The American Jew A Study Of Backgrounds

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The American Jew

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THE AMERICAN JEW

A Study of Backgrounds

THE AMERICAN JEW

A Study of Backgrounds .

BY

RABBI ABRAHAM J. FELDMAN

NEW YORK
BLOCK PUBLISHING CO.

"The Jewish Book Concern"

Copyright, 1537, by
BLOCK PUBLISHING CO., INC.

Printed in the United States of America

"And they said every one to his fellow: "Come, and let
us cast lots, that we may know for whose cause this evil is
upon us.' So they cast lots, and the lot fell upon Jonah.
Then said they unto him: 'Tell us, we pray thee, for whose
cause this evil is upon us: what is thine occupation? and
whence comest thou? what is thy country? and of what
people art thou?' And he said unto them: e l am a Hebrew;
and I fear the Lord, the God of heaven, who hath made the
sea and the dry land.' "

Jonah 1:79

"The Jew recognises practically, if not consciously, that
he is made what he is by the history of his fathers, and
feels he is losing his better self so far as he loses his hold of
his past history; for he regards himself as having gone
through the vicissitudes of his fathers."

JOSEPH JACOBS: Jewish Ideals, p. 16,

PREFACE

THE contents of this book has been used by the
author in various ways. He used it for lectures and
he used it as a syllabus in classes. In the latter case he
found it particularly useful, because while the text
tells a story, the teacher and students had ample op-
portunity to go into the many by-paths suggested
by names, incidents, movements. These were made
the subjects of studies and reports by individual
members of the class and made for very stimulating
discussions.

The appended reading lists are not exhaustive, of
course; they are intended to be helpfully suggestive.
The chronological tables have a similar purpose.

It will be found that this text could be most use-
ful for classes composed of High School youth as
also for adult study groups.

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to
Harriet B. Schoenfeld of Hartford for several con-
structive suggestions made by her, suggestions born
of the practical experience she had with this text
in a High School class of the Beth Israel Religious
School.

The book is sent forth with the fervent hope that
vii

viii PREFACE

it may make for the further integration of Ameri-
can Jewry; that it may help level such remaining
barriers as there are; that it may make for a deepen-
ing respect for, and understanding among, breth-
ren; and that even the stranger who is not of the
household of Israel who may perchance read these
pages may learn to know that the American Jew is
the

"Heir of all that they have earned

By their passion and their tears;
Heir of all that they have learned
Through the weary, toiling years.

"Heir of all the faith sublime

On whose wings they soared to heaven;
Heir of every hope that time

To earth's fainting sons hath given."

ABRAHAM J. FELDMAN

Hartford, Connecticut

Erev Shabbatb Nacbamu 5 697

July 23,

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS IN AMERICA 3
II THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA . .18

III THE RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA . 3 1

IV THE AMERICAN JEW 42

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES .... -53
READING LISTS 6$

ix

THE AMERICAN JEW

A Study of Backgrounds

CHAPTER I

THE BACKGROUND OF THE SPANISH-
PORTUGUESE JEWS IN AMERICA

SOME years ago the then editor of the World's Work
magazine wrote a series of articles which later ap-
peared in a book entitled "The Jews in America."

In those articles whenever the editor mentioned
the American Jew he referred specifically to the
German Jew who settled in America, and his de-
scendants. To the rights and perquisites of the distin-
guished degree of "American Jew," that editor did
not admit the Russian and Polish Jews.

Now, there are many others, even Jews, who, like
that editor, seem to distinguish between the "Ameri-
can" Jew and other Jews in America. An "Ameri-
can" Jew, to such people, is not one of the more re-
cent immigration, and even a native-born son of
such an immigrant is not considered an "American"
Jew. In the judgment of these folk, complete Amer-
icanization, American education, business achieve-
ment, social milieu, do not necessarily make an
"American" Jew. The designation "American Jew"
they apply almost exclusively to the Jew who either

4 THE AMERICAN JEW

himself came over from Germany or is a descend-
ant of that stock.

That such a view is entirely erroneous is, of course,
conceded by anyone who thinks and knows aught
of Jewish life and of American tradition.

But is there an "American Jew"? Who is such a
Jew? How did he become such?

It is to the consideration of this matter that the
author devotes these pages. And he deemed it wisest
and most accurate to approach his theme by way of
an examination of the background of the Jews in
America, more especially of those major groups
which at various periods in America's history have
sent their hundreds and their thousands to "the land
of the free and the home of the brave."

We should realize that the American Jew was not
created ex nihilo, out of nothing. He is "like a tree
planted by streams of water," his roots are in the
deep soil of Jewish and human history, and his com-
ing here was a transplanting into a rich and fruitful
soil. To know the American Jew, therefore, to know
who he is, and what he is, we must know his ante-
cedents, the sources whence he came; we must un-
derstand his background. And so, in accordance
with accepted laboratory methods, we shall separate
the body before us into its constituent parts, analyze
these parts, and when the analysis is complete, we

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 5

shall again fuse these constituents into an organic
whole.

We know that American Jewry falls into three
major groupings, according to place of origin and
time of arrival. For there were three large Jewish
migrations to America. The first, and the smallest,
was the migration of the Spanish-Portuguese Jews,
the Sephardim. Later came a larger migration of
German Jews. The third and largest migration came
from eastern and southeastern Europe and was com-
posed of the Russian, Polish and Galician Jews.

In this chapter, we address ourselves to a study of
the background of the first group. Before doing so,
however, an additional word should be said by way
of introduction. A people, a group, any people, any
group, has an inherent right, when it is being judged,
to be judged by its best and not by its worst charac-
teristics. Recognizing that the doctrine of total de-
pravity is as un- Jewish as it is untrue, and realizing
that no group could possibly survive, as the Jews
have survived, except as it is predominantly whole-
some, we are justified to seek the good, the true, the
lasting, rather than the abnormal, the perverted, or
the decadent. None will disagree with us when we
say that in judging America and Americans the
criterion of judgment ought not to be Ku Klux
Klansmen, racketeers, gangsters, bootleggers, or
even the average politician. Rather, America should
be judged by its Wilsons, its Eliots, its Roosevelts.

6 THE AMERICAN JEW

So, too, should we judge Jewry, and it is with this
attitude that we approach the study of the various
groups that comprise the Jews of America.

The Sephardic Jew, then, was the first Jew to
come to America. What was his background?

There were Jews in Spain even in pre-Christian
times. The Apostle Paul certainly intended to go to
Spain to proclaim the gospel to Jews there (Romans
XV 124, 28) . The Talmud and the Midrash refer to
"Aspamya," which is the old name for Spain; Jew-
ish coins have been found in Spain, as well as Jewish
tombstones which date to the third century.

From the third century on, it seems that Jews
spread rapidly over the entire Pyrennean peninsula,
and in those early days, under the Arian Visigoths,
the Jews were well treated. Then at the beginning of
the fourth century, about 303 and 304, at the time
of the Church Council of Elvira, anti- Jewish legisla-
tion in the peninsula began to multiply and condi-
tions continued to grow worse until, at the Third
Council of Toledo in 589, King Reccared I was con-
verted to Catholicism which became the official State
religion. There began a series of bitter and stringent
persecutions. Intermarriages were forbidden. Segre-
gation of the Jews was enforced. There were forced
conversions. There was confiscation of Jewish prop-
erty. There was exile. Even slavery.

This continued until the eighth century when, in

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 7

711, the Moors took possession of the peninsula.
These Arab invaders removed the disabilities against
the Jews for whom a new era was thus ushered in.
This was the period which came to be known as the
Golden Age in Jewish History, and it continued
from the eighth through to the eleventh centuries,
or the year 1013, when the Moslem power over Spain
was broken and the Moslem liberal spirit disin-
tegrated.

The country was partitioned into a number of
small kingdoms under separate caliphs. Jewish for-
tunes likewise were varied. In some of the districts
Jews were treated with continuing kindness. Else-
where in Spain there was discrimination against
them. Their fortunes and advantages changed with
the political complexions of sovereigns. Under the
Almoravides, a Berber tribe but lately converted
to Islam, warlike, fanatical, the Jews fared poorly.
These Berbers lasted in Spain but a short while,
1086 to 1 146, and were displaced by the Almohades,
who also were Moslems. These subjected the Jews
to a series of terrible persecutions lasting until 1212
when their power was finally broken by Christian
princes.

But the lot of the Jews was not improved. With
the beginning of the Christian reign in Spain these
persecutions continued and became ever more seri-
ous. It was during the Christian reign that the
"Badge of Shame" was introduced. It was during

8 THE AMERICAN JEW

this period that confiscation of Jewish property was
the rule. It was during this period that unspeakable
massacres, such as those of 1 3 66 and 1391, took place.
It was during this time that forced conversions
multiplied, resulting in that class of the Jewish dis-
inherited known as Maranos, they who formally ac-
cepted Catholicism but secretly practiced Judaism.

It was during this period of the Christian domin-
ion in Spain that we observe the rise of "disputa-
tions," the formal and forced debates between
spokesmen for the Jews and spokesmen for the
Church as to the relative merits of the respective re-
ligions. These disputations were not intended to do
the Jews any good. They were not "good-will"
meetings, in any sense. The intention of these dispu-
tations, sponsored by the Church, was admittedly
to embarrass the Jews by inflaming the populace
against them.

It was during this period that there were the con-
stantly increasing numbers of restrictions against
the Jews. With but very little surcease now and then,
it is a story of constant persecution until, in 1492,
under the influence of Torquemada, the Grand In-
quisitor in Spain, the Jews were compelled to leave
the country or cease to be Jews. Here we have the
end of the chapter as far as Jewry in Spain is con-
cerned.

Now, as we read this very sketchy and most super-
ficial account of Jewish fortunes in Spain, we be-

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 9

come aware that their story is not unlike the story
with which we are familiar the story of Jewry
throughout the Middle Ages in Europe. But we
might ask, is this the background of the Sephardic
Jew? Are the black of persecution and the red of
massacre the only colors in the background against
which we can place the Sephardic Jew, in our effort
to understand him?

Not at all. We should remember that the Moors,
that the entire Arab caliphate were enlightened
people. "Their pen was mightier than their sword."
And the Jews who were familiar with Arabic be-
came the intermediaries between the Arabs and the
Europeans.

The Jews entered the service of the State. Chasdai
Ibn Shaprut of Cordova (tenth century) was a
scholar, a scientist (he was a recognized botanist and
physician), and a linguist. He became the confi-
dential diplomatic adviser of several succeeding
caliphs and fulfilled duties which in modern times
would be those of Secretary for Foreign Affairs or
Secretary of State, plus Secretary of the Interior or
Home Secretary, plus Chancellor of the Exchequer.
But he was not only a great statesman and scholar,
he was also a great Jew. He became the unofficial
Jewish ambassador, so to speak, and he was in con-
stant touch with the far-flung Jewry of the world.
In addition, he was a very generous man. He was a
Maecenas of education and culture. Hebrew gram-

io THE AMERICAN JEW

mar and poetry were hobbies with him, and he con-
stantly sought to exalt and to deepen the faith and
culture of the Jew.

Then there was, in Granada, Samuel Ibn Nagdela
(993-1056), who by profession was a shopkeeper,
by avocation a scholar, and in addition became sec-
retary to the Grand Vizier, in 1027 himself be-
came the Grand Vizier, and developed into a power-
ful political figure. But as a Jew his status may be
defined by the title which he earned from his Jewish
contemporaries, by whom he was designated as the
"Nagid," or "Prince." A scholar and a patron of
scholarship, he aided Jewish cuture, compiled a Tal-
mudic manual, wrote a treatise on Hebrew gram-
mar, prepared a psalter for the Synagogue, wrote
songs, philosophic essays and even proverbs. When
he died, sometime after 1056, his son succeeded him
both as Vizier.and as "Nagid."

In Saragossa, there were a number of Jews who
were viziers, and in Seville, the rabbi was both court
astronomer and court astrologer. In Lucena, Rabbi
Isaac Alfasi (1013-1103), who compiled a most
famous digest of Talmudic law, lived and served his
Jewish community although not in the secular sense
in which the above-named did.

About the year 1021, there was born in Malaga
one who was named Solomon Ibn Gabirol. As he grew
up he demonstrated that he was endowed with what
many considered a unique and most original mind

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS n

for those days. He was primarily a poet, and many
of his works are included in the Synagogue's ritual
in the form of Piyyutim (liturgical poems) . But he
was also a philosopher of great distinction. His work
'Tons Vitae," which represents an attempt at har-
monizing Greek with Oriental philosophy, exer-
cised great influence over Christian thought in the
Middle Ages. He was also a moralist of distinction
and his "The Improvement of Moral Qualities" and
"Choice of Pearls," are worth the attention of mod-
erns. He died in 1069.

There was Ibn GabiroPs contemporary, Bachya
Ibn Pakuda, who was a moral philosopher, and his
book, "The Duties of the Hearts," continues popular
in Jewish life to this day.

There was Jehudah Halevi, who was born at To-
ledo in 1086. He was the greatest Jewish poet of the
Middle Ages, and one of the great poets of mankind.
But he was not alone a poet. He was a philosopher as
well, and in his work, "The Kuzzari," he discusses
the relative merits of the three great monotheistic
religions Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedan-
ism.

There were others during this Golden Age of
Jewry: Ibn Daud (1110-1180), scientist, philoso-
pher and historian; Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092-
1 1 67) , critic, poet and philosopher; Moses Ibn Ezra,
the poet; Benjamin of Tudela, the explorer, who in
days of difficult travel, went in quest of the lost ten

12 THE AMERICAN JEW

tribes of Israel, and left precious notes of his travels
in Europe, Asia and Africa; and, of course, the
greatest mind of them all, Moses Maimonides, who
died in 1204. He was a scientist and a great physician
(he was invited by Richard the Lion-Hearted to be-
come his personal physician when Richard started
on the Crusade) . He was great not only profession-
ally; he was an acknowledged leader of Jewry and
has written prolifically in the field of Jewish philoso-
phy and law. He compiled the "Mishneh Torah,"
which was an attempt at classifying logically the
conglomerate mass of material found in the Talmud.
He wrote the "Book of Commandments," in which
he attempted to give reasons in explanation of the
various commandments enjoined upon Jews. His '
greatest work was "The Guide to the Perplexed/ 5
an attempt at a presentation of Jewish philosophy
and a harmonization of that philosophy with the
Aristotelian point of view.

Following Maimonides there was Nachmanides,
born in 1194, who was a great commentator as well
as a mystic, but above all a great debater in disputa-
tions which the Church was wont to force upon the
Jews of that time. .

It was during this period and among the Spanish
Jews that the Kabbalah, the mystic lore of Jewry,
developed and had its growth. It was here and under
these auspices that The Zobar, the textbook of the
Kabbalah was largely compiled. And it was from

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 13

this source that the far-reaching effects of Kabbal-
ism for good and evil derived among Jewries of
other lands and influenced even the Christian world.
In the fourteenth century we find the name of
Chasdai Crescas ( 1 340-141 o) . Crescas was Rabbi at
Saragossa, and had high and important political con-
tacts, standing in the favor of both the King and
Queen of Navarre. Crescas was a famed Talmudist
and in his well-known work, "The Light of the
Lord/' he wrote the introduction to what he hoped
might become a code of Jewish religious law, its in-
tention being to offset the Maimonidean system and
to expose "the logical inadequacies of the entire
system" of Aristotelian philosophy. The code was
soever written but the introduction, which is "The
flight of the Lord," represents a significant criti-
^cism of his predecessor.

<X A pupil of Crescas who should be mentioned in
^this connection was Joseph Albo, who in 1428 com-
pleted his fine work called "Ikkarim" or "The Book
of Principles," a treatise on Dogmas of Judaism, a
xbook which has been very popular amongst Jews
(rtever since.

^ And so one could go on and mention name after

x^name and spirit after spirit, of men who wrought

^greatly and influenced mightily the trend of Jewish

^thought, but for our purpose enough was indicated

however sketchily to suggest the indebtedness of

world Jewry to the Spanish period.

i 4 THE AMERICAN JEW

To be sure, not all was golden during the Golden
Age. But in the crucible of time the dross was elimi-
nated and the gold retained, and though under the
Christian influences of the thirteenth to fifteenth
centuries the period of the cultural decline set in,
when Spanish Jewry preserved for itself merely an
external veneer of pride, of refinement of manners,
of wealth and luxury the fact remains that the
spiritual and intellectual food produced in the
Golden Age of Spanish Jewry has continued to
nourish world Jewry ever since.

And while we think of the end of the fifteenth
century and the expulsion from Spain, we must,
perforce, think also of the discovery of America
by Christopher Columbus. Whether Columbus was
a Jew or not is a debatable matter, but certain it is
that Columbus* journey could not have been ef-
fected without the help and aid of Jews, or those
who had been Jews. And so it is certain that Luis
De Santangel, who was a Marano, or Crypto-Jew,
whilst he was Chancellor of the Royal household
and Controller General of Aragon, helped him very
materially.

It is interesting to note also that amongst Colum-
bus' companions on the journey were Alonso De
LaCalle, Rodrige Sanchez, Bernal, who was the
chief physician, and Marco, who acted as surgeon,
and also Luis De Torres, who, as the interpreter of
the expedition, was the first white man to put his

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 15

foot upon the soil of the Western Hemisphere. All
of these were Jews.

Likewise there is no doubt that the money from
the Royal Treasury provided for the Columbus
expedition was taken from the confiscated Jewish
fortunes of the period. Thus Columbus* expedition
and the discovery of America, on its financial side
no less than on its scientific side, through the use of
maps and instruments designed by Jews or crypto-
Jews, was made possible in a very large measure by
Spanish Jewry.

Contemporary with the period of Jewish domi-
cile in Spain was that of Jews in Portugal. So far as
is known there were no persecutions of Jews in
this country prior to the thirteenth century when
churchly hostility became powerful. In fact, Jews
prospered under the benevolent reigns of the early
Kings of Portugal. And even after the Church be-
gan to make its anti-Jewishness felt, the Kings of
Portugal refused to surrender the Jews to the cruel
policy of the ecclesiastical authorities. King Al-
fonso III (1246-1279) even established the civil
and religious autonomy of the Jews under the Chief
Rabbi, who was an officer of the crown, and Jews
occupied important government posts close to the
King.

In the fourteenth century the Church succeeded
in changing the favor of the Portuguese Kings to ill-
will, and active persecution began. This persecution

1 6 THE AMERICAN JEW

was intermittent, however, until the reign of Man-
uel the Great (1495-1521) when the influence of
the sovereigns of Spain forced the expulsions and
conversions of Jews.

But, the long period of prosperity and protec-
tion did produce a number of great Jewish names,
such as Don Joseph Ibn Yachya, financier; Don
Moses Navarro, Chief Rabbi and physician to the
King; Don Isaac Abravanel, minister of finance,
scholar and author; Abraham Zacuto, astronomer.

And we must remember this also. Even after
1492, when the Jews were expelled from Spain, we
find the name of Menasseh ben Israel, he who suc-
cessfully petitioned Cromwell of England to per-
mit the return of Jews to England. We have the
names of Uriel d'Acosta, of Baruch Spinoza, great
names, each of these, the scions of the same stock
which created the Golden Age, even as later when
the Sephardim were translated to America we have
in Judah Touro, the patriot and philanthropist; in
Rebecca Gratz; in Mordecai Manuel Noah, the
many-sided realist and dreamer; in Judah P. Ben-
jamin, jurist and statesman; in Emma Lazarus, the
sweet singer; in Sabato Morais, the founder of the
Jewish Theological Seminary of America; in Isaac
Leeser, who was the first Jew to translate the Bible
into English; in Dr. Solomon Solis-Cohen, honored
scientist and erudite Hebrew scholar; Dr. H. Pereira
Mendes, Rabbi of the Spanish-Portuguese Syna-

THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS 17

gogue in New York and his gifted successor. Dr.
David de Sola Pool; in United States Supreme Court
Justice Benjamin N. Cardozo; David Belasco who
made theatre-history; and others, a continuity of
that great stock.

It is out of this glorious spiritual and cultural
background that the first Jews came who settled in
this New World. These were the precursors of the
later streams of Jewish migration to America, the
forerunners of additional stocks. "What these others
had, what their background was, these we shall ex-
amine in subsequent chapters.

CHAPTER II

THE BACKGROUND OF THE GERMAN
JEW IN AMERICA

ON the physical side, the background of German
Jewry varies not at all from the background of
other Jewries.

It seems reasonably certain that Jews entered
what is known as "Germany" with the Roman le-
gions. A few came as soldiers, more came as traders.
First-century tombstones found in Mayence seem
to refer to Jewish soldiers in the Roman legions.
Some terra-cotta bottle-stoppers discovered in Ro-
man ruins along the Rhine, dating from the end of
the third century, are made in the form of sculp-
tured caricatures of Jews. In other words, before
the Germans crossed the Rhine, there were Jews in
Germany.

y But the first unquestionable evidence of the pres-
ence of Jews in Germany comes from the fourth
century. For, in 321, there was in Cologne a well-
established and well-organized Jewish community.
And this historic evidence begins, characteristically
enough, with discrimination. In that year it is Con-

18

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 19

stantlne the Great who deprives Jews of Cologne of
exemption from service on the town council.

And through all subsequent centuries we get the
tale of discrimination, of restriction, of oppression,
a tale that is never-varying to any considerable de-
gree. To be sure, we find moments of grace, years of
surcease, short periods of ease and comfort. But we
must not forget that some of the most dreadful ex-
periences of the Jew in all the ages of his suffering
came to him in Germany; that some of the darkest
pages of Jewish history were written in Germany.

We must recognize also that some very bright
pages of Jewish history were written there, but
these only more recently. Were a comprehensive
record of the experiences of Jews in Germany to be
written, we should have to write a very much longer
chapter than we intend to write here. We shall,
therefore, only just sketch instead of paint the
picture.

In the earliest time, the status of the Jews in Ger-
many was the same as that which Jews had under
the Roman Empire. They had some civic liberties
greatly restricted, in that Jews were not allowed
to disseminate their faith; they were not permitted
to keep Christian slaves; they were not allowed to
hold office under the government.

Under the Franks, the Burgundians, the Mero-
vingians, and under Charlemagne, the Jewish status
continued largely unchanged. To be sure, they were

20 THE AMERICAN JEW

not considered members of the aristocracy, they
were not coddled. They were even denied the right
to bear arms, a privilege which was reserved only
to "gentlemen/* Many enterprises were closed to
them and they were consequently forced into such
occupations in which no "gentleman" of those days
engaged. Thus they perforce came to engage in
trade, commerce, and money-lending.

Slowly, however, ecclesiasticism was gaining
ground and the Church was becoming increasingly
active in its effort to inflame the populace against
the Jews. Beginning with the tenth century, Holy
"Week in the Church became an annual period of
massacre and butchery. In the eleventh century the
Crusades began, and throughout several centuries
thereafter the trail of the Crusades was a trail of
blood traced through the Jewish communities of
Germany. Whole communities, like Treves, Speyer,
Worms, Mayence, Cologne (these last three are
the earliest Jewish communities in Germany),
Neuss, Ratisbon, Altenahr, Regensburg, Magde-
burg, Wiirtzburg and Halle, also communities
throughout Bohemia, were literally and completely
wiped out.

Then also came the horrible libel that the Jews
required human blood for their ritual. And, again,
there came another charge that the Jews desecrated
the Host. (The Host is the wafer used in the Com-
munion service which upon being consecrated is

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 21

believed to become the body of Jesus.) The charge
was that the Jews would pierce these wafers, and
that in some mysterious way blood would be flow-
ing out of them. In other words, the charge was that
the Jews stabbed the Saviour, and his blood it was
that was thus shed. In consequence of these libels
hundreds of Jews were killed, thousands were exiled.
By the middle of the fourteenth century there came
the nightmare of the Black Plague, when the charge
was leveled against the Jews that they were responsi-
ble for the plague in that, so it was alleged, they
poisoned the wells. The result was untold massacre.

In Basle, the Jews were imprisoned and the build-
ing in which they were imprisoned was set on fire.
In Freiburg, they were burned at the stake. In
Speyer, they anticipated their butchery by self-
destruction. In Strausburg, two thousand Jews were
roasted alive in their own cemetery. In Worms, Op-
penheim, and Frankfort they set their own homes
on fire. In Mayence, the Jewish community of five
thousand souls was completely destroyed. In Erf ut,
three thousand Jews were killed. And so on and
on the story is continued. It is said, that of three
hundred and fifty Jewish communities existing in
Germany before the holocaust, only three com-
munities of any importance remained.

The kings, ostensibly to protect the Jews, de-
clared them Kamerkneckt, that is, servants of the
king. Actually this meant that they became the per-

22 THE AMERICAN JEW

sonal chattels of the kings for their personal profit
and frequent extortion.

In the fifteenth century the experience of the
Crusades was renewed. This was the period of perse-
cution against the Hussites, and the persecution
naturally extended itself to all non-believers. And
so we have again the Jews of Austria, Bohemia, Mo-
ravia, Silesia, experiencing the terrors of death, of
forced baptism, of voluntary immolation.

The Lutheran Reformation came, and for a while
it seemed as though some relief would come with it,
for, at first, Luther, like Mohammed in his day, was
friendly to the Jews. Indeed, he was very flattering
to them, for he believed that merely by renouncing
the authority of the Papacy and Church, he could
win the Jews over to an acceptance of his type of
Christianity. When later he discovered that he was
mistaken, his friendliness turned into bitter and
vindictive hostility. Literary persecutions followed
which took the form of public burnings of all copies
of the Talmud found in a community, of the mak-
ing of bonfires out of collections of Rabbinic and
other Jewish books.

The story of Jewish life in Germany during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was similar in
kind, and is remarkably well depicted in the great
novel of Lion Feuchtwanger, called "Power."

During all those dreadful days, what was the cul-
tural, the spiritual state of the Jews in Germany?

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 23

To be sure, it was different from the glory that we
knew in Spain. In Spain, Jewish philosophy, Jewish
thought, Jewish poetry flourished. In Germany,
during this period, circumstances were much too
bitter. Philosophy needs leisure it needs a degree
of ease. When one is under the flail, rationalism
and lucid thinking are not possible. In Germany
there were no such stars as we found in the Golden
Age in Spain illumining the intellectual skies and
cultural horizon of the Jew. But we find here dif-
ferent fields of Jewish life cultivated. Rabbinic
legalism was in great vogue; commentaries on sacred
texts multiplied; the responsa (She'eloth M-Te'sbw-
both) of the Rabbis were numerous; the Halakah
was diligently pursued. In consequence, in these
fields, German Jewry produced some of the great
names in Jewish history.

There was Rashi (Rabbi Solomon Yitzchaki,
1040-1105) who, while born in France, studied in
Germany, and was a product of the German schools.
Rashi was sometimes called "Parshandatha," which
means "The Commentator." His outstanding works
were the commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud,
commentaries that are remarkable. These commen-
taries became most popular. They were very widely
used, and are still being used. In these commentaries
Rashi revealed a skill in interpretation, in simplicity,
and in brevity, which are quite unusual, and which
have made for their great popularity. "Without

24 THE AMERICAN JEW

Rashi's commentary," say Professors Max L. Margo-
lis and Alexander Marx, "the Talmud would today
be a sealed book." And they add that "ever after
[Rashi] the sum of lay education for a Jew con-
sisted in the ability to read his Hummash [Penta-
teuch] with Rashi." In a very striking way, in Rashi
we have the point of confluence of the streams of
Jewish learning and tendencies of thought.

There was Rabbi Gershom (the eleventh cen-
tury) , who prohibited polygamy, which, while not
practiced, was never forbidden in Jewish law, and it
might be noted in passing that he antedated the
prohibition of polygamy in Christian lands by
five centuries, for polygamy did not die out in
Christendom until the sixteenth century.

There was Jacob ben Asher (died in 1340) , who
compiled a code of Jewish practices and laws known
as "The Four Rows," which in time became the
forerunner of the Shulhan Arucb, which to this day
is the standard authority on practices and laws
amongst orthodox Jews.

Between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries we
find the interest shifting to a study of ethics and
Haggadah, and we have names like Jehudah Hassid,
and Rabbi Eleazar of Worms (popularly known as
Rokeacb) .

There is a figure that ought not to be neglected
in this connection, that of Elijah Levitta (1469-
1549) . Levitta was born in Bavaria and in time be-

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 25

came a romantic figure, in the sense that he became
"the link between the Medieval Jewish Grammari-
ans and the Christian Hebraists of the Reforma-
tion/' He taught many of the churchmen of his day
their Hebrew. He lived in the household of church-
men who made it possible for him to carry on his re-
searches in that language. He became the compiler
of a gigantic concordance of the Hebrew text of
the Bible (which was never published although the
manuscript is available) , and in his "Introduction
to the Masorah," printed in 1538, he brought con-
vincing proof that the vowel points of Hebrew are
the creation of the post-Talmudic period.

About the middle of the fourteenth century there
was a marked period of decline, so marked that the
practice of authoritative teaching had to be intro-
duced. By authoritative teaching it is understood
that no one could teach or pass upon Jewish law
who did not have license to do so (Hattarath Ho-
rcfah). It was found essential to fix the order of
the services, of ritual, of customs. Asceticism began
to thrive, and the Kabbalah, the mystic lore of
Jewry, gained a hold and prospered. Cut off from
the world the Jews of Germany became a com-
munity within a community. No matter what hap-
pened outside, piety prevailed, morality was known,
purity was the rule, faith abounded, industry and
temperance existed. There was, indeed, as someone
pointed out, the "beauty of holiness" perceptible

26 THE AMERICAN ]EW

even midst the squalor and dinginess of that environ-
ment.

Heine caught the spirit of those days and de-
scribed it well in his poem "The Princess Sabbath/ 3
where he depicted the Jew on the streets outside
the Ghetto being treated like a dog, and at times
feeling like one, and then on the Sabbath eve as he
would return to the Ghetto, his demeanor changed
and upon entering his home the miracle of trans-
formation occurred, for lo, the dog was transformed
into a man and the man into a prince and, with
regal bearing, he sat surrounded by his wife and chil-
dren, his princess and their princes.

As to secular culture, this was practically un-
known amongst German Jews. One product of this
period must be noted. It is the development of Yid-
dish. It is sometimes forgotten that Yiddish is the
creation of the German Jew. It is the language that
is made up of an inelegant German and many He-
brewisms, or Hebrew expressions. Later, when Ger-
man Jews settled in Slavonic lands, there was an
increment of Slavonic words into the language.
During this period there was quite a voluminous
literature developed in Yiddish, a literature that was
edifying, that was devotional, even belle-letteristic,
intended for the common people, although far be-
low the level it attained later among Russian Jews.

The eighteenth century marks a turning point
politically and culturally in the life of the Jew in

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 27

Germany. The change centers about the personality
of Moses Mendelssohn. Moses Mendelssohn's name
is the greatest in German Jewry. He was the one
who started the process of the adjustment of the
Jew to modern life. He began with a translation of
the Torah into pure German instead of the jargon
which then was Yiddish. He himself was a philoso-
pher of note and paved the way for the Jew's par-
ticipation in the secular culture and science of
Europe. It was his influence that sponsored the estab-
lishment of free schools for Jews in Germany, where
the language of instruction was German, with the
intention that the people might take their place in
the general community without embarrassment.
Such schools were established in Berlin in 1778, in
Breslau in 1792, in Seesen in 1801, in Frankfort-
am-Main in 1804, in Wolfenbiittel in 1807.

Under this same influence we have the beginning
of a periodical press. The first Jewish magazine ever
published was "Hammeasef," which made its ap-
pearance in 1783.

In the meantime, the French revolution came and
went, and the cry of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,
swept the world. The American experiment in de-
mocracy was succeeding, and was contributing to
the general liberalizing tendency throughout the
world. Of this general liberalization the Jews indi-
rectly became the beneficiaries. Political emancipa-
tion for the Jews was on its way. It came slowly, but

28 THE AMERICAN JEW

it came ultimately, when in the nineteenth century
complete equality was granted. With this political
emancipation there came also an intellectual eman-
cipation, and at once there began the emergence of
great names in profusion amongst the Jews of Ger-
many Gabriel Riesser, Leopold Zunz (who was
the founder of the modern scientific method in the
study of Judaism) , David Cassel, David Friedlander,
Zacharias Frankel, Ludwig Philippson, Heinrich
Graetz, Samson Raphael Hirsch, Michael Sachs,
Moritz Steinschneider, and Naphtali Herz Wessely.

It is during this period also that we have the be-
ginning of the Reform Movement in Judaism the
attempt at adjusting the religious life of the Jew
to the needs and requirements of a new day, and in
conjunction with this movement we have a group
of men emerging whose lives and services are stir-
ring. We mention the names of a few in that galaxy
Abraham Geiger, Samuel Holdheim, Max Lilien-
thal, Isaac Mayer Wise, Kaufmann Kohler.

We have during this period a development of
Jewish scholarship, of intense research on the part
of the Jew, a growth of schools, primary schools
as well as higher schools of learning, training schools
for rabbis, and academies. Preaching is given a
new lease of life and a new significance, and the
preaching during this period is of a very high qual-
ity, indeed. In other words, beginning with Men-
delssohn we have a Golden Age of Jewish culture

THE GERMAN JEW IN AMERICA 29

beginning in Germany, an age of which we today
are the beneficiaries and heirs.

Following the fall of Napoleon and the political
upheaval in Europe which ensued upon that debacle
in the early decades of the nineteenth century, and
following also upon the abortive German revolution
in the forties of that century, a large migration of
all peoples to America, began.

It is then that we have a large influx of German
Jews into America. They came in the thirties, the
forties, the fifties and later, and when they came
they brought with them a yearning for freedom,
habits of thrift, a capacity for work, for industry,
that were amazing. But unlike the Jews who came
before them the Spanish and Portuguese Jews who
were wealthy when they came the German Jews
were poor. They came with their packs upon their
backs, they peddled, and they struggled, and they
starved, but they came at a time when the com-
munities of this country were growing, and the
German- Jewish immigrants grew up with their
communities. In the process they projected a num-
ber of great leaders, men like Isaac Mayer Wise and
Kaufmann Kohler (previously referred to) , Jacob
H. Schiflf, Oscar S. Straus and his brother Nathan,
Julian W. Mack and Louis D. Brandeis, Louis Mar-
shall and Mayer Sulzberger, Irving and Herbert H.
Lehman, people who have enriched and did bless
Jewish life in America and elsewhere.

3 o THE AMERICAN JEW

This, then, is the background of the German Jew
in America. Again we observe that the colors are
black and red. They are the colors of persecution
and pillage and massacre. We observe, however, that
the order in which the Golden Age came is reversed.
In Spain, we noted, it came between the eighth and
twelfth centuries and was followed by the period of
decline. Amongst the German Jews it was not until
after the Emancipation that the Golden Age set in,
it was not till then that a very high plane culturally
and Jewishly was reached. It is this culture at its
highest, and during a period when the search for it
was most intense, that German Jews brought with
them to America, and this, coupled with their great
gifts of organizing and energy, they gave as their
contribution to that composite being whom we call
"The American Jew."

CHAPTER in

THE BACKGROUND OF THE RUSSIAN-
POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA

come now to the consideration of the back-
ground of the Jews of Russia and Poland. Even a
bird's-eye view of our people in those countries is
enlightening.

There were Jewish communities in what is now i
known as Russia as early as the year 100 c. E. 5 and
according to some historians Jews may have come
there even before the Babylonian Captivity in the
year 587 B. c. E. We know that during the first cen-
turies of the present era the Jews in Russia had houses
of worship. We know also that they had fully de-
veloped community organizations. Little else is
known of that period except that in the year 300
there is a record of Jews and pagans rising in revolt
against the activities of Christian Bishops. We know
that at about the eighth century there were con-
siderable numbers of Jews to be found in the Crimea
and in the Caucasus.

An interesting and unprecedented event trans-
pired about the year 740. A whole kingdom, known
as the Chazars, became converted to Judaism. The

31

32 THE AMERICAN JEW

Chazars were racially white, linguistically akin to
the Turks and Tartars, a brave and conquering
people. Upon their conversion to Judaism, only a
professing Jew could reign, and throughout the
kingdom jLidaism was the established State religion.
This lasted until they were finally subdued by the
Grand Dukes of Kiev in the year 1016, when they
disappeared.

In Kiev during the eleventh and twelfth centu-
ries there was a very prosperous Jewish community
which was engaged largely in trading, and in tax
farming. They even had some spiritual activity. But
the Greek Orthodox Church was in the ascendancy,
and as early as in 1113 there was a pogrom in Kiev.

We hear of individual Jews becoming influential
in northern Russia, in cities like Novgorod and Mos-
cow, and the impression one gains of that period is
that of a growing and developing Jewish life.

But by the sixteenth century, the anti- Jewish
policy became firm so that in 1 545, during the reign
of Ivan the Terrible, extensive persecutions of the
Jews and forced baptisms took place. Under Peter
the Great, who was generally liberal, that phrase,
"Cromye Zhydof " ("except the Jews") began to be
used a very definite restrictive policy being indi-
cated thereby. Catherine the First, his wife and suc-
cessor, expelled all Jews from Little Russia in 1727,
and in 1741 Empress Elizabeth (a daughter of
Peter) definitely outlined an anti- Jewish policy and

RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA 33

ordered the immediate expulsion of all Jews "from
our entire empire/ 3 In 1762 Catherine the Great,
generally considered a liberal, recognized that it was
to her advantage to continue the brutal policy of
restriction of Jews, and she enforced the restrictive
policies of her predecessors.

This brings us to the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the year 1796.

Let us pause here for a moment and turn to Po-
land. Polish history begins about the middle of the
ninth century. There is doubt whether there were
any Jews in Poland before the eleventh century, but
following the Crusades large numbers of German
Jews fled into Poland, which gave them shelter and
welcome. The German- Jewish migration into Po-
land continued during the thirteenth, fourteenth,
and fifteenth centuries especially during the per-
secutions that were incident to the Black Plague, the
Rindfleisch massacres in 1298, and the Armleder
massacres in 1336.

At the end of the fifteenth century, and at the
beginning of the sixteenth century, there was an
influx of Jews from Bohemia. In the seventeenth
century, due to the unrest caused by the Thirty
Years* War, there was another large German- Jewish
migration into Poland. So that by the end of the
eighteenth century ( 1796) , when Poland was parti-
tioned and a part of it ceded to Russia, over one-
half of the Jews of the world lived in Poland.

34 THE AMERICAN JEW

In the early history of the Jews in Poland they
enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity. They
represented the middle class, and they were pro-
tected and sheltered by the rulers. But history has
a way of repeating itself. By the thirteenth century
the Church became influential, and with the growth
of that influence the fate and lot of the Jews
changed. The seed of race-hatred was implanted,
and even against the will and effort of the temporal
rulers, the Church proceeded to inflame the pop-
ulace until, in the fourteenth century, extensive
persecutions began. Still, the temporal rulers, for
whatever reason, continued to make attempts to
protect the Jews. They granted them cultural and
religious autonomy, civil rights and some protection.
And the Jews became, in consequence, people of
influence. They were not only money lenders, they
were the capitalists of Poland, the financiers and
bankers. They were the farmers of the mint, and
coins have been found bearing the names of Polish
kings in Hebrew letters. They opened up the natural
resources of Poland, and they farmed the mines, the
salt quarries, the timber. They managed estates.
They were the captains of industry. They were mer-
chants, shopkeepers, traders, importers and export-
ers, handicraftsmen. All of this before the end of
the sixteenth century ( 1 572) .

But at this point we reach the ascendancy of the
Church, which was caused by political quarrels be-

RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA 35

tween the kings and nobles, and the Jews began to
suffer.

We have here, as we noted in Germany during
this period, the blood ritual charge. We have the Host
desecration libel. We have the riots, persecutions, and
massacres culminating in the Cossack Uprising in
the seventeenth century under Chmielnitzki. (This
period of the uprising is admirably described in
"Kiddush Hashem" by Sholom Asch.) During this
uprising whole communities were wiped out. The
estimates of killed vary, some going as high as 675,-
ooo. Large numbers of Jews migrated into Western
Europe, and in general the effect of those events
upon Jewry in Poland and upon Polish history was
highly demoralizing, and continued so until the par-
tition of Poland, when the history of Jewry in Russia
and the history of the Jews in Poland merge into
one stream.

From that point, the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the story of Jewry under the Tzars is a rather
well-known tal^ It is a tale of disinheritance, of
bigotry, of the densest darkness lighted periodically
by the flames of Jewish communities burned. Jewish
blood flowed freely and unspeakable persecutions
existed.

The "Pale of Settlement" restricting the residence
of the millions of Jews to a comparatively small strip
of territory; the denial to them of the advantages of
secular education, of admittance into the profes-

3 6 THE AMERICAN JEW

sions; the shame and degradation of the yellow
ticket; the rascality of Nicholas the First, Alexander
the Third, and Nicholas the Second and Last, names
which might be placed by the side of those of
Torquemada and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain,
all these challenge the imagination of normal
beings.

When in 1881 massacres began on an organized
scale, we had the beginnings of the great migration
of Russian and Polish Jews to America, and there-
after, in increasing numbers, they continued to
come, through the days of 1904 and 1906 when an-
other epidemic of pogroms broke out, until the days
of the World War. By far the greatest Jewish migra-
tion to America is represented by those who came
from eastern and southeastern Europe.

Here we pause, as we did in the previous chap-
ters, to ask the question: Is this all that we know of
these people? Is this their background? Were they
merely pariahs, merely outcasts? Let us see.

If ever any group in Jewry during the centuries
of exile had any measure of real and spiritual auton-
omy, that Jewry was found in Russia and Poland!
In the truest sense they constituted an impermm in
imperio (a community within a community) . Con-
ditions were such that this autonomy was granted
to them, and they utilized it. Talmudic Law was
the law, the norm by which life was guided, not

RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA 37

only intellectually but socially. In the sphere of
community organization it was the Jews of Poland
who perfected the most unique form of community
organization Jewish history has ever known. They
developed a Congress (WW Arba Aratzoth) of
the responsible heads and representatives of Jews
residing in the four provinces of Galicia, Volhynia,
Great Poland and Little Poland, and this Congress
had supreme authority and jurisdiction in Jewish
life, and definitely curtailed all forms of irresponsi-
bility in the Jewish community. It was this same
Jewry that glorified the scholar in Jewish life. It
recognized but one form of aristocracy, and that
was the aristocracy of learning. Be it said and re-
membered, Russian-Polish Jewry was, as regards
Jewish lore, the most educated Jewry in the long
centuries of Jewish history. Schools and academies
literally dotted the Jewish communities, and Jewish
illiteracy was practically unknown.

It was out of this Jewry also that the sect known
as the Chassidim came. This was a group of mystics
who rebelled against the literalism of the Rabbis and
the general somberness of life and insisted upon a
greater joyousness in the worship and service of God.
As a movement Chassidism was abortive, but it was
most significant, and it still continues to color Jew-
ish life. It was in this Jewry of Russia and Poland
also that we had the rise of the Haskalah or the En-
lightenment Movement. It was here that the Has-

3 8 THE AMERICAN JEW

kalah had its greatest vogue, and had its most far-
reaching results, and ushered in a revival of Hebrew
as a form of literary expression.

It is this Russian-Polish Jewry that gave us the
revival of Jewish nationalism, and was largely re-
sponsible for modern Zionism. It is this Jewry that
contributed largely to the creation and development
of a very significant modern Yiddish literature, a
literature so markedly worthwhile that no one can
fully understand modern Jewish history without a
knowledge of Yiddish, as, also, of the Hebrew litera-
ture that was developed during this period. It is this
Jewry that gave the largest impetus to the develop-
ment of a periodical Jewish Press. In other words,
the Jewry of Russia and Poland was a Jewry that
was intellectually avid, mentally alert, culturally
eager, ambitious, tireless and persistent. And if, for
purposes of comparison with the Jewries which we
have previously considered, we seek great names, let
us mention some.

There was Solomon Luria (popularly known as
The Mabarshal), the Talmudist; there was Moses
Isserles (popularly known as The Rema) , who was
the great commentator on the Shulhan Aruch. There
was Besht (Israel Baal-Shem-Tob), the great spirit
who founded the Chassidim. There was Elijah of
Vilna, one of the greatest minds in Jewry. There was
Isaac Baer Levenson, who might be called the Men-
delssohn of Russia. There was the Baron Joseph

RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA 39

Guensburg, and his son Horace, who were the
founders of the Society for the Dissemination of
Enlightenment, as they called it. There was Daniel
Chwolson, world-renowned Orientalist. There was
Abraham Harkavy, foremost scientific scholar.
There is Simon Dubnow, one of our greatest mod-
ern historians and philosopher of Jewish history.
There was Judah Loeb Gordon, the poet of the
Haskalah movement. There were Isaac Loeb Perez,
Perez Smolenskin, Simeon Frug, Moses Loeb Lilien-
blum, Judah Steinberg, Abraham Mapu, among the
literati.

In Galicia (originally part of Poland) there lived
Nachman Krochmal (1785-1849), a lay scholar,
who caught the meaning of Jewish history in its
philosophic implications, and left a work to poster-
ity which was called "The Guide to the Perplexed of
Our Generation/ 3 a book of considerable importance
and influence. And another Galician Jew to be men-
tioned in this connection is Rabbi Solomon Judah
Loeb Rapoport (1790-1868), who wrote brilliant
essays on little-known or forgotten periods of crea-
tive activity in Jewish history.

In the nineteenth century (1809-1879) there
lived Rabbi Meir Loeb Malbim, whose commentary
on the Scriptures gained very considerable popu-
larity, and whose greatness as a Bible student was
very real.

There was Chaim Nachman Bialik, generally

40 THE AMERICAN JEW

recognized as the greatest Jewish poet since Jehudah
Halevi. There are Saul Tschernichovsky, the lyri-
cist, and Sholom Asch the renowned novelist.
There was Shalom J. Abramovitz, known as Men-
dele Mocker Sepborim. There was Shalom Rabino-
vitz, better known under his pen name Shalom' Alei-
chem, who, when visiting America, met Mark
Twain, who had read some of the former's writings
in English translation, and Mark Twain asked for
the privilege of calling himself "the American
Shalom Aleichem." There was Ahad Ha' am, who
was the foremost Jewish philosopher of our genera-
tion, and exerted and still exerts the greatest influ-
ence upon Jewish thought throughout the world.
There was Eliezer Ben-Jehuda (1858-1922) to
whom is due in very large measure the revival of
Hebrew as a spoken tongue, whose sacrificial and
creative life and example, have been the power that
rejuvenated the language, and whose Hebrew The-
saurus is an amazing work for one man to have
done. There was Nahum Sokolow, amazingly ver-
satile writer, philosopher, statesman. There was
Shmarya Levin, preacher, writer, organizer, leader.
And there is that great spirit and leader, Dr. Chaim
Weizmann, the great President of the "World Zion-
ist Organization. These names, and the names of
others that might be added, give but a superficial
idea, may at best reveal only a little bit, of that rich
cultural and spiritual background of that Russian

RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS IN AMERICA 41

and Polish Jewry which today constitutes, at least
quantitatively, the largest ingredient in the making
of that being whom today we call "the American
Jew."

CHAPTER IV

THE AMERICAN JEW

WE have traced the background of the Spanish and
Portuguese Jews who first came to America, of the
German Jews, and of the Russian-Polish Jews, who
came later. These are not the only Jews who immi-
grated to America. Others might have been men-
tioned, because there were Jews who came here from
England, from Hungary, from Alsace, from France,
from oriental lands, and so on. But these groups
never represented a mass migration, and in a certain
sense they are really represented in the backgrounds
of the others whom we have studied.

Let us repeat now, what was said in the first
chapter, that we approach the study of the back-
grounds of the various Jewries from the standpoint
of seeking the strongest, the best, the finest that
may be found there, on the theory that out of good-
ness, out of what is fine and strong has come that
which is good and worth while in American Jewry.
And so we found much that was stimulating and
inspiring in the experience of our people in those
lands whence they migrated to America.

Let us bear in mind also that the Spanish and

42

THE AMERICAN ]EW 43

Portuguese Jews came to America at a period when
culturally and spiritually they were upon the de-
cline. They had passed their Golden Age some cen-
turies before they came to America.

The Germans came here at the very height of a
period of revolutionary development and thought.

The Russian and Polish Jews came here also at the
very height of a period of revolutionary ferment.

Now, what has each of these groups contributed
to American life?

The earliest Jewish communities in America were
established, naturally,, by the Spanish and Portu-
guese Jews. For a while they were the influential
group. But as other groups began to come in and
take their respective places in the American com-
munities, the influence of the Spanish and Portu-
guese Jews began to wane. Why? First, because they
were outnumbered. And second, because they as-
sumed an attitude of superiority towards their
brethren who were later arrivals. They considered
themselves the aristocracy, and refused to associ-

B ^ !S *r I -*-'*,^.- v* *.*-'.." ..'-. -* >,*4 * _...! li ..IT-- , " ' " ln "

atej^Jx^the-others^refused even to marry with
other Jews whose ancestry did not hail from the
Iberian Peninsula. It is a well-known fact that many
Spanish fathers and mothers would go through the
ritual of mourning, actually sitting "shiv'ah," when
one of their children married into a German- Jewish
family I /

There are not many of them left today. Many of

44 THE AMERICAN JEW

them have assimilated; a great many have gone into
the Church; and in some o the congregations
founded by them, even though still following the
Sephardic ritual, there are very few Spanish and
Portuguese Jews left. Their membership is com-
posed largely of German and Russian Jews. Even
the Rabbi of one of the oldest of the Sephardic con-
gregations today is a very gifted, American-trained,
Galician Jew, just as the pulpits of the erst- while
"German" congregations are being manned today
by those who derive from East-European lands,
either immigrants themselves or the native-born
sons of immigrants.

And so to return to the Sephardim. Originally
they were few in numbers as compared with those
who came after them. Time and circumstances have
further decimated their numbers. Those who are
left within Jewish life are a fine stock! They recog-
nize, now, that it is only as some of the older pseudo-
aristocracy is discarded for frank and free contacts
with other Jews, that they can preserve for them-
selves and for Jewish life some of the values which
their fathers brought with them to these shores, and
which they themselves so finely represent.

As to the German Jews, they came, as was said
previously, at a revolutionary period in Germany.
They came here in search of justice, in search of that
democracy which is America's finest heritage. And
their adjustment to the new life on the new soil,

THE AMERICAN JEW 45

their enthusiastic participation in the life of
America was one of their finest characteristics. They
became the builders of American Jewish commu-
nities, on a large scale.

More numerous than the older group, they
planted the altars of God wherever they went.
Numerous congregations came into being. Jewish
hospitals were organized, Jewish charities were
established. They began to unify the far-flung Jew-
ish communities of America, and in consequence
they established the Union of American Hebrew
Congregations, which in original intent was to have
been literally a union of Jewish congregations of
all shades of opinion. They organized, established,
imd maintained the Hebrew Union College for the
training of an American-reared and an American-
educafed rabbinate. They sponsored the Jewish
Theological Seminary of America under the guid-
ance at first of that great Italian Jew, Sabato Morais,
and later under the leadership of Solomon Schech-
ter, Roumanian born, but Austrian and German
trained. They established the Central Conference of
American Rabbis, and they did one more thing
which is of tremendous significance and importance.

The Spanish-Portuguese Jews, so long as they re-
mained in Jewish life, were strictly orthodox. They
were entirely and totally unbending and unyielding.
The result was that either they remained within
Jewry as interpreted by orthodoxy, or when they

4 6 THE AMERICAN JEW

no longer could accept it, they left the fold and
entered the Church. The German Jews brought
with them the spirit of the Jewish Reformation, and
the Reform Movement in America became the pre-
servative of countless numbers who otherwise might
have been lost to the Synagogue and to Jewish life.

They, too, like their Sephardic predecessors, de-
veloped in time a superior mien toward later Jew-
ish arrivals. They, too, began to lose through the
assumption of the attitude of social aristocracy,
through loss of contacts with the Jewish masses. And
they, too, are discarding pseudo-aristocratic preten-
sions in an honest and altogether praiseworthy desire
and effort to preserve themselves as Jews and to pre-
serve the spiritual and cultural values which they,
or their fathers, brought with them to America.

The latest group of Jews coming into our Ameri-
can life were the Russian and Polish Jews. When
they came, they, like the Germans, were poor and
largely refugees. They threw themselves into the
economic and cultural life of America with the
same zest and vim which characterized their older
brethren.

They are today not only numerically the largest,
but actually the most vigorous group in American
Jewry. They are just emerging culturally, economi-
cally, socially. As a group they are just beginning to
find and to assume their place in American life.
Their youth is quick, it is ambitious, it is sensible and

THE AMERICAN JEW 47

gifted, and with remarkable ability and agility they
are taking their places in the national life. In po-
litical life, in the arts and sciences, in the professions,
in industry, and in religion they are surging on to
positions of leadership and distinction.
x ; They are the builders of the Conservative wing
in the American Synagogue which is rapidly com-
ing to the forefront (with its form of organization
modeled, to be sure, after that of the older Reform
branch) , and they are beginning to occupy a sig-
nificant part in American life. The Conservative
Synagogue, the creation, largely, of this latest mi-
gration, represents their adjustment to the needs
and claims of American life even as in an earlier
generation the Reform Movement was the out-
growth of the desire for adjustment and adaptation
which prompted the German Jews. The building of
the great Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Semi-
nary for the training of orthodox Rabbis in
America and its Yeshiva College, is also an out-
growth of this grouping and adjustment. The new
stress upon the need for an adequate and fuller Jew-
ish education for American Jews, the leadership in
this field of endeavor, and indeed the members of
the new profession of Jewish Educators, come pre-
eminently from this later group. The Zionist Move-
ment in America has been sponsored largely by
these, and if, today, Palestine has become the con-
cern of a united American Jewry, it has been the

48 THE AMERICAN JEW

persistence and idealism and self -sacrificing devo-
tion of the Russian-Polish Jew that has maintained
the work through these many lean years.

The Rabbinate of America, Reform, Conserva-
tive and Orthodox, is gaining tremendous additions
of strength from the children of this last migration,
and, in general, one has but to read through the vol-
umes of "Who's Who In American Jewry" to be
amazed at the tale of achievement and service re-
corded in its pages a record of service being ren-
dered by the Russian-Polish Jews who came to
America.

We do not mean to say that the Russian Jew is in
any sense superior to the others. We do not mean to
convey the idea that he is unlike the others. But
we do mean to stress this fact that he is the newer
arrival in America the more youthful member
of the American- Jewish household, and where the
others had reached a height of usefulness before, he
is now approaching that elevation.

And let us not fail to notice this, also. There was
a time when leadership in the Jewish communities
in America was vested in the Spanish and Portuguese
Jews. Later that leadership passed over to the Ger-
man Jews. Today, by the side of the others, in in-
creasing numbers, in growing influence and useful-
ness, we find the Russian and Polish Jews. There is
a breaking down of the social barriers between these
groups, intermarriage between all three of them is

THE AMERICAN ]EW 49

considerable, until it is very clearly evident now,
that out of these various groups, as a result of these
various factors, because of the new life and the
common life which Jews in America are living, a
new personality is emerging. Not any longer the
Spanish -Portuguese Jew in America; not the Ger-
man Jew in America; not the Russian-Polish Jew
in America; but the American Jew.

Thus when we speak of the American Jew, we
no longer speak of any one of these. The "melting
pot" theory which in general American life failed,
within American Jewry has worked and still works
successfully. All the groups are becoming blended,
a synthesis is created of all, and these, in their com-
mon life in America, their common hopes, and com-
mon achievements, represent what alone we might
call and designate the American Jew! He is the
Jew in America who, regardless of the geographic
origins of his fathers, takes his place in the American
community and occupies it with dignity and worth
and self-respect, living honorably and usefully as a
Jew and as an American. A human being keenly
patriotic, splendidly advancing, finely contribut-
ing, nobly aggressive, culturally creative, socially-
minded and progressive; a composite personality,
made up of the best of the centuries of creative en-
deavor and spiritual groping of world Jewry, strik-
ing his roots into the congenial and blessed soil of
America that is the American Jew!

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES

AND
READING LISTS

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES

CHAPTER I
THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS

YEAR

6979 Roman Emperor Vespasian exiles some Jews to Spain.
117138 Roman Emperor Hadrian (himself a Spaniard)

exiles some Jews to Spain.
313 Church Council of Elvira.
409 Vandals invade Spain.
412 Visigoths invade Spain.
589 Third Church Council of Toledo.

Reccared I converted to Christianity, and Catholicism

becomes State Religion. Persecutions of Jews in Spain

begin.
638 Sixth Church Council of Toledo restricts residence in

Spain only to Catholics.

687701 Jewish religion proscribed in Spain.
693 Jews forbidden to hold real estate.
711 Arab invasion.
912-961 Chasdai ibn Shaprut
9931056 Samuel ibn Nagdela ha-Nagid
10131103 Isaac Alfasi
10211069 Solomon ibn Gabirol
1050 ? Bachya ibn Pakuda
10701139 Moses ibn Ezra
108611 40 Jehudah Hale vi
10921167 Abraham ibn Ezra
i no 1 1 80 Abraham ibn Daud
11201190 Judah ibn Tibbon

73

j 4 THE AMERICAN JEW

113512 04 Moses Maimonides

11601239 Samuel ibn Tibbon

1165-1173 Travels o Benjamin of Tudela.

1 1 94-1 270 Moses Nachmanides

1340-1410 Chasdai Crescas

1348 The Black Plague.

1428 Joseph Albo completes his "Ikkarim" ("Book of Prin-
ciples").

14271509 Isaac Abravanel

1480 Jewish printing presses established in Spain.
The Inquisition is established.

1483 Torquemada appointed Grand Inquisitor.

1492 Jews expelled from Spain.
Columbus discovers America.

1496 Jews expelled from Portugal.

1654 Jews arrive in New Amsterdam.

1658 Jews settle at Newport, Rhode Island.

1730 First public Synagogue (Sephardic) established in New
York.

CHAPTER II
THE GERMAN JEWS

First Centuries Jews enter Germany with Roman conquer-
ors.

321 There is a well-established Jewish community in Co-
logne.

960-1040 Rabbi Gershom of Mayence

1012 Jews expelled from Mayence.

1034 Synagogue erected in Worms.

1040-1105 Rabbi Solomon Yitzchaki (Rashi)

1096 First Crusade. Massacres.

1146 Second Crusade.

1189 Third Crusade.

1215 The Fourth Lateran Church Council.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES 55

1217 Death of Jehudah Hassid.

1220-1293 Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg

1238 Death of Eleazar of Worms (Rokeach).

1 29 8 Rindfleiscli persecutions.

1336 Armleder uprising.

1340 Jacob ben Asher died.

1348 The Black Plague.

German Jews emigrate to Poland.
1356 The "Golden Bull."
1419-143 6 Hussite Wars.
1 4 69-1 5 49 Elij ah Levitta
151015 20 Pf eiferkorn-Reuchlin controversy.
1 5 17 Lutheran Reformation.
1618-1648 Thirty Years' War.
16901764 Jonathan Eybeschuetz
16971776 Jacob Emden
17041762 David Fraenkel

1711 Eisenmenger's "Judaism Unmasked" republished.
1712 First public synagogue in Berlin.
1714 Death of Glueckel of Hameln.
1725-1805 Naphtali Herz Wessely
1729178 6 Moses Mendelssohn
1743-1812 Mayer Anshel Rothschild
1750183 4 David Friedlander

17681828 Israel Jacobsohn, founder of Reform Movement.
1783 "Hammeasef" Gist Hebrew periodical appears.
17931860 Isaac Marcus Jost
17941886 Leopold Zunz
17971856 Heinrich Heine
1797 Some disabilities removed.
1 80 1 Beginnings of Reform (cf. Israel Jacobsohn).
1 8 o i 1 875 Zacharias Frankel
18061860 Samuel Holdheim
1 8 06 1 8 63 Gabriel Riesser
1808 Jews of Westphalia given full citizenship.
1808-1864 Michael Sachs
18091879 David Einhorn

$6 THE AMERICAN JEW

1 8 1 o- 1 8 74 Abraham Geiger

1811 Disabilities removed in Frankfort.

1 811-1889 Ludwig PhiHppson

1812 Emancipation of Jews in Prussia.

1812-1875 Moses Hess

1813 Jews of Mecklenburg emancipated.

1815-188 2 Max Lilienthal

1 8 1 6i 907 Moritz S teinschneider

1817189 1 Heinrich Graetz

1818 Hamburg Temple dedicated.

1818-1893 David Cassel

18191900 Isaac Mayer Wise

1830 Large Jewish migration from Germany to America.

1833 Jews emancipated in Hesse.

1843 Order B'nai Brith founded in America.

18431923 Mayer Sulzberger

18431926 Kaufmann Kohler

1847-1920 Jacob H. Schiff

1848 Another large German- Jewish migration to the United

States.

Full emancipation granted to Jews of Germany.
1873 Union of American Hebrew Congregations founded.
1875 Hebrew Union College opened in Cincinnati.
1 8 86 Jewish Theological Seminary of America founded.
1888 Jewish Publication Society of America organized.
1889 Central Conference of American Rabbis organized.

CHAPTER III
THE RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS

100 Jewish communities exist in southern Russia.

740 Conversion of Chazar Kingdom.

989 Christianity becomes State Religion of Russia.

1016 End of Chazar Kingdom.

1113 Pogrom in Kiev.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES 57

1240 Tartar conquest.

1264 Boleslav the Pious gives charter (Poland).

1333-1370 Reign of Casimir the Great (Poland).

1420 Church Council of Kalisz (Poland) re-enacts anti-
Jewish laws.

1447 Casimir IV, King of Poland.

1455 Riots against Jews of Cracow (Poland).

1468 Riots against Jews of Posen (Poland).

1495 Jews expelled from Lithuania (Poland).

1506 ? Jews return to Lithuania (Poland) .

1510-1573 Solomon Luria (Poland)

15301572 Moses Isserles (Poland)

1551 Royal "Great Charter" under Sigismund Augustus
(Poland) .

15541616 Meir of Lublin (Poland)

1564-1566 Polish King forbids "ritual murder" charge.

16351636 Cossack uprisings (Poland),

1 64 8 1 649 Chmielnitzki Massacres.

1650 Council or Congress of Four Lands meets (Poland).

1700-1760 Israel Baal-Shem-Tob (Besht) founder of Chas-
sidism (Poland).

17201797 Elijah, Gaon of Vilna (Poland).

17621796 Reign of Catherine II.

1764 Council or Congress of Four Lands abolished (Po-
land) .

1772 First Partition of Poland.

178518 49 Nachman Krochmal

17881860 Isaac Baer Levenson

17901868 Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport

1793 Second Partition of Poland.

1795 Third Partition of Poland.

1803 Yeshivah at Volozhin established.

1804 "Pale of Jewish Settlement" established.

18081867 Abraham Mapu

18091879 Meir Loeb Malbim

1812 Napoleon at Moscow.

Polish constitution omits Jewish Rights.

58 THE AMERICAN JEW

18121878 Baron Joseph Guenzburg

1819191 1 Daniel Chwolson

18211891 Leo Pinsker

1822 Imperial edict abolishes Kahals, Jewish Communal Or-
ganizations in Poland.

1824 Jews expelled from villages.

18251855 Reign of Nicholas I.

182 7 Jewish "Cantonists. "

1830 Revolution in Poland.

18311892 Judah Loeb Gordon

18331909 Baron Horace Guenzburg

18361917 Shalom J. Abramovitz (Mendele Mocker Se~
phorim)

1839-191 o Abraham Harka vy

1840-1845 Max Lilienthal in Russia.

1842-1885 Perez Smolenskin

1843-1910 Moses Loeb Lilienblum

1846 Sir Moses Montefiore in Russia.

1851-1915 Isaac Loeb Perez

1853-1856 Crimean War.

1855-1881 Reign of Alexander II.

1856-1927 Asher Ginzberg (AhadHcfam)

185 8-1922 Eliezer Ben-Jehuda

1859-1916 Shalom Rabinovitz (Shalom Aleichem)

1860 Simon Dubnow born.

18601936 Nahum Sokolow

1863 Polish Revolution.

1873-1934 Chaim Nachman Bialik

1874 Chaim Weizmann born.

1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War.

18811894 Reign of Alexander III.

1881 Wave of pogroms. Mass migration of Russian Jews to
America begins.

1882 More pogroms. "May Laws" enacted.
Pinsker's "Auto-Emancipation" appears.

1887 Independent Order of Brith Abraham founded in
America*

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES 59

1891 Jews expelled from Moscow.

1894 Reign of Nicholas II begins.

1896 Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Yeshivah organized in New
York.

1898 Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America
founded.

1901 Rabbinical Assembly of America founded.

1902 Union of Orthodox Rabbis of United States and Can-
ada organized.

1903 Russo-Japanese War.

Massacres at Kishineflf, etc.

1905 Mass exodus of Jews from Russia begins.
Russian Revolution.

1913 The United Synagogue of America founded.

1921 Hebrew Theological College founded in Chicago.

1928 Yeshiva College founded in New York.

CHAPTER IV
THE AMERICAN JEW

1492 Columbus discovered America.

1654 Jews arrive in New Amsterdam.

1658 Jews settle in Newport, R. I.

1722-1764 Judah Monis instructor at Harvard.

1727 Jews naturalized in New York.

1730 First Public Synagogue (Sephardic) established in New

York.

1733 Jews arrive in Georgia.
1740 Jews naturalized in America.
1740-1785 Haym Salomon
1741 Jews in Charleston, S. C.
17451816 Gershom Mendes Seixas
1776 Declaration of Independence.
1 7761 8 54 Judah Touro
1781-1869 Rebecca Gratz

60 THE AMERICAN JEW

17851851 Mordecai Manuel Noah

1787 United States Constitution removes religious test from
requirements for public office.

18061868 Isaac Leeser

18091879 David Einhorn

18111884 Judah P. Benjamin

1815-188 2 Max Lilienthal

1819-1900 Isaac Mayer Wise

18231897 Sabato Morais

1824 Reformed Society of Israelites in Charleston, S. C.

1830 Jewish migration from Germany to the U. S.

1838 First Jewish Sunday School founded in America.

1839 First Polish-Jewish Congregation in America formed.

1843 Order B'nai Brith formed.

18431923 Mayer Sulzberger

1843-1926 Kaufmann Kohler

1848 Influx of German Jews to America.

18491887 Emma Lazarus

185 o 1 9 1 5 Solomon Schechter

1850-1926 Oscar S. Straus

1852 First Congregation of Russian Jews founded in New
York.

1854 "The American Israelite" founded. The oldest Anglo-
Jewish periodical in the country.

1856 Louis D. Brandeis born.

185619 29 Louis Marshall

1861-1865 Civil "War in the United States.

1863 Cyrus Adler born.

1866 Julian W. Mack born.

1867 Maimonides College in Philadelphia, the first Jewish
college in America. Closed in 1873.

1870 The first Yiddish newspaper in America, "Die Post,"
founded in New York.
Benjamin N. Cardozo born.

1873 Union of American Hebrew Congregations founded.

1874 Stephen S. Vise born.

1875 Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati opened.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES <Ji

1885 Pittsburgh Rabbinical Conference.

1 8 86 Jewish Theological Seminary of America opened in
New York.

1888 Jewish Publication Society of America organized.

Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of
America (HIAS) organized.

1 8 89 Central Conference of American Rabbis organized.

1890 Irrimigration restricted.

1891 Baron de Hirsch Fund established.

1892 American Jewish Historical Society founded.

1893 Jewish Chautauqua Society organized.

National Council of Jewish Women organized.

1896 Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary in New
York organized.
National Farm School in Doylestown, Pa., organized.

1897 Zionist Organization of America organized.

1899 National Conference of Jewish Social Service organ-
ized.

1900 Jewish Agricultural Society organized.

"Der Arbeiter Ring" (The "Workmen's Circle) organ-
ized.

jejoj Rabbinical Assembly of America constituted.

1902-1915 Solomon Schechter, President of the Jewish The-
ological Seminary of America.

19031921 Kaufmann Kohler, President of the Hebrew
Union College.

1905 "The Jewish Encyclopedia" completed.

Celebration of 2joth anniversary of Jewish settlement
in North America.

1906 The American Jewish Committee organized.

1908 Dropsie College in Philadelphia opened.

191$ Treaty of Commerce with Russia (1832) abrogated
by the United States Government because of Russian dis-
crimination against American Jews.
President Taf t vetoes immigration-restriction bill.

1914 President Wilson vetoes immigration-restriction bill.
Joint Distribution Committee organized.

62 THE AMERICAN JEW

1917 American Jewish Congress organized.
Jewish Welfare Board organized.
New English translation of Scriptures published.
The United States declares war on Germany.

1920 Jewish War Veterans of the U. S. organized.

American Academy for Jewish Research organized.

1922 The Jewish Institute of Religion organized.

I ^23 Rabbinical Council of America (orthodox) consti-
tuted.

1924 The Johnson-Lodge bill for restriction of Immigration
signed by President Coolidge.
National Council for Jewish Education organized.

1925 Graduate School for Jewish Social Work organized.
Synagogue Council of America organized.

1926 Jewish Academy of Arts and Sciences organized.

1928 Yeshiva College opened in New York.

1929 Union of Sephardic Congregations organized.

1932 Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds or-
ganized.

READING LISTS

(Only such works are listed here as are available in English)

CHAPTER I
THE SPANISH-PORTUGUESE JEWS

General works covering all or most of the ground covered
in this chapter

ABBOTT, G. R, Israel in Europe, 1917, passim
ABRAHAMS, I., Chapters on Jewish Literature, 1899

, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, 1896

BARON, S. W., A Social and Religious History of the Jews,

3 vok, 1937
CASTRO Y Rossi, A. DE, The History of the Jews in Spain,

1851

DUBNOW, S. M., An Outline of Jewish History, vol. Ill,
1925

, Jewish History, Chap. IX, 1903

ELBOGEN, L, History of the Jews, 1926
GOODMAN, P., A History of the Jews, 1924
GRAETZ, H., History of the Jews, 1891
HARRIS, M. H., History of the Medieval Jews, 1916
HUSIK, L, A History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy, 1916
JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Articles on "Spain," "Portugal," "Ca-
bala," and individual names o personalities.
KARPELES, G., A Sketch of Jewish History, 1897, pp. 54-71
KASTEIN, J., History and Destiny of the Jews, 1933
KATZ, S., The Jews in the Visigothic and Prankish Kingdoms

of Spain and Gaul, 1937.
KRAUSKOPF, J., The Jews and Moors in Spain, 1887

64 THE AMERICAN JEW"

LEA, H. C., A History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages,
3 vols., 1888

, A History of the Inquistion of Spain, 1 90 6~ 1 907, 4 vols.

, Chapters from the Religious History of Spain Con-
nected -with the Inquisition } 1890
LOWENTHAL, M., A World Passed By, 1933
MAGNUS, 3L, Outlines of Jewish History, 1929
MARCU, V., The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, 1935
MARGOLIS and MARX, A History of the Jewish People, 1927
PARKES, J., The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue,

1934, Chap. 10 and appendices i and 3
ROTH, C., A Bird's-Eye View of Jewish History, 193 5

, A History of the Marranos, 1932

SABATINI, R., Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition: a His-
tory, 1924

SACHAR, A. L., A History of the Jews, 1930
TURBERVILLE, A. S., The Spanish Inquisition, 1932
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, 3 vols.

Specific Personalities and Items (alphabetically arranged)

ISAAC ABRAVANEL

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 225-229
SARACHEK, J., Chap. IX in The Doctrine of the Messiah in

Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932

SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XII in Dissolving Views in the His-
tory of Judaism, 1890

URIEL D'ACOSTA

MAGNUS, L., The Jews in the Christian Era, 1929, pp. 241-

248

RESNIK.OFF, C., in Menorah Journal, 1925, pp. 35-42
ZANGWTLL, L, Dreamers of the Ghetto, 1898, pp. 68114

JOSEPH ALBO

HUSIK, L, Sefer Ha-lkkarim by Joseph Albo, trans. 5 vols.,

1929

, Chap. XVIII in History of Medieval Jewish 'Philoso-
phy

READING LISTS 65

HUSIK, I., "Joseph Albo, the Last of the Medieval Jewish

Philosophers" in Proceedings of American Academy for

Jewish Research, 1930
SARACHEK, J., Chap. X in The Doctrine of the Messiah in

Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932
SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XI in Dissolving Views in the His-

tory of Judaism, 1890

BACHYA IBN PAKUDA

COLLINS, E., The Duties of the Heart by Rabbi Bachye,
1909

, "Duties of the Heart, the Book and Its Author," in

Jung's Jewish Library, vol. II, 1930, pp. 167202

HUSIK, I., Chap. VI in History of Medieval Jewish Phi-
losophy

HYAMSON, M., translation of Bachya's Duties of the Heart,
1925

DAVID BELASCO

VICTOR, A., in Reflex, June, 1928

JUDAH P. BENJAMIN

KOHLER, M. J., "Judah P. Benjamin, Statesman and Ju-
rist," in Publications of American Jewish Historical So-
ciety, No. 12
PIERCE, B., Judah P. Benjamin, 1906

BENJAMIN OF TUDELA

ABLER, E. N, Jewish Travellers, 1931
ABLER, M. N., The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, 1907
ASHER, A., The Itinerary of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela,
1840

BENJAMIN N. CARDOZO

CARBOZO, B. N., The Nature of the Judicial Process, 1921

, The Growth of the Law, 1924

, The Paradoxes of Legal Science, 1928

, Law and Literature and Other Essays, 1931

66 THE AMERICAN JEW

PEARSON and ALLEN, The Nine Old Men, 1936, Chap. XI
SHIENTAG, B., "The Opinions and Writings of Judge Ben-
jamin N. Cardozo" in Columbia Law Review, 1930, pp.
597-650

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

DAVID, M. 3 Who Was Columbus?, 1933

GOTTHEIL, R. J. H., "Columbus in Jewish Literature" in
Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society,
No. 2, 1894

KAYSERLING, M., Christopher Columbus and the Participa-
tion of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discov-
eries, 1928

MCENTIRE, W. F., Was Christopher Columbus a Jew?,
1925

VIGNAND, H., "Columbus, a Spaniard and a Jew" in Amer-
ican Historical Review, 1913, pp. 505-512

CHASDAI CRESCAS

HUSIK, L, Chap. XVII in History of Medieval Jewish Phi-
losophy

NEUMARK, D., "Crescas and Spinoza" in Essays in Jewish
'Philosophy, 1929

SARACHEK, J., Chap. IX in The Doctrine of the Messiah in
Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932

WAXMAN, M., The Philosophy of Don Hasdai Crescas,
1920

WOLFSON, H. A., Crescas' Critique of Aristotle, 1929

ABRAHAM IBN EZRA

FRIEDLANDER, J., The Standard Book of Jewish Verse,
1917, passim

HUSIK, L, Chap. XI in History of Medieval Jewish Phi-
losophy

LEVY, R., The Astrological Works of Abraham ibn Ezra,
1927

SARACHEK, J., Chap. VI in The Doctrine of the Messiah in
Medieval Jewish Literature) 1932

READING LISTS 67

MOSES IBN EZRA

BRODY, H., "Moses ibn Ezra Incidents in His Life," in
Jewish Quarterly Review, 1934, pp. 309320

HUSIK, I., Chap. XI in History of Medieval Jewish Philoso-
phy.

SOUS-COHEN, S., Selected Poems of Moses ibn Ezra, 1934.

SOLOMON IBN GABIROL

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 107-1 12
COHEN, A., Solomon ibn Gabirol's "Choice of Pearls,' 3 1925
ENELOW, H. G., "The Universal Importance o Ibn Gabi-
rol" in vol. Ill of Selected Works of H . G. Enelow, 1935
FRIEDLANDER, J., The Standard Book of Jewish Verse, 1917
HUSIK, I., Chap. V in History of Medieval Jewish Phi-
losophy
MAGNUS, L., The Jews in the Christian Era, 1929, pp. 179-

187

MARX, A., "Gabirol's Authorship of the 'Choice of
Pearls/ " in Hebrew Union College Annual, 1927, pp.

433-467

SARACHEK, J., Chap. IV in The Doctrine of the Messiah in
Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932.

WISE, S. S., GabiroFs The Improvement of the Moral Qual-
ities, 1901

ZANGWHX, L, Selected Religions Poems of Solomon ibn
Gabirol, 1923

REBECCA GRATZ

OSTERWEIS, R. G. ? Rebecca Gratz A Study in Charm,

1935. Contains a good bibliography.
PHELIPSON, D., Letters of Rebecca Gratz, 1929

JEHUDAH HALEVI

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 126-130
FRIEDLANDER, J., The Standard Book of Jewish "Verse, 1917
HIRSCHFELD, H., Judah Hallevi's "Kitab al Kbazari," 1905
HUSIK, L, Chap. X in History of Medieval Jewish Phi-
losophy

68 THE AMERICAN JEW

JACOBS, J., "Jehudah Halevi, Poet and Pilgrim" in his Jew-
ish Ideals and Other Essays, 1896, pp. 103-134

MAGNUS, K. 3 Jewish Portraits, 1925

MAGNUS, L., The Jews in the Christian Era, 1929, pp. 1 87-
200

NEUMARK., D., "Jehudah Halevy's Philosophy' 5 in Essays
in Jewish Philosophy, 1929, pp. 218-300

POOL, D. DE S., "Jehudah Halevi's Defense of His Faith"
in Jung's The Jewish Library, Vol. I, 1928, pp. 73-94

SALAMAN, N., Selected Poems of Jehudah Halevi, 1924

SARACHEK, J., Chap. V in The Doctrine of the Messiah in
Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932

SCHINDLER, S., Chap. IX in "Dissolving Views in the His-
tory of Judaism, 1890

KABBALAH AND ZOHAR

See in above "General" books under these headings and also
under "Mysticism." "Kabbalah" is often spelled "Cabala."
The better non- Jewish encyclopedias, particularly Hasting's
"Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics," have good articles on
this subject.

ABELSON, J., Jewish Mysticism, 1913
ARONSTAM, N. E., The Lost Nation, 1937
BENSION, A., The Zohar in Moslem and Christian Spain,

1932

FLUEGEL, M., Philosophy y Qabbala and Vedanta, 1902
FRANCK, A., The Kabbalah, 1926

FULLER, J. R C, The Secret Wisdom of the Qabalah, 1937
GINSBURG, C. D., The Kabbalah, 1920
HIRSCH, S. A., The Cabbalhh and Other Essays, 1922, pp.

i-34

SPERLING, H., "Jewish Mysticism" in Leon Simon's As-
pects of the Hebrew Genius, 1910, pp. 145-176
WATON, H., The Philosophy of the Kabbalah, 1931
ZOHAR THE, Translated into English by Simon and Sper-
ling, 5 vols., 1931-1934

READING LISTS 69

EMMA LAZARUS

ABRAHAMS, I., "The Poems of Emma Lazarus" in By-Paths

of Hebraic Bookland, 1920, pp. 319-324
COHEN, M. M., "Emma Lazarus: Woman; Poet; Patriot,"

in Poet Lore, 1893, pp. 320-331
LAZARUS, E. ? Songs of a Semite, 1882
, Poems, 1895

ISAAC LEESER

ABRAHAMS, L, "Isaac Leeser's Bible" in By-Paths of He-
braic Bookland, pp. 2^4-259

WOLF, S., "The Life and Services of the Rev. Isaac Leeser"
in Selected Addresses and Papers, 1926, pp. 97-107

MOSES MAIMONIDES

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 134-142

AHAD HA'AM, "The Supremacy of Reason" in Ten Essays
on Zionism and Judaism, 1922, translated by Leon
Simon

BARON, S., "The Historical Outlook of Maimonides" in
Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Re-
search, 1935

BEN- AMI, "The Greatest Jewish Humanist," in Aspects of
Jewish Life and Thought, 1922, pp. 198-204

COHEN, A., The Teachings of Maimonides, 1927

DEUTSCH, G., "The Maimonides Prayer Myth" in Jew and
Gentile, 1920, pp. 93 ff.

DIESENDRUCK, Z.; LEVEY, L M.; WAXMAN, M., in Year-
book of Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol.
XLV, pp. 355-418

ENEI.OW, H. G., "The Motto of Maimonides" in Selected
Works of H, G. Enelow, Vol. II, 193 y, pp. 24-34

EPSTEIN, L (editor) , Moses Maimonides, a collection of es-
says by various authors, 1935

FINKELSTEIN, L., "Can Maimonides Still Guide Us?" in
Proceedings of Rabbinical Assembly, 1928, pp. 84 ff.

70 THE AMERICAN JEW

FRIEDLAENDER, L, Several essays on Maimonides in Past
and Present, 1919, pp. 159-228

FRIEDLANDER, M., Translation of The Guide to the Per-
plexed, 1910

GOLDMAN, S., The Jew and the Universe, 1936, pp. 185-

2 57
GORFINKLE, J. L., A Bibliography of Maimonides, 1932

, The Eight Chapters of Maimonides on Ethics, 1912

GUTTMAN, M., "The Decisions of Maimonides in His Com-
mentary on the Mishnah" in Hebrew Union College An-
nual, Vol. II, 1925

HUSIK, Lj The Philosophy of Maimonides, 1935:
, Chap. XIII in History of Medieval Jewish Philoso-
phy
KARPELES, G., Jewish Literature and Other Essays, 1895,

pp. 145-168

KOHLER, K., "Maimonides and Rashi," in Studies, Ad-
dresses and Personal Papers, 1931, pp. 353-3^3
LANDAU, J. L., Judaism in Life and Literature, 1936, pp.

237260

LEVTNE, L, Faithful Rebels, 1936, pp. 45-58
LEWIS, H. S., in Leon Simon's Aspects of the Hebrew

Genius, pp. 57-86

MAGNUS, L., Jews in the Christian Era, 1929, pp. 201-213
MARX, A., "The Correspondence between the Rabbis of
Southern France and Maimonides about Astrology," in
Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol. II, 1925
MILLER, S., Under the Eagle's Wing, 1899
MUNZ, J., Maimonides, the Story of His Life and Genius,

1935
NIRENSTEIN, S., The Problem of the Existence of God in

Maimonides, Alanus and Averroes, 1924
ROTH, L., Spinoza, Descartes and Maimonides, 1924
SARACHEK, J., Chap. VII in The Doctrine of the Messiah in

Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932
SCHINDLER, S., Chap. X in Dissolving "Views in the History

of Judaism ; 1890

READING LISTS 71

TOWNLEY, J., The Reasons of the Laws of Moses from the

* ( Moreb Nevocbim" of Maimonides, 1827
TSCHERNOWITZ, Q, Maimonides as Codifier, 1935
YELLIN and ABRAHAMS, Maimonides, 1903
ZEITLIN, S., Maimonides, a Biography, 1936
, The American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 37, pp. 6197

MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 242-249

, "Menasseh and Rembrandt" in By-Paths in Hebraic

Bookland, 1920, pp. 147152
MAGNUS, K. , Jewish Portraits, 1925
ROTH, C., Life of Menasseh Ben Israel, 1934
SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XVI in Dissolving Views in the His-
tory of Judaism, 1890

H. PEREIRA MENDES

MENDES, H. P., "Why I Am a Jew" in North American
Review, 1887, pp. 596-608

, Looking Ahead, 1899

, The Jewish Religion Ethically Presented, 1915

SABATO MORAIS

MORAIS, S., "The Jew in Italy" in Proceedings of Jewish
Theological Seminary Association, 1890, pp. 3164

, "Italian Jewish Literature" in Gratz College Publica-
tions, Vol. I, 1897, pp. 49-74

ROSEN AU, "W., in Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. 33, pp. 356-374

MOSES NACHMANIDES

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 160-168
SARACHEK, J., Chap. VIII in The Doctrine of the Messiah

in Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932

SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, Series I, 1917, pp. 99-
141

MORDECAI M. NOAH

GOLDBERG, L, Major Noah, 1936. Has an exhaustive bib-
liography.

7 2 THE AMERICAN JEW

MAKOVER, A. B., Mordecai M. Noah, 1917
ZANGWILL, I, "Noah's Ark" in They That Walk in Dark-
ness, 1899

DAVID DE SOLA POOL

POOL, D. DE S., "Hebrew Learning Among the Puritans of
New England Prior to 1700" in Publications of Ameri-
can Jewish Historical Society, No. 20, 1911

, How to Tell Bible Stories to Jewish Children, 1913

, Capital Punishment among the Jews, 1916

, The Kaddish, 1929

GERSHOM MENDES SEIXAS

PHILLIPS, N. T., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. VI, pp.
40-51

SOLOMON SOLIS-COHEN

SoLis-CoHEN, S., When Love Passed By, 1929
, Selected Poems of Moses ibn Ezra, 1934

CHASDAI IBN SHAPRUT

ABRAHAMS, I., Chapters on Jewish Literature, pp. 99105

JUDAH TOURO

GUTSTEIN, M. A., The Touro Family in Newport, 1935
WASSERMANN, M., Judah Touro, 1923

CHAPTER II

THE GERMAN JEWS

General Works

ABBOTT, G. E, Israel in Europe, 1907, passim
ABRAHAMS, L, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, 1896
BARON, S. W., A Social and Religious History of the Jews,

1937, 3 vols.
DUBNOW, S. M., An Outline of Jewish History, Vol. Ill,

1925

READING LISTS 73

DUBNOW, S. M., Jewish History, Chaps. X-XI, pp. 1 34-176

ELBOGEN, I., History of the Jews, 1926

FREIMANN and KRACAUER, History of the Jews in Frankfort,

1929

GOODMAN, P., A History of the Jews, 1924
GRAETZ, H., History of the Jews, 1891
HARRIS, M. H., History of Medieval Jews, 1916

- , Modern Jewish History, 1924

JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Articles on "Germany" and related

themes and personalities.

KASTEIN, J., History and Destiny of the Jews, 1933
LOWENTHAL, M., The Jews of Germany, 1936

- , A World Passed By, 1933

MAGNUS, K., Outlines of Jewish History, 1929

MARCUS, J. R., The Rise and Destiny of the German Jew,

MARGOLIS and MARX, A History of the Jewish People, 1927
NEWMAN, L. L, Jewish Influences on Christian Reform

Movements, 1925

PHUJPSON, D., Old European Jewries, 1 894
ROTH, C., A Bird's -Eye View of Jewish History, 1935
SACHAR, A. L., A History of the Jews, 1930
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, 3 vols.

Specific Personalities and Items

LOUIS D. BRANDEIS

Brandeis Avukah Annual of 1932

BRANDEIS, L. D., Business a Profession, 1914

- , Other People's Money, 1914

- , 'Zionism and Patriotism, 1915

- , The Jewish Problem; How to Solve It, 191 5

- , "A Call to the Educated Jew" in Menorah Journal,
1915

- , The Curse of Bigness, 1934

DEHAAS, J., Louis D. Brandeis, A Biographical Sketch,
1929

74 THE AMERICAN

GOLDMARK, J. C, Pioneers of '48 (an account of the

Brandeis family), 1930
LIEF, A., The Social and Economic Views of Mr. Justice

Brandeis, 1930
, Brandeis The Personal History of an American

Ideal) 1936
PEARSON and ALLEN, The Nine Old Men, 1936, Chap.

VIII
WISE, J. W., Jews Are Like That, 1928

DAVID CASSEL

CASSEL, D., The Manual of Jewish History and Litera-
ture, 1902

DAVID EINHORN

KOHLER, K., The Hebrew Union College and Other Ad-
dresses, 1916, pp. 67-74

, "A Pioneer of Reform Judaism" in Studies, Addresses

and Personal Papers, 1931, pp. 522528

, "David Einhorn, the Uncompromising Champion of

Reform Judaism" in Year Book of Central Conference
of American Rabbis, Vol. 19, pp. 215-270

ELEAZAR OF WORMS (ROKEACH)

JOSEPH, M., "The Introduction to the 'Rokeach' " in Jews 9
College Jubilee "Volume, 1906, pp. 171-190

ZACHARIAS FRANKEL

CHOTZNER, J., "Samuel David Luzzatto and Zachariah

Frankel" in Hebrew Humour and Other Essays, 1905,

pp. 154-164
ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1935,

Vol. II, pp. 1 1 8i 27
GINZBERG, L., Students, Scholars and Saints, 1928, pp.

195-216

ABRAHAM GEIGER

ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1935,
Vol. II, pp. 404-416

READING LISTS 75

GEIGER, A., Judaism and Its History, 1911

KOHLER, K., Hebrew Union College and Other Addresses,
1916, pp. 83-98

RAISIN, J. S.; PHILIPSON, D., Centenary Addresses in Year-
book of Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol.
XX, pp. 197-283

SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, Third Series, 1924, pp,
47-83

SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XXI in Dissolving Views in the His-
tory of Judaism, 1890

GLUCKEL OF HAMELN

LOWENTHAL, M., The Memoirs of Gliickel of Hameln,
1932

SCHECHTER, S., "The Memoir of a Jewess of the i/th Cen-
tury" in Studies in Judaism, Second Series, 1908, pp.
126147

HEINRICH GRAETZ

DEUTSCH, G., Year Book of Central Conference of Ameri-
can Rabbis, Vol. XXVII, pp. 3 3 8-3 64

HEINRICH HEINE

BROWNE, L., That Man Heine, 1927

CHOTZNER, J., "The Influence of Hebrew Literature on
Heinrich Heine," in Hebrew Humour and Other Es-
says, 1905, pp. 165-173

COHEN, J., "That Heine Monument" in Menorah Journal,
Vol. 15, 1928

DEUTSCH, G, Scrolls, Vol. II, 1917, pp. 315-320

KARPELES, G., "Heinrich Heine and Judaism" in Jewish
Literature and Other Essays, 1895, pp. 340-368

LAZARON, M., Seed of Abraham, 1930

MAGNUS, K., Jewish "Portraits, 1925

MARCUSE, L., Heine, 1933

MONAHAN, M., Heinrich Heine, 1911

SHARP, E. A., Heine in Art and Letters, 1 895

VALLENTIN, A., Poet in Exile, 1934

7 6 THE AMERICAN JEW

ZANGWILL, I., "From a Mattress Grave" in Dreamers of the
Ghetto, 1898, pp. 335-3^8

MOSES HESS

HESS, M.j Rome and Jerusalem, 1918

SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH

HELLER, M. 5 Year Book of Central Conference of Ameri-
can Rabbis, Vol. XVIII, pp. 179-216

HIRSCH, S. R., The 19 Letters of Ben Uziel, 1899, tr. by
B. Drachman

SAMUEL HOLDHEIM

PHILIPSON, D., Centenary Papers and Others, 1919, pp.
63-98

ISRAEL JACOBSOHN

MARCUS, J. R., in Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. 38, pp. 386-498

KAUFMANN KOHLER

ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1933,

Vol. II, pp. 89-117
KOHLER, K., Guide for Instruction in Judaism, 1899

, Hebrew Union College and Other Addresses, 1916

, Jewish Theology, 1918

, "Personal Reminiscences o My Early Life," in He-
brew Union College Monthly, May, 1918

, Heaven and Hell in Comparative Religion, 1923

, The Origins of the Synagogue and Church, 1929

, Studies, Addresses and Personal Papers, 1931

KOHLER, M. J., "Biographical Sketch of Dr. K. Kohler" in

K. Kohler's Studies, Addresses and Personal Papers, 1931,

pp. i-io
NEUMARK, D., "Dr. Kohler's Systematic Theology" in

Studies in Jewish Literature in Honor of K. Kohler, pp.

30-38
PHILIPSON, D., in Year Book of Central Conference of

American Rabbis, Vol. 36, pp. 170-177

READING LISTS 77

PHILIPSON, D., "Kaufmann Kohler as Reformer" in Studies
in Jewish Literature in Honor of K. Kohler, pp. 1 1-29

MAX LILIENTHAL

PHILIPSON, D., Centenary Papers and Others, 1919, pp.

149-190
, Max Lilienthal, An American Rabbi, 1915

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE JEWS

ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1935,
Vol. II, pp. 191-196

LOUIS MARSHALL

ABLER, C., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 3 2, pp. 2 1-5 5

MOSES MENDELSSOHN

ABRAHAMS, I., Chapters on Jewish Literature, 1899, PP-

253260
, "Mendelssohn's "Jerusalem* " in By-Paths in Hebraic

Bookland, 1920, pp. 178-183
AUERBACH, B., Poet and Merchant, 1877
ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1935,

Vol. II, pp. 391-403
ENGLANDER, H., "Mendelssohn as Translator and Ex-

egete," in Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol. VI, pp.

32 7 flf.

ISAACS, A. S., Step by Step, 1910

KARPELES, G., Jewish Literature and Other Essays, 1895,
pp. 293-317

KOHLER, K., Studies, Addresses and 'Personal Papers, 1931,
pp. 364-382

KOPALD, L. J., "The Friendship o Lessing and Mendels-
sohn in Relation to the Good Will Movement between
Christian and Jew" in Year Book of Central Confer-
ence of American R.abbis, Vol. 39, pp. 370401

LESSING, E. G., Nathan the Wise, 1917

LEVY, F. A., "Moses Mendelssohn's Ideals of Religion and

78 THE AMERICAN JEW

their Relation to Reform Judaism," in Year Book of
Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 39,

PP- 351-369

MAGNUS, K., Jeivish Portraits, 1925
MAGNUS, L., The Jew in the Christian Era, 1929, pp. 382-

393

MENDELSSOHN, M., Jerusalem, tr. by M. Samuels, 1838
ROBACK, A. A., Jewish Influence in Modern Thought,

1929, chaps, xvn-xvm

ROTHMAN, W., "Mendelssohn's Character and Philosophy
of Religion," in Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. 39, pp. 305-350

SAMUELS, M., Memoirs of Moses Mendelssohn, 1846

SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XIX in Dissolving Views in the
History of Judaism', 1890

SPIEGEL, S. 5 "A Hunchback Philosopher" in Hebrew Re-
born, 1930, pp. 47-72

WALTER, H. 3 Moses Mendelssohn, Critic and Philosopher,
1930

ZANGWILL, I., Dreamers of the Ghetto, 1898, pp. 289-
334

LUDWIG PHILIPPSON

KORNFELD, J. S., Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. XXI, pp. 149192

RASHI

ABRAHAMS, L, Chapters on Jewish Literature, 1899,

pp. 119-125
HIRSCH, S. A., "Rashi as an Exegete" in The Cabbalists

and Other Essays, 1922, pp. 139-166
KOHLER, K., "Maimonides and Rashi" in Studies, Addresses

and Personal Papers, 1931, pp. 353363
LIBER, M., Rashi, 1906
ROSENBAUM and SILBERMAN, Pentateuch with Rashfs

Commentary, 5 vols.
SARACHEK, J., Chap. Ill in The Doctrine of the Messiah in

Medieval Jewish Literature, 1932

READING LISTS 79

SCHLOESSINGER, M., "Rashi, His Life and His Work" in
Year Book of the Central Conference of American
Rabbis, Vol. 15, pp. 223-245

REFORM MOVEMENT

EGELSON, L. L, "The Part Played by the Layman in the
Promotion of Reform Judaism," in Year Book of Cen-
tral Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 39, pp. 521-
560

GOLDSTEIN, M., Thus Religion Grows, 1956, pp. 292-318

HIRSCH, E. G., "The Philosophy of the Reform Movement
in American Judaism" in Year Book of Central Con-
ference of American Rabbis, Vol. 5, pp. 90112

KOHLER, K.; ENELOW, H. G.; MORGENSTERN, J.; GOLD-
ENSON, S. H.; MONTEFIORE, C. G., Symposium on
"Revaluation of Reform Judaism," in Year Book of
Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 34,
pp. 222-324

LANDSBERG, M., "The Reform Movement after Geiger" in
Year Book of Central Conference of American Rabbis,
Vol. XX, pp. 284 ff.

LEVY, B. H., Reform Judaism in America, 1933

MARGOLIS, M., The Theological Aspects of Reformed
Judaism, 1904

NEUMARK, D., "Reform Jews and Nationalists" in Essays
on Jewish Philosophy, 1929, pp. 91100

PHILIPSON, D., The Reform Movement in Judaism, 1931

RAISIN, J. S., "Reform Judaism Prior to Abraham Geiger"
in Year Book of Central Conference of American
Rabbis, Vol. 20, pp. 197245

RAISIN, M., "The Reform Movement as Reflected in the
Neo-Hebraic Literature" in Year Book of Central
Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 16, pp. 273-295

GABRIEL RIESSER

DEUTSCH, G., Year Book of Central Conference of Amer-
ican Rabbis, Vol. XVI, pp. 297-303

80 THE AMERICAN JEW

MAYER AMSCHEL ROTHSCHILD

CORTI, C., The Rise of the House of Rothschild, 1928

SOLOMON SCHECHTER

ADLER, C., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 18, pp. 25-

67
BARUCH, S., "Homage to Solomon Schechter" in Menorah

Journal, Vol. XXV: 2, pp. 151 flf.

BLOCK, J., in Hebrew "Union College Monthly, Vol. 2,
Nos. 4 and 5

GINZBERG, L., Students, Scholars and Saints, 1928, pp.
241-251

KOHLER, K., Hebrew Union College and Other Ad-
dresses, 1916, pp. 323 ff.

SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, Three Series, 1896,
1908, 1924

, Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology, 1909

, Seminary Addresses and Other Tapers, 1915

JACOB H. SCHIFF

ADLER, C., Jacob H. Schiff His Life and Letters, 1928

, American Jewish 'Year Book, Vol. 23, pp. 21-64

DEUTSCH, G., Scrolls, Vol. II, 1917, pp. 247-256
KOHLER, K., Studies, Addresses and Personal Papers, 1931,
pp. 529-538

MORITZ STEINSCHNEIDER

FREEHOF, S. B., Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. XXVI, p. 132 f.

KOHUT, G. A., "Steinschneideriana" in A. S. Freidus Me-
morial Volume, 1929, pp. 66127

MARX, A., "Steinschneideriana II" in Jewish Studies in
Memory of George A. Kohut, 1935, pp. 492-527

SCHECHTER, S., Seminary Addresses, 1915) pp. 119124

NATHAN STRAUS

BERNSTEIN, H., in New York Times, Jan. 29, 1928
HARRIS, I. L., "The Health Work of Nathan Straus" in
Judean Addresses, 1933, pp. 176186

READING LISTS 8x

POOL, D. DE S., in American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 33,

PP- I 35- I 54
WISE, J. W., in Jews Are Like That, 1928

OSCAR S. STRAUS

ADLER, C., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 29, pp.

*45~*55

STRAUS, O. S., Origin of Republican Form of Govern-
ment in the United States of America, 1901

, The American Spirit, 1913

, Under Four Administrations, 1922

MAYER SULZBERGER

LEVINTHAL, L. E., "Mayer Sulzberger, P.J.," reprint from
Pennsylvania University Law Review, 1927

MARSHALL, L., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 26, pp.
3/3-381

SOLIS-COHEN, S., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 26,
pp. 382-403

SULZBERGER, M., The Am Ha-Aretz: The Ancient He-
brew Parliament, 1909

, The "Polity of the Ancient Hebrews, 1912

, The Ancient Hebrew Law of Homicide, 191 5

, The Status of Labor in Ancient Israel, 1923

ISAAC MAYER WISE

ABRAHAMS, L, "The Pronaos' of I. M. Wise" in By-

Paths in Hebraic Bookland, 1920, pp. 347-352
CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN RABBIS, Year

Books, Vols. X, XXIV, XXV, et passim
DEUTSCH, G., Scrolls, Vol. II, 1917, pp. 235 ff.
ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, Vol.

H> 1935
KOHLER, K., Hebrew Union College and Other Addresses,

1916, pp. 51-58
MARCUS, J. R., The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise,

1931
MAY, M. B., Isaac Mayer Wise A Biography, 1916

82 THE AMERICAN JEW

PHILIPSON, D., Centenary Papers and Others, 1919, pp.

1162

, Reminiscences by Isaac M. Wise, 1901

SCHINDLER, S., Chap. XXIII in Dissolving Views in the

History of Judaism, 1890

YIDDISH LITERATURE

ENGELMAN, U. Z., "The Fate of Yiddish in America," in

Menorah Journal, 1928, pp. 22-32
CASTER, M., Ma'aseb Book, 2 vols., 1934
IMBER, S. J., Modern Yiddish Poetry An Anthology,

1927
LEFTWICH, J. (Ed.), Yisroel The first Jewish Omnibus,

*933> PP- 553~7 8
MAGNUS, L., The Jew in the Christian Era, 1929, pp.

424 ff.

ROBACK, A. A., Curiosities of Yiddish Literature, 1933
SCHWARZ, L. W. (Ed.) , The Jewish Caravan, 1935
SOLTES, M,, The Yiddish Press An Americanizing

Agency, 1925
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, 1933,

Vol. II, Chap. XII
WIENER, L. y "The Judeo-German Element in the German

Language" in American Journal of Philology, 1894,

pp. 329-347

, The History of Yiddish Literature in the i$th Cen-
tury, 1899

LEOPOLD ZUNZ

BARUCH, S., "Leopold Zunz Humanist" in Menorab

Journal, Vol. IX
CHOTZNER, J., Hebrew Humour and Other Essays, 1905,

pp. 140-153
ENELOW, H. G., Selected Works of H. G. Enelow, 1935,

Vol. II, pp. 128-132
KARPELES, G., Jewish Literature and Other Essays, 1895,

pp. 318-339
MARX, A., "Zunz's Letters to Steinschneider" in Proceed-

READING LISTS 83

ings of American Academy for Jewish Research, 1934,

PP- 95-153
SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, Third Series, 1924,

pp. 84-142
ZUNZ, L., The Sufferings of the Jews During the Middle

Ages, 1907

CHAPTER III

THE RUSSIAN-POLISH JEWS
General Works

ABLER, C., The Voice of America on Kishineff, 1904
AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE, The Jews in the Eastern

War Zone, 1916
BARON, S. W., A Social and Religious History of the Jews,

3 vols., 1937

DAVTTT, M., Within the Pale, 1903
DUBNOW, S. M., An Outline of Jewish History, Vol. Ill,

1925
- , History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, 3 vols.,

ELBOGEN, L, History of the Jews,

FRIEDLAENDER, L, The Jews of Russia and Poland, 1915

JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Articles on "Russia," "Poland,"

"Chazars," "Haskalah," "Zionism," "Hassidism," and

individual personalities.
JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY, The Persecution of the

Jews in Russia, 1897
- , "From KishineflF to Bialystok" in American Jewish

Year Book, 1906

KASTEIN, J., History and Destiny of the Jews, 1933
KUNITZ, J., Russian Literature and the Jew, 1929
MAGNUS, K., Outlines of Jewish History, 1929
MARGOLIN, A. D., The Jews of Eastern Europe,

84 THE AMERICAN JEW

MARGOLIS and MARX, History of the Jews, 1927

ROTH, C, A Bird's-Eye View of Jewish History, 1935

SACHAR, A. L., A History of the Jews, 1930

SACHS, A. S., Worlds that Passed, 1928

SINGER, L, Russia at the Bar of the American People,

1904
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, 3 vols.

Specific Personalities and Items

SHALOM J. ABRAMOVTTZ (Mendele Mocher Sephorim)
ABRAMOVTTZ, S. J., Fishke, the Lame, tr. by A. S. Rapo-

port, 1928
KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

*93 2 > PP- J 3 ff-

MADISON, C. A., "Mendele, the Foremost of Ghetto Satir-
ists" in Poet Lore, 1922, pp. 255-267

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim

WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew
Literature, 1916, Chap. VII

WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,
1936, Chaps. VII-VIII

AHAD HA'AM

AH AD HA' AM, Selected Essays, 1912

, Ten Essays on Zionism and Judaism, 1922, tr. by

Leon Simon

BENTWICH, N., Ahad Ha 7 am and His 'Philosophy, 1927
FRIEDLAENDER, L, "Ahad Ha'am" in Past and Present,

1919, pp. 399-43<>
KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, passim

LEVIN, S., The Arena, 1932, pp. 143 ff, et passim
, "The Bnai Moshe" in Erandeis Avukab Annual for

1932, pp. 1 3 5-14 j
SIMON, L., American Jewish Year Book, Vol. 30, pp. 87-

99
, "Ahad Ha'am and Traditional Judaism" in Erandeis

READING LISTS 85

Avukab Annual of 1932, pp. 128-134
SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
TOUROFF, N. s "Fundamental Aspects of Ahad Ha'am's

Philosophy of Zionism" in Brandeis Avukah Annual

of 1932, pp. 117-127
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew

Liter at^lre, 1916, Chap. VIII

SHOLOM ASCH

ASCH, S., Kiddush Hashem, 1926

, Three Cities, 1933

, in 'Yiddish Tales, tr. by Helena Frank, 1912, three

stories

, America, 1918

, The God of Vengeance, 1918

-, Sabbat ai Zevi, 1930

-, Salvation, 1934

-, Uncle Moses, 1920

-, The War Goes On, 1936

-, The Mother, 1937

GOLDBERG, S., "Shalom Asch A Romantic Realist" in
Bnai Brith Magazine, 1927, pp. 389391

ELIE2ER BEN-JEHUDA

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, pp. 102 if.
SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim

BESHT

(See under Chassidim and Chassidism)

BUBER, M., Jewish Mysticism and the Legends of Baal-

shem, 1931
ZANGWILL, L, Dreamers of the Ghetto, 1898, pp. 221-

288

CHAIM NACHMAN BIALIK

BIALIK, C. N., Law and Legend or Halakah and AggatJa,
1923, tr. by J. L, Siegel

S6 THE AMERICAN JEW

JABOTINSKY, V., (See Snowman's Poems from the He-

brew)
KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, pp. 148-163
RASKIN, P. M., Anthology of Modern Hebrew Poetry,

1927, pp. 81-103
SAMUEL, M., Selected Poems [of] Cbaim Nacbman Bia~

lik, 1926
SNOWMAN, L. V., Poems from the Hebrew (by Bialik),

1924

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew

Literature, 1916, Chap. IX
WEBBER, G., "The Poetry of Bialik" in Poetry Review of

London, Jan.-Feb., 1935

CHASSIDIM AND CHASSIDISM
HORODEZKY, S. A., Leaders of Hassidism, 1928
KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, passim

MINKIN, J. S., The Romance of Hassidism, 1935
NEWMAN, L. L, The Hasidic Anthology, 1934
SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, First Series, 1917, pp.

iff.
SCHWARZ, L. V. (Ed.), The Jewish Caravan, 1935, pp.

373-405
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, passim
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,

1936, Chap. I

CHAZARS

SCHECHTER, S., "An Unknown Khazar Document" in
Jewish Quarterly Review, 1912, pp. 181-219

DANIEL CHWOLSON

CHWOLSON, D., The Semitic Nations, 1874, tr. by E. M.
Epstein

READING LISTS 87

SIMON M. DUBNCW

DUBNOW, S. M. 3 Jewish History, 1903

, History of the Jews of Russia and Poland, 1916

, An O^itline of Jewish History, 1925

FRIEDLAENDER, I., "Dubnow's Theory of Jewish National-
ism" in The Maccabean, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1905

ELIJAH, GAON OF VILNA

GINZBERG, L., "The Gaon, Rabbi Elijah o Wilna" in

Students, Scholars and Saints, 1928, pp. 125-144
SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, First Series, 1917, pp.

73 ff.

SELBER, M. 3 The Gaon of Wilna, 1905
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. IV

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, 1956, VoL

III, Chap. I

SIMEON S. FRUG

FELDMAN, A. J., "Simeon Samuel Frug" in Hebrew Union
College Monthly, Nov. 1916, Vol. Ill, No. i

JUDAH LOEB GORDON

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, passim

RHINE, A. B., Leon Gordon An Appreciation, 1910
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. VII

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, VoL III,

1936, Chap. V

HASKALAH MOVEMENT

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Uterature,

1932, passim

RAISIN, J. S., The Haskalah Movement in Russia, 1913
RHINE, A. B. 3 Leon Gordon, 1910, Chap. I

88 THE AMERICAN JEW

SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, passim
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew

Literature, 1916
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,

1936, Chaps. II-VIII

MODERN HEBREW LITERATURE

CHOTZNER, J., "Modern Hebrew Literature" in Hebrew

Humour and Other Essays, 1905, pp. 174-180
KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932
LEFTWICH, J. (ed.), Yisroel The First Jewish Omnibus,

*933> PP- 7 81 - 882

SCHWARZ, L. W. (ed.), The Jewish Caravan, 1935
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-

erature, 1916
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,

NACHMAN KROCHMAL

SCHECHTER, S., Studies in Judaism, First Series, 1917, pp.

46 flf.
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. Ill

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,

1936, Chap. X et passim

ISAAC BAER LEVENSON

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, pp. 21-26
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. IV
SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim

READING LISTS 89

WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,
1936, Chap. IV

SHMARYA LEVIN

LEVIN, S., Childhood in Exile, 1929

, Youth in Revolt, 1930

, The Arena, 1932

, Out of Bondage, 1919

MOSES LOEB LILIENBLUM

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literattwe,

*93 2 > PP- 59 ff-
SLOUSCHZ, N., T^e- Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. VIII
SPIEGEL, S., Hebreiv Reborn, 1930, passim

ABRAHAM MAPU

KLAUSNER, J,, A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,
1932, pp. 45 ff.

MAPU, A., The Shepherd Prince, tr. by B. A. M. Schapiro,
1922

SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,
1909, Chap. V et passim

WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-
erature, 1916, pp. 1 8 ff.

ISAAC LOEB PEREZ

DEUTSCH, G., Scrolls, Vol. II, 1917, pp. 297-306

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,
1932, pp. 138 ff.

PEREZ, I. L., Stories and Pictures, 1906

, In Yiddish Tales, tr. by Helena Frank, 1912, four

stones

WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-
erature, 1916, pp. 93 ff.

LEON PINSKER

AH AD HA' AM, "Pinsker and Political Zionism" in Ten

Essays on Zionism and Judaism, 1922
PINSKER, L,, Auto-Emancipation,

90 THE AMERICAN ]EW

SHALOM RABINOVITZ (Shalom Aleichem)

DEUTSCH, G., "Shalom Alechem" in Scrolls, Vol. II, 1917,

pp. 307-314
FRANK, H., Yiddish Tales, 1912, contains five of this

author's stories.
MADISON, C. A., in Poet Lore, 1922, Vol. 33, pp. 563-

594
SHALOM ALEICHEM, Stempenyu, tr. by Hannah Berman,

- , "She Must Marry a Doctor" in I. Goldberg's Six
Plays of the Yiddish Theatre, 1916

- , Jewish Children, tr. by Hannah Berman, 1926
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-

erature, 1916, Chap. VII

SOLOMON JUDAH RAPOPORT

SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chap. Ill
WAXMAN, M., A History of Jewish Literature, Vol. Ill,

1936, passim

PEREZ SMOLENSKIN

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, passim
SLOUSCHZ, N., The Renascence of Hebrew Literature,

1909, Chaps. IX, XI et passim

SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, pp. 223241 et passim
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-

erature, 1916, Chap. V

NAHUM SOKOLOW

SHUBOW, J. S., "Nahum Sokolow, Versatile Genius" in

Brandeis Avukab Anmial of 1932, pp. 146-156
SOKOLOW, N., History of Zionism, 1919

JUDAH STEINBERG

STEINBERG, J., in Yiddish Tales, tr. by Helena Frank,
1912, two stories

READING LISTS 91

WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-
erature, 1916, pp. 95 flf.

SAUL TSCHERNICHOVSKY

KLAUSNER, J., A History of Modern Hebrew Literature,

1932, pp. 163 ff. et passim
SPIEGEL, S., Hebrew Reborn, 1930, passim
WALDSTEIN, A. S., The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Lit-
erature, 1916, pp. 1 06 f.

CHAIM WEIZMANN

BOLITHO, H., Twelve Jews, 1934
WEIZMANN, C., American Addresses, 1923

ZIONISM

AHAD HA' AM, Ten Essays on Zionism and Judaism, 1922

FRIEDLAENDER, L, Several germane essays in Past and Pres-
ent, 1919

GOTTHEIL, R. J. H., Zionism, 1914

SCHECHTER, S., "Zionism, A Statement" in Seminary Ad-
dresses, 1915, pp. 91-104

SHUBOW, J. S. (ed.), Brandeis Avukah Annual of 1932.
Excellent articles and bibliography on Zionism.

SOKOLOW, N., History of Zionism, 1919

CHAPTER IV

THE AMERICAN JEW

General Works

AMERICAN JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY PUBLICATIONS

AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOKS

BERNHEIMER, C. S., The Russian Jew in the United, States,

1915

COHEN, G., The Jews in the Making of America, 1924
Co WEN, P., Memories of an American Jew, 1932

92 THE AMERICAN JEW

DAVis-DuBois and SCHWEPPE, The Jews in American Life,

1932

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF JEWISH KNOWLEDGE Article on "United
States of America." Published 30 years after the JEWISH
ENCYCLOPEDIA, it is more up-to-date.

FEUERLICHT, M. M., "Influence of Judaism on the Founders
of the Republic" in Year Book of Central Conference of
American Rabbis, Vol. 36, pp. 213246. Published also
as a tract.

FRIEDMAN, L. M., Early American Jews, 1934
GUMPERTZ, S. G., The Jewish Legion of Valor, 1934
ISRAEL, E. L., "The Occupations of Jews" in Year Book of
Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 36, pp.
247-299

JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Articles on "United States," and on
specific communities, movements, organizations and in-
dividuals.

KOHUT, R., As I Know Them, 1929
LASKER, B., Jewish Experiences in America, 1930
LEBESON, A. L., Jewish Pioneers in America, 1930
LEVINGER, L. J., A History of the Jews in the United States,

1930
LINFIELD, H. S. 3 The Jews in the United States, 1927, 1929

, The Communal Organization of the Jews in the United

States, 1927, 1930

MARGOLIS and MARX, A History of the Jewish People, 1927
MARKENS, I., The Hebrews in America, 1888
MASSERMAN and BAKER, The Jews Come to America, 1932
McCALL, S. W., Patriotism of the American Jew, 1924
PETERS, M. C., The Jews in America, 1905
SACHAR, A. L., A History of the Jews, 1930
SOKOLSKY, G. E., Chap. V in We Jews, 1935
STRAUS, O. S., The Origin of the Republican Form of Gov-
ernment in the United States of America, 1901
THE Two HUNDRED AND FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE
SETTLEMENT OF THE JEWS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1906
WIERNIK, P., History of the Jews in America, 1912

READING LISTS 93

WOLF, S., The American Jew as Patriot) Soldier and Citizen)

Specific Personalities and Items

HAYM SALOMON

BARON, H. S., Haym Salomon, 1929

HART, C. S., General Washington's Son of Israel, 1936,

Chap. I
RUSSELL, C. E., Haym Salomon and the Revolution, 1930

BALTIMORE, MD.

BLUM, L, The Jews of Baltimore) 1910

LOUISIANA

SCHPALL, L., The Jews in Louisiana) 1936

NEWPORT, R. I.

GUTSTEIN, M. A., The Story of the Jews of Newport)
1936

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

MORAIS, H. S., The Jews of Philadelphia) 1894

SOUTH CAROLINA

ELZAS, B. A., The Jews of South Carolina, 1905