  evident  that  his  learning  in  a  field  remote  from  his  own 
studies  has  been  somewhat  hastily  acquired  for  the  purpose,  and  it  has 
the  inevitable  shortcomings  of  its  origin. 

This  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  chapter  on  Paul  and  his  Symmystae. 
The  personal  religions  of  the  Hellenistic  world  ("  mysteries  ")  and  the 
relation  of  early  Christianity  to  them  form  a  field  of  investigation  in  which 
a  great  deal  has  been  accomplished  in  the  last  decade  or  two,  especially 
by  philologists.  Dr.  Smith's  acquaintance  with  this  literature  is  de- 
cidedly spotty,  and  on  various  points  he  is  much  more  dogmatic  than  he 
would  probably  be  if  he  had  followed  the  critical  discussion,  not  to  say 
if  he  had  recurred  to  the  sources.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  striking 
failure  to  note  the  most  significant  connections  of  Christianity  with  con- 
temporary personal  religions,  a  failure  due  in  part  to  the  limitations  just 
noted,  in  part  to  the  isolation  of  the  particular  problem  of  the  sacrament 
from  the  relations  of  the  religions  as  a  whole.  Of  the  nature  of  this 
larger  problem  he  has  apparently  no  apprehension. 

Similarly  inadequate  is  the  chapter  on  totemism  called  "  Praeparatio 
Evangelica  ",  in  which  recent  investigations  and  theories  are  ignored  in 
favor  of  a  more  primitive  stage  of  speculation.  Nilus  and  his  Saracens 
play  the  same  role  for  which  Robertson  Smith  cast  them  thirty-five  years 
ago. 

George  F.  Moore. 

Der  Mittelalterliche  Mensch,  gesehen  aus  Welt  und  Umwelt  Notkers 
des  Deutsche*.  Von  Paul  Th.  Hoffmann.  (Gotha,  Friedrich  Andreas 
Perthes  A.-G.,  1922,  pp.  356,  M.  40.)  The  medieval  man,  or,  as  Dr.  H. 
O.  Taylor  would  say,  the  medieval  mind,  viewed  from  the  world  of  Not- 
ker  the  German  and  his  universe,  is  an  alluring  theme.  Notker  Labeo, 
the  thick-lipped,  as  he  was  called  by  his  contemporaries,  or  Notker  Teu- 
tonicus,  as  later  generations  called  him,  lived  in  the  time  and  place  which 
Scheffel's  Ekkchard  has  made  familiar  even  to  the  general  reader.  Born 
about  952  he  lived  from  boyhood  to  his  death  in  1022  in  the  famous 
monastery  of  St.  Gall,  whence  his  cousin  (or  brother?)  Ekkehard  II. 
went  to  the  neighboring  Hohentwiel  castle  to  study  Virgil  with  its 
haughty  mistress,  Duchess  Hadwig.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  We 
are  not  certain  that  he  ever  left  the  walls  of  St.  Gall.  Like  Bede  the 
Venerable  he  spent  all  his  life  in  one  monastery,  devoting  himself  to 


Minor  Notices  813 

learning,  to  teaching,  to  writing.  With  the  humble  existence  of  this 
obscure  ascetic  and  scholar  as  a  centre  the  author  of  this  book  invites  us 
to  view  with  him  the  whole  medieval  universe  of  mind  and  spirit.  His 
point  of  departure  is  in  Notker's  truly  remarkable  German  translations, 
with  glosses,  of  portions  of  Aristotle,  of  the  Consolations  of  Philosophy 
of  Boethius,  the  Nuptiae  of  Martianus  Capella,  the  Psalms,  and  the  lost 
German  renderings  of  the  Andria  of  Terence,  the  Bucolica  of  Virgil, 
the  Disiichia  of  Cato,  and  the  Book  of  Job.  In  immense  circles,  from 
Augustine  to  Dante,  and  sometimes  through  the  vast  spaces  of  compara- 
tive history  of  religions,  the  author  gradually  swoops  down  upon  his 
subject  in  St.  Gall;  then,  as  if  unable  to  content  himself  with  him,  he 
rises  again  to  the  airy  regions  from  which  he  came.  The  books  which 
Notker  translated  loom  larger  than  the  translator  himself. 

The  author  writes  from  the  standpoint  of  the  German  philologist. 
In  descending  order  his  secondary  interests  are  in  philosophy,  theology, 
and  history.  Professional  historians  of  the  Middle  Ages  no  longer  per- 
petuate the  "  Legend  of  the  year  iooo",  as  is  done  on  pages  142  and  273. 
However,  no  historian  of  medieval  culture  can  afford  to  neglect  this 
interesting  book,  which,  in  pages  which  are  often  fascinating,  traces  the 
noble  effort  of  the  medieval  mind  to  reach  the  unattainable.  All  the 
sources  which  throw  light  on  Notker  and  his  monastery  are  exhibited 
with  telling  effect,  even  when  they  are  utilized  two  or  three  times,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case.  Chapter  IX.,  "  Die  Knaben  im  Kloster  ",  is  full  of 
novelty  and  charm. 

The  effort  of  the  author  to  soar  so  high  into  the  realms  of  philosophy 
from  the  humble  plane  of  Notker  the  German  is  almost  pathetic.  It  is 
evidence  of  the  acedia  or  Weltschmerz  of  post-bellum  Germany  ex- 
pressed by  the  author  himself  in  the  concluding  paragraph  of  his  book, 
which  begins  (p.  289),  "  Nacht  liegt  iiber  der  Erde  von  Heute  und  Chaos. 
Sie  kreisst  in  Hader,  Blut,  und  Tranen." 

L.  J.  Paetow. 

A  Repertory  of  British  Archives.  Part  I.,  England.  Compiled  for 
the  Royal  Historical  Society  by  Hubert  Hall,  Litt.D.,  F.S.A.,  Assistant 
Keeper  of  the  Public  Records.  (London,  the  Society,  1920,  pp.  liii, 
266,  12  s.  16  d.)  Mr.  Hubert  Hall  of  the  Public  Record  Office,  assisted 
by  research  students  of  the  University  of  London,  has  begun  the  issue  of 
a  Repertory  of  British  archives,  of  which  the  first  part,  relating  to  Eng- 
land, has  recently  appeared  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Historical 
Society.  It  contains  a  preface,  an  introduction,  and  an  appendix  to  the 
introduction,  followed  by  select  classified  lists  of  public  records,  three 
appendixes,  and  an  index.  It  is  not  intended  to  serve  as  a  guide,  but 
rather  as  a  directory  assisting  historical  students  to  locate  such  docu- 
ments as  may  be  useful  for  their  studies,  and  belongs  therefore  in  the 
class  of  the  lists  issued  in  this  country  by  the  Public  Archives  Commis- 

AM   HIST.    REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 54 


8 14  Reviews  of  Books 

sion  rather  than  in  that  of  the  Guides  furthered  by  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion of  Washington.  In  its  main  division  it  adopts  a  threefold  system 
of  classification,  first  by  types,  second  by  origins,  and  third  by  repos- 
itories. The  first  group,  which  distributes  by  types,  is  designed  to  aid 
the  student  who  wishes  to  know  where  among  central  and  local  archives 
certain  kinds  of  documents  are  to  be  found,  such  as  diplomatic  papers, 
administrative  and  judicial  proceedings,  and  miscellaneous.  The  second 
contains  a  survey  of  public  records  in  local  authorities,  the  documents 
of  statutory  authorities  and  trusts,  and  the  records  of  counties,  parishes, 
ridings,  ancient  palatinates,  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  other  local  admin- 
istrative and  judicial  divisions,  the  activities  of  which  in  the  past  have 
brought  into  existence  documentary  material.  The  third  contains  a  di- 
rectory of  the  actual  repositories,  beginning  with  the  Public  Record 
Office  and  other  public  and  semi-public  offices  in  London  and  concluding 
with  the  local  archive  centres,  distributed  by  counties,  with  subdivisions 
for  towns,  parishes,  and  churches.  The  plan  of  the  work  is  novel  and 
somewhat  experimental,  but  it  is  based  on  experience  and  the  actual  needs 
of  research  workers  and  is  certain  to  be  useful.  Though  designed  chiefly 
for  British  investigators,  it  is  likely  to  be  of  considerable  service  to 
those  of  America  also,  though  not  to  that  particular  group  interested 
in  American  history  only.  The  lists  are  inclusive  rather  than  discrim- 
inating, and  no  attempt  is  made  to  appraise  the  collections  or  to  indicate 
in  any  way  the  relative  importance  of  the  archives  listed.  For  that 
reason  many  famous  repositories,  such  as  the  British  Museum,  the  Bod- 
leian Library,  and  the  library  of  the  S.  P.  G.,  are  passed  over  very 
casually.  The  Repertory  is  intended  to  be  used  with  other  reports  and 
printed  works,  which  are  here  referred  to  in  parentheses,  while  in  part 
III.,  in  order  to  further  the  student's  convenience,  asterisks  are  em- 
ployed to  indicate  which  repositories  offer  facilities  for  investigators. 
Altogether  it  is  an  admirable  work,  well  planned  and  efficiently  executed. 

C.  M.  A. 

The  Laiircateship :  a  Study  of  the  Office  of  Poet  Laureate  of  England, 
with  some  Account  of  the  Poets.  By  Edmund  Kemper  Broadus,  Pro- 
fessor of  English  at  the  University  of  Alberta.  (Oxford,  Clarendon 
Press,  1921,  pp.  vii,  239,  15s.)  It  may  seem  odd  that  we  should  have 
to  wait  till  now  for  a  scholarly  survey  of  the  Laureateship.  The  insti- 
tution is  so  famous,  if  not  in  the  field  of  English  poetry,  at  least  in  that 
of  English  satire,  that  one  might  feel  sure  it  would  have  attracted  serious 
study  long  ago;  yet  since  the  days  of  Warton  and  Malone  it  has  been 
canvassed  only  by  popular  compilers.  The  reason  is  not  hard  to  come 
at:  the  Laureateship  of  the  good  old  times  was  little  better  than  a  public 
scandal. 

Know,  Eusden  thirsts  no  more  for  sack  or  praise; 

He  sleeps  among  the  dull  of  ancient  days; 

Safe,  where  no  critics  damn,  no  duns  molest  .  .  . 


Minor  Notices  815 

where  also  all  but  annotators  of  the  Dunciad  might  prefer  to  leave  him. 
And  as  for  Cibber,  it  seems  ungrateful  to  calendar  the  New  Year  and 
Birthday  Odes  of  the  man  who  wrote  the  Apology.  Dead  scandals  may 
form  good  subjects  for  dissection,  but  not  to  serious  scholars. 

Much  of  Professor  Broadus's  book  is  necessarily  given  to  these 
wretched  laureates  of  the  days  of  political  patronage;  but  it  is  the  merit 
of  his  work  that  he  has  found  plenty  of  other  matter  to  dignify  it. 
For  one  thing,  he  has  finally  cleared  up  the  origins  of  the  office.  As  far 
back  as  the  days  of  Henry  III.  we  find  a  vcrsificator  regis  in  the  royal 
household,  and  at  the  universities,  almost  from  their  beginnings,  are 
traces  of  "  poets  laureate  ".  that  is,  scholars  who  had  taken  their  bac- 
calaureate degree  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  poetry.  The  two  have  been 
frequently  confused.  The  origins  of  the  Laureateship  proper  are  in  the 
process  by  which  the  court  gradually  acquired  a  continuous  succession 
of  official  poets  and  these  poets  finally  took  over  the  old  academic  title 
of  "  laureate  ".  It  was  not  till  1668,  when  Dryden  received  his  patent, 
that  the  process  became  complete  and  the  series  of  poets  laureate  offi- 
cially began.  How  near  Jonson  and  Davenant  approached  to  this  status 
and  how  far  Skelton,  Spenser,  and  others  fell  short  of  it  is  the  subject 
of  the  most  original  part  of  the  book.  The  later  history  of  the  office, 
which  centres  in  its  enslavement  to  the  annual  odes  and  its  final  emanci- 
pation from  them,  is  more  obvious,  but  not  on  that  account  less  inter- 
esting. The  whole  quiet  record  of  this  quaint  survival  is  full  of  sug- 
gestive  fact. 

R.  E.  Neil  Dodge. 


History  of  Holland.  By  George  Edmundson,  D.Litt,  F.R.G.S.. 
F.R.Hist.S.  [Cambridge  Historical  Series.]  (Cambridge,  University 
Press,  1922,  pp.  xii,  464,  22s.  6d.)  The  aim  of  the  series,  in  which  this 
brief  history  of  Holland  is  included,  being  to  sketch  the  history  of  modern 
Europe  with  its  extra-territorial  relations  during  the  last  five  hundred 
years,  the  selection  of  Mr.  Edmundson  as  author  of  this  volume  was  nat- 
ural. He  is  peculiarly  at  home  in  the  treatment  of  specific  epochs.  In 
addition  to  various  monographs,  he  has  written  nine  chapters  in  the  Cam- 
bridge Modem  History,  seven  of  which  have  the  Netherlands  as  subject, 
from  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  down  to  recent  times ;  the 
remaining  two  touch  upon  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  volumes  of  a  series 
planned  from  without  by  a  general  editor  and  written  within  specified 
limits  are  not,  as  a  rule,  inspired  writings.  They  are  useful  as  playing 
their  part  in  a  wide  conception,  but  rarely  does  the  author  give  the  im- 
pression of  taking  his  subject  con  amore.  And  it  cannot  be  claimed  that 
this  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  It  is  an  excellent  outline  based 
on  the  latest  Netherland  ratings,  but  nothing  more.  Indeed,  it  may  be 
called  singularly  anemic. 

The  narrative  begins  with  the  entrance  of  the  Burgundian  dukes  into 


8i6  Reviews  of  Books 

the  Netherland  provinces,  1361,  and  concludes  with  the  election  of  1913, 
all  condensed  into  428  pages.  There  is  still  room  for  an  account  of  the 
Netherland  provinces  from  another  angle,  an  account  wholly  free,  con- 
sciously and  subconsciously,  from  Motley's  influence,  which  should  con- 
sider more  vitally  the  disintegrating  effects  of  intensive  individualism, 
and  take  into  greater  consideration  the  firm  conviction  of  Philip  II.  that 
dissent  from  the  Catholic  Church  was  simply  dangerous  bolshevism. 

The  bibliography  reveals  this  lack  of  a  last  word,  but  as  far  as  the 
material  goes,  it  is  an  excellent  bibliography,  and  covers  the  ground. 

A  History  of  France  from  the  Death  of  Louis  XI.  By  John  S.  C. 
Bridge.  Volume  I.,  Reign  of  Charles  VIII.:  Regency  of  Anne  of  Beau- 
jeu, 1483-1403.  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1921,  pp.  xvi,  295,  16  s.) 
This  volume  excites  the  hope  that,  at  last,  an  extensive  and  detailed  history 
of  France  is  being  prepared  for  English  readers  by  an  author  possessed  of 
real  literary  ability.  There  is  nothing  but  the  title  to  indicate  the  scope  of 
Mr.  Bridge's  plans,  but  if  he  intends  to  cover  the  entire  period  from  1483 
to  the  present  at  the  rate  of  a  decade  a  volume  we  heartily  wish  him  a 
long  life.  He  has  presented  the  story  of  the  first  decade  in  a  dramatic 
narrative  of  events,  embellished  with  apt  quotations  from  contemporary 
sources,  and  enlivened  by  vivid  characterizations  of  individuals.  Louis 
of  Orleans,  La  Tremoille,  and  Anne  of  Brittany  stand  out  as  very  dis- 
tinct personalities.  Singularly  enough  Anne  of  Beaujeu,  despite  the 
author's  desire  to  present  her  as  his  heroine,  is  a  much  vaguer  figure,  but 
this  in  itself  is  probably  a  truthful  reflection  of  a  contemporary  condition. 

The  task  of  synthesizing  the  results  of  French  scholarship  since  Peli- 
cier  published  his  Essai  sur  le  Gouverncment  de  la  Dame  de  Beaujeu  in 
1882  would  seem  to  have  been  one  for  which  the  author  is  excellently 
fitted.  The  extensive  biliography,  both  of  sources  and  of  later  works, 
which  appears  in  an  appendix,  bears  witness  to  his  familiarity  with  the 
printed  material,  and,  although  not  critical,  will  be  the  natural  reference 
in  the  future  for  anyone  who  may  wish  to  investigate  this  period.  A 
unique  and  exceedingly  useful  feature  is  an  appendix  on  "  The  French 
Monetary  System",  to  which  is  attached  a  special  bibliography.  In  this 
is  a  series  of  elaborate  tables  which  make  it  possible  to  translate  the  Eu- 
ropean coins  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  into  reasonably  ac- 
curate modern  equivalents. 

A  tendency  to  over-emphasis  would  seem  to  be  Mr.  Bridge's  chief 
weakness.  This  is  doubtless  part  of  that  dramatic  sense  which  makes  his 
book  so  readable.  Was  this  decade  so  uniquely  decisive  in  the  creation 
of  the  French  monarchy?  Did  it  witness  the  "final  extinction  of  the 
spirit  of  provincial  feudalism"?  Is  Anne  of  Beaujeu,  even  considering 
the  limitations  of  circumstances,  among  the  greatest  of  political  women. 
worthy  to  rank,  for  instance,  with  Elizabeth  and  Catherine  the  Great? 
In  regard  to  the  States-General  of  1484  he  writes:  "Convened  in  a  mo- 
ment of  crisis,  when  the  sceptre  wavered  in  the  feeble  grasp  of  a  child, 


Minor  Notices  817 

favoured  by  the  suicidal  jealousies  of  rival  aspirants  to  power,  and  forti- 
fied by  a  deep  reaction  against  the  excesses  of  despotic  authority,  the 
States  had  enjoyed  a  unique  opportunity  for  enforcing  the  redress  of 
abuses,  calling  a  halt  to  the  encroachments  of  despotism,  and  building  the 
structure  of  ordered  liberty  upon  firm  constitutional  foundations."  The 
feeling  of  doubt  which  this  sweeping  generalization  excites  is  consider- 
ably quieted  by  the  excellent  summary  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  States- 
General  as  an  institution.  It  is,  however,  on  political  subjects,  especially 
those  of  international  politics,  rather  than  constitutional  ones,  that  Mr. 
Bridge  is  at  his  best,  and  such  topics  occupy  most  of  this  volume. 

Richard  A.  Newhall. 

Le  Livrc  dc  Vlmpot  Foncicr  (Kitdb  El-Kharadj).  By  Abou  Yousof 
Ya'koub.  Traduit  et  annote  par  E.  Fagnan.  (Paris,  Paul  Geuthner, 
1921,  pp.  xvi,  352,  40  fr.)  The  publication  of  this  volume  is  a  matter  of 
interest  to  all  students  of  early  Islam  and  the  development  of  Moham- 
medan law.  M.  Fagnan  gives  in  his  interesting  preface  (pp.  ix-xvi) 
the  main  facts  regarding  the  book  and  its  author.  From  this  preface  it 
appears  that  Abu  Yusuf  was  born  in  Kufa  in  731.  Apprenticed  to  a 
fuller  at  an  early  age,  he  frequently  stole  away  from  his  work  to  listen 
to  the  lectures  of  various  learned  men.  Among  these  was  the  renowned 
Abu  Hanifa,  whose  most  celebrated  pupil  he  afterwards  became,  and  who, 
struck  by  the  boy's  zeal  and  intelligence,  gave  him  pecuniary  aid,  thus 
enabling  him  to  pursue  his  studies.  Made  kadi  during  the  reign  of  al- 
Mahdi,  he  continued  in  office  during  the  rest  of  his  life,  dying  as  chief 
kadi  in  the  reign  of  Harun  ar-Rashid  in  798.  He  was  noted  for  his  great 
learning  and  for  his  keenness  of  intellect,  but,  if  his  memory  is  not  ma- 
ligned, he  did  not  always  use  his  learning  and  his  keenness  of  intellect  in 
promoting  high  ideals  of  justice. 

This  book  is  the  only  one  of  Abu  Yusuf's  which  has  come  down  to 
us  and  was  written,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  introduction  (p.  1),  in  response 
to  a  request  made  to  him  by  Harun  ar-Rashid  for  a  book  which  should 
contain  all  the  rules  which  should  govern  the  collection  not  only  of  the 
land  tax,  but  also  of  various  other  sources  of  revenue.  In  his  discussion 
of  the  various  questions  involved  the  author  touches  on  a  great  variety 
of  topics,  and  by  his  treatment  of  these  gives  the  student  an  excellent 
idea  of  how  the  body  of  Mohammedan  law  was  gradually  built  up.  In 
fact  it  would  not  be  easy  to  direct  the  Western  student,  especially  the  one 
unacquainted  with  Arabic,  to  any  book  in  which  he  could  get,  in  the  same 
amount  of  time,  as  vivid  an  idea  of  this  matter  as  he  could  by  reading 
this  translation.  The  excellent  analytical  table  of  contents  (pp.  335-340) 
adds  to  the  value  of  the  work,  as  does  the  general  index  (pp.  341-352). 
Should  a  second  edition  be  called  for,  this  index  might  well  be  extended 
so  as  to  include  a  few  more  items  such,  for  example,  as  chamcaux,  croix, 
synagogues. 

M.  Fagnan  deserves  the  thanks  of  scholars  for  making  accessible  to 


818  Reviews  of  Books 

Western  students  this  interesting  law  book  of  the  second  century  of  the 
Hijra. 

J.  R.  Jewett. 

L' Evolution  Religieusc  de  Luther  jnsqu'en  1515.  Par  Henri  Strohl, 
Maitre  de  Conferences.  [Etudes  d'Histoire  et  de  Philosophie  Religieuses 
publiees  par  la  Faculte  de  Theologie  Protestante  de  l'Universite  de  Stras- 
bourg.] (Strasbourg  and  Paris,  Istra,  1922,  pp.  174,  7.50  fr.)  "Our 
study  has  no  pretension  of  giving  a  definite  solution  of  the  problem.  No 
new  documents  are  presented ;  no  new  hypothesis  is  added  to  all  those 
which  have  been  hitherto  offered  and  which  have  frequently  had  so 
brief  a  life.  We  shall  be  satisfied  with  exhibiting  all  the  aspects  of  the 
problem,  with  comparing  the  theses,  antitheses,  and  hypotheses,  both 
those  concerning  the  problem  as  a  whole  and  those  relating  to  some  de- 
tail ;  we  shall  weigh  the  arguments  in  favor  of  different  theories  in  the 
endeavor  to  ascertain  on  which  side  the  weight  of  evidence  lies;  and  we 
shall  thus  give  to  the  French-reading  public  a  critical  account  of  the  pres- 
ent state  of  research  sufficient  to  enable  the  reader  to  find  his  way  in  the 
labyrinth  of  contemporary  theories."  Thus  accurately  does  Professor 
Strohl  characterize  his  own  modest  purpose  and  genuine,  though  limited, 
achievement.  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  University  of  Strasbourg,  now 
French,  devoting  to  the  great  German  so  sympathetic  and  thorough  a 
study.  For  the  author  knows  practically  all  the  literature  of  the  subject, 
German,  French,  and  English — though  apparently  not  the  brilliant  book 
of  his  own  countryman,  A.  Humbert — and  he  shows  not  a  trace  of  na- 
tional, and  only  a  little  of  religious,  bias. 

But  however  excellent  as  a  review,  the  present  work  will  disappoint 
him  who  expects  an  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  the  subject.  During 
the  last  thirty  years  many  new  documents  bearing  on  the  subject  have 
come  to  light,  marginal  notes,  commentaries,  lectures,  a  few  letters,  all 
of  first-hand  value,  and  many  secondary  accounts  and  reminiscences. 
During  the  same  period  intensive  research,  directed  by  fruitful  and  bold 
hypothesis,  has  unlocked  many  of  the  secrets  of  Luther's  early  life.  Of 
all  this  Professor  Strohl  is  aware;  but  to  it  all,  as  he  admits,  he  is  unable 
to  bring  any  new  light.  He  is  capable  of  independent  judgment  only  in 
choosing  among  authorities;  he  follows  the  beaten  road,  going  right, 
when  he  does  go  right,  with  the  crowd,  and  erring,  if  he  errs,  with  the 
majority.  His  mild,  almost  sweet,  criticisms  of  Scheel,  and  of  Grisar, 
and  of  Preserved  Smith,  hardly  represent  an  individual  opinion  at  all, 
but  a  mere  registration  of  the  verdict  of  a  jury  of  scholars,  or  of  some  of 
them. 

Having  read  the  whole  work  with  enjoyment,  the  reviewer  finds  him- 
self in  agreement  with  most  of  the  positions  advanced.  Not  with  the 
intention  of  dogmatically  correcting  a  learned  and  careful  scholar,  but 
merely  to  indicate  the  discussable  issues,  the  reviewer  may  note  several 
points  in  which  he  dissents  from  the  author.     It  seems  that  Professor 


Minor  Notices  819 

Strohl,  like  the  majority  of  historians,  represents  Luther's  development 
far  too  much,  though  not  entirely,  as  an  intellectual  process.  According 
to  this  view  the  discovery  of  the  sola  fide  was  much  like  the  invention  of 
logarithms,  the  result  of  some  years  of  anxious  study  and  scientific  thought. 
But  the  alternative  is  far  more  likely,  that  the  theological  and  philosoph- 
ical expression  of  the  doctrine  was  only  the  shadow  following  the  train 
of  emotional  and  active  life,  or,  to  change  the  metaphor,  the  small  part 
of  the  iceberg  seen  above  the  waves.  M.  Strohl  puts  Luther's  discovery 
of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  in  1513 ;  the  reviewer  is  con- 
vinced that  it  took  place  about  June,  151 5.  M.  Strohl  is  unable  to  ex- 
plain the  fact  that  Luther  said  that  "all  the  doctors  "  interpreted  "justifi- 
cation "  in  a  sense  contrary  to  his,  whereas  Denifle  showed,  by  examina- 
tion, that  almost  all  of  them  interpreted  it  exactly  as  he  did.  Is  it  not 
probable  that  Luther  was  thinking,  not  so  much  of  the  medieval  doctors, 
but  of  the  modern  humanists,  chiefly  perhaps  of  Erasmus? 

Preserved  Smith. 

Minutes  and  Accounts  of  the  Corporation  of  Stratford-upon-Az'on, 
and  other  Records,  1553-1620.  Transcribed  by  Richard  Savage,  with  In- 
troduction and  Notes  by  Edgar  I.  Fripp,  B.A.  Volume  I.,  1 553-1 566. 
[Publications  of  the  Dugdale  Society,  vol.  I.]  (Oxford,  the  Society, 
1921,  pp.  lx,  152.)  The  Dugdale  Society,  formed  in  1920  to  publish 
records  relating  to  Warwickshire  history,  topography,  and  archaeology, 
presents  an  interesting  programme  and  merits  liberal  support.  The  series 
of  publications  begins  appropriately  with  the  records  of  Stratford-on-Avon 
from  1553  to  1620,  to  which  four  volumes  will  be  devoted.  The  first  of 
these,  containing  the  charter  of  incorporation,  corporation  minutes,  orders, 
and  memoranda,  chamberlains'  accounts,  court  rolls  and  views  of  frank- 
pledge, agreements  with  the  vicar  and  the  schoolmasters,  and  various 
other  documents  of  1 553-1 566,  has  been  published,  and  the  second  volume 
is  promised  for  an  early  date. 

The  present  volume  is  beautifully  printed  on  fine  thick  paper  and  is 
provided  with  full-page  reproductions  of  the  initial  letter  of  the  charter 
(showing  Edward  VI.  enthroned)  and  part  of  a  corporation  order  (show- 
ing the  signatures  of  John  Shakespeare  and  other  burgesses  and  alder- 
men). Much  care  has  obviously  been  taken  to  secure,  not  only  accuracy, 
but  the  utmost  intelligibility  in  the  reproduction  of  the  records.  Special 
devices  distinguish  simply  and  clearly  additions  and  deletions,  interpola- 
tions, explanations,  and  omissions.  The  introduction  seems  to  summa- 
rize and  discuss  under  fifteen  heads  the  most  interesting  details  of  the 
records,  but  the  headings  are  a  very  imperfect  guide  to  the  subjects 
treated.  In  fact  the  arrangement  is  partly  systematic  and  partly  chron- 
ological, and  the  reader  will  need  to  run  through  the  whole  introduction 
to  make  sure  of  finding  all  that  concerns  any  subject  of  interest. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  and  the  following  volumes  will  contain  only 


820  Reviews  of  Books 

"  a  selection  "  of  the  Stratford  records.  Of  course  the  records  are  very 
voluminous,  but  it  is  a  pity  that  this  selection  is  so  limited  and,  at  the 
same  time,  so  large  that  it  will  forever  stand  in  the  way  of  a  more  com- 
plete collection.  Much  space,  it  would  seem,  might,  in  such  volumes,  be 
saved  for  the  printing  of  records  of  events  by  declining  to  print  in  full, 
every  time  they  occur,  the  general  regulations  enacted  and  re-enacted  in 
practically  identical  terms  at  every  view  of  frank-pledge  and  every  court- 
leet.  Why  could  not  each  of  these  items  be  printed  in  full  when  it  first 
occurs  and  either  followed  by  a  list  of  dates  of  re-enactment  or  replaced 
upon  later  occurrences  by  a  reference?  As  it  is,  we  have  page  after  page 
of  these  idle  repetitions  and  lack  hundreds  of  records  of  courts;  for 
example,  Halliwell-Phillips  has  more  than  forty  records  concerning  John 
Shakespeare  during  1556-1558  not  in  this  volume.  This  is  regrettable, 
for  historical  records  can  be  properly  interpreted  only  when  seen  in  their 
setting.  Even  the  incomplete  records  given  in  this  volume  enable  the 
reader  to  see  that  John  Shakespeare  was  a  man  of  greater  ability  and 
force  of  character  than  he  appears  to  be  if  one  reads  only  the  records 
concerning  him  and  interprets  them  without  background  or  perspective. 
And  to  have  made  this  possible  is  a  great  service. 

Die  Englische  Wirtschaft.  Von  Professor  Dr.  Hermann  Levy,  Tech- 
nische  Hochschule,  Berlin.  [Handbuch  der  Englisch-Amerikanischen 
Kultur,  ed.  Wilhelm  Dibelius.]  (Leipzig  and  Berlin,  B.  G.  Teubner, 
1922,  pp.  iv,  153,  $1.30.)  In  compass  this  book  is  an  outline  only;  the 
degree  of  compression  appears  from  the  limit  of  153  pages  within  which 
the  writer  sketches  the  economy  of  England  from  Cromwell  to  the  pres- 
ent. Yet  brief  as  it  is,  a  sure  touch  of  authoritative  scholarship  makes 
the  work  a  helpful  guide  for  German  students  who  want  a  ready  grasp 
upon  the  essentials  of  the  English  economic  outlook.  Of  particular  in- 
terest, coming  from  a  Continental  writer,  is  the  manner  in  which  Dr. 
Levy  discusses  the  displacing  of  the  doctrine  of  enlightened  self-interest 
by  the  newer  creed  of  socialization,  and  the  revolution  which  that  is  in- 
volving. 

One  or  two  of  Dr.  Levy's  conclusions  are  open  to  a  difference  of 
opinion.  His  view  that  the  homely  industrial  virtues  of  English  char- 
acter are  to  be  attributed  to  the  Calvinism  of  the  seventeenth  century  is 
less  tenable  as  a  theory  than  its  exact  obverse;  and  surely  English  char- 
acter must  be  carried  back  beyond  the  time  of  Cromwell  for  its  true 
genesis.  Likewise  in  regarding  English  Liberalism  of  the  nineteenth 
century  as  shaped  by  the  survival  of  seventeenth-century  Dissent,  Dr. 
Levy  overlooks  the  special  influence  of  the  Scottish  universities,  and  the 
contagious  effect  of  post-revolutionary  Liberalism  in  France. 

In  bibliography  it  is  surprising  to  find  no  mention,  among  English 
works,  of  the  studies  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hammond;  more  surprising  still 
that  Dr.  Levy's  reading  has  not  brought  him  into  touch  with  any  of  the 


Minor  Notices  821 

French  or  American  writers  in  this  field.  Further,  he  was  at  a  disad- 
vantage, when  dealing  with  Works  Committees,  Welfare  Committees, 
Tariff  Reform,  Imperial  Preference,  etc.,  in  using  only  blue-books  and 
official  reports,  and  in  accepting  such  reports  at  their  face  value.  But 
for  a  general  explanation  of  English  economy  the  book  serves  its  purpose 
well. 

C.  E.  Fryer. 

Le  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski,  Marechal  de  France,  1763-1813.  Par 
Simon  Askenazy.  Traduit  du  Polonais  par  B.  Kozakiewicz  et  Paul  Cazin. 
(Paris,  Plon-Nourrit  et  Cie.,  1921,  pp.  335,  7.50  fr.)  This  is  a  charm- 
ing biography  of  a  really  great  man,  whose  career  began  like  a  rococo 
romance  and  ended  like  an  antique  tragedy.  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski 
played  a  not  unimportant  role  in  general  European  affairs;  as  one  of 
Napoleon's  marshals  he  belongs  in  a  sense  to  France;  and  in  Polish  his- 
tory he  holds  a  unique  place,  as  the  best  loved  of  national  heroes,  the 
radiant  embodiment  of  both  the  virtues  and  the  defects  of  his  people,  the 
most  brilliant  and  humanly  attractive  figure  in  the  long  national  martyr- 
ology. 

This  biography  comes  from  a  thoroughly  competent  pen,  for  Profes- 
sor Askenazy's  so  fruitful  and  indefatigable  researches  in  the  Polish  his- 
tory of  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries  have  made  him  the 
acknowledged  master  in  this  field.  The  present  work  is  clearly  based 
upon  extensive  and  solid  investigation,  largely  of  unprinted  sources,  al- 
though it  is  destitute  of  foot-notes  or  bibliography,  and  is  obviously 
destined  primarily  for  the  general  reader. 

As  the  favorite  nephew  of  King  Stanislas  Augustus,  a  distinguished 
soldier  and  patriot,  and  a — for  that  time — perfect  type  of  the  chevalier 
sans  peur  et  sans  reprochc,  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski  was  a  leading  figure 
in  the  last,  sombre  days  of  the  old  Polish  Republic,  and  during  the  ensu- 
ing Napoleonic  era,  when  European  politics  centred  so  largely  about  the 
question  of  the  restoration  of  Poland.  The  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant chapters  of  his  life  deal  with  his  inevitably  unsuccessful  perform- 
ance in  1792,  when  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine  he  was  called  upon  to 
command  his  country's  forces  in  the  unequal  struggle  with  Russia;  his 
participation  in  "  Kosciuszko's  uprising"  in  1794;  and  his  splendid  serv- 
ices during  the  period  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  as  minister  of 
war,  organizer  of  the  new  Polish  army,  and.  commander  in  the  glorious 
campaigns  of  1807,  1809,  1812,  and  1813.  Whether  as  general,  adminis- 
trator, or  statesman.  Professor  Askenazy  rates  his  talents  very  highly — 
more  highly  than  Polish  historians  have  hitherto  done.  One  feels  some 
hesitation  here  at  seeing  Prince  Joseph  placed  on  the  same  plane  with 
the  Archduke  Charles  and  with  Scharnhorst.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  personal  fascination  of  this  brave,  joyous,  ardent,  and  high- 
souled  man,  who  "had  only  to  show  himself  in  order  to  conquer  all 
hearts  at  once  by  his  chivalrous  bearing,  the  grace  of  his  manners,  and 


822  Reviews  of  Books 

the  nobility  of  his  character"  (pp.  270-271).  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  sins  of  his  exuberant  youth,  he  was  in  manhood  the  incarnation  of 
honor,  conscience,  and  disinterested  public  spirit ;  and  in  later  years  a 
patriot  of  almost  Spartan  austerity,  devoting  himself  body  and  soul  to  the 
national  cause,  rising,  as  disasters  multiplied,  to  ever  greater  heights  of 
courage,  energy,  and  self-abnegation.  In  the  rout  after  Leipzig  he  met 
his  death  in  the  waters  of  the  Elster,  worn  out  by  fever,  anxiety,  and 
over-exertion,  riddled  by  bullets — down  to  the  last  muttering  the  words 
"  Duty  "  and  "  Poland  ". 

R.  H.  Lord. 

The  Influence  of  George  III.  on  the  Development  of  the  Constitution. 
By  A.  Mervin  Davies,  Scholar  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  (Oxford,  Uni- 
versity Press,  1921,  pp.  84,  4s.  6d.)  The  brilliant  pamphlets  of  Edmund 
Burke  written  solely  to  support  the  tottering  political  fortunes  of  the 
Old  Whigs  have  given  the  direction  to  the  historical  interpretation  of  the 
events  of  his  generation.  The  Whig  tradition  about  George  III.  and  his 
contemporaries,  thus  planted,  has  been  carefully  nurtured  by  generations 
of  historians  until  it  is  so  firmly  rooted  in  the  consciousness  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  that  it  will  probably  obscure  the  landscape  till  the  end 
of  time. 

The  above  thesis,  which  "  was  awarded  the  Stanhope  Historical  Essay 
prize  for  1921  in  the  University  of  Oxford",  exhibits  the  present  status 
of  the  Whig  tradition.  Naturally  the  author  makes  no  claim  to  original 
research ;  but  he  has  conscientiously  read  some  of  the  more  notable  books 
on  the  subject  and  has  utilized,  for  illustrative  material,  a  few  volumes 
of  sources.  One  wonders  why  his  attention  was  not  called  to  the  works 
of  von  Ruville.  This  can  hardly  be  ascribed  to  national  prejudice,  for 
Basil  Williams,  Life  of  Pitt,  is  not  listed  among  the  authorities.  Is  Stan- 
hope's life  of  the  Great  Commoner  the  standard  in  Oxford  historical 
circles? 

A  longer  discussion  of  the  work  is  unnecessary.  It  adds  nothing  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  time,  but  it  will  be  found  useful  for  those  who  are 
not  themselves  specialists  in  the  subject  and  yet  desire  a  short  review  of 
the  constitutional  changes  during  the  period.  The  author  finds  no  dif- 
ficulty in  proving  the  great  significance  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  in 
the  development  of  the  English  constitution.  "  It  marks,"  he  writes,  "the 
close  of  the  system  of  government  established  by  the  Revolution  of  1688 
and  ushers  in  the  modern  period  of  popular  government." 

C.  W.  A. 

Letters  to  "The  Times"  upon  War  and  Neutrality,  1881-1020,  with 
some  Commentary.  By  Sir  Thomas  Erskine  Holland,  K.C.,  D.C.L., 
F.B.A.  (London  and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green,  and  Company,  1921, 
third  edition,  pp.  xv,  215,  10s.  6d.)  Professor  Holland's  letters  to  the 
London   Ti>ucs  upon  war  and  neutrality  were  first  collected  into  book 


Minor  Notices  823 

form  in  1909,  again  early  in  1914,  and  now,  in  the  third  edition,  are 
given  what  the  distinguished  authoi  regards  as  doubtless  their  final 
form.  With  the  commentaries  inserted  they  amount  to  considerably 
more  than  the  expression  of  opinion,  frequently  highly  controversial, 
upon  more  or  less  technical  questions  of  international  law,  clothed  in 
language  suitable  to  the  general  reader.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
historian  of  the  period  since  the  Russo-Turkish  war  they  furnish  a  val- 
uable series  of  reasoned,  although  wholly  contemporaneous,  judgments 
upon  many  points  raised  during  the  nine  wars  since  1878,  in  seven 
of  which  Great  Britain  was  a  neutral.  Controversial  questions  concerned 
with  "  pacific  "  reprisals  are  also  considered.  Throughout  there  is  ex- 
hibited a  candor  which  not  infrequently  undertakes  spiritedly  to  differ 
from  official   British  opinion  and  decision. 

Professor  Holland's  position  in  international  law  is  well  known. 
Though  classed  as  an  analytical  jurist,  he  does  not  affect  to  undervalue 
international  law  as  a  body  of  reasoned  rules  of  action  developed  by  the 
usages  and  customs  of  civilized  world  society.  With  him  realities  are 
not  eclipsed  by  theory,  nor  does  his  knowledge  of  international  law  give 
him  an  academic  attitude  where  actual  international  problems  are  pre- 
sented. The  necessity  of  the  solution  and  settlement  of  international 
differences,  one  after  another,  is  a  driving  force  in  the  making  of  inter- 
national law.  Law-making  treaties  solve  some,  but  raise  other  prob- 
lems. Professor  Holland's  opposition  to  the  Declaration  of  London 
(, "  that  premature  attempt  to  codify  the  law  of  maritime  warfare,  claim- 
ing misleadingly  that  its  rules  '  correspond  in  substance  with  the  gen- 
erally recognized  principles  of  international  law'")  is  quite  in  line  with 
his  general  point  of  view  throughout  forty  years.  His  views  upon  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  express  doubt  as  to  the  wisdom  of  joining  in  one 
document  subjects  intrinsically  unrelated.  The  League  of  Nations  is  a 
"  brave  attempt  ",  but  his  judgment  is  that  the  Covenant  had  no  place 
in  a  detailed  treaty  of  peace.  His  conservative  attitude  upon  the  theory 
of  sovereignty  may  account  for  his  fear  that  mandates  may  probably 
lead  to  jealousies  and  misunderstandings. 

The  volume  is  a  record  of  forty  years  of  vigorous  and  independent 
thinking  and  criticism,  in  which  the  event  has  frequently  proved  the 
correctness  of  the  author's  contemporaneous  judgments. 

J.  S.  Reeves. 

Greater  Roumania.  By  Charles  Upson  Clark,  Ph.D.  (New  York, 
Dodd,  Mead,  and  Company,  1922,  pp.  xi,  477,  $4.00.)  Whoever  sees  in 
war  propaganda  a  desirable  form  of  historical  literature  may  take  de- 
light in  this  work  on  Rumania.  In  his  preface  the  author  tells  us  that, 
invited  to  Bucharest  by  the  Rumanian  government,  he  found  himself 
moved  to  defend  the  country  whose  guest  he  was  before  the  bar  of  world 
opinion.     We  may  agree   that,   as   a   gentleman,   he   could   do   no   less. 


824  Reviews  of  Books 

Incidentally  he  feels  prompted  to  direct  "  the  farsighted  American  cap- 
italist and  manufacturer  "  to  "  the  remarkable  opportunities  "  afforded 
in  a  country,  which  to  a  heart  overflowing  with  gratitude  "  has  the 
future  of  Southeastern  Europe  in  her  hands  ".  Greater  Roumania  is  as 
good  a  book  as  these  conditions  of  its  production  permit  it  to  be.  It  is 
no  more  than  a  sketch,  a  handbook.  The  geographical  section  is  illu- 
minating, while  the  historical  chapters,  compact  as  baled  hay,  serve  up 
the  main  facts  of  Rumanian  development,  though  with  little  regard  either 
for  charm  or  for  digestibility.  A  survey  of  the  newly  acquired  prov- 
inces, Bukovina,  Bessarabia,  Transylvania,  and  the  Banat,  is  carried  out 
on  a  more  generous  scale  and  constitutes  the  most  readable  as  well  as 
the  most  balanced  part  of  the  work.  For  the  remainder  there  is  little 
to  be  said.  There  are  trivial  sketches  of  the  notables  of  the  country, 
for  all  the  world  like  bad  tintypes,  and  there  is  a  rather  lengthy  account 
of  Rumania's  political  and  military  vicissitudes  since  the  Balkan  troubles 
of  1912.  In  this  version  of  recent  history  the  author  outdoes  himself 
as  a  blind  partizan.  His  authorities,  cited  with  confident  gusto,  are  the 
case-hardened  politicians  and  interested  generals,  his  Rumanian  hosts, 
who  entertained  him  at  tea.  These  be  the  gods  of  his  idolatry,  particu- 
larly, it  would  seem,  Take  Jonesco.  Take  Jonesco  is  a  vivacious  and 
important  actor  on  the  stage  of  Southeastern  Europe  but  it  was  left  to 
Mr.  Clark's  perspicacity  to  discover  that  he  is  a  clear  well  of  historic  truth. 
The  worst  aspect  of  the  author's  uncritical  procedure  is  that  it  does 
Rumania  an  ill  turn.  The  gifted  Rumanian  people  with  their  heroic 
past  and  their  extraordinary  present  promise  deserve  to  be  sympathet- 
ically and  truthfully  known.  Let  us  hope  that  they  will  presently  find 
a  disinterested  scholar  prepared  to  present  them  and  their  story  without 
fear  or  favor. 

Ferdinand  Schevill. 

Kaiserliche  Katastrophenpolitik:  ein  Stiick  Zeitgenossischer  Ge- 
schichte.  Von  Heinrich  Kanner.  (Leipzig,  E.  P.  Tal  und  Co.,  1922, 
pp.  xiv,  468,  M.  25.)  This  is  one  of  the  ablest,  sanest,  and  most  read- 
able books  on  the  origin  of  the  war  written  by  a  German.  The  author 
was  editor  of  the  Vienna  Zeit,  before  and  during  the  war,  until  censor- 
ship difficulties  made  his  position  untenable.  Much  that  later  happened 
he  foresaw  and  warned  against — but  in  vain.  Therefore  his  hand  is 
unsparing  in  laying  the  lash  on  Aehrenthal,  Berchtold,  Conrad  von 
Hoetzendorf,  and  the  other  Austrian  aristocrats  whose  deceits  and  crim- 
inal recklessness  were  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  war.  The  clever 
way  in  which  he  unmasks  and  ridicules  the  pre-war  Vienna  authorities 
may  detract  from  the  objectivity,  but  not  from  the  readability,  of  the 
book. 

Kanner  has  based  his  book  mainly  on  the  documents  published  by 
Kautsky  in  Berlin  and  by  Gooss  in  Vienna,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 


Minor  Notices  825 

used  Russian  sources  nor  the  most  recent  German  publications  as  to 
mobilization.  His  book  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  well-rounded  account 
of  the  origins  of  the  war,  because  it  says  very  little  about  the  activities 
of  the  Entente  Powers;  he  was  mainly  interested  in  pillorying  Austria's 
guilty  "  catastrophe  policy  ",  which  involved  Germany  and  the  world. 

As  to  the  author's  conclusions,  he  rightly  rejects  the  "  Potsdam  con- 
ference "  myth,  but  condemns  German  stupidity  in  giving  Austria  carte 
blanche  on  July  5,  1914.  He  likewise  rightly  emphasizes  the  Kaiser's 
genuine  effort  to  hold  Austria  back  from  her  mad  course,  as  soon  as 
he  learnerl  of  Serbia's  conciliatory  answer;  but  in  spite  of  Berlin's 
violent  "  pressing  the  button "  at  Vienna,  Berchtold  went  ahead  as 
rapidly  as  possible  to  make  war  certain  and  avoid  all  mediation,  even 
when  urged  by  England  and  Germany  together.  Kanner  also  disposes 
of  the  legend  that  Austria  at  the  eleventh  hour  was  ready  to  yield  and 
that  Germany  forced  a  general  war  by  her  precipitous  ultimatums ;  for  the 
records  of  the  Austrian  secret  council  of  July  31  show  that  Berchtold 
never  intended  to  yield  in  substance,  however  much  dust  he  might  throw 
in  Europe's  eyes.  On  the  other  hand,  Kanner  puts  too  much  empha- 
sis, we  think,  on  a  "  Berlin-Vienna  conspiracy  "  from  July  5  to  27,  and 
is  wrong  in  saying  that  Berchtold's  final  refusal  to  accept  Emperor  Wil- 
liam's "  pledge  plan  ",  rather  than  the  news  of  Russian  general  mobil- 
ization, finally  led  Bethmann-Hollweg  to  send  the  ultimatums  to  Russia 
and  France.  Not  the  least  interesting  parts  of  the  book  are  the  author's 
analysis  of  the  responsibility  question,  his  account  of  the  way  in  which 
the  official  press  whipped  up  a  war  spirit  in  Vienna,  and  the  militarist 
efforts  to  suppress  his  own  newspaper. 

S.  B.  F.       • 

South  India  and  her  Muhammadan  Invaders.  By  S.  Krishnaswami 
Aivangar,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Indian  History  and  Archaeology,  Univer- 
sity of  Madras.  (London,  Oxford  University  Press,  1921,  pp.  xv,  257, 
15s.)  Professor  Aiyangar's  studies  in  the  history  of  Southern  India 
are  of  special  importance  since  they  elaborate  the  details  of  the  past 
of  a  region  that  has  hitherto  been  treated  only  superficially.  This  vol- 
ume deals  with  the  events  leading  up  to  the  establishment  of  the  em- 
pire of  Vijayanagar  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  author  first  traces 
the  decadence  and  ultimate  disruption  of  the  Chola  Empire  and  the  re- 
vival of  the  Pandya  power,  and  then  takes  up  the  incursions  into  the 
Deccan  by  Ala  ad-Din  and  Malik  Kafur  and  the  subsequent  invasions  by 
the  forces  of  Muhammad  Tughlak,  concluding  with  a  somewhat  detailed 
exposition  of  the  foundation  and  further  history  of  the  sultanate  of 
Madura,  of  its  wars  with  the  Hoysalas,  and  of  the  setting  up  of  the 
empire  of  Vijayanagar. 

The  work  embodies  much  information  gathered  by  the  author  in  the 
territory  concerned.     The  available  sources,  which  are  for  the  most  part 


826  Reviews  of  Books 

carefully  indicated,  have  been  fully  utilized,  and  the  results  are  presented 
in  clear  and  readable  form.  An  appendix  gives  the  text  (in  Grantha 
characters)  and  translation  of  five  relevant  inscriptions,  two  of  which 
are  apparently  published  for  the  first  time.  There  are  geographical  notes 
on  46  towns  and  villages,  and  special  notes  on  the  date  of  the  Ceylon 
invasion,  on  the  chronology  of  Muhammad  Tughlak's  reign,  and  on  the 
nationality  of  the  Khiljis,  as  well  as  a  translation  of  Ibn  Batuta's  account 
of  Southern  India.  The  volume  contains  sixteen  well-chosen  illustra- 
tions, a  sketch  map,  and  an  adequate  index  of  names.  A  subject  index 
and  a  list  of  abbreviations  should  have  been  added.  The  treatment  of 
native  proper  names  is  consistent  and  scientific,  though  the  method  of 
transliteration  is  susceptible  of  improvement.  A  book  of  such  merit 
surely  deserves  a  better  binding. 

George  C.  O.  Haas. 

The  Study  of  American  History.  By  Viscount  Bryce,  O.M.  Being 
the  Inaugural  Lecture  of  the  Sir  George  Watson  Chair  of  American 
History,  Literature,  and  Institutions.  (Cambridge,  University  Press, 
1922,  pp.  118,  3s.)  This  discourse,  delivered  by  Lord  Bryce  at  the 
Mansion  House  in  London  on  June  27,  1921,  commemorated  the  endow- 
ment, through  the  munificence  of  Sir  W.  George  Watson,  of  what  is 
described  as  "  the  first  chair  of  American  history  established  in  the 
British  Isles  ".  A  preface  and  an  appendix  explain  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  the  foundation.  The  address  is  interesting,  first,  as  the 
presentation  to  a  British  audience,  by  America's  good  friend,  of  those 
lessons  of  our  history  which,  to  his  thinking,  would  most  interest  the 
English  people  in  the  foundation,  and,  secondly,  as  the  last  comment,  by 
the  author  of  the  American  Commonwealth,  on  the  development  of  the 
United  States,  of  whose  history  and  institutions  Lord  Bryce  was  so 
long  a  student. 

The  address  begins  with  an  argument  as  to  the  essential  blood-re- 
lationship of  the  original,  institution-building  stock  of  the  thirteen  col- 
onies with  that  of  the  mother-country,  strongly  reminiscent  of  Free- 
man's English  People  in  its  Three  Homes,  and,  after  summary  comment 
upon  various  phases  of  our  history,  closes  with  the  vigorous  expression 
of  a  hope  for  the  co-operation  of  the  English-speaking  peoples,  par- 
ticularly with  reference  to  the  establishment  of  peace  throughout  the 
world. 

St.  G.  L.  S. 

The  American  Philosophy  of  Government.  By  Alpheus  Henry  Snow. 
(New  York  and  London,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1921,  pp.  iii,  485,  $4.00.) 
This  volume  is  a  series  of  essays  dealing  chiefly  with  the  international 
position  and  relations  of  the  United  States,  with  specific  reference  to 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  and  the  League  of  Nations.     A  few  chapters 


Minor  Notices  827 

reminiscent  of  1912  deal  with  internal  affairs,  and  particularly  with  the 
position  of  the  judiciary  in  the  American  system  of  government. 

The  key  to  this  somewhat  miscellaneous  collection  of  papers  of  the 
late  Mr.  Snow  is  found  in  the  introductory  essay  on  the  American  Phi- 
losophy of  Government  and  its  Effect  in  International  Relations;  and 
also  in  that  on  the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  the  Fundamental 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  author's  fundamental  thesis 
is  that  the  essential  feature  of  our  government  is  the  necessity  for  the 
protection  of  the  private  rights  of  individuals  by  means  of  a  basic  law 
interpreted  by  the  courts.  He  concludes  therefore  that  the  United  States 
cannot  join  a  League  of  Nations  because  we  must  needs  unite  with  other 
states  not  having  such  fundamental  guarantees  and  must  thereby  sur- 
render some  of  our  national  principles.  Entrance  into  a  League  of  Na- 
tions would  necessitate  a  constitutional  amendment  and  could  not  be 
effected  by  the  ordinary  treaty-making  process. 

His  belief  is  that  international  government  must  not  be  endowed 
with  physical  force,  nor  must  it  enjoy  the  power  of  taxation  in  any 
form  or  under  any  guise  whatever.  "  Otherwise,  such  a  government 
would  tend  to  become  an  autocracy."  The  League  may,  however,  have 
an  ordinary  international  directorate  with  advisory  powers  and  may 
also  have  a  supervising  directorate.  In  neither  of  these  bodies  would 
there  be  vested  either  military  force  or  the  power  of  taxation.  Co- 
operation and  persuasion,  he  believes,  should  be  the  typical  and  char- 
acteristic methods.  Mr.  Snow  suggests  that  the  United  States  might 
organize  for  purposes  of  national  relations  some  new  "  National  Coun- 
cil of  International  Co-operation  ".  including  perhaps  the  Secretary  of 
State,  of  the  Treasury,  Interior,  Agriculture,  and  Labor.  The  duties 
of  such  a  body  would  be  to  advise  the  President  and  Congress  regarding 
matters  upon  which  these  authorities  are  required  to  make  decisions. 
An  interesting  feature  of  this  volume  is  a  "  Proposed  Codification  of 
International  Law  ",  an  address  delivered  before  the  American  Society 
of  International  Law  in  191 1   (pp.  397-418). 

This  volume  does  not  contain  an  American  philosophy  of  government 
as  its  title  would  seem  to  indicate,  but  expounds  Mr.  Snow's  views  re- 
garding the  wisest  practical  policy  for  the  United  States  to  pursue  in 
international  affairs.  These  views  are  shrewdly  stated  and  constitute 
a  typical  and  significant  document  of  the  period  when  the  League  of 
Nations  was  subjected  to  severe  criticism.  It  is  not  valuable  as  philos- 
ophy, but  is  representative  of  a  certain  phase  of  the  public  attitude 
during  the  writer's  time. 

C.  E.  Merriam. 

Leading  American  Treaties.  By  Charles  E.  Hill,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Political  Science  in  the  George  Washington  University.  (New  York, 
Macmillan  Company,   1922,  pp.  399,  $3.00.)     Professor  Hill  states  his 


828  Reviezvs  of  Books 

purpose  to  be  "to  give  the  historical  setting  and  the  chief  provisions  of 
fifteen  of  the  leading  American  treaties".  He  chooses  as  these  the  fol- 
lowing treaties:  France,  1778;  Peace  with  Great  Britain,  1783;  Jay's 
Treaty,  1794;  France,  1800;  Louisiana  Purchase,  1803;  Ghent,  1814; 
Great  Britain,  1818;  Florida  Purchase,  1810;  Webster- Ashburton,  1842; 
Mexico,  1848;  Japan,  1854,  1858;  Alaska  Purchase,  1867;  Washington, 
1871 ;  Spain,  1898;  Panama  Canal  Treaties,  1846  -.  To  each  of  the  above 
Professor  Hill  gives  from  fifteen  to  forty  pages  and  a  brief  selected  bibli- 
ography. 

The  influence  of  trade  and  commerce  in  international  negotiations  is 
shown,  and  it  is  maintained  that  "  wars  "  rarely  divert  trade  routes  per- 
manently. The  contractual  basis  of  the  territorial  expansion  of  the  United 
States  is  shown  in  these  treaties  as  well  as  the  reflex  influence  of  this 
expansion  of  territory  in  building  up  the  power  of  the  United  States  in 
international  negotiations.  There  has  been  a  policy  of  expansion  by  pur- 
chase even  in  cases  where  other  methods  of  expansion  might  have  pre- 
vailed. 

The  setting  of  the  events  leading  to  the  negotiation  of  the  treaties  is 
particularly  shown  in  citations  from  contemporary  documents  selected  in 
a  fashion  to  add  both  value  and  interest  to  the  volume.  The  influence  of 
the  treaties  in  the  after-development  of  the  country  is  also  explained. 

It  is  recognized  that  important  negotiations  have,  in  many  cases,  been 
carried  on  by  those  not  having  full  governmental  recognition  and  by  those 
whose  office  was  not  within  the  diplomatic  list.  To  some  negotiators, 
even  fully  accredited,  the  government  has  shown  itself  traditionally  un- 
grateful. 

Many  instances  are  cited  showing  that  the  fathers  were  as  human  as 
their  sons  in  the  conduct  of  treaty  negotiation,  and  not  always  gifted  with 
the  ability  which  posterity  has  often  ascribed  to  them.  The  early  nego- 
tiators did,  however,  often  have  opportunities  to  exercise  their  own  dis- 
cretion and  judgment,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  quick  communication 
with  the  home  government. 

In  the  earlier,  as  in  the  later  days,  there  are  shown  conflicts  between 
the  Executive  and  the  Senate  upon  their  respective  treaty-making  powers. 

In  a  book  of  four  hundred  pages,  it  is  difficult  to  present  adequately  a 
view  of  all  these  treaties;  but  Professor  Hill  has  succeeded  admirably  in 
his  purpose  of  giving  "  the  historical  setting  and  the  chief  provisions  of 
fifteen  of  the  leading  American  treaties". 

George  Grafton  Wilson. 

Relations  of  the  United  States  with  Sweden.  By  Knute  Emil  Carlson, 
Ph.D.  (Allentown,  Pa.,  Haas  and  Company,  1921,  pp.  vii,  94.)  In 
four  chapters  Dr.  Carlson  gives  an  account  of  the  diplomatic,  political, 
and  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Sweden,  from 
1778  to   1830   (chapter   I.,   Relations  during  the   American   Revolution; 


Minor  Notices  829 

chapter  II.,  Proposed  Alliance;  chapter  III.,  the  Stralsund  Claims; 
chapter  IV.,  Commercial  Relations — in  the  table  of  contents,  however,  Dr. 
Carlson  gives  chapter  I.  as  Negotiations  during  the  American  Revolution 
and  chapter  IV.  as  Commercial  Negotiations,  which  are  probably  more 
appropriate  titles).  The  treatise  is  based  on  printed  material,  but  some 
of  the  matter  is  new  to  readers  unacquainted  with  Swedish  accounts 
touching  the  subject  that  are  used  by  Dr.  Carlson. 

The  account  lacks  proportion  in  its  various  sections;  for  instance,  a 
large  part  of  chapter  III.  is  devoted  to  European  activities,  some  of 
which  have  slight  or  no  direct  connection  with  the  theme  in  question. 
The  facts  are  not  always  presented  in  their  proper  perspective  and  are 
not  always  made  to  tell,  while  the  arrangement  of  the  material  could  be 
much  improved.  American  motives  and  activities  are  not  sufficiently  nor 
clearly  presented,  nor  are  the  activities  and  the  success  of  English  diplo- 
macy properly  emphasized. 

The  proof-reading  is  poor;  even  slips  in  grammar  occur.  Especially 
Swedish  names  and  titles  are  badly  printed— in  four  cases  out  of  five  an 
article  by  Boethius  is  printed  "Gustaf'IV,  Adolfs  formyndareregering  ", 
(Gustaf  IV.  Adolfs  Formyndareregering)  ;  in  one  case  the  possessive  "  s  " 
is  omitted.  On  page  3,  note  5,  Fenberg,  Sveriges  Historia,  is  quoted ; 
the  bibliography  at  the  end  shows  that  the  reference  is  to  Rudolf  Teng- 
berg,  who  wrote  part  of  volume  V.  of  the  first  edition  of  Hildebrand's 
Sveriges  Historia  (the  volume  was  finished  by  S.  J.  Boethius,  however). 
On  page  50,  note  17,  Sbornik  Imperatorskago  Russkago,  etc.,  is  printed 
"  Sbornik,  Imperatorskago  Russkago  ",  etc.,  as  though  Sbornik  were  the 
name  of  an  editor ;  while  Bergbohm,  Die  Bewaffnete  Neutralitat,  is 
printed  "  Die  Bewaffvete  Neutralitet " — to  mention  a  few  cases  taken  at 
random. 

Cazenove  Journal,  1794:  a  Record  of  the  Journey  of  Thcophile  Caze- 
nove  through  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  Translated  from  the 
French.  Edited  by  Rayner  Wickersham  Kelsey,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
American  History  in  Haverford  College.  (Haverford,  Penn.,  Pennsyl- 
vania History  Press,  1922,  pp.  xvii,  103,  $1.80.)  This  is  a  translation  of 
an  anonymous  French  manuscript  purchased  in  1900  by  the  Library  of 
Congress.  Mainly  through  internal  evidence,  Professor  Kelsey  has  identi- 
fied the  document  as  the  Journal  of  Theophile  Cazenove  (1740-1811) 
who,  in  1790,  came  to  America  from  Amsterdam,  in  the  service  of  four 
Dutch  banking  firms.  The  formation  of  the  Holland  Land  Company  re- 
sulted, with  Cazenove  as  its  first  general  agent  until  1799.  It  was  in  the 
interest  of  possible  land  speculations  by  this  company  that  the  journey, 
which  the  Journal  records,  was  made.  Leaving  New  York  in  October, 
1794,  the  traveller  came  to  Philadelphia  a  month  later,  having  covered  360 
miles  through  Essex,  Morris,  and  Warren  counties,  New  Jersey,  and,  in 
Pennsylvania,  through  Northampton,  Berks,  Dauphin,  Cumberland, 
Franklin,  York,  Lancaster,  and  Chester  counties  as  they  were  then  or- 

AM.HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. — 55. 


830  Reviews  of  Books 

ganized.  Appended  to  the  diary  is  a  memorandum  of  the  expenses  in- 
curred on  the  trip,  showing  the  cost  to  have  been  $223,  for  Cazenove  and 
his  servant. 

Cazenove  was  observant.  His  Journal  is  interesting  for  its  portrayal 
of  town  and  country  life  of  the  section  and  period  covered,  for  its  de- 
scriptions of  Dunkards  and  Moravians,  and  especially  for  its  account  of 
the  Pennsylvania-German's  characteristics  and  customs,  many  of  which 
still  exist,  as  his  love  of  the  land,  for  example,  and  the  funeral  feast 
(referred  to  on  page  50).  But  the  chief  value  of  this  record  lies  in  the 
information  it  gives  of  economic  conditions  of  the  time.  The  prices  of 
land,  labor,  cattle,  farm  products,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  transportation, 
education,  taxes,  boarding,  etc.,  are  given  in  much  detail  for  nearly  every 
neighborhood  in  which  the  traveller  stopped. 

Unusual  care  has  been  taken  with  the  editing  of  the  Journal.  The 
preface  makes  acknowledgment  to  no  less  than  twenty-three  persons  and 
institutions  from  whom  assistance  was  obtained.  Furthermore,  Professor 
Kelsey,  by  a  tour  over  much  the  same  route  as  that  taken  by  Cazenove, 
has  verified  wherever  possible  the  distances  and  statements  recorded. 
Copious  foot-notes,  based  on  the  examination  of  much  local  historical 
material,  identify  taverns,  inns,  persons,  and  places.  There  is  a  well- 
proportioned  introduction  outlining  Cazenove's  life  and  his  activities  in 
America,  a  map  showing  the  route  taken  by  the  traveller,  and  a  full 
index.  The  facsimile  pages  of  the  Journal  which  illustrate  the  volume 
show  how  difficult  must  have  been  the  work  of  transcribing  the  original 
manuscript. 

L.  F.  S. 

General  Robert  E.  Lee  after  Appomattox.  Edited  by  Franklin  L. 
Riley,  Professor  of  History,  Washington  and  Lee  University.  (New 
York,  Macmillan  Company,  1922,  pp.  xv,  250,  $2.50.)  Unlike  most  su- 
preme commanders  whose  causes  were  ultimately  overwhelmed,  it  was 
General  Lee's  good  fortune  to  perform  an  extraordinary  service  for  his 
people  after  the  failure  of  their  armies  in  the  field.  He  was  the  first  and 
most  conspicuous  advocate  in  word,  and  the  most  successful  exemplar  in 
deed,  of  the  policy  that  it  was  only  through  the  influence  of  popular  edu- 
cation that  the  Southern  states  could  be  restored  to  their  former  condi- 
tion of  prosperity  and  happiness.  "  There  was  something  truly  inspiring  ", 
it  was  said  at  the  time,  "  in  the  spectacle  of  a  man  so  famous  in  the 
world  settling  down  at  the  head  of  an  obscure  college  in  a  remote  coun- 
try town  to  undertake  the  duties  of  a  noble  but  arduous  profession,  with- 
out the  slightest  discontent  or  gloom,  and  with  nothing  in  his  demeanor 
to  show  that  he  had  not  spent  his  life  in  the  teaching  and  management 
of  youth." 

He  did  not,  as  president,  simply  lend  the  prestige  of  a  celebrated  name 
to  Washington  College.  Although  there  were,  each  year,  as  many  as 
four  hundred  students  enrolled,  nevertheless  he  knew  them  all  by  name; 


Minor  Notices  831 

he  knew  the  class  standing  which  each  had  won;  and  over  the  entire  body 
he  exercised  a  paternal  discipline,  under  which  all  were  subjected  to  con- 
trol, without  that  control  being  brought  constantly  to  the  consciousness  of 
the  individual  or  the  mass.  His  solicitude  for  the  young  men  never 
ceased.  On  one  occasion,  after  leaving  the  chapel  and  its  congregation 
of  students,  he  was  observed  to  be  very  much  affected.  "  What  is  the 
matter,  General  ?  "  he  was  asked  with  concern.  "  I  was  thinking ",  he 
replied,  "  of  my  responsibility  to  Almighty  God  for  these  hundreds  of 
young  men." 

Professor  Riley's  volume  preserves  the  recollections  of  the  professors 
who  served  under  General  Lee,  and  also  of  many  of  the  students  who 
matriculated  during  his  presidency.  It  is  a  vivid  presentation  of  his 
spirit,  conduct,  and  influence  in  that  beautiful  twilight  of  his  career. 
Naturally,  the  odor  of  affectionate  loyalty  to  the  man,  admiration  for  his 
character,  honor  for  his  achievements,  gratitude  for  his  solicitude, 
breathes  from  every  page.  Indeed,  these  impressions  of  General  Lee, 
owing  to  the  heroic  circumstances  of  his  past,  as  contrasted  with  the 
quiet  occupation  of  the  present,  are,  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  instinct 
with  a  sense  of  devotion  that  is  at  once  romantic,  pathetic,  and  inspiring. 
The  volume  is  rendered  notable,  not  only  by  its  preservation  of  many- 
new  scholastic  facts  in  his  life,  but  by  the  evidence  that  it  offers  of  his 
solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  his  fellow-men;  his  lofty  conception  of  the 
duties  of  American  citizenship;  his  dignity,  serenity,  and  patience  under 
defeat;  and  his  far-sighted  statesmanship  for  closing  the  wounds  of  the 
South,  and  restoring  peace,  harmony,  and  unity,  throughout  the  whole 
country. 

Philip  Alexander  Bruce. 

The  Play  Movement  in  the  United  States.  By  Clarence  E.  Rainwater, 
Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Sociology,  University  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. (Chicago,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1922,  pp.  xi,  371,  $2.75.) 
This  book  is  somewhat  less  general  than  its  title  would  indicate.  The 
"  play  movement  "  as  here  described  is  not  that  wholesale  turning  of 
America  to  outdoor  life  that  has  been  so  characteristic  of  the  last  half- 
century,  but  is  only  the  small  portion  of  the  whole  that  has  to  do  with  the 
public  playground.  The  work  deals  with  the  rise  of  the  profession  of 
playground  director  and  community  leader,  concerning  which  the  author 
is  well  prepared  by  experience  to  speak.  It  is  not  entirely  consistent  with 
itself  in  the  use  it  makes  of  the  word  "play",  since  after  starting  with 
the  definition  that  play  "  is  a  mode  of  human  behavior.  .  .  not  under- 
taken for  the  sake  of  a  reward  beyond  itself"  (p.  9),  the  writer  soon 
drifts  into  the  attitude  that  regards  this  play  as  a  means  of  community 
instruction  with  ends  far  beyond  those  of  mere  recreation.  Beginning 
with  the  sand-boxes  of  Boston,  where  this  variety  of  organized  play 
started  about  1885,  Professor  Rainwater  traces  with  care  and  accuracy 
the  development  and  extension  of  the  movement.     He  has  provided  a  use- 


832  Reviews  of  Books 

ful  manual  for  the  student  of  education  and  physical  education,  and  for 
the  historian  has  made  a  considerable  addition  to  the  body  of  facts  relat- 
ing to  the  social  habits  of  to-day. 

Frederic  L.  Paxson. 

Proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  Volume  LIV., 
October,  1920-June,  1921.  (Boston,  the  Society,  1922,  pp.  xvi,  378.) 
Among  the  papers  in  this  volume,  especial  importance  belongs  to  that  of 
Mr.  Lawrence  S.  Mayo  on  the  King's  Woods  and  to  that  of  Professor 
Samuel  E.  Morison  on  Boston  Traders  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  1789- 
1823.  The  latter  also  discourses  on  the  Custom-house  Records  in  Massa- 
chusetts as  a  Source  of  History.  Dr.  Ford  gives  an  entertaining  account 
of  Rev.  Sampson  Bond,  a  contentious  person  who  became  minister  in 
Bermuda  in  1662  and  lived  there  till  1699,  but  had  connections  with 
Boston.  Mr.  Edward  Gray  gives  a  biography  of  Ward  Chipman  of  New 
Brunswick,  Loyalist.  Of  the  documents,  the  longest  is  an  interesting 
diary  kept  in  1778  by  William  Greene  of  Boston,  chiefly  in  France.  There 
are  also  papers  from  Spanish  archives  relating  to  John  Clark  of  the  May- 
flower, and  from  the  Public  Record  Office  concerning  Pickering  vs.  Wes- 
ton, 1623.  Among  the  memoirs  of  deceased  members,  accompanied  by 
the  singularly  successful  photo-engraved  portraits  which  are  always  so 
admirable  a  feature  of  these  volumes,  the  chief  are  those  of  James  Schou- 
ler,  of  Andrew  McFarland  Davis,  and  of  Dr.  Samuel  A.  Green,  for  many 
years  the  society's  librarian. 

The  History  of  Public  Poor  Relief  in  Massachusetts,  1620-1020.  By 
Robert  W.  Kelso,  A.B.,  LL.B.  (Boston  and  New  York,  Houghton  Mif- 
flin Company,  1922,  pp.  200,  $2.50.)  Mr.  Kelso's  detailed  survey  of 
three  hundred  years  of  poor  relief  in  Massachusetts  is  an  excellent  piece 
of  work.  It  is  based  on  a  careful  study  of  original  sources,  chiefly  town 
records,  which  are  extensively  quoted  throughout  the  text.  The  author, 
who  is  secretary  of  the  Boston  Council  of  Social  Agencies,  adds  to  his 
knowledge  of  the  economic  and  legal  history  of  his  subject  the  qualifica- 
tions of  a  trained  and  experienced  social  worker. 

The  early  American  procedure  is  explained  largely  in  the  light  of  the 
enduring  influence  of  earlier  English  practice  and  especially  the  English 
regard  of  the  care  of  the  poor  as  a  local  obligation.  The  meagre  economic 
resource  of  the  colony  is  shown  to  be  the  factor  which  often  clothed 
justice  with  necessary  harshness. 

A  problem  emphasized  throughout  the  history  of  poor  relief  is  that 
of  the  division  of  power  and  responsibility  between  the  local  unit  and  the 
administrative  whole,  and  close  attention  is  given  to  the  working  out  of 
the  precise  administrative  arrangements  for  meeting  the  joint  responsi- 
bility of  the  state  and  town  in  the  care  of  the  poor.  "The  pre-eminence 
of  Massachusetts  in  the  field  of  social  service"  appears  to  be  largely  due 
to  the  successful  application  of  the  principle  of  division  of  function,  ac- 


Minor  Notices  833 

cording  to  which  policy-making  and  supervision  now  belong  to  the  state, 
as  represented  by  the  Department  of  Public  Welfare,  and  the  actual 
administration  of  relief  is  retained  by  the  smallest  unit  of  government, 
the  town. 

The  growing  influence  of  the  central  government  is  shown  through 
the  slow  development  of  the  law  of  settlement,  and  the  definition  of  "  the 
Town's  Poor  ".  The  problem  of  pauperism  grew  serious  with  the  dump- 
ing of  increasing  numbers  of  English  paupers  on  American  shores,  and 
each  town  tried  to  escape  the  burden  of  support.  It  is  a  long  road  from 
the  days  when  children  and  adults  were  put  out  to  service  to  save  public 
expense  by  the  town  and  the  support  of  the  poor  was  arranged  for  at 
public  auction,  to  the  time  when  the  welfare  of  the  poor  themselves  is 
considered  as  of  first  importance  in  deciding  the  principles  of  relief, 
which  are  centrally  determined. 

But  to-day,  with  relief  administered  professionally,  the  numbers  to  be 
supported  still  increase,  and  there  is  little  effort  toward  the  introduction 
of  preventive  measures.  A  closing  hint  is  to  the  effect  that  improvement 
in  this  respect  lies  chiefly  in  preventing  the  hereditary  mental  defective 
from  propagating  his  kind. 

Amy  Hewes. 

The  Pitkin  Papers:  Correspondence  and  Documents  during  William 
Pitkin's  Governorship  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut,  1766-1760,  with 
some  of  earlier  Date.  [Collections  of  the  Connecticut  Historical  Society, 
vol.  XIX.]  (Hartford,  the  Society,  1921,  pp.  xx,  311,  $3.00.)  Mr. 
Albert  C.  Bates,  librarian  of  the  Connecticut  Historical  Society,  is  to  be 
heartily  congratulated  on  the  completion  of  the  series  of  the  correspond- 
ence and  documents  of  the  colonial  governors  of  Connecticut,  upon  which 
he  and  the  society  have  been  engaged  for  more  than  twenty-five  years 
and  of  which  he  himself  has  edited  all  but  the  first  two  volumes.  The 
task  of  editing  has  not  been  a  light  one,  for  much  of  the  material  has  had 
to  be  obtained  from  other  archives  than  those  of  the  society,  includ- 
ing the  Public  Record  Office  of  Great  Britain,  involving  wide  cor- 
respondence and  scrupulous  care  in  the  reproduction.  The  problem,  too, 
has  had  to  be  met  of  what  to  do  with  documents  already  in  print  that 
could  not  be  entirely  omitted  and  what  "papers"  to  include  as  legiti- 
mately coming  within  the  title  adopted  for  the  series.  The  result  is  a 
body  of  material  that  is  not  only  an  indispensable  part  of  the  documentary 
history  of  the  colony,  but  a  key  also  to  its  meaning  during  the  years  to 
which  it  relates.  The  entire  series  is  in  nine  volumes,  covering  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Talcott,  Law,  Wolcott,  Fitch,  and  Pitkin,  1 724-1 769,  a 
period  hitherto  little  known  even  to  Connecticut  writers  and  largely  neg- 
lected by  the  older  historians,  Trumbull  and  Hollister.  Now  that  so 
much  new  material  is  available,  we  can  but  hope  that  a  new  historian  will 
arise,  who  will  give  us  the  history  of  the  colony  that  is  so  greatly  needed— 
a  historian  who  will  be  a  scholar  of  sufficient  breadth  of  mind  and  range 


834  Reviews  of  Books 

of  knowledge  to  break  away  from  the  provinciality  of  the  earlier  writers 
and  deal  with  Connecticut  on  a  large  and  comprehensive  plan. 

The  volume  under  review,  which  contains  the  Pitkin  papers,  is  smaller 
than  some  of  the  others,  but  yields  to  none  of  them  in  interest  and  im- 
portance. The  letters  of  Pitkin  to  Richard  Jackson,  the  agent  of  the 
colony  in  England,  to  Hillsborough,  and  to  Conway,  the  replies  of  Jack- 
son, and  the  letters  of  William  Samuel  Johnson  from  England  are  all 
suggestive  and  illuminating,  not  only  for  the  information  which  they 
give  but  also  for  the  state  of  mind  which  they  disclose.  One  can  but 
wonder  what  the  people  of  the  colony,  who  defeated  Fitch  because  of  his 
obedience  to  the  king's  instructions  regarding  the  Stamp  Act,  would 
have  thought  of  some  of  the  phrases  of  flattery  and  devotion  to  be  found 
in  Pitkin's  letters  and  in  the  colony's  address  to  the  king  on  the  occasion 
of  the  repeal  of  the  act,  had  they  ever  seen  them.  For  servility  and 
exaggeration  these  papers  can  hardly  be  surpassed  in  colonial  literature. 
The  volume  contains  other  documents  of  value  relating  to  the  Mohegan 
case,  customs  and  illicit  trading,  direct  trade  with  England,  Mediterranean 
passes,  landholding,  quartering  of  British  soldiers,  waste  of  timber,  manu- 
factures, non-importation  measures,  etc.  There  is  a  very  interesting  ad- 
dress of  the  New  York  merchants  on  page  193,  and  in  the  appendix  sev- 
eral letters  from  Elisha  Williams  and  Thomas  Fitch. 

C.  M.  A. 

Publications  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society.  Volume  XXV.  The 
Book  of  the  Museum.  Edited  by  Frank  H.  Severance,  Secretary  of 
the  Society.  (Buffalo,  the  Society,  1921,  pp.  x,  412.)  Mr.  Severance 
has  made  a  very  interesting  volume,  upon  a  plan  which  might  easily  and 
with  advantage  be  followed  by  many  a  historical  society.  The  museums 
of  such  institutions  contain  many  objects  whose  interest  and  historical 
value  cannot  possibly  be  adequately  made  known  by  a  mere  card  laid  be- 
side the  object  under  a  glass  case.  Mr.  Severance  has  selected  a  score  or 
more  of  articles  in  his  museum  which  have  an  interesting  story  attached 
to  them,  and,  with  aid  from  other  members  of  his  society,  has  supplied 
entertaining  narratives  that  bring  out  the  significance  of  these  objects  to 
local  history  or  that  of  the  United  States.  It  is  easily  imagined  what  good 
stories  can  be  grouped  around  such  things  as  a  Ku  Klux  uniform,  a  Con- 
federate flag,  a  car  used  for  transportation  on  the  first  wire  cable  that 
preceded  the  Niagara  suspension  bridge,  the  original  typewriter,  the 
figure-head  of  the  Caroline,  Blennerhassett's  telescope,  a  collection  of  car- 
riers' addresses,  various  swords,  relics  of  Red  Jacket,  and  of  the  Fenian 
raid  in  1866.  Mr.  Severance  writes  of  such  tilings  with  an  excellent 
style,  and  good  pictures  heighten  the  effect  of  the  book. 

The  Catholic  Church  in  Chicago.  1673-1871.  By  Gilbert  J.  Garra- 
ghan,  S.J.  (Chicago,  Loyola  University  Press,  19JI.  pp.  x.  236,  S2.50.) 
Dr.  Clarence  W.  Alvord,  writing  a  few  years  ago  about  the  Sources  of 


Minor  Xotices  835 

Catholic  History  in  Illinois,  pertinently  remarked  that  "  the  history  of  the 
work  of  the  Church  both  in  pioneer  days  and  during  the  more  compli- 
cated conditions  of  recent  times  has  been  distinctly  notable.  Yet  be- 
cause the  sources  of  information  have  not  been  easily  accessible  to  the 
ordinary  scholar  of  history,  the  story  of  the  deeds  of  the  Church  is  in 
many  periods  most  obscure  as  compared  with  the  history  of  other  phases 
of  our  past  development."  This  handicap  under  which  historians  had  to 
labor  has  perhaps  been  overlooked  by  certain  Catholics,  who  felt  disap- 
pointed and  inclined  to  complain  at  the  scant  recognition  accorded  in 
some  historical  works  to  the  Church's  part  in  the  onward  progress  of  the 
nation.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that,  thanks  to  the  activity  of  Catho- 
lic students  of  history,  this  handicap  is  fast  disappearing.  At  any  rate,  in 
so  far  as  the  early  history  of  Chicago  is  concerned,  the  ordinary  scholar 
of  history  may  well  be  satisfied  with  the  work  of  Father  Garraghan. 
Whatever  relevant  material  lay  in  Catholic  archives  of  the  Middle  West 
has  been  ferreted  out,  wisely  sifted,  and  woven  into  the  fabric  of  the 
handsome  little  volume.  The  first  four  chapters:  Early  Missionary  Visi- 
tors; the  Pastorate  of  Father  St.  Cyr,  1833-1834;  Bishop  Brute  and  the 
Mission  of  Chicago;  the  Pastorate  of  Father  St.  Cyr,  1834-1837,  contain 
much  that  is  entirely  new. 

For  the  subsequent  pages  the  author  had  to  lean  more  or  less  on 
second-hand  authorities ;  yet  even  there,  now  and  then,  an  appeal  to  some 
heretofore  unpublished  letter  or  other  original  document  greets  the 
reader's  eye.  Father  Garraghan  rightly  considers  Pre-Fire  Chicago  as 
an  outstanding  historical  unit;  accordingly  he  has  assigned  for  limit  to 
his  story  the  "  great  fire  "  of  October  9-10,  1871.  Let  us  hope  that  he 
will  give  us  in  the  near  future  an  account  of  the  mature  development  of 
the  Church  in  Chicago.  Himself  a  native  of  the  City  of  the  Lakes,  he 
naturally  is  in  full  sympathy  with  his  subject;  but  he  knows  how  to  hold 
his  pen  in  subjection,  and  never  allows  it  to  swerve  from  the  bounds  of 
elegant  historical  soberness.  From  the  material  standpoint,  the  volume  is 
a  delight  to  the  eye;  and  the  illustrations,  a  number  of  which  are  fac- 
similes of  original  documents,  most  happily  chosen  and  tastefully  ex- 
ecuted, add  not  a  little  to  the  interest  of  the  narrative. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Rapport  de  I'Archiviste  de  la  Province  de  Quebec  [Pierre-Georges 
Roy],  1020-1921.  (Quebec,  Imprimeur  de  sa  Majeste  le  Roi,  1921,  pp. 
viii,  437.)  Besides  the  records  of  accessions  and  transactions  usual  in 
such  volumes,  M.  Roy  also  presents  a  variety  of  interesting  documents, 
such  as  the  wills  of  Frontenac,  Callieres,  Vaudreuil,  and  La  Jonquiere, 
with  an  account  of  that  of  Champlain ;  a  list  of  colonists  who  came 
from  France  to  Montreal  in  1653;  a  memoire  of  the  intendant  Dupuy 
concerning  the  conflicts  which  arose  in  1727-1728  over  the  burial  of 
Bishop  Saint- Vallier ;  an  interesting  "  £tat  Present  du  Canada,   1754", 


836  Reviezvs  of  Books 

by  the  Sieur  Boucault;  and  an  anonymous  journal  of  the  siege  of  Quebec 
in  1759.  kept  apparently  by  an  official  storekeeper,  and  preserved  now  in 
the  library  of  Saint  Sulpice.  Elaborately  edited  for  this  volume  by  M. 
Aegidius  Fauteux,  librarian  of  that  library,  it  recounts  the  progress  of 
the  siege  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  civilian  within  the  walls.  Archives 
in  the  province  outside  of  Quebec  are  represented  by  inventories  of  the 
archives  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  of  Riviere  du  Loup  and  of  Three 
Rivers.  The  volume  is  a  great  credit  to  the  new  archivist,  and  to  the 
province. 

Das  Holldndische  Kolonialreich  in  Brasilien:  cin  Kapitel  aits  der 
Kolonialgeschichte  des  17.  Jahrhitndcrts.  Von  Hermann  Watjen.  (The 
Hague,  Martinus  Nijhoff;  Gotha,  F.  A.  Perthes  A.-G.,  1921,  pp.  xix, 
352,  7.50  Gld.)  For  many  years  the  students  of  the  history  of  European 
colonial  expansion  have  lamented  the  absence  of  an  adequate  treatment 
of  the  activities  of  the  Dutch  in  Brazil  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Netscher's  Les  Hollandais  au  Bresil  was  written  nearly  three-quarters 
of  a  century  ago ;  Edmundson's  series  of  articles  in  the  English  Historical 
Review,  "The  Dutch  Power  in  Brazil  (1604-1654)",  treat  only  certain 
aspects  of  the  subject.  Discussions  by  Brazilian  writers,  aside  from 
being  difficult  of  access,  evince  little  familiarity  with  the  Dutch  sources. 
This  lacuna  has  been  admirably  filled  by  the  work  under  review.  Its 
author,  formerly  a  member  of  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  has  not  only 
ransacked  the  archives  of  the  Hague  but  has  apparently  exhausted  the 
material  in  Brazil.  Returning  from  South  America  in  1914  he  was 
caught  in  the  meshes  of  the  war  and  interned  in  England.  Even  under 
these  adverse  conditions  he  continued  his  investigations,  thanks  to  the 
courageous  assistance  tendered  him  by  certain  of  his  British  colleagues. 

Approximately  a  third  of  the  monograph  is  devoted  to  a  graphic  and 
at  times  brilliant  narration  of  the  efforts  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company  to  carve  out  a  colonial  domain  in  South  America.  The  outlines 
of  the  story  are  familiar;  the  chief  service  of  the  author  is  to  throw 
into  relief  the  achievements  of  John  Maurice,  count  of  Nassau-Siegen, 
for  seven  years  (1637-1644)  governor  of  Dutch  Brazil.  The  states- 
manlike programme  of  Count  John  Maurice  included  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  Dutch  and  the  Portuguese ;  the  grant  of  religious  toleration  to 
Protestants,  Catholics,  and  Jews;  and  the  daring  experiment  of  granting 
the  inhabitants  of  the  colony  a  share  in  the  government  through  the 
creation  of  the  first  parliament  in  South  America.  But  his  efforts  to  lay 
an  enduring  foundation  for  a  Dutch  dominion  in  the  New  World  were 
wrecked  by  the  policy  of  greed  and  gain  of  the  Company  and  the  shift- 
ing of  the  political  scene  in  Europe  following  the  recovery  of  Portuguese 
independence  from  Spain  in  1640. 

The  latter  two-thirds  of  the  book  treat  with  fullness  and  a  wealth  of 
statistics  the  social,  religious,  and  economic  conditions  in  Dutch  Brazil. 


Minor  Notices  837 

Much  of  this  material,  drawn  from  the  ledgers  of  the  West  India  Com- 
pany, is  published  for  the  first  time.  Not  the  least  valuable  section  of 
the  monograph  is  a  critical  bibliography  not  only  describing  in  detail 
the  manuscripts  used  by  the  author  but  also  listing  all  the  important 
printed  works  on  the  subject.  One  lays  down  this  book  with  the  con- 
viction that  in  the  restricted  field  to  which  the  writer  has  confined  him- 
self future  laborers  will  find  little  to  glean. 

Percy  Alvin  Martin. 


HISTORICAL   NEWS 

In  order,  among  other  such  uses,  to  make  up  if  possible  a  complete 
set  of  the  American  Historical  Review  with  which  to  replace  one  de- 
stroyed in  a  French  university  library  by  a  bombardment  in  1918,  the 
Board  of  Editors  would  like  to  receive  any  copies  of  the  American  His- 
torical Review,  of  whatever  date,  which  any  readers  of  this  notice  can 
spare  and  may  choose  to  send.  Copies  of  the  number  for  October,  1920, 
will  be  especially  welcome  to  them.  All  such  consignments  may  be  sent 
to  the  office  of  the  Review,  1140  Woodward  Building,  Washington,  D.  C, 
by  express.  "  collect  ". 

AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    ASSOCIATION 
Writings  on  American  History,  1920,  Miss  Grace  G.  Griffin's  annual 
bibliography,  has  gone  to  the  Government  Printing  Office,  to  constitute  a 
supplementary  volume  to  the  Annual  Report  of  that  year. 

PERSONAL 

Monseigneur  Louis  Duchesne,  member  of  the  French  Academy,  died 
on  April  20.  Born  in  1843,  ne  became  in  1877  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris,  taught  for  a  time  in  the  ficole 
des  Hautes  fitudes,  and  since  1895  nad  been  director  of  the  ficole  Fran- 
chise de  Rome.  His  fame  as  a  scholar  rests  chiefly  on  his  critical  edition 
of  the  Liber  Pontificalis  (Paris,  1884-1886,  1892),  that  of  the  Martyro- 
logium  Hieronymiannm  which  he  joined  with  Rossi  in  preparing,  and 
his  Origines  du  Culte  Chretien  (1889),  dealing  with  the  Latin  liturgy  be- 
fore Charlemagne.  His  determination  to  follow  the  severest  principles 
of  historical  criticism,  while  keeping  within  the  limits  of  Catholic  faith, 
combined  with  a  sometimes  ironical  style  to  bring  upon  him  painful  con- 
troversies, and  the  scholarly  work  on  still  earlier  and  more  contested 
periods  of  church  history  which  he  published  in  1906,  Histoire  Ancienne 
de  1'i.glise  (three  volumes),  was  placed  upon  the  Index. 

Professor  Gordon  C.  Davidson,  of  the  University  of  British  Columbia, 
died  in  the  latter  days  of  May.  For  some  years  a  travelling  fellow  of  the 
University  of  California,  he  was  later  a  member  of  the  Canadian  Expedi- 
tionary Forces  in  the  Great  War,  and  was  twice  seriously  wounded.  It 
was  only  since  last  September  that  he  had  been  professor  at  Vancouver. 

Professor  Charles  D.  Hazen  of  Columbia  University  will  be  absent  on 
leave,  in  Europe,  during  the  next  academic  year,  and  Professor  Benjamin 
B.  Kendrick,  in  the  United  States,  occupied  with  studies  in  their  industrial 
history. 

(838) 


Persona!  839 

Professor  Wallace  Notestein  of  Cornell  University  spends  the  next 
year  in  England  in  preparations  for  producing,  in  conjunction  with  Miss 
Frances  M.  Relf,  a  volume  of  the  House  of  Commons  debates  of  1621, 
similar  to  that  which  they  lately  published  for  1629,  Commons  Debates 
for  1620  Critically  Edited  (reviewed  in  this  journal,  pages  292-294, 
above).  The  Yale  University  Press  will  before  long  publish  an  edition 
of  the  Diary  of  Sir  Simonds  D'Ewes,  also  edited  by  them. 

Preserved  Smith  has  been  appointed  professor  of  medieval  history  in 
Cornell  University,  to  succeed  George  L.  Burr,  retired. 

Professor  E.  Raymond  Turner  of  the  University  of  Michigan  has 
been  appointed  lecturer  on  the  Schouler  Foundation  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  for  1923.  to  give  in  the  spring  a  course  of  departmental  lec- 
tures in  the  field  of  English  constitutional  history. 

Professor  C.  E.  Carter  of  Miami  University  has  been  granted  leave 
of  absence  for  the  academic  year  1922-1923.  During  the  summer  ses- 
sion he  will  teach  in  the  University  of  Texas ;  he  will  then  come  to  Wash- 
ington for  several  months'  work  in  the  government  archives. 

Professor  Carl  R.  Fish  of  Wisconsin  has  received  leave  of  absence  for 
the  second  semester  of  1922-1923,  and  will  spend  the  larger  portion  of  his 
time  in  study  in  Washington  and  in  England.  His  place  in  the  university 
will  be  temporarily  occupied  by  Professor  Chauncey  S.  Boucher  of  the 
University  of  Texas,  who  will  also  remain  in  Wisconsin  for  the  summer 
session  of  1923.  Dr.  Paul  Knaplund,  associate  professor  in  the  same  uni- 
versity, will  be  on  leave  of  absence  throughout  the  whole  of  the  next 
academic  year  for  the  purpose  of  pursuing  studies  in  English  and  Scandi- 
navian archives. 

In  a  reorganization  of  the  department  of  history  in  Washington  Uni- 
versity, St.  Louis,  Professor  Thomas  M.  Marshall  has  been  made  per- 
manent head  of  the  department,  while  Dr.  Roland  G.  Usher,  remaining  as 
professor  of  history,  is  given  more  time  for  writing  and  research.  Dr. 
Donald  McFayden,  assistant  professor  in  the  University  of  Nebraska,  has 
been  called  to  Washington  University  as  professor  of  ancient  history. 

We  note  appointments  and  promotions  as  follows :  R.  H.  Lord,  as  as- 
sociate professor  in  Harvard  University;  D.  R.  Fox,  as  associate  profes- 
sor in  Columbia  University:  A.  H.  Sweet,  as  professor  of  history  in  St. 
Lawrence  University,  Canton,  N.  Y. ;  J.  D.  Hicks,  of  Hamline  University, 
as  professor  of  history  in  the  North  Carolina  College  for  Women;  T.  C. 
Blegen,  as  professor  of  history  in  Hamline  University,  succeeding  Dr. 
Hicks. 

The  following  appointments  for  summer  schools  are  noted :  Professors 
A.  T.  Olmstead  of  Illinois  and  St.  G.  L.  Sioussat  of  Pennsylvania  are  to 
teach  in  Cornell  University;  C.  E.  Chapman  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, in  Columbia  University;  W.  K.  Boyd  of  Trinity  College  (N.  C), 


840  Historical  Nczvs 

in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  S.  B.  Harding  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota,  in  the  University  of  Oregon;  E.  P.  Cheyney  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  Southern  Branch  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, Los  Angeles ;  C.  P.  Higby  of  the  University  of  West  Virginia,  in 
the  University  of  California. 

GENEBAL 

The  contents  of  the  April  number  of  the  Historical  Outlook  include: 
the  Passing  of  a  Pope  and  the  Making  of  a  New  One,  by  Dr.  G.  B. 
Richards,  who  was  in  Rome  at  the  time;  the  Woodland  Indians,  by  H.  C. 
Hill ;  Gandhi  and  his  Policy,  by  A.  V.  Brown ;  Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, by  Professor  J.  W.  Thompson;  and  Literature  in  the  Synthetic 
Study  of  History,  by  E.  M.  Curti.  Articles  in  the  May  number  are:  a 
Problem  of  Historical  Analogy,  by  Professor  G.  M.  Dutcher;  and  the 
Relation  of  Geography  to  the  Social  Studies  in  the  Curriculum,  by  Dr. 
D.  C.  Knowlton.  In  the  June  number  are  found :  the  Immigrant  in 
American  History,  by  Dr.  Carl  Wittke;  and  the  Window  of  World  His- 
tory—and the  Educational  Vista,  by  Professor  Eldon  Griffin. 

The  Library  of  Congress  prints  in  a  pamphlet  of  fifty-three  pages,  as 
a  supplement  to  its  Handbook  of  Manuscripts,  a  detailed  account  of  its 
Accessions  of  Manuscripts,  Broadsides,  and  British  Transcripts  received 
from  July  I,  1920,  to  December  31,  1921. 

The  Henry  M.  Phillips  prize  of  $2,000  was  awarded  by  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  in  April,  1921,  to  Mr.  Quincy  Wright,  for  a  mono- 
graph on  The  Control  of  the  Foreign  Relations  of  the  United  States: 
the  Relative  Rights,  Duties,  and  Responsibilities  of  the  President,  of  the 
Senate  and  House,  and  of  the  Judiciary,  in  Theory  and  in  Practice. 
This  essay  has  been  printed  by  the  society  as  the  main  constituent  of  no. 
3  in  volume  LX.  of  its  Proceedings. 

An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  History,  by  Professor  James  T. 
Shotwell,  from  the  press  of  Lemcke  and  Buechner,  is  fulfillment  in  part 
of  the  project  for  a  series  of  volumes,  Records  of  Civilization,  formed  by 
Professor  Shotwell  while  at  Columbia  University. 

A  brief  but  significant  discussion  of  the  philosophy  of  history  may  be 
found  in  R.  Stammlers  Die  Matcrialistischc  Gcschichtsauffassung:  Dar- 
stcllung,  Kritik,  Lbsung  (Gutersloh,  Bertelsmann,  1921,  pp.  89).  An- 
other discussion  worthy  of  notice  is  O.  Braun's  Geschichtsphilosophie : 
eine  Einfuhrung  (Leipzig,  Meiner,  1921,  pp.  viii,  127). 

L'Histoirc  eclairee  par  la  Clinique  (Paris,  Michel,  1920,  pp.  320),  by 
Dr.  Cabanes,  shows  the  contributions  of  medical  knowledge  to  history. 
The  book  is  written  with  much  spirit  and  is  founded  upon  extensive  re- 
search. 

The  second  Year  Book  of  the  League  of  Nations,  prepared  by  Dr. 
Charles  H.  Levermore,  secretary  of  the  League  of  Nations  Union  and 


General  841 

the  New  York  Peace  Society,  has  come  from  the  press.  The  volume  in- 
cludes the  story  of  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of  the  League,  of  the 
Assembly,  and  also  of  the  conference  at  Washington,  together  with  the 
texts  of  the  treaties  and  resolutions  which  were  the  outcome  of  the  con- 
ference (Brooklyn  Daily  Eagle,  Brooklyn,  New  York;  or  The  League  of 
Nations  Union,  70  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York). 

The  Great  Adventure  at  Washington :  the  Story  of  the  Conference. 
is  from  the  pen  of  Mark  Sullivan,  with  illustrations  by  Joseph  C.  Chase 
(Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company). 

The  Federal  Trade  Information  Service,  175  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York, 
has  issued  the  Treaties  and  Resolutions  of  the  Conference  on  the  Limita- 
tion of  Armament  as  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate,  together  with 
comprehensive  tables  on  naval  armaments,  etc. 

The  Akademische  Verlagsgesellschaft  Athenaion  of  Berlin-Neubabels- 
berg  has  begun  the  publication  of  a  Handbuch  der  Kunstzvissenschaft,  in- 
tended to  comprise  some  forty  volumes  by  expert  writers.  Three  that  have 
been  already  published  are  :  Ludwig  Curtius,  Antike  Kunst,  Bd.  I.  ( Aegyp- 
ten  und  Babylonien)  ;  Oskar  Wulff,  Altchristliche  und  Bycantinische 
Kunst;  and  Ernst  Diez,  Die  Kunst  des  Islam. 

After  an  interruption  of  seven  years  a  new  volume  of  the  Histoire  de 
VArt,  published  under  the  direction  of  A.  Michel,  has  appeared,  under  the 
title  L'Art  en  Europe  au  XVIIs  Steele,  I.  (Paris,  Colin,  pp.  508).  An- 
other volume  will  also  be  devoted  to  this  century.  A  number  of  experts 
have  contributed  chapters.  E.  Faure  has  published  three  volumes  of 
Histoire  de  VArt:  L'Art  Antique  (Paris,  Cres,  1921,  pp.  xxvi,  270), 
L'Art  Medieval  (ibid.,  1921) ,  L'Art  Renaissant  (ibid.,  1922). 

The  Macmillan  Company  will  publish  late  this  summer  or  early  in  the 
fall  A  Short  History  of  the  Near  East,  from  the  Founding  of  Constanti- 
nople, 330-1018  A.  D.,  by  William  S.  Davis,  professor  of  history  in  the 
University  of  Minnesota.  About  a  quarter  of  the  work  will  be  devoted 
to  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the  same  to  the  Saracenic  Empires,  and  about 
half  of  the  entire  book  to  the  Ottoman  Empire  and  the  Balkan  kingdoms. 

The  Catholic  Historical  Review  for  April  has  an  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  second  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Catholic  Historical 
Society,  held  at  St.  Louis  last  December,  an  article  by  Rev.  Joseph  A. 
Schabert  on  the  Ludwig-Missionsverein,  founded  as  an  independent 
Bavarian  missionary  society  in  1838,  and  continuing  its  work  in  America 
to  the  recent  war;  also  a  paper  on  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  by  Rev.  W.  P.  H. 
Kitchin,  and  one  on  Pere  Antoine  (Fray  Antonio  Sedella),  Capuchin  of 
Louisiana,  by  Right  Rev.  F.  L.  Gassier  of  Baton  Rouge. 

The  December  number  of  the  Records  of  the  American  Catholic  His- 
torical Society  contains  an  article,  by  Miss  Elizabeth  S.  Kite,  on  Conrad 


842  Historical  News 

Alexandre  Gerard  and  American  Independence  (chiefly  letters  of  Ge- 
rard )  ;  one  by  William  King  on  Lord  Baltimore  and  his  Freedom  in 
Granting  Religious  Toleration ;  and  one  by  Sister  Mary  Eulalia  Herron 
on  the  Work  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  the  United  States,  Diocese  of 
Chicago,  1846  to  1921. 

No.  28  of  the  Publications  of  the  American  Jewish  Historical  Society 
(New  York,  the  Society,  pp.  xli,  2>77)  nas  in  the  European  field  two 
papers  of  marked  historical  value  and  of  considerable  extent:  one  by  Dr. 
Harry  Friedenberg,  on  Jewish  Physicians  in  Italy  and  their  relation  to  the 
Papal  and  Italian  States,  and  the  other  by  Mr.  Max  Kohler  on  those  Edu- 
cational Reforms  in  Europe,  1778-1919,  which  had  to  do  with  the  intro- 
duction into  Jewish  education  of  instruction  in  the  vernacular  of  the 
countries  in  which  the  Jews  respectively  dwelt.  There  are  also  papers  on 
Sir  Moses  Ezekiel  by  Rabbi  David  Philipson,  and  on  Heinrich  Graetz  by 
Dr.  Gotthard  Deutsch,  and  several  interesting  minor  notes. 

The  Journal  of  Negro  History  for  April  has  a  long  article  by  Alru- 
theus  A.  Taylor,  on  Negro  Congressmen  a  Generation  After,  in  which 
he  surveys,  as  carefully  as  the  records  permit,  the  qualities  and  training 
of  the  various  representatives  and  senators  of  that  race  and  their  activi- 
ties and  achievements  in  Congress.  There  is  also  a  paper  by  Walter  H. 
Brooks  on  the  Silver  Bluff  Church,  the  first  negro  Baptist  church  in  the 
country,  established  a  little  before  the  Revolution;  one  by  A.  T.  Fokeer 
upon  the  Negroes  in  Mauritius,  and  a  number  of  interesting  documents  of 
negro  history,  among  them  one  concerning  the  settlement  of  John  Ran- 
dolph's slaves  in  Ohio. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  J.  Stenzel,  Zum  Problem  der 
Philosophiegeschichte  (Kant-Studien,  XXVI.  3-4)  ;  W.  L.  Westermann, 
On  the  Sources  and  Methods  of  Research  in  Economic  History  (Political 
Science  Quarterly,  March)  ;  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  History  and  Fiction  (Liv- 
ing Age,  June  3)  ;  C.  G.  Haines,  Ministerial  Responsibility  and  the  Sepa- 
ration of  Powers  (American  Political  Science  Review,  May)  ;  John  B.ell, 
Disease  and  History  (Dalhousie  Review,  April)  ;  Estanislao  Zeballos, 
The  Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Armaments  (Inter- America,  April). 

ANCIENT    HISTORY 

General  reviews:  M.  Fluss,  Bericht  iiber  die  Literatur  zar  Gcschichtc 
der  Romischer  Kaiserscit  von  Tiberius  bis  auf  Diocletian,  14  bis  2S4  n. 
Chr.,  aus  den  Jahren  1894-1913  (Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der 
Klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  CLXXXIX.  7)  ;  L.  Brehier,  Histoirc 
Bysantine:  Publication  des  Annces  1917-1921  (Revue  Historique,  Janu- 
ary). 

Professor  Gustav  Kossinna  of  Berlin,  well  known  for  his  studies  of 
the  last  twenty-five  years  on  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples,  has  published  the 
first  part  of  a  work  on  Die  Indogcrmancn  under  the  title  Das  Indoger- 
manische  Urvolk  (Leipzig,  Kabitsch,  1921,  pp.  vi,  79). 


Early  Church  History  843 

Oxford  University  Press  announces  an  important  work  by  Professor 
Michael  Rostovtzeff,  now  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  on  Iranians 
and  Greeks  in  South  Russia. 

Caesar,  dcr  Politikcr  und  Staatsmann  (Berlin,  Deutsche  Verlagsan- 
stalt,  1921,  pp.  234),  by  Professor  Matthias  Gelzer,  of  Frankfort,  is  a  new 
biography  of  Caesar  based  upon  the  thesis  that  he  suceeded  by  reason  of 
his  ability  to  devote  everything  to  his  political  aims  and  raise  himself 
above  political  parties  in  the  reform  of  the  state,  and  that  he  fell  because 
he  broke  too  suddenly  with  established  tradition. 

Messrs.  Putnam  have  lately  published  for  the  Loeb  Classical  Library 
the  first  of  three  volumes  of  the  Scriptores  Historiae  Augustac,  with  an 
English  translation  by  Professor  David  Magie  of  Princeton.  Humble  as 
are  the  literary  pretensions  of  the  Historia  Augusta  and  uncritical  and 
feeble  as  were  its  authors,  historians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries 
have  been  obliged  to  use  it,  fautc  dc  mieux,  and  an  edition  of  it  is  useful 
to  historical  if  not  to  classical  scholars;  apparently,  too,  there  has  been 
no  English  translation  since  1698. 

Aries  Antique  (Paris,  Boccard,  1922,  pp.  426),  by  L.  A.  Constans, 
sums  up  previous  studies  by  the  author  and  others  in  an  authoritative 
way. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  J.  de  Morgan,  Dc  I'Influencc  Asia- 
tiquc  sur  I'Afriquc  a  I'Originc  de  la  Civilisation  tgyptienne  (Anthro- 
pologic, XXXI.  5)  ;  Major  Burne,  The  Battle  of  Kadesh,  1280  B.  C. 
(Army  Quarterly,  April)  ;  P.  Perdrizet,  Lc  Tcmoignage  d'Eschylc  sur  le 
Sac  d'Athenes  par  les  Pcrses  (Revue  des  fitudes  Grecques,  January- 
March)  ;  C.  Cichorius,  Ein  Patentgesctz  aus  dem  Griechischen  Altcrtum 
(Jahrbikher  fur  Nationalokonomie  und  Statistik,  January);  B.  Nogara, 
Etruria  c  Roma  (Nuova  Antologia,  March  1)  ;  J.  H.  Mora,  Menorca  Prc- 
histdrica  (Revista  de  Archivos,  Bibliotecas  y  Museos,  January):  A.  M. 
Ramsay,  A  Roman  Post  Service  under  the  Republic  (Journal  of  Roman 
Studies,  X.  1)  ;  J.  R.  Knipfing,  Das  Angeblichc  "  Maildnder  Edikt"  v.  J. 
313  im  Lichte  dcr  Ncuercn  Forschung  (Zeitschrift  fiir  Kirchengeschichte, 
XL.)  ;  E.  Schwartz,  Vber  die  Reichskonsilicn  von  Thcodosius  bis  Justin- 
ian (Zeitschrift  der  Savigny-Stiftung  fiir  Rechtsgeschichte,  XLII.,  Ka- 
nonistische  Abt.,  XL)  ;  A.  Andreades.  Le  Montant  du  Budget  de  V Empire 
Byzantin  (Revue  des  Etudes  Grecques,  January-March,  1921 ). 

EARLY   CHURCH   HISTORY 

Professor  Charles  Guignebert  follows  up  his  book  on  Le  Christianisme 
Antique,  published  last  year,  by  a  similar  work,  judicial,  disinterested, 
erudite,  yet  readable,  on  Lc  Christianisme  Medieval  ct  Modcmc  (  Paris, 
Flammarion). 

The  Bollandist  fathers,  in  the  course  of  their  courageous  resumption 
of  their  age-long  labors,  have  undertaken  to  fill  the  gap  in  the  Analccta 


844  Historical  News 

Bollandiana,  caused  by  the  war,  by  issuing  now  a  double  volume  (pp. 
433)  indicated  as  "  Tomus  XXXIV.-XXXV."  The  chief  contents,  oc- 
cupying half  the  volume,  is  a  collection  of  the  original  sources  for  the 
life  of  St.  Jean  Berchmans  (1598-1621),  with  a  learned  introduction  by 
Father  Alfred  Poncelet,  discussing  the  sources  of  knowledge  of  the 
saint's  life,  death,  and  canonization.  Father  Henri  Moret  furnishes  a 
catalogue  of  a  large  group  of  Latin  hagiographical  manuscripts  which, 
by  an  odd  chance,  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  medical  school  of 
Montpellier,  and  gives  some  texts  from  them.  Finally,  Father  Maurice 
Coens  gives,  with  appropriate  introductory  matter,  the  Life  of  St.  Leb- 
win  (Liafwine)  the  Anglo-Saxon  apostle  of  the  Frisians.  An  appendix 
completes  Abbe  Ulysse  Chevalier's  Repertorium  Hymnologicum  by  com- 
pleting volume  V.,  "  Addenda  et  Corrigenda  ". 

MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

The  Distichs  of  Cato,  so  called,  are  translated  from  the  Latin,  with  an 
introductory  sketch,  by  Professor  Wayland  J.  Chase,  in  no.  7  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences  and  History. 

A.  Perier  has  given  a  careful  and  scholarly  account  of  an  important 
but  hitherto  little  known  Christian  apologist,  Yahya  ben  Adi:  un  Philo- 
sophe  Arabe  Chretien  du  Xe  Siecle  (Paris,  Geuthner,  1920,  pp.  228). 

A  noteworthy  book  is  La  Cite  dc  Rhodes,  1 310-1522:  Topographic, 
Architecture  Militaire  (Paris,  Boccard,  1921,  pp.  xviii,  158),  by  A. 
Gabriel. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  A.  Heusler,  Das  Nordische  Alter- 
tum  in  seiner  Besiehung  sum  W estgcrmanischen  (  Archiv  fur  das  Studium 
der  Neueren  Sprachen  und  Literaturen,  CXLII.  3)  ;  J.  L.  Heiberg,  Les 
Sciences  Grecques  et  leur  Transmission,  II.  L'Oeuvre  de  Conservation  et 
de  Transmission  des  Bysantins  et  des  Arabes  (Scientia,  February  1); 
P.  Cloche,  L'fcglise  Merovingienne  (La  Vie  Universitaire,  March)  ;  H. 
E.  Meyer,  Die  Pfalsgrafen  der  Merowinger  und  Karolinger  (Zeitschrift 
der  Savigny-Stiftung  fur  Rechtsgeschichte,  XLIL,  Germanistische  Abt.)  ; 
E.  Seckel,  Die  Aachener  Synode  vom  Januar  8ig  (Neues  Archiv,  XLIV. 
1)  ;  Count  J.  de  Pange,  Les  Papes  d' Avignon  et  les  Benefices  Ecclcsias- 
tiqucs  (Le  Correspondant,  April  25);  E.  Hoyer,  Die  Selbstwahl  vor,  in, 
und  nach  der  Goldenen  Bidle  (Zeitschrift  der  Savigny-Stiftung  fur 
Rechtsgeschichte,  XLIL,  Germanistische  Abt.). 

MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Sir  Thomas  Graham  Jackson,  honorary  fellow  of  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  continues  his  volumes  of  architectural  history  with  an  account 
of  the  Renaissance  of  Roman  Architecture,  of  which  part  I.,  devoted  to 
Italy,  has  been  published  in  handsome  form  by  the  Cambridge  University 
Press,  while  part  II.,  devoted  to  England,  will  be  ready  before  long. 


The  Great  War  845 

Vicomte  de  Guichen,  well  known  both  as  a  diplomat  and  as  a  his- 
torian, has  published  La  Crise  a" Orient  de  1839  a  1841  (Paris,  fimile 
Paul,  pp.  556),  a  book  on  an  important  topic  and  based  on  extensive  re- 
search. 

The  relevant  part  of  Baron  von  Eckardstein's  Lebenserinnerungen 
(see  Am.  Hist.  Rev.,  XXVI.  517)  has  been  translated,  edited  by  George 
Young,  and  published  by  the  firm  of  Dutton  under  the  title  Ten  Years  at 
the  Court  of  St.  James,  1805-1005. 

The  attention  of  students  of  history  may  well  be  called  to  the  large 
amount  of  historical  information,  relating  especially  to  the  period  1910- 
1921,  which  is  contained  in  the  three  additional  volumes  (XXX.-XXXH.) 
of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  lately  issued,  each  volume  containing 
more  than  a  thousand  pages.  The  exceedingly  elaborate  articles  on  the 
history  of  the  war,  those  on  the  recent  history  of  the  individual  countries 
of  the  world,  and  the  articles  of  recent  biography,  may  especially  be  men- 
tioned. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  D.  G.  E.  Hall,  Anglo-French 
Relations  under  Charles  II.  (History,  April)  ;  Sir  Julian  Corbett,  Napo- 
leon and  the  British  Navy  after  Trafalgar  ( QuaYterly  Review,  April ) ; 
G.  Lacour-Gayet,  Napoleon  a  Berlin  en  1806  (Revue  des  fitudes  Napo- 
leoniennes,  January-February)  ;  R.  Michels,  Etude  sur  les  Relations  His- 
toriques  entre  la  France  et  les  Pays  du  Rhin  (Revue  Historique,  March)  ; 
anon.,  La  Question  des  Reparations  depuis  la  Paix  (Revue  d'ficonomie 
Politique.  November)  ;  Prince  Sixte  de  Bourbon,  La  France  et  la  Syrie 
(Le  Correspondant,  February  10). 

THE  GREAT  WAR 

The  French  government  institution  called  the  Bibliotheque  et  Musee 
de  la  Guerre  has  put  forth  the  first  volume  of  a  catalogue  of  the  German 
and  Austrian  portion  of  its  extensive  collection  of  books,  pamphlets,  and 
articles  on  the  Great  War,  Catalogue  Methodique  du  Fonds  Allemand  de 
la  Bibliotheque,  tome  I.,  La  Crise  Internationale  (Paris,  fitienne  Chiron, 
pp.  xx,  292),  which  lists  systematically  5699  pieces,  published  in  Ger- 
many and  Austria-Hungary  before  the  end  of  1920  (some  also  in  1921) 
and  relating  to  the  war  in  its  international  aspects.  Writings  relating  to 
single  nations  and  localities,  and  an  alphabetical  index,  will  follow,  the 
whole  making  three  volumes,  of  about  1200  pages.  Alongside  this  in- 
valuable repertory  should  be  mentioned  Hinrichs's  Die  Deutsche  Kriegs- 
literatur  (1914-1915),  F.  Avenarius's  Kriegs-Ratgeber  iiber  Deutsches 
Schrifttum  (1915-1916),  and  the  briefer  lists  of  Buddecke,  Kriegslitera- 
tur  (1917),  Hohlfeld,  Die  Deutsche  Kriegsliteratur  (1917),  and  Kunz, 
Bibliographic  dcr  Kriegsliteratur  (1920)  ;  also,  Jean  Vic,  La  Litterature 
de  Guerre  (Paris,  1918,  2  vols.),  the  incomplete  but  extensive  Catalogue 
du  Fonds  de  la  Guerre  of  the  library  of  the  city  of  Lyons,  and  the  seven 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII. 56. 


846  Historical  News 

volumes  thus  far  published  of  the  Catalogue  Raisonncc  (Paris,  tmile 
Paul)  of  the  Collection  of  Henri  Leblanc,  of  which,  by  the  way,  the  next 
two  volumes  will  be  devoted  to  German  works. 

A  clear  and  well-documented  Manuel  des  Origines  dc  la  Guerre 
(Paris,  Brossard,  pp.  496),  founded  on  the  multi-colored  books,  is  by  F. 
Roches.  A.  Pevet  has  published  Les  Responsables  de  la  Guerre  (Paris, 
Librairie  de  l'Humanite,  1921,  pp.  500)  utilizing  a  number  of  hitherto 
unpublished  documents.  Devant  la  Guerre:  la  Faillite  des  Trois  Inter- 
nationales, V Internationale  des  Nations,  V Internationale  Ouvricre,  I'lntcr- 
nationale  Catholiquc :  leur  Originc,  leur  Doctrine  Pacifique,  lew  Fonc- 
tion,  ct  leur  Action  en  1914  (Paris,  Dubreuil,  1922,  pp.  157)  is  by  A. 
Narodetski. 

Commandant  de  Civrieux's  La  Grande  Guerre,  1914-IQ18:  Apcrcu 
d'Histoirc  Militairc  (Paris,  Payot,  1921,  pp.  151)  is  written  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  partizan  of  Nivelle.  The  treatment,  therefore,  is  not 
purely  objective. 

A  clear  and  accurate  account  of  the  Italian  phase  of  the  war  is  em- 
bodied in  F.  Quintavalle's  Cronistoria  della  Guerra  Mondiale,  I.  Dal 
Congresso  di  Berlino,  Luglio  1878,  agli  Armistizi;  Novembre  1918 
(Milan,  Hoepli,  1921,  pp.  xxxi,  800).  The  portions  dealing  with  other 
countries  are  not  equally  satisfactory. 

The  German  Reichsarchiv  has  begun  a  series  of  publications  called 
Forschungen  und  Darstelhingen  (Berlin,  Mittler),  in  which  the  first  issue 
was  a  monograph  on  an  episode  of  great  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
battle  of  the  Marne ;  the  second  is  a  treatise,  marked  by  much  adverse 
criticism,  on  Deutsche  Wirtschafts-Propaganda  im  Weltkricgc,  by  Dr.  R. 
Wiehler. 

Colonel  Bauer,  who  served  continuously  throughout  the  whole  war  in 
the  Operations  Section  of  the  German  Supreme  Command,  under  Moltke, 
Falkenhayn,  and  Hindenburg,  publishes  a  valuable  collection  of  short  ar- 
ticles describing  personages  and  events  as  he  saw  them,  under  the  title 
Der  Grosse  Krieg  in  Feld  und  Heimat  (Tubingen,  Osiander,  pp.  315). 

General  H.  von  Poseck,  in  charge  of  cavalry  matters  in  the  German 
general  staff,  has  published  Die  Deutsche  Kavallerie  in  Bclgien  und 
Frankreich  (Berlin,  Mittler,  1921). 

A  brief  but  satisfactory  account  of  the  battle  of  Verdun  is  Com- 
mandant Bouvard's  La  Gloirc  de  Verdun  (Paris,  La  Renaissance  du  Livre, 
1922,  pp.  166). 

Mr.  John  Murray  has  published  the  second  volume  on  Seaborne 
Trade,  by  C.  Ernest  Fayle,  in  the  Official  History  of  the  Great  War, 
carrying  the  record  from  the  opening  of  the  submarine  campaign  to  the 
appointment  of  the  Shipping  Comptroller. 


The  Great  War  847 

Two  important  phases  of  the  economic  history  of  the  war  were  the 
management  of  railroads  and  of  foreign  exchange.  M.  Peschaud  has 
published  Lcs  Chemins  dc  Fcr  pendant  ct  depuis  la  Guerre  ( Paris,  Du- 
nod),  the  best  general  book  thus  far  on  the  railroads  in  France,  Great 
Britain,  Italy,  and  the  United  States.  J.  Decamps  has  given  an  account 
of  the  regulation  of  international  monetary  relations  in  Les  Changes 
Strangers  (Paris,  Alcan,  1922.  pp.  400).  A  more  specialized  study  is 
R.  Durrenberger's  La  Circulation  Monctaire  dans  lcs  Pays  Occupes  an 
Cours  de  la  Guerre  par  lcs  Empires  Centraux  (Strasbourg,  Heitz,  1921, 
pp.  viii,   154). 

Students  who  are  interested  in  the  problem  of  legislative  Committees 
on  the  Conduct  of  the  War  will  find  an  important  record  in  La  Commis- 
sion dc  VArmee  pendant  la  Grande  Guerre  (Paris,  Flammarion)  by  Gen- 
eral Pedoya,  formerly  president  of  that  commission. 

Philip  Scheidemann.  the  well-known  Socialist  deputy,  gives  secret  de- 
tails of  the  papal  mediation  from  documents,  the  source  of  which  he  does 
not  reveal,  in  Papst,  Kaiser,  und  Soaialdcmokratie  in  ihrcn  Fricdensbe- 
miihungen  im  Scunner  1917  (Berlin,  Verlag  fur  Sozialwissenschaft). 

A  careful  and  detailed  account  of  L'Affairc  Miss  Cavell,  d'aprcs  lcs 
Documents  Incdits  dc  la  Justice  Allcmandc  (Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  177) 
is  given  by  A.  Got. 

A.  Scheikevitch,  a  member  of  the  staff  of  General  Sarrail,  has  em- 
bodied his  memoirs  of  the  Salonica  expedition  in  a  volume  entitled 
Hellas?  .  .  .  Hclas!  .  .  .  (Paris,  Catin,  1922,  pp.  192). 

Le  Kcinalismc  decant  lcs  Allies  (Paris,  Joannides,  1922,  pp.  512),  by 
M.  Paillares,  is  the  work  of  a  man  on  the  ground  who  had  access  to  docu- 
ments.    It  is  hostile  to  French  policy. 

Various  phases  of  the  negotiation  and  the  results  of  the  peace  treaties 
are  responsible  for  a  great  many  recent  books.  Among  the  more  signifi- 
cant are  G.  Colm's  Bcitrag  cur  Gcschichtc  und  Soziologic  des  Ruhrauf- 
standes  -com  Mdrz-April  1020  (Essen,  Baedeker,  1921,  pp.  142)  and  Dr. 
Lucien-Graux's  Histoire  des  Violations  du  Traitc  dc  Paix,  I.  28  Juin 
1919-24  Scptembrc  1920  (Paris,  Cres,  1921,  pp.  viii,  385).  A  number  of 
addresses  and  articles  by  Raymond  Poincare  are  collected  in  La  Victoirc 
ct  la  Paix,  1921  (Paris,  Daragon,  1921,  pp.  130). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  R.  Grelling,  Le  Mystere  du  30 
Juillet  1914  (Revue  de  Paris,  March  1  )  ;  The  Military  Revelations  of  the 
Late  Herr  Erzbergcr  (Army  Quarterly,  April);  Lord  Sydenham,  The 
Naval  War,  1914-1915  (Quarterly  Review,  April)  ;  P.  Painleve,  La  Poli- 
tique dc  Guerre  dc  1917  (Revue  de  Paris,  March  15)  ;  Capt.  G.  Voitoux. 
French  Navy.  Some  Light  about  the  Gocbcn's  Escape  (U.  S.  Naval  Insti- 
tute Proceedings,  April). 


848  Historical  Nezvs 

GREAT  BRITAIN 
The  Stationery  Office  has  issued  a  ninth  edition,  illustrated,  of  the 
Catalogue  of  Manuscripts  and  other  objects  in  the  museum  of  the  Public 
Record  Office. 

Messrs.  Methuen  are  publishing  this  month  the  first  volume  of  a  new 
History  of  English  Law,  by  Dr.  W.  S.  Holdsworth,  this  volume  being  a 
new  history  of  the  judicial  system,  to  be  followed  by  six  others,  three  of 
them  revised  editions  of  his  volumes  previously  published,  three  of  them 
new. 

Mr.  W.  G.  Perrin,  librarian  to  the  Admiralty  and  secretary  of  the 
Naval  Records  Society,  has  completed  a  work  which  will  surely  be  of 
value,  British  Flags:  their  History  and  their  Development  at  Sea,  with 
an  Account  of  the  Origin  of  the  Flag  as  a  National  Device,  illustrated 
(Cambridge,  University  Press). 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Quennell's  History  of  Every-Day  Things  in  England 
(London,  Batsford),  of  which  part  I.  runs  to  1500  and  part  II.  to  1799. 
is  to  be  added  to  Mr.  Morgan's  Readings  in  English  Social  History  from 
Contemporary  Literature,  mentioned  in  a  previous  number,  as  an  excel- 
lent contribution  to  the  means  of  following  in  schools  or  colleges  the 
social  history  of  England. 

Mr.  Norman  Ault  in  a  small  book  on  Life  in  Ancient  Britain  (Long- 
mans) meets  a  decided  want  by  presenting  a  summary  account  of  pre- 
Roman  Britain  according  to  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  suited  to  the 
needs  of  the  general  reader  and  of  the  scholar  not  technically  expert  in 
archaeology. 

The  Cambridge  University  Press  has  lately  published  The  Laws  of  the 
Earliest  English  Kings,  edited  and  translated  by  F.  L.  Attenborough,  fel- 
low of  Emmanuel  College,  being  the  first  English  edition  since  Thorpe 
( 1840)   and  including  the  results  of  Liebermann's  labors. 

Professor  F.  M.  Powicke,  of  Manchester,  puts  forth  a  monograph  on 
Ailrcd  of  Rievaulx  and  his  Biographer  Walter  Daniel  (pp.  112),  re- 
printed from  the  Bulletin  of  the  John  Rylands  Library.  The  incentive 
to  its  preparation  was  the  acquisition,  by  that  library,  of  a  manuscript  of 
Walter's  Centum  Sentcntiac.  All  matters  concerning  Ailred  are  fully 
considered,  in  the  light  of  all  the  materials  and  especially  of  Walter's  life 
of  him,  the  essential  portions  of  which  are  printed  in  the  appendix,  from 
a  manuscript  belonging  to  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 

The  second  part  of  R.  T.  Gunther's  Early  Science  in  Oxford  (London, 
Humphrey  Milford)  relates  to  early  mathematicians,  early  mathematical 
instruments  belonging  to  the  university  and  the  colleges,  and  mathemat- 
ical instrument  makers. 

Two  allied  volumes  of  the  Cambridge  University  Press  are  Miss 
Dorothy  Chadwick's  Social  Life  in  the  Days  of  Piers  Plowman  (pp.  xiv, 


Great  Britain  849 

126)  and  Mr.  H.  S.  Bennett's  The  Pastons  and  their  England  (pp.  xx, 
290). 

An  important  addition  to  the  source-books  for  English  constitutional 
history  is  J.  R.  Tanner's  Tudor  Constitutional  Documents,  A.  D.  1485- 
1603  (Cambridge,  University  Press,  pp.  xxii,  636),  including  a  full  his- 
torical commentary  by  the  editor.  An  earlier  period,  and  history  partly 
political  and  partly  social  and  economic,  are  covered  in  Miss  Jessie  H. 
Flemming's  England  under  the  Lancastrians  (London,  Longmans),  which 
is  an  "  intermediate  source-book ",  apparently  intended  for  secondary 
schools,  and  presents  its  extracts  and  documents  in  English  translations. 

M.  von  Boehn,  who  has  previously  written  of  France  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  under  the  title  Rokoko,  has  published  England  im  18.  Jahr- 
hundert  (Berlin,  Askanischer  Verlag,  1921,  pp.  viii,  678). 

Colonel  H.  C.  Wylly's  Life  of  Lieutcnant-Gencral  Sir  Eyre  Coote, 
K.  B.  (Clarendon  Press)  is  the  fruit  of  long  and.  careful  study,  and  will 
be  held  authoritative. 

Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb  add  to  their  valuable  series  of  works  on 
English  local  government  a  volume  on  English  Prisons  under  Local  Gov- 
ernment (Longmans),  dealing  with  the  two  hundred  years  preceding 
1877,  when  the  central  government  took  over  the  prisons. 

Lord  George  Hamilton  has  brought  out  a  second  volume  of  his  Parlia- 
mentary Reminiscences  and  Reflections,  covering  the  years  1886-1906, 
during  which  he  was  continually  on  the  Front  Bench,  either  in  office  or  in 
opposition. 

The  Scottish  Historical  Review  for  April  has  a  further  study  by  Miss 
Margaret  I.  Adam,  on  Eighteenth  Century  Highland  Landlords  and  the 
Poverty  Problem.  It  has  also  a  study  of  Eighteenth  Century  Medical 
Practice  in  Fife,  by  Sir  Bruce  Seton,  based  on  doctors'  accounts;  several 
letters  from  Queen  Anne  to  Godolphin,  relating  to  Scotland;  and  an  ar- 
ticle on  the  Professional  Pricker  and  his  Test  of  Witchcraft,  by  Rev. 
W.  T.  Neill. 

The  Societe  Jersiaise  has  undertaken  to  publish  the  documents  con- 
cerning the  Channel  Islands  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  archives  of  the 
neighboring  French  department  of  La  Manche.  The  first  two  fascicles 
of  the  Cartulairc  de  Jersey,  Gucrnescy  ct  des  autrcs  lies  Normandcs 
contain  early  documents  from  Mont  St.  Michel. 

British  government  publications:  Calendar  of  Fine  Rolls,  vol.  VI.. 
1347-1356;  Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Venetian,  1632-1636,  ed.  A.  B. 
Hinds;  Report  on  the  Manuscripts  of  the  late  Allan  George  Finch,  vol.  II. 
[papers  of  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  1621-1682,  earl  of  Nottingham  and  lord 
chancellor,  his  brother  Sir  John  Finch,  and  other  members  of  the  family] 
(Historical  Manuscripts  Commission,  pp.  xxii.  651)  ;  British  and  Foreign 
State  Papers,  CXIL,  for  1919. 


850  Historical  Nezvs 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  W.  A.  Morris,  The  Sheriffs  and 
the  Administrative  System  of  Henry  I.  ( English  Historical  Review, 
April)  ;  W.  T.  Waugh,  The  Great  Statute  of  Praemunire  (ibid.)  ;  A.  H. 
Sweet,  Ceremonial  Privileges  of  the  English  Benedictines  (Washington 
University  Studies,  IX.  1)  ;  Courtney  Kenny,  The  Evolution  of  the  Law 
of  Blasphemy  (Cambridge  Law  Journal,  I.  2)  ;  W.  W.  Sweet,  John  Wes- 
ley, Tory  (Methodist  Review,  April)  ;  George  Unwin,  The  Transition  to 
the  Factory  System  (English  Historical  Review,  April)  ;  Viscount  Hal- 
dane,  The  Work  for  the  Empire  of  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  (Cambridge  Law  Journal,  I.  2)  ;  Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  Viscount 
Bryce,  O.  M.  (Quarterly  Review,  April);  Ernest  Barker,  Lord  Bryce 
(English  Historical  Review,  April);  South  Africa,  IJ95-1021  (Army 
Quarterly,  April). 

FRANCE 

Medieval  France:  a  Companion  to  French  Studies  (Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press),  edited  by  Arthur  Tilley,  is  a  collection  of  ten  monographs 
on  political  history,  the  army,  the  navy,  philosophy,  literature,  archae- 
ology, etc.,  by  such  high  authorities  as  MM.  Charles  Langlois,  Pierre 
Caron,  Charles  de  la  Ronciere,  A.  Jeanroy,  Lucien  Foulet,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Jackson,  the  whole  making  a  comprehensive  survey,  which  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  similar  one  for  modern  France. 

G.  Boulen  and  O.  Martin  have  published  in  Des  Fies  a  V Usage  de 
France  (Paris,  Sirey,  1921,  pp.  no),  a  very  important  text  for  feudal 
law  in  France  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Though  there  have 
been  previous  editions,  this  edition  replaces  them,  being  based  upon  the 
study  of  twenty-seven  different  manuscripts  and  accompanied  with  crit- 
ical explanation  and  comment. 

A  monograph  of  the  first  importance  for  the  war  "  du  Bien-Public  " 
is  H.  Stein's  Charles  de  France,  Frcre  de  Louis  XI.  (Paris,  Picard, 
1921,  pp.  ix,  871). 

An  episode  in  French  foreign  policy  illustrating  characteristics  of 
eighteenth-century  diplomacy  is  studied  by  P.  Oursel  in  La  Diplomatic 
de  la  France  sous  Louis  XVI.:  Succession  de  Bavicre  et  Paix  de  Teschcn 
(Paris,  Plon,  1921,  pp.  397). 

Baron  A.  de  Maricourt  has  published  Mcmoircs  du  General  Nogucs, 
1777-1853,  sur  les  Guerres  de  I'Empirc  (Paris,  Lemerre).  It  is  valuable 
because  of  the  important  positions  held  by  Nogues,  his  varied  experience, 
his  insight  and  power  of  statement. 

The  theories  of  Saint-Simon,  Fourier,  Proudhon,  and  others  with  re- 
gard to  international  peace  are  set  forth  by  J.  L.  Puech  in  La  Tradition 
Socialistc  en  France  ct  la  Sociite  des  Nations  (Paris,  Gamier,  1921, 
pp.  230). 


France  851 

The  second  volume  of  L.  Delabrousse's  important  monograph  on 
Joseph  Magnin  et  son  Temps,  1824-1010,  gives  a  minute  and  conscientious 
analysis  of  Le  Siege  de  Paris,  le  Ministere  des  Finances,  le  Gouvernement 
de  la  Banque  de  France  (Paris,  Alcan,  pp.  575)  based  on  correspondence 
in  the  ministries  of  agriculture  and  commerce.  Light  is  thrown  on  the 
origins  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in  E.  Ollivier's  Lettres  de  I'Exil, 
1870-1874  (Paris,  Hachette,  pp.  215),  composed  of  letters  written  in  the 
years  immediately  after  the  overthrow  of  his  ministry.  G.  Bouniols  has 
written  of  the  same  period  in  Thiers  ait  Pouvoir,  1871-1873  (Paris,  Dela- 
grave,  1922,  pp.  357). 

The  first  satisfactory  life  of  the  Due  d'Aumale  is  published  by  R. 
Vallerv-Radot,  Le  Due  d'Aumale  d'aprcs  sa  Correspondance  avec  Cuvil- 
lier  Fleury,  1840-1871  (Paris,  Plon,  1922,  pp.  ii,  384).  It  is  an  intro- 
duction to  four  volumes  of  correspondence. 

A  new  edition  of  Vicomte  A.  de  Calonne's  La  Vie  Agricole  sous 
VAncien  Regime  dans  le  Nord  de  la  France  (Paris,  Memoires  de  la  So- 
ciete  des  Antiquaires  de  Picardie,  1921,  pp.  x.  593)  is  the  first  since 
1887  and  contains  much  new  material. 

Though  primarily  intended  as  a  work  of  local  history  A.  Mousset's 
Documents  pour  scrvir  a  I'Histoirc  de  la  Maisdn  de  Kergorlay  en  Bre- 
tagne  (Paris.  Champion,  1921,  pp.  cv,  540)  has  general  value  because  it 
contains  many  unpublished  documents  illustrative  of  Breton  conditions 
from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  present  time.  Similar  materials  on  the  his- 
tory of  Auvergne  are  made  available  in  the  Marquis  de  Lastic's  Chronique 
de  la  Maison  de  Lastic,  d'apres  Its  Archives  du  Chateau  de  Parentiguat 
et  quelques  antres  Documents  (Montpellier,  1919-1921,  3  vols.). 

A  third  volume  of  Documents  Inedits  concernant  la  Villc  et  le  Siege 
du  Bailliagc  d' Amiens,  Extraits  des  Registrcs  du  Parlcment  de  Paris  et 
du  Tresor  des  Chartcs  (Paris,  Picard,  1921,  pp.  437),  by  E.  Maugis,  has 
been  published,  covering  the  years  1397-1471.  Unlike  the  two  preceding, 
this  volume  has  much  important  material  on  public  law  and  economic 
conditions.  The  first  part  shows  the  working  of  the  fiscal  system  de- 
veloped during  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  the  second  the  consequences  of 
the  partition  of  the  bailliage  of  Amiens  by  the  king  and  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  in  1435. 

R.  Reuss  has  published  the  first  good  French  account  of  the  Histoire 
de  Strasbourg  depuis  ses  Origincs  jusqu'a  nos  Jours  (Paris,  Fisch- 
bacher).  This  important  book  is  the  work  of  many  years.  Other  recent 
books  which  deal  with  the  same  area  are  L.  Batiffol's  Lcs  Anciennes  Re- 
publiqucs  Alsacienncs  (Paris,  Hemmerle.  1921,  pp.  iv,  315)  and  Le  Rhin 
et  la  France:  Histoire  Politique  et  Economique  (Paris,  Plon,  1922,  pp. 
xix,  385)  by  J.  Aulneau. 

The  period  of  the  Revolution  and  First  Empire  is  covered  in  the  first 
volume  of  P.  Masson's  Marseille  depuis  1789   (Paris,  Hachette,  1921). 


852  Historical  Nezvs 

The  book  is  of  especial  importance  for  its  study  of  the  commerce  and 
industry  of  Marseilles. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  E.  Perels,  Eine  Denkschrift  Hink- 
mars  von  Reims  im  Prozess  Rothads  von  Soissons  (Neues  Archiv,  XLIV. 
1);  F.  Lot,  Conjectures  Demographiqucs  sur  la  France  an  IXe  Siecle, 
II.  (Le  Moyen  Age,  May)  ;  Count  de  Calan,  La  Noblesse  Francaisc  an 
XVIIIe  Siecle  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  January)  ;  Commandant 
Herlairt,  Les  Enlevements  d'Enfants  a  Paris  en  1720  ct  en  1750,  I.,  II. 
(Revue  Historique,  January,  March)  ;  B.  Combes  de  Patris,  Louis  XV., 
la  Lcgcndc  ct  l'Histoire  (Revue  des  fitudes  Historiques,  January)  ;  F.  P. 
Renaut,  Etudes  sur  le  Pacte  de  Famille  et  la  Politique  Colonialc  Fran- 
gaise,  1760-1702  (Revue  de  l'Histoire  des  Colonies  Franchises,  1922,  1)  ; 
M.  Marion,  Des  Causes  Financier es  de  la  Revolution  (Revue  des  Cours 
et  Conferences,  January  30)  ;  A.  Cochin,  Les  Societes  de  Pensce  et  la 
Revolution,  II.  La  Liberte  (Le  Correspondant,  February  22)  ;  G.  Lenotre, 
Les  Agents  Royalistes  sous  la  Revolution,  V Affaire  Perlct,  II.,  III.  (Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,  January  15,  February  15)  ;  Frederic  Masson,  Les  Corn- 
plots  Jacobins  an  Lendemain  de  Brumaire  (Revue  des  £tudes  Napo- 
leoniennes,  January-February)  ;  P.  Marmottan,  Le  Cardinal  Maury  et 
les  Bonaparte  (Revue  des  fitudes  Historiques,  January);  A.  Augustin- 
Thierry,  Augustin  Thierry  d'apres  sa  Corrcspondancc,  V.  La  Princcssc 
Belgiojoso  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  February  1). 

ITALY,   SPAIN,   AND   PORTUGAL 

For  beginners  in  Italian  Professor  John  Van  Home,  of  the  University 
of  Illinois,  edits  a  small  book  entitled  //  Risorgimcnto  (University  of  Chi- 
cago Press,  pp.  168),  containing  six  selections  chosen  as  offering  con- 
temporary illustration  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  phases  of  the 
Italian  struggle  for  freedom  and  unity:  Mazzini's  letter  of  1831  to 
Charles  Albert;  the  first  act  of  Rovetta's  Romanticismo  (1854)  ;  Mercan- 
tini's  Hymn  of  Garibaldi ;  passages  relating  to  the  expedition  of  the 
Thousand  to  Sicily,  from  Garibaldi's  Mctnoric;  Cavour's  speech  of 
March  25,  1861,  on  the  Roman  question;  and  Carducci's  oration  of  1882 
on  the  death  of  Garibaldi. 

The  second  and  third  volumes  of  Mazzini's  Letters  to  an  English 
Family,  completing,  to  his  death  in  1872,  this  record  of  his  life  edited  by 
E.  F.  Richards,  have  been  published  (London,  John  Lane). 

A  discussion  of  recent  political  movements  in  Italy  and  their  bearing 
upon  the  relations  between  France  and  Italy  is  to  be  found  in  Com- 
munismc  ct  Fascio  en  Italic  (Paris,  Bossard,  1922,  pp.  118)  by  J.  Alazard. 

A  new  volume  of  Rcchcrchcs  sur  l'Histoire  Politique  du  Royaume 
Asturien,  718-010  (Tours,  Arrault,  1921,  pp.  364)  is  by  L.  Barrau-Dihigo, 
of  the  library  of  the  Sorbonne. 


Germany  and  Austria  853 

El  Cardenal  Cisncros,  Gobcrnador  del  Rcino  (Madrid,  Imprenta 
Iberica,  1921,  pp.  434),  by  C.  de  Cedillo,  is  not  only  a  biography  of  an 
influential  prelate  of  the  age  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  but  a  study  of  the 
Spanish  government  at  the  time  of  Spain's  greatness. 

Professor  Felix  Rachfahl  of  Freiburg  has  published  Don  Carlos, 
Kritische  Untersitchung  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  Boltze,  1921,  pp.  iv,  168). 

The  past  and  future  relations  between  Spain  and  Portugal  are  treated 
with  learning  and  insight  in  a  lecture  by  Dr.  Ricardo  Jorge  published 
under  the  title  A  Intcrcidtura  de  Portugal  e  de  Espanha  (Oporto, 
Araujo). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  William  Miller,  Democracy  at 
San  Marino  (History,  April)  ;  G.  Goyau,  Sur  VHorizon  du  Vatican,  II. 
L'&glise  et  les  £gliscs,  Le  Nouveau  Pontificat  (Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
March  1 )  ;  V.  Castafieda,  Rclaciones  Geogrdficas,  Topogrdficas,  c  His- 
toricas  del  Reino  de  Valencia,  hechas  en  el  siglo  XVIII.  a  Rucgo  de  Don 
Tomds  Lopes,  II.  (Revista  de  Archivos,  Bibliotecas  y  Museos,  January). 

GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA 

General  review :  P.  Kehr,  Bericht  iibcr  die  Hcrausgabe  der  Monu- 
menta  Germaniae  Historica  ipso  (Neues  Archiv,  XLIV.  1).  It  is  to 
be  noted  also  that  an  account  of  a  whole  century  of  German  historical 
scholarship  is  embodied  in  Professor  Harry  Bresslau's  Geschichte  der 
Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica,  im  Auftrage  Hirer  Zentraldirektion 
bearbeitet  (Hanover,  1921,  pp.  xiii,  750),  in  itself  a  monumental  work. 

An  excellent  and  penetrating  use  of  the  whole  literature  of  the  subject 
has  been  made  by  K.  Hampe  in  Der  Zug  nach  dem  Osten :  die  Kolonisa- 
torischc  Grosstat  des  Deutschcn  V dikes  im  Mittelalter  (Berlin,  Teubner, 
1921.  pp.  108). 

Dr.  Albert  Werminghoff's  Conrad  Ccltis  und  sein  Bitch  iibcr  Ni'irn- 
berg  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  Boltze)  provides  not  only  an  elaborate  biography  but 
a  learned  and  interesting  picture  of  Nuremberg  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

An  interesting  account  of  a  man  typical  of  his  time  is  S.  Stern's  Karl 
Wilhelm  Ferdinand  Hcrzog  zu  Braunschweig  und  Liincburg  (Hildes- 
heim,  1921,  pp.  xvi,  402). 

A  valuable  discussion  of  the  events  from  the  dismissal  of  Bismarck 
to  the  opening  of  the  war  is  to  be  found  in  Deutsche  Geschichte  writer 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.  (Leipzig,  Deichert,  1921,  pp.  viii.  360)  by  C.  Born- 
hak. 

On  the  basis  of  reports  found  in  archives  at  Strasbourg  after  the 
French  occupation  C.  Schmidt  has  written  Les  Plans  Secrets  de  la  Poli- 
tique Allemande  en  Alsace-Lorraine,  1015-1016  (Paris,  Payot,  1922,  pp. 
264). 


854  Historical  News 

La  Constitution  Allemande  du  u  Aout  ioiq  (Paris,  Payot,  1921,  pp. 
364)  by  R.  Brunet  is  not  a  mere  analysis  but  a  historical  account  of  the 
background  and  setting  of  the  new  constitution  of  Germany.  From  that 
point  of  view  it  is  the  best  book  which  has  yet  appeared. 

A  biography  of  importance  to  the  political  as  well  as  to  the  commercial 
and  naval  history  of  Germany  before  and  during  the  war,  is  that  of 
Albert  Ballin,  Dircktor  dcr  Hambttrg-Amerika  Linie  (Berlin,  Gerhard 
Stalling). 

An  important  volume  by  a  well-known  authority  is  J.  Redlich's  Das 
Oesterreichische  Stoats-  und  Reichsproblem:  Gcschichtliche  Darstellung 
der  innercn  Politik  der  Habsburgischen  Monarchic  von  1848  bis  sum 
Untergang  des  Reiches  (Leipzig,  Dcr  Neue  Geist  Verlag,  1921). 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  H.  Grisar,  Lutheranalecten:  V. 
Cur  non  Manus  Nostras  in  Sanguine  istorum  Lavamus?  VI.  Melancthons 
Rdtsclhafte  Nachgiebigkcit  auf  dem  Augsburger  Reichstag  1530  (His- 
torisches  Jahrbuch,  XLI.  2)  ;  H.  E.  Feine,  Einwirkungcn  des  Absolutcn 
Staatsgcdankens  auf  das  Deutsche  Kaisertum  im  17.  und  18.  Jahrhundert 
(Zeitschrift  der  Savigny-Stiftung  fur  Rechtsgeschichte,  XLII.,  German- 
istische  Abt.)  ;  D.  Sagmiiller,  Der  Rcchtliche  Begriff  der  Trennung  von 
Kirche  und  Staat  auf  der  Frankfurter  Nationalversammlung  1848-1840 
(Theologische  Quartalschrift,  CII.  3-4)  ;  C.  Schweitser,  Bismarcks 
Aeussere  Politik  und  sein  Christentum  (Preussische  Jahrbiicher,  March)  ; 
George  Saunders,  The  Resignation  of  Bismarck  (Quarterly  Review, 
April)  ;  F.  R.  Fairchild,  German  War  Finance:  a  Review  [based  on  Ch. 
Rist,  Les  Finances  de  Guerre  de  rAllcmagne]  (American  Economic  Re- 
view, June)  ;  Dr.  P.  Dirr,  Auswartige  Politik  Kurt  Eisners  und  der 
Bayerischcn  Revolution  (Siiddeutsche  Monatshefte.  February);  Joseph 
Szebenyei,  Hapsburg,  Hungary,  and  Horthy  (Century  Magazine,  June). 

NETHERLANDS  AND  BELGIUM 

Godefroid  Kurth,  1847-1916:  le  Patriotc,  le  Chretien,  VHistorien 
(Brussels,  La  Lecture  au  Foyer,  1922,  pp.  142),  by  the  late  Professor 
Alfred  Cauchie,  contains  two  characteristic  lectures  by  that  lamented 
scholar,  the  one,  on  Kurth  as  patriot  and  Christian,  delivered  in  Brus- 
sels in  September,  1920,  and  the  other,  on  Kurth  as  an  historian,  delivered 
in  December  of  that  year  at  the  Belgian  Historical  Institute  in  Rome  on 
the  occasion  of  the  resumption  of  the  instruction  interrupted  by  the  war. 

The  chief  matter  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Commission  Royale  d'Histoire, 
LXXXIV.  4,  is  an  important  article  in  Flemish,  "  De  Doopsgezinden  te 
Antwerpen  in  de  Zestiende  Eeuw  ",  by  K.  Vos. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  C.  Terlinden,  La  Politique  6.C0- 
nomiquc  de  Guillaume  I'-1',  Roi  des  Pays-Bas,  en  Bclgique,  1814-1830 
(Revue  Historique,  January). 


Asia,  Medieval  and  Modern  855 

NORTHERN   AND   EASTERN   EUROPE 

The  first  volume  of  the  Histoirc  de  VExpansion  Colonialc  des  Pcuplcs 
Europccns,  by  Professor  Charles  De  Lannoy  of  Ghent  and  Professor 
Herman  Vander  Linden  of  Liege,  was  published  in  1907,  and  related  to 
the  colonial  efforts  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  The  second  volume,  relating 
to  Dutch  and  Danish  colonization,  appeared  in  191 1,  a  brief  chapter  on 
Sweden  being  left  for  the  third  volume.  The  manuscript  of  that  volume, 
describing  the  colonial  expansion  of  France  from  the  beginning  to  1789, 
was  destroyed  in  the  German  burning  of  Louvain,  together  with  all  M. 
Vander  Linden's  library  and  notes.  M.  De  Lannoy  now  brings  out  in  a 
pamphlet  (Brussels,  Lamertin,  pp.  62),  as  all  that  can  be  done  at  present, 
the  Swedish  portion. 

L.  Mahlau  has  published  the  first  volume  of  a  Geschichte  dcr  Freien 
Stadt  Danzig  (Danzig,  Danziger  Verlagsgesellschaft,  1921,  pp.  119).  A 
single-volume  history  of  Danzig  is  Danzigs  Geschichte  (Danzig,  Kafe- 
mann,  1921,  pp.  235)  by  E.  Keyser. 

The  historical  background  of  the  problem  of  Russian  unity  is  set  forth 
by  E.  Haumant  in  he  Problcmc  de  I' Unite  Russe  (Paris,  Bossard,  1922, 
pp.  132). 

Vospominaniya  [Recollections],  1914-1910  (Berlin,  Ladyshnikof,  Lon- 
don, Jashke),  by  V.  B.  Stankevich,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  books  on 
the  period  of  Russian  history  indicated,  the  author  having  been  a  Socialist 
Revolutionary  editor  before  the  war,  and  having  been  in  such  various 
positions  during  the  war  as  gave  him  opportunities  of  observing  near  at 
hand  most  of  the  important  crises. 

The  Macmillan  Company  has  published  Russia  Today  and  Tomorrow, 
by  Professor  Paul  Miliukov,  partly  lectures  delivered  in  America. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals :  F.  Rousseau,  Un  Ministre  d' Alex- 
andre III.  ct  de  Nicolas  II.,  le  Comte  Wittc,  II.  (  La  Nouvelle  Revue, 
February  15)  ;  M.  Paleologue,  La  Russie  des  Tsars  pendant  la  Grande 
Guerre,  III.  La  Mission  de  MM.  Viviani  et  Albert  Thomas;  IV.  L' Entree 
en  Guerre  de  la  Roumanie;  V.  Le  Desastre  Roumain  (Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  January  15,  February  15,  March  1);  anon..  Le  Mouvement 
Pangermaniste  dans  les  Milieux  Allemands  de  la  Pologne  Russe  (  Le  Cor- 
respondant,  April  25  )  ;  1.  J.  Blociszewski,  La  Constitution  Polonaise  du 
i~  Mars  1021  (Revue  des  Sciences  Politiques,  January). 

ASIA,  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN 

Gaudefroy-Demombynes's  Les  Institutions  Musulmanes  (Paris,  Flam- 
marion,  1921.  pp.  xii,  192)  is  an  excellent  manual  based  on  the  results  of 
recent  scholarship. 

Reports  of  General  Ducrot  and  of  Admiral  Le  Barbier  de  Tinan,  with 
other  important  documents  illustrative  of  Napoleon  III.'s  Syrian  expedi- 


856  Historical  News 

tion,  are  printed  in  Le  Liban  ct  VExpcdition  Frangaise  en  Syrie,  i860- 
186 1  (Paris,  A.  Picard,  pp.  x,  351),  edited  by  Father  Camille  de  Roche- 
monteix,  S.  J. 

The  second  number  of  the  Journal  of  Indian  History,  edited  by  Pro- 
fessor Shafaat  Ahmad  Khan  of  Allahabad,  sustains  the  promise  of  its 
first  issue,  and  contains  articles  of  especial  value,  by  the  author  and  his 
staff,  on  sources  for  the  history  of  British  India  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury preserved  in  the  India  Office  and  the  Public  Record  Office,  and  on 
historical  manuscripts  in  the  libraries  of  India.  The  number  also  pre- 
sents the  beginning  of  a  learned  monograph  on  the  Army  of  Ranjit  Singh, 
by  Sita  Ram  Kohli,  and  a  translation  of  the  Jesuit  Annual  Letter  of  1648- 
1649  from  Mogor. 

The  latest  volume  of  the  Oxford  reprints  concerning  India  is  The 
Private  Life  of  an  Eastern  King,  by  William  Knighton  (Oxford,  Claren- 
don Press),  which,  originally  published  in  1855  and  1869,  depicted  vividly 
the  life  of  the  court  of  Oudh  from  narrations  by  a  European  adventurer 
in  the  service  of  the  king  and  by  a  slave  girl  of  the  last  queen. 

Professor  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  American  minister  to  China  from  1913  to 
1919,  has  brought  out  through  Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company  a  volume 
of  recollections,  entitled  An  American  Diplomat  in  China. 

A  clear  and  careful  study  is  presented  by  H.  Tchen,  Les  Relations 
Diplomatiqucs  de  la  Chine  ct  du  Japan  (Paris,  La  Vie  Universitaire, 
1922,  pp.  328). 

The  Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace,  Division  of  Eco- 
nomics and  History,  has  brought  out  a  study  of  the  Conscription  System 
in  Japan,  by  Gotaro  Ogawa,  D.  C.  L.,  professor  of  finance  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kioto  (Oxford  University  Press).  The  work  is  in  two  parts, 
first,  an  historical  survey  of  the  system  of  conscription,  from  its  inaugu- 
ration in  1873  to  the  present  time,  and  second,  a  study  of  the  economic 
effects  of  the  system. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Ales  Hrdlicka,  The  Peopling  of 
Asia  (Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  LX.  4);  M. 
Pernot,  Angora:  les  Titrcs  cntre  I'Occident  et  I'Orient  (Revue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  February  1)  ;  Tyler  Dennett,  The  United  States  and  "  Good  Of- 
fices" in  the  East  (American  Journal  of  International  Law,  January). 

AFRICA,    MEDIEVAL   AND   MODERN 

Les  Noirs  dc  VAfrique  (Paris,  Payot,  1921,  pp.  160)  is  a  historical 
essay  on  the  negro  peoples  of  Africa,  their  customs,  religions,  and  art, 
by  M.  Delafosse. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  G.  Sorel  and  L.  Auriant,  Jeremy 
Bcntham  ct  Vlndependance  dc  I'Bgypte  (Mercure  de  France,  April  15); 
P.  W.  Wilson,  The  Kingdom  of  Egypt  (World's  Work,  June). 


America  85; 


GENERAL  ITEMS 

At  the  office  of  the  Department  of  Historical  Research  in  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington  most  of  the  page-proof  of  Dr.  Burnett's  second 
volume  of  Letters  of  Members  of  the  Continental  Congress  has  been  re- 
ceived, and  preparation  of  the  index  has  been  begun.  Mr.  W.  G.  Leland 
arrived  in  Paris  early  in  May,  and  is  at  work  in  the  libraries.  Mrs.  N. 
M.  M.  Surrey  will  spend  the  autumn  in  Paris,  completing  the  work  which 
needs  to  be  done  in  situ  on  her  Calendar  of  papers  relating  to  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  The  manuscript  for  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  L.  F.  Stock's 
Proceedings  and  Debates  in  Parliament  relating  to  North  America, 
running  to  1689,  is  nearly  completed.  Miss  Elizabeth  Donnan,  professor 
in  Wellesley  College,  will  spend  the  summer  in  further  work  upon  her 
volume  of  documents  upon  the  slave  trade,  and  Professor  J.  S.  Bassett 
will  continue  the  editing  of  the  Correspondence  of  Andrew  Jackson. 
The  Department  has  also  received  from  Dr.  Charles  W.  Hackett  the  first 
volume  of  the  Bandelier  Papers  relating  to  Mexican  and  New  Mexican 
history,  collected  in  Spain  by  the  late  Dr.  Adolph  F.  Bandelier  for  the 
Carnegie  Institution  and  carefully  edited  and  translated  by  Dr.  Hackett. 
Miss  Mary  F.  Griffin  has  taken  the  place  of  Miss  Shirley  Farr,  resigned. 

The  situation  with  respect  to  government  archives  in  Washington  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  all  but  the  most  frequently  used  portions  of 
the  archives  and  library  of  the  Navy  Department  have  been  sent  to  the 
naval  magazine  at  Bellevue,  on  the  Potomac,  several  miles  below  Alex- 
andria. 

Among  the  recent  accessions  of  the  Division  of  Manuscripts  of  the 
Library  of  Congress  are:  executor's  account  book  of  Washington's  es- 
tate, 1802-1830  (photostat  copy)  ;  Lund  Washington's  account  book  while 
manager  of  Mount  Vernon,  1782-1786,  and  personal  accounts,  1782-1787 
(photostat  copy)  ;  papers  of  George  Mason  relating  to  the  Constitutional 
Convention,  including  Mason's  draft  of  his  proposed  Bill  of  Rights,  his 
speech  in  the  Constitutional  Convention,  amendments  proposed  to  the 
Constitution,  and  Edmund  Randolph's  plan  of  a  constitution  (nine  pieces, 
1782-1788)  ;  miscellaneous  papers  relating  to  prizes  taken  by  British 
cruisers,  1779  (18  pieces)  ;  miscellaneous  land,  religious,  and  other  papers 
relating  to  Waldoboro,  Warren,  and  other  places  in  Maine,  1766-1854 
(about  150  pieces)  ;  letters  to  Charles  A.  Dana,  1859-1882  (20  pieces); 
and  an  album  of  letters  of  Samuel  F.  Smith,  1883-1898,  including  several 
signed  autograph  copies  of  America. 

The  Pulitzer  prize  of  $2000  for  the  best  book  of  the  year  upon  the 
history  of  the  United  States  has  been  awarded  to  Mr.  James  T.  Adams  for 
his  book  on  The  Founding  of  New  England,  reviewed  in  our  October 
number  (XXVII.  129). 


858  Historical  Nezvs 

The  twentieth  session  of  the  International  Congress  of  Americanists 
will  be  held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  August,  the  twenty-first  at  Gothenburg, 
Sweden,  in  1923,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  of  organization  in  the 
latter  case  being  Baron  Erland  Nordenskiold,  head  of  the  department  of 
ethnology  in  the  museum  of  that  city. 

Professor  Carl  R.  Fish  has  written  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
United  States  History  (pp.  75)  for  use  in  connection  with  university  ex- 
tension work  (Madison,  University  of  Wisconsin). 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society  for  April, 
1921,  Mr.  John  H.  Edmonds,  archivist  of  Massachusetts,  has  a  paper  on 
the  Massachusetts  Archives,  chiefly  consisting  in  a  documented  history  of 
those  archives,  extending  to  1836.  It  is  followed  by  the  text  of  several 
interesting  papers  from  the  archives.  Mr.  Henry  De  Puy  contributes 
nine  Andrew  Jackson  letters,  correspondence  of  Andrew  Jackson  and 
Samuel  Swartwout,  1823-1825.  The  main  element  in  the  number  (159 
pp.),  however,  is  a  series  of  long  communications  of  William  McCulloch 
to  Isaiah  Thomas,  1812-1815,  intended  to  supplement  Thomas's  History 
of  Printing  in  America,  and  replete  with  curious  and  detailed  information 
concerning  printing  in  Pennsylvania. 

Judicial  Controversies  on  Federal  Appellate  Jurisdiction  (pp.  58)  is 
a  privately  printed  address  delivered  in  June,  1921,  by  Colonel  Alexander 
R.  Lawton  of  Savannah,  as  president  of  the  Georgia  Bar  Association. 
It  is  especially  rich  in  Georgian  material  on  its  topic,  dwelling  especially 
on  Judge  Benning's  opinion  in  Padelford  vs.  Savannah  (1854). 

The  American  Party  System:  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Political 
Parties  in  the  United  States,  by  Professor  Charles  E.  Merriam  of  Chi- 
cago, is  from  the  press  of  Macmillan. 

Mr.  Robert  W.  Neeser,  formerly  secretary  of  the  Naval  History  So- 
ciety, has  performed  a  useful  historical  and  patriotic  service  by  preparing 
a  small  book  on  Ship  Names  of  the  United  States  Nai'y:  their  Meaning 
and  Origin  (New  York,  Moffat,  Yard,  and  Company). 

Dr.  George  F.  Black,  of  the  New  York  Public  Library,  in  Scotland's 
Mark  on  America,  published  by  the  Scottish  section  of  "  America's  Mak- 
ing" (New  York,  1921,  pp.  126),  brings  together  a  biographical  list 
briefly  characterizing  the  career  of  more  than  1300  Scots  in  America. 

In  the  March  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Presbyterian  Historical 
Society  are  found  the  concluding  part  of  the  Journal  of  Rev.  and  Mrs. 
Lemuel  Foster,  edited  by  Professor  Harry  T.  Stock,  and  a  paper  on  the 
Pioneer  Presbyterians  of  New  Providence,  Virginia,  by  S.  Gordon  Smyth. 

The  department  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Catholic  University  of 
America  has  just  inaugurated,  with  four  substantial  and  creditable  vol- 
umes, a  series  of  Studies  in  American  Church  History,  published  under 
the  editorial   care  of   Professor   Peter   Guilday.     Of  these   volumes  the 


America  859 

first  is  Father  Jean  Dilhet's  Etat  de  I'Eglise  Catholiquc  ou  Diocese  des 
Etats-Unis  dc  I'Amerique  Scptentrionale  (pp.  xxv,  140,  263),  written 
about  1800  and  now  translated  and  edited  by  Rev.  Patrick  W.  Browne, 
S.  T.  D. ;  the  second,  Thomas  Cornwalcys,  Commissioner  and  Counsellor 
of  Maryland  (pp.  x,  140).  by  Rev.  George  B.  Stratemeier,  O.  P.;  the 
third,  The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  1822-1922  (pp.  x, 
196),  by  Rev.  Edward  J.  Hickey;  the  fourth,  The  Catholic  Hierarchy  of 
the  United  States,  1700-IQ22  (pp.  xiv,  223),  bv  Rev.  John  H.  O'Donnell, 
C.  S.  C. 

ITEMS  ARRANGED  IN  CHRONOLOGICAL  ORDER 
The  American  Geographical  Society  of  New  York  has  brought  out 
A  Description  of  Early  Maps,  Originals  and  Facsimiles,  1452-1611,  by 
Dr.  Edward  L.  Stevenson.  The  maps  described  are  a  part  of  the  per- 
manent wall  exhibition  of  the  society,  and  there  is  besides  a  partial  list 
of  others  found  in  the  society's  library.  The  same  society  announces  the 
reprint  of  A  Short  Account  of  the  First  Settlement  of  the  Provinces  of 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Nciv  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  by  the 
English  (London,  1735),  of  which  only  five  copies  are  known.  The  re- 
print will  include  a  facsimile  reproduction  in  color  of  Captain  John 
Smith's  map,  with  extensions  by  John  Senex. 

The  Magazine  of  History  prints  in  the  October  number  several  letters 
of  Washington. 

Students  of  the  diplomacy  of  the  Revolution  should  know  of  the  ex- 
istence of  Don  Valentin  Urtazun's  Historia  Diplomdtica  de  America,  pt. 
I.,  La  Emancipacion  dc  las  Colonias  Britdnicas,  t.  I.,  La  Alianza  Francesa 
(Pamplona,  Higinio  Coronas,  1920,  pp.  560). 

The  Federal  Convention  of  1787:  an  International  Conference  Ade- 
quate to  its  Purpose,  by  Arthur  D.  Call,  secretary  of  the  American  Peace 
Society  and  editor  of  the  Advocate  of  Peace,  is  issued  by  the  American 
Peace  Society  with  an  evident  purpose,  to  emphasize  the  Federal  Conven- 
tion as  international  in  character,  and  the  Constitution  as  therefore  the 
worthiest  model  (in  some  essential  features,  at  least)  for  that  greater 
association  of  nations  toward  which  the  world  aspires.  The  story  of  the 
Convention  is  briefly  but  effectively  told,  with  emphasis  upon  two  aspects 
of  the  Constitution,  namely,  that  it  created  a  government  of  laws  and 
not  of  men ;  and  that  the  central  government  operates  directly  upon  indi- 
viduals and  not  upon  states.  The  booklet  contains  also  texts  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  the  Constitution, 
and  the  American  Peace  Society's  "  Suggestions  for  a  Governed  World  ". 

The  Manning  Association  of  Billerica,  Massachusetts,  has  brought 
out  a  remarkable  and  hitherto  unpublished  manuscript,  written  by  William 
Manning  in  the  year  1798  and  only  recently  discovered  in  the  old  Man- 
ning manse  at  North   Billerica.     It  is  entitled  The  Key  of  Libberty,  to 


86o  Historical  News 

which  is  added  this  characterization  by  the  author:  "  Shewing  the  Causes 
why  a  free  government  has  Always  Failed,  and  a  Remidy  against  it  ". 
It  is  addressed  to  "  the  Republicans,  Farmers,  Mecanicks,  and  Labourers 
in  the  United  States  of  Amarica,  By  a  Labourer  ".  Chief  among  the 
causes  that  "  Ruen  Republicks"  is  "a  Conceived  Difference  of  Interests 
Between  those  that  Labour  for  a  Living  and  those  that  git  a  Living  with- 
out Bodily  Labour  ".  Manning  has  in  a  way  anticipated  Marx,  yet  he 
does  not  go  to  the  length  of  prescribing  a  dictatorship  of  the  proletariate. 
"  Although  their  are  many  caulings  by  which  men  live  honistly  without 
Labour,  yet  as  Labour  is  the  soul  parrant  of  all  property  by  which  all 
are  seported,  therefore  the  cauling  aught  to  be  honourable  and  the 
Labourer  respected."  "  The  ondly  Remidi  is  knowledge  " ;  and  "  the 
prinsaple  knowledge  nesecary  for  a  free  man  to  have  is  obtained  by  the 
Libberty  of  the  press  or  publick  newspapers  ".  "  But  this  kind  of  knowl- 
edge is  almost  ruened  of  late  by  the  doings  of  the  few."  Therefore  he 
proposes  an  association  of  "  those  who  Labour  for  a  Living ",  and  the 
establishment  of  a  "  Magazein  "  for  their  better  information.  Incidentally 
he  pays  his  respects  to  the  Jay  "  treety  "  at  length  and  often,  and  he  has 
some  first-hand  information  concerning  the  Shays  Rebellion.  Mr.  S.  E. 
Morison  furnishes  an  appreciative  and  elucidating  preface  and  numerous 
explanatory  notes. 

Major  Howell  T alum's  Journal,  kept  while  he  was  topographical  engi- 
neer (1814)  to  General  Jackson,  constitutes  vol.  VII.,  nos.  I,  2,  and  3,  of 
Smith  College  Studies  in  History.  The  writer  of  the  journal  had  been 
a  captain  of  North  Carolina  troops  in  the  Revolution,  had  settled  in 
Nashville  as  a  lawyer  about  the  same  time  that  Jackson  arrived,  and  had 
been  attorney  general  of  the  state,  and  then  judge  of  the  superior  court. 
He  was  appointed  topographical  engineer  by  Jackson  in  June,  1814.  and 
began  his  services  at  Jackson's  headquarters  at  the  junction  of  the  Coosa 
and  Tallapoosa  rivers  July  21  following.  About  one-third  of  the  journal 
consists  of  a  topographical  survey  of  the  Alabama  River  from  that  point 
down  to  its  junction  with  the  Tombigbee,  with  remarks  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  country.  The  remainder  of  the  journal  is  an  account  of  the 
movements  and  actions  of  Jackson's  army  from  August  19,  1814,  to  Janu- 
ary 20,  1815,  and  is  a  valuable  first-hand  narrative  of  events,  particularly 
of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  and  its  antecedent  actions.  The  journal, 
the  original  of  which  is  in  the  office  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  United 
States  army,  is  edited,  with  an  introductory  note,  by  Professor  John  S. 
Bassett. 

Notes  on  Land  and  Sea,  1850,  is  the  journal  of  Dr.  Robert  F.  Evans 
of  Shelby ville,  Tennessee,  written  while  on  the  way  to  California  (Bad- 
ger). 

The  first  series  of  the  Official  Records  of  the  Union  and  Confederate 
Navies  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  containing  the  records  and  documents 
of  the  Union  Navy,  having  been  completed  by  the  issue  of  the  twenty- 


America  861 

seventh  volume,  the  Navy  Department  has  now  issued  the  first  of  three 
volumes  which  will  compose  series  2,  comprising  the  records  and  docu- 
ments of  the  Confederate  Navy.  The  volume  (pp.  980,  and  21  plates)  is 
edited  by  Captain  C.  C.  Marsh. 

A  useful  little  book  in  the  Lake  English  Classics  (Chicago,  Scott, 
Foresman,  and  Company)  is  Selections  from  the  Writings  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  edited  for  school  use  by  Professor  J.  G.  deR.  Hamilton  of  North 
Carolina. 

Volume  II.  (1868-1872)  of  Ellis  P.  Oberholtzer's  History  of  the 
United  States  since  the  Civil  War  has  come  from  the  press  (Macmillan). 

At  the  time  of  the  celebration  of  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of 
the  birth  of  President  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  October  4  next,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society,  the 
first  volumes  of  the  Diary  and  Letters  of  President  Hayes  will  be  published. 
He  kept  a  diary  from  the  days  of  his  boyhood  to  the  end  of  his  life.  With 
the  letters,  now  preserved  in  the  Memorial  Library  at  Spiegel  Grove 
State  Park,  in  the  custody  of  the  society,  the  publication  will  make  about 
four  volumes,  edited  by  President  Hayes's  biographer,  Mr.  Charles  R. 
Williams  of  Princeton. 

Chauncey  M.  Depew's  My  Memories  of  Eighty  Years,  chapters  from 
which,  with  the  title  "  Leaves  from  my  Autobiography ",  appeared  in 
Scribner's  Magazine,  has  been  published  in  book  form  (Scribner). 

Through  Three  Centuries:  Coli'cr  and  Roscnberger  Lives  and  Times. 
1620-1022,  by  Jesse  L.  Rosenberger,  recounts  in  three  brief  chapters  the 
history  of  the  Col  vers  in  early  days  in  New  England,  then  relates  more 
particularly  the  life-story  of  Rev.  Nathaniel  Colver,  D.D.  (1794-1870), 
whose  ministry,  beginning  in  Vermont,  counts  long  years  of  service  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  in  Boston,  Detroit,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago;  of 
his  son,  Rev.  Charles  K.  Colver  (1821-1896),  whose  earlier  pastorates 
were  in  Massachusetts,  the  later  in  Illinois  and  Wisconsin;  and  of  the 
latter's  daughter  and  her  husband  who  is  the  author  of  this  volume  (Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press). 

Adventures  in  Idealism:  a  Personal  Record  of  the  Life  of  Professor 
H.  L.  Sabsovich.  privately  printed  by  his  widow,  in  a  volume  of  208 
pages,  is  an  interesting  and  profitable  sketch  of  a  Russian  Jew  who  came 
to  America  as  a  young  man  in  1887,  and  occupied  himself  until  his 
death  in  1915  with  earnest  labors  for  the  good  of  the  Hebrews  in  this 
country,  especially  in  lines  of  agricultural  development.  He  was  for 
many  years  head  of  the  Woodbine  Agricultural  School  in  New  Jersey, 
an  institution  of  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund,  and  later  was  for  several 
years  general  agent  of  that  fund. 

William  F.  McCombs,  the  President  Maker,  by  Maurice  F.  Lyons,  is 
from  the  press  of  the  Bancroft  Company,  Cincinnati. 

AM.  HIST.  REV.,  VOL.  XXVII.— 57. 


862  Historical  Nezvs 

A  Review  of  the  American  Forces  in  Germany  (pp.  442),  by  James  G. 
Adams,  is  published  in  Brooklyn  by  the  author  (1189  East  24th  Street). 

LOCAL  ITEMS  ARRANGED  IN   GEOGRAPHICAL   ORDER 
NEW   ENGLAND 

The  Maine  Historical  Society  celebrated,  April  11,  1922,  in  its  library 
building  in  Portland,  the  centennial  anniversary  of  its  organization.  The 
principal  papers  read  on  the  occasion  were  by  President  Sills  of  Bowdoin 
College  and  Hon.  Augustus  F.  Moulton  of  Portland,  the  first  dealing 
with  the  society's  career  in  Brunswick,  1822-1880,  the  latter  with  its  his- 
tory in  Portland  from  1881  to  1922.  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  S.  Burrage  paid  a 
tribute  to  Hon.  John  A.  Poor  for  his  valuable  services  to  the  society  in 
its  earlier  period.  In  the  autumn  of  this  year  the  society  will  observe  the 
tercentenary  of  the  grant  of  the  Province  of  Maine  by  the  Council  of 
New  England  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  Captain  John  Mason.  Dr. 
Burrage  will  deliver  the  address. 

The  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  has  published,  at  the  charge  of 
the  Dowse  Fund,  volume  III.  of  its  reprint  of  the  Journals  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts  (pp.  x,  228),  covering  the  proceed- 
ings from  May,  1721,  to  March,  1722.  The  proceedings  include  many 
contentions  between  governor,  council,  and  lower  house,  of  the  sort  which 
our  colonial  representatives  loved,  many  records  of  relations  with  the 
eastern  Indians,  and  a  multitude  of  details  respecting  persons  and  things 
in  the  province.  The  original  prints  being  almost  as  rare  as  manuscript, 
it  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  volume  adds  more  to  our  knowledge  of  Mas- 
sachusetts history  in  the  two  years  named  than  all  previously  accessible 
sources  combined. 

A  short  street,  of  considerable  local  fame  and  some  historical  im- 
portance, is  commemorated  in  a  pleasing  volume  entitled  Old  Park  Street 
and  its  Vicinity  (Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company),  by  Dr.  Robert 
M.  Lawrence,  who  furnishes  a  gossipy  history  of  the  locality,  street,  and 
each  individual  house. 

The  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society  has  acquired  the  Revolutionary 
War  muster-roll  of  Captain  Elijah  Lewis's  company,  the  gift  of  Mr.  H.  H. 
Rogers,  and  the  record  book  of  the  Warren  and  Barrington  Toll  Bridge 
Company,  1857-1870,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Fred  A.  Arnold.  In  the  January 
number  of  the  society's  Bulletin  is  found  an  extensive  account  of  Early 
Rhode  Island  Grist  Mills. 

The  Connecticut  Historical  Society  has  lately  received  from  Mrs. 
Susan  E.  Johnson  Hudson,  of  Stratford,  a  second  and  final  collection  of 
Johnson  papers,  comprising  more  than  a  thousand  letters  written  to  mem- 
•bers  of  the  family  during  the  period  from  1800  to  1850,  and  supplement- 
ing the  correspondence  of  William  Samuel  Johnson  and  his  relatives,  a 
collection  of  more  than  fifteen  hundred  letters,  which  the  society  received 
from  the  same  source  in  1913. 


America  863 

In  a  forthcoming  book  called  Captain  Nathaniel  Brown  Palmer,  an 
Old-Time  Sailor  of  the  Seas  (Macmillan),  John  R.  Spears  relates  the 
life  and  adventures  of  a  Stonington  sealer  and  voyager,  explorer  of  the 
Antarctic  region,  and  captain  in  the  China  trade. 

MIDDLE    COLONIES    AND    STATES 

The  October  number  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  New  York  State 
Historical  Association  contains  a  paper  by  Alice  Davis  on  the  Administra- 
tion of  Benjamin  Fletcher  in  New  York,  and  the  Journal  of  Joseph 
Avery,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  recording  a  journey  from  his  home  in 
Tyringham,  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,  to  the  Genesee  Country 
in  1799. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  July  number  of  the  New  York  Genealogical 
and  Biographical  Record  are  the  History  and  Vital  Records  of  Christ's 
First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Hempstead,  Long  Island,  contributed  by 
John  D.  Fish,  and  an  account,  by  Alice  D.  Weekes,  of  Francis  Weekes, 
friend  and  sometime  companion  of  Roger  Williams,  but  later  a  settler  on 
Long  Island. 

The  April  number  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  Quarterly 
Bulletin  contains  a  paper  by  Professor  James  H.  Breasted  on  the  Edwin 
Smith  Papyrus,  an  Egyptian  Medical  Treatise  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury before  Christ.  Dr.  William  S.  Thomas  contributes  a  descriptive 
catalogue  of  some  Revolutionary  diaries.  It  should  be  remarked  that 
James  Allen  of  Pennsylvania  was  not  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, although  his  brother,  Andrew  Allen,  was  a  member  of  the  Congress 
from  November,  1775,  to  May,  1776. 

A  Century  of  Banking  in  New  York,  1822-1922,  by  Henry  W.  Lanier, 
is  from  the  press  of  George  H.  Doran  Company. 

The  April  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  New  Jersey  Historical 
Society  contains  a  paper,  by  William  H.  Benedict,  on  Travel  across  New 
Jersey  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  and  Later;  continuations  of  a  Young 
Man's  Journal  of  1800-1813,  and  of  the  Condict  Revolutionary  Record 
Abstracts ;  and  an  eye-witness  account  by  a  German  officer  of  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  American  troops  in  the  second  battle  of  the  Marne. 

The  October  number  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  and 
Biography  contains  an  article  on  the  Life  and  Works  of  Benjamin  West, 
by  Hon.  Hampton  L.  Carson ;  the  Washington  Pedigree,  Corrigenda  and 
Addenda,  by  Charles  H.  Browning;  and  a  continuation  of  the  materials 
pertaining  to  the  Second  Troop  Philadelphia  City  Cavalry,  by  Dr.  W.  A. 
N.  Dorland. 

The  Whig  Party  in  Pennsylvania,  by  Henry  R.  Mueller,  is  of  the 
series  of  Columbia  University  Studies  in  History,  Economics,  and  Public 
Law. 


864  Historical  Nezvs 

Pennsylvania:  a  Record  of  the  University's  Men  in  the  Great  War  is 
issued  as  a  supplement  to  the  Alumni  Register  (October,  1920). 

In  the  April  number  of  Papers  read  before  the  Lancaster  County  His- 
torical Society  are  a  letter  from  the  committee  of  safety  in  Lancaster  to 
the  Continental  Congress,  June,  1775,  and  part  I.  of  an  Autobiography  of 
William  Michael,  by  George  Erisman.  The  May  number  contains  Lan- 
caster County  Petitions,  etc.,  to  the  Supreme  Executive  Council,  1784- 
1790,  by  H.  H.  Shenk;  and  in  the  June  number  are  some  Historical 
Notes  from  the  Records  of  Augusta  County,  Virginia,  by  Charles  E. 
Kemper. 

The  April  number  of  the  Western  Pennsylvania  Magazine  contains 
the  concluding  chapters  of  Charles  W.  Dahlinger's  history  of  Fort  Pitt; 
a  biographical  sketch  of  the  late  Senator  Knox,  by  Edwin  W.  Smith; 
Ten  Years  on  Historic  Ground :  Early  and  Later  Days  at  the  Pittsburgh 
Point,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Morgan  M.  Sheedy ;  and  the  Life  and  Times  of  Robert 
King,  Revolutionary  Patriot,  by  Henry  King  Siebeneck. 

Among  other  results  of  a  recent  expedition  to  the  Swedish  archives, 
Professor  Amandus  Johnson,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  has 
translated  into  English,  from  the  manuscript,  the  Gcographica  of  Peter 
Lindstrom,  military  engineer  in  New  Sweden  1654-1655,  a  document  of 
great  value  for  the  history  of  the  colony.  The  translation  will  be  pub- 
lished in  the  autumn,  accompanied  by  reproductions  of  its  maps. 

SOUTHERN    COLONIES    AND   STATES 

The  March  number  of  the  Maryland  Historical  Magazine  contains 
the  Civil  War  Diary  of  General  Isaac  R.  Trimble,  edited  by  W.  S.  Myers ; 
a  biography,  by  George  C.  Keidel,  of  Mrs.  Richard  Caton,  daughter  of 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton ;  a  continuation  of  Dr.  Bernard  C.  Steiner's 
biography  of  Senator  James  A.  Pearce,  and  also  of  the  series  of  Pro- 
vincial Records. 

In  the  Eighteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  library  board  and  librarian  of 
the  Virginia  State  Library,  there  is  included  a  translation,  by  Mr.  Rose- 
well  Page,  of  Quesnay  de  Beaurepaire's  Memoire,  Status,  et  Prospectus, 
concernant  I' Academic  dcs  £tats-Unis  de  I'Amerique,  etablie  a  Richemond 
(Paris,  1788). 

The  Virginia  State  Library  has  recently  received  by  transfer  from 
the  office  of  the  state  auditor  all  the  manuscript  land-tax  books  (1782- 
1863)  from  the  several  counties,  and  from  Princess  Anne  County  four 
volumes  of  records  and  many  separate  documents.  The  library  has  also 
received  2460  photostat  copies  from  the  12,000  rolls  of  Virginia  Con- 
federate troops  preserved  in  Washington. 

The  April  number  of  the  Virginia  Magazine  of  History  and  Biography 
devotes  its  pages  to  articles  having  special  interest  in  view  of  the  Vir- 


America  865 

ginia  Historical  Pageant  (May  22-28),  then  approaching.  They  are: 
the  Native  Tribes  of  Virginia,  by  David  I.  Bushnell,  jr.;  the  First  Uni- 
versity in  America,  an  address  delivered  by  Capt.  W.  Gordon  McCabe  at 
Dutch  Gap  on  May  31,  191 1,  at  the  unveiling  of  the  commemorative 
monument  erected  by  the  Virginia  Society  of  Colonial  Dames ;  the  Real 
Beginning  of  Democracy  in  America,  the  Virginia  Assembly  of  1619,  by 
Mary  N.  Stanard ;  the  Settlement  of  the  Valley,  by  Charles  E.  Kemper; 
Before  the  Gates  of  the  Wilderness  Road,  the  Settlement  of  Southwestern 
Virginia,  by  Judge  Lyman  Chalkley ;  and  the  Virginians  on  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  in  1742,  by  Fairfax  Harrison.  Mr.  Harrison's  article  gives 
for  the  first  time  an  authoritative  account  of  the  expedition  of  Howard, 
Sailing,  and  their  party  from  the  Valley  of  Virginia  to  New  Orleans  in 
1742  and  of  Sailing's  escape  from  French  captivity.  A  special  feature 
of  this  issue  of  the  Magazine  is  a  number  of  Virginia  portraits:  Wash- 
ington, Jefferson,  Madison,  Marshall,  Lee,  Jackson,  Johnston,  Stuart,  and 
Matthew  F.  Maury. 

Among  the  varied  contents  of  the  April  number  of  the  William  and 
Mary  College  Quarterly  Historical  Magazine  are:  a  note,  by  A.  J.  Mor- 
rison, concerning  Colonel  William  Tatham  (  1752-1819)  and  other  Vir- 
ginia engineers;  the  Will  of  William  Parks,  the  first  printer  in  Virginia, 
with  a  note  by  Lawrence  C.  Wroth;  some  letters  taken  from  Rind's  Vir- 
ginia Gazette  (1774)  pertaining  to  William  and  Mary  College;  and  some 
letters  of  Gen.  Edward  Carrington  to  Alexander  Hamilton  in  1791  rela- 
tive to  home  manufactures  in  Virginia. 

Several  pages  of  the  April  number  of  Tyler's  Quarterly  Historical 
and  Genealogical  Magazine  are  devoted  to  pointing  out  the  primacy  of 
Virginia  in  many  phases  of  the  national  development,  and  the  leadership 
of  Virginia  in  the  pre-Revolutionary  period.  Of  particular  interest  in 
this  issue  of  the  Magazine  is  a  text  of  George  Percy's  "  Trevve  Relacyon  ", 
a  copy  of  which,  from  the  original  at  Petworth  House,  England,  was  re- 
cently obtained  by  Dr.  Tyler,  and  is  now  in  possession  of  the  Virginia 
State  Library.  There  is  also  some  correspondence  (1767-1772)  of  John 
Norton,  including  letters  of  George  Wythe,  John  Page,  jr.,  and  E.  H. 
Moseley. 

Travels  in  Virginia  in  Revolutionary  Times,  1769-1802,  edited  by 
Alfred  J.  Morrison,  has  been  brought  out  in  Lynchburg  by  the  J.  P.  Bell 
Company. 

The  October  number  of  the  South  Carolina  Historical  and  Genealog- 
ical Magazine  contains,  besides  continuations  hitherto  mentioned,  a  body 
of  material  on  the  Hyrne  Family,  compiled  by  Miss  Mabel  L.  Webber. 

The  Transactions,  no.  26.  of  the  Huguenot  Society  of  South  Caro- 
lina, contains  the  address  of  the  president,  Mr.  Thomas  W.  Bacot,  de- 
livered before  the  society  in  April,  1921,  on  the  subject  of  some  Huguenot 
settlements   in   South    Carolina,   and   also  a   Huguenot   Exhortation   pro- 


866  Historical  Neivs 

nounced  at  Pons,  December  19,  1677,  by  Rev.  Samuel  Prioleau.  Tbis 
exhortation,  which  is  given  in  facsimile  and  in  an  English  translation 
by  Rev.  W.  T.  Riviere,  is  contributed,  with  an  introduction,  by  Professor 
Yates  Snowden. 

The  March  number  of  the  Georgia  Historical  Quarterly  contains  a 
paper,  by  Dr.  Roland  M.  Harper,  on  the  Development  of  Agriculture  in 
Upper  Georgia  from  1850  to  1880;  one  by  Judge  Beverly  D.  Evans  on 
the  Code  Napoleon;  and  a  continuation  of  the  Howell  Cobb  Papers, 
edited  by  Dr.  R.  P.  Brooks.  This  installment  includes  a  message  from 
Governor  Cobb  to  the  general  assembly  of  Georgia,  November  8,  1853, 
concerning  which  the  editor  states  that  it  is  the  only  message  of  consider- 
able importance  transmitted  during  Cobb's  administration. 

The  Alabama  department  of  archives  and  history  has  instituted  an 
active  campaign  for  acquiring  possession,  under  a  legislative  act  of 
1915,  of  the  aboriginal  mounds  and  town  sites,  old  forts,  and  other 
places  of  historic  interest  within  the  boundaries  of  the  state.  The  Ala- 
bama Anthropological  Society,  which  has  located  193  town  sites  within 
those  boundaries,  is  actively  assisting.  By  the  reservation  of  parks  and 
the  placing  of  tablets  or  markers,  the  places  acquired  will  be  given  the 
position  of  historical  memorials.  The  last-named  society,  by  an  ingeni- 
ous use  of  the  mimeograph,  succeeds  in  issuing  to  its  members  a  monthly 
magazine  called  Arroiv  Points,  the  contents  of  which  are  interesting  ar- 
ticles, drawings,  and  photographs  relating  to  Indian  remains  and  the 
Indian  history  of  the  state. 

Dr.  Armand  Remy  has  deposited  with  the  Louisiana  Historical  So- 
ciety an  extensive  and  elaborate  manuscript  history  of  Louisiana  from 
its  earliest  period  to  1815,  written  by  his  father,  Henry  Remy,  a  man  of 
French  birth  and  a  resident  of  Louisiana  from  1836  to  1867.  The  nar- 
rative, written  in  French,  is  regarded  by  those  who  have  examined  it  as 
of  much  importance. 

WESTERN     STATES 

The  fifteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical  As- 
sociation was  held  at  Iowa:  City  on)  May  n  and  12.  The  presidential 
address  was  by  Mr.  William  E.  Connelley  of  the  Kansas  State  Historical 
Society.  Among  the  papers  we  note  one  on  the  Activities  of  New 
Orleans  in  behalf  of  the  Texas  Revolution,  by  Professor  J.  E.  Winston 
of  Sophie  Newcomb  College;  one  on  Nativism  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  in 
the  Forties  and  Fifties,  by  Dr.  George  M.  Stephenson;  one  on  Recogni- 
tion of  Mexican  Governments  by  the  United.  States  since  1857,  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  W.  Hackett,  of  Texas;  and  one  on  Kentucky  Neutrality  in  1861, 
by  Professor  W.  P.  Shortridge,  0%  Louisville. 

Articles  in1  the  March  number  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical 
Review  are:  the  Relation  of  Philip  Phillips  to)  the  Repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  in  1854,  by  Dr.  H.  Barrett  Learned;  the  Beginnings 


America  867 

of  Railroads  in  the  Southwest,  by  R. .  S.  Cotterill ;  and  the  Policy  of 
Albany  and  English  Westward  Expansion,  by  Arthur  H.  Bufnnton.  In 
the  section  of  Notes  and  Documents  are  found  a  memorial  of  the  year 
1763,  entitled  Hints  Relative  to  the  Division  and  Government  of  the 
Conquered  and  Newly  Acquired  Countries  in  America,  with  an  introduc- 
tion by  Verner  W.  Crane;  and  a  note  by  Dr.  Everett  S.  Brown  concern- 
ing Jefferson's  plan  for  a  military  colony  in  Orleans1  Territory. 

In  the  October  number  of  the  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical 
Quarterly  are  three  articles  by  C.  B.  Galbreath,  namely,  the  Anti-Slavery 
Movement  in  Columbiana  County,  an  account  of  Edwin  Coppoc,  a  par- 
ticipant in  the  Harper's  Ferry  raid,  and  of  his  brother,  Barclay  Coppoc, 
also  one  of  John  Brown's  men.  The  paper  of  chief  importance  in  the 
January  number  is  the  Political  Campaign  of  1875  in  Ohio,  by  Forrest 
W.  Clonts.  Articles  in  the  April  number  are :  General  Joshua  Woodrow 
Sill,  by  Albert  Douglas;  Seneca  John,  Indian  Chief,  by  Basil  Meek;  the 
Ohio  State  University  in  the  World  War,  by  Professor  Wilbur  H. 
Siebert;  and  Three  Anti-Slavery  Newspapers,  by  Annetta  C.  Walsh. 

The  Indiana  Historical  Commission  has  issued  (Bulletin  no.  15)  the 
Proceedings  (pp.  157)  of  the  third  annual  conference  on  Indiana  his- 
tory, held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  of  Indiana  Pioneers,  the 
Indiana  Historical  Society,  and  the  Indiana  Historical  Commission,  at 
Indianapolis,  Dec.  9-10,  1921. 

Articles  in  the  June  number  of  the  Indiana  Magazine  of  History  are : 
George  H.  Promt,  his  Day  and  Generation,  by  George  R.  Wilson ;  History 
of  the  Know  Nothing  Party  in  Indiana,  by  Carl  F.  Brand;  and  Jesse 
Kimball,  Pioneer,  by  George  W.  and  Helen  P.  Beattie. 

The  Illinois  State  Historical  Library  is  preparing  for  publication  in 
the  Illinois  Historical  Collections  the  diary  of  Orville  H.  Browning 
(1810-1881),  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party  in  Illinois, 
United  States  senator  from  1861  to  1863,  secretary  of  the  interior  in  the 
Cabinet  of  President  Johnson,  and  member  of  the  Illinois  constitutional 
convention,  1869-1870.  The  diary,  which  covers  the  period  from  1850 
to  1881,  is  believed  to  be  of  great  importance  for  the  politics  of  the 
Civil  War  period.  It  is  being  edited  by  Theodore  C.  Pease  and  James 
G  Randall. 

The  Transactions  of  the  Illinois  State  Historical  Society,  1919,  in- 
cludes the  following  papers :  the  Scots  and  their  Descendants  in  Illinois, 
being  the  annual  address,  by  Thomas  C.  MacMillan;  Clark  E.  Carr,  a 
tribute  to  the  late  honorary  president  of  the  society,  by  George  A.  Law- 
rence; the  War  Work  of  the  Women  of  Illinois,  by  Mrs.  Joseph  T. 
Bowen;  the  Agricultural  Development  of  Illinois  since  the  Civil  War, 
by  Eugene  Davenport;  the  Life  and  Services  of  Joseph  Duncan,  Gov- 
ernor of  Illinois,  1834-1S38,  by  Elizabeth  Duncan  Putnam;  William  Mur- 
ray, Trader  and   Land   Speculator  in  the  Illinois  Country,  by  Anna  E. 


868  Historical  Nezvs 

Marks;  and  Captain  John  Baptiste  Saucier  at  Fort  Chartres  in  the  Illi- 
nois. 1751-1763,  by  John  F.  Snyder.  Papers  in  the  Transactions  of  1920 
are:  Fifty  Years  with  Bench  and  Bar  of  Southern  Illinois,  the  annual 
address,  by  Oliver  A.  Harker ;  Benjamin  D.  Walsh,  First  State  Entomolo- 
gist of  Illinois,  by  Mrs.  Edna  A.  Tucker;  Greene  County,  born  100  Years 
ago,  by  Charles  Bradshaw;  a  Quarter  of  a  Century  in  the  Stock  Yards 
District,  by  Miss  Mary  E.  McDowell ;  Illinois  Women  in  the  Middle 
Period,  by  A.  C.  Cole;  Side  Lights  on  Illinois  Suffrage  History,  by  Miss 
Grace  W.  Trout;  and  Scots  and  Scottish  Influence  in  Congress,  an  His- 
toric and  Anthropological  Study,  by  Arthur  MacDonald. 

Among  the  contents  of  the  October,  1920,  number  of  the  Journal  of 
the  Illinois  State  Historical  Society  are:  Illinois  Women  of  the  Middle 
Period,  by  A.  C.  Cole;  the  Building  of  a  State:  the  Story  of  Illinois,  by 
A.  Milo  Bennett;  Life  in  the  Army  (1867-1869),  by  Cynthia  J.  Capron; 
the  Diary  of  Salome  Paddock  Enos,  1815-1860,  with  an  introduction  by 
Louise  I.  Enos;  and  Some  Personal  Recollections  of  Peter  Cartwright, 
by  William  Epler. 

William,  Clayton's  Journal:  a  Daily  Record  of  the  Journey  of  the 
Original  Company  of  Mormon  Pioneers  from  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  to  the 
Valley  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  put  forth  by  the  Clayton  Family  Associa- 
tion, is  published  in  Salt  Lake  City  by  the  Deseret  Nezvs. 

Among  the  contents  of  the  May  number  of  the  Register  of  the  Ken- 
tucky State  Historical  Society  are:  the  Discovery  of  Kentucky,  by  W.  R. 
Jillson;  some  materials  relating  to  the  First  Explorations  of  Daniel 
Boone,  by  the  same  writer ;  History  of  the  County  Court  of  Lincoln 
County,  by  Lucien  Beckner ;  Correspondence  between  Governor  Isaac 
Shelby  and  General  William  Henry  Harrison  during  the  War  of  1812; 
and  some  Reminiscences  from  the  Life  of  Cave  Johnson. 

A  History  of  Elisabethtown,  Kentucky,  and  its  Surroundings,  written 
in  1869,  by  Samuel  Haycraft,  has  been  published  by  the  Woman's  Club  of 
Elizabethtown. 

Among  the  contents  of  the  March  number  of  the  Wisconsin  Magazine 
of  History  are:  Memories  of  a  Busy  Life,  by  General  Charles  King;  the 
Services  and  Collections  of  Lyman  Copeland  Draper,  by  Louise  P.  Kel- 
logg; Wisconsin's  Saddest  Tragedy  (the  killing  of  Charles  C.  P.  Arndt 
by  James  R.  Vineyard  in  the  council  chamber  of  the  Territory  of  Wis- 
consin, Feb.  11,  1842),  by  M.  M.  Quaife;  a  continuation  of  the  letters  of 
E.  J.  Canright,  a  soldier  in  the  Great  War ;  and  a  letter  written  from 
Racine,  Wisconsin,  in  1843,  by  H.  S.  Durand. 

In  the  issue  of  February-May,  1921  (double  number),  of  the  Minne- 
sota History  Bulletin  is  found  a  very  suggestive  discourse  by  Professor 
Joseph  Schafer  on  the  Microscopic  Method  applied  to  History,  a  paper 
read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Minnesota  Historical  Society  in  Janu- 
ary, 1 921. 


America  869 

The  principal  article  in  the  October  number  of  the  Annals  of  Iowa 
is  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  in  its  relation  to  Iowa  History  and 
Geography,  by  David  C.  Mott.  There  are  also  some  reprints  from 
Gregg's  Dollar  Monthly  and  Old  Settlers'  Memorial,  among  them,  Black 
Hawk:  some  Account  of  his  Life,  Death,  and  Resurrection. 

Two  articles  principally  occupy  the  pages  of  the  April  number  of  the 
Iowa  Journal  of  History  and  Politics,  namely,  an  account  bv  William 
Clark  of  a  Trip  across  the  Plains  in  1857,  and  a  paper  on  the  Judiciary 
of  the  Territory  of  Iowa,  by  Jacob  A.  Swisher. 

The  May  number  of  the  Palimpsest  contains  an  account,  by  John  C. 
Parish,  of  the  First  Mississippi  Bridge,  and  a  reprint,  from  the  Chicago 
Daily  Press,  September  24,  1857,  of  an  argument  by  Abraham  Lincoln  be- 
fore the  United  States  Circuit  Court  as  attorney  for  the  Railroad  Bridge 
Company. 

The  Missouri  Historical  Society  has  received  from  Miss  Lucia  L. 
Bates,  granddaughter  of  Frederick  Bates,  governor  of  Missouri,  1824- 
1826,  an  important  body  of  the  papers  of  Frederick  Bates,  and  of  his  more 
distinguished  brother,  Edward  Bates,  attorney  general  in  Lincoln's  Cabi- 
net. 

The  State  Historical  Society  of  Missouri  is  preparing  for  publication 
the  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  Missouri  Governors,  which  will  ex- 
tend to  six  volumes.  It  is  expected  that  the  first  three  volumes  of  the 
series,  covering  the  years  1820-1870,  will  be  ready  this  year.  The  vol- 
umes will  also  include  biographical  sketches  of  each  of  the  governors, 
prepared  by  competent  hands. 

Volume  X.  of  the  South  Dakota  Historical  Collections  ( Pierre, 
[1921],  pp.  168)  contains  articles  on  Nicollet  and  Fremont,  on  Dakota 
in  the  Fifties,  on  the  Astorians  in  South  Dakota,  on  World  War  Activi- 
ties in  that  state,  on  Mennonites  there,  and  special  historical  sketches  of 
Union  County. 

The  October-December  number  of  Nebraska  History  and  Record  of 
Pioneer  Days  contains  an  account  of  Historical  Sites  in  Nebraska,  by 
Addison  E.  Sheldon,  and  a  Revenant  Cheyenne,  by  the  same  writer. 

In  the  April  number  of  the  Southwestern  Historical  Quarterly  appears 
a  first  installment  of  a  study  of  the  Indian  Policy  of  the  Republic  of 
Texas,  by  Anna  Muckleroy ;  an  Appreciation  of  Edward  Hopkins  Cush- 
ing.  by  his  son,  E.  B.  dishing;  and  a  continuation  of  the  Bryan-Hayes 
Correspondence. 

A  History  of  the  Southern  Pacific,  by  Stuart  Daggett,  has  been 
brought  out  in  New  York  by  the  Ronald  Press. 

The  working  library  and  papers  of  the  late  Senator  Francis  G.  New- 
lands  of  Nevada,  which  are  of  great  importance  to  the  history  of  the 
development  of  irrigation  and  of  the  improvement  of  river  systems,  par- 


870  Historical  News 

ticularly  the  Mississippi,  have  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Nevada 
Historical  Society.  The  society  already  has  the  papers  of  the  late  Sena- 
tor William  M.  Stewart,  important  to  the  history  of  the  silver  question. 

The  March  number  of  the  Oregon  Historical  Quarterly  has  an  article 
by  C.  F.  Coan  on  the  Adoption  of  the  Reservation  Policy  for  the  Indians 
in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  1853-1855 ;  the  first  installment  of  a  History  of 
the  Oregon  Mission  Press,  of  which  the  first  issue  was  of  1839,  by  How- 
ard M.  Ballou  of  the  Hawaiian  Historical  Society;  and  articles  by  T.  C. 
Elliott  on  Jonathan  Carver's  Source  for  the  Name  Oregon,  and  on  the 
subordinate  relation  of  his  endeavors  to  those  of  Major  Robert  Rogers, 
and  by  Robert  M.  Gatke  on  the  First  Indian  School  of  the  Pacific  North- 
west. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  April  number  of  the  Washington  Historical 
Quarterly  are:  the  Loss  of  the  Tonquin  (1811),  by  Judge  F.  W.  Howay; 
the  Background  of  the  Purchase  of  Alaska,  by  Victor  J.  Farrar;  and  some 
reminiscences  of  Christina  M.  M.  Williams,  daughter  of  Angus  Mac- 
Donald,  recorded  by  William  S.  Lewis  and  annotated  by  J.  A.  Meyers. 


Abbe  J.  M.  Grossetete's  treatise  on  the  French  cod  fisheries,  La 
Grande  Peche  dc  Terrc-Neuvc  et  d'Islande  (Rennes,  Presse  de  Bretagne, 
iQ2r,  pp.  421)  is  a  thesis  for  the  doctorate  of  laws,  and  is  confined  to  the 
French  operations,  but  is  an  excellent  description  of  the  present  industry 
in  all  its  features,  and  is  preceded  by  an  historical  introduction  which  will 
be  of  value  to  many  American  students. 

Articles  in  the  June  number  of  the  Canadian  Historical  Revieiv  are : 
Canada  and  South  Africa,  by  Alan  F.  Hattersley ;  Intra-Imperial  Aspects 
of  Britain's  Defence  Question,  1870-1900,  by  Paul  Knaplund,  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin;  and  the  Early  Days  of  Representative  Govern- 
ment in  British  Columbia,  by  W.  N.  Sage.  Reginald  G.  Trotter  con- 
tributes a  note  on  Lord  Monck  and  the  Great  Coalition  of  1864,  accom- 
panied by  the  memoranda  exchanged  June  17,  1864,  between  Governor 
General  Monck  and  Sir  Etienne  Tache,  the  prime  minister. 

Volume  X.  of  the  Papers  and  Records  of  the  Wentworth  Historical 
Society  (Hamilton,  Ontario)  has  for  its  principal  content  a  reprint  of 
the  Historical  Sketch  of  the  County  of  Wentworth  and  the  Head  of  the 
Lake  (Hamilton,  1897),  by  J.  H.  Smith. 

AMERICA,   SOUTH    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  February  number  of  the  Hispanic  American  Historical  Review 
has  three  historical  articles:  one  on  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  and  the 
Argentine-Brazilian  Boundary  Settlement,  by  Miss  Mary  W.  Williams 
of  Goucher  College;  one  on  the  history  of  Central  American  Union,  by 


America  871 

Mr.  Edward  Perry;  and  an  address  on  New  Constitutional  Tendencies  in 
Hispanic  America,  by  Professor  Manoel  de  Oliveira  Lima  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  America.  There  is  also  part  I.  of  a  bibliography  of  Chilean 
Literature,  by  Dr.  Sturgis  E.  Leavitt  of  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina. 

Professor  Halford  L.  Hoskins  of  Tufts  College  has  prepared  a  Guide 
to  Latin-American  History  (pp.  121),  "intended  primarily  to  furnish  a 
means  of  access  to  the  various  aspects  of  development  of  those  states 
which  are  collectively  termed  Latin  America  ".  The  work  is  in  form  a 
syllabus,  with  "brief  references",  lists  of  "longer  accounts",  and  of 
"  additional  readings  ",  appended  to  each  topical  outline.  There  are  also 
seventeen  pages  of  classified  bibliography  and  a  list  of  outline  maps,  with 
suggestions  for  their  use.  Almost  half  the  syllabus  is  concerned  with 
Latin-American  problems  and  collective  development,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Pan-American  and  International  relations,  on  the  other,  with  special 
regard  to  commercial  and  economic  aspects  and  problems. 

Senor  Humberto  Julio  Paoli,  of  Banfield  in  Argentina,  expects  soon 
to  publish,  as  the  beginning  of  a  Coleccion  de  Libros  ref creates  a  la  Cien- 
cia  Hispano- Americana,  reprints  of  three  books  of  some  rarity  in  that 
field  :  Alvaro  Barba,'  Arte  de  los  Metales  (Madrid,  1729)  ;  Nicolas  Monar- 
des.  Historia  Medicinal  de  Nucstras  Indias  Occidcntales  (  Seville, 
1580)  ;  and  Peres  de  Verges,  Los  Nueve  Libros  de  Re  Metallica  (Madrid, 
1569). 

The  Cortes  Society  is  planning  to  publish  soon  the  excessively 
rare  work  relating  to  Brazil  entitled  Historia  da  Provincia  Sancta 
Cruz,  by  Pero  de  Magalhaes  de  Gandavo  (Lisbon,  1576).  The  first  vol- 
ume will  contain  a  facsimile  of  the  Portuguese  text  as  published,  with  a 
translation  into  English  by  Mr.  John  B.  Stetson,  jr.;  the  second  volume 
will  contain  the  translations  of  three  important  documents  relating  to  the 
same  subject,  with  a  commentary  and  notes  by  the  translator.  Other 
translations  which  will  appear  later  are  the  narratives  of  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  by  Andres  de  Tapia  and  Francisco  de  Aguilar,  eye-witnesses,  and 
of  Peru  by  Miguel  de  Estete. 

The  Life  of  Enos  Nuttall,  Archbishop  of  the  West  Indies,  by  Mr. 
Frank  Cundall,  of  the  Jamaica  Institute,  with  a  foreword  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  is  brought  out  by  Macmillan. 

The  Copper  and  Bronze  Ages  in  South  America,  by  Baron  Erland 
Nordenskiold  of  the  Gothenburg  Museum  in  Sweden  (Gothenburg,  1921, 
pp.  vii,  197),  makes  an  important  contribution  to  American  archaeology 
by  careful  scientific  studies  centring  especially  around  the  relations  of  the 
age  of  copper  to  the  succeeding  age  of  bronze. 

The  latest  publication  of  the  Hakluyt  Society  is  the  Journal  of  the 
Travels  and  Labours  of  Father  Samuel  Fritz  in  the  River  of  the  Amazons 
between  16S6  and  I721,  translated  and  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  George  Edmund- 


872  Historical  News 

son  from  the  manuscript  discovered  by  him  in  the  Biblioteca  Publica  of 
Evora  in  Portugal.  Father  Fritz  is  of  note  for  cartographical  work  on 
the  upper  regions  of  the  Amazon. 

The  Venezuela  Boletin  de  la  Accidentia  Nacional  de  la  Historia,  V.  2 
(Caracas,  December,  1921),  prints  twenty-nine  army  bulletins  of  Bolivar 
of  August-December,  1813,  and  a  body  of  reports  made  to  the  Asamblea 
Popular  of  San  Francisco  in  January,  1814.  The  bulletins  of  1814  will 
appear  in  the  next  number. 

In  a  Colombian  series  entitled  Biblioteca  de  Historia  Nacional,  Se- 
fiores  Roberto  Cortazar  and  Luis  Augusto  Cuervo  have  published  for  the 
first  time  the  Libro  de  Adas  of  the  Congress  of  Angostura  (1819),  a 
record  of  much  importance  to  the  early  history  of  both  Colombia  and 
Venezuela. 

No.  52-53  of  the  Boletin  del  Ccntro  de  Estudios  Amcricanistas  de 
Scvilla  begins  the  publication  of  a  "  Libro  intitulado  Coloquios  de  la  Ver- 
dad  "  concerning  obstacles  to  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  of  Peru  and 
their  general  grievances,  written  about  1563  by  Father  Pedro  de  Quiroga, 
missionary  among  them;  the  document,  important  for  the  history  of  the 
conquest,  as  well  as  for  subsequent  Indian  relations,  is  edited  by  Fray 
Julian  Zarco  Cuevas,  Augustinian  of  the  Escorial,  in  whose  library  the 
manuscript  is  preserved. 

Noteworthy  articles  in  periodicals:  Oscar  Montelius,  Amcrika  och 
Gamla  Vdrlden:  hafva  de  statt  i  nag  on  Fbrbindelsc  mcd  hvarandra  fore 
Columbus?  (Nordisk  Tidskrift,  1919,  1);  Colonna  de  Cesari-Rocca, 
La  Veritable  Origine  de  Cristophe  Colomb  (Revue  de  la  Corse,  Febru- 
ary-March) ;  W.  C.  Ford,  The  Adams  Family  (Quarterly  Review,  April)  ; 
S.  F.  Bemis,  Alexander  Hamilton  and  the  Limitation  of  Armaments 
(Pacific  Review,  March)  ;  L.  M.  Sears,  The  Middle  States  and  the  Em- 
bargo of  1808  (South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  April)  ;  J.  G.  Randall,  The  In- 
demnity Act  of  1863:  a  Study  in  the  War-Time  Immunity  of  Govern- 
mental Officers  (Michigan  Law  Review,  April)  ;  R.  E.  Cushman,  The 
Social  and  Economic  Interpretation  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  (ibid., 
May)  ;  H.  H.  Kohlsaat,  From  McKinlcy  to  Harding:  Personal  Recollec- 
tions of  our  Presidents,  cont.  (Saturday  Evening  Post,  May  13,  27); 
B.  J.  Hendrick,  Chapters  from  the  Life  and  Letters  of  Walter  H.  Page, 
cont.  (World's  Work,  April,  May,  June)  ;  Letters  of  a  High-Minded 
Man:  Franklin  K.  Lane,  cont.  (ibid.,  April,  May,  June);  G.  Pattullo, 
The  Inside  Story  of  the  A.  E.  F.  (Saturday  Evening  Post,  April  29- 
May  27)  ;  Baron  Marc  de  Villiers,  Le  Massacre  dc  I'Expcdition  Espa- 
gnole  du  Missouri,  11  Aout  1/20  (Journal  de  la  Societe  des  Americanistes 
de  Paris,  n.  s.,  XIII.  2)  ;  W.  Smith,  First  Days  of  British  Rule  in  Canada 
(Queen's  Quarterly,  January,  February,  March);  W.  R.  Riddell,  Judges 
in  the  Executive  Council  of  Upper  Canada  (Michigan  Law  Review,  May)  ; 
Isabel  E.  Henderson,  Donald  Gunn  on  the  Red  River  Settlement  (Cana- 


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